1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343
3344
3345
3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
3369
3370
3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376
3377
3378
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
3390
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
3396
3397
3398
3399
3400
3401
3402
3403
3404
3405
3406
3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421
3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428
3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436
3437
3438
3439
3440
3441
3442
3443
3444
3445
3446
3447
3448
3449
3450
3451
3452
3453
3454
3455
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
3466
3467
3468
3469
3470
3471
3472
3473
3474
3475
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
3490
3491
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
3505
3506
3507
3508
3509
3510
3511
3512
3513
3514
3515
3516
3517
3518
3519
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3526
3527
3528
3529
3530
3531
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3538
3539
3540
3541
3542
3543
3544
3545
3546
3547
3548
3549
3550
3551
3552
3553
3554
3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3566
3567
3568
3569
3570
3571
3572
3573
3574
3575
3576
3577
3578
3579
3580
3581
3582
3583
3584
3585
3586
3587
3588
3589
3590
3591
3592
3593
3594
3595
3596
3597
3598
3599
3600
3601
3602
3603
3604
3605
3606
3607
3608
3609
3610
3611
3612
3613
3614
3615
3616
3617
3618
3619
3620
3621
3622
3623
3624
3625
3626
3627
3628
3629
3630
3631
3632
3633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647
3648
3649
3650
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663
3664
3665
3666
3667
3668
3669
3670
3671
3672
3673
3674
3675
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688
3689
3690
3691
3692
3693
3694
3695
3696
3697
3698
3699
3700
3701
3702
3703
3704
3705
3706
3707
3708
3709
3710
3711
3712
3713
3714
3715
3716
3717
3718
3719
3720
3721
3722
3723
3724
3725
3726
3727
3728
3729
3730
3731
3732
3733
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752
3753
3754
3755
3756
3757
3758
3759
3760
3761
3762
3763
3764
3765
3766
3767
3768
3769
3770
3771
3772
3773
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778
3779
3780
3781
3782
3783
3784
3785
3786
3787
3788
3789
3790
3791
3792
3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801
3802
3803
3804
3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811
3812
3813
3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823
3824
3825
3826
3827
3828
3829
3830
3831
3832
3833
3834
3835
3836
3837
3838
3839
3840
3841
3842
3843
3844
3845
3846
3847
3848
3849
3850
3851
3852
3853
3854
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
3861
3862
3863
3864
3865
3866
3867
3868
3869
3870
3871
|
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
<title>Rockets, Missiles, and Spacecraft of the National Air and Space Museum, by Lynne C. Murphy: a Project Gutenberg eBook</title>
<meta name="author" content="Lynne C. Murphy" />
<meta name="pss.pubdate" content="1976" />
<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
<link rel="spine" href="images/spine.jpg" />
<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://dublincore.org/documents/1998/09/dces/" />
<meta name="DC.Title" content="Rockets, Missiles, and Spacecraft of the National Air and Space Museum" />
<meta name="DC.Language" content="en" />
<meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" />
<meta name="DC.Created" content="1976" />
<meta name="DC.Creator" content="Lynne C. Murphy (****-****)" />
<style type="text/css">
large { font-size:125%; }
sc { font-variant:small-caps; font-style: normal; }
/* == GLOBAL MARKUP == */
body, table.twocol tr td { margin-left:2em; margin-right:2em; } /* BODY */
.box { border-style:double; margin-bottom:2em; max-width:30em; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-top:2em; }
.box p { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; }
.box dl { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; }
h1, h5, h6, .titlepg p { text-align:center; clear:both; text-indent:0; } /* HEADINGS */
h2 { margin-top:1.5em; margin-bottom:1em; clear:both; text-align:center; font-style:italic; }
h1 { margin-top:3em; font-style:italic; }
div.box h1 { margin-top:1em; }
h3 { margin-top:2.5em; clear:both; text-align:left; }
h4, h5 { font-size:100%; text-align:right; clear:right; }
h6 { font-size:100%; }
h6.var { font-size:80%; font-style:normal; }
.titlepg { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border-style:double; clear:both; }
span.chaptertitle { font-style:normal; display:block; text-align:center; font-size:150%; text-indent:0; }
.tblttl { text-align:center; text-indent:0;}
.tblsttl { text-align:center; font-variant:small-caps; text-indent:0; }
pre sub.ms { width:4em; letter-spacing:1em; }
table.fmla { text-align:center; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; }
table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; }
td.cola { text-align:left; vertical-align:100%; }
td.colb { text-align:justify; }
p, blockquote, div.p, div.bq { text-align:justify; } /* PARAGRAPHS */
div.p, div.bq { margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; }
blockquote, .bq { margin-left:1em; margin-right:0em; }
.verse { font-size:100%; }
p.indent {text-indent:2em; text-align:left; }
p.tb, p.tbcenter, verse.tb, blockquote.tb { margin-top:2em; }
span.pb, div.pb, dt.pb, p.pb /* PAGE BREAKS */
{ text-align:right; float:right; margin-right:0em; clear:right; }
div.pb { display:inline; }
.pb, dt.pb, dl.toc dt.pb, dl.tocl dt.pb, dl.undent dt.pb, dl.index dt.pb { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left: 1.5em;
margin-top:.5em; margin-bottom:.5em; display:inline; text-indent:0;
font-size:80%; font-style:normal; font-weight:bold;
color:gray; border:1px solid gray;padding:1px 3px; }
div.index .pb { display:block; }
.bq div.pb, .bq span.pb { font-size:90%; margin-right:2em; }
div.img, body a img {text-align:center; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em; clear:right; }
sup, a.fn { font-size:75%; vertical-align:100%; line-height:50%; font-weight:normal; }
h3 a.fn { font-size:65%; }
sub { font-size:75%; }
.center, .tbcenter { text-align:center; clear:both; text-indent:0; } /* TEXTUAL MARKUP */
span.center { display:block; }
table.center { clear:both; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; background-color:#c0c0c0; }
table.center tr td.l {text-align:left; margin-left:0em; }
table.center tr td.j {text-align:justify; }
table.center tr td.t {text-align:left; text-indent:1em; }
table.center tr td.t2 {text-align:left; text-indent:2em; }
table.center tr td.r {text-align:right; }
table.center tr th {vertical-align:bottom; }
table.center tr td {vertical-align:top; }
table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; }
p { clear:left; }
.small, .lsmall { font-size:90%; }
.smaller { font-size:80%; }
.smallest { font-size:67%; }
.larger { font-size:150%; }
.large { font-size:125%; }
.xlarge { font-size:200%; line-height:60%; }
.xxlarge { font-size:200%; line-height:60%; }
.gs { letter-spacing:1em; }
.gs3 { letter-spacing:2em; }
.gslarge { letter-spacing:.3em; font-size:110%; }
.sc { font-variant:small-caps; font-style:normal; }
.unbold { font-weight:normal; }
.xo { position:relative; left:-.3em; }
.over, over { text-decoration: overline; display:inline; }
hr { width:20%; }
hr.dwide { margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; width:90%; }
.jl { text-align:left; }
.jr { text-align:right; min-width:2em; display:inline-block; float:right; }
.jr1 { text-align:right; margin-right:2em; }
h1 .jr { margin-right:.5em; }
.ind1 { text-align:left; margin-left:2em; }
.u { text-decoration:underline; }
.hst { margin-left:2em; }
.rubric { color:red; }
.cnwhite { color:white; background-color:black; min-width:2em; display:inline-block;
text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-family:sans-serif; }
.cwhite { color:white; background-color:black; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;
font-family:sans-serif; }
ul li { text-align:justify; }
.ss { font-family:sans-serif; font-weight:bold; }
dd.t { text-align:left; margin-left: 5.5em; }
dl.toc { clear:both; margin-top:1em; } /* CONTENTS (.TOC) */
.toc dt.center { text-align:center; clear:both; margin-top:3em; margin-bottom:1em; text-indent:0;}
.toc dt { text-align:right; clear:left; }
.toc dd { text-align:right; clear:both; }
.toc dd.ddt { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:4em; }
.toc dd.ddt2 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:5em; }
.toc dd.ddt3 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:6em; }
.toc dd.ddt4 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:7em; }
.toc dd.ddt5 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:8em; }
.toc dd.note { text-align:justify; clear:both; margin-left:5em; text-indent:-1em; margin-right:3em; }
.toc dt .xxxtest {width:17em; display:block; position:relative; left:4em; }
.toc dt a,
.toc dd a,
.toc dt span.left,
.toc dt span.lsmall,
.toc dd span.left { text-align:left; clear:right; float:left; }
.toc dt a span.cn { width:4em; text-align:right; margin-right:.7em; float:left; }
.toc dt.sc { text-align:right; clear:both; }
.toc dt.scl { text-align:left; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; }
.toc dt.sct { text-align:right; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; margin-left:1em; }
.toc dt.jl { text-align:left; clear:both; font-variant:normal; }
.toc dt.scc { text-align:center; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; text-indent:0; }
.toc dt span.lj { text-align:left; display:block; float:left; }
.toc dd.center { text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
dd.tocsummary {text-align:justify; margin-right:2em; margin-left:2em; }
dd.center sc {display:block; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
/* BOX CELL */
td.top { border-top:1px solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
td.bot { border-bottom:1px solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
td.rb { border:1px solid; border-left:none; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
td.lb { border:1px solid; border-right:none; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
/* INDEX (.INDEX) */
dl.index { clear:both; }
.index dt { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
.index dd { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
.index dd.t { margin-left:6em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
.index dt.center {text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
.ab, .ab1, .ab2 {
font-weight:bold; text-decoration:none;
border-style:solid; border-color:gray; border-width:1px;
margin-right:0px; margin-top:5px; display:inline-block; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
.ab { width:1em; }
.ab2 { width:1.5em; }
a.gloss { background-color:#f2f2f2; border-bottom-style:dotted; text-decoration:none; border-color:#c0c0c0; color:inherit; }
/* FOOTNOTE BLOCKS */
div.notes p { margin-left:1em; text-indent:-1em; text-align:justify; }
dl.undent dd { margin-left:3em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
dl.undent dt { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; }
dl.undent dd.t { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
/* POETRY LINE NUMBER */
.lnum { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left:.5em; display:inline; }
.hymn { text-align:left; } /* HYMN AND VERSE: HTML */
.verse { text-align:left; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; }
.versetb { text-align:left; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; }
.originc { text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
.subttl { text-align:center; font-size:80%; text-indent:0; }
.srcttl { text-align:center; font-size:80%; text-indent:0; font-weight:bold; }
p.lc { text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; }
p.t0, p.l { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.lb { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.tw, div.tw, .tw { margin-left:1em; text-indent:-1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t, div.t, .t { margin-left:5em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t2, div.t2, .t2 { margin-left:6em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t3, div.t3, .t3 { margin-left:7em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t4, div.t4, .t4 { margin-left:8em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t5, div.t5, .t5 { margin-left:9em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t6, div.t6, .t6 { margin-left:10em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t7, div.t7, .t7 { margin-left:11em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t8, div.t8, .t8 { margin-left:12em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t9, div.t9, .t9 { margin-left:13em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t10, div.t10,.t10 { margin-left:14em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t11, div.t11,.t11 { margin-left:15em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t12, div.t12,.t12 { margin-left:16em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t13, div.t13,.t13 { margin-left:17em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t14, div.t14,.t14 { margin-left:18em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.t15, div.t15,.t15 { margin-left:19em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
p.lr, div.lr, span.lr { display:block; margin-left:0em; margin-right:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:right; }
dt.lr { width:100%; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:1em; text-align:right; }
dl dt.lr a { text-align:left; clear:left; float:left; }
.fnblock { margin-top:2em; }
.fndef, p.fn { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; }
.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; }
.fnblock dl { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; }
.fnblock dt { text-align:justify; }
dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; }
dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; }
.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; }
dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; }
dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; }
dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; }
p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
.clear { clear:both; }
p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; }
p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; text-align:center; margin-top:0; font-style:italic; }
p.pcap i { font-style:normal; }
p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; }
dl.pcap { font-family:sans-serif; font-size:80%; font-weight:bold; margin-left:2em; }
span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style>
</head>
<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57421 ***</div>
<div id="cover" class="img">
<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Rockets, Missiles, and Spacecraft of the National Air and Space Museum" width="600" height="783" />
</div>
<div class="box">
<h1>Rockets, Missiles, and
<br />Spacecraft of the
<br />National Air and Space Museum</h1>
<p class="center"><b><i>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION</i></b></p>
<p class="center"><i>LYNNE C. MURPHY</i></p>
<p class="center"><i>Published by the <b>Smithsonian Institution Press,</b> Washington, D.C., 1976</i></p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/p02c.jpg" alt="Museum Logo" width="500" height="360" />
</div>
<p>Welcome to the National Air and Space
Museum, part of the Smithsonian family.
The flight of the Wrights in 1903 opened
the door to ever more rapid and powerful
ascents into the third dimension. This
country, putting its scientific and technical
talents to work, has produced an array of
fascinating and complex machines. Fortunately,
nearly all of the most significant
ones have been preserved, and a sampling
of them is included in this booklet. I hope
that you will enjoy it, and that it will add
to your understanding of what air and space
progress has meant to all of us.</p>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/p02d.jpg" alt="Michael Collins" width="400" height="150" />
</div>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Michael Collins</p>
<p class="t0">Director, National Air and Space Museum</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
<div class="img" id="fig1">
<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="604" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><i>Viking 2</i>—bound for
Mars—is launched aboard Titan Centaur
on September 9, 1975.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
<h3><i>Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data</i></h3>
<dl class="undent"><dt>National Air and Space Museum.</dt>
<dt>Rockets, missiles, and spacecraft of the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Bibliography: p.</dt>
<dt>1. Astronautics—United States—Exhibitions.</dt>
<dt>2. National Air and Space Museum.</dt>
<dt>I. Murphy, Lynne C.</dt>
<dt>II. Title: Rockets, missiles, and spacecraft of the National Air and Space Museum ... TL506.U6W376 1976 629.4′0973′0740153 76-6961</dt></dl>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">Printed in the U.S.A.</p>
<p class="t0">Designed by Elizabeth Sur</p>
</div>
<h3><i>Negative numbers and photo credits</i></h3>
<p><b>1,</b> A-42103 (SI); <b>2,</b> 74-H-1066 (NASA);
<b>3,</b> 74-H-1244 (NASA); <b>4,</b> A-3757 (SI);
<b>5,</b> 72-8670 (SI); <b>6,</b> 58-Explorer I-1
(NASA); <b>7,</b> 62-Mariner II-34 (NASA);
<b>8,</b> 63-Mariner II-26 (NASA); <b>9,</b> 62-MA
6-74 (NASA); <b>10,</b> 62-MA6-111 (NASA);
<b>11,</b> 65-H-934 (NASA); <b>12,</b> 65-H-937
(NASA); <b>13,</b> 69-H-1199 (NASA); <b>14,</b>
69-H-1367 (NASA); <b>15,</b> 76-4880-81 (SI);
<b>16,</b> P-14054 (JPL, NASA, Pasadena,
California); <b>17,</b> 73-H-993 (NASA);
<b>18,</b> 74-H-239 (NASA); <b>19,</b> 75-15926
(SI); <b>20,</b> 74-H-1220 (NASA); <b>21,</b>
A-50483 (SI); <b>22,</b> 65-H-817 (NASA);
<b>23,</b> 76-1706 (SI); <b>24,</b> 76-1705 (SI);
<b>25,</b> 71-H-413 (NASA); <b>26,</b> 62-NC-2
(NASA); <b>27,</b> 63-ARCAS-1 (NASA);
<b>28,</b> 75-16094 (SI); <b>29,</b> 75-16228 (SI);
<b>30,</b> 75-16276 (SI); <b>31,</b> 61-DELTA-4-6
(NASA); <b>32,</b> 66-H-223 (NASA); <b>33,</b>
VAN-11 (NASA); <b>34,</b> 67-H-1008
(NASA); <b>35,</b> 66-H-28 (NASA); <b>36,</b>
60-TIROS-5 (NASA); <b>37,</b> 69-H-1915
(NASA); <b>38,</b> 68-H-111 (NASA);
<b>39,</b> 62-RELAY-17 (NASA); <b>40,</b>
71-H-1414 (NASA); <b>41,</b> 69-H-285
(NASA); <b>42,</b> 66-H-871 (NASA); <b>43,</b>
76-H-1182 (NASA); <b>44,</b> 69-H-1986
(NASA); <b>45,</b> 76-1704 (SI); <b>46,</b>
A-459994 (SI); <b>47,</b> A-5293 (SI); <b>48,</b>
A-1085 (SI); <b>49,</b> 75-11488 (SI); <b>50,</b>
A-4554 (SI); <b>51,</b> 72-H-1240 (NASA);
<b>52,</b> 63-CENTAUR-15 (NASA); <b>53,</b>
75-13753 (SI); <b>54,</b> 76-2756 (SI); <b>55,</b>
76-2687 (SI); <b>56,</b> 75-H-461 (NASA);
<b>57,</b> 76-4479-6 (SI); <b>58,</b> 62-MA6-109
(NASA); <b>59,</b> 71-H-1380 (NASA); <b>60,</b>
65-H-1021 (NASA); <b>61,</b> A-5367 (SI);
<b>62,</b> 75-10232 (SI); <b>63,</b> A-5073 (SI);
<b>64,</b> 75-16091 (SI); <b>65,</b> 76-1625-11 (SI);
<b>66,</b> 73-733 (SI); <b>67,</b> SPACE-12
(NASA); <b>68,</b> 67-H-1609 (NASA); <b>69,</b>
64-H-2795 (NASA); <b>70,</b> 65-H-674
(NASA); <b>71,</b> 76-1707 (SI); <b>72,</b> 76-1708
(SI); <b>73,</b> 73-H-928 (NASA); <b>74,</b>
71-H-398 (NASA); <b>75,</b> 68-H-423
(NASA); <b>76,</b> 68-H-422 (NASA); <b>77,</b>
75-H-248 (NASA); <b>78,</b> 75-H-1081
(NASA); <b>79,</b> 75-H-891 (NASA); <b>80,</b>
75-H-1077 (NASA); <b>81,</b> 71-H-525
(NASA); <b>82,</b> 61-MR3-76 (NASA); <b>83,</b>
65-H-2355 (NASA); <b>84,</b> 72-H-734
(NASA); <b>85,</b> 62-F1-2 (NASA); <b>86,</b>
67-H-1205 (NASA); <b>87,</b> 71-H-1416
(NASA); <b>88,</b> 70-H-1392 (NASA); <b>89,</b>
71-H-335 (NASA); <b>90,</b> 74-H-63 (NASA);
<b>91,</b> S-71-45480 (NASA, Johnson Space
Center); <b>92,</b> 72-H-1571 (NASA).</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
<h2 class="center">Contents</h2>
<dl class="toc">
<dt><a href="#c1">Introduction</a> <b>6</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>Milestones of Flight</i></b></a> Gallery 100</dt>
<dt><a href="#c2">Robert H. Goddard’s Rockets: March 16, 1926, and 1941</a> <b>7</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c3"><i>Sputnik 1</i></a> <b>8</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c4"><i>Explorer 1</i></a> <b>9</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c5"><i>Mariner 2</i></a> <b>10</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c6"><i>Friendship 7</i></a> <b>11</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c7"><i>Gemini 4</i></a> <b>12</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c8">Apollo 11 Command Module, <i>Columbia</i></a> <b>13</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>Life in the Universe</i></b></a> Gallery 107</dt>
<dt><a href="#c9">Ponnamperuma Experiments</a> <b>14</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c10">Photomosaic Globe of Mars</a> <b>15</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c11"><i>Mariner 10</i></a> <b>16</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c12">U.S.S. <i>Enterprise</i></a> <b>17</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>Satellites</i></b></a> Gallery 110</dt>
<dt><a href="#c13">Goddard A-Series Rocket, 1935</a> <b>18</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c14">WAC Corporal</a> <b>19</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c15">Aerobee 150</a> <b>20</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c16">Farside</a> <b>21</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c17">Nike-Cajun</a> <b>22</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c18">ARCAS</a> <b>23</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c19">Cricket</a> <b>24</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c20">Viking 12</a> <b>25</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c21">MOUSE</a> <b>26</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c22">Agena-B</a> <b>27</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c23">Science Satellites</a> <b>28</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c24">Meteorological Satellites</a> <b>30</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c25">Communications Satellites</a> <b>32</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>East Gallery</i></b></a> Gallery 112</dt>
<dt><a href="#c26">Lunar Module</a> <b>34</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c27">Lunar Orbiter</a> <b>35</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c28">Surveyor</a> <b>36</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>Rocketry and Space Flight</i></b></a> Gallery 113</dt>
<dt><a href="#c29">Goddard Rockets: May 1926 and “Hoopskirt,” 1928</a> <b>37</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c30">19th-Century Rockets: Congreve and Hale</a> <b>38</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c31">American Rocket Society: Engines and Parts</a> <b>39</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c32">H-1 Engine</a> <b>40</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c33">RL-10 Engine</a> <b>41</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c34">JATO Units</a> <b>42</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c35">LR-87 Engine</a> <b>43</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c36">Toward 2076: The Future of Rocket Propulsion</a> <b>44</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c37">Project Orion</a> <b>45</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c38">Space Suits</a> <b>46</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>Space Hall</i></b></a> Gallery 114</dt>
<dt><a href="#c39">V-2 (A-4)</a> <b>48</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c40">V-1</a> <b>49</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c41">German Antiaircraft Missiles</a> <b>50</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c42">Jupiter-C</a> <b>51</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c43">Vanguard</a> <b>52</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c44">Scout</a> <b>53</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c45">Minuteman III</a> <b>54</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c46">Poseidon C-3</a> <b>55</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c47">Skylab</a> <b>56</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c48">Apollo-Soyuz Test Project</a> <b>58</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c49">M2-F3 Lifting Body</a> <b>60</b></dt>
<dt><a><b><i>Apollo to the Moon</i></b></a> Gallery 210</dt>
<dt><a href="#c50"><i>Freedom 7</i></a> <b>61</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c51"><i>Gemini 7</i></a> <b>62</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c52">F-1 Engine</a> <b>63</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c53">Lunar Roving Vehicle</a> <b>64</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c54">Apollo Lunar Tools and Equipment</a> <b>65</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c55">Apollo Command Module: <i>Skylab 4</i></a> <b>66</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c56">Moon Rocks</a> <b>67</b></dt>
<dt><a href="#c57">Suggested Reading</a> <b>68</b></dt>
</dl>
<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Introduction</span></h2>
<p>There is an obvious relationship between aeronautics and astronautics since the same
principles of physics apply and many materials and techniques of construction are
common. Nevertheless, in the decades following World War II, rocketry, guided missiles,
and space flights were rapidly developing a complex history and lore quite different from
that of aviation. Accordingly, in 1965, the Museum established a Department of
Astronautics parallel with a Department of Aeronautics.</p>
<p>At that time, artifacts in categories of rocket propulsion, guided missiles, and space-flight
programs were placed under curatorial control of the Astronautics Department. In
1967 the Smithsonian Institution and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
signed an agreement which provided for transfer of title to and custody of significant space
artifacts by the Museum after their technical need had passed. Through provisions of
this instrument the preservation and exhibit of this country’s most important spacecraft,
rocket engines, launch vehicles, and missiles has been assured for posterity.</p>
<p>With the construction of the new Museum building on the Mall literally dozens of
exciting and fascinating astronautical artifacts have been acquired, some just a few
months before our opening in July 1976. All major artifacts on exhibit at the opening
are described herein with brief historical summaries.</p>
<div class="verse">
<p class="t0">F. C. Durant III</p>
<p class="t0">Assistant Director, Astronautics</p>
<p class="t0">January 13, 1976</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Robert H. Goddard’s Rockets: March 16, 1926, and 1941</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig2">
<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="733" />
<p class="pcap"><b>1.</b> Robert H. Goddard beside his liquid-fuel rocket prior to launch on March 16, 1926.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig3">
<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="436" />
<p class="pcap"><b>2.</b> “It looked almost magical as it rose,
without any appreciable greater noise or flame, as if it said, ‘I’ve been here long enough; I think I’ll be going somewhere
else’....”—Robert H. Goddard.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig4">
<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="" width="595" height="487" />
<p class="pcap"><b>3.</b> Rocket with turbopumps on its assembly frame in the Goddard shop at Roswell, New
Mexico, 1940.</p>
</div>
<p>Robert H. Goddard contributed the first
major astronautical breakthrough on
our way to space exploration—a liquid-propellant
rocket. A replica of the first
successful rocket of this type is displayed
in this hall as is Dr. Goddard’s last sounding
rocket design.</p>
<p>The first of Dr. Goddard’s successful
rockets was launched on March 16, 1926.
It traveled to an altitude of 12.5 meters (41
feet) powered by liquid oxygen and gasoline.
Its flight lasted 2.5 seconds with an
average speed in flight of about 96.6 kilometers
(60 miles) per hour. Part of the
rocket’s nozzle was burned away during the
flight, and other parts were damaged by
ground impact; however, pieces of the
original rocket were reassembled and flown
again on April 3, 1926.</p>
<p>The last and most advanced of Dr. Goddard’s
liquid-propellant rockets were those
tested between 1939 and 1941. This series
incorporated most of the basic principles
and elements later used in all long-range
rockets and space boosters. Design improvements
for this series included a fuel system
that used turbopumps to force propellants
from the tanks to the combustion chamber.
The rocket on display did not fly, because
a malfunction in the umbilical cord caused
the engine to shut down shortly after
ignition.</p>
<hr />
<p>The March 16 rocket replica is from the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
The 1941 rocket is from
Mrs. Robert H. Goddard.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div>
<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">Sputnik 1</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig5">
<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="519" height="581" />
<p class="pcap"><b>4.</b> Model of <i>Sputnik 1</i>, the first man-made object to be placed in Earth-orbit.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Sputnik 1</i>, the first man-made object to be
placed in orbit around Earth, was launched
by the USSR on October 4, 1957.</p>
<p>A 29-meter (96-foot) rocket with 510,037
kilograms (1,124,440 pounds) of thrust
boosted <i>Sputnik 1</i> into orbit. The satellite’s
orbital and radio data provided scientists
with information on atmospheric and electron
densities. <i>Sputnik 1</i> transmitted temperature
data for 22 days before its
batteries ran down.</p>
<p>The 83.5-kilogram (184-pound) satellite
reentered the earth’s atmosphere and
burned up on January 4, 1958.</p>
<hr />
<p>This <i>Sputnik</i> model is from the USSR
Academy of Sciences.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">Explorer 1</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig6">
<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="526" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>5.</b> Trial firing of a full-size mockup of <i>Explorer 1</i> on the third-stage
assembly of the Jupiter-C launch vehicle.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig7">
<img src="images/p05b.jpg" alt="" width="452" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>6.</b> On the launch pad prior to sending the first American satellite into orbit.
<i>Explorer 1</i>, launched January 31, 1958, discovered the first two
circular radiation belts surrounding the Earth.</p>
</div>
<p>The International Geophysical Year (1957-58)
provided the impetus for the first
official American satellite effort, designated
Project Vanguard in 1955. Vanguard was a
civilian effort that relied on a launch vehicle
built especially for the project’s purposes.
The launch by the Soviet Union of <i>Sputnik
1</i> on October 4, 1957, caused the work on
Project Vanguard to go forward under great
pressure. When Vanguard Test Vehicle 3,
carrying the first American earth satellite,
exploded on its launch pad on December 6,
1957, United States prestige reached a low
point.</p>
<p>On January 31, 1958, <i>Explorer 1</i> became
the first successful American satellite. It
originated in Project Orbiter, a joint study
program of the U.S. Army and the Office of
Naval Research—a project that lapsed after
the 1955 decision to designate Vanguard as
the official American satellite effort. Following
the <i>Sputnik</i> success, the U.S. Army
Ballistic Missile Agency was instructed to
proceed with its satellite plans.</p>
<p><i>Explorer 1</i>’s launch vehicle was a four-stage
Jupiter-C rocket designed, built, and
launched by the Army Ballistic Missile
Agency team headed by Wernher von
Braun. The satellite’s instrumentation was
prepared by James Van Allen and George
Ludwig of the State University of Iowa
under project direction of the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, California Institute of
Technology.</p>
<p><i>Explorer 1</i> measured three phenomena—cosmic
ray and radiation levels (data that
led to the discovery of the earth’s radiation
belts), the temperature in the vehicle
(important in the design of future spacecraft),
and the frequency of collisions with
micrometeorites. There was no provision for
data storage, and therefore the satellite
transmitted its information continually.</p>
<p><i>Explorer 1</i> was not the only orbiting
American satellite for long. In spite of
the early problems, Project Vanguard
succeeded in launching the second American
earth satellite on March 17, 1958.</p>
<hr />
<p>The back-up <i>Explorer 1</i> on exhibit is from
the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
California Institute of Technology.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">Mariner 2</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig8">
<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="601" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>7.</b> Artist’s conception of <i>Mariner 2</i> as it flew by Venus.</p>
</div>
<p>The first successful interplanetary spacecraft
probed the environment of Venus,
Earth’s closest neighbor. <i>Mariner 2</i>, working
flawlessly, swept by the hot and cloudy
planet at a closest approach of 34,834
kilometers (21,645 miles) on December 14,
1962.</p>
<p>The journey began with lift-off on August
27 from Cape Canaveral atop an Atlas
Agena-B launch vehicle. During the 109-day
trip to the planet, <i>Mariner</i>’s on-board instruments
sampled the environment of
interplanetary space and telemetered information
to Earth stations. Ground-based
measurements of the Venerian surface
temperature were confirmed by the probe
to be around 425° C (800° F).</p>
<p><i>Mariner 2</i> detected no measurable magnetic
field or radiation belts, indicating that
Venus may have a very different history
than has Earth.</p>
<p><i>Mariner 2</i> passed out of tracking range
on January 4, 1963, when the spacecraft was
about 87 million kilometers (54 million
miles) from Earth. The probe is presently
in orbit around the Sun.</p>
<p>The back-up craft on display would have
been launched toward Venus if <i>Mariner 2</i>
had failed to reach the planet.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for <i>Mariner 2</i> was the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute
of Technology.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Mariner 2</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig9">
<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" />
<p class="pcap"><b>8.</b> Enlarged facsimile of coded <i>Mariner 2</i>
tape transmitted December 14, 1962,
from the vicinity of Venus. Encircled
portions show microwave and infrared
coding.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">Friendship 7</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig10">
<img src="images/p06b.jpg" alt="" width="452" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>9.</b> Close-up of <i>Friendship 7</i> atop Atlas launch vehicle with escape tower.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig11">
<img src="images/p06c.jpg" alt="" width="645" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>10.</b> Launch of America’s first man in orbit on
February 20, 1962, from Cape Canaveral, Florida.</p>
</div>
<p>On the morning of February 20, 1962, a
29-meter (95-foot) Mercury Atlas launch
vehicle rose from Cape Canaveral carrying
John H. Glenn, Jr., in his Mercury spacecraft,
<i>Friendship 7</i>. This was the lift-off for
the first U.S.-manned orbital space flight.</p>
<p>In slightly more than 5 minutes the Atlas
accelerated <i>Friendship 7</i> to its orbital
velocity of 28,230 kilometers per hour
(17,540 miles per hour). Astronaut Glenn
completed three orbits in 4 hours, 55 minutes.
From the orbital path, which varied
between 160 and 260 kilometers (100 and
160 miles) above Earth, the first American
in orbit described the four sunsets he saw
and reported that he was able to distinguish
a ship’s wake on the ocean below.</p>
<p>Mercury spacecraft had been used in two
previous manned suborbital flights which
proved that it was a safe vehicle for manned
space flights. Later orbital Mercury missions
demonstrated that man could live and
work in space. <i>Friendship 7</i>’s flight tested
the performance of the pilot in weightless
conditions and the interaction of the human
pilot with the various automatic systems in
the spacecraft.</p>
<p><i>Friendship 7</i> reentered the earth’s atmosphere
and splashed into the Atlantic Ocean
only 64 kilometers (40 miles) from the
planned site. Glenn and <i>Friendship 7</i> were
recovered by the U.S.S. <i>Noa</i> near Grand
Turk Island in the Bahamas.</p>
<p>The Mercury spacecraft consists of a
conical pressure section topped by a cylindrical
recovery-system section.</p>
<p>During flight, the Mercury spacecraft was
equipped with three 454-kilogram (1000-pound)
thrust solid-propellant retro-rockets
mounted in a package on the heat shield.
After the three rockets were fired to slow
the spacecraft, the retro-rocket package was
jettisoned.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for <i>Friendship 7</i> was
McDonnell Aircraft Company.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Friendship 7</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">Gemini 4</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig12">
<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="502" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>11.</b> <i>Gemini 4</i> lifts off, June 3, 1965.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig13">
<img src="images/p07a.jpg" alt="" width="543" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>12.</b> Well over 1.6 million kilometers (1 million miles) later, <i>Gemini 4</i> is hoisted from the
Atlantic Ocean.</p>
</div>
<p>Floating at the end of a gold “umbilical
cord” attached to the <i>Gemini 4</i> spacecraft,
Edward H. White II became the first American
to have only his space suit for protection
from the space environment. White
directed his movements during the historic
20-minute “walk” with a hand-held maneuvering
device, while command pilot James
A. McDivitt took pictures from within the
craft.</p>
<p>Launched June 3, 1965 atop 3 Titan II
booster, the <i>Gemini 4</i> spacecraft made 62
revolutions during the four-day flight.
Although <i>Gemini 4</i> failed to rendezvous
with the Titan II’s second stage as planned,
because the stage fell away too rapidly to
catch, astronauts McDivitt and White did
demonstrate that the Spacecraft could be
moved in and out of its orbital plane with
ease.</p>
<p>The crew also photographed the Earth
successfully. The pictures brought back
from <i>Gemini 4</i> enhanced interest in photographic
surveys of Earth from space.</p>
<p><i>Gemini 4</i> splashed down in the Atlantic
at 12:12 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> (<span class="sc">EST</span>) on June 7, 1965.
McDivitt and White were on the deck of
recovery carrier U.S.S. <i>Wasp</i> in less than
one hour.</p>
<p>The spacecraft frame is titanium and it
is covered with steel and beryllium shingles.
Displayed here is the basic spacecraft which
includes the pressurized cabin vessel, the
heat shield at the base, and the cylindrical
reentry attitude-control system section on
the nose.</p>
<p>The heat shield is a curved section of
fiberglass honeycomb filled with a phenolic-epoxy
resin. During reentry, the craft’s
kinetic energy was converted to heat by
friction with the atmosphere. The heat-shield
material melted and vaporized and
was blown away from the craft, carrying
the heat with it. This process is called
ablation.</p>
<p>The <i>Gemini</i> was a true spacecraft, capable
of maneuvering widely in space,
changing its configuration for different
phases of the flight, and allowing the two-man
crew to work both inside and outside
the craft.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for <i>Gemini 4</i> was the
McDonnell Aircraft Company.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Gemini 4</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">5.6 m. (18 ft., 4 in.) in orbit; 2.3 m. (7 ft., 4 in.) at splashdown</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Base diameter</b> </td><td class="l">Adapter, 3.1 m. (10 ft.); spacecraft, 2.3 m. (7 ft., 6 in.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">Apollo 11 Command Module, Columbia</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig14">
<img src="images/p07d.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="553" />
<p class="pcap"><b>13.</b> Three inflated bags repositioned the spacecraft following splashdown. The astronauts watch pararescue-man shut hatch during
recovery.</p>
</div>
<p>“That’s one small step for a man, one giant
leap for mankind,” Neil A. Armstrong
radioed Houston from Tranquility Base on
the Moon. The first footprint had been left
on the lunar surface. It was 10:56 <span class="sc">P.M.</span>
(<span class="sc">EDT</span>) on July 20, 1969.</p>
<p>Neil Armstrong was Apollo 11’s commander,
Michael Collins was command-module
pilot, and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin was
the lunar-module pilot. Their journey began
at 9:30 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> (<span class="sc">EDT</span>) when their Saturn 5
lifted off under 3.4 million kilograms (7.5
million pounds) of thrust.</p>
<p>The three-man crew made the 383,000-kilometer
(238,000-mile) journey to the
Moon in three days, traveling in command-module
<i>Columbia</i>.</p>
<p>At 1:46 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> (<span class="sc">EDT</span>), on July 20, Armstrong
and Aldrin separated the lunar
module from the <i>Columbia</i> and began the
descent to the lunar plain.</p>
<p>During the 2 hours and 47 minutes that
the astronauts were out on the surface of
the Moon, they collected samples, deployed
instruments, took photographs, and explored
Tranquility Base around the lunar
module.</p>
<p>After completing their tasks on the
Moon, the astronauts rendezvoused with
Collins in the command module. Jettisoning
the ascent stage, they began the three-day
journey back to Earth.</p>
<p>Splashdown occurred in the central
Pacific Ocean on July 24. The astronauts
climbed out of this command module and
were recovered by helicopters that took
them to the carrier U.S.S. <i>Hornet</i>.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for Apollo 11’s command
module was North American Rockwell
Corporation.</p>
<hr />
<p>The <i>Columbia</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig15">
<img src="images/p07e.jpg" alt="" width="659" height="600" />
<p class="pcap"><b>14.</b> View of the Apollo 11 Command
Module with Astronaut Collins aboard as
seen from the Lunar Module. Terrain in
background is the far side of the Moon.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">Ponnamperuma Experiments</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig16">
<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="635" />
<p class="pcap"><b>15.</b> Equipment for Ponnamperuma Experiments.</p>
</div>
<p>These experimental devices were constructed
by Cyril Ponnamperuma and his
colleagues to show that various forms of
energy may be used to produce organic
molecules of the type found in living
organisms.</p>
<p>In one experiment, electron beams were
fired through a glass tube which contained a
mixture of gases believed to resemble the
atmosphere of primitive Earth. A number
of organic molecules, including amino acids,
the “building blocks” of life, were formed
as a result.</p>
<p>In another experiment—the apparatus on
display—electric spark discharges were
used to add energy to a mixture of gases
and water vapor contained in the device’s
upper sphere. The lower sphere contained
a solution of water and salts, a solution
believed to resemble the slightly salty water
of ancient seas. When heat and sparks were
added to the gases and salty water, a number
of complex organic molecules formed.</p>
<p>The results of these experiments supported
the hypothesis that cosmic rays and
other high-energy particles bombarding the
primitive atmosphere could have been
responsible for the origin of life on Earth.</p>
<hr />
<p>The experimental devices were constructed
and donated by Cyril Ponnamperuma and
the Laboratory of Chemical Evolution,
University of Maryland.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">Photomosaic Globe of Mars</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig17">
<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="651" />
<p class="pcap"><b>16.</b> Photomosaic globe of Mars made of more than 1500 computer-corrected pictures taken by <i>Mariner 9</i> in 1971 and 1972.
The residual North Pole ice cap is at the top.</p>
</div>
<p>This 1.2-meter (4-foot) diameter globe of
Mars was assembled from photographs
taken by <i>Mariner 9</i>, an unmanned spacecraft
that orbited the planet from November
14, 1971, until October 27, 1972. This globe
is the first such photomosaic ever made of
a planet.</p>
<p>Launched on May 30, 1971, <i>Mariner 9</i>
succeeded in photographing the entire
surface of the planet. In its 349 days of orbit
around Mars, <i>Mariner 9</i> circled the planet
698 times and took more than 7300
photographs.</p>
<p>In its highly elliptical orbit, <i>Mariner 9</i>
obtained a sequence of overlapping wide-angle
photographs. These were processed
by a computer to remove the known variations
in <i>Mariner 9</i> camera response and
geometric distortions, as well as to enhance
surface detail. The mosaic made from the
processed photographs is a pictorial presentation
of the Martian surface which shows
ridges and craters in the dark regions and
on the bright polar caps with equal clarity.
Surface features are in correct relationship
and perspective, with only a minimum of
shading difference between individual
photographs.</p>
<p>In assembling the photomosaic, each
picture was taped in place on the globe.
Then, the match of adjacent pictures was
assessed to determine where to trim the
edges so that sharp features would not
be intersected. The edges of each print were
feathered so that when the prints were
glued into place, the lines between pieces
were almost indistinguishable. The
complete globe received a thin
protective coating.</p>
<p>This globe and copies of it enable scientists
to study the geology and morphology
of Mars from a perspective never before
possible.</p>
<p>The photomosaic globe was designed and
assembled at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,
California.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Mars Globe is on loan from the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">Mariner 10</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig18">
<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="584" />
<p class="pcap"><b>17.</b> <i>Mariner 10</i> returned data and photographs from the vicinities of Venus and Mercury.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig19">
<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="530" height="700" />
<p class="pcap"><b>18.</b> This computer-enhanced image
of Mercury’s surface was returned by <i>Mariner 10</i> from 200,000 kilometers (124,000 miles) and 6 hours away from closest approach
to Mercury on March 29, 1974.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Mariner 10</i> returned closeup pictures of the
cloud cover around Venus and of Mercury’s
sunbaked surface. <i>Mariner 10</i> was the first
spacecraft to photograph Mercury, the innermost
planet. The spacecraft’s instruments
also measured particles, fields, and
radiation from these planets.</p>
<p><i>Mariner 10</i> flew by Venus on February
5, 1974, after a three-month, 240-million-kilometer
(150-million-mile) journey that
took the Spacecraft halfway around the Sun.
<i>Mariner 10</i> swung around the planet, taking
a variety of measurements and photographs
of the clouds that obscure the planet’s face.
Using the planet’s gravity to “bend” its
flight path, <i>Mariner 10</i> flew on toward
encounter with Mercury.</p>
<p>On March 29, 1974. <i>Mariner</i> sped across
the night side of the little planet closest to
the Sun. Only 703 kilometers (436 miles)
above the rugged surface, <i>Mariner</i>’s cameras
captured the first closeup views of the
planet’s daylight hemisphere. The pictures
show craters, scarps—cliffs nearly 3 kilometers
(2 miles) high and stretching as far
as 500 kilometers (300 miles) across the
surface—basins, and hilly furrowed terrain.</p>
<p>After providing our first glimpse of Mercury’s
surface, <i>Mariner</i> raced on around
the Sun and back out across Venus’ orbit.
With some trajectory adjustments using
on-board thrusters. <i>Mariner</i> returned to
within 48,000 kilometers (30,000 miles) of
Mercury on September 21, 176 days after
the first encounter, again returning pictures
and data. <i>Mariner</i>’s orbit brought it back
to the planet for a third pass in another 176
days. On-board propellant exhausted, the
spacecraft continues its orbit of the Sun
and innermost planet.</p>
<p><i>Mariner 10</i> is the first complex spacecraft
designed to travel to the inner reaches of
the solar system. At closest approach to the
Sun, the spacecraft received five times as
much light and heat as it did on leaving
Earth. Thus the solar panels, which collect
and convert solar radiation into electrical
energy for the spacecraft’s instruments and
controls, were designed to tilt more and
more away from the sunlight as <i>Mariner</i>
approached the Sun.</p>
<p><i>Mariner</i> could transmit much more information
to Earth than earlier flyby spacecraft.
This higher data rate enabled the
craft to send back more live pictures of the
planets as it flew by them. Some information
was stored on magnetic tape for later
transmission. This capability permitted
<i>Mariner</i> to collect data when it was hidden
from Earth behind a planet, and send the
information when it emerged.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for <i>Mariner 10</i> was
Hughes Aircraft Company.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Mariner 10</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">U.S.S. Enterprise</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig20">
<img src="images/p09b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="415" />
<p class="pcap"><b>19.</b> The starship <i>Enterprise</i> used in the filming of the “Star Trek” television series.</p>
</div>
<p>This studio model of an interstellar space
ship was used in the filming of the science-fiction
television series, “Star Trek.” Many
of the series’ 78 episodes dealt speculatively
with the problems and results of human
contacts with extraterrestrial life forms and
civilizations.</p>
<p>The model of U.S.S. <i>Enterprise</i> was designed
by Walter M. Jeffries and Gene
Roddenberry.</p>
<hr />
<p>The model is from Paramount Television,
a division of Paramount Pictures.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">3.4 m. (11 ft., 3 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter of disc</b> </td><td class="l">1.5 m. (5 ft.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">Goddard A-Series Rocket, 1935</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig21">
<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="629" />
<p class="pcap"><b>20.</b> Dr. Goddard in his workshop at Roswell, New Mexico, October 1935.</p>
</div>
<p>Robert Hutchings Goddard, the American
rocket pioneer, was one of the first to suggest
the use of the rocket to gather scientific
information from high altitudes. As seamen
use sounding lines to measure the depth of
unknown waters, so scientists use sounding
rockets to investigate the nature of our
atmosphere. As early as 1917, the Smithsonian
Institution agreed to fund Dr. Goddard’s
studies. In 1926, he built and flew
the world’s first successful liquid-propellant
rocket which rose to an altitude of 12.5
meters (41 feet) over a field in Massachusetts.</p>
<p>After the scientist received substantial
grants from the Daniel and Florence Guggenheim
Foundation, he established a
facility near Roswell, New Mexico, where
he built and tested a series of rockets and
engines between 1930 and 1942.</p>
<p>A-Series rockets—one on exhibit—were
flown during the summer of 1935, as part
of Dr. Goddard’s program to develop
methods of stabilizing his rockets in vertical
flight. The principles he pioneered in this
area were among his greatest contributions
to the field of rocketry.</p>
<p>The greatest height reached by an A-Series
rocket was about 2130 meters (7000
feet) and the greatest speed in flight was
more than 1130 kilometers per hour (700
miles per hour).</p>
<hr />
<p>The rocket on exhibit is from Robert H.
Goddard.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">4.7 m. (15 ft., 6 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">15.2 cm. (6 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Fuel</b> </td><td class="l">Gasoline</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Oxidizer</b> </td><td class="l">Liquid oxygen</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">about 90 kg. (200 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">1130 km. (700 mi.) per hr. (+ or -)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">2.3 km. (7600 ft.) (+ or -)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">WAC Corporal</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig22">
<img src="images/p10a.jpg" alt="" width="595" height="727" />
<p class="pcap"><b>21.</b> Frank Malina, project leader in the development of the WAC Corporal, stands beside the high-altitude sounding rocket.</p>
</div>
<p>The WAC Corporal was the first successful
American sounding rocket to reach significant
altitude. The first WAC Corporal,
launched in 1944 from White Sands Proving
Ground in New Mexico, reached a height
of 71,600 meters (235,000 feet). The fin-stabilized
rocket was powered by a liquid-propellant
engine that burned a self-igniting
fuel and oxidizer combination. Use of these
propellants eliminated the need for an
ignition system. By March 1946, these rockets
had attained altitudes of over 72.4
kilometers (45 miles) with a booster. The
WAC Corporal was later used as a second
stage on a German V-2 rocket. This U.S.
program, code-named “Bumper,” tested
techniques for ignition and separation of
stages at high altitudes.</p>
<p>The WAC Corporal was designed in 1944
by the staff of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology.</p>
<hr />
<p>The rocket on exhibit is from the California
Institute of Technology.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">4.9 m. (16 ft., 2 in.) as exhibited</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">30.5 cm. (12 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Fuel</b> </td><td class="l">Aniline-furfuryl alcohol</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Oxidizer</b> </td><td class="l">Red-fuming nitric acid</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">680 kg. (1500 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">4500 km. (2800 mi.) per hr. at burnout</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">72 km. (45 mi.) with a 11.3-kilogram (25-lb.) payload</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">Aerobee 150</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig23">
<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="740" />
<p class="pcap"><b>22.</b> A booster lifts Aerobee 150 out of its launch rail.</p>
</div>
<p>The half-ton Aerobee could carry a 45.4-kilogram
(100-pound) payload to an altitude
of 120.6 kilometers (75 miles). For
many years, the Aerobee was the standard
American sounding rocket due to its reliability
and relatively low cost. Several
versions of the original Aerobee were
produced. The Aerobee relied on a short-duration,
solid-fuel booster for launching,
after which the main-stage, liquid-propellant
engine ignited.</p>
<p>On display at the NASM is an Aerobee
150, a more sophisticated version of the
rocket. An Aerobee 150 can lift a 68.1-kilogram
(150-pound) payload to an altitude
of 274 kilometers (170 miles). Payloads
consisted of a variety of scientific
experiments.</p>
<p>The Aerobee concept originated early in
1946 when Dr. James Van Allen, then of the
Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins
University, suggested that the Office of
Naval Research contract for a rocket with
these particular capabilities. The Aerojet
General Corporation (then Aerojet, Inc.)
was awarded the contract, with the Douglas
Aircraft Corporation subcontracting for
aerodynamic studies on the nose, fins, and
tail cone, and for the final assembly of the
rocket.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Aerobee 150 is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Goddard Space Flight Center.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">Farside</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig24">
<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="631" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>23.</b> Artist’s rendering of four-stage Farside sounding rocket, in launcher below balloon.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig25">
<img src="images/p11b.jpg" alt="" width="232" height="801" />
<p class="pcap"><b>24.</b> Rocket was fired directly through
the apex of the balloon. Drawing shows the first stage falling away as second-stage rocket takes over.</p>
</div>
<p>Farside was a four-stage rocket launched
from a balloon as an extremely high-altitude
research vehicle. Achieving heights
estimated at 6400 kilometers (4000 miles).
Farside’s instrument payload was intended
to study cosmic rays, earth’s magnetic field,
certain forms of electromagnetic radiation
in space, the presence of interplanetary
gases, and the nature of meteoric dust.</p>
<p>The 908-kilogram (2000-pound) Farside
was lifted to an altitude of 30.5 kilometers
(19 miles) by a polyethylene balloon. An
aluminum structure suspended from the
balloon carried the 7.3-meter (24-foot)
rocket to launch altitude. Positioned vertically
in its casing, Farside was fired directly
through the balloon.</p>
<p>Six Farsides were launched by the United
States in 1957 from Eniwetok Atoll in the
Pacific.</p>
<p>Farside’s first stage consisted of four
solid-fuel Recruit rockets, manufactured by
Thiokol Chemical Company. A single Recruit
served as the second stage. Four Arrow
II solid-fuel rockets by the Grand Central
Rocket Company constituted the third stage.
The final stage, a single Arrow II, carried
the instrument payload provided by S. F.
Singer of the University of Maryland.</p>
<p>Farside was developed by Aeronutronics
Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Air Force Office
of Scientific Research and Development.</p>
<hr />
<p>The rocket on exhibit is from the Aeronutronics
Division, Ford Motor Company.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">7.3 m. (24 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellants</b> </td><td class="l">Solid</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">First stage </td><td class="l">68,220 kg. (150,400 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Second stage </td><td class="l">17,055 kg. (37,600 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Third state </td><td class="l">4120 kg. (9080 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Fourth stage </td><td class="l">1030 kg. (2270 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">29,000 km./hr. (18,000 mi./hr.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">3220-6440 km. (2000-4000 mi.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div>
<h2 id="c17"><span class="small">Nike-Cajun</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig26">
<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="493" height="700" />
<p class="pcap"><b>25.</b> Nike-Cajun ready for launch.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig27">
<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="415" height="700" />
<p class="pcap"><b>26.</b> Nike-Cajun launch.</p>
</div>
<p>The Nike-Cajun was used extensively
during International Geophysical Year
(1957-58) to perform a variety of research
tasks. These included weather photography,
studies of water-vapor distribution in the
upper atmosphere, and magnetic soundings
in the ionosphere.</p>
<p>For photographic studies, the instrument
package separated from the nose cone at
about 80 kilometers (50 miles) and then
coasted to a peak altitude of about 120 kilometers
(75 miles), during which time data
was collected. Then parachutes opened,
lowering the cameras for recovery. Other
data was radioed to Earth.</p>
<p>The Cajun rocket was developed by the
Pilotless Aircraft Division of the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and
the University of Michigan. The solid-fuel
engine was designed and manufactured by
Thiokol Chemical Company. The Nike
booster was also solid fuel.</p>
<hr />
<p>The rocket on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">7.9 m. (26 ft.); Cajun, 4.1 m. (13.5 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">41.9 cm. (16.5 in.) max; Cajun, 17.1 cm. (6.75 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellant</b> </td><td class="l">Solid</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">Sustainer, 4364 kg. (9620 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">6760 km./ hr. (4200 mi./hr.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">161 km. (100 mi.) with a 23 kg. (50 lb.) instrument package; higher with a lighter payload</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
<h2 id="c18"><span class="small">ARCAS</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig28">
<img src="images/p12b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="598" />
<p class="pcap"><b>27.</b> Loading ARCAS into launcher.</p>
</div>
<p>All-purpose Rocket for Collecting Atmospheric
Sounding (ARCAS) gathers
local meteorological data helpful to weather
forecasters. Its 5.4-kilogram (12-pound)
payload may include instruments which
measure temperature, pressure, humidity,
wind velocity and direction, and magnetic
conditions. The single-stage ARCAS
vehicle reaches an altitude of 64 kilometers
(40 miles), propelled by a slow-burning
solid-fuel engine which produces
141.4 kilograms (312 pounds) of thrust.</p>
<p>When the ARCAS is boosted by a Sparrow
or Sidewinder missile engine, it can
reach altitudes of 182,880 meters (600,000
feet).</p>
<p>The 32-kilogram (71-pound) ARCAS is
far less expensive than the larger two-stage
weather rockets it has replaced. It was developed
and produced by the Atlantic
Research Corporation.</p>
<hr />
<p>The ARCAS is from the Atlantic Research
Corporation.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">2.1 m. (7 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">11.3 cm. (4.45 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellant</b> </td><td class="l">Solid</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">159 kg. (350 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">3590 km./hr. (2230 mi./hr.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">64 km. (40 mi.) with standard 5.4-kg. (12-lb.) payload; 91.7 km. (57 mi.) with a 2.3-kg. (5-lb.) instrument package</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div>
<h2 id="c19"><span class="small">Cricket</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig29">
<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="599" />
<p class="pcap"><b>28.</b> Preparing Cricket for launch.</p>
</div>
<p>The reusable Cricket, often called the “meteorologist’s
handyman,” weighs only 2.5
kilograms (5½ pounds), 1.4 kilograms (3
pounds) of which is propellant. Recovered
by parachute after each flight, Cricket costs
less than $10 to refuel.</p>
<p>The Cricket’s .34-kilogram (three-fourth
pound) instrument package zooms to 975
meters (3200 feet) in only 12 seconds,
gathering data on air temperature, pressure
and wind direction.</p>
<p>One of the rocket’s most noteworthy
features is that it uses “cold” propellants.
Compressed carbon dioxide to which acetone
is added is pumped into a storage tank
in the rocket at a pressure of 56.3 kilograms
per square centimeter (800 pounds per
square inch). Release of the pressurized
mixture gives Cricket its thrust. Cricket is
fired from its launcher by a separate charge
of carbon dioxide in order to preserve the
rocket’s fuel for flight.</p>
<p>This rocket was developed by Texaco
Experiment, Inc., for the U.S. Air Force’s
Cambridge Research Laboratory.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Cricket is from Texaco, Inc.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">1.2 m. (3 ft., 10 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">11 cm. (4 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellant</b> </td><td class="l">Pressurized carbon dioxide and acetone</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">23 kg. max. (50 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">168 m./sec. max. (550 ft./sec.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">975 m. (3200 ft.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div>
<h2 id="c20"><span class="small">Viking 12</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig30">
<img src="images/p13a.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="703" />
<p class="pcap"><b>29.</b> Viking 12 lift-off.</p>
</div>
<p>The Viking rocket family, numbering 14,
grew out of the Navy’s efforts to develop an
upper atmosphere research program. With
enough time between launches to incorporate
modifications suggested by experience
with earlier Vikings, no two rockets of the
series were exactly alike; however, there
were two basic types of Vikings. The first
seven rockets were taller, thinner, and had
larger fins than those numbered 8-14; rockets
in the second set were heavier, with
fuel capacity greatly increased, and were
designed either to go higher than the early
Vikings or to carry heavier payloads to
the same altitude.</p>
<p>Viking’s highest altitude was 254 kilometers
(158 miles) following a launch from
White Sands on May 24, 1954. Experiments
flown on these rockets measured air temperature,
density, pressure, and composition,
as well as providing cosmic and solar
radiation data.</p>
<p>One of the few failures in this program
was Viking 8, the first rocket of the second
set, which unexpectedly tore loose from the
launch stand while being test-fired.</p>
<p>Viking was conceived at the Naval Research
Laboratory, designed and produced
by the Glenn L. Martin Company of Baltimore,
Maryland, and powered by a liquid-propellant
engine by Reaction Motors, Inc.</p>
<hr />
<p>The rocket on exhibit is from the Hayden
Planetarium and Martin Marietta
Aerospace.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">13.7 m. (45 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">1.1 m. (3 ft., 9 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellant</b> </td><td class="l">Alcohol</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Oxidizer</b> </td><td class="l">Liquid oxygen</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">9300 kg. (20,500 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">6480 km. (4025 mi.) per hr.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">193 km. (120 mi.) with a 402-kg. (887-lb.) payload</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
<h2 id="c21"><span class="small">MOUSE</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig31">
<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="704" />
<p class="pcap"><b>30.</b> MOUSE model displays some of the earliest solar cells made (under square cover on front).</p>
</div>
<p>The concept of artificial earth satellites was
a logical extension of existing sounding-rocket
programs. The MOUSE, or Minimum
Orbital Unmanned Satellite of Earth, was
conceived in 1951 as the smallest possible
orbital vehicle capable of performing scientific
tasks. While the MOUSE was never
built or flown, it demonstrated what could
be accomplished by an orbiting vehicle of
modest size and weight.</p>
<p>The MOUSE would have weighed 45.4
kilograms (100 pounds). It was designed to
study cosmic rays, interplanetary dust, and
solar ultraviolet and X rays, with the instruments
attached to rods projecting from
either end. The satellite was to be powered
by solar cells.</p>
<p>MOUSE was conceived by Kenneth W.
Gatland, Anthony Kunesch, and Alan Dixon
of England. Dr. S. F. Singer of the University
of Maryland designed the MOUSE and
constructed the model on exhibit. The model
displays some of the earliest solar cells produced
by the Bell Telephone Laboratories.</p>
<hr />
<p>The MOUSE is from S. F. Singer.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div>
<h2 id="c22"><span class="small">Agena-B</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig32">
<img src="images/p14a.jpg" alt="" width="704" height="700" />
<p class="pcap"><b>31.</b> Thor-Agena launch vehicle and its satellite payload before launch.</p>
</div>
<p>The Agena launch vehicle has been an integral
part of both unmanned and manned
space programs. Flown as an upper stage
on Thor and Atlas boosters, Agena orbited
an impressive roster of spacecraft including
the Echo communications satellites, the
Ranger and Lunar Orbiter Moon probes,
and the Mariner vehicles that traveled to
Venus and Mars.</p>
<p>As the target for docking experiments
during Project Gemini, Agena made substantial
contributions to the eventual success
of the Apollo program. The vehicle
earned the distinction of being the first to
place a payload in polar orbit, and was also
the first to achieve circular orbit. The Agena
engine was the first which could be stopped
and restarted in space.</p>
<p>The Agena launch vehicle was developed
and manufactured by the Lockheed Missiles
and Space Company for the United States
Air Force.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">7.1 m. (23.25 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">1.5 m. (5 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">Empty 674 kg. (1484 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Fuel</b> </td><td class="l">Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Oxidizer</b> </td><td class="l">Inhibited red-fuming nitric acid</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">7260 kg. (16,000 lb.)</td></tr>
</table>
<hr />
<p>The Agena-B is from the United States Air
Force and the Lockheed Missile and Space
Company.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig33">
<img src="images/p14b.jpg" alt="" width="746" height="600" />
<p class="pcap"><b>32.</b> The Agena Target Docking Vehicle
seen from the <i>Gemini 8</i> spacecraft during
rendezvous approach.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div>
<h2 id="c23"><span class="small">Science Satellites</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig34">
<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="645" />
<p class="pcap"><b>33.</b> <i>Vanguard 1</i>, second American satellite launched. Information from <i>Vanguard</i> showed that the Earth is not quite round.</p>
</div>
<p>The first artificial earth satellites were
sometimes called “long-playing rockets”
because they carried the same instruments
and investigated the same problems as had
the sounding rockets. The great advantage
of the satellite was its ability to provide a
continuous flow of information for long
periods of time. The first science satellites
were the forerunners of later vehicles that
would demonstrate the direct benefits that
satellites could offer to such varied fields as
weather observation and communication.</p>
<p>The advent of the earth satellite provided
scientists with a new and valuable research
tool. Science satellites have been used for
such tasks as solar and astronomical observations,
biology experiments, or atmospheric
investigation. Explorer 1 (launched
January 31, 1958) and Vanguard 1
(launched March 17, 1958), the first American
earth satellites, carried scientific payloads
into space.</p>
<p>Project Vanguard’s important contributions
to America’s space program were the
creation of the minitrack tracking system,
the first use of silicon solar cells for electric
power in a satellite, as well as the discovery
that Earth is not quite round. The Vanguard
program drew to a close with the 1959
launch of Vanguard 3. This satellite studied
variations in solar and x-ray radiation and
the earth’s magnetosphere. It also determined
air density in the upper atmosphere.</p>
<p>The mysteries of the near-earth space
environment drew <i>Explorer 6</i>, launched
August 7, 1959. <i>Explorer 6</i> instruments
measured radiation levels in the Van Allen
radiation belts, mapped the earth’s magnetic
field, counted micrometeorites, and
studied the behavior of radio waves in space.
In addition, <i>Explorer 6</i> carried a scanning
device which returned the first complete
television cloud-cover picture of the earth’s
surface.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
<div class="img" id="fig35">
<img src="images/p15a.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="641" />
<p class="pcap"><b>34.</b> Artist’s concept of IMP-E. This
satellite’s primary mission is to study
solar wind and the interplanetary
magnetic field at lunar distance and their
interaction with the Moon.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Explorer 10</i>, launched on board a Thor-Delta
rocket on March 25, 1961, confirmed
the existence of the solar wind—the stream
of particles that carries the Sun’s magnetic
field beyond the orbit of Earth. During the
satellite’s planned 52 hours in orbit, it
relayed information on the relationship
between terrestrial and interplanetary magnetic
fields and the solar wind.</p>
<p>To continue the study of solar wind and
interplanetary magnetic fields, <i>Explorer 12</i>
was orbited by a Delta launch vehicle on
August 16, 1961. It was the first in a series
of satellites to study energetic particles in
space. These electrons and protons constitute
the earth’s radiation belts and they
affect weather and other phenomena on
Earth.</p>
<p><i>Atmosphere Explorer-A</i> was the first of
NASA’s aeronomy satellites. It was designed
to remain in operation three months, studying
the composition, density, pressure, and
temperature of the upper atmosphere. This
satellite discovered a belt of neutral helium
atoms around the Earth.</p>
<p>Deriving its name from a spirit in Shakespeare’s
play, <i>The Tempest</i>, <i>Ariel 1</i> explored
the ionosphere, a region of electrically
charged air which begins about 40 kilometers
(25 miles) above the surface of
the Earth. Launched April 26, 1962, <i>Ariel</i>
was a cooperative venture between Great
Britain and the United States. It was both
the first British satellite and NASA’s first
international satellite. The Royal Society’s
British National Committee on Space
Research coordinated the experimental
program; NASA scientists and technicians
built the craft.</p>
<p>Two small scientific laboratories, called
Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms, were
launched in 1967 to study the solar wind
and other phenomena. IMP-E investigated
interplanetary magnetic fields in the vicinity
of the Moon. IMP-F investigated the interplanetary
magnetic field also, in addition to
the earth’s magnetosphere and radiation
levels in space.</p>
<p>Interplanetary space between the Earth
and Venus was the subject area for <i>Pioneer
5</i>, launched March 11, 1960. The satellite
tested long-range communications systems,
developed methods for measuring astronomical
distances, studied the effects of
solar flares, and performed other tasks
before it went into orbit around the Sun.</p>
<p>With increasing interest in the earth’s
space environment, a satellite was launched
on September 7, 1967, to investigate the
impact of space on biological processes.
<i>Biosatellite 2</i> was the second satellite in the
program of three such vehicles. Frog eggs,
plants, micro-organisms and insects were
placed in orbit to enable scientists to study
the combined effects of weightlessness,
artificially produced radiation, and the absence
of the normal day-night cycle on these
organisms. Following two days in space, the
capsule containing the experimental package
reentered the atmosphere and was
caught in mid-air by an Air Force recovery
aircraft.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Vanguard 1</i> is from John P. Hagan. <i>Vanguard
3</i>, <i>Explorer 10</i>, <i>Explorer 12</i>, <i>AE-A</i>,
<i>Ariel 1</i>, IMP-E & F, and <i>Biosatellite 2</i> are
from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. The models of <i>Explorer 6</i>
and <i>Pioneer 5</i> are from Space Technology
Laboratories.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div>
<h2 id="c24"><span class="small">Meteorological Satellites</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig36">
<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="647" />
<p class="pcap"><b>35.</b> TOS satellite is covered with solar cells.</p>
</div>
<p>Weather forecasts are important to everyone—in
planning whether or not to carry an
umbrella, when to plant crops, when to
evacuate riverbank areas. Nineteenth-century
American meteorologists relied on local
weather observations telegraphed to the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington and
then plotted on a large map of the nation
from which forecasts were prepared.</p>
<p>When <i>Tiros-1</i> returned the first global
cloud-cover picture in 1960, meteorologists
were on their way to more accurate forecasts.
Since the satellite pictures offered
more comprehensive weather data over a
larger geographic area, the identification of
weather patterns became more reliable.</p>
<p>While our knowledge of atmospheric
conditions is still imperfect, we have learned
to make reasonably accurate regional
weather forecasts and to identify and track
violent storms and hurricanes based on
satellite information.</p>
<p>The TIROS series (Television Infrared
Observations Satellites) were designed to
test the feasibility of weather observation
from orbit. The TIROS satellite on exhibit
was the prototype for the entire series of
vehicles. The prototype made eight trips to
the launch stand at Cape Kennedy, where
it was used to check communications and
handling procedures prior to the launch of
the scheduled TIROS. All 10 TIROS satellites
were successful. Launched between
April 1, 1960, and July 1, 1965, they carried
a variety of camera systems for experimental
purposes.</p>
<p>Nine TIROS Operational Satellites
(TOS) followed <i>TIROS 1-10</i>. Except for
the first TOS, these satellites flew in pairs
with one craft storing pictures on board for
<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
later transmission to major receiving centers,
while the other broadcast its photographs
continuously to any ground station
within range. The satellite on display is
of the latter type. These vehicles were
launched between 1966 and 1969. They
were placed in near-polar orbits by reliable
Thor-Delta launch vehicles.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig37">
<img src="images/p16a.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="607" />
<p class="pcap"><b>36.</b> <i>TIROS I</i> photo showing a section of
the East coast of the United States,
including the Boston and New England
area.</p>
</div>
<p>After launch, TOS vehicles were referred
to as ESSA satellites. ESSA was an acronym
both for Environmental Survey Satellite and
for the Environmental Science Service Administration,
the federal agency that operated
the spacecraft. This organization
became a part of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration which currently
has responsibility for operational
meteorological satellite programs.</p>
<p>From about 1392 kilometers (865 miles)
above Earth, two wide-angle television cameras
mounted on either side of the spacecraft
took in 10.4-million square kilometers
(4-million square miles) per photo.</p>
<p>The Improved TIROS Operational Satellite
(ITOS) opened the world of radiometric
measurement to meteorologists—information
about surface temperatures on
the ground, at sea level, or at the cloud tops
obtained by scanning devices sensitive to
energy that is invisible to the naked eye.
ITOS spacecraft could return accurate day
or night surface and cloud-cover images.
Seven of these satellites were launched
between 1970 and 1973.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>TIROS</i> was presented to the National Air
and Space Museum by the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration; <i>TOS</i> is
from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration; <i>ITOS</i> is from the Astro-Electronics
Division of RCA, Inc.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig38">
<img src="images/p16b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="603" />
<p class="pcap"><b>37.</b> Artist’s concept of ITOS weather
satellite illustrating how the weather eye
takes night-time (infrared) cloud-cover
pictures.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div>
<h2 id="c25"><span class="small">Communications Satellites</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig39">
<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="631" />
<p class="pcap"><b>38.</b> Ground inflation test on <i>Echo 1</i>, the world’s first passive communications satellite.</p>
</div>
<p>Communications satellites can be grouped
into two broad categories. Passive vehicles
reflect signals from one ground station to
another. Active satellites accept ground signals
and either amplify and rebroadcast
them immediately or record messages for
later transmission.</p>
<p>The Echo satellite balloons typified the
passive category of communications spacecraft.
These satellites “bounced” radio signals
from one ground station to another.
Uninflated Echo payloads were carried into
orbit packed in special storage containers.
When released in space, the balloon was
inflated by chemicals packed inside which
subliminated to produce inflating gas. The
mylar plastic skin of the satellite was sandwiched
between two layers of aluminum
foil. <i>Echo 2</i>—on display—included a system
for releasing gas over a long period of time
to maintain the satellite’s spherical shape.
Launched January 25, 1964, <i>Echo 2</i> was the
<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span>
first satellite used for communication experiments
between the United States and
the Soviet Union.</p>
<p>Project West Ford, launched May 9,
1963, was a unique experiment in passive
satellite communications. It was not a solid
vehicle, but a series of 400-million tiny individual
copper filaments called dipoles.
The dipoles formed a reflective layer some
64,300 kilometers (40,000 miles) long, 32
kilometers (20 miles) thick, and 32 kilometers
(20 miles) wide. The distance between
the individual dipoles averaged 536
meters (one-third mile). The West Ford
experiment proved disappointing, and advances
in the design of active communications
satellites made further experiments of
this nature unnecessary.</p>
<p><i>Oscar 1</i> (Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur
Radio) was conceived, designed, and
constructed by American amateur radio
“hams.” Launched as a “piggyback” satellite
on December 12, 1963, Oscar transmitted
a series of Morse code dots spelling
“hi.” The message was picked up by 5000
operators in 28 nations during the 18 days
of transmission. Oscar investigated radio
propagation phenomena in space on that
portion of the radio frequency spectrum
allocated to amateur radio (144-146 megaherz).</p>
<p>Testing the use of a “delayed-repeater”
satellite in global military communications,
<i>Courier 1-B</i> was placed in a high-altitude
orbit on October 4, 1960. The craft accepted
and stored messages as it passed over one
ground station, then replayed them on
command.</p>
<p><i>Relay</i>, another active repeater satellite,
was placed in orbit on December 13, 1962.
<i>Relay</i> carried communications experiments
to test a variety of relay equipment—including
that for photofacsimile, teleprinter, and
data transmission. During its 25-month lifespan,
<i>Relay 1</i> introduced the nations of the
world to satellite communication. A second,
improved <i>Relay</i> was launched in 1964.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig40">
<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="737" />
<p class="pcap"><b>39.</b> The exterior of eight-sided <i>Relay</i> is composed of honeycomb aluminum panels
studded with 8215 solar cells.</p>
</div>
<p>The world’s first commercial communications
satellite was called “Early Bird,” or
INTELSAT 1. Built a decade ago by
Hughes Aircraft Company for Communications
Satellite Corporation (COMSAT),
Early Bird could transmit simultaneously
on 240 two-way channels for telephone,
telegraph, or data transmission. Transatlantic
telephone circuit capability increased
by 50 percent once Early Bird went
into orbit on April 6, 1965. Although the
craft had a life expectancy of 18 months, it
operated satisfactorily in full-time service
for more than three and one-half years.</p>
<p>INTELSAT 2 introduced multipoint communications
between earth stations in the
Northern and Southern hemispheres. With
almost twice the power of Early Bird,
INTELSAT 2 proved particularly important
as communications support for the Apollo
missions to the Moon.</p>
<p>INTELSAT 2 established a global network
of three satellites that was effective in
linking two-thirds of the world’s people in
one communications chain. The first of the
series was launched on January 11, 1967.
These spacecraft were designed and manufactured
by the Hughes Aircraft Company
for Intelsat, Inc., and had a design lifetime
of three years.</p>
<p>INTELSAT 3 was a series of five communications
satellites which provided
global coverage for the first time. This
INTELSAT had a capacity of 2400 voice,
data, facsimile, and telegraph circuits, plus
four television channels and had a design
lifetime of five years.</p>
<p>The satellite featured a de-spun antenna
which remained pointed at a particular area
of the globe, while the body of the satellite
spun around it. It was the first commercial
satellite capable of transmitting voice and
television broadcasts simultaneously.</p>
<p>INTELSAT 3 satellites were manufactured
by TRW Systems, Inc., for Intelsat,
Inc.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Echo 2</i>, <i>Courier 1-B</i>, and <i>Relay</i> are from the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration;
<i>OSCAR 1</i> is from Project Oscar,
Inc.; INTELSAT 1, INTELSAT 2, and
INTELSAT 3 are from the International
Telecommunications Satellite Organization.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
<h2 id="c26"><span class="small">Lunar Module</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig41">
<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="621" />
<p class="pcap"><b>40.</b> Apollo 15 Lunar Module, center, on the Moon. Astronaut Irwin on left and Lunar Roving Vehicle on right.</p>
</div>
<p>The lunar module is one of twelve built
for the Apollo moon-landing program.
Although this one never flew because an
earlier test flight was completely successful,
two-stage lunar modules like this one have
been used for each manned moon landing.</p>
<p>Lunar modules do not have to be streamlined
for flights through the vacuum of
space or to withstand reentry. The lunar
module (LM) lifts off from Earth enclosed
in a compartment of the Saturn 5 launch
vehicle, below the command-service module
that houses the astronauts. The command
module pulls the LM from its storage area
once the spacecraft are on their way to the
Moon, and the two travel together until they
arrive in lunar orbit.</p>
<p>When the crew is ready to land, two of
the three astronauts enter the LM and undock
it, leaving the third to pilot the command
module. After touchdown on the
Moon, the astronauts exit through the door
above the ladder.</p>
<p>The silver and black ascent stage, containing
the astronauts’ pressurized compartment
and the clusters of rockets that control
the spacecraft, fits on top of the shiny gold
descent stage that actually touches down
on the Moon. The descent stage contains a
main, centrally located rocket engine. This
segment of the craft remains on the Moon
as the crew lifts off in the ascent stage to
rejoin the command module.</p>
<p>After the crew transfers to the command
module, the ascent stage is also left behind
as the three crew members start their return
journey.</p>
<p>The LM is displayed just as it would look
during a moon-landing mission. The gold
and black materials insulate the spacecraft’s
inner structure from temperature extremes
and protect it from micrometeoroids. Thin
sheets of both materials are used in “blankets”
to accomplish the necessary protection
in a foreign environment.</p>
<p>The black material is heat-resistant
nickel-steel alloy. Each sheet is only .002
millimeters (1/12,000 of an inch) thick.
These absorb heat and radiate it back into
the blackness of space.</p>
<p>The shiny gold material on the descent
stage is aluminum that is thinly coated over
plastic film. The thin sheets of plastic and
aluminum are used in blankets of up to 25
layers for protection and insulation of the
spacecraft.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for the lunar module
was Grumman Aerospace Corporation.</p>
<hr />
<p>The lunar module on exhibit is from the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Height</b> </td><td class="l">7 m. (22 ft., 11 in.), legs extended</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">9.4 m. (31 ft.) diagonally across landing gear</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Earth launch </td><td class="l">14,700 kg. (32,400 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">LM (dry) </td><td class="l">3900 kg. (8600 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Volume</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Pressurized </td><td class="l">6.7 cu. m. (235 cu. ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Habitable </td><td class="l">4.5 cu. m. (160 cu. ft.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="img" id="fig42">
<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="487" />
<p class="pcap"><b>41.</b> Lunar Module Center Instrument
Panel in the ascent stage.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
<h2 id="c27"><span class="small">Lunar Orbiter</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig43">
<img src="images/p18b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="581" />
<p class="pcap"><b>42.</b> Lunar Orbiter.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Directional Antenna</dt>
<dt>Velocity Control Rocket Engine</dt>
<dt>Fuel Tank</dt>
<dt>Nitrogen Gas Reaction Jets</dt>
<dt>Oxidizer Tank</dt>
<dt>Lenses</dt>
<dt>Micrometeoroid Detectors</dt>
<dt>Flight Programmer</dt>
<dt>Photographic Subsystem</dt>
<dt>Sun Sensor (located under equipment deck)</dt>
<dt>Solar Panel</dt>
<dt>Canopus Star Tracker</dt>
<dt>Inertial Reference Unit</dt>
<dt>Omni Directional Antenna</dt></dl>
<p>The Lunar Orbiter project was initiated in
1963 as part of the U.S. Apollo program to
land men on the Moon during the decade
of the nineteen sixties.</p>
<p>Lunar Orbiter’s primary mission was to
take and transmit both wide-angle and
closeup images of the Moon. Lunar Orbiters
photographed many areas of scientific interest
and provided general photographic
coverage of much of the moon’s surface.
These pictures were then used to select the
best landing sites for the first manned lunar
landings. Orbiters also showed that the
moon’s gravitational field permitted stable
orbits.</p>
<p><i>Lunar Orbiter 1</i> was launched atop an
Atlas-Agena D rocket on August 10, 1966.
The last in the project, <i>Lunar Orbiter 5</i>,
was launched on August 1, 1967. All five
missions were successful.</p>
<p>The first three missions were similar. After
each launch, the Agena stage’s booster
engine was fired to send the spacecraft on
a 90-hour coasting trajectory to the Moon,
about 386,160 kilometers (240,000 miles)
distant.</p>
<p>As the spacecraft neared the Moon, its
on-board engine was fired as a retrorocket
to slow the <i>Orbiter</i> and permit it to go into
orbit around the Moon.</p>
<p>The closest approach to the Moon in each
orbit was about 45 kilometers (28 miles),
and the spacecraft swung out to about 1850
kilometers (1150 miles) from the Moon.</p>
<p>Photography was conducted while the
<i>Orbiter</i> was near the lunar surface. Lunar
photography for the Apollo Program
landing-site selection was completed by the
first three Lunar Orbiters. Each was then
intentionally crashed into the Moon to prevent
it from interfering with later missions.</p>
<p>The last two Lunar Orbiters were used
for scientific photography of the Moon. Both
were placed into polar orbits so that they
could photograph all of the sunlit areas of
the Moon.</p>
<p>Each Lunar Orbiter carried a camera
with both a telephoto and a wide-angle lens.
The telephoto lens was capable of resolving
objects on the lunar surface as small as 91.4
centimeters (three feet) in diameter. The
wide-angle lens could resolve objects as small
as 7.6 meters (25 feet) in diameter. The
photographic images were converted to
electrical signals for transmission to Earth.</p>
<p>The Lunar Orbiter project was a complete
success. All spacecraft operated properly,
photographing a total of more than 36-million
square kilometers (14-million square
miles) of the moon’s surface.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for the Lunar Orbiter
program was the Boeing Company. Principal
subcontractors were Eastman Kodak
Company and RCA.</p>
<p>The Lunar Orbiter in the National Air
and Space Museum’s collection was used
for thermal testing of spacecraft systems.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Lunar Orbiter</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Maximum span</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Antenna booms </td><td class="l">5.6 m. (18 ft., 6 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Solar panels </td><td class="l">3.7 m. (12 ft., 2 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Height</b> </td><td class="l">1.68 m. (5 ft., 6 in.) without panels</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">385.6 kg. (850 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Power</b> </td><td class="l">Electrical; four solar panels with a total area of just over 4.8 sq. m. (58 sq. ft.) providing 375 w. to nickel-cadmium batteries</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity control system</b> </td><td class="l">A 45.4 kg (100 lb.) thrust engine burning a hydrazine mixture and nitrogen-tetroxide oxidizer</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div>
<h2 id="c28"><span class="small">Surveyor</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig44">
<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="660" height="567" />
<p class="pcap"><b>43.</b> Surveyor.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>High-gain Antenna</dt>
<dt>Omnidirectional Antenna A</dt>
<dt>Thermally Controlled Compartment A</dt>
<dt>Radar Altitude - Doppler Velocity Sensor</dt>
<dt>Vernier Propellant Tanks</dt>
<dt>Footpad 2</dt>
<dt>Crushable Block</dt>
<dt>Attitude Control Gas Tank (Nitrogen)</dt>
<dt>Solar Panel</dt>
<dt>TV Camera</dt>
<dt>Thermally Controlled Compartment B</dt>
<dt>Alpha Scattering Instrument Electronics</dt>
<dt>Canopus Star Sensor</dt>
<dt>Omnidirectional Antenna B</dt>
<dt>Footpad 3</dt>
<dt>Vernier Engine 3</dt>
<dt>Vernier Propellant Pressurizing Gas Tank (Helium)</dt>
<dt>Alpha Scattering Instrument</dt></dl>
<div class="img" id="fig45">
<img src="images/p19a.jpg" alt="" width="541" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>44.</b> <i>Apollo 12</i> crewman examines <i>Surveyor 3</i>, which soft-landed on the Moon on April 19, 1967. The <i>Apollo 12</i>
(1969) Lunar Module is in the background.</p>
</div>
<p>The Surveyor Project, begun in 1960, consisted
of seven unmanned spacecraft which
were launched between May 30, 1966, and
January 6, 1968. The craft were used to
develop lunar soft-landing techniques, to
survey potential Apollo landing sites, and
to improve scientific understanding of the
Moon.</p>
<p>Five of the seven Surveyor spacecraft
successfully landed on the Moon and performed
their tasks well. They responded to
600,545 commands from Earth and returned
87,632 television images of their lunar surroundings.
(<i>Surveyors 2</i> and <i>4</i> crashed into
the Moon and were destroyed.)</p>
<p>Besides returning TV images, <i>Surveyors
3</i>, <i>5</i>, <i>6</i>, and <i>7</i> carried a soil-sampling claw
which could dig a trench, and test soil hardness
and other characteristics. The soil-sampler
tests showed that the lunar surface
would bear the weight of an Apollo Lunar
Module.</p>
<p><i>Surveyors 5</i>, <i>6</i>, and <i>7</i> carried instruments
capable of making simple chemical analyses
of the lunar soil near the spacecraft. This
information told scientists that most lunar
soil near the Surveyors was basalt, a common
rock on Earth as well.</p>
<p>The Surveyor spacecraft on exhibit, designated
<i>S-10</i>, was used in ground-based tests
of on-board equipment, and was not used on
a mission. <i>S-10</i> is exhibited as it would have
appeared just before landing on the Moon.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for the Surveyor spacecraft
was the Hughes Aircraft Company.
The project was managed by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute
of Technology, Pasadena, California.</p>
<hr />
<p>The spacecraft on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Height</b> </td><td class="l">3 m. (10 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Distance across footpads</b> </td><td class="l">3.5 m. (11 ft., 6 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">1000 kg. (2204 lb.) at launch; 292 kg. (644 lb.) as exhibited</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Electrical power</b> </td><td class="l">One .83 sq. m. (9 sq. ft.) solar panel providing 89 w. to a silver-zinc battery</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Landing vernier rocket system</b> </td><td class="l">Three throttleable liquid-propellant rockets each providing from 14.6 to 47.2 kg. thrust (30 to 104 lb. thrust). Fuel—Monomethylhydrazine monohydrate; oxidizer 90% nitrogen tetroxide and 10% nitric oxide.</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
<h2 id="c29"><span class="small">Goddard Rockets: May 1926 and “Hoopskirt,” 1928</span></h2>
<p>The American pioneer of astronautics, Robert
H. Goddard (1882-1945) not only outlined
the physical principles that would
govern space flight, but he also constructed
and tested many rocket engines, airframes,
control devices, and guidance mechanisms
between 1926 and 1942.</p>
<p>Goddard held a doctorate in physics, and
was a professor at Clark University, Worcester,
Massachusetts. The Smithsonian
Institution began funding Goddard’s experiments
as early as 1917 and published
his first major work, <i>A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes</i>, in 1919.</p>
<p>Goddard was not only a trained scientist,
but a talented and ingenious engineer as
well. On March 16, 1926, he launched the
world’s first liquid-propellant rocket. By
1930, he had established a rocket test facility
at Mescalero Ranch, near Roswell,
New Mexico. Here, he conducted research,
funded by the Daniel and Florence Guggenheim
Foundation, on rocket power plants,
pumps and fuel systems, control mechanisms,
and other vital elements of the
modern rocket.</p>
<h3>The Rocket of May 4, 1926</h3>
<p>This vehicle is the oldest surviving liquid-propellant
rocket in the world. Built of
parts employed in the first liquid-propellant
rocket launched on March 16, 1926, the
engine was moved from the nose of the
vehicle to the rear for the May 4 trial. Other
changes were introduced to reduce the
weight of the rocket to 2.5 kilograms (5.5
pounds). The motor burned gasoline and
liquid oxygen.</p>
<p>The alcohol burner under the liquid
oxygen tank was inadvertently not ignited,
causing the May 4 attempted launch to fail.
A second test on May 5 also proved unsuccessful.
However, the rocket engine was
fired on both occasions.</p>
<hr />
<p>The May 4 rocket is from Mrs. Robert H.
Goddard and the Daniel and Florence
Guggenheim Foundation.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr class="th"><th colspan="2">May 1926 rocket</th></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">1.95 m. (6 ft., 4 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">2.5 kg. (5.5 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Fuel</b> </td><td class="l">Gasoline</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Oxidizer</b> </td><td class="l">Liquid oxygen</td></tr>
</table>
<h3>The “Hoopskirt” Rocket</h3>
<div class="img" id="fig46">
<img src="images/p19d.jpg" alt="" width="310" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>45.</b> Dr. Goddard and the “Hoopskirt.”
Propellant tanks are on legs of frame.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig47">
<img src="images/p19e.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="628" />
<p class="pcap"><b>46.</b> The upper section of the “Hoopskirt”
rocket.</p>
</div>
<p>Developed by Dr. Goddard during the late
summer and early fall of 1928, the “Hoopskirt”
rocket featured a small rocket engine
mounted in the nose and a system of tanks
and alcohol burners—to maintain fuel pressure—mounted
on two legs. On December
26, 1928, the rocket flew 62.33 meters
(204.5 feet) in 3.2 seconds—its most successful
flight. Like all Goddard rockets, the
“Hoopskirt” burned gasoline and liquid
oxygen.</p>
<hr />
<p>The “Hoopskirt” rocket is from Mrs. Robert
H. Goddard.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr class="th"><th colspan="2">“Hoopskirt”</th></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Height</b> </td><td class="l">4.5 m. (14 ft., 8 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">12.93 kg. (28.5 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Fuel</b> </td><td class="l">Gasoline</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Oxidizer</b> </td><td class="l">Liquid oxygen</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
<h2 id="c30"><span class="small">19th-Century Rockets: Congreve and Hale</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig48">
<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="556" />
<p class="pcap"><b>47.</b> <i>The Bombardment of Algiers</i>, 1816. Congreve rockets in use.</p>
</div>
<p>The rebirth of European interest in military
rocketry can be traced to the English conquest
of India during the late 18th century.
William Congreve, an artillery expert, was
intrigued by the tactical success of the
Indian war rockets. He began a research
program in 1804 that led to the development
of a metal-cased, stick-guided artillery
rocket that could be fired in barrages
against enemy troops. The rocket carried
incendiary or explosive warheads.</p>
<p>The 14.5-kilogram (32-pound) Congreve
war rocket models on display show the early
side-mounting of the stabilizing guide stick
and the later (1815) design in which the
guide stick was center-mounted to give
greater accuracy. Congreve rockets played
an important role during the Napoleonic
Wars and the War of 1812.</p>
<p>The experimental 45.4-kilogram (100-pound)
Congreve incendiary rocket was
developed as a siege weapon for use against
fortresses or entrenched enemy positions,
although it is not known to have been used
in combat. The 6.7-meter (22-foot) guide
stick screwed together and fitted to the side
of the projectile before firing. Like the
smaller Congreve rockets, it could be
launched from a frame or earthen embankment.</p>
<p>William Hale was an English engineer
and ordnance expert who made cumbersome
guide sticks obsolete with the introduction
of spin stabilization to rocketry. Hale’s first
design of a stickless, or rotary, rocket was
patented in 1844. Although the 5.4-kilogram
(12-pound) rocket was used during the
Mexican War (1846-1847) and the Civil
War, Hale subsequently refined it because
the rocket had a tendency to oscillate in the
air following exhaustion of the propellant.</p>
<p>Hale’s intermediate pattern rocket of
1862—on display—was never produced,
giving way in 1865 to a rocket weighing 11
kilograms (24 pounds) with a maximum
range of 2012 meters (2200 yards) when
fired from a 4.6-meter (15-foot) elevation.
The propellant burned for 5 to 10 seconds,
producing an estimated maximum thrust
of 136 kilograms (300 pounds).</p>
<p>The American version of the Hale rocket
has two sets of gas nozzles. The major aperture
on the base of the case allowed the
propellant gases to escape. The smaller
holes above the rocket’s midpoint are
angled; the exhaust gases spin the projectile,
stabilizing it during flight. Hale rocket
designs were employed by both sides during
the Civil War.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig49">
<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="228" />
<p class="pcap"><b>48.</b> Hale rocket with canted nozzles for
spin-stabilization.</p>
</div>
<hr />
<p>The Congreve 14.5-kilogram (32-pound)
war rocket model was copied from the original
at the Royal Artillery Institution; the
experimental Congreve incendiary rocket on
display is a gift of that Institution. Hale’s
1844 design rocket, his 1862 experimental
rocket, and the 1865 rocket are on loan from
the Science Museum, London. The American
Hale rocket is on loan from F. C. Durant III.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
<h2 id="c31"><span class="small">American Rocket Society: Engines and Parts</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig50">
<img src="images/p20b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="487" />
<p class="pcap"><b>49.</b> Static test of liquid-fuel rocket engine on American Rocket Society Test Stand No. 2.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig51">
<img src="images/p20c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="461" />
<p class="pcap"><b>50.</b> Two early types of liquid-fuel,
rocket motors. Left, the original ARS motor; right, a four-nozzle motor for ARS No. 4 rocket.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Thrust stud for fastening to rocket</dt>
<dt>Blast chamber</dt>
<dt>Fuel feed</dt>
<dt>Oxygen feed</dt>
<dt>Nozzle</dt>
<dt>Water jacket</dt>
<dt>Nozzles</dt>
<dt>Thrust and fuel column attached to rocket</dt>
<dt>Fuel feed</dt>
<dt>Oxygen feed</dt></dl>
<p>The American Rocket Society (ARS) was
the first organization in the United States
dedicated to rocket research. The society
was founded in New York City in March
1930 by G. E. Pendray and David Laser.
The first successful ARS rocket was launched
on May 13, 1933. The group continued to
build and test rocket engines until the outbreak
of World War II. After 1945, the ARS
became a professional society for engineers
involved in astronautics. The ARS joined
with other aeronautical engineering groups
to form the American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics in 1963.</p>
<p>The first liquid-propellant rocket engines
built by the American Rocket Society were
machined from blanks of heat-resistant,
cast-aluminum alloy. Engine No. 1 powered
the first two rockets designed and constructed
by the ARS. It featured combustion
chamber walls 12.7 millimeters (½ inch)
thick and burned liquid oxygen and gasoline
to produce a thrust of 27.22 kilograms
(60 pounds). Liquid oxygen was pressurized
by partial evaporation, while bottled
nitrogen forced gasoline from the tank to
the engine.</p>
<p>ARS Engine No. 4, like its predecessors,
was mounted in the nose, rather than the
tail, of the rocket. The engine featured a
single combustion chamber and four nozzles.
The nozzles directed the jet gases to
the rear and slightly away from the top of
the gasoline tank on which the engine was
mounted. The rocket powered by this engine
was tested on September 9, 1934. It rose
several hundred feet, at which point one of
the nozzles burned out, bringing the flight
to a close. In 1938, ARS member James
Wyld suggested a cooling system whereby
propellants circulate through a jacket surrounding
the combustion chamber. Engines
using this system are termed “regeneratively
cooled.” The first Wyld rocket motor tested
developed 41 kilograms (90 pounds) of
thrust for 13½ seconds. It proved so successful
that Wyld and other members of the
ARS founded Reaction Motors, Inc., to
produce and sell rocket engines based on
this design.</p>
<p>The performance of motors developed by
the ARS prior to World War II was measured
on a test stand with built-in fuel and
oxidizer tanks and bottled nitrogen gas. The
engine was mounted on a carriage, and
connected to the stand’s propellant tanks
by flexible metal hoses. Thrust was indicated
on a pressure gauge. The stand was
first used in 1938.</p>
<hr />
<p>All American Rocket Society artifacts are
from G. E. Pendray and the American Institute
of Aeronautics and Astronautics.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div>
<h2 id="c32"><span class="small">H-1 Engine</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig52">
<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="733" />
<p class="pcap"><b>51.</b> A two-stage Saturn 1B rocket powered by H-1 engine cluster lifts off carrying Skylab 4 astronauts, November 16, 1973.</p>
</div>
<p>The H-1 liquid-propellant rocket engine
was an outgrowth of the LR-79 which served
as the basic power plant for the USAF Thor
missile. The H-1 was used in the 8-engine
cluster of the first stage of the Saturn 1 and
1B launch vehicles.</p>
<p>The H-1 burns liquid oxygen and a grade
of aviation kerosene to produce a total
thrust of 92,986 kilograms (205,000
pounds). Each engine functions as an independent
unit, with its own combustion
chamber and turbopump, but fuel is drawn
from common tanks.</p>
<p>The Saturn 1B was first launched on
February 26, 1966, and most recently on
July 15, 1975, in the launch of the U.S. crew
of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.</p>
<p>It was developed by Rocketdyne, a division
of North American Rockwell Corporation.</p>
<hr />
<p>The engine on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div>
<h2 id="c33"><span class="small">RL-10 Engine</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig53">
<img src="images/p21a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="606" />
<p class="pcap"><b>52.</b> RL-10 engines used to power Centaur launch vehicle.</p>
</div>
<p>The RL-10 is an upper stage propulsion
system that can be stopped and restarted
in space. It is a regeneratively cooled engine
which burns liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen to produce 6800 kilograms (15,000
pounds) of thrust. RL-10s pioneered the use
of liquid hydrogen as a rocket fuel. They
powered the Centaur launch vehicles that
boosted such craft as Surveyor and Viking
into space. A six-engine cluster of RL-10s
was also used to propel the S4 stage of
the Saturn 1.</p>
<p>The RL-10 was developed by Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft division of the United Aircraft
Corporation.</p>
<hr />
<p>The RL-10 engine is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div>
<h2 id="c34"><span class="small">JATO Units</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig54">
<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="457" />
<p class="pcap"><b>53.</b> JATO-boosted Martin Mariner aircraft.</p>
</div>
<p>JATO (Jet Assisted Take-Off) rockets boost
heavy aircraft from short runways or from
high-altitude airports where long take-off
runs are required. The development of more
powerful airplane engines has reduced the
use of JATOs in recent years.</p>
<p>The first American JATO units were
tested at March Field, California, on August
12, 1941. Six solid-propellant engines,
each developing 12.8 kilograms (28
pounds) of thrust, boosted a light plane
piloted by Capt. Homer Boushey into the
air on this occasion. These motors were designed
and built by staff members of the
Air Corps Jet Propulsion Research Project
of the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory
of the California Institute of Technology.</p>
<p>During World War II, work continued on
JATO prototypes: the M17G was developed
by Reaction Motors, Inc., to provide 590
kilograms (1300 pounds) of thrust to assist
the take-off of PBM flying boats; the M19G,
also built by Reaction Motors, Inc., was
fueled by gasoline with liquid oxygen as an
oxidizer.</p>
<p>The liquid-propellant 25ALD1000, developed
during World War II. produced 453
kilograms (1000 pounds) of thrust and
burned red-fuming nitric acid as an oxidizer
and aniline as a fuel. It was successfully
used on a variety of aircraft, including the
B-24, B-25, C-40, and P-38.</p>
<p>After the war ended, JATO engines were
used on military aircraft such as the B-47
and F-84 in the United States, while in
Britain the JATO Super Sprite became the
first rocket engine to receive official type
approval for quantity production.</p>
<hr />
<p>The first U.S. JATO unit and the 25ALD1000
are gifts of the Aerojet General Division
of the General Tire and Rubber
Company. The M17G and M19G JATOs are
from the Thiokol Chemical Corporation,
and Rolls Royce, Ltd., provided the Super
Sprite.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
<h2 id="c35"><span class="small">LR-87 Engine</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig55">
<img src="images/p22a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="663" />
<p class="pcap"><b>54.</b> LR-87 engine in Titan on launch stand.</p>
</div>
<p>The LR-87 was a twin-chamber liquid-propellant
rocket engine developed to power
the Titan I intercontinental ballistic missile.
The engine developed a total thrust of
136,078 kilograms (300,000 pounds) at sea
level. It burned liquid oxygen and a grade
of aviation kerosene. The combustion
chambers were gimbal mounted to allow
them to swivel, controlling the missile trajectory
during the powered phase of flight.
The engine was developed by Aerojet General
Corporation.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig56">
<img src="images/p22b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" />
<p class="pcap"><b>55.</b> LR-87 engine just
after suspension in the
museum.</p>
</div>
<hr />
<p>The LR-87 on exhibit is from the U.S. Air
Force.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div>
<h2 id="c36"><span class="small">Toward 2076: The Future of Rocket Propulsion</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig57">
<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="591" />
<p class="pcap"><b>56.</b> A 21st-century space colony in orbit between Earth and the Moon, as suggested by Dr. Gerard O’Neill of Princeton University.
This colony could accommodate 200,000 persons, using solar energy for power and lunar or asteroid materials for construction.
The teacup-shaped containers ringing the cylinder are agricultural stations, and the mirrors would direct sunlight into the
interior, regulate the seasons, and control the day-night cycle.</p>
</div>
<p>During the first twenty years of the space
age, all launch vehicles were propelled by
solid or liquid chemical rockets; however,
nuclear and electric rocket motors are
needed to provide the higher thrusts and
velocities required for possible future manned
journeys to other planets. Robert H.
Goddard, the American rocket pioneer, was
the first to suggest the possibility of electric
rocket motors, but it was not until 1964
that electric rockets were actually tested in
space.</p>
<p>Two types of ion engines represent the
most fully developed electric propulsion
systems. In contact ion engines, a propellant
gas (mercury or cesium, for example) is
ionized, or given an electrical charge, by
passage through a hot porous metal. The
resulting ions are accelerated out of the
engine by an electrical field. The charged
ions are neutralized as they approach the
nozzle to form an exhaust beam that imparts
the thrust. Bombardment ion engines rely
on the bombardment of the propellant gas
by electrons from a cathode, or negative
electrode, to create ions. The ions are accelerated
from the engine in the same manner
as in the contact ion engine.</p>
<h3>A Cesium Ion Rocket Engine</h3>
<p>This small contact ion engine produces
.0009 kilogram (.002 pound) of thrust by
passing vaporized cesium through hot tungsten.
On Earth this amount of power is
scarcely enough to lift a one-carat jewel an
inch off a table, but in the frictionless vacuum
of space, it is sufficient to provide
attitude control for satellites. It can also
accelerate a spacecraft to high interplanetary
velocities by operating continuously for
thousands of hours.</p>
<p>An ion engine of this type was first tested
in space in 1964. On that occasion, it provided
.0009 kilogram (.002 pound) of thrust
for 2 hours, 10 minutes. It was able to
control the attitude of the attached instrument
package.</p>
<hr />
<p>This ion engine is a gift from Electro-Optical
Systems, Inc., the company that
developed it.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div>
<h2 id="c37"><span class="small">Project Orion</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig58">
<img src="images/p23a.jpg" alt="" width="667" height="600" />
<p class="pcap"><b>57.</b> The Project Orion test vehicle was used to explore the feasibility of a unique type of propulsion which utilized successive
nuclear explosions behind the rear pusher plate.</p>
</div>
<p>Project Orion was an attempt to solve the
problems of propulsion for long-term manned
journeys to other planets by creating
an engine that would use successive nuclear
explosions to propel very large space vehicles.
The Orion spacecraft was designed
to carry many small nuclear explosive systems
which would be ejected sequentially
from the rear of the vehicle. These units
would explode some distance behind the
spacecraft. The expanding debris, in the
form of high-velocity, high-density plasma,
would strike a pusher plate at the rear of
the Orion vehicle.</p>
<p>Work on Project Orion was halted in
1963 when the Limited Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty, which prohibited atmospheric tests
of the propulsion system, was signed.</p>
<p>The Project Orion Test Vehicle—on
display—demonstrated the basic principle
of intermittent thrust from explosive
charges. Test data provided by this model
would have assisted engineers in developing
the full-scale spacecraft.</p>
<p>The test vehicle carried five high-explosive
plastic charges which were ejected
from the rear of the craft. Compressed
nitrogen powered the ejection system. Each
charge was attached to the vehicle by a
.9-meter (3-foot) cord. A microswitch
exploded the individual packages. The
Project Orion Test Vehicle was first flown
successfully in October 1959.</p>
<hr />
<p>From the Gulf Energy and Environmental
Systems, Inc.</p>
<h3>The Plug-Nozzle Rocket Engine</h3>
<p>Although this engine is a liquid-propellant
rocket, it substitutes a series of small combustion
chambers and nozzles for the traditional
single large chamber and nozzle to
achieve additional thrust. This innovative
combustion system features chambers and
nozzles mounted on an annular ring at the
base of the engine. Thrust is derived from
the expansion of the exhaust gases against
a large segmented plug in the center of the
engine. Flight control is achieved by varying
the amount of propellant introduced
into the individual chamber sections. The
engine on exhibit burned liquid oxygen and
kerosene to provide a thrust of 22,680 kilograms
(50,000 pounds).</p>
<p>The plug-nose rocket engine was developed
at the General Electric Company’s
Malta Test Station in 1961.</p>
<hr />
<p>The engine on exhibit is from the New York
State Atomic and Space Authority.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div>
<h2 id="c38"><span class="small">Space Suits</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig59">
<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>58.</b> Astronaut John Glenn is assisted with his suiting-up.</p>
</div>
<p>Modern space suits are direct descendants
of the simple “pressure suits” designed as
early as 1907 for deep-sea divers. In 1911
an English respiratory physiologist, J. S.
Haldane, proposed the use of an oxygen
pressurized suit for ascent to high altitudes.
The first U.S. patent was granted for a pressure
suit in 1918.</p>
<p>Through the early 1960s, all such suits
were pressure containers. Project Mercury
astronauts wore suits adapted from the U.S.
Navy MK-IV pressure suit. It consisted of
an inner layer of neoprene-coated fabric
and a restraint layer of aluminized nylon
fabric. The garment design provided a fair
degree of mobility, although the suit could
not bend with the full hinge motion of the
human elbow or knee because it folded in
at the joints, reducing overall volume and
increasing internal pressure. The Mercury
suit would have been pressurized only if
spacecraft cabin pressure had been lost.</p>
<p>Space suits require a great deal of sophistication.
They must meet many vital criteria,
<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span>
including low leakage, thermal control,
comfort, stowage, and protection from
micrometeoroid strikes.</p>
<p><i>Gemini 4</i> was the first American mission
to explore the problems of man functioning
outside his spacecraft, with only his space
suit for protection. This extravehicular activity
required the space suit to be a prime
system rather than a precautionary measure.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig60">
<img src="images/p24a.jpg" alt="" width="421" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>59.</b> Apollo space suit.</p>
</div>
<p>Designed and created primarily for moon-walking,
the 28.6-kilogram (63-pound)
Apollo space suits, with backpack environmental
and communication systems, enabled
the lunar astronauts to dispense with the
tether used on the Gemini “spacewalks.”
The suit’s 21 layers are materials such as
teflon fabric, nonwoven dacron, and aluminized
mylar. These alternating layers of
specialized materials protected the astronauts
from the extreme temperatures of
space and possibility of micrometeroids
striking. Boots and gloves contain a
stainless steel cloth to protect against
abrasion. Suits had to fit the wearers so
precisely that 67 anthropometric measurements
were required of each astronaut.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig61">
<img src="images/p24b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="537" />
<p class="pcap"><b>60.</b> Astronaut White takes the first
“spacewalk” with only his suit for
protection from the space environment.</p>
</div>
<p>When the astronauts ventured outside the
spacecraft and explored the lunar surface,
the following equipment was worn under
the suit: a fecal containment system for
emergency containment of solid-waste material;
a liquid-cooling garment; a bio-belt
assembly, urine collection and transfer
system. Together with a portable life-support
system, this constituted the complete
Environmental Mobility Unit (EMU).</p>
<p>The liquid-cooling garment consists of
an outer layer of nylon spandex material, a
network of polyvinyl-chloride tubing, and
a nylon-chiffon comfort liner. Even spacing
of the plastic tubing permitted the efficient
transfer of body heat to the cooling liquid
(water) as it circulated through the suit.</p>
<p>The bio-belt assembly, worn over the
liquid-cooling garment, contains preamplifiers
for sensors placed next to the skin.
The sensors acquired electrical signals
which determined respiration rate and
electrocardiograms of the astronauts. The
preamplifiers relayed the signals to the
spacecraft telemetry system for transmission
to Earth.</p>
<p>The urine collection and transfer assembly
provided for emergency containment
of liquid waste when spacecraft facilities
were not available. Liquid waste was subsequently
transferred from the collection
assembly to the spacecraft waste-management
system.</p>
<p>The portable life-support system (PLSS)
created and maintained a livable atmosphere
inside an astronaut’s space suit during
activity on the lunar surface. Worn as
a backpack, the PLSS could be used for as
long as four hours at a time.</p>
<p>The PLSS supplied oxygen for breathing
purposes, suit pressurization, and ventilation.
It also removed contaminants from
oxygen circulating through the suit and
supplied water and oxygen for body cooling.
Conversion of exhaled carbon dioxide into
oxygen was accomplished through a lithium-hydroxide
cartridge also contained in the
PLSS. An emergency supply of oxygen was
contained in the oxygen purge system
mounted on top of the PLSS.</p>
<p>When fully charged, the pack weighs 38
kilograms (84 pounds) on Earth or 6.3
kilograms (14 pounds) on the Moon.</p>
<hr />
<p>The space suit on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
<h2 id="c39"><span class="small">V-2 (A-4)</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig62">
<img src="images/p25.jpg" alt="" width="538" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>61.</b> British-supervised postwar launch of V-2 in Germany.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig63">
<img src="images/p25a.jpg" alt="" width="535" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><b>62.</b> V-2.</p>
</div>
<p>The German V-2, originally designated A-4,
represents the beginning of modern rocketry.
The V-2 was the first proof that large
rockets of the sort described by the space-flight
pioneers of the early twentieth century
could be successfully built and flown.
It was also the forerunner of the intercontinental
ballistic missile system.</p>
<p>Developed by a team of engineers working
under the direction of Dr. Wernher von
Braun at Peenemunde, Germany, the V-2
work laid the foundation for the Redstone
missile through the Saturn series of space
launch vehicles.</p>
<p>Four-thousand V-2s were fired against
Allied targets in England and on the continent
in 1944 and 1945. After World War
II, captured V-2 rockets were used to train
American technicians in missile launch
procedures and to carry the first payloads
of scientific instruments into the upper
atmosphere in the United States.</p>
<p>The operational V-2 rocket structure
consisted of three sections. The nose housed
the warhead and control mechanisms. The
fuel tanks carried liquid oxygen and alcohol
propellants. The rocket engine, turbopumps,
and control surfaces were contained in the
tail section.</p>
<p>Jet deflector vanes positioned in the
stream of exhaust gases and external vanes
maintained attitude and directional control
during the powered portion of flight.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">14 m. (46 ft., 1 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">1.6 m. (5 ft., 5 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellants</b> </td><td class="l">Alcohol and liquid oxygen</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">25,400 kg. (56,000 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Velocity</b> </td><td class="l">5633 km./hr. (3500 mi./hr.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">Peak of operational trajectory, 89 km. (55 mi.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
<h2 id="c40"><span class="small">V-1</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig64">
<img src="images/p25c.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="498" />
<p class="pcap"><b>63.</b> Illustration from World War II intelligence report.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>GERMAN PILOTLESS AIRCRAFT</dt>
<dd>Warhead: approx. 1000 kg.</dd>
<dd>Fuel filler cap</dd>
<dd>Lifting lug</dd>
<dd>Fuel tank. (Capacity 130 galls. petrol)</dd>
<dd>Wirebound spherical compressed air bottles</dd>
<dd>Grill incorporation shutters & petrol injection jets</dd>
<dd>Impulse duct engine</dd>
<dd>Light alloy nose fairing probably containing compass</dd>
<dd>Launching rail</dd>
<dd>Steel tubular main spar passing through fuel tank</dd>
<dd>Pressed steel wing ribs</dd>
<dd>Sheet steel wing covering</dd>
<dd>Automatic pilot: 3 airdriven gyros: height & range setting controls</dd>
<dd>Pneumatic servo mechanism operating rudder & elevators</dd></dl>
<p>The German-developed V-1 was an automatically
controlled pilotless aircraft for
use against Allied cities during World War
II.</p>
<p>The missile was launched from ground
ramps. Once in the air, automatic controls
on board the craft took over. The V-1
climbed to a predetermined altitude, followed
a compass course, and dove to the
ground after a preset distance had been
covered.</p>
<p>This mid-wing monoplane was powered
by a unique pulsejet engine above the rear
portion of the fuselage.</p>
<p>The relatively low speed of the missile
made it easy prey for antiaircraft guns or
fighters.</p>
<hr />
<p>The V-1 on exhibit is from the U.S. Air
Force, Park Ridge Depot.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
<h2 id="c41"><span class="small">German Antiaircraft Missiles</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig65">
<img src="images/p26.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="542" />
<p class="pcap"><b>64.</b> Rheintochter R-I (Rhine Maiden).</p>
</div>
<h3>Rheintochter I</h3>
<p>The Rheintochter I (Rhine Maiden) was
intended for use against Allied bomber formations
late in World War II. The German
ground-to-air rocket was fin-stabilized, and
controlled by radio. The flight of the two-stage
vehicle was controlled by the four
movable vanes on the nose of the craft.</p>
<p>The first stage carried the missile away
from the launching rail, while the second
stage brought the missile up to full speed
and propelled it to the target.</p>
<p>Both the booster and sustainer engines
used solid fuel. After a six-tenths of a
second burn, the booster dropped off and
the sustainer motor ignited. The missile
warhead was housed at the rear of the sustainer
stage. Exhaust gases were expelled
through six nozzles located between the
main fins.</p>
<p>The program was abandoned in December
1944, after 82 Rheintochter I rockets
had been test fired. By then it had become
apparent that the missile could not reach
the operational altitude of modern bomber
aircraft.</p>
<h3>Hs-298</h3>
<div class="img" id="fig66">
<img src="images/p26a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="340" />
<p class="pcap"><b>65.</b> Hs-298.</p>
</div>
<p>The Hs-298 was designed to combat the
Allied bomber threat to wartime Germany.
This air-to-air missile could be launched
from either fighter or bomber aircraft and
was in quantity production early in 1945.</p>
<p>It carried 45.4 kilograms (100 pounds)
of high explosives that were detonated by
proximity fuse when the missile was within
9.1 meters (30 feet) of an enemy airplane.</p>
<h3>X-4</h3>
<div class="img" id="fig67">
<img src="images/p26b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="246" />
<p class="pcap"><b>66.</b> X-4.</p>
</div>
<p>The fin-stabilized X-4 air-to-air missile was
guided to its target by means of electrical
impulses which passed through two wires
connecting the rocket to the launch aircraft
until detonation. Once the missile was on
its way to the target bomber, the fighter
pilot directed its course with a separate
small control stick in his cockpit. Because
the control wires streamed out ahead of the
launching aircraft, the pilot was prevented
from evasive maneuvering.</p>
<p>Launched from German fighter aircraft,
usually a FW-190, the X-4 was powered by
either a solid-propellant engine or a bi-propellant
liquid-rocket engine. It carried
a 20-kilogram (44-pound) warhead.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div>
<h2 id="c42"><span class="small">Jupiter-C</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig68">
<img src="images/p26c.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="623" />
<p class="pcap"><b>67.</b> Jupiter-C launches the first American satellite, January 31, 1958.</p>
</div>
<p>Jupiter-C carried the first successful American
artificial earth satellite, <i>Explorer 1</i>,
into orbit on January 31, 1958. Jupiter-C
launched additional Explorer satellites on
March 26 and July 26, 1958.</p>
<p>Jupiter-C, or Juno 1, is a modified version
of the Redstone Ballistic Missile and a direct
descendant of the V-2 (A-4) rocket
developed in Germany during the second
World War.</p>
<p>The vehicle’s main stage is powered by a
rocket engine burning liquid oxygen and
a hydrazine mixture. The second and third
stages are contained in the “tub” on the
nose of the rocket. Both use scaled-down
Sergeant solid-propellant rockets: eleven
in the second stage and three in the third.
A final Sergeant motor is attached to the
base of the satellite to provide the velocity
necessary to place the vehicle in orbit. An
electric motor spun the entire “tub” prior
to launch and during the climb into space
in order to stabilize the satellite.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Jupiter-C was built by the U.S. Army
Ballistic Missile Agency.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
<h2 id="c43"><span class="small">Vanguard</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig69">
<img src="images/p27.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="712" />
<p class="pcap"><b>68.</b> Three-stage Vanguard launch vehicle boosts the second American satellite into Earth-orbit, March 17, 1958.</p>
</div>
<p>Standing 21.6 meters (70.8 feet) high and
weighing more than 10,000 kilograms (20,000
pounds), the Vanguard launch vehicle
successfully orbited three satellites. The
first was <i>Vanguard 1</i>, launched on March
17, 1958.</p>
<p>The rocket has three stages. The first-stage
motor, burning kerosene and liquid
oxygen, operated for 2 minutes and 20 seconds.
The second stage carried the vehicle
to an altitude of 210 kilometers (130 miles),
propelled by white-fuming nitric acid
and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
(UDMH). With propellants exhausted, the
upper stages then coasted to 480 kilometers
(300 miles) above the surface of the Earth
where the solid-propellant third-stage motor
fired to place the satellite into orbit.</p>
<p>The Vanguard was designed and built by
the Martin Company for the U.S. Naval
Research Laboratory.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div>
<h2 id="c44"><span class="small">Scout</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig70">
<img src="images/p27a.jpg" alt="" width="306" height="600" />
<p class="pcap"><b>69.</b> Four-stage Scout vehicle launches satellite from the Western Test Range, California.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig71">
<img src="images/p27c.jpg" alt="" width="386" height="600" />
<p class="pcap"><b>70.</b> Scout in vertical position prior
to the launch of an Explorer science satellite, April 29, 1965.</p>
</div>
<p>On February 16, 1961, Scout became the
first solid-propellant vehicle to orbit a
satellite (<i>Explorer 9</i>). It is a four-stage
launch vehicle that can perform a variety
of space and reentry research tasks. Its
relatively low cost has made it a popular
choice for many satellite programs, including
Transit navigation satellites, the Small
Astronomy and Small Scientific Satellites,
the Beacon Explorer, Hawkeye, Micrometeoroid,
Meteoroid Technology, and Solrad
satellites. The rocket has also been used
extensively to launch foreign satellites.
ANS-A (Netherlands), GRP-A (Germany),
UK-5 (England), Eole (France), San
Marco 5 (Italy), and the ESRO satellites
for the European Space Research Organization
(now European Space Agency) have
all gone aloft aboard Scout launch vehicles.</p>
<p>The satellite in the nose of the Scout on
exhibit is an INJUN/Air Density Explorer
identical to that launched from Wallops
Island, Virginia, on August 8, 1968.</p>
<p>Scout was built by the LTV Aerospace
Corporation for the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration and the Department
of Defense.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Scout is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration and LTV Aerospace
Corporation.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
<h2 id="c45"><span class="small">Minuteman III</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig72">
<img src="images/p28.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="751" />
<p class="pcap"><b>71.</b> Minuteman III launch from Vandenberg AFB, California.</p>
</div>
<p>The Minuteman III is the standard U.S.
land-based intercontinental ballistic missile.
This three-stage solid-propellant missile is
launched from underground silos that are
24.4 meters (80 feet) deep and 3.7 meters
(12 feet) in diameter. These missiles can
be launched either from underground control
centers or by an airborne launch control
center installed in KC-135 aircraft.</p>
<p>Minuteman III was first test-fired on
August 16, 1968, and has since replaced
earlier Minuteman series ICBMs in the
operational system. This missile was designed
by Boeing for the Air Force Strategic
Air Command.</p>
<hr />
<p>This missile is from the US. Air Force and
Boeing Aerospace Corporation.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div>
<h2 id="c46"><span class="small">Poseidon C-3</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig73">
<img src="images/p28a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="577" />
<p class="pcap"><b>72.</b> Launch of Poseidon from nuclear-powered submarine.</p>
</div>
<p>This two-stage solid-propellant Fleet Ballistic
Missile is launched underwater from
nuclear-powered submarines. The Poseidon
is launched by compressed air, with first-stage
ignition just after the missile is clear
of the hull. Poseidon carried the Mk-3
Multiple Independently targeted Reentry
Vehicles (MIRV)—thermonuclear weapons
which enable a single missile to cover a
number of targets.</p>
<p>The first successful test flight of Poseidon
was from Cape Canaveral on August 16,
1968, and the first submarine launch was
from the U.S.S. <i>James Madison</i> on August
3, 1970.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Poseidon C-3 is from the U.S. Navy
and Lockheed Aircraft Corporation.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
<h2 id="c47"><span class="small">Skylab</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig74">
<img src="images/p29.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="663" />
<p class="pcap"><b>73.</b> Closeup view of Skylab space-station cluster photographed against a black-sky background from the <i>Skylab 3</i> Command
Module during the “fly around” inspection prior to docking.</p>
</div>
<p>Launched into earth orbit on May 14, 1973,
Skylab was a research center that housed
three-man crews on three different visits to
the space station. The longest mission lasted
nearly three months.</p>
<p>Equipment and experiments on board the
orbiting station were designed to accommodate
four areas of research: earth observation
to further knowledge of natural resources
and the earth’s environment; solar
observation to increase understanding of
solar processes and influences on earth’s
environment; study of the effects of long
duration weightlessness on man, basic biological
processes and adaptability to space
flight conditions; and experiments in
processing of materials under the unique
conditions of weightlessness and vacuum
environment of space. All missions were
highly successful in obtaining data and
photographs.</p>
<p>Skylab consisted of four major components:
the Orbital Work Shop (OWS), Airlock
Module (AM). Multiple Docking
Adapter (MDA), and the Apollo Telescope
Mount (ATM).</p>
<p>The cylindrical Orbital Work Shop is 15
meters (48 feet) in length and 6.5 meters
(22 feet) in diameter. The workshop is
divided into two major areas by an open-grid
partition. By wearing special shoes,
<span class="pb" id="Page_57">57</span>
the astronauts can use this grid to anchor
themselves in the weightlessness of space.
The lower portion contains the crew quarters,
food preparation and dining areas,
washroom, and waste processing and disposal
facilities.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig75">
<img src="images/p29a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="541" />
<p class="pcap"><b>74.</b> Orbital Workshop crew-quarters installations.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>I</dt>
<dd>M131 chair control</dd>
<dd>Sleep compartment 70 sq ft</dd>
<dt>II</dt>
<dd>Head 30 sq ft</dd>
<dd>Wardroom 97 sq ft</dd>
<dt>III</dt>
<dd>M507 gravity substitute work bench</dd>
<dd>Experiment compartment 181 sq ft</dd>
<dd>M171 gas analyzer</dd>
<dd>M171 helmet stowage</dd>
<dd>ESS</dd>
<dt>IV</dt>
<dd>M092 LBNPD</dd>
<dd>Electric power control console</dd>
<dd>M131 rotating chair</dd></dl>
<p>The upper portion contains a large work-activity
area, water-storage tanks, food
freezers, film vaults, and experiment equipment.</p>
<p>The Airlock Module enabled spacesuited
crew members to make excursions outside
the Skylab to replace or adjust equipment,
change film, or carry out other extra-vehicular
activities. This capability was vital to
emergency repairs by the astronauts on the
first mission. The Airlock Module was attached
to the OWS and passage to the
module was accomplished through a hatch
which connected the module to the interior
of the workshop. When an astronaut entered
the module, he would vent the atmosphere
of the module into space. When the pressure
in the airlock reached zero, the crew
member could open the outer hatch and
float out into space.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig76">
<img src="images/p29c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="321" />
<p class="pcap"><b>75.</b> Airlock Module.</p>
</div>
<p>The Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA)
was used by crews arriving or departing
from the Skylab workshop. The Apollo
command/service modules delivered crews
to the MDA from which the astronauts
could enter Skylab through the hatch in the
docking port. In an emergency, two command/service
modules could dock at the
MDA. The MDA also held equipment for
earth resources multispectral photography,
materials processing, and astronomy. The
Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) was on
top of and controlled by the MDA. It contained
six astronomical instruments to obtain
information about the Sun.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig77">
<img src="images/p29d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="291" />
<p class="pcap"><b>76.</b> Multiple Docking Adapter.</p>
</div>
<p>Solar energy is the prime source of electric
power on Skylab. Two systems of solar
electric-cell arrays—one wing on the OWS
and four panels on the ATM—deployed
after the Skylab reached orbit.
Principal contractors: OWS—McDonnell
Douglas Astronautics Company; AM—McDonnell
Douglas Astronautics Company;
MDA—Martin Marietta Aerospace.</p>
<hr />
<p>The Skylab components on display were
presented to the museum by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div>
<h2 id="c48"><span class="small">Apollo-Soyuz Test Project</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig78">
<img src="images/p30.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="571" />
<p class="pcap"><b>77.</b> Artist conception of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project rendezvous.</p>
</div>
<p>On May 24, 1972, President Richard Nixon
and Aleksey Kosygin, Chairman of the
USSR Council of Ministers, signed an
agreement “concerning cooperation in the
exploration and use of outer space for
peaceful purposes.” The signing represented
a formal endorsement of negotiations
that had been held between the two nations
over several years. The agreement established
the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
(ASTP) to develop and fly a standardized
docking system “to enhance the safety of
manned flight in space and to provide the
opportunity for conducting joint scientific
missions in the future.”</p>
<p>On July 15, 1975, the afternoon countdown
for the Soviet launch was completed
and <i>Soyuz</i> lifted off from the Baykonur complex
near Tyuratum in Central Asia, some
3200 kilometers (2000 miles) southeast of
Moscow. <i>Soyuz</i> carried cosmonauts Alexey
Leonov and Valeriy Kubasov.</p>
<p>Taking advantage of <i>Apollo</i>’s larger fuel
supply for maneuvering, <i>Apollo</i> followed
<i>Soyuz</i> into orbit 7½ hours later. <i>Apollo</i> was
launched atop a Saturn 1B from Kennedy
Space Center, Florida.</p>
<p>After careful maneuvering, the two craft
linked up around noon on July 18. Some 225
kilometers (140 miles) above Earth, the
astronauts and cosmonauts visited each
other’s craft, performed joint experiments,
and made further tests of the new docking
system.</p>
<p>Following the undocking Saturday,
<i>Apollo</i> fired its engines briefly and moved
away from <i>Soyuz</i>. <i>Soyuz</i> descended from
orbit and landed in the south-central USSR
early Monday morning, July 21.</p>
<p>Astronauts Stafford, Slayton, and Brand
remained in orbit conducting research
and making science demonstrations. Splashdown
into the Pacific Ocean occurred in
late afternoon on Thursday, July 24.</p>
<p>The historic ASTP mission was accomplished
by using existing systems and a new
docking module. The <i>Apollo</i> spacecraft was
made available when the lunar-landing
program was curtailed. Since the command
module was built with a docking system
designed to work only with U.S. spacecraft,
a method of incorporating the new docking
system had to be devised.</p>
<p>A second important problem was the difference
between the spacecraft atmospheres.
The <i>Apollo</i> used a pure oxygen
atmosphere at about one-third of the
atmospheric pressure on earth’s surface;
<i>Soyuz</i> used a nitrogen-oxygen mixture at
normal atmospheric pressure. To permit
<span class="pb" id="Page_59">59</span>
crews to pass from <i>Soyuz</i> to <i>Apollo</i> without
suffering from the “bends” (a painful
condition experienced when nitrogen gas
bubbles form in the body fluids), engineers
had to design an airlock to equalize
the pressure.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig79">
<img src="images/p30c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="650" />
<p class="pcap"><b>78.</b> The Soviet <i>Soyuz</i> atop a three-stage
launch vehicle lifts off July 15, 1975,
to begin the joint US-USSR space mission.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig80">
<img src="images/p30d.jpg" alt="" width="318" height="601" />
<p class="pcap"><b>79.</b> Overhead view of <i>Soyuz</i> in
orbit, photographed from the <i>Apollo</i>
spacecraft during the joint mission. The
three major components of the <i>Soyuz</i> are
the spherical Orbital Module, the bell-shaped
Descent Vehicle, and the cylindrical
Instrument-Assembly Module from which
two solar panels protrude.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig81">
<img src="images/p30e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="470" />
<p class="pcap"><b>80.</b> View of <i>Apollo</i> spacecraft as
seen in Earth-orbit from <i>Soyuz</i>. The
Command/Service Module and Docking
Module are contrasted against a black-sky
background and the horizon of the
Earth is below.</p>
</div>
<p>The docking module, 3 meters long and
1.5 meters in diameter (10 feet long and 5
feet in diameter), also solved the problem
of incompatible docking mechanisms by
carrying the new docking system on one
end and a system compatible with <i>Apollo</i>
on the other.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for Apollo Command
Module, Service Module, and Docking Module
was Rockwell International.</p>
<hr />
<p>The <i>Apollo</i> hardware is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration,
and the <i>Soyuz</i> spacecraft is on loan from
the USSR Academy of Sciences.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr class="th"><th colspan="2"><i>Apollo</i></th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><b>Command module</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Base diameter </td><td class="l">3.90 m. (12.8 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Length </td><td class="l">3.66 m. (12 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Weight </td><td class="l">5896 kg. (13,000 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><b>Service module</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Diameter </td><td class="l">3.9 m. (12.8 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Length </td><td class="l">6.71 m. (22 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Weight at launch </td><td class="l">24,947 kg. (55,000 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><b>Docking module</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Diameter </td><td class="l">1.52 m. (5 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Length </td><td class="l">3.05 m. (10 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Weight </td><td class="l">1882 kg. (4155 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr class="th"><th colspan="2"><i>Soyuz</i></th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><b>Orbital module</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Diameter </td><td class="l">2.29 m. (7.5 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Length </td><td class="l">2.65 m. (8.7 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Weight </td><td class="l">1224 kg. (2700 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><b>Descent module</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Diameter </td><td class="l">2.29 m. (7.5 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Length </td><td class="l">2.20 m. (7.2 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Weight </td><td class="l">2802 kg. (6200 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><b>Instrument module</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Diameter </td><td class="l">2.77 m. (9.75 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Length </td><td class="l">2.29 m. (7.5 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">Weight </td><td class="l">2654 kg. (5850 lb.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div>
<h2 id="c49"><span class="small">M2-F3 Lifting Body</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig82">
<img src="images/p31.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="622" />
<p class="pcap"><b>81.</b> Three chase planes salute the M2-F3 wingless lifting body following one of its rocket-powered flights. The blunt-nosed
M2-F3 achieves its aerodynamic lift from the shape of its body.</p>
</div>
<p>This wingless craft is called a lifting body,
because it derives its lift from the fuselage
rather than from wings. Removing the
wings reduces the weight of the craft, but
adds significant control problems. The lifting
body concept was developed early in
the last decade to explore the problems of
aerodynamic heating and vehicle control
during reentry from earth orbit. These are
the problems that will be especially critical
in the space shuttle of the 1980s.</p>
<p>The M2-F3 tested flight behavior of wingless
craft over a wide range of speeds.</p>
<p>The M2-F3’s forerunner, the M2-F2,
made 16 flights—all unpowered—between
July 1966 and May 1967. On May 10, it
crashed on landing, partly due to control
instability. The craft was rebuilt, and the
center fin was added. This modification
effectively solved the control problem, and
the new craft, designated M2-F3, logged 27
more flights by December 1972. Some of the
M2-F3’s flights were powered by a 3630-kilogram
(8000-pound) thrust rocket which
boosted the craft to a higher altitude.</p>
<p>The M2-F3 was launched from a B-52
bomber at a height of about 13,300 meters
(45,000 feet) and a usual speed of 730 kilometers
(450 miles) per hour. The maximum
altitude achieved was 21,800 meters (71,500
feet). The M2-F3’s record speed was
1718 kilometers (1066 miles) per hour.
The M2-F3 was built by Northrop.</p>
<hr />
<p>The craft on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">6.8 m. (22 ft., 2 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Span</b> </td><td class="l">2.9 m. (9 ft., 7 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Height</b> </td><td class="l">2.5 m. (8 ft., 10 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">2720 kg. (6000 lb.) empty; 4540 kg. (10,000 lb.) fueled</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Speed</b> </td><td class="l">1718 km. per hr. (1066 m. per hr.) max. achieved</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Altitude</b> </td><td class="l">21,800 m. (71,500 ft.) max. achieved</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Mach number</b> </td><td class="l">1.5 max. achieved</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div>
<h2 id="c50"><span class="small">Freedom 7</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig83">
<img src="images/p31a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="552" />
<p class="pcap"><b>82.</b> Marine helicopter hovers over <i>Freedom 7</i> after the spacecraft carried the first American into space. Astronaut Shepard dangles
in body harness as he is hoisted to helicopter.</p>
</div>
<p>On May 5, 1961, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., became
the first American in space. He flew
this Mercury spacecraft, <i>Freedom 7</i>,
through a 15-minute, 22-second sub-orbital,
or ballistic, space flight.</p>
<p>A Redstone booster, burning liquid
oxygen and hydrazine-base fuel, lifted
<i>Freedom 7</i> from the launch pad at Cape
Canaveral. The vehicle’s single engine
developed 35,380 kilograms (78,000
pounds) of thrust.</p>
<p>The structure of the Mercury is titanium,
covered with steel and beryllium shingles.
The heat shield at the base of the spacecraft
is of beryllium.</p>
<p>The heat shield served as a “heat sink”
by storing the heat created by the spacecraft’s
reentry into the earth’s atmosphere.
The spacecraft reached the ocean before the
heat could penetrate the interior of the
craft. (Later flights used ablative heat
shields, which protected the spacecraft by
vaporizing and burning away during reentry.)</p>
<p><i>Freedom 7</i> traveled at a maximum speed
of 8335 kilometers (5180 miles) per hour,
going 485 kilometers (302 miles) downrange.
The maximum altitude was 187 kilometers
(116 miles).</p>
<p>Prime contractor for Mercury was the
McDonnell Aircraft Company.</p>
<hr />
<p>The <i>Freedom 7</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">2 m. (6 ft., 6 in.) max.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">2.8 m. (9 ft., 2 in.) at launch</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b> </td><td class="l">1660 kg. (3650 lb.) at launch; 1100 kg. (2422 lb.) as exhibited</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_62">62</div>
<h2 id="c51"><span class="small">Gemini 7</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig84">
<img src="images/p32.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="505" />
<p class="pcap"><b>83.</b> This photo of <i>Gemini 7</i> was taken through the hatch window of the <i>Gemini 6</i> spacecraft during rendezvous maneuvers 260
kilometers (160 miles) above Earth.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Gemini 7</i> was launched on December 4,
1965, carrying astronauts Frank Borman
and James Lovell, Jr., into a two-week flight.
<i>Gemini 6</i> and <i>7</i> accomplished the first manned
rendezvous in space. It was an historic
flight for the United States’ manned space
program and an important step in the preparation
for the Apollo lunar flights.</p>
<p>The story of the <i>Gemini 7/6</i> mission had
begun two months earlier. The October
launch of <i>Gemini 6</i> had to be delayed when
<i>Gemini 6</i>’s Agena target vehicle failed to
reach orbit. It was then decided that
<i>Gemini 6</i> would attempt to rendezvous with
<i>Gemini 7</i>. Eight days after the launch of
<i>Gemini 7</i>, <i>Gemini 6</i> was ready. But once
again, the launch had to be delayed—this
time an electrical plug became detached
from the Titan booster prematurely, shutting
down the engines. Finally, on December
15, <i>Gemini 6</i>’s Titan II launch vehicle
lifted off. <i>Gemini 6</i> began a 6-hour chase to
catch <i>Gemini 7</i>, which was in a near-circular
orbit 300 kilometers (186 miles) high.</p>
<p><i>Gemini 6</i>’s launch put it 1175 kilometers
(730 miles) behind <i>Gemini 7</i> in an orbit
which varied from 161 to 272 kilometers
(100 to 169 miles) in height. By flying in a
lower altitude orbit, <i>Gemini 6</i> astronauts
Wally Schirra and Thomas Stafford circled
the Earth at a higher velocity, slowing
down as they moved to match speed with
<i>Gemini 7</i> at the higher orbit. Finally,
Schirra jockeyed the <i>Gemini 6</i> spacecraft
to within 30 centimeters (1 foot) from
<i>Gemini 7</i>.</p>
<p>They stayed in formation for four revolutions
while all four pilots practiced maneuvering.
Then <i>Gemini 6</i> broke off and reentered,
splashing down on December 16,
1965.</p>
<p><i>Gemini 7</i> went on to complete its 14-day
mission which set a record for the longest
U.S.-manned space flight which stood until
the first Skylab mission. <i>Gemini 7</i> splashed
down on December 18.</p>
<p>Prime contractor for Gemini was the McDonnell
Aircraft Company.</p>
<hr />
<p><i>Gemini 7</i> is from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig85">
<img src="images/p32a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="369" />
<p class="pcap"><b>84.</b> The Gemini spacecraft.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Rendezvous and Recovery Section</dt>
<dt>Ejection Seat</dt>
<dt>Adapter Equipment Section</dt>
<dt>Reaction Control System Section</dt>
<dt>Cabin</dt>
<dt>Retrograde Section</dt></dl>
<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div>
<h2 id="c52"><span class="small">F-1 Engine</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig86">
<img src="images/p32b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="738" />
<p class="pcap"><b>85.</b> Thrust chambers of the F-1 rocket engine on the manufacturing line.</p>
</div>
<p>Five F-1 engines powered the first stage of
the Saturn 5 launch vehicle that launched
the manned Apollo spacecraft to the Moon.
These engines developed a total thrust of
3.5 million kilograms (7.6 million pounds).
They burn liquid oxygen and a form of
kerosene at a rate of 13,475 liters (3560
gallons) per second.</p>
<p>The propellants are supplied to the thrust
chambers by turbopumps driven by gas
generators that use a fuel-rich mixture ratio
of the same propellants used in the engine.</p>
<p>The F-l was developed and produced by
Rocketdyne, a division of Rockwell
International, under the technical direction
of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Marshall Space Flight
Center, Huntsville. Alabama.</p>
<hr />
<p>The engine on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Function</b> </td><td class="l">Cluster of five providing 3.4 million kg. (7.5 million lb.) of thrust for Saturn 5 first stage</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Thrust</b> </td><td class="l">690,000 kg. (1,522,000 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Propellants</b> </td><td class="l">Kerosene (fuel) and liquid oxygen (oxidizer)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">5.8 m. (19 ft.) with nozzle extension</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">3.8 m. (12 ft., 4. in.) with nozzle extension</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="img" id="fig87">
<img src="images/p32d.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="656" />
<p class="pcap"><b>86.</b> The first Apollo/Saturn 5 space
vehicle on its way to the launch pad.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div>
<h2 id="c53"><span class="small">Lunar Roving Vehicle</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig88">
<img src="images/p33.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="544" />
<p class="pcap"><b>87.</b> The <i>Apollo 15</i> Lunar Roving Vehicle was the first motor vehicle on the Moon.</p>
</div>
<p>The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) is a
spacecraft designed to carry two astronauts,
their life-support systems, scientific equipment,
and lunar samples on the airless, low-gravity
surface of the Moon.</p>
<p>Lunar Roving Vehicles were used on
Apollo missions <i>15</i>, <i>16</i>, and <i>17</i> and were
driven a total of 90 kilometers (56 miles)
on the Moon.</p>
<p>The crew of <i>Apollo 15</i>, the first to use an
LRV, drove their vehicle 27.9 kilometers
(17.3 miles) at speeds up to 19-21 kilometers
(12-13 miles) per hour. In comparison
the <i>Apollo 14</i> astronauts traveled
only 4.2 kilometers (2.6 miles) on foot.</p>
<p>LRVs enabled the astronauts to carry
heavy, bulky equipment and to place
scientific instruments at considerable distances
from the lunar module.</p>
<p>An LRV could carry two astronauts as far
as 91.5 kilometers (57 miles) across the
lunar surface or operate for up to 78 hours.</p>
<p>Each LRV was transported to the Moon
in a compartment of the descent stage of a
lunar module.</p>
<p>Four LRVs were built by the Boeing
Company. Three were used on the Moon;
the LRV on display was used in tests.</p>
<hr />
<p>The LRV on exhibit is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Weight</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">On Earth </td><td class="l">210 kg. (462 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">On Moon </td><td class="l">34 kg. (76 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Payload</b></td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">On Earth </td><td class="l">490 kg. (1080 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l">On Moon </td><td class="l">80 kg. (178 lb.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">3.1 m. (10 ft., 2 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Width</b> </td><td class="l">1.8 m. (6 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Wheel base</b> </td><td class="l">2.3 m. (7 ft., 6 in.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Turning radius</b> </td><td class="l">3 m. (10 ft.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Drive</b> </td><td class="l">One ¼ h.p. motor in each wheel; total 1 h.p.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Power source</b> </td><td class="l">Two 36-v. silver-zinc batteries</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_65">65</div>
<h2 id="c54"><span class="small">Apollo Lunar Tools and Equipment</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig89">
<img src="images/p33a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="614" />
<p class="pcap"><b>88.</b> The Apollo Lunar Hand Tool Carrier holds 32 kilograms (70 pounds) of equipment, including a trenching tool, two geology
scoops, four rock bags, a portable magnetometer, and five cameras.</p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Penetrometer</dt>
<dt>Tongs</dt>
<dt>Extension handle</dt>
<dt>Core tube caps assy.</dt>
<dt>Color chart & traverse map</dt>
<dt>Core tubes</dt>
<dt>16mm camera</dt>
<dt>Camera staff</dt>
<dt>35-bag dispenser</dt>
<dt>Core tubes</dt>
<dt>Scoop</dt>
<dt>Hammer</dt>
<dt>Lens/brush</dt>
<dt>Gnomon</dt></dl>
<p>Most tools and other pieces of equipment
used by Apollo astronauts on the Moon were
left behind as the astronauts departed to
return to the Earth. This was done to conserve
weight in the lunar module ascent
stage so that the maximum quantity of samples of
lunar soil and rocks could be
brought back to the Earth.</p>
<p>Some tools and pieces of equipment, however,
were returned to the Earth. These
include such items as a lunar hammer, a
16-mm camera, film cassettes, lunar sample
return containers, parts of a lunar roving
vehicle fender, and parts of the unmanned
spacecraft <i>Surveyor 3</i> visited by <i>Apollo 12</i>
astronauts.</p>
<p>In addition, astronauts carried small mementos
with them when they landed on the
Moon.</p>
<p>Other lunar tools and instruments on
exhibit were backup, prototype, or used by
the astronauts in pre-flight training.</p>
<hr />
<p>The lunar hammer is on loan from Alan L.
Bean; other tools and instruments are from
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig90">
<img src="images/p33b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="459" />
<p class="pcap"><b>89.</b> An Apollo lunar sample return
container. In this view, the rock box
contains sample material and core tubes.</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_66">66</div>
<h2 id="c55"><span class="small">Apollo Command Module: Skylab 4</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig91">
<img src="images/p34.jpg" alt="" width="478" height="600" />
<p class="pcap"><b>90.</b> <i>Skylab 4</i> Command Module is hoisted aboard the U.S.S. <i>New Orleans</i> after completing 1214 orbits.</p>
</div>
<p>The <i>Skylab 4</i> command module ferried the
crew of the last Skylab mission—astronauts
Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson, and
William R. Pogue. The <i>Skylab 4</i> crew lived
in the Skylab for 84 days, from November
16, 1973, to February 8, 1974.</p>
<p>In flight, the Apollo command module
operated with a service module—an equipment
section, 7.4 meters (24 feet) long and
4 meters (13 feet) in diameter—attached
to the command module. The service module
provided electrical power, oxygen, and
water for the command module for most of
a typical flight.</p>
<p>In addition, the service module contained
the 9300-kilogram (20,500-pound) thrust
Service Propulsion System, an engine capable
of being throttled and restarted.
During Apollo lunar flights, the engine
provided thrust for mid-course trajectory
changes and boosted the command/service
module combination out of lunar orbit and
back to Earth. The service module was jettisoned
just before reentry into the earth’s
atmosphere.</p>
<p>During reentry, the command module’s
exterior was subjected to temperatures of
around 2800°C (5000°F). The command
module is covered with an ablative heat
shield composed of a phenolic epoxy resin
in a fiberglass honeycomb structure. As
friction with the earth’s atmosphere caused
the heat shield to char and vaporize, the
heat was carried away from the spacecraft.
The heat shield varies in thickness from 7
centimeters (2.75 inches) at the base to .6
centimeter (.25 inch) at the forward section.
Total weight of the heat shield is about
1400 kilograms (3000 pounds).</p>
<p>The prime contractor for the Apollo
Command Module was North American
Rockwell Corporation.</p>
<hr />
<p>The command module is from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<table class="center" summary="">
<tr><td class="l"><b>Diameter</b> </td><td class="l">3.9 m. (12 ft., 10 in.) max.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="l"><b>Length</b> </td><td class="l">3.2 m. (10 ft., 7 in.)</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="pb" id="Page_67">67</div>
<h2 id="c56"><span class="small">Moon Rocks</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig92">
<img src="images/p34a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="601" />
<p class="pcap"><b>91.</b> A sample of vesicular basalt, produced by lunar volcanism 3.7 billion years ago, in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Devices
record size and orientation of the rock. The cavities in this sample were formed by gases escaping from the still-molten rock.
This sample is 13.5 centimeters (5.5 inches) long. A fragment of this lunar rock is on display in the “Apollo to the Moon” gallery.</p>
</div>
<p>During the six Apollo program moon landings,
astronauts collected and returned to
Earth samples of the lunar surface. The
samples were collected both from the flat
maria regions—great basins created by
ancient meteoric impacts and later filled
with lava from the moon’s interior—and
from the highland regions.</p>
<p>Subsequent analysis of the samples has
indicated that the moon’s surface is largely
composed of three kinds of rock.</p>
<p>Basalt, the rock of the maria regions, was
formed as lavas from the interior of the
Moon welled to the surface, filled the great
meteoric impact basins, and then cooled.</p>
<p>Anorthosite, the highland rock, is believed
by many scientists to have formed
when the original crust of the Moon cooled
and solidified. According to this theory, a
light mineral, plagioclase, floated to the
surface of the Moon and formed the anorthosite.</p>
<p>Breccia, the shocked rock, is composed of
large and small fragments of rocks which
were shattered and redistributed on the
lunar surface by meteoric impacts. Subsequently,
the fragments were recombined
into new rocks by heat and pressure.</p>
<p>Lunar soils are largely composed of fragments
of the three types of rocks and their
minerals, and glass produced by meteoric
impacts and volcanic eruptions.</p>
<hr />
<p>Lunar rock samples are on loan from the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</p>
<div class="img" id="fig93">
<img src="images/p34b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="611" />
<p class="pcap"><b>92.</b> Astronaut Schmitt collects samples
with the lunar rake, a hand tool used to
collect rocks and rock chips ranging in
size from 1.3 centimeter (½ inch) to
2.5 centimeters (1 inch).</p>
</div>
<div class="pb" id="Page_68">68</div>
<h2 id="c57"><span class="small">Suggested Reading</span></h2>
<dl class="undent"><dt><b>Historical and General Background</b></dt>
<dd class="t">Clarke, Arthur C. <i>The Promise of Space.</i> New York: Harper & Row, 1968.</dd>
<dd class="t">Dornberger, Walter. <i>V-2.</i> New York: Viking Press, 1954.</dd>
<dd class="t">Durant III, Frederick C.; and George S. James, eds. <i>First Steps Towards Space</i> (Smithsonian Annals of Flight, No. 10). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974. Available through the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (stock no. 4705-00011).</dd>
<dd class="t">Emme, Eugene, ed. <i>The History of Rocket Technology.</i> Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1964.</dd>
<dd class="t">Ley, Willy. <i>Rockets, Missiles, and Men in Space.</i> New York: Viking Press, 1968.</dd>
<dd class="t">Stoiko, Michael. <i>Soviet Rocketry: Past, Present and Future.</i> New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston, 1970.</dd>
<dd class="t">Von Braun, W.; and F. I. Ordway. <i>History of Rocket and Space Travel.</i> New York: T. Y. Crowell, 1975.</dd>
<dt><b>Biographical</b></dt>
<dd class="t">Lehman, Milton. <i>This High Man.</i> New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1963.</dd>
<dd class="t">Thomas, Shirley, ed. <i>Men of Space.</i> 8 vols. Philadelphia: Chilton Book Co., 1963.</dd>
<dt><b>Popular</b></dt>
<dd class="t">Cortright, Edgar M. <i>Exploring Space with a Camera.</i> Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968.</dd>
<dd class="t">Davis, Merton; and Bruce C. Murray. <i>View From Space: Photographic Exploration of the Planets.</i> New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.</dd>
<dd class="t">Gatland, Kenneth. <i>Spacecraft and Boosters.</i> Fallbrook, California: Aero Publications, 1964.</dd>
<dd class="t">——. <i>The Robot Explorers.</i> New York: Macmillan, 1972.</dd>
<dd class="t">Moore, Patrick. <i>Space.</i> London: Burke Publishing Co., 1968.</dd>
<dd class="t">Sharpe, Mitchell R. <i>Living in Space.</i> New York: Doubleday, 1969.</dd>
<dt><b>Technical</b></dt>
<dd class="t">Corliss, William R. <i>Space Probes and Planetary Exploration.</i> Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1965.</dd>
<dd class="t">Glasstone, Samuel. <i>Sourcebook on the Space Sciences.</i> New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1965.</dd>
<dd class="t">Purser, Paul E.; Maxime A. Faget; and Norman F. Smith, eds. <i>Manned Spacecraft.</i> New York: Fairchild Publications, Inc., 1964.</dd>
<dd class="t">Ruppe, Harry O. <i>Introduction to Astronautics.</i> 2 vols. Campbell, California: Academy Press, 1966-1967.</dd>
<dt><b>Apollo Moon Landings</b></dt>
<dd class="t">Collins, Michael. <i>Carrying the Fire.</i> New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1974.</dd>
<dd class="t">Cortright, Edgar M., ed. <i>Apollo Expeditions to the Moon.</i> Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975 (stock no. 033-000-00630-6).</dd>
<dd class="t">Lewis, Richard S. <i>Appointment on the Moon.</i> New York: Viking Press, 1969.</dd>
<dd class="t">——. <i>Voyages of Apollo.</i> Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1974.</dd>
<dd class="t">Wilford, John N. <i>We Reach the Moon.</i> Rev. ed. Chicago: W. W. Norton & Co., 1971.</dd>
<dt><b>Speculative</b></dt>
<dd class="t">Sagan, Carl. <i>The Cosmic Connection.</i> New York: Doubleday, 1973.</dd>
<dd class="t">Shkolvskii, I. S.; and Carl Sagan. <i>Intelligent Life in the Universe.</i> New York: Holden-Day, 1966.</dd>
<dd class="t">Strong. J. G. <i>Flight to the Stars: An Inquiry into the Feasibility of Interstellar Flight.</i> New York: Hart Publishing Co., 1965.</dd>
<dd class="t">Sullivan, Walter. <i>We Are Not Alone: The Search for Intelligent Life on Other Worlds.</i> New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.</dd></dl>
<div class="pb" id="Page_69">69</div>
<div class="img" id="fig94">
<img src="images/p35.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="333" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="ss"><i>FIRST FLOOR PLAN</i></span></p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>103 Vertical Flight</dt>
<dt>102 Air Transportation</dt>
<dt>101 Museum Shop</dt>
<dt>100 Milestones of Flight</dt>
<dt>115 Theater Entrance</dt>
<dt>114 Space Hall</dt>
<dt>113 Rocketry & Space Flight</dt>
<dt>105 General Aviation</dt>
<dt>106 Exhibition Flight</dt>
<dt>107 Life in the Universe</dt>
<dt>108 South Lobby</dt>
<dt>109 Flight Testing</dt>
<dt>110 Satellites</dt>
<dt>111 Benefits From Flight</dt></dl>
<div class="img" id="fig95">
<img src="images/p35a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="340" />
<p class="pcap"><span class="ss"><i>SECOND FLOOR PLAN</i></span></p>
</div>
<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>203 Sea-Air Operations</dt>
<dt>201 Spacearium</dt>
<dt>215 Theater</dt>
<dt>213 Flight Technology</dt>
<dt>205 World War II Aviation</dt>
<dt>206 Balloons and Airships</dt>
<dt>207 Air Traffic Control</dt>
<dt>208 Special Exhibits</dt>
<dt>209 World War I Aviation</dt>
<dt>210 Apollo to the Moon</dt>
<dt>211 Flight and the Arts</dt></dl>
<h2 id="c58"><span class="small">Front Cover:</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig96">
<img src="images/p36.jpg" alt="" width="422" height="800" />
<p class="pcap">Lift-off of an Atlas Centaur carrying INTELSAT payload,
August 23, 1973.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig97">
<img src="images/p36a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="623" />
<p class="pcap">Earth from space
photographed by the <i>Apollo 16</i> crew.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig98">
<img src="images/p36b.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="629" />
<p class="pcap">Astronaut White performs first
spacewalk from <i>Gemini 4</i>.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig99">
<img src="images/p36d.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="574" />
<p class="pcap"><i>Apollo 12</i>
astronaut with United States flag on
lunar surface.</p>
</div>
<h2 id="c59"><span class="small">Back Cover:</span></h2>
<div class="img" id="fig100">
<img src="images/p37.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="747" />
<p class="pcap">Main parachutes
lower the <i>Skylab 3</i> command module to the
Pacific Ocean.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig101">
<img src="images/p37a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="789" />
<p class="pcap">Solid rocket motors being
jettisoned during launch of Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite-1.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig102">
<img src="images/p37b.jpg" alt="" width="778" height="600" />
<p class="pcap">View from right-hand seat of
<i>Gemini 8</i> spacecraft when docked with
Agena target vehicle.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig103">
<img src="images/p37c.jpg" alt="" width="778" height="600" />
<p class="pcap">Artist’s conception of Viking Mars lander
as it heads for touch down.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig104">
<img src="images/p37d.jpg" alt="" width="676" height="700" />
<p class="pcap">Agena target
vehicle seen from <i>Gemini 11</i> after tether
drop.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig105">
<img src="images/p37e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="634" />
<p class="pcap">View of Skylab Orbital Workshop
photographed by <i>Skylab 2</i> crew.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig106">
<img src="images/p37f.jpg" alt="" width="543" height="800" />
<p class="pcap"><i>Viking 2</i>—bound for Mars—is
launched aboard Titan Centaur on
September 9, 1975.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig107">
<img src="images/p37g.jpg" alt="" width="779" height="600" />
<p class="pcap">Paul Calle’s interpretation
of <b>Saturn 5</b> launch.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig108">
<img src="images/p37h.jpg" alt="" width="552" height="776" />
<p class="pcap">New York
to Norfolk composite photo from the
Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig109">
<img src="images/p37j.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="541" />
<p class="pcap">Photomicrograph of thin
section of lunar rock.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig110">
<img src="images/p37k.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="677" />
<p class="pcap">Color enhancement
of far ultraviolet photo of the Earth
taken from space.</p>
</div>
<div class="img" id="fig111">
<img src="images/p37l.jpg" alt="" width="741" height="600" />
<p class="pcap">NASA’s Wallops
Island Test Station in Virginia.</p>
</div>
<p>(All photographs from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.)</p>
<div class="img">
<img src="images/p50.jpg" alt="Back Cover" width="600" height="783" />
</div>
<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
<ul>
<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li>
<li>Moved captions nearer the relevant images; tweaked image references within captions accordingly.</li>
<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
</ul>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57421 ***</div>
</body>
</html>
|
