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diff --git a/57308-0.txt b/57308-0.txt index be18edf..2aecd9d 100644 --- a/57308-0.txt +++ b/57308-0.txt @@ -1,30 +1,7 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Mute Stones Speak, by Paul Lachlan MacKendrick +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57308 *** -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. -Title: The Mute Stones Speak - The Story of Archaeology in Italy -Author: Paul Lachlan MacKendrick - -Release Date: June 11, 2018 [EBook #57308] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MUTE STONES SPEAK *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net @@ -11326,365 +11303,4 @@ Page 301: “CXX” was enclosed in a rectangular medallion. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57308 *** diff --git a/57308-h/57308-h.htm b/57308-h/57308-h.htm index 93e2b7d..1eb2c1b 100644 --- a/57308-h/57308-h.htm +++ b/57308-h/57308-h.htm @@ -339,42 +339,7 @@ pre.tight{font-size: 70%; letter-spacing: -.067em;} <body> -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Mute Stones Speak, by Paul Lachlan MacKendrick - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mute Stones Speak - The Story of Archaeology in Italy - -Author: Paul Lachlan MacKendrick - -Release Date: June 11, 2018 [EBook #57308] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MUTE STONES SPEAK *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57308 ***</div> <div id="if_i_000" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> @@ -3883,10450 +3848,7 @@ column, a translation into classical Latin, filling the blanks; below, a translation of this oldest of all Latin inscriptions:</p> <div class="center"><div class="ilb"> -<pre> -QVOI HOI QVI · HV[nc locum violaverit, - - SAKROS ⁝ ESE manibus] SACER · SIT; -ED SORD ET SORD[ibus qui haec contaminet] - - OKAFHAS OCA, FAS - -RECEI ⁝ IO REGI, IV[dicio ei habito - EVAM adimere rem pr]EVAM · - -QVOS ⁝ RE QVOS · RE[x per hanc senserit - - M ⁝ KALATO vehi via]M, KALATOREM, -REM HAB HAB[enis eorum, iubeto - - TOD ⁝ IOVXMEN ilic]O · IVMENTA - -TA ⁝ KAPAI ⁝ DOTAV · CAPIAT, VT · A V[ia statiM - -M ⁝ I ⁝ TER PE · ITER PE[r aversum locum - - M ⁝ QVOI HA pergant puru]M · QVI HA[c] - -VELOD ⁝ NEQV VOLET, NEQV[e per purum - - IOD ⁝ IOVESTOD perget, iudic]IO, IVSTA - -LOIVQVIOD QO ⁝ LICITATIONE, CO[ndemnetur]. -</pre> -</div></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="in0">“Whosoever defiles this spot, let him be forfeit to the shades of the -underworld, and whosoever contaminates this spot with refuse, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -is right for the king, after due process of law, to confiscate his property. -Whatsoever persons the king shall discover passing on this -road, let him order the summoner to seize their draft animals by -the reins, that they may turn out of the road forthwith and take -the proper detour. Whosoever persists in traveling this road, and -fails to take the proper detour, by due process of law let him be -sold to the highest bidder.”</p></blockquote> - -<p>Obviously the inscription thus restored and interpreted, -marks a spot which is taboo, its ill-omened nature being -further emphasized by the later black marble pavement, -which was fenced off by a balustrade of thin white marble -slabs set on edge. Beside the stele is a U-shaped shrine or -altar,<a id="FNanchor_B" href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> on a higher level and therefore of a later date than -the inscription. Archaeology provides no clue to the purpose -of this structure, but learned Romans believed it -marked the tomb of Romulus, their first king. This would -be a sacred spot indeed, not to be profaned by the feet of -men or animals. From one edge of the shrine run the remains -of a semicircular platform with steps (Figs. <a href="#ip_3_6">3.6</a> and -<a href="#ip_3_7">3.7</a>), also later in date than the inscription. The platform -was the Rostra, so called because of its decoration, after -338 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, with the bronze <i>rostra</i> or ramming-beaks of captured -enemy war-galleys. The Rostra was in historical times -the speakers’ platform; from it in one of its phases resounded -the sonorous oratory of Cicero. But it was also -the spot from which traditionally funeral orations were -delivered, while modern men wearing, according to Roman -custom, the death-masks of their ancestors sat behind the -orators in curule chairs on the platform. To the logical -Roman mind a platform beside the tomb of the first king -would seem the appropriate place for funeral speeches.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_B" href="#FNanchor_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> Professor Ferdinando Castagnoli and Dr. Lucos Cozza reported in 1959 -the discovery, at Pratica di Mare, ancient Lavinium, sixteen miles south of -Rome, of a series of thirteen such altars, together with an inscription on -bronze, with lettering like that of the <i>lapis niger</i> stele. They date their finds -in the late sixth century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span></p></div> - -<p>Since American excavations at Rome’s Latin colony of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -Cosa in 1953 identified as a Comitium a circular, step-surrounded -space in front of the local Senate House, it -appears that the semicircular steps leading to the platform -in Rome were Rome’s Comitium, and new excavations to -prove or disprove this were started in 1957.</p> - -<div id="ip_3_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_023.jpg" width="600" height="551" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 3.7</span> Rome, Forum. Rostra, fifth phase (Sullan).</p> - -<p>(E. Gjerstad, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 143)</p></div></div> - -<p>Careful equations between the fifteen levels in the Comitium -and the twenty-nine levels near the equestrian statue -of Domitian prove the Comitium a monument of the Roman -Republic: the first phase coincides with the Republic’s beginning, -and its last with Caesar and Augustus, in the late -first century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, when the Republic ends. Thereafter freedom -of speech, and an arena for it, were but a memory. -But the first Rostra rose where it did because the founders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -of the Roman Republic associated it with the first of Rome’s -kings.</p> - -<p>The <i>lapis niger</i> inscription, which refers twice to a king, -rests on a base which cannot be older than the sack of Rome -by the Gauls in 390 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> (for the base is on the same level -as the second of the Comitium pavements, laid over traces -of a major fire, and the Gauls set Rome on fire). But an -inscription of course is a movable monument, and the present -location of the stele may not be where it was originally -set up. Furthermore, letter styles so archaic are probably -older than 390 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>: the alternatives, then, are either that -the stele, of venerable antiquity, was reset, on a new platform, -as a part of rearrangements after the fire, or that it -is a deliberately archaizing copy of a much older original. -The theory that the king (<i>rex</i>) referred to is not the temporal -monarch, but the <i>rex sacrorum</i>, a Republican priest -of later Republican times who inherited the king’s religious -functions, is virtually ruled out by the letter-styles.</p> - -<p>The <i>lapis niger</i> stele presents one aspect of primitive -Roman religion under the kings: the taboo. Another is the -pious tending of the sacred flame on the public hearth, a -rite performed in historical times by the Vestal Virgins in -Vesta’s shrine at the east end of the Forum. The superstructure -of the shrine as now restored there yielded no -remains earlier than the Gallic fire, but the round plan -must reflect the shape of a primitive straw hut of the Palatine -type, with central hearth and smoke-hole, and the earliest -artifacts, from the previously mentioned well there, are -dated in the seventh and sixth centuries <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> The shrine -of Vesta, then, preserves another memory of Rome of the -kings.</p> - -<div id="ip_3_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="800" height="497" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 3.8</span> Rome, Republican Forum. (G. Lugli, <i>Roma Antica</i>, Pl. 3)</div></div> - -<p>Kings, like ordinary mortals, need a dwelling place. Traditionally -in Rome, this was the Regia (related in root to -<i>rex</i>, “king”), on the trapezoidal plot between the Forum -necropolis and Vesta’s shrine (see plan, <a href="#ip_3_8">Fig. 3.8</a>). Romans -believed its first occupant was the Sabine Numa, the second<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -and most pious of the kings, but no archaeological remains -confirm so early a date (traditionally 716–672 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>). It -seems unlikely that the king could have dwelt there before -the necropolis was closed, for the king was a priest, and it -was unlucky for a priest to look upon a cadaver, or upon -death. The earliest datable masonry remains are a foundation -in <i>cappellaccio</i> of about 390 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, another evidence of -rebuilding after the Gallic fire. But there might well have -been, before the fire, a more primitive structure in wood, -revetted in terracotta; indeed, fragments of terracotta revetment, -some of a late sixth or early fifth century style and -some even earlier, were found there, as well as a grey <i>bucchero</i> -sherd scratched with the word <i>rex</i> in archaic letters. -The Regia, as it stands, is the result of at least three rebuildings, -the last in 36 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> It still has an old-fashioned air: -ancient, straggling, intractable, very holy: the shape of its -ground-plan never changing from beginning to end. In keeping -with the Etruscan tradition—as at Marzabotto—the building -is oriented north and south. Its south side was a dwelling, -later the office of the Pontifex Maximus; among the -great Romans who worked in this building was Julius -Caesar. The rest of the Regia was an area partly unroofed. -It was a shrine of Mars, hung with shields and a magic -lance that quivered at the threat of war. The Pontifex -Maximus recorded yearly, day by day, on a whitened board -in the Regia, events in which he and his fellow priests had -a professional interest: temple-dedications, religious festivals, -triumphs, eclipses, famines, rains of blood, births of -two-headed calves, and other prodigies. Fragments of this -lost archaeological record, piously kept by the pontiffs, turn -up in extant Roman history: Livy often refers to them at -the end of his account of a year, particularly an unlucky -year.</p> - -<p>Orientation like the Regia’s is an Etruscan practice, and -it is with domination by the Etruscans that we should expect -Rome’s primitive simplicity to evolve into something<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -more like grandeur. The literary tradition ascribed to the -Etruscan, Tarquin the Proud, Rome’s last king, a great -Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built by the forced -labor of Roman citizens, and decorated by Etruscan artisans -like Vulca of Veii, the sculptor of the Apollo (page 52). -It took World War I to confirm this literary tradition archaeologically. -The Italians, on the Allied side in that war, ousted -the Germans from their Embassy, splendidly situated on -the Capitoline Hill in the Palazzo Caffarelli, and remodelled -the palace into a museum. In the process was revealed a -massive podium, sixteen feet high, built without mortar of -blocks of <i>cappellaccio</i>, the oldest of Rome’s building stones. -Fortunately, diagonally opposite corners were found, making -it possible to establish how impressive were the podium’s -dimensions: roughly 120 × 180 feet. Three corners of the -podium having been isolated, archaeologists were able to -fit into the plan the remains of a substructure which had -been found in 1865 under the Palace of the Conservatori. -This substructure, now built impressively into a corridor -of the Conservatori Museum, proved to be the support for -columns. The platform as a whole, then, was the podium -of a temple, the largest of its time, over twice the size, for -example, of the one at Marzabotto. Traces of the settings -for the columns proved them to be placed too wide apart -to be connected by architraves in stone; they must instead -have been great wooden beams. The wood would have -been revetted or faced with terracotta, and in fact enough -fragments of terracotta revetments were found on the site -to establish this temple as decorated in the typical Etruscan -style. If its sculptures were as striking as the Apollo of -Veii, they were masterpieces indeed. The temple, repeatedly -and ever more grandiosely rebuilt—in one phase it -was roofed with gilded bronze, and the cult statue was -gold and ivory—was the center and symbol of Rome’s religious -life. Here the triumphal processions ended. Here the -triumphing general, surrounded by his spoils of victory,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -descended from his chariot drawn by four white horses, -and passed through the open doors and the clouds of incense -to give thanks to Jupiter the Best and Greatest for -his victory. From the cliff behind the temple, the Tarpeian -rock, traitors were thrown to their deaths; here, in 133 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, -Tiberius Gracchus, the friend of the people, was murdered. -Religion, dignity, pride, greed, pomp, tragedy: all are the -stuff of Roman history; all are here, and archaeology illumines -their story. Horace boasted that his poetry would -endure “so long as, with the mute Vestal, the Pontifex -climbs up to the Capitoline Temple.” For him as for us -Rome was the Eternal City, and the Capitoline was the -symbol of its permanence. Through the assaults of riot, fire, -earthquake, poverty, popes, barbarians, limekilns, wind, rain, -and earth, the foundations have endured.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>The literary tradition tells us how Rome’s Etruscan monarchy -fell: of Tarquin’s despotism and his son’s rape of -Lucrece, daughter of a Roman aristocrat, whose husband -avenged her and allegedly became one of Rome’s first pair -of consuls. It tells us how the Roman nobles rose, drove -out the Tarquins, and founded the Roman Republic. Archaeology -cannot confirm the traditional date (indeed the -founding of temples, Etruscan style, continues, as we saw, -for half a century after 509). But about the middle of the -fifth century the contents of the tombs on the Esquiline -begin to grow mean and shabby. Contact with Etruria has -been cut off, and the Romans make a virtue of necessity, -pass sumptuary laws against excessive display, and practice -simplicity and frugality. The late fifth century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> in Rome, -as archaeology reveals it, is a period of isolation, stagnation, -and retrenchment.</p> - -<p>Hardly had the new Roman Republic rallied to conquer -Veii (traditionally in 396 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, after a ten-year siege, like -Troy’s), when the Gauls descended from the north with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -fire and sword. Rome bought them off, and, resisting the -temptation to move to Veii, fell to rebuilding, mindful of -how its ancestors had built their city up out of forest and -swamp; in love with their protecting hills, their fruitful -open spaces, their busy river. The building was done planlessly; -the main concern was to strengthen defenses.</p> - -<p>The primitive Rome of separate villages on the hills had -been defended, at most, by separate palisades and ditches. -It is with King Servius that literature associated the Rome -of impressive buildings and a beetling wall, of squared -stone, sturdy enough to repel all invaders. With how much -justification Roman historians called the wall “Servian,” we -are now to learn. The tradition associates Rome’s earliest -wall with Servius Tullius, who falls between the two Tarquins, -and certain surviving traces of earthwork and masonry, -plus the Cloaca Maxima, or Great Drain through -the Forum, are assigned by some archaeologists to the sixth -century. Indeed until 1932 most scholars accepted the sixth-century -date for the whole early circuit. But in that year -the Swedish archaeologist Gösta Säflund (who seven years -later was to explode Pigorini’s myth about the <i>terremare</i>) -published the results of some painstaking fieldwork which -radically changed the picture.</p> - -<p>Beginning with the Palatine and working counter-clockwise, -Säflund examined every inch of the surviving circuit -ascribed to Servius (see <a href="#ip_2_3">Fig. 2.3</a>), and for stretches which -had been torn down during Rome’s great expansion (after -she became the capital of a united Italy in the 1870’s) he -had access to unpublished notes and sketches by Boni and -another great nineteenth-century Italian archaeologist, Rodolfo -Lanciani. Everywhere he paid careful attention to -materials, techniques, dimensions, mason’s marks, the relation -of the wall to terrain, neighboring tombs, and ancient -artifacts found in its context. It was chiefly from the building -material that Säflund drew his conclusions.</p> - -<p>The stone was in the main Grotta Oscura tufa, which he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -knew from Tenney Frank’s studies to have been in use in -the year (378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) in which Livy says the censors contracted -to have a wall built of squared stone. Furthermore, -some of the Esquiline tombs already mentioned, containing -mid-fourth century artifacts, were outside the line of the -Grotta Oscura wall, while some of the tombs containing -archaic artifacts were inside. The Romans rarely buried -their dead within a city wall: the inference is that at the -date of the earlier tombs, Rome had no proper ring-wall, -while by the date of the later (fourth-century) tombs a -circuit wall had been built. The Great Drain through the -Forum is also of Grotta Oscura, and is therefore probably -to be dated in 378, like the wall, though some feeder lines -are in <i>cappellaccio</i>, which, as we have seen, was the earliest -volcanic stone the Romans used, and we know—because we -know the Forum swamp was drained by 575 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>—that -there must have been some sort of drainage system—possibly -open ditches—earlier than 378.</p> - -<p>But Säflund found Fidenae tufa also. This he knew, again -from Frank’s study, to have been in use from about 338 -<span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> down into the second century. It had been used to -patch the wall in places. What more appropriate time for -such repairs than when Hannibal was threatening the city, -in 217 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>? Thereafter, Roman and Latin colonies, advanced -bases, served her in the office of a wall, and her own fortifications -were allowed to fall into disrepair.</p> - -<p>But there are places in Rome’s wall where Monteverde -stone has been used for arches, rising from footings set in -concrete; in other places the wall has a concrete core faced -with Anio tufa. Säflund knew that concrete was little in -use in Roman building before 150 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, and that it had become -a favorite material by Sulla’s time (see p. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>). Sulla -had marched on Rome in 88 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> and taken it; he must -have reinforced the wall to keep his enemy Marius from -duplicating his own feat. And Sulla included the bridgehead -on the far side of the Tiber in his circuit, reinforced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -the Aventine Hill, and added <i>ballistae</i> (great catapults for -shooting stones) in arched casemates flanking the main -gates.</p> - -<div id="ip_3_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="600" height="442" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 3.9</span> Rome, “Servian” Wall of 378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, surviving stretch -beside Termini railway station. (Photo Paul MacKendrick)</div></div> - -<p>Thus Säflund distinguished three building periods for -the so-called “Servian” Wall, though none as early as King -Servius Tullius. One section of earth work or <i>agger</i>, on the -Quirinal Hill, faced in part with small blocks of <i>cappellaccio</i>, -looked older than 378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, and Säflund knew from -observations at Ardea, Cerveteri (and, as we now know, -Anzio) that the use of the earthwork was standard in the -sixth century to reinforce weak places on hilly sites. Some -early sixth-century sherds, but none later, were found <i>under</i> -the agger. This helps to confirm that the agger was a part -of Rome’s sixth-century, genuinely Servian defenses, never -a complete ring-wall, but an adjustment and reinforcement -of natural defenses, later incorporated into the circuit wall -of 378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> A splendid stretch of the facing of this reinforced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -agger, 100 yards, survives today by the Termini -railroad station (<a href="#ip_3_9">Fig. 3.9</a>).</p> - -<p>But Säflund’s careful observations did more than redate -the wall in its several phases. By comparison of the mason’s -marks, hacked in Greek letters on the heads of the Grotta -Oscura blocks only, with similar marks found on the blocks -of the fortifications of the Euryalus above Syracuse, in -Sicily (built in the late fifth century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> by Dionysius I), -Säflund was able to demonstrate that Rome’s wall was built -by Sicilian workmen, Rome not having the manpower or -the skill at the time. (Dionysius for his wall had employed -6000 men and 500 yoke of oxen.)</p> - -<p>The wall of 378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> is evidence that Rome had emerged -from the doldrums into which the Republic had begun to -sink. Before 390 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> she had depended on men, not walls. -The Gallic sack had proved her not invincible, and had -also, as war emergencies will, produced a new sense of -solidarity. The wall symbolizes it, and so does the bill passed -in 367 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> (while the wall was still under construction), -opening the highest office in the Republic to plebeians. Thus -a reinforced oligarchy was formed, which by 338 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> could -beat its once powerful enemies, the neighboring settlements -linked in the Latin League; proudly (even arrogantly) -mount the beaks of enemy ships on the new Rostra; -and embark upon a career of Manifest Destiny in Italy. -The Republic had reached adulthood.</p> - -<div id="ip_3_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_026.jpg" width="800" height="502" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 3.10</span> Rome, Largo Argentina, temples. (G. Lugli, <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, 3, fac. p. 32)</div></div> - -<p>There were other outward and visible signs of the Republic’s -new maturity and prosperity. The gods deserve -their reward for fighting on the side of the biggest battalions, -and so the expanding Republic built temples. In -another age of arrogant expansion, in 1926, not long before -Säflund began his work on the walls, slum clearance in -front of the Argentina theater (on the site of the portico -of Pompey’s theater, where Caesar was murdered) revealed -the foundations of four Republican temples (<a href="#ip_3_10">Fig. 3.10</a>), -nowadays the haunt of countless tomcats. The gods to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -whom the temples were dedicated being unknown, they -were named, with proper archaeological sobriety, Temples -A, B, C, and D. The foundations of Temple C, the third -from the north, are the deepest; it is therefore the oldest. -It is set in the Italic manner at the back of a high podium, -built of Grotta Oscura tufa; its mason’s marks match those -on the “Servian” wall. Clearly it was built by the same -masons or in the same tradition. The podium carries the -distinction of being the oldest surviving datable public -building in Rome. Terracotta revetments found in excavating -are of fourth century type. Besides meanders, the so-called -“Greek frets” or “key” design, an angular pattern -of lines winding in and out, their decorative motifs include -strigil patterns: parallel troughs, made by the workman’s -thumbs in the wet clay, and then painted in contrasting -colors. The strong curve of the profile resembles that of -the strigil or scraper used by athletes in the gymnasium to -remove caked oil and dirt from their bodies; hence the -name. The roof’s peak and corner ornaments, called <i>acroteria</i>, -have spikes set in the clay to discourage birds from -perching and committing nuisances. This temple and its -three later fellows are still a long way from the grandiose -marble and gold of the Augustan Age, but they are an -equally long way from the primitive wattle-and-daub huts -of the Palatine village. They mark a stage in the painstakingly -unravelled archaeological story of Rome’s expansion, -which we shall follow at various newly-excavated sites in -Italy.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_4" class="vspace">4<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Roman Colonies in Italy</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Rome’s wall begun in 378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> took twenty-five years to -build. However secure she might feel behind it, immediately -beyond the gates lurked enemies. To the north the Gauls, -to the east and south, Italic tribes (whom Rome successively -feared, rivalled, dominated, and invited to partnership; of -these the Samnites were the most fearsome), on the seas the -Syracusan and Carthaginian navies—all represented a clear -and present danger. Rome’s population being inadequate to -keep legions in the field, much less a fleet at sea, against all -these threats at once, she evolved a system of advanced bases, -called Latin colonies (<a href="#ip_4_1">Fig. 4.1</a>), manned partly with trustworthy -local non-Romans, though with a hard core of Roman -legionaries. This avoided undue drain on the Roman manpower, -and placed the responsibility for frontier defense -upon frontiersmen who had the greatest interest in their -own security.</p> - -<p>During the last thirty years the efforts of archaeologists of -several nations; for example, Italians at Ostia, Belgians at -Alba Fucens, Americans at Cosa have added much to the -sum of our knowledge of these frontier outposts: their fortifications, -street plan, public buildings, housing arrangements, -and the surveyed (“centuriated”) quarter-sections of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -land (allotments) stretching away from the walls into the -countryside round about. From these brute facts inferences -can be drawn, about what prompted the founding of these -outposts (was the motive always military?), about relations -with neighbors and with Rome, about communications, -about economic, social, and cultural life.</p> - -<div id="ip_4_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_027.jpg" width="600" height="454" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.1</span> Roman colonization. -(P. MacKendrick, <i>Archaeology</i> 9 [1955], p. 127)</div></div> - -<p>At Ostia, at the Tiber’s mouth, historical tradition said -that there had been Romans settled since the days of King -Ancus Marcius, and that, even earlier, Aeneas had landed -there and built a camp. In 1938 the great Italian archaeologist -Guido Calza began soundings to ascertain the date of -the oldest surviving stratum. The area he chose was beneath -Ostia’s Imperial Forum, where the two main streets, the -<i>cardo</i> and the <i>decumanus</i>, crossed. (The Via Ostiensis, -from Rome to the river mouth, determined the line of the -<i>decumanus</i>.) What he found (<a href="#ip_4_2">Fig. 4.2</a>) was a set of walls -enclosing a rectangle 627 feet long and 406 feet wide. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -wall was built of roughly squared blocks of tufa in a technique -not unlike that of Rome’s wall of 378 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, but since -there was Fidenae stone in it, Calza dated the wall somewhat -later than 378. The wall was pierced by four gates -of two rooms each, with portcullis. The south gate was -demolished in the early Empire to provide space for a temple -of Rome and Augustus; the north gate gave way under -Hadrian to the massive podium of a Capitolium, but the -footings of the east and west gates survive, well below the -level of the Imperial pavement. Calza found drains within -the walls, and traces of four other streets (unpaved) besides -the <i>cardo</i> and <i>decumanus</i>, but no identifiable buildings. -Some terracotta revetments found in the area suggest an -unidentified temple of the third century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> No traces -earlier than the late fourth-century wall have been found -in the excavated area of Ostia. Either Ancus Marcius’ -foundation is a myth, or it was planted in some thus far -undiscovered spot, of which all the plowing and digging -in the neighborhood has left no trace.</p> - -<div id="ip_4_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_027b.jpg" width="800" height="538" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.2</span> Ostia, <i>castrum</i>, plan. (G. Calza, <i>Scavi di Ostia</i>, 1, fac. p. 68)</div></div> - -<p>What Calza found at Ostia was a coastguard station, or -<i>castrum</i>, planted by the Romans at the river’s mouth once -their control of the sea was established by their victory over -Antium’s navy (which produced the bronze beaks on the -Rostra). The normal complement of such a station was 300 -men. A contingent of that size could have manned Ostia’s -<i>castrum</i> wall with one soldier every six feet. Thus the prime -motive of the founding was military, and the <i>castrum</i> plan -is like the familiar and standard plan of a Roman army -camp. But the civilian plan antedated the military: Polybius -in his description of the Roman camp of about 150 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> says -that it was planned <i>like a town</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, with a rectangular grid -like Marzabotto). And Ostia’s function must from the beginning, -or soon after, have been commercial as well as -military. Its site at the river mouth was as ideal for collecting -the customs as for guarding the coast. Grain from Egypt -and Sicily to feed Rome may from the earliest days have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -been landed here and stored in warehouses for later shipment -upriver by barge. At all events history records the -appointment as early as 267 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> of a special finance officer -or <i>quaestor</i> for Ostia, and Calza found the footings of warehouses -of Republican date. The terracotta revetments mentioned -above date from this period. The houses and shops -remained humble for seven generations, but those generations -saw the departure of many a fleet, and the arrival of -many a consignment of grain. An inscription dated in 171 -<span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> marking the limits of public land in Ostia shows that -by then it had expanded far beyond the <i>castrum</i> walls. But -the story of Ostia’s development, her new wall under Sulla, -new theater under Augustus, new port under Claudius, new -garden apartment houses under Trajan, and the rest, belong -to later chapters.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>In the last half of the fourth century Rome fought two -wars against the Samnites. Alba Fucens (<a href="#ip_4_3">Fig. 4.3</a>) in the -Abruzzi, one of her advanced bases in the Second Samnite -War, has been explored since 1949 by the Belgians. It lies -3315 feet above sea level, on the Via Valeria sixty-eight miles -east-northeast of Rome. (The sixty-eighth milestone of the -Valeria was found <i>in situ</i> inside the colony wall.) Alba’s -site dominates five valleys. The Latin colony of 6000 families -planted here in 303 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> assured Rome’s communications -on two sides of Samnium, eastward to the Adriatic and -southeastward through the Liris valley.</p> - -<div id="ip_4_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="444" height="700" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.3</span> Alba Fucens, plan. -(J. B. Ward Perkins, “Early Roman Towns in Italy,” Fig. 9)</div></div> - -<p>The pride of Alba is its walls, nearly two miles of them, -surrounding the three hills on which the colony lies. The -material is limestone, which breaks at the quarry into irregular, -polygonal blocks. These are set without mortar. -The excavators distinguished four different building techniques -in the wall. They assumed that the roughest sectors, -built of enormous blocks, were the oldest, coeval with the -foundation of the colony. These polygonal walls, common -all over central Italy, used to be called Pelasgian or Cyclopean,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -and were formerly assumed to be of immemorial -antiquity, but recent archaeological work has pushed the -dates of most of them down into the late fourth century or -later. At Alba the techniques involve the use of smaller -blocks and more careful workmanship in successive phases, -until finally with the use of cement we reach the 80’s <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> -and the age of Sulla. On the northwest, where the hill has -the gentlest slope, the circuit is triple, and the outermost -is the latest. The loop to the north was the <i>arx</i>; it was destroyed -by an earthquake in 1915. The wall is pierced by -four gates, some with portcullis and bastions. The Via -Valeria entered at the northwest, made a right-angled turn, -passed the civic center, and emerged at the southeast; that -is, it was made to conform to a grid plan within the colony, -a grid plan laid down despite the hilly terrain, which made -terracing necessary.</p> - -<p>Excavating Alba’s civic center, the Belgians found a -Forum, with altar and miniature temple, buried under -many feet of earth. They also found a basilica (a rectangular -roofed hall with nave and two side aisles, used as a law -court and commercial center), presenting its long side, with -three entrances, to a portico facing the Forum. Beside the -basilica, a market, with baths on one side and a temple on -the other, with early revetments, repeatedly restored. An -adjoining street, parallel to the Valeria, was lined with shops, -including a fuller’s drycleaning establishment and at least -one wine shop. The doorsills still show slots for the shutters. -In front of the shops ran a portico supported on high pilasters. -In the curb were holes where customers might tie their -mules. At the corner of the <i>decumanus</i>, the excavators -found charming statuettes of elephants, used as street signs. -Under the market were revealed subterranean chambers -accessible only by manholes; the excavators suggest that -these are the very dungeons, dark underground <i>oubliettes</i>, -where prisoners of state like King Syphax of Numidia in -203 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, King Perseus of Macedonia in 167, the Gallic chief<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -Bituitus in 121 were incarcerated, for the Romans often -used their colonies as detention points.</p> - -<p>Levels, construction techniques, and artifacts assigned -various dates to these buildings, but their earliest phases -fall in the Republican period, in the age of Sulla or earlier. -To the age of Sulla belongs also a handsome rock-cut theater. -There is an amphitheater of the early Empire; as we know -from a new inscription, its donor was Macro, the notorious -informer under the Emperor Tiberius, who brought about -the fall of the Emperor’s ambitious and scheming favorite, -Sejanus.</p> - -<p>Walls, grid, civic center, public buildings: these made of -Alba a smaller and more orderly replica of Rome. The -general layout is repeated so often in so many places that -it suggests a master plan made in the censors’ office in -Rome. By the time Cosa was founded, in 273 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, the -Romans already could draw on the experience of founding -at least eighteen colonies.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Cosa, where the writer did his first excavating, may be -used to supply a little more detail on materials and methods -in field archaeology. Seven eight-week spring seasons of -excavation there (1948–1954), modestly intended as laboratory -training for young American classicists, have in fact -resulted in a remarkably complete picture of an old-style -Latin colony. The site was chosen for excavating because -it looked attractive from air photographs, because it was -convenient to Rome (ninety miles up the Via Aurelia on -the Tyrrhenian Sea), and because its walls were almost -perfectly preserved, great gray masses of polygonal limestone -looming up as high as a four-story building on a 370-foot -hill that rises out of the reclaimed swamplands of the -Tuscan Maremma. For Cosa was planted, carved out of -the territory of the once proud Etruscan city of Vulci, to -mount guard over Rome’s newly acquired marches, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -to affirm Rome’s name and supremacy in a restive neighborhood.</p> - -<p>A large assortment of gear is necessary for a modern -scientific dig, even a modest one: for surveying and levelling, -clinometer (which measures slopes), plane-table (which -measures angles), alidade (which shows degree of arc), -prismatic compass with front and back sights (for taking -accurate bearings; the prism brings the object being sighted, -the hair-line of the front sight, and the reading on the compass -card all in a vertical line together), leveling staves -marked in centimeters (for measuring elevations); templates -for recording the curves of moldings; brooms, brushes, and -mason’s tools for cleaning the architectural finds; zinc plates -and sodium hydroxide pencils for electrolysis of coins; -measuring tapes of all sizes, mechanical drawing instruments, -trowels, marking-pegs, cord, squared paper, large sheets of -filter paper for taking “squeezes” of inscriptions, catalogue -cards, India ink, shellac, cardboard boxes, small cloth bags, -labels, journal books, field notebooks, and a small library of -technical manuals. The gear was divided between the villa -where the staff lived and an abandoned Italian anti-aircraft -observation post on the site itself, whose concrete gunmounts -made excellent drying floors for freshly washed potsherds.</p> - -<p>Ambitious excavations use a light railway for carting earth -to the dump, but at Cosa, which ran on a shoestring budget -($5000 for eight weeks), the vehicle was the wheelbarrow, -the track a set of boards bound at the ends with iron to keep -them from splitting. Twenty of the local unemployed formed -the corps of workmen. The foreman, in better times a -master carpenter, used a pick with all the delicacy of a surgeon -with a scalpel.</p> - -<p>The first step in excavating a site is to lay down a grid—fifty-meter -squares are convenient—marked with wooden -stakes set in cement and levelled. During the ten months of -the year when there was no digging and Cosa was abandoned -to the shepherds, they operated on the conviction that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -stakes marked the spot where the treasure lay buried. They -would overturn them and dig like badgers, and each new -season would have to begin with a partial re-survey.</p> - -<p>A typical excavating day would begin with the removal -of surface earth in wheelbarrows. As large objects came to -light—bits of amphora, roof-tile, terracotta revetments—they -were placed in shallow yard-square wooden boxes -called <i>barrelle</i>, equipped fore and aft with carrying shafts, -and labelled accurately with the precise designation of the -area from which the finds came: Capitolium Exterior South, -Level I; Arx North Slope, Surface, and the like. Small objects—bone -<i>styli</i>, small sherds, loomweights (pierced terracotta -parallelepipeds, whose weight held the threads -hanging straight down on an ancient vertical loom), lamps, -fragments of inscriptions—went into separate marked cloth -bags. Thus the horizontal and vertical findspot of each -object was precisely known, so that when a dated or datable -object was found in a level, the whole level could be automatically -dated, and so the whole mosaic painstakingly put -together and the history of the site analyzed, or, as the -archaeologist says, “read.” The meanest potsherd, accurately -defining a context, thus becomes more valuable historically -than a whole museum shelf full of gold jewelry from an -unstratified dig.</p> - -<p>When a <i>barrella</i> and a set of cardboard boxes had been -filled, they were carried to the excavation shack and sorted. -Objects that could not be “read”—shapeless bits of rubble, -parts of coarse pots without profile of base or rim—were -discarded, the rest sent to be washed. After washing and -drying, cataloguing began. Every object was painted with -a small square of shellac, on which its catalogue number was -written in India ink and then shellacked over to preserve it. -A letter indicated the dig, another the season, a number -showed the place of the object in the chronological sequence -of finds. A typical entry might read like the card, p. <a href="#card101">101</a>. -Leica or plate photographs were taken of all important finds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -and separately indexed for ready reference in the final -publication.</p> - -<blockquote id="card101" class="p2 b2"> -<p class="in0"> -CC 1487 <span class="in4">Capitolium Exterior South</span><br /> -<span class="in8">Level I</span><br /> -Moulded terra-cotta revetment<br /> -Width 0.17 (centimeters)<br /> -Height 0.14<br /> -Thickness 0.03 -</p> - -<p>Pale pink terra-cotta, much pozzolana. All edges preserved, -slight crack lower right corner. Nail-holes each corner. Strigillated -cornice moulding above, finishing in a half-round moulding, enriched -thunderbolt pattern in field. Thunderbolt runs from upper -left to lower right, tapering to points at ends, hand grip in center; -enriched on either side of hand grip with seven-point sword-and-sickle -palmettes. Photograph.</p></blockquote> - -<p>After the workmen’s day (7:00 <span class="smcap smaller">A.M.</span> to 4:30 <span class="smcap smaller">P.M.</span>, with a -half-hour for lunch) was over, there was still much for the -staff to do. Pottery, spread out on trestle tables, had to be -examined, joins made where possible, types distinguished. -(Careful attention at Cosa to plain Roman black glaze has -led to an arrangement of types in a dated series which will -be useful for future dating on other sites.) Evenings were -devoted to writing up the journal, studying the manuals, -making drawings, planning the next day’s dig, and shop -talk. The results of a typical season’s work, in 1950 on the -<i>arx</i> at Cosa (<a href="#ip_4_4">Fig. 4.4</a>), were to isolate a second temple at -right angles to the Capitolium, restore on paper the design -of several sets of terracotta revetments, follow the line of the -Via Sacra from the <i>arx</i> gate to the Capitolium, clear the <i>arx</i> -wall, get down to bedrock beside the Capitolium, discover -a terracotta warrior who was part of the pedimental sculpture -of an older temple under the excavation shack, and in -general get a pretty clear idea of the religious center of the -colony as it was, perhaps, in the time of the elder Cato, in -the early second century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></span></p> - -<div id="ip_4_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_029.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.4</span> Cosa, <i>arx</i>. (F. E. Brown)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span></p> - -<div id="ip_4_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_029b.jpg" width="600" height="467" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.5</span> Cosa. (J. B. Ward Perkins, <i>loc. cit.</i>, Fig. 8)</div></div> - -<p>In the two seasons preceding the discoveries on the <i>arx</i> -just described, much work had been done. In the survey to -set up the fifty-meter grid, Cosa’s own ancient rectangular -grid of streets, with pomerial street running just inside the -wall as at Marzabotto, came out clear enough to be plotted -on the plan (<a href="#ip_4_5">Fig. 4.5</a>), together with the standard blocks -of housing, like the identical “ribbon-development” apartment -blocks of a welfare state, which compensated the -pioneers for whatever fleshpots they had given up in the -metropolis or elsewhere. Housing was found to occupy -two-thirds of Cosa’s thirty-three acres, while public buildings -took just over twenty per cent, and streets the rest. -The site, which is waterless, was found to be honey-combed -with cisterns: over sixty-five were plotted. The mile-and-a-half -of walls, with their eighteen towers, spaced an -effective bowshot apart, had been closely examined. They -were found to be built with two faces and a rubble fill. The -outer face was handsomely finished, with tight mortarless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -joints, and sloped seven degrees back—this is called “batter”—from -the perpendicular; the inner face was left rough. -Potsherds of the Etrusco-Campanian style found in the rubble -fill were of a period matching Livy’s date of 273 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> for -the colony. It was clear that the walls, which show throughout -no difference in technique, were built all at one go, at -the time the colony was founded. Those impatient of the -Roman reputation for perfect engineering will be pleased -to know that the ancient craftsmen, when they came to -close the ring of the wall, found they had made an error -of from two to four Roman feet. (The Roman foot approximately -equals the English.) The three gates were examined, -and found to be of two rooms, with the main gate grooved -on its inner walls with slots for the rise and fall of the -portcullis, as at Alba. Bordering the roads leading from the -gates were tombs. The director of the excavations, by skindiving, -examined the outworks of the port, built to prevent -silting, and established them as Roman. They were parallel -jetties 350 feet long, supported on huge piers measuring -twenty by thirty Roman feet, and forty-five Roman feet -apart.<a id="FNanchor_C" href="#Footnote_C" class="fnanchor">C</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_C" href="#FNanchor_C" class="fnanchor">C</a> Undersea exploration, one of the most fascinating branches of archaeology, -has not been carried as far in Italy as in France (see, <i>e.g.</i>, P. Diolé, -<i>4,000 Years under the Sea</i> [New York, 1954]). But this is a convenient place -to report a 1950 Italian operation off Albenga, on the Ligurian coast between -Genoa and the French border. Along this stretch of the Italian Riviera -fishermen’s nets had frequently brought up amphorae, presumably from -an ancient wreck, which was soon located in twenty fathoms. The use of -an iron grab damaged the sunken hull, but an impressive number and variety -of objects were recovered. The ship yielded up over 700 more or less intact -cork-sealed, pitch-lined amphorae, from a cargo of perhaps thrice that number; -their shape was that current in the second and first centuries <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> Some -had contained wine, others still held hazel-nuts. Campanian black-glaze pottery, -of a type datable in the last half of the second century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, was found -in sufficient quantity to enable Professor Nino Lamboglia, who was in charge -of the operation, to set up a whole typology of black-glaze ware, based on -types, fabric, and glaze, a typology which proved a useful check for dating -Cosan pottery, and for which the Cosan results have provided some corrections. -Lead pipes and lead sheathing resembled those found in the ships -from Lake Nemi (see Chapter 7), and a stone crucible with molten lead -in the bottom suggested that running repairs could be carried out at sea. -Fragments of three helmets, of unusual design, may have been intended -for Marius’ army, which was campaigning in the north against Germanic -tribes in the late second century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> The finds are on display in the Albenga -Museum (see N. Lamboglia, “Il Museo Navale Romano di Albenga,” <i>Rivista -Ingauna e Intemilia</i> [1950] Nos. 3 and 4).</p></div> - -<p>The 1949 campaign concentrated on the Capitolium -(<a href="#ip_4_6">Fig. 4.6</a>), situated so that its central <i>cella</i> lay over a cleft -in the rock, from which some kind of oracular fraud could -be perpetrated. Between porch and <i>cellae</i>, running the -width of the building, was a cistern lined with the waterproof -cement called <i>opus signinum</i>, made of lime, sand, and -pounded bits of terracotta. The temple walls, which stand -on the south to an impressive height, visible far out to sea, -were built of brick-like slabs of the local calcareous sandstone, -set in mortar. On the north, the line worn in the rock -by water dripping gives mute evidence of the wide overhang -of the roof, Etrusco-Italic style. Some of the terracotta -revetments belonged to the older, wooden temple. It must -have made a brave show when it was new, covered with -brightly painted tiles, its pediment and roof ornaments -glittering in the sun.</p> - -<p>The last four campaigns of digging attacked the Forum -area, thickly overgrown with asphodel, acanthus, and thistles. -Here lay the remains of an ungainly but monumental triple -arch of about 150 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, the oldest dated arch in Italy. It had -a central roadway for wheeled traffic, two side arches for -pedestrians, and a stone bench attached to the outer face -where old men could sit in the sun and gossip. There was -a basilica, as big as a New England town hall, like Alba’s -(but older: about 180 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>). It presented its long side to the -Forum, had a nave and two side aisles, and a tribune for -the presiding judge at the back, with a vaulted cell, perhaps -the local lock-up, beneath it. At some time in the early -Empire the basilica was abandoned as a legal center, and -restored as a festival hall, or intimate theater.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span></p> - -<div id="ip_4_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25.8125em;"> - <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="413" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.6</span> Cosa, Capitolium. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -Other buildings turned out to hold fascinating secrets. A -complex beside the basilica turned out to be an Atrium -Publicum, a public hall in the form of the central unit of an -Italic house, which was rebuilt as an inn for the patrons of -the adjoining festival hall. When, about <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 35 (on the evidence -of pottery—the “Arretine ware” characteristic of the -period), the basilica wall collapsed, it crushed and entombed -in place the inn’s complete furnishings and equipment. The -excavators suddenly found their hands full of tableware, -kitchen crockery, and all sorts of household gear, in metal, -glass, and stone; decorative pieces, including a lively marble -statuette of Marsyas; and objects of personal adornment, -including a fine engraved amethyst. For the first time outside -of Pompeii an ancient building had yielded not only its -structure but its contents.</p> - -<p>On the other side of the basilica, excavation of what had -been called Building C brought further surprises. When the -workmen had stripped the surface humus off the area of the -forecourt, the excavators found themselves looking at a -perfect circle of dark earth enclosed by a sandy yellow fill. -Further digging established this as a circular, theater-like -structure, big enough to hold 600 people. There was an -altar in the middle. This must have been the Comitium, -the colony’s assembly-place (<a href="#ip_4_7">Fig. 4.7</a>). Building C, behind -it, must have been the Curia, or Senate House. The undisturbed -fill under the Curia floor proved completely sterile; -hence the curia must have been built at a date near the -foundation of the colony. At this stage both Curia and -Comitium were apparently of wood, replaced in a second -phase, before the end of the third century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, with purple -tufa from nearby Vulci.</p> - -<div id="ip_4_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="600" height="553" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.7</span> Cosa, Comitium. -(L. Richardson, Jr., <i>Archaeology</i> 10 [1957], p. 50)</div></div> - -<p>A healthy site, an orderly plan, a water supply, strong -walls, housing, provision for political and religious needs: -the basic necessities are all here, at Cosa, and all as early as -the founding of the colony. By hard work, painstaking -accuracy, and intelligent inference, Brown and Richardson, -the excavators of Cosa, have given us the clearest possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -picture of the physical structure of a Roman colony well on -in the first intense period of history in the planting of advanced -bases. Cosa is clearly the fruit of long practice and -Etrusco-Italic tradition, untouched by Hellenism (no Greek -architectural language in sculptural or ornamental marble) -or by new-fangled techniques (no brick or concrete in the -early phases). When we carry down Cosa’s architectural -history to the early Empire, we infer the death of freedom -of speech from the remodelling of the basilica into a theater. -And when freedom of speech and public life died, the colony -lost its sense of community. Its thirty-three acres would -have held 3000 to 3500 settlers comfortably. But the first -draft of settlers numbered probably 2500 families. (We<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -infer families, not soldiers only, from the discovery of loomweights, -hardly appropriate for Roman legionaries.) 2500 -families make a population of at least 7500, and probably -more, given Italian philoprogenitiveness. Some of these must -have lived well outside the colony; only those whose centuriated -allotments, explained below, lay nearest the walls -would have lived in the colony proper. The holders of more -distant plots would come to town only for market, worship, -litigation (as long as the basilica lasted), or refuge from -raiding parties of Gauls or other enemies. And so, under -despotism, the community disintegrated. The temples held -on longest. “Only the gods, in the end,” writes Professor -Brown, “held steadfastly to their ancient seats.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>By derivation, a <i>colonia</i> is a place where men till the soil. -Colonists were assigned centuriated allotments. Since traces -of centuriation have been found both at Alba Fucens and -at Cosa (Figs. <a href="#ip_4_8">4.8</a> and <a href="#ip_4_9">4.9</a>), as well as at nearly fifty other -certain and half as many possible sites in Italy, this seems -an appropriate place to discuss the subject. Wherever colonies -were planted, wherever land was captured, confiscated, -redistributed to the poor or to veterans, the surveyor -with his <i>groma</i>, or plane-table, was on hand. Air photography -is a great help in revealing traces of the Roman surveyor -at work, for modern land-use has often overlaid the -ancient traces, leaving ancient crop-marks as the only clue. -The standard surveyor’s unit was the <i>centuria</i> of 200 <i>iugera</i> -(the <i>iugerum</i>, five-eighths of an acre, being the area an -ox could plow in a day), and a side of twenty <i>actus</i> (776 -yards), its corners marked by boundary stones, some of -which survive. There has been too little digging to confirm -the results of air reconnaissance, but it seems clear that -some centuriation goes back to the late third century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> -Dr. Ferdinando Castagnoli, the Italian expert, is inclined -to date that of Alba and Cosa at least this early, as well -as large stretches in the fertile Campanian plain northwest -of Naples.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p> - -<div id="ip_4_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19.6875em;"> - <img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="315" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.8</span> Alba Fucens, centuriation.</p> - -<p>(F. Castagnoli, <i>Bull. Mus. Civiltà Rom.</i> 18 [1954–1955], p. 5)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p> - -<div id="ip_4_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_032b.jpg" width="600" height="409" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.9</span> Cosa, centuriation. (F. Castagnoli, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 6)</div></div> - -<p>The surveyor liked to link up his centuriated grid with -a colony plan. Thus at Cosa the <i>groma</i>, for siting the allotments, -could have been set up in the Porta Romana (the -northeast gate), and at Alba the line of the Via Valeria -inside the walls, if projected, would cut the lines of centuriation -at right angles. The four sides of the <i>centuria</i> -were usually marked by roads, the inner subdivisions by -narrower roads, trees, hedges, or drainage or irrigation -ditches. Modern land-use often follows the line of the ancient: -one stretch recently laid out and now in use at Sesto, -west of Florence, deliberately follows the traces of Roman -centuriation, restored by a classically trained engineer for -modern man to admire. As with the grid inside a colony -wall, the centuriated grid of allotments was laid out from a -basic <i>cardo</i> and <i>decumanus</i>. The Roman surveyors were -balked by no natural barriers. Bradford cites one line of -centuriation running as high as 1600 feet above sea level<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -(though within the <i>centuriae</i> the furrows might follow the -contours) and another, in Dalmatia, continues from a peninsula -across to the mainland, spanning an arm of the Adriatic -Sea three miles wide. In north Italy, where the flatlands -of the Po Valley made the survey easy, one can ride from -Turin (Roman Augusta Taurinorum) to Trieste (Roman -Tergeste), three hundred miles, through centuriated systems -all the way. The same air photographs which revealed -neolithic sites to Bradford in Apulia showed Roman centuriation, -too, and subsequent digging turned up pottery -of Gracchan date (about 133–122 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>). A particularly extensive -stretch, outside of Italy, is found in Tunisia. It has -been traced from the air 175 miles from Bizerta to Sfax, -and southwestward from Cape Bon for 100 miles inland. -It probably goes back to ambitious plans of Gaius Gracchus, -about 122 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, to resettle Rome’s urban proletariat.</p> - -<div id="ip_4_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.375em;"> - <img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="470" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 4.10</span> Paestum: Roman grid of streets (air-photograph).</p> - -<p>(Italian Ministry of Aeronautics)</p></div></div> - -<p>The examples of colonized and centuriated sites mentioned -here hardly even scratch the surface of the subject. -Dozens of others remain to be explored, on hilltops and -headlands, by rivers and crossroads, the length and breadth -of Italy. Recent excavation at the Latin colony of Paestum, -on the coast fifty miles southeast of Naples, has traced the -Roman grid (<a href="#ip_4_10">Fig. 4.10</a>), identified yet another Comitium, -and produced over 1,000,000 small finds. And still other -colonial sites lie under populous modern towns and cities: -examples, in chronological order of planting, are Anzio, -Bimini, Benevento, Brindisi, Spoleto, Cremona, Piacenza, -Pozzuoli, Salerno, Vibo Valentia, Bologna, Pèsaro, Parma, -Modena, and Òsimo. Their foundation-dates span the years -from about 338 to 157 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, the expanding years of the -Roman Republic, the years of “Manifest Destiny.” Their -continued existence compliments the Roman founders’ nice -eye for a promising site, but makes large-scale investigation -of Roman levels difficult or impossible, for residents of -flourishing modern cities naturally resist resettlement in -the interests of archaeology. Excavation in these populated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -areas must wait upon repair of war damage, urban improvements -(as when laying new sewer mains reveals -Roman ones that follow the grid of the Roman streets), or -new building to bring new facts to light. No colony has -been completely excavated. At least forty per cent of ancient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -Ostia and Pompeii remains to be dug. But generations -of archaeologists of many nations have dealt patiently and -intelligently with the evidence. Perhaps, considering the -long span of two-and-a-half millennia since the earliest tradition -of the planting of Roman colonies, the wonder is -not that we know so little but that we know so much.</p> - -<p>What archaeology has revealed is the story of the exploitation -of a frontier, with much that is exciting, and -much that is sordid. There are many points of resemblance -to the history of the American West, though two differences -should be emphasized: the Romans often planted -their outposts in the territory not of savages but of their -cultural equals, and the Roman frontier was settled not by -private but by government enterprise. But the likenesses -are striking. Centuriation produces something like quarter-sections; -land grants to veterans resemble grants under the -Homestead Act; the Roman grid town-plans were reproduced -in our Spanish settlements of the Southwest. And -perhaps, on the Roman as on the American frontier, the -atmosphere was less democratic than Frederick Jackson -Turner thought.</p> - -<p>What archaeology digs up in the colonies is material remains, -brute facts, but what it infers is men; men marching -out in serried ranks under their standards for the formal -act of founding (<i>deductio</i>); Romans and local Italians living -side by side with some degree of amity and equality; -Romans impressing their ways and speech on the peoples -round about; Roman slum-dwellers given a new chance in -the new territory; large estates broken up to give land to -the landless; grizzled veterans settled in the quiet countryside -after a lifetime of hard campaigning; Romans homesick -in strange places; undergoing the rigors of frontier -existence; subject to the ferment of success and failure; -forging a cultural life (the epic poet Ennius, the dramatist -Pacuvius, the satirist Lucilius, all came from Roman colonies).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -The grid plans, in town and country, as Bradford has -pointed out, show, if not genius, then strong determination -and great powers of organization. The grids are, like the -Romans themselves, methodical, self-assured, technically -competent. They are also regimented, arbitrary, doctrinaire, -and opportunist. This was the price the Mediterranean -world had to pay for the security of the Roman peace.</p> - -<p>But before that peace-without-freedom could be enjoyed, -the Roman Republic was to suffer its death throes. That -blood-bath was the work of the nabobs of the last century -before Christ, who left their stamp, as nabobs will, on the -buildings they erected to testify to their glory.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_5" class="vspace">5<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Nabobs as Builders: Sulla, Pompey, Caesar</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The aftermath of Sulla’s second march on Rome in 83 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> -was a spate of political murders and confiscations. The -profits were enormous, and Sulla used them for the most -ambitious building program in the history of the Republic. -His motive was in part the desire to rival what he had -seen in the cities of the Greek East, in part his understanding -that massive building projects are the outward and -visible sign of princely power. And so he monumentalized -the same Forum in which he displayed the severed heads -of his enemies, planning, in the Tabularium, or Records -Office, a theatrical backdrop for the tragedy which in the -ensuing years was to be played below. He settled 100,000 -of his veterans in colonies in central and south Italy. He -built or reinforced walls in Rome, Ostia, and Alba Fucens; -theaters in Pompeii, Alba, Bovianum Vetus, and Faesulae; -he built temples in Tibur, Cora, Tarracina, Pompeii and -Paestum. And this is only a sample of his prodigious building -activity. But by all odds the most grandiose of his -completed projects took shape at Praeneste (nowadays -Palestrina), a little over twenty miles east of Rome, where -he sacked the town to punish it for taking the side of his -enemy Marius. He then built or restored there the great,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -axially-symmetrical, terraced Sanctuary of Fortune, the most -splendid monument in Italy of the Roman Republic.</p> - -<p>In 1944 allied bombing sheared off the houses from the -steep south-facing slope where the medieval and modern -town was built, and revealed the plan of the Sanctuary. -Now, after fourteen years of excavation and restoring (reinforcement -with steel beams, injecting liquid concrete, loving -reproduction of the craft of ancient masons), the plan -is clearer than it has been at any time since antiquity. The -finds are displayed to advantage in the Barberini Palace -at the top of the Sanctuary, splendidly reconstructed as a -museum. The site repays a visit perhaps more than any -other in Latium.</p> - -<p>The archaeological zone of Palestrina falls into an upper -and a lower part. In the lower area exciting discoveries -were made in 1958. Its southernmost retaining wall, and -the monumental ramped entrance, the Propylaea—enlivened -in antiquity with jets of water playing—was cleared. Between -it and the buildings of the lower zone, excavation -seventy years before had shown traces of pools and shaded -porticoes. In 1958, also, the façade was removed from the -cathedral in the center of the lower zone, revealing behind -it an imposing Roman temple with a lofty arched entrance, -its <i>cella</i> corresponding to the forward (south) part of the -nave of the present church. To the left rear (northwest) -of this temple was a natural cave, long known as the Antro -delle Sorti, where, according to time-honored local lore, the -lots were cast which gave this sanctuary of Luck its fame. -The cave, the excavators discovered, had been monumentalized -into the apse of a building (not shown in the plan), -its floor paved with a mosaic representing the sea off Alexandria. -The mosaic was sunk a couple of inches below -floor level and sloped forward to allow a thin film of water -to play over it, which brightens the colors and makes the -mosaic fish extraordinarily realistic. The mosaic also portrays -architectural elements—an altar, column, and capital—in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -what corresponds to the so-called Second Style at -Pompeii, dated in the first half of the first century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>Opposite this building in the plan is another with a -grotto much like the natural cave on the left. It was from -this apse, again at a level a couple of inches below the -rest of the floor, that the famous Barberini mosaic (<a href="#ip_5_1">Fig. 5.1</a>) -came, a late Hellenistic copy of an original of the early -Ptolemaic age in Egypt. It is now handsomely restored and -displayed in the museum at the top of the Upper Sanctuary. -The mosaic combines a zoological picture-book of the -Egyptian Sudan—its real and fabulous monsters labelled -in Greek—with a spirited scene of the Nile in flood, with -farm-house, dove cote, a shipload of soldiers, crocodiles, -hippopotamuses, an elegant awninged pavilion, a towered -villa in a garden, a group of soldiers feasting in mixed -company (after them, the deluge), more wine, women -and song in an arbor nearby, behind the pavilion a temple -with statues of Egyptian gods in front, before them a man -riding, his servant following afoot with baggage; behind -the arbor a straw hut, with ibises in flight above it; in the -flood waters, canoes (one loaded with lotus blossoms) and -two large Nile river craft with curving prows—altogether -the most spirited essay which has come down to us in -the art of the mosaic. Interest in Egypt is a striking feature -of both Pompeian and Roman wall-painting of the last -half-century of the Republic and the early Empire. Examples -are the scene from Pompeii of pygmies fighting a -rhinoceros and a crocodile, now in the Naples Museum, -the cult scenes from the Hall of Isis under the Flavian -Palace on the Palatine, and the frescoes of the Pharaoh -Bocchoris in the Terme Museum from the villa under the -Farnesina. Alexandria was then the intellectual and artistic -capital of the world. The Lucullus who founded the Sullan -colony at Praeneste appears from an inscription found in -the lower area to be not the famous <i>bon vivant</i> (who had -been in Alexandria, the first foreign general ever to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -entertained by a Ptolemy in the palace) but his brother -Marcus. Nevertheless the two brothers were very close, -and the more famous of them may have supplied the mosaic, -the mosaic-maker, or the idea of using Egyptian motifs.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.1</span> Palestrina, Museum. Barberini mosaic. (Museum photo)</div></div> - -<p>M. Lucullus’ name was carved on a fallen epistyle, a -marble block intended to connect two columns. Where did -the block belong? Gullini, the excavator, connected it with -a building which ran between the two apsidal halls in the -lower area. What survives is a back wall, built in the technique -called <i>opus incertum</i>, a strong lime and rubble wall, -studded externally with fist-sized stones of irregular shape. -This technique was standard in the age of Sulla. The wall -was decorated at regular intervals with two stories of half-columns, -ingeniously combining function with decoration: -they mask drainage conduits. The pavement in front of the -wall shows the marks of two column-bases in two different -rows, enough to justify restoring on paper a whole forest -of twenty-four columns. Two dimensions are known: the -diameter of the bases and the height of the half-columns -on the wall behind. Their proportionate relation is appropriate -to Corinthian columns, and some Corinthian capitals -of a size to fit were found in the area. Working from these -finds, the architect Fasolo could restore on paper a two-story -basilica (<a href="#ip_5_2">Fig. 5.2</a>, bottom) between the two apsidal -halls (only one hall is shown in the reconstruction). The -basilica is on a higher level than the newly-isolated temple -to the south of it. The difference in level is made most -clearly visible by sets of superimposed columns on the -southwest side of the basilica (where the lower columns are -below the basilica pavement level), by the pavement below -the <i>piazza</i> of the modern town, and in the façade of the -right-hand (eastern) apsidal hall, which is in <i>opus incertum</i>, -while its lower level, the colony’s <i>aerarium</i> or treasury, -heavily built of tufa blocks, had the difference in construction -hidden by a portico with Doric columns.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p> - -<div id="ip_5_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.6875em;"> - <img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="427" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.2</span></p> - -<p>Palestrina, Sanctuary of Fortune, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(H. Kähler, <i>Gnomon</i> 30 [1958], p. 372)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_5_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.3125em;"> - <img src="images/i_035b.jpg" width="469" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.3</span> Palestrina, Sanctuary of Fortune, -inclined column capitals.</p> - -<p>(G. Gullini, <i>Guida</i>, Figs. 13 and 15)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -The terrace marking the transition between the lower -area and the Upper Sanctuary used to be covered by houses -and shops, all damaged or destroyed by the 1944 bombing. -When the debris was cleared away, it was found that the -modern buildings had rested on a two-level terrace (I and -II in the reconstruction), and had backed against and -protected from centuries of weathering 325 magnificent -feet of polygonal wall. The wall gives an architectonic front -to the cliff and is at the same time functional. Its top was -the architect’s base line; on it he built his complex, a splendid -series of superimposed terraces, which, now that the -rubble from the bombing has been cleared away, is revealed -in all its magnificence, of ramps (III), Hemicycle Terrace -(IV), Terrace of Arches with Half-columns (V), and Cortina -Terrace (VI), all leading up to the final stepped hemicycle -(VII) with the circular <i>tholos</i> for the cult statue at -the very top. A draped torso in blue Rhodian marble (now -in the museum), of a size to fit the <i>tholos</i>—whose dimensions -are preserved in the fabric of the Barberini Palace—may -be the cult statue of the goddess Fortune: Lady Luck -herself.</p> - -<p>The next level is approached by a pair of imposing ramps -running east and west, converging on an axis. Fasolo and -Gullini found that the ramps were supported by a series -of concrete vaults, concealed, all but one, by a facing of -<i>opus incertum</i> (see p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>). The exception is the central -vault, which was left open, lined with waterproof concrete, -and made into a fountain-house. The terrace in front -of the ramps is beautifully paved with polygonal blocks. -A room—perhaps priests’ quarters—at the bottom of the left -ramp is decorated in the Pompeian First Style—embossed -polychrome squares, red, buff, and green, with dado. -Houses at Pompeii thus decorated are dated between 150 -and 80 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, so that this decoration accords with a Sullan -date. The decorated room is paved with waterproof cement -with bits of white limestone imbedded in it. The technique, -called <i>lithostroton</i>, was in vogue in Sulla’s time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -On the ramps were found three curious column capitals, -which at first puzzled the excavators, and then gave the -clue to the whole complex on top of the ramps. What is -odd about the capitals is that they incline (<a href="#ip_5_3">Fig. 5.3</a>) twenty-two -degrees with respect to the axis of the columns. Since -this slant corresponds to the grade of the ramp, the columns -must have been intended to bear an inclined architrave or -beam of stone. This poses a difficult problem in statics; -that Sulla’s architect solved it is the wonder of his modern -successors. The roadway up the ramp shows, on the outboard -(south) side of a drain running up its middle, a -stylobate (course of masonry on which columns rested) -with cuttings for column bases. Reading these stones, Fasolo -and Gullini concluded that the outboard half of the roadway -up the ramp was roofed, while the inboard half was -open to the sky. On the extreme outboard edge of the roadway -are preserved the remains, about a yard high, of a wall -in <i>opus incertum</i>, with the bottoms of half-columns, their -fluting laid on in stucco, mortised into it at intervals corresponding -to the cuttings in the stylobate. The half-round -profile at the bottom of the wall suggests projecting the -same profile all the way up. This involves restoring a blank -windowless wall (windows would make it too weak to -bear the weight of the roof) closing the entire south side -of the porticoed roadway, blocking the breath-taking view -across Latium to the sea, and forcing the eye upward to -the top of the ramp. Architectural members designed to -be clamped together in pairs, of a size to fit the tops of -the inclined capitals, gave the answer to the question how -the portico was roofed. One of the pairs supported a barrel -vault, the other a vertical masonry wall designed to mask -the spring of the vault. Other architectural members, with -an oblique chamfer, found at the top and the bottom of -the ramp, suggest that the ends of the vaults were masked -with a pediment or gable end, and therefore that the whole -vault was covered with a pitch roof. The two ramps debouch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -at the top in an open space paved in herringbone brick, -a sort of balcony with—at last—a splendid view southward. -To the north a stair led to the next level, the level of the -Hemicycle Terrace.</p> - -<p>The Hemicycle Terrace (IV) is planned, Fasolo and -Gullini discovered, symmetrically to the axis of the whole -composition, at this level marked by a central stair which -has suffered a good deal from having had a modern house -built on top of it. One can make out, however, that the -stair was narrowed at one point (where there may have -been a gate) by fountain niches on either side. The play -of water is important at every level of the Sanctuary. Under -the stair passes a vaulted corridor connecting the two axially -symmetrical halves of the terrace. Closest to the stair on -each side are four arches; beyond these, the monumental -hemicycles which are the architectonic center of each wing. -They have vaulted, coffered ceilings, and a concentric colonnade -with Ionic-Italic (four-voluted) columns. Before they -were restored, these were badly corroded, and covered -with verdigris from the acid of the coppersmith’s shop which -occupied the spot before the bombing. The epistyle carries -an inscription, almost illegible, but apparently referring to -building and restoring done on the initiative of the local -Senate, presumably after the Sullan sack. The outer surface -or extrados of the vaults is concealed—as it was on -the porticoed ramp—by a story called an attic, in <i>opus -incertum</i>, divided into rectangular panels by engaged columns -with semicircular drums in tufa. At the back of each -hemicycle runs a platform approached by two steps, with -consoles on which planks could be placed to make more -room; this suggests that it was intended for spectators to -stand on. The pavement, as in the room at the foot of the -ramp, is <i>lithostroton</i>; the likeness in the paving justifies the -inference that the two terraces (III and IV) were built -about the same time. On the far side of each hemicycle -are four more arches. In front of the right-hand (eastern)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -hemicycle is a wishing well, with footings round it from -which Fasolo and Gullini have been able to restore to the -last detail, with the help of some architectural fragments, -a small round well-house, with a high grille above its -balustrade, now to be seen in the museum. Coins found -in the well, whose heaviest concentration is in the mid-second -century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>, suggest that the well-house is much -later in date than the terrace on which it stands. But the -well-house stands on the central terrace of seven; it may -have been the spot where, in the early days of the Sanctuary, -the lots were cast. From either end of the Hemicycle -Terrace ramps (<a href="#ip_5_4">Fig. 5.4</a>) ascended to the Cortina Terrace -(VI), the next but one above.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="600" height="391" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"> - -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.4</span> Palestrina, Sanctuary of Fortune. Model from southwest, -showing buttresses, and ramp from Hemicycle Terrace to Cortina -Terrace. (H. Kähler, <i>Ann. Univ. Saraviensis</i> 7 [1958], Pl. 39)</p></div></div> - -<p>The stair which divides the Hemicycle Terrace leads to -the Terrace of the Arches with Half-columns (V), also -symmetrically planned on the axis of the stair. There are -nine deep arches on either side of the stair. Possibly these -were stalls for the various guilds—wine merchants, wagoners,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -cooks, weavers, garland-makers, second-hand dealers, -money-changers—who, as we know from inscriptions, made -dedications to Fortune, and had a financial interest in her -Sanctuary. Here again close observation has enabled the -excavators to tell exactly how the façade of this terrace -looked when it was new. The even-numbered arches are -narrower and lower than the odd-numbered ones, are left -rough within, and are floored with a pebble fill, from all -of which it is inferred that they were not meant to be -seen. Sills found <i>in situ</i>, and uprights, cornices, and volutes, -found on the Hemicycle Terrace, where they do not fit into -the architecture, and therefore must have fallen from above, -can be restored as blind doors set in the walls which closed -the even-numbered arches. Small travertine panels, with -a molded surround, and a cornice above, found on this -terrace, will have been set into the wall on either side of -the blind doors, at lintel level. The same decorative motif -was found in place on the back wall of the basilica area -in the lower zone. The repetition of motif makes an aesthetic -link between the two levels. The odd-numbered arches are -mosaic-paved and plastered, and were therefore meant to -be visible. Enough remains in place to show that the profile -of the arch was set with tufa blocks supported on -pilasters. These alternating open arches framed with pilasters -and closed arches with blind doors all supported -an epistyle and cornice which in turn supported the parapet -of the Cortina Terrace above.</p> - -<p>The Cortina Terrace (VI), nearly 400 feet deep, was a -hollow square, open to the south except for a balustrade, -closed to the east and west by a three-columned portico, -connected at the back (north) with a <i>lithostroton</i>-paved -vaulted corridor, called a cryptoporticus, which runs under -the stair to the semicircular Terrace VII. Again, similarity -of plan and décor ties the whole ensemble together. (Nowadays, -the approach to Terrace VII is by a double-access -stair, but this is of the seventeenth century.) At the back<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -of the terrace, six arches, three on either side of the central -stair, gave access to the cryptoporticus. At either end of -the three-arch sequence is an arched projecting fountain -house in appearance not unlike a Roman triumphal arch, -with a pair of narrow windows in its back wall, opening -on the cryptoporticus. Heavy deposits of lime on the back -wall suggest an arrangement whereby persons passing -through the cryptoporticus could look out through a thin -sheet of water onto the Cortina Terrace. Enough traces -remain to restore on paper the three-columned portico on -the east and west. It was roofed with a pair of barrel vaults, -coffered like the ones in the hemicycles of Terrace IV -(another aesthetic link), and roofed like the great east-west -ramps which connect Terraces III and IV. The portico’s -outer walls were buttressed, and the north-south ramps -from the Hemicycle Terrace also helped to counter the -outward thrust.</p> - -<p>And so we come to the exedra, the seventh of the superimposed -terrace levels, a most holy place, where the priests -could appear and offer sacrifice on an altar in full view -of the faithful assembled on the semicircular steps. At -the top of the exedra there now rises the splendid semicircle -of the Barberini Palace, but plate glass let into the -museum’s ground floor paving shows the tufa footings of -a semicircular series of columns, which must have been -the middle set of another double portico answering to the -one on the Cortina Terrace below, and, like it, double-barrel-vaulted -and pitch-roofed, but of course semicircular -in plan instead of U-shaped. Access to the porticoes was -not on the central axis of the whole complex, but by a -short narrow stair at either end of the exedra. (We shall -see how Hadrian, too, centuries later, liked these split-access -arrangements.) But, though there is no direct approach, -the distance between the columns on either side -of the main axis is extra-wide, to give a better view of the -circular building (<i>tholos</i>) above and behind, the culminating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -point of the whole plan, where the cult statue was -placed.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="600" height="357" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.5</span> Palestrina, Museum. Sanctuary of Fortune, model.</p> - -<p>(J. Felbermeyer photo)</p></div></div> - -<p>Such is the careful plan of the complex, justifying this -detailed treatment because it is a turning point in the history -of Roman architecture, perhaps the most seminal -architectural complex in the whole Roman world. Everything -(<a href="#ip_5_5">Fig. 5.5</a>) centers on an axis, everything rises, aspires -to the apex at the cult-statue, embracing a superb and at -each level more extensive view of the plain stretching away -southward to the sea. The materials and technique with -which this form is realized and supported are interesting -in themselves and for what they contribute to the dating -of the Sanctuary. The basic materials are tufa, limestone, -and concrete; no marble is used except in statuary. Limestone, -which in Roman architecture comes to predominance -later than tufa, is used for the facing of polygonal walls and -<i>opus incertum</i>, for décor (<i>e.g.</i>, the Corinthian capitals of -tufa columns), for pavements. The limestone spalls or chips -left over from the facing of <i>opus incertum</i> were used in -concrete cores and for fill. Tufa is used for footings, structure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -in squared blocks (<i>e.g.</i>, caissons for concrete), the -voussoirs, or wedge-shaped blocks, of arches, column drums, -the core of stuccoed decorative elements, cornices, corners. -Both materials are subordinate to concrete.</p> - -<p>The use of concrete at Palestrina amounts to an architectural -revolution, and, as often, the revolution in taste -is combined with a revolution in materials and methods. -This strong, cheap, immensely tough material enabled the -architect to enclose space in any shape; henceforward architects -could concentrate on interiors, and the day of the -box-like temple was over. The architectural history that -culminates in the Pantheon begins here. The architect was -clearly more expert in the use of concrete than in the use -of stone. Palestrina concrete is hydraulic, a combination of -limestone chips and mortar made of <i>pozzolana</i> (volcanic -sand) and lime. Concrete footings, Fasolo and Gullini -found, go down to bedrock everywhere; <i>e.g.</i>, each of the -three rows of columns of the Cortina Terrace portico rests -on a foundation wall of concrete based on bedrock, while -the space between is hollow, to relieve weight. For the -same reason the whole hollow square of the Cortina Terrace -rests on a series of rectangular concrete coffers with -a stone fill. The result of this use of concrete is that the -whole Upper Sanctuary is structurally a single unit. Each -level is planned as a step toward, and a retaining wall of, -the level next above. The stresses, Fasolo reports, are never -more than about three pounds per square yard for walls -and eight pounds per square yard for columns; this in a -structure which is in effect a skyscraper 400 feet high. -There is repetition of motif throughout, not from paucity -of imagination, or because it is the easy way, but of set -aesthetic purpose, to emphasize the concealed structural -unity and to use the functional parts of the complex to give -architectonic unity to the whole. Thus the upper hemicycle -stair repeats the two hemicycles of the lower terrace, -and the relation between them is a triangle, which repeats<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -in a different plane the triangle of the double converging -ramp. The arches are treated as beams to bear the weight -of stone construction, and the stone construction is a caisson -for the concrete.</p> - -<p>Fasolo and Gullini argue ingeniously for a date earlier -than Sulla for the Sanctuary, but their arguments have not -found general favor. The most that can be said is that certain -inscriptions mentioning restoration, reconstruction, or dedications -to Fortune earlier than 80 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> imply a previously -existing and probably much simpler structure, centering on -the east half of the Hemicycle Terrace, but nothing in the -technique or materials now visible or inferred requires -other than a Sullan date for any part of the Sanctuary.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_038.jpg" width="600" height="325" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.6</span> Kos, Sanctuary of Asclepius, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(R. Herzog and P. Schatzmann, <i>Kos</i> 1, Pl. 40)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_5_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_038b.jpg" width="600" height="431" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.7</span> Tarracina. View toward Circeii from Temple of Jupiter Anxur.</p> - -<p>(H. Kähler, <i>Rom und seine Welt</i>, Pl. 49)</p></div></div> - -<p>In materials and methods, in massiveness and axial symmetry, -the Sanctuary of Fortune bears a Roman stamp. -But when we recall the experience of Sulla and his lieutenants, -the Luculli, in the Creek East, Greek influence -is very likely. Of the many Hellenistic Greek complexes -available for comparison, the closest in spirit to Palestrina -is the Sanctuary of Asclepius on the island of Kos in the -Dodacanese, in the southeast Aegean Sea, where the major -temple, built in the mid-second century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, is the focal -point of a grandiose composition (<a href="#ip_5_6">Fig. 5.6</a>). Placed on the -highest of three terraces, it is framed by a three-sided colonnade -like the Cortina Terrace at Palestrina, and approached -by three successive monumental stairways leading up the -lower terraces, which are arched as at Palestrina. A few -standard architectural ingredients, arches, colonnades, monumental -stairways, are grouped as a clearly defined composition, -easy to grasp, simple, bold, plastic, the few standard -elements firmly juxtaposed. Contrasts of scale, an elevated -and central position, an axial approach, all make of the -temple the focal, culminating point of the composition. It -is exactly so at Palestrina, and in scores of other Hellenistic -sanctuaries. Also noteworthy in both places is “the same -outspoken taste for vista. Not only is the triple-terraced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -sanctuary visible from afar, not only is the crowning element, -a temple, a beacon toward which visitor and worshipper -alike are drawn by the now familiar devices of -setting, frontality and access, but again, once we have -reached the summit, a scene of breathtaking beauty, of -unexpected amplitude, of mountain, sea and plain confronts -us.” The words are those of Phyllis Lehmann, from whom -the description of the site at Kos draws heavily, but they -were reinforced by a visit made by the present writer to -the island in September, 1956, expressly to compare the -site with Palestrina. Mrs. Lehmann goes on, “Although -many factors, notably the sanctity of a cult spot, were involved -in the choice of such sites, their architectural treatment -attests a keen awareness of landscape setting as a -prime aesthetic ingredient in the total effect.” The unknown -architect-genius who planned Palestrina probably knew the -Greek Sanctuary at Kos; he was certainly in touch with -the main movement of mind of his age. But the final impression -of this dynamic, utterly functional, axially symmetric -complex is not Greek but Roman, a great memorial -façade to celebrate the end of a Civil War. Italy as well -as Greece can provide ground-plans by which parts of the -Sanctuary at Palestrina might have been inspired, notably -one in Cagliari in Sardinia, and another at Gabii, near Rome.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33.5625em;"> - <img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="537" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.8</span> Tarracina. Temple of Jupiter Anxur, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(F. Fasolo and G. Gullini, <i>Il Santuario di Fortuna Primigenia</i>, Pl. 25)</p></div></div> - -<p>This Roman classical masterpiece has, then, ancestors; -what about its descendants? They are many: from the -Sanctuary of Fortune contemporary and later architects -learned much. An example of this influence is the Temple -of Jupiter Anxur at Tarracina, above the Via Appia where -it touches the coast sixty-seven miles south of Rome. Here -the use of concrete, of <i>opus incertum</i>, of arch and vault, -of setting and landscape, is in the unmistakable idiom of -Sulla’s architect. It is an architectural complex and a seascape -which mediates, as Palestrina does, between man -and nature. It is designed to capture attention from the -colony below, to become more impressive as one approaches,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -and to give a gradually widening view of the sea as one -ascends. The temple was oriented north and south, with -a portico behind (<a href="#ip_5_8">Fig. 5.8</a>). It is set at an angle upon a -tremendous concrete podium, with arched cryptoporticus as -at Palestrina. On the seaward side the play of light and -shadow on the podium arches is enormously impressive; -on the side toward Sperlonga the sturdy blind buttress<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -arches are again strongly reminiscent of what we have seen -on the Terrace of the Half-columns. Within the cryptoporticus -(the vaults under the Temple platform) the play -of light and shadow is again very satisfying, and yet the -structure is functional as well: the cryptoporticus lightens -the huge weight of the concrete, and the sturdy concrete -construction has stood the test of time.</p> - -<p>Another Sullan descendant is the Tabularium (Public -Records Office) in Rome (<a href="#ip_5_9">Fig. 5.9</a>), finished in 78 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> by -Quintus Lutatius Catulus, to whom Sulla’s veterans transferred -their allegiance after Sulla’s death. It was a part of -Sulla’s plan for monumentalizing the Forum, to provide, -as it were, a scenic backdrop for it, which serves at the -same time as a terrace-level to give order to the Capitoline -Hill above. Its plan, its frontality, and its use of arch, vault -and concrete is in the Palestrina tradition. There is a cryptoporticus -in concrete, fronted by arches framed in half-columns -placed at points in the wall which required extra -strength. The upper levels of the Tabularium were removed -by Michelangelo when he designed the Palazzo del Senatore, -Rome’s city hall. Perhaps this may be taken as a -symbol of the extent and the limits of the influence of -Palestrina’s architect on Renaissance masters. One archeologist, -Heinz Kähler, has argued, ingeniously but without -carrying conviction, for an influence of the Cortina Terrace -and the exedra above it upon the design of Pompey’s -theater in Rome: one nabob borrowing architectural effects -from another.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25.6875em;"> - <img src="images/i_040.jpg" width="411" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.9</span> Rome, Tabularium. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_5_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 35.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="572" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.10</span> Tivoli, Temple of Hercules Victor, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(Fasolo and Gullini, <i>op. cit.</i>, Pl. 27)</p></div></div> - -<p>Finally, about the time of Cicero’s consulship (63 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), -Palestrina influenced the Sanctuary of Hercules Victor at -Tivoli, well-known to many from Piranesi’s etching as the -Villa of Maecenas. Like Kos and Palestrina (Cortina Terrace), -it had a portico on three sides, and a temple against -the back wall. Nowadays it houses a paper-mill, but forty -years ago the portico was uncluttered. There was an approach -by ramp and semicircular stair (<a href="#ip_5_10">Fig. 5.10</a>), very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -theatrical, like Palestrina and the Tabularium; the material -is again concrete faced with <i>opus incertum</i>. The podium is -again supported on concrete vaults, and lightened by a -complicated arrangement of subterranean rooms. A vast -cryptoporticus pierces the whole podium to carry the Via -Tiburtina, the main road from Rome to Tivoli. The famous -terraced gardens of the Villa d’Este nearby, with their plays -of water, felt the inspiration of Palestrina; their architect, -Pirro Ligorio, has left sketches of our site made by him -on the spot. Pietro da Cortona, Bramante, Raphael, Palladio<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -and Bernini also knew and sketched Palestrina. Another -successful terrace plan inspired by Palestrina is Valadier’s -treatment in the 19th century of the steep slope up -the Pincio from the Piazza del Popolo in Rome.</p> - -<p>Palestrina inspired the architects of the Roman Empire, -too: for example—one among many—it influenced to some -extent (see also p. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>) the architect of Trajan’s Market -in Rome, who uses terracing, concrete, and framed arches -(but the arches are flat, the framing is pilasters instead of -half-columns, and the façade is brick instead of <i>opus incertum</i>.) -The inspiration does not stop here: it is to be -found on the Palatine, in Hadrian’s villa near Tivoli, Diocletian’s -Baths in Rome, and his palace at Spalato, and the -Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum.</p> - -<p>From his building, from which the history of Roman -architecture really begins, we can reconstruct the personality -of the architect. It makes the whole history of Roman -architecture come alive, when we really know one complex. -The architect was a master of the manipulation of -surface, of light and shade, of counterthrust, controlled -views, the unitary plan, of space both full and empty. For -him, organic function is also decorative; the stylistic fact -is the constructive solution; his organization is clear, his -use of the classical “orders” of Graeco-Roman architecture, -Tuscan and Ionic, in stone as bearing walls is classical in -its combination of beauty and function. The plan of his -Sanctuary imposed itself as well on the secular plan of the -colony below. He is a real genius, one of the greatest architects -of all time. He achieves his magnificent results by -creative imitation of earlier models, and in this he is Roman. -Because his imitation is creative, it does not peter out in -formalism, but has a seminal effect upon other architects -of the Republic, the Empire, the Renaissance. A detailed -study of his masterpiece not only leaves us profoundly impressed -with the patience, thoroughness and imagination -of Italian archaeologists; it reinforces again the lesson of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -the continuity of history and the cultural importance for -the whole western world of the Roman Republic.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Sulla went into voluntary retirement and—a rare achievement -in his time—died in bed. The next nabob to equal him -in stature, violence, and unconstitutionality was a man who -had begun his career as Sulla’s lieutenant, Pompey the -Great. Victories in Sicily and Africa, against slaves, pirates, -and Mithridates, brought him enormous spoils; he too -turned his mind to buildings to monumentalize his glory. -The result was Rome’s first stone theater, in the Campus -Martius, dedicated in his third consulship (52 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) but begun -in his second (55 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), in a great show involving 500 -lions and seventeen to twenty elephants. What survives -of it is little more than a curve in a Roman street, some -blocks of tufa beneath a Roman square, and a memory. -Beneath the curve of the Via di Grotta Pinta, which -perpetuates the outline of its <i>cavea</i>, one may visit today, -in the lower regions of a Roman restaurant, the underpinnings -of the great building, which once held 12,000 -spectators. The technique of these vaults, a development -of <i>incertum</i> called <i>opus reticulatum</i>, involves setting pyramidal -bricks, point inward, in a lozenge pattern into -a cement core. But though the entire superstructure has -disappeared, an ancient plan survives. In the late second -century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> the Emperor Septimius Severus caused to be -placed on the wall of the library in Vespasian’s Forum of -Peace a marble Plan of Rome, the <i>Forma Urbis</i>, which has -come down to us in over 1000 fragments. The ingenuity -with which these have been pieced together (work still -going on in 1959) would make a story in itself, but for -our present purpose only four fragments (<a href="#ip_5_11">Fig. 5.11</a>) are -relevant. The two parallel walls to the right (which is west; -north is at the bottom) give a fascinating insight into the -puritanical Roman mind at work. Straitlaced Romans objected -to theaters as immoral. Pompey’s architect therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -designed at the top of the theater’s <i>cavea</i> a temple of Venus -Victrix, represented by the two parallel walls in the plan. -The theater seats might then pass as a hemicycle approach -to a temple (compare the hemicycle approach to the -<i>tholos</i> at Palestrina). Puritanism was appeased.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="600" height="363" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.11</span> Rome, Pompey’s theater and portico, from <i>Forma Urbis</i>. -(G. Lugli, <i>Mon. Ant.</i>, 3, p. 79)</div></div> - -<p>Behind the stage the marble plan shows a great rectangular -portico, with a double garden-plot in the middle, -where we may restore in imagination trees planted, fountains -playing, and works of art displayed. At a Senate meeting -in a building associated with the portico, on the Ides -of March, 44 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, Caesar fell at the base of Pompey’s -statue, pierced by twenty-three daggers. What may be the -tufa blocks of this very building are visible today through -a sheet of plate glass in a pedestrian underpass in the Largo -Argentina. (Temples A and B of the Largo Argentina appear -to the left in the plan.)</p> - -<p>Caesar was a greater man than Pompey. His spoils of -victory, after eight years in Gaul, were richer, and so was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -his building program. The most impressive surviving evidence -of it is the ground plan of his basilica, the Basilica -Julia in the Republican Forum, and, north of the old Forum, -which Rome and his own grandeur had outgrown, a grandiose -new one, the prototype of an Imperial series.</p> - -<p>The Basilica Julia was planned and executed at Caesar’s -direction between 54 and 46 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, to balance the second-century -Basilica Aemilia opposite. All that remains is pavement -and piers, but the size of the piers is enough to show -that the building had two stories, presumably with a balcony -to afford a view of spectacles in the open space of -the Forum below. Time and man have dealt harshly with -the basilica. When it was excavated, in the 1840’s, a medieval -limekiln was found on the pavement. This, plus the -knowledge that its stone was sold by the oxcart load in -the Middle Ages for the benefit of a hospital which rose -on the site, explains what happened to the superstructure. -Scratched on the pavement are rough sketches, done by -ancient idlers, of statues which once adorned the building -or the Forum adjacent, and over eighty “gaming-boards,” -scratched circles divided into six segments on which dice -were thrown and counters moved. Lawyers’ speeches apparently -did not always hold the full attention of the Forum -hangers-on.</p> - -<div id="ip_5_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_043.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.12</span> Rome, Via dell’ Impero, inaugurated -by Benito Mussolini, 1932. -(University of Wisconsin Classics Dept. photo)</p></blockquote></div></div> - -<div id="ip_5_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_043b.jpg" width="800" height="360" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.13</span> Rome, Imperial Fora, plan, showing actual -and hypothetical coincidence of axes. -(P. von Blanckenhagen, <i>Journ. Soc. Arch. -Hist.</i>, 13.4 [Dec., 1954], Fig. 2)</p></blockquote></div></div> - -<p>Caesar’s Forum has left more impressive remains. It cost -him a fortune, since his enemies, owners of the expropriated -houses, charged him 100,000,000 sesterces, five million -uninflated dollars, for the land. Its excavation was begun -in 1930, and finished in three years, by Corrado Ricci, as -a part of Mussolini’s (<a href="#ip_5_12">Fig. 5.12</a>) grandiose plan for systematizing -the center of the city and restoring the ancient -dictator’s Forum to set off a modern dictator’s monument, -a new street, the Via dell’ Impero, driven through slums -and ancient monuments to connect the Coliseum with his -headquarters in the Palazzo Venezia. The excavation exposed -the southern two-thirds of Caesar’s Forum; the rest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -lies under the new street. The Forum as revealed by Ricci -is another example of axial symmetry (<a href="#ip_5_13">Fig. 5.13</a>), a narrow -porticoed rectangle, over twice as long as it was wide, with -a temple set in the Italic fashion on a high podium at the -back. Working with great patience and delicacy, Ricci set -up three of the temple’s fallen columns (<a href="#ip_5_14">Fig. 5.14</a>), with -their architrave, frieze, and cornice. Some of the architectural -blocks leave between the dentils—a row of projecting -tooth-like rectangular members below the cornice—two -small distinctive marble disks side by side like a pair -of spectacles. This is the “signature” of Domitian’s architect -Rabirius, and prove that a restoration of the temple -was planned during his reign (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 81–96). There are Cupids -in the interior frieze, which prove that the temple was -dedicated to Venus, Caesar’s ancestor. To have gods for -ancestors lent distinction to a Roman clan, though Caesar -knew as well as any skeptic what it really meant. He knew -his pedigree back to an ever-so-great grandfather, and God -knew who <i>his</i> ancestor was. In the <i>gens Iulia</i> the line was -traced back to Iulus the son of Aeneas, who was the son -of Anchises and Venus.</p> - -<p>The portico, like that behind Pompey’s theater, was an -art museum. Ancient authors mention a golden statue of -Cleopatra (one of the dictator’s few sentimental gestures?), -a golden breastplate set with British pearls, and a bronze -equestrian statue of Caesar on his famous horse which had -human front feet!</p> - -<p>The ground to the south of the Forum rises over fifty -feet to the slopes of the Capitoline Hill. This difference in -level was filled with three setback stories of luxury shops -in massive rectangular blocks of <i>peperino</i>. The Street of -the Silversmiths, the <i>Clivus Argentarius</i>, ran above and behind -the shops at the Forum level. This whole complex -survives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></p> - -<div id="ip_5_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.875em;"> - <img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="510" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 5.14</span> Rome, Forum of Caesar. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -Three men on horseback, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar, -subdued East and West for Rome, and used part of the -profits to change the face of Rome in forty years. They -would have said that they did it out of what the Romans -called <i>pietas</i>, a threefold loyalty to family, state, and gods. -Each, to reflect credit on his family which ruled the state, -on the gods his ancestors, and on the state his perquisite, -erected great public buildings in the city to be his monument. -Sulla’s dramatic revamping of the old Forum, Pompey’s -theater and portico, and Caesar’s new Forum made -of a shabby civic center a metropolis almost worthy to -vie with the cities of the Greek East. Almost, but not quite, -for the building material was still local stone, stuccoed -tufa or the handsome limestone from Tivoli called travertine, -which weathers to a fine gold, and has ever since been -Rome’s characteristic building material. It was considered -worthy in the Renaissance to build the fabric of St. Peter’s. -For its next transformation, this time into a city of marble, -Rome had to wait for the rise to power of the greatest -nabob of them all, Caesar’s adopted son and successor, -Octavian-Augustus.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_6" class="vspace">6<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Augustus: Buildings as Propaganda</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In 1922, after the success of the Fascist march on Rome, -Benito Mussolini felt acutely the need for an aura of respectability -to surround his upstart régime. Another swashbuckling -<i>condottiere</i>, 1965 years earlier, Caesar’s heir Octavian, -had felt the same need. Both resorted to the same -method: an ambitious building program, and a vigorous -propaganda campaign designed to substitute for dubious -antecedents a set of more or less spurious links with the -heroes of the glorious past. About Fascist architecture the -less said the better; the other point will be the subject of -this chapter. In fourteen years (1924–38) Italian archaeologists -changed the face of central Rome, and in the process -of glorifying <i>Il Duce</i>, added more to our knowledge of -Augustan Rome than the previous fourteen centuries had -provided.</p> - -<p>Octavian’s building activity, both before and after he -took the title Augustus, was prodigious. In his autobiography -he boasts of restoring no less than eighty-two temples. -He built many new ones besides, and embellished Rome, -and his own glory, with his new Forum, a portico, his arch, -his grandiose mausoleum, an Altar of Peace, and, in addition, -arks and gardens, baths, theaters, a great library,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -markets, granaries, docks, and warehouses. Meanwhile he -himself lived in ostentatious simplicity in a modest house -on the Palatine, and encouraged the cult of antique austerity -by restoring the hut of Romulus. At his death Rome was at -last an Imperial metropolis: the city of brick had become -a city of marble. Rome had gained grandeur and lost freedom -in the process. Toward the assessment of the gains -and losses, the excavators’ discoveries in Augustus’ Forum, -at his arch, in his mausoleum, and particularly in the difficult -and ingenious recovery and reconstruction of his Altar -of Peace have made the most important contributions.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Ever since 1911, Corrado Ricci had dreamed of excavating -the site of Augustus’ Forum (see <a href="#ip_5_13">Fig. 5.13</a>), known to -lie to the northeast of and at right angles to Caesar’s, overlaid -by modern construction. In 1924 Mussolini gave him -his chance, and by 1932, when the Via dell’ Impero was -opened with Fascist pomp (see <a href="#ip_5_12">Fig. 5.12</a>), the Fora of -Caesar, Augustus, Nerva, and Trajan had all yielded up -secrets to the archaeologist’s spade.</p> - -<p>Of Augustus’ Forum, when Ricci began to dig, the most -conspicuous part was the firewall at the back, separating it -from the fire-trap slums of the Subura, ancient Rome’s redlight -district. The firewall is over 100 feet high, the exposed -parts in travertine, the rest in <i>peperino</i> and <i>sperone</i>, the -traditional Italic building stones, of the period. This use of -local materials, combined, as Ricci was to discover, with -marble, is the symbol of the compromise, the amalgam of -Italic and Greek materials, methods, and forms, which is -the hallmark of the Augustan Age.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="600" height="335" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.1</span> Rome, Forum of Augustus, model by I. Gismondi. -(Mostra Augustea della Romanità, <i>Catalogo</i>, Pl. 35)</div></div> - -<p>When the buildings cluttering the site had been cleared -away, the plan (<a href="#ip_6_1">Fig. 6.1</a>) was found to be based upon that -of Caesar’s Forum: a rectangular portico with a temple -at the back. But the rectangle was enriched at the sides with -curves, as at Palestrina earlier and in Bernini’s portico in -front of St. Peter’s later. Each of the hemicycles had, let into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -the walls on two levels, niches two feet deep, big enough -to hold statues of half life size. Excavations in the area of -the south hemicycle as early as 1889 had turned up fragments -of drapery in Carrara marble, and bits of inscriptions -which, in combination with literary evidence, gave to the -great Italian epigraphist Attilio Degrassi the clue to the subjects -of the statues. The inscriptions, called <i>elogia</i>, recorded -the <i>cursus honorum</i>, or public career, of a set of heroes, -triumphing generals, or others who had deserved well of the -Republic. Three examples are Aulus Postumius, who, with -the help of the Great Twin Brethren Castor and Pollux (the -household gods of the Julian clan), beat the Latins at the -battle of Lake Regillus in 496, and built his divine helpers -a temple in the Forum; Appius Claudius the Blind, who -built the Appian Way (312 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) and an aqueduct; and -Sulla—nabobs and builders all. But there was space in the -two levels of hemicycle niches, and in others hypothetically -restored in the portico’s rectilinear wall, for over fifty statues -with <i>elogia</i>. So Degrassi made a search for other stones -similarly inscribed, some of which turned up in the most -unlikely places.</p> - -<p>One had been used as a marble roof-tile of Hadrian’s -Pantheon; it was in the Vatican collection. Another was -found in a vineyard near Rome’s north gate, the Porta del -Popolo. The former immortalized one Lucius Albinius, who -took the Vestal Virgins in his wagon to Caere for safety -when the Gauls were threatening Rome in 390 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> The latter -was of Sulla’s great rival Marius, the friend of the people. -The dimensions, letter-heights, and letter-styles of both -made their origin in Augustus’ Forum extremely likely. A -set of seven more had been known since the seventeenth -century or earlier as coming from the site of the Forum -of Arezzo, ancient Arretium, in Tuscany. The texts of some -of these turned out to be copies of <i>elogia</i> from the Forum of -Augustus. This justified the inference that in this matter -of a Hall of Fame, provincial cities imitated the metropolis.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -Thus those <i>elogia</i> from Arezzo for which no Roman prototype -had been found might yet give a clue to what the -Roman collection had once contained. This inference enriches -the list by the names of Manius Valerius Maximus, -conciliator of class struggles, and Rome’s first dictator -(494 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>); Lucius Aemilius Paullus, one of the greatest -<i>triumphatores</i> of them all, who beat the Macedonians at -Pydna in 168 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, and symbolized the union of Roman traditions -with Hellenism, as Augustus aspired to do; Tiberius -Sempronius Gracchus, father of the reforming Gracchi; and -Sulla’s lieutenant Lucius Licinius Lucullus, whose brother -was responsible for the terraces and hemicycles at Palestrina.</p> - -<p>The south hemicycle and portico, then, ingeniously connected -Augustus’ name with a set of nabobs, builders, successful -generals, philhellenes, and men remarkable for piety -to the gods or popularity with the masses. What of the -north hemicycle? Here Ricci discovered the <i>elogium</i> of -Rome’s and Augustus’ legendary ancestor, <i>pius Aeneas</i> himself, -who also appears on the Altar of Peace; a set of the -Kings of Alba Longa; Romulus, also probably on the Altar -of Peace; Caesar’s father; Marcus Claudius Marcellus, -Augustus’ much beloved heir, whose untimely death Vergil -movingly mourns in the <i>Aeneid</i>, and whose ashes lay in -Augustus’ mausoleum; and Nero Claudius Drusus, Augustus’ -stepson, who also is figured, like Aeneas and Romulus, on -the Altar of Peace. It looks very much as though the Hall -of Fame on this side of the portico was intended to connect -the legendary Kings of Alba and Home with the Julio-Claudian -dynasty. And the climax of it all was yet to come. -At the end of the north portico Ricci excavated a square -room with a pedestal at the back. On the pedestal he found -a cutting for a colossal foot, seven times life size. Forty -feet up the back wall were the put-holes for the struts of a -huge statue. Whose? The Forum’s temple was dedicated -to Mars, but the place for the god is in his temple. The -most likely candidate is the <i>Dux</i> himself, Augustus, father<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -of his country, in whom Roman history came, in more -senses than one, to a full stop.</p> - -<p>Medieval limekilns tell, as usual, how the rich marbles -which decorated both portico and temple were broken up -and melted down into whitewash, but three marble Corinthian -columns sixty feet high give some idea of the temple’s -grandeur. Its podium, lofty in the Italic fashion, was not -solid marble, simply tufa revetted or veneered with thin -marble slabs, an economical, and, some might say, dishonest -way of making a city of marble of the desired Hellenic -appearance. The statue-base at the back of the temple -(which was apsidal to match the hemicycles in the porticoes) -is too wide for a single figure. The cult statues must -have been of Mars and Venus, another delicate reference -to the ancestry of Augustus’ adoptive clan. The temple itself -was vowed, the literary sources tell us, at the battle -of Philippi (42 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) to Mars Ultor, avenger of the murder -of Julius Caesar, and Caesar’s sword was piously preserved -as a relic in it. The Forum did not neglect the arts. Like -Caesar’s, and like Pompey’s portico, it was a museum. It -did service also for literature: we are told that lectures -were delivered in the hemicycles. Begun in 37 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, the -Forum took thirty-five years to finish. By 2 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> other propaganda -devices—especially the arch, the Altar of Peace, Vergil’s -epic, Livy’s history, and Horace’s lyric—had, as we shall -see, given the desired respectability to Augustus, the Prince -of Peace.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>It was the victory of Actium (31 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), over the combined -fleets of Antony and Cleopatra, that enabled Octavian to -pass as the Prince of Peace. In 1888–89, in the old Forum, -between the Temples of the deified Julius and of Castor, -were excavated the footings of an arch, originally with a -single passageway, later enlarged to three. This arch was -identified from literary sources as the one erected by Augustus -to commemorate that victory, enlarged later when another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -occasion for propaganda arose. The arch itself is a -routine affair, with plenty of precedent, though one might -ponder the propriety of thus gloating over Antony, a former -colleague and a Roman citizen. (Gamberini, the excavator, -even found, in the bottom of square stone receptacles beside -the arch, laurel seeds which suggest that the tree of -victory was prominent in the landscaping of the arch.) -But, given the Roman propensity in general, and Augustus’ -in particular, for propagandizing in stone, the question naturally -arose what opportunity for self-advertisement the -arch offered. The answer was not given until Degrassi published -another book in 1947.</p> - -<p>For many years archaeologists had believed that on the -walls of the nearby Regia had been engraved the <i>Fasti -Consulares</i> (lists of Roman consuls from the founding of -the Republic and probably of the kings as well), and the -<i>Fasti Triumphales</i> (lists of triumphing generals from Romulus -to 19 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> I have remarked in another book<a id="FNanchor_D" href="#Footnote_D" class="fnanchor">D</a> how much -one can learn of a people by what they make lists of: -Greeks, of Olympic victors; Americans, of baseball averages; -Romans, of statesmen and military heroes). But in -1935 a careful study of the Regia by the American F. E. -Brown proved that the part of its wall where the <i>Fasti</i> -must have begun was masked in the rebuilding of 36 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> -by another structure, and that the space available, carefully -measured for the first time by Brown, did not fit the -surviving <i>Fasti</i>, which were discovered in 1546 and are -still preserved in the Conservatori Museum. Clearly the -Regia was not the place where the <i>Fasti</i> were inscribed. -Since two-thirds of the extant fragments were found between -the Temple of the Deified Julius and the Temple -of Castor, and since their dimensions suited those of the -footings of the Arch of Augustus, the inference was clear. -It was on the arch (<a href="#ip_6_2">Fig. 6.2</a>) that the consular <i>Fasti</i> were -carved, and this is now the universally accepted opinion.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -They were displayed on either side of the lateral passageway, -where pedestrians could read them, the consular lists -framed by pilasters with a pediment above (reconstructed -in the museum by Michelangelo), the list of <i>triumphatores</i> -on the corner pilasters of the enlarged arch. The result of -this display was again, as in Augustus’ Forum, to connect -the upstart Octavian with a more respectable or heroic -past. His name appears twice among the <i>triumphatores</i> -(the slab that referred to Actium is unfortunately missing) -in a list that began with Romulus and contained the names -of the greatest heroes of Roman history; in the consular lists -his name figured twenty-four times. This collocation and -repetition could do him no harm.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_D" href="#FNanchor_D" class="fnanchor">D</a> <i>The Roman Mind at Work</i> (Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1958).</p></div> - -<p>In the consular lists the names of Mark Antony and his -family have suffered <i>damnatio memoriae</i>; that is, they have -been first inscribed and then chiselled out. In the list of -<i>triumphatores</i>, on the contrary, Antony’s name is allowed -to stand. What is the legitimate inference from this? Clearly -it is that the two lists were inscribed at different times, -and that on the first occasion our <i>condottiere</i> felt a certain -insecurity, which by the time of the second had disappeared. -Literary sources date the second occasion in or -shortly after 19 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, after the Roman standards disgracefully -lost by Crassus at Carrhae had been recovered from -the Parthians. In these eleven years or so the <i>condottiere</i> -Octavian had become Augustus, the Revered One, Expander -of Empire, Father of his Country, Prince of Peace. -Within those years Vergil’s <i>Georgics</i> had cast an aura of -beauty over Octavian’s resettlement of veterans on the -land; the <i>Aeneid</i> had connected this modern Aeneas, the -pious one, the bearer of burdens, with his legendary ancestors; -Horace’s Roman Odes had praised Augustus’ religious -and moral reforms; and Livy’s history had put into -Augustan prose the lays of ancient Rome. Augustus could -afford to be magnanimous to his enemies: he had seen to -it that most of them were dead.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span></p> - -<div id="ip_6_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_046.jpg" width="800" height="613" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>ARCO DI AUGUSTO NEL FORO ROMANO</p> - -<p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.2</span> Rome, Forum. Arch of Augustus, reconstruction. (Fototeca)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -But it was not enough that the past be controlled and -rewritten, and connected with the present on splendid -monuments. Augustus must control the future, too; even -after his death men must admire and worship him and his -dynasty. To this end he began (literary sources tell us it -was in 28 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) in the Campus Martius a massive mausoleum -(<a href="#ip_6_3">Fig. 6.3</a>), which should be reminiscent in shape of the -great Etruscan <i>tumuli</i> of centuries before, and in mass of -such wonders of the world as the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus -or the pyramids of Egypt. This monument, which -through the centuries has been successively fortress, circus, -park for fireworks displays, bull-ring, and concert-hall, was -stripped to its gaunt core in 1935, as another part of the -Fascists’ Augustan plan to attach themselves to the memory -of Augustus. The excavators, Giglioli and Colini, found -within the circular ring of the mausoleum’s vertical outer -wall a series of concentric vaulted corridors (<a href="#ip_6_4">Fig. 6.4</a>) in -concrete, rising four stories or 143 feet, surrounding a central -hollow cylinder where Augustus’ ashes were to lie. A -statue of the great deceased would have surmounted the -cylinder, and the whole massive structure would have been -heaped with earth and planted with cypresses. Before the -door stood the bronze tablets bearing Augustus’ autobiography—a -calmly audacious fabrication of history, it has -been justly called. In the corridor around the central cylinder -were placed the marble containers for the urns of -members of the dynasty. Some of the containers were found -<i>in situ</i>, though their ashes—and, ironically, Augustus’ as well—had -long ago disappeared.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="412" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.3</span> Rome, Mausoleum of Augustus. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_6_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_047b.jpg" width="600" height="390" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.4</span> Rome, Mausoleum of Augustus, plan and elevation.</p> - -<p>(G. Lugli, <i>Mon. Ant.</i>, 3, p. 197)</p></div></div> - -<p>It was Augustus’ fate to outlive his lieutenants, his relatives -(see the family tree, <a href="#ip_6_5">Fig. 6.5</a>), and all his favorite -candidates for the succession. There lay, for example, the -ashes of his stepson Drusus, his nephew, the young Marcellus, -and his grandchildren, Lucius and Gaius; his lieutenant Agrippa; -his sister Octavia, once given in a dynastic -marriage to Mark Antony; his stepson Tiberius’ one-time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -wife Agrippina, divorced to give place to Augustus’ daughter. -Agrippina survived Augustus; who knows what palace -intrigue brought her ashes here? Her one-time husband’s -ashes rested here, too, and those of Germanicus, Tiberius’ -adopted son, also those of the mad Emperor Caligula, of -Claudius, Vespasian, Nerva, and Septimius Severus’ consort -Julia Domna (for the Severan dynasty, too, had need of -respectability).</p> - -<p>In stripping the mausoleum to its core, and building a -deplorable neo-Fascist <i>piazza</i> on one side of it, an equally -deplorable concrete shed for the reconstructed Altar of -Peace on the other, the archaeologists of the ’30s stripped -Augustus, too, of his pretensions. Yet the decayed grandeur, -the disappointed hopes, the inevitable passing of régimes, -strike their own note of pathos and mortality:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“<i>My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings:</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair.</i>”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>However unfortunate the building that protects it may -be, the reconstructed Altar of Peace in the Field of Mars -must be recognized as one of the great triumphs of Italian -archaeology. Sculptured reliefs from this structure were -first discovered, though not recognized as such, as long ago -as 1568, in the underpinnings of what is now the Palazzo -Fiano, on the Corso, Rome’s <i>cardo</i>, which overlies the -ancient Great North Road, the Via Flaminia. Other soundings -were made in 1859 and 1903, and the reliefs were first -recognized as belonging to the altar in 1879. But it was not -until 1937–38 that G. Moretti carried through the incredibly -ingenious and patient work which led to the almost complete -recovery and reconstruction of the altar and the historic -sculptured frieze surrounding it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p> - -<div id="ip_6_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="600" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.5</span> <span class="smcap">Genealogical Table of the Julio-Claudian Caesars</span></p> - </div> - -<div class="captionl"> -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Notice</span> that Julius Caesar left no descendants, but adopted his great-nephew Augustus. Connections with Augustus were later traced by descent from -his daughter Julia, his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus, or his sister Octavia. The names of emperors are in capitals. Numerals in parentheses show the -order of marriages. Single lines indicate blood relationship; double lines, marriage; the dotted line, that the Cn. Domitius is the same person.</p> - -<div class="center"><div class="ilb"> -<pre class="tight"> - C. Julius Caesar (d. 85 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) - | - +-----------------------------------+----------------+ - | | -Julia I === M. Atius Balbus C. Julius Caesar, the dictator - | (murdered 44 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> See Suetonius - Atia =========== C. Octavius <i>The Deified Julius</i>) - | - +-----------------------------------------------------+ - | | -Scribonia === (2) AUGUSTUS (3) === (2) Livia (1) === Ti. Claudius Nero | - | (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 14) (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 29) | M. Antonius === (2) Octavia I (1) === C. Marcellus - | | (d. 30 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) | | (d. 40 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) - | | | | - | | | +--+-----------+ - | | | | | - Julia II === (3) M. Agrippa (1) === Pomponia | | M. Marcellus Marcella === M. Messalla I - (d. in exile | (d. 12 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) | | +---------+ (d. 22 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> See | - <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 14) | | +--------------+ | Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i> | - | | | | | VI, 854 ff.) +-----------+ - | | | | | | - | | | | +--------------+ | - | | | | | | | - | Vipsania === TIBERIUS Drusus I === Antonia II Antonia I === L. Domitius | - | | (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 37) (d. 9 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) | | | - | | | +--+------+ | - | | | | | | - | | | ¦ Cn. Domitius Domitia === M. Messalla II - | | | ¦ | - | | +-----------+-----------------------+ | - | | | | ¦ | | - | Drusus II === Julia IV ║ Germanicus ¦ CLAUDIUS (3) === Messallina - | (murdered | (executed ║ (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 19) ¦ (murdered | (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 49) -C. Caesar (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 4) <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 23) | <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 31) ║ ¦ <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 54) | -L. Caesar (d. <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 2) (Note 1) ║ ¦ (Note 3) | -Agrippa II (Murdered <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 14) ║ ¦ | -Agrippina I (d. in exile <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 33)===================================+ ¦ | -Julia III (Note 2) | ¦ | - | ¦ | - | ¦ | - Agrippina II (murdered <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 59)(1) ============================= Cn. Domitius | - Nero Caesar (executed <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 31) | +----------+----+ - Drusus Caesar (d. in prison <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 33) | | | - CAIUS (Caligula) (murdered <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 41) NERO ======= Octavia II Britannicus - Julia V (d. in exile, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 42) (suicide (murdered (murdered - <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 68) <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 62) <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 55) -</pre> -</div></div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Note 1.</span> A daughter of Drusus II and Julia IV married Rubellius Blandus; their son, Rubellius Plautus, was executed by Nero. <span class="smcap">Note 2.</span> Julia III had -a daughter who married Junius Silanus; several of their descendants were executed by Nero. <span class="smcap">Note 3.</span> After the death of Messallina Claudius married -his niece Agrippina II; there were no children.</p> -</div> - -<div class="caption"> -<p class="p1"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.5</span> Family tree of the Julio-Claudians.</p> - -<p>(P. MacKendrick and H. Howe, <i>Classics in Translation</i>, 2, p. 370)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -A colossal engineering problem arose because the Palazzo -Fiano rested upon wooden piles driven into the water which -in this part of Rome underlies most of the buildings. These -piles, and reinforcements to them, pinned down some of the -marble blocks of the altar itself. To get the blocks out by -ordinary methods, even if the water level had made it possible, -would have caused the collapse of the building. Previous -excavators had resorted to driving narrow, damp, dark -tunnels, with incomplete results. Moretti resolved on more -heroic measures; the solution is a credit to modern Italian -engineering. The weightiest and worst-supported part of the -palace lay directly over the altar; there were deep splits -in the palace walls; only the extraordinary tenacity of the -<i>pozzolana</i> mortar held them together. With infinite capacity -for taking pains, the damaged parts of the walls were taken -down and, by injection of liquid concrete, restored segment -by segment, brick by brick. (The Italians call this process -<i>cuci e scuci</i>, sew and unsew.) The subsoil was so uneven -in profile and so soaking wet that a new masonry substructure -was impossible. Moretti, in consultation with his engineers, -determined to shift the weight of the palace wall onto -a sort of enormous sawhorse or <i>cavaletto</i> (<a href="#ip_6_6">Fig. 6.6</a>) of reinforced -concrete. Holes were drilled sixty-five feet to a -firm footing and filled with concrete; on this were built -concrete piers to support the legs of the sawhorse. Between -each pier and the corresponding leg was inserted a hydraulic -jack (<i>martinetto</i>) adjustable to suit the various stresses -exerted by the bearing walls. A grid of steel girders ran -from pier to pier for reinforcement.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="800" height="548" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.6</span> Rome, Altar of Peace. Plan showing how corner of Palazzo Fiano was supported -and a dike frozen around the remains of the altar. (G. Moretti, <i>Ara Pacis Augustae</i>, Pl. 36)</div></div> - -<p>Once the corner of the building was supported by the -concrete sawhorse, the problem was only half-solved, for -water covered the altar up to the top of the outside steps. -Pumping was labor in vain; it would only have weakened -the substructure of the palace and adjoining buildings. -What were needed were dikes, to keep the water out while -the area inside them was emptied. But a cement dike was -impossible, because of the maze of water, gas, and sewer -mains, heat, power, and light conduits which, at all levels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -and in all directions, crisscrossed the subsoil of this busy -part of modern Rome. A trench about five feet wide was -dug, with a 230-foot perimeter. From a horizontal pipe laid -in it, fifty-five three-inch pipes ran down vertically at equal -intervals to a depth of twenty-four feet. Into these pipes -was pumped carbon dioxide under a pressure of eighty atmospheres. -Radiation from the refrigerant in the vertical -pipes froze the surrounding muddy earth, and the impenetrable -dike was a reality. The water inside covering the -altar was then pumped out, and all the architectural blocks -and fragments could be removed. Thus succeeded one of -the most difficult and delicate excavations ever made. All -was finished to meet a deadline, the bimillennary of Augustus’ -birth, September 23, 1938.</p> - -<p>What Moretti now had to work with in his reconstruction -was not only the slabs and fragments he had just extracted, -but also the finds from previous excavations going back to -1568 (<a href="#ip_6_7">Fig. 6.7</a>). Over the intervening years these had been -scattered. Most of the 1568 finds had been sawn into three -lengthwise (for the slabs were over two feet thick, too heavy -for easy transport) and shipped to Florence to the Grand -Duke of Tuscany, who then owned the Palazzo Fiano site -in Rome. One slab was in the Vatican Museum, another -in the Villa Medici (seat of the French Academy in -Rome), still another in the Louvre. The finds from the -1859 dig had also been kept unrestored in the palace, -and then transferred to Rome’s Terme Museum. One slab -was found in re-use face down as a cover for a tomb in -Rome’s Church of the Gesù.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_050.jpg" width="600" height="554" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.7</span> Rome, Altar of Peace. Plan showing fragments discovered -up to 1935. (G. Lugli, <i>Mon. Ant.</i>, p. 185)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_6_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.375em;"> - <img src="images/i_050b.jpg" width="486" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.8</span> Rome, Altar of Peace. Plan showing results of Moretti’s -excavation, still <i>in situ</i> under the Palazzo Fiano. (Moretti, <i>op. cit.</i>, Pl. 5)</div></div> - -<p>These were all decorative elements. Under the Palazzo -Fiano still remain the tufa footings and some of the travertine -pavement (<a href="#ip_6_8">Fig. 6.8</a>). These, though they were not removed, -made it possible to visualize and reconstruct the -plan. The altar itself, in the center of its enclosed platform, -proved to be U-shaped, with the open end of the U facing -west, toward the Campus Martius, and approached by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -flight of steps. The whole was fenced off by a marble wall -about thirty feet square and sixteen feet high, with wide -doorways on east and west. Since the pavement sloped, and -there was provision for drainage, the inference was warranted -that the altar was originally open to the sky. Each -face of the enclosure wall bore two wide horizontal decorative -bands separated by narrower bands, on the outer face -of meanders, on the inner, of palmettes. On the outer face -the wide upper band bore a frieze with over 100 figures; the -lower one motifs from nature: acanthus scrolls, bunches of -grapes, the swans of Augustus’ patron Apollo, and a lively -population of small animals. The inner face carried, above, -a motif of swags of fruit festooned between ox-skulls (<i>bucrania</i>); -below, a series of long, narrow, recessed, vertical -panels, giving the effect, in marble, of a wooden fence. -Many of the Slabs were found where they fell and were -easily fitted into their proper place in the reconstruction -(<a href="#ip_6_9">Fig. 6.9</a>). Of the slabs in museums casts were taken. Thanks -to careful observation of joins, repeats of floral motifs, the -identity of historic figures, veins in the marble, and treatment -of unexposed surfaces, these slabs, too, found their -proper places. The job was done in the workrooms of the -Terme Museum, with twenty-four large cases of fragments -to work with, plus the full slabs and casts. The altar was -finally rebuilt on the banks of the Tiber next to Augustus’ -mausoleum.</p> - -<p>The result was worth the effort, for the Altar of Peace is -universally acknowledged to be the greatest artistic masterpiece -of the Augustan Age, blending Roman spirit with -Greek forms, occupying in Roman art the same exalted position -as the Parthenon frieze in Greek, and destined to -inspire, as we shall see, many monuments with historic subjects -in the following decades and centuries.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="600" height="378" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.9</span> Rome, Altar of Peace, G. Gatti’s reconstruction. (MPI)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_6_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_051b.jpg" width="600" height="455" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.10</span> Rome, Altar of Peace, frieze with portrait of Augustus. (MPI)</div></div> - -<p>The figured upper panels on the enclosure’s outer face are -the most interesting part of the monument. On the north -and south faces a procession moves westward. It is imagined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -as turning the corner of the enclosure and entering the west -doorway to sacrifice at the altar. The heads on the north -side were heavily restored in the Renaissance, but the fasces, -the laurel crowns, the senatorial shoes and rings, the cult -objects carried make it clear that the procession is of magistrates -and priests. The south side, which faced the city, must -have been considered the most important half, and here, -indeed, many historical figures of Augustus’ family and -court have been identified. It is noteworthy how the division -of the friezes into dynastic and non-dynastic halves parallels -the arrangement of the Hall of Fame in Augustus’ -Forum.</p> - -<p>The face in the upper right corner of the fragmentary -left panel in <a href="#ip_6_10">Fig. 6.10</a>, though cracked badly across the -eye (for the whole weight of the Palazzo Fiano rested -upon it for centuries), is recognizable from other portraits, -from what remains of the profile, and from the treatment -of the hair, as Augustus himself. The figures in the spiked -caps to the far right are <i>flamines</i>, priests of Jupiter and -Mars. The figure second to the left of the first <i>flamen</i>, all -by himself in the background, is a spectator, the very type -of the old Republican Roman. Lictors with the fasces precede -the figure to the spectator’s left of Augustus. This -figure, then, must be the consul of the year, with the other -consul on the other side of the Emperor.</p> - -<p>But of which year? The consuls of the year 13 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, when -the building of the altar was officially decreed, were Varus -(who fell in the Teutoberg forest twenty-two years later) -and Tiberius. Those of the year 9 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, when the altar was -consecrated, were Drusus and Quinctius Crispinus. Now the -slab pictured in <a href="#ip_6_11">Fig. 6.11</a> contains on its left edge, on either -side of the veiled background figure with her finger on her -lips (who is Augustus’ sister Octavia) a family group. This -has been almost certainly identified as Drusus (in uniform, -with short tunic), and his wife, Antonia Minor, holding their -son Germanicus by the hand. Drusus can hardly be in two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -places at once. Therefore the consuls on the earlier slab are -those of 13 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, and the whole procession is imagined as -that of the altar’s <i>constitutio</i>, when the marble version was -not yet finished, not yet, perhaps, even begun. This hypothesis -explains the treatment of the enclosure’s inner face, -where the recessed panels represent a temporary wooden -fence. The swags in marble relief, of barley, grapes, olives, -figs, apples, pears, plums, cherries, pine cones, nuts, oak -leaves, ivy, laurel, and poppy—all the riches of a fertile -Italy at peace—were originally painted, like Della Robbia -terracottas, against a blue background. They must have -been intended to render the natural festoons swinging in -the open air against the blue sky. The <i>paterae</i>, or sacrificial -bowls, in two alternating patterns of gilded marble, -which hang above the swags, must be imagined as suspended -from an upper crossbar.</p> - -<p>The persons in <a href="#ip_6_12">Fig. 6.12</a> are of the greatest historical -interest. The tall man with a fold of his toga over his head, -whose careworn face and pronounced Roman nose make a -recognizable portrait, can be identified from other likenesses -as Augustus’ lieutenant Agrippa, acting as Pontifex -Maximus. The child clinging to his toga is then one of his -sons, Gaius or Lucius. Gaius, the elder, born in 20 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, -would have been, in 13, of the age represented here; a -modern symbol of Aeneas’ son Ascanius, or Romulus, the -son of Mars. The woman in the background with her hand -on his head would then be Gaius’ mother Julia, Augustus’ -daughter, whom he was later to banish for her immoral -conduct. The older woman in the foreground, the most -carefully wrought female figure in either frieze, would then -be Julia’s stepmother, the redoubtable Empress Livia.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="600" height="487" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.11</span> Rome, Altar of Peace, frieze with family group -of Julio-Claudians. (MPI)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_6_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.1875em;"> - <img src="images/i_052b.jpg" width="435" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.12</span> Rome, Altar of Peace, frieze probably portraying Agrippa, -Julia, and Livia. (MPI)</div></div> - -<p>The family group to the right of Drusus in <a href="#ip_6_11">Fig. 6.11</a> is -also pregnant with history. The shapely woman with her -hand on the small boy’s shoulder is identified as Antonia -Major, Mark Antony’s daughter by Octavia. The small boy -grasping a fold of his uncle Drusus’ cloak grew up to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -father the Emperor Nero. The girl to the spectator’s right -of the small boy is his sister Domitia; her father, Lucius -Domitius Ahenobarbus, later commander of the Roman -army in Germany, has his hand raised over her head. The -elderly background figure with the kindly, lined face is -perhaps Maecenas, Augustus’ secretary of state for propaganda, -the patron of Vergil and Horace.</p> - -<p>The whole atmosphere of the procession is very Italian, -quite intimate and informal, without central focus. Its members -face in all directions, and are so incorrigibly chatty that -Octavia must command silence, finger to lips. Here, in these -realistic groups, are the living likenesses of some of the men -and women whose ashes later lay in Augustus’ mausoleum, -of some of the men and women who made a Golden Age. -Here are the pages of history made flesh, and here are all -the basic ideas of the Augustan program: the pretense of -the revived Republic, in the consuls and lictors; the emphasis -on religion, in the <i>flamines</i> and the veiled Pontifex; -the dynastic hopes, in little Gaius; the subvention of literature, -in Maecenas.</p> - -<p>The east and west ends of the enclosure each contain, on -either side of the doorways, a figured panel, four in all, of -which two are well preserved. The one to the right of the -main (west) entrance portrays a grave, bearded figure (<a href="#ip_6_13">Fig. 6.13</a>) -offering sacrifices, with the aid of two acolytes, upon -a rustic altar before a small temple containing tiny figures -of the Penates as Castor and Pollux, whose connection with -the <i>gens Iulia</i> we have already noted. The sow in the lower -left corner is the famous one with the thirty piglets, whose -discovery was to tell Aeneas where to found his city. (What -purported to be the original sow and all the piglets, pickled -in brine, was on display in a Latin town in Augustus’ age.) -From the sow the inference is that the bearded figure is -Aeneas; he symbolized the past of Rome, and the ancestry -of Augustus.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -The panel to the left of the east entrance (<a href="#ip_6_14">Fig. 6.14</a>) has -as its central figure a full-breasted woman, whose face closely -resembles the Livia of the south frieze. She has fruits in her -lap, chubby naked babies in her arms, a miniature cow and -a sheep at her feet, grain and poppies behind her. She is -flanked by obviously allegorical figures of Air (riding a -swan), and Water (riding a sea monster). Fresh water -gushes from an amphora in the lower left corner; a saltwater -harbor (indicated by waves, and perhaps the arch -in the background) is at the lower right. Surely this is -<i>Saturnia Tellus</i>, the fruitful earth of an Italy at peace, that -Vergil sang of in the <i>Georgics</i>, rich in crops, flocks, and -herds, but fruitful most of all in <i>men</i>. Of the two fragmentary -panels, the west one is restored as a scene of Mars, the Shepherd, -the wolf, and the twins Romulus and Remus. (The -Mars was acquired from a private owner in Vienna, whose -Roman art dealer had told him it came from the Palazzo -Fiano.) The east one, the least well preserved of all, probably -represented the goddess Roma seated upon a trophy -of arms, like Britannia on an English penny. Thus one pair -of end panels is symbolical, while the other is mythological; -the processional frieze deals with contemporary history. -The whole makes a tripartite arrangement which is artistically -very satisfying. At the same time, victorious Rome, -fruitful Italy, the remote founder, and the first king, are all -symbolically related here, as in other Augustan monuments, -to the contemporary scene and the fortunes of the -dynasty.</p> - -<div id="ip_6_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_053.jpg" width="600" height="470" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.13</span> Rome, Altar of Peace. Aeneas sacrificing. (MPI)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_6_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_053b.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 6.14</span> Rome, Altar of Peace. Tellus or Italia. (MPI)</div></div> - -<p>After the grandeur of the enclosure, the decoration of -the altar itself seems modest and unpretentious, perhaps deliberately -so. Winged sphinxes support rich volutes, the -graceful S-curves which bound the altar table on either side. -Beneath, there is a sacrificial scene, with the six Vestal -Virgins neatly arranged in order of size. In the sacrificial -scene itself, the victims are a steer, a heifer, and a fleecy -sheep. The attendants carry the sacrificial knives, platters,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -pitchers, and other paraphernalia. One twists the horns of -the steer, another the tail of the heifer, to keep them moving. -Altar and enclosure together provide our most complete -visual record of a Roman state religious ceremony. -And the whole complex, with its religiosity and historicity, -is prolific of descendants: the Arch of Titus, the Cancelleria -reliefs (to be discussed in Chapter IX), Trajan’s Column -(to be discussed in Chapter X), his arch at Beneventum, -the Arch of Constantine, the Column of Marcus Aurelius, -the Arch of Septimius Severus. It is the prototype of them -all, and the most masterly: tranquil, unpretentious, stately -yet intimate, delighting in nature, perfectly balanced between country -and city, perfectly symbolizing the Augustan -Peace, when men would beat their swords into plowshares, -and study war no more. But within 100 years the altar began -to be neglected. Perhaps, looking behind the façade, some -old Republicans were moved to ask, “Where is the Altar -of Liberty?”</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>A Forum, an arch, a tomb, an altar: taken together, as -recent archaeology has revealed them to us, they epitomize -the Augustan Age. In the Forum and the arch, the past -recaptured, and pressed into the service of the régime. In -the altar, the heroic and warlike past implicit in the orderly -and peaceful present. In the tomb, posterity, the future -generations, invited to marvel at the dynasty and what it -has wrought. Behind all this, we can see that Augustus, the -most ruthless power politician of them all, was simply continuing -the careers of the great captains and dynasts of the -past, like Caesar, Pompey, and Sulla. The refulgence of -the monuments but reflects his monolithic control of the -state, his cracking open of the seams of the old régime. In -the history of art and architecture, Augustus’ contribution -is the applying of a standardized scheme of décor, as he -applied a standardized scheme of administration, to the -whole Empire. Henceforward Rome is the producer. She<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -crystallized the styles and re-exported them to the world -that lay at her feet. Next we shall see how the Julio-Claudian -Emperors, from Tiberius to Nero, exploited what Augustus -had begun.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_7" class="vspace">7<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Hypocrite, Madman, Fool, and Knave</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Roman historians branded the Julio-Claudian successors of -Augustus—Tiberius (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 14–37), Caligula (37–41), Claudius -(41–54) and Nero (54–68)—as a hypocrite, a madman, a -fool, and a knave. The hypocrite spent millions rehabilitating -Asia Minor after an earthquake, the madman provided -Ostia with a splendid aqueduct, the fool built for the same -city a great artificial harbor, the knave rebuilt Rome—after -burning it down first, his enemies said—with a new and -intelligent city plan. But it would be easy to interpret the -Julio-Claudian age as one of conspicuous consumption and -conspicuous waste: there were many who fiddled before -Rome ever burned. Thus both Tiberius and Caligula built -on the Palatine grandiose palaces, and Nero’s Golden House, -as we shall see, outdid them all. Tiberius’ monstrous barracks -at the city wall for the praetorian guard introduces -a sinister note. Claudius’ Altar of Piety, modelled on Augustus’ -Altar of Peace, shows how derivative official art can -be. Out of the complexity of this half-century, as archaeology -reveals it to us, I have chosen four examples, one from -each reign: a stately pleasure-dome of Tiberius by the sea -at Sperlonga; a pair of extraordinary houseboats, probably -Caligula’s, from the Lake of Nemi; the curious subterranean<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -basilica at the Porta Maggiore in Rome, which flourished -briefly and mysteriously in the reign of Claudius; and Nero’s -fabulous Golden House.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>In August, 1957, road improvements near Sperlonga, on -the coast, about sixty-six miles southeast of Rome, offered -G. Iacopi of the Terme Museum the opportunity for partially -restoring, and closely examining, the ruins of a well-known -villa there, commonly called the Villa of Tiberius. -Making soundings near the villa in a wide, lofty cave fronting -on the beach (<a href="#ip_7_1">Fig. 7.1</a>), partly filled with sea-water, -Iacopi discovered that the natural cave had been made over -into a <i>nymphaeum</i> or <i>vivarium</i>, a round artificial fish-pool, -with a large pedestal for statuary in the middle, and artificial -grottoes opening behind (<a href="#ip_7_2">Fig. 7.2</a>). In the pool and -the grottoes, buried under masses of fallen rock, Iacopi and -his assistants found an enormous quantity—at last accounts -over 5500 fragments—of statuary. The fallen rock gave a -clue for dating at least one phase of the cave’s existence, -and a possible confirmation of the popular name for the -adjoining villa. For the historian Tacitus mentions that in -<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 26, Tiberius, dining in a natural cave at his villa at -Spelunca, was saved from being crushed under falling rock -by the heroism of his prefect of the praetorian guard, Sejanus, -who protected him with his own body. This is very -likely the actual cave which Iacopi explored, though his -discoveries suggest that there were additions after Tiberius’ -time.</p> - -<p>The exploration was carried on under difficulties of several -kinds. The Italian budget for archaeology is notoriously -inadequate; the cave was subject to flooding from springs, -and lashing by winter storms; and it contained a dangerous -quantity of ammunition and explosives stored there in World -War II. The first difficulty was temporarily overcome by -the generosity of the engineer in charge of the road-building -nearby; the second by installing three pumps and building -a dike; the third by keeping an ordnance expert constantly -on duty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> - -<div id="ip_7_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="600" height="464" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.1</span> Sperlonga, Cave “of Tiberius.” (G. Iacopi, <i>I ritrovamenti</i>, etc., Fig. 8)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_7_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_054b.jpg" width="496" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.2</span> Sperlonga, Cave “of Tiberius,” -reconstruction. (G. Iacopi, <i>op. cit.</i>, Fig. 18)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> -When the finds from the cave were first reported in the -press, great excitement was caused by the announcement—premature, -as it turned out—that among the fragments of -sculpture were some resembling the Laocoön group. The -original Laocoön group had been described by Pliny the Elder -as carved out of a single block, probably with the sculptors’ -names on the base, whereas the famous Vatican Laocoön -is not monolithic and is unsigned. Among the Sperlonga finds, -on the other hand, were fragments of a Greek inscription giving -the names of the three Rhodian sculptors mentioned by -Pliny (but not in the precise form transcribed by him: in the -Sperlonga inscriptions, their fathers’ names are recorded, in -Pliny not), plus some colossal pieces (the central figure -would have been nineteen feet eight inches tall) including -parts of two snake-like monsters, presumably the serpents -sent by Athena to punish Laocoön and his sons for resisting -the proposal to drag the Wooden Horse within the walls of -Troy. This great group, much larger, earlier (according to -Iacopi, on the somewhat doubtful evidence of the letter-styles -of the Greek inscription, which he would date in the -second or first century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) than the Vatican version, and -different in conception, fits the pedestal in the middle of -the circular pool.</p> - -<p>Another inscription goes some way to explain both the -quantity and the arrangement of the sculpture in the grotto. -In ten lines of Latin verse it describes how a certain Faustinus -adorned the cave with sculpture for the pleasure of -his Imperial masters, choosing subjects which, Vergil himself -would admit, outdid his own poetry. One of the subjects -mentioned is Scylla, the fabulous cave-dwelling sea-monster, -with a girdle of dogs’ heads about her loins, who guarded -the straits of Messina. Now in the cave, carved in the living -rock, at the right of the entrance, is the prow of a ship,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -set with blue, green, yellow, and red mosaic, and presenting -some evidence of having once had a marble superstructure. -To this ship Iacopi would assign some of his key figures: -a bearded Ulysses in a seaman’s cap, his face expressing -horror; a lovely archaic statuette of Athena (<a href="#ip_7_3">Fig. 7.3</a>), -grasped by a huge hand (Athena might be the figurehead); -Scylla’s gigantic hand seizing a seaman by the hair, and a -terrified mariner who has taken refuge from Scylla at the -ship’s prow. A niche carved in the rock above the ship -would be an appropriate vantage-point for Scylla herself; -in one fragment one of her dog’s heads has bitten deep into -a sailor’s shoulder. It is true that the mosaic names the ship -<i>Argo</i>, but Iacopi explains this as a generic name for a -ship, not necessarily referring to the one that bore the -Argonauts.</p> - -<p>If Iacopi is right about this group, it was a baroque or -even rococo effect that Faustinus arranged for his Imperial -masters. But the Laocoön and Scylla groups by no means -exhausted his fancy or his pocketbook: there was Menelaus -with the body of Patroclus, Ganymede borne to heaven by -an eagle (carved so as to be seen to best effect from below, -and therefore possibly belonging to a pedimental treatment -of the cave façade). There are heads of gods and heroes, -satyrs and fauns, a charming Cupid trying on a satyr’s mask, -a delightful head of a baby with ringlets over the ears—all -in the fanciful, complex, sometimes tortured baroque style -of Hellenistic Pergamum and Rhodes. These are all of fine -crystalline Greek island marble, so that they may be Greek -originals. The soapy native Carrara stone is normally used -in Roman copies—and in too much modern American church -sculpture.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32.5625em;"> - <img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="521" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.3</span> Sperlonga, Cave “of Tiberius.” Head of archaic statuette of -Athena. (Iacopi, <i>op. cit.</i>, Fig. 11)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_7_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_055b.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.4</span> Nemi, Braschi finds (1895) from ships. (G. Ucelli, <i>Le navi di Nemi</i>, p. 19)</div></div> - -<p>At the present writing the Sperlonga cave cannot be said -to have yielded up all its secrets. It is not even certain that -the equipping of Tiberius’ outdoor dining-room as a lavish -baroque museum took place in Tiberius’ lifetime, for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -donor, Faustinus, may be the rich villa-owner of that name -who was a friend of the poet Martial, and therefore of Domitianic -date. The residents of Sperlonga want the sculpture -kept where it was found, to entice tourists; the archaeologists -want to take it to Rome for analysis and reconstruction. -Meanwhile, definitive conclusions are impossible. But one -thing is certain: the bizarre taste of the place, whether -Tiberius’ or Domitian’s, is characteristic of the first century -of the Empire, and reflects the gap between the ostentatious -rich and the church-mouse poor which was one day to -contribute to the Empire’s fall.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>The same fantastic extravagance marks our next finds. -Seventeen miles southeast of Rome, cupped in green volcanic -hills, lies the beautiful deep blue Lake of Nemi, the -mirror of Diana. Here divers, as long ago as 1446, reported, -lying on the bottom in from sixteen to sixty-nine feet of -water, two ships, presumably ancient Roman. A descent was -made in a diving bell in 1535. Another attempt in 1827 used -a large raft with hoists and grappling irons, and an art dealer -tried again in 1895, but all three efforts were chiefly successful -in damaging the hulls, tearing away great chunks -without being able to raise the Ships to the surface. The -1895 attempt did, however, produce a mass of tantalizing -fragments (<a href="#ip_7_4">Fig. 7.4</a>): beams; lead water-pipe; ball-bearings; -a number of objects in bronze, including animal heads holding -rings in their teeth, a Medusa, and a large flat hand; -terracotta revetment plaques, a quantity of rails and spikes, -and a large piece of decking in mosaic. This treasure-trove, -displayed in the Terme Museum, naturally whetted appetites, -not least Mussolini’s. He determined to get at the -ships by lowering the level of the lake, a colossal task -undertaken eagerly by civil and naval engineers enthusiastic -about classical civilization. The job was made easier, but -no less expensive, because there existed an ancient artificial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -outlet, a tunnel a mile long, dating from the reign of Claudius, -which could be used to carry off the overflow. The -pumps were started on October 20, 1928, in the presence of -the <i>Duce</i>. After various vicissitudes over a space of four -years, the lake level was lowered seventy-two feet, and -by November, 1932, the first ship was installed in a hangar -on the shore, and the second (<a href="#ip_7_5">Fig. 7.5</a>) lay exposed in -the mud.</p> - -<p>The ships proved to be enormous by ancient standards, -of very shallow draft, very broad in the beam (one was -sixty-six feet wide, the other seventy-eight) and respectively -234 and 239 feet long (<a href="#ip_7_6">Fig. 7.6</a>). They were larger -than some of the early Atlantic liners. Their 1100 tons burden -gave them ten times the tonnage of Columbus’ largest -ship.</p> - -<p>The task of freeing the ships of mud and debris, recording -the finds level by level, reinforcing the hulls with iron, -shoring them up, raising and transporting them to the -special museum built for them on the lake shore proved in -its way to be as great a challenge to Italian patience and -ingenuity as the job of excavating the slabs and fragments -of the Altar of Peace from under the Palazzo Fiano. There -was always the danger of the ships’ settling in the mud -in a convex curve, springing the beams. The excavating -tools used were made entirely of wood; iron would have -damaged the ancient timbers. As each section of the hull -emerged from the water that had covered it for so many -centuries, it was covered with wet canvas to keep it from -deteriorating.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.5</span> Lake Nemi, second ship exposed.</p> - -<p>(Ucelli, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 97)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_7_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_056b.jpg" width="600" height="99" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.6</span> Lake Nemi, ship, elevation. (Ucelli, <i>op. cit.</i>, Pl. 4)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_7_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_056c.jpg" width="600" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.7</span> Lake Nemi, imaginative reconstruction of ship.</p> - -<p>(Ucelli, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 29)</p></div></div> - -<p>The hulls proved to be full of flat tiles set in mortar. -These overlaid the oak decking, and over these again was -a pavement in polychrome marble and mosaic. Fluted -marble columns were found in the second ship, suggesting -a rich and heavy superstructure (<a href="#ip_7_7">Fig. 7.7</a>). A round pine -timber from the first ship, thirty-seven feet long and sixteen -inches in diameter, with a bronze cap ornamented<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -with a lion holding a ring in its teeth, proved to be a -sweep rudder, one of a pair. It showed that these enormously -heavy vessels (the decking material alone must -have weighed 600 or 700 metric tons) were actually intended -to be practicable, and to move about in the waters -of the lake.</p> - -<p>Clay tubes, flanged like sewer-pipe to fit into each other, -were arranged in pairs to make an air-space between one -level of deck and another. This suggests radiant or hypocaust -heating, as in a Roman bath: these floating palaces, -or temples, or whatever they were—perhaps both—had bathing -facilities. Wooden shutters warrant the inference that -the ships were provided with private cabins. A length of -lead water-pipe stamped with the name of Caligula has -been used to date the ships to that reign (and indeed in -some ways they accord well with Caligula’s reputation for -madness), but of course there is nothing to prevent lead -pipe of Caligula’s short reign (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 37–41) from being used -in Claudius’, and many scholars, on the evidence of the art -objects found, would date the ships in the latter reign.</p> - -<p>Boards in the bottom of the hold were removable to -facilitate cleaning out the bilge. This was done with an -endless belt of buckets, some of which were found, and -are on display, restored, in the museum. Over the ribs of -the hull was pine planking, then a thin coating of plaster, -then a layer of wool treated with tar or pitch, finally lead -sheathing clinched with large-headed copper nails.</p> - -<p>The second ship had outriggers supporting a platform for -the oarsmen, and a bronze taffrail decorated with herms—miniature -busts tapering into square shafts. A number of -mechanical devices of great technical interest was found: -pump-pistons; pulleys; wooden platforms (use unknown), -one mounted on ball-bearings, another on roller-bearings; -a double-action bronze stem-valve (perhaps for use in -pumping out the bilge), which had been welded at a high -temperature (1800° Fahrenheit); anchors, one with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -knot tied by a Roman sailor still intact, another with a -moveable stock, anticipating by over 1800 years a similar -model patented by the British Admiralty in 1851. Its use -is to cant the anchor, giving it a better bite in the mud.</p> - -<p>In 1944 the retreating Germans wantonly burned the -ships in their museum. Their gear, stored in a safe place, -survived. From careful drawings made at the time the ships -were raised, models were made to one-fifth scale. They are -now on display in the restored museum.</p> - -<p>The ships did not contain within themselves clear evidence -about what they were used for. Whether they had -some religious purpose in connection with the nearby Temple -of Diana, or were used as pleasure-craft, or both, they -reflect, like the cave at Sperlonga, the mad extravagance -which increasingly characterized the Roman Empire on -its road to absolutism.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>In 1917, on Rome’s birthday, April 21, a landslip beside -the Rome-Naples railway line outside the Porta Maggiore -revealed, forty-two feet beneath the tracks, a hitherto unsuspected -and most remarkable underground, vaulted, stucco-ornamented -room, the so-called “basilica,” which will serve -as a third example of archaeology’s contribution to our -knowledge of the Julio-Claudian age. To protect the basilica -against damage from seepage and vibration from -trains—240 a day pass directly above it—it was enclosed -in 1951–52, at a cost of over $500,000, in a great box of -waterproof reinforced concrete with footings anchored -nearly twenty-four feet beneath the level of the basilica -pavement.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.8</span> Rome, subterranean basilica at Porta Maggiore, general view.</p> - -<p>(Fototeca)</p></div></div> - -<p>One entered the chamber in antiquity—it was always underground—down -a long vaulted ramp which made a right-angle -turn and emerged in a little square vestibule, whose -skylight provided the basilica’s only natural light. Beyond -the vestibule was a vaulted nave (<a href="#ip_7_8">Fig. 7.8</a>) ending in an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -apse, and two side aisles. The profiles of the piers upholding -the vaults, and of the arches connecting the nave with the -side aisles, are irregular; and the piers are set at eccentric -angles (<a href="#ip_7_9">Fig. 7.9</a>): this suggests a curious method of construction. -A trench must have been dug through the surface -tufa corresponding to the desired perimeter of the building. -Then six square pits were dug, one for each pier, and the -outline of the arches and doorways formed in the virgin -soil. Then mortar was poured in. When it had set, the -entrance corridor was dug and the interior of the basilica -emptied of earth through the skylight in the vestibule. Then -vault, piers, and walls were stuccoed. In the late Republic -and after, Roman artisans showed great skill in ornamental -stucco-work, a far cry from the wattle-and-daub, in the -primitive huts, which is the remote ancestor of the refined -work in the basilica, and a symbol of how far on the road -to sophistication Rome had traveled from her humble -beginnings.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="600" height="328" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.9</span> Rome, subterranean basilica at Porta Maggiore.</p> - -<p>(<i>Legacy of Rome</i>, p. 407)</p></div></div> - -<p>In the basilica the stucco-work is divided by moldings -into squares, rectangles, and lozenges, filled with figures in -low relief of great delicacy and elegance. Some are simple<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> -scenes of daily life, and many others are part of the standard -repertory of Roman art, but the key motifs will bear, -as we shall see, a single, serious interpretation. The apse, -the focal point of the whole structure, was reserved for a -special scene of central importance.</p> - -<p>The central panel of the central vault shows a naked -human figure, a pitcher in his hand, carried off by a winged -creature. (The interior of the figure is eaten out; this is -due not to vandalism but to the depredations of a parasitic -insect related to the termite.) In the four surrounding -panels are four other motifs. A hero wearing a lion’s skin -shoots with a bow a monster guarding a maiden chained -to a rock. A beautiful, seated, half-naked woman cradles a -statuette in her left arm; a bearded middle-aged man stands -before her. A young man in a short tunic, carrying a leafy -branch or a shepherd’s crook, leads off a woman by the -hand. A veiled female figure takes from a tree guarded by -a serpent a fleecy object to give to a man kneeling on a -table nearby. How are these scenes to be interpreted? Do -they share a common motif? According to the French Professor -Jérome Carcopino, they do.</p> - -<p>The central subject is Ganymede borne heavenward to -be Jupiter’s cup bearer. The hero with the lion’s skin is -Hercules rescuing Hesione. The woman with the statuette -is Helen with the Palladium, the ancient image on which -Troy’s safety depended; the wise Ulysses stands before her. -Or it might be Iphigenia, in faraway Tauris, about to bear -past the Thracian King Thoas the statuette of Artemis -which will release her brother Orestes from torment by -the Furies. In the next panel, if the young man is carrying -a branch, he is Orpheus bringing Eurydice back from -Hades; if he is carrying a shepherd’s crook, he is Paris kidnaping -Helen. The veiled female is of course Medea getting -the Golden Fleece for Jason. The common theme is -deliverance. Ganymede, liberated from earthly ties, is -borne on wings to the bliss of Heaven. Hercules can free<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -Hesione because, according to some versions of the myth, -he has been initiated into the mysteries. The statue, whether -of Athena or of Artemis, guarantees the safety of the city -or person who possesses it. Helen, in some accounts, can -read the future and assuage men’s pain; or, if the theme is -Orpheus and Eurydice we may recall that in an early version -of the myth the ending was happy. Jason and Medea -are freed from fear of the dragon through rites of magic -initiation.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_059.jpg" width="600" height="512" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.10</span> Rome, subterranean basilica at Porta Maggiore, apse.</p> - -<p>(Fototeca)</p></div></div> - -<p>Does the great scene in the apse (<a href="#ip_7_10">Fig. 7.10</a>) harmonize -with the interpretation? In it, on the right, a graceful veiled -woman, holding the lyre of a poetess, descends a cliff into -the sea. She is pushed by a baby winged figure standing -behind her. Beneath, waist deep in the water, a figure with -a cloak outspread stands ready to receive her and escort<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -her to the opposite shore. There, on another cliff, stands -an imposing naked male figure, in his left hand a bow, his -right outstretched in blessing. Behind him sits a young man -thoughtfully supporting his head on his hand. Below in the -sea yet another figure holds an oar and blows a horn in -greeting. Any Roman intellectual would recognize the -scene: it is Sappho, encouraged by Cupid, received by -Tritons, blessed by Apollo, making the lover’s leap to join -her beloved Phaon for eternity. This is not suicide, but liberation -from earthly love into an eternity of perfect harmony -of the senses with the sublime and the supernatural. The -scene is consistent with the others, and provides a further -clue to the interpretation of the whole, for Pliny the Elder, -in his encyclopaedic <i>Natural History</i>, says that the myth -of Sappho and Phaon was made much of by a sect called -neo-Pythagoreans, inspired by the number-mysticism, and -the belief in immortality, of their founder, Pythagoras of -Samos, who flourished in the late sixth century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> These -beliefs were refined in the Hellenistic Age, and taken up by -heterodox Roman intellectuals.</p> - -<p>This elegant underground chamber, so restrained and -literary in décor, so small in size (it measures less than -thirty by thirty-six feet) is just the place for a chapel for -such an élite and aristocratic sect of ancient freemasons. -The hypothesis is borne out by the discovery beneath the -floor of the bones of a puppy and a suckling pig, the preferred -<i>pièces de résistance</i> for a neo-Pythagorean cult meal, -perhaps the meal that inaugurated the chapel.</p> - -<p>And still other motifs in the stucco decoration strengthen -the hypothesis, by stressing redemption, salvation, initiation: -a winged victory; a soul arriving in the Isles of the -Blest; a woman with a flower, symbolizing Hope; a scene -of Demeter, the earth goddess, and Triptolemus, the hero -of agriculture, of whom much was made in the Eleusinian -mysteries. Other reliefs show the reverse of the coin: the -punishment of the uninitiate. The satyr Marsyas is flayed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -alive for presuming to challenge Apollo to a competition -in music. The Danaids, for the crime of murdering their -husbands, perform forever the useless labor of drawing -water in perforated jars. There are other sinners: Medea -with her slain sons; Pasiphaë, the monstrously adulterous -Cretan queen; Phaedra, trying her wiles on her sinless stepson; -Hippolytus, over-chaste votary of the maiden-goddess -Artemis; King Pentheus murdered, for scoffing at the Dionysiac -mysteries; his mother, Agave, carries his severed -head aloft in Bacchic frenzy. To these has not been given -the true neo-Pythagorean vision of the truth; they are -portrayed here to symbolize their doom to a private Hell -of their own making.</p> - -<p>Two long panels on either side of the spring of the -central vault reinforce the general intellectual tone. In -one, schoolboys recite their lessons before a seated schoolmaster -with a ferule in his hand. In the other, the Muse -of Tragedy attends the coming-of-age ceremony of a Roman -adolescent. (Some interpret this scene as a marriage; -if so, the sect will have allegorized it in some way.) We -know that the sect was open to both sexes; reliefs in the -wall-panels of the basilica show men and women making -offerings.</p> - -<p>The stuccoes of the vault were in excellent condition -when found. (They have since suffered from dampness, -now being corrected by air-conditioning.) Also, they show -no traces of addition or repairs, but the wall-panels were -desecrated in antiquity by vandals, the consoles for offerings -ripped off, the lamps and chapel gear carried away. It -looks as though the chapel had had a short life, and the -cult a violent end. Will history provide a date? Tacitus -mentions in his <i>Annals</i> a rich Roman, Titus Statilius Taurus, -known to have owned property near the basilica, who fell -foul of Claudius, was accused of practicing <i>magicas superstitiones</i>, -and escaped his sentence by committing suicide -in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 53. The style of the stuccoes fits this date, the décor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -of the basilica fits the cult, its state when found fits Tacitus’ -story. We may suppose that everything within reach was -looted, the chamber filled in, and probably never seen again -until the spring day 1864 years later when the landslide by -the railway revealed its existence.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>In 1907 the German archaeologist F. Weege, following -in the footsteps of Renaissance explorers of 1488, made his -way through a hole in the wall of the Baths of Trajan, near -the Coliseum, to find himself in a labyrinth of underground -vaulted corridors and rooms partly filled with rubble, which -had once been part of an Imperial palace, the Golden House -of Nero. Setting lighted candles at every turning to guide -his way back, he explored as many as he could of the -eighty-eight rooms of this small part of the palace-complex, -sometimes crawling with lighted candle over rubble that -filled a room nearly to the vault, while spiders and centipedes, -and other nameless creatures scuttled away from -him into the darkness.</p> - -<p>The rooms had been filled with rubble by Trajan, with -a twofold purpose: to make a firm substructure for his -baths, and to continue the work of the Flavians in damning -the memory of the conspicuous consumption and conspicuous -waste of the hated Nero. Thirteen hundred and eighty-four -years later, when the underground rooms were rediscovered, -among the visitors was Raphael, who decorated -a loggia in the Vatican Palace in the style of the fantastic -paintings on Nero’s walls. Since the buried rooms were -grottoes, the paintings were “grotesques”—as often, the -word has survived, while its history has been forgotten. -Other visitors were Caravaggio, Velasquez, Michelangelo, -and Raphael’s teacher, Perugino. The names of many a -famous artist are scrawled right across the face of the ornaments -of the vaults. An Italian poem, written not long -after the discovery of America, speaks of artists’ underground<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -picnics in the Golden House. The picnickers crawled -on their bellies to enjoy their subterranean meal of bread, -ham, apples, and wine.</p> - -<p>The result of Weege’s more scientific investigation was -the working out of a new plan. The western half of the -complex (<a href="#ip_7_11">Fig. 7.11</a>) proved to be conventional, with the -rooms grouped about a peristyle with garden and fountain. -Rooms 37 and 43 have alcoves: it is easy to imagine them -as the Imperial bedchambers of Nero and his beautiful red-haired -wife Poppaea. In Nero’s bedchamber were hung the -1808 gold crowns he won in athletic competitions in Greece, -if competitions they can be called, when all the prizes were -awarded to Nero in advance, and armed guards drove off -all would-be rivals.</p> - -<p>The eastern wing (<a href="#ip_7_12">Fig. 7.12</a>) is more unorthodox in -plan, and more interesting. The main approach opened into -Room 60, the Hall of the Gilded Vault, so called from the -ornate painted stucco ceiling, divided into round and rectangular -fields in gilt, green, red and blue, depicting mythological -and erotic scenes, very different in tone from the -restraint of the subterranean basilica. Hippolytus, off to the -hunt, receives a letter containing incestuous proposals from -his stepmother Phaedra. Satyrs rape nymphs, Venus languishes -in the arms of Mars, Cupid rides in a chariot drawn -by panthers. And yet we are told that the painting in this -pleasure dome was done by the solemn dean of Roman -artists, Fabullus himself, the John Singer Sargent of his -day, who always painted in full dress, wearing his toga.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="600" height="522" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.11</span> Rome, Golden House, west wing.</p> - -<p>(G. Lugli, <i>Roma antica</i>, p. 358)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_7_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_060b.jpg" width="600" height="477" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.12</span> Rome, Golden House, east wing.</p> - -<p>(G. Lugli, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 359)</p></div></div> - -<p>Room 70 is a vaulted corridor 227 feet long, with sixteen -windows opening to the north in the impost of the vault, -which is painted sky-blue as a <i>trompe d’oeil</i>. Seabeasts, -candelabra, and arabesques, sphinxes with shrubs growing -out of their backs, griffins, centaurs, acanthus-leaves, Cupids, -gorgons’ heads, lions’ heads with rings in their mouths, -dolphins holding horns of plenty, winged horses, eagles, -tritons, swags of flowers make up the riotous décor. In recesses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -in the walls landscapes and seascapes, impressionistically -painted, attempt the illusion of the out-of-doors. -Halfway down the corridor the vault is lowered. Here it -supported a ramp which led to the gardens above.</p> - -<p>Room 84 is octagonal, lighted by a hole in the roof, anticipating, -as we shall see, Hadrian’s Pantheon. Perhaps -this was the state dining room, described by ancient sources -as hung on an axis and revolving like the world. Its ivory -ceilings slid back and dropped flowers and perfumes on -Nero’s guests.</p> - -<p>The most controversial room of all is the apsidal number -80, decorated with scenes from the Trojan war: Hector and -Andromache, Paris and Helen, Thetis bringing Achilles his -shield. Nero was fascinated by the Trojan War: it was an -epic of his own composition on the fall of Troy that he -recited as Rome was burning. What was in the apse? Equivocal -Renaissance reports place the finding of the Vatican -Laocoön somewhere in this area, the apse is of a size to fit -the statue, and the subject is appropriate to a room full of -Trojan motifs. The statue’s baroque quality would have -appealed strongly to Nero’s taste. This is the circumstantial -evidence for room 80 as the findspot of one of the most -notorious statues of antiquity. That this survey of the Julio-Claudian -age should approach its end, as it began, with -mention of the Laocoön, suggests how conventional was -the repertory of Roman taste.</p> - -<div id="ip_7_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_061.jpg" width="600" height="386" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.13</span> Rome, Golden House, reconstruction drawing of whole area. (<i>Fototeca</i>)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_7_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_061b.jpg" width="700" height="527" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 7.14</span> Rome, the Neronian Sacra Via.</p> - -<p>(E. B. Van Deman, <i>Mem. Am. Ac. Rome</i>, 5 [1925])</p></div></div> - -<p>But a description of the rooms of the Golden House is -not quite the whole story. In 1954 the Dutch archaeologist -C. C. Van Essen published the results of careful probing -in the whole section of Rome for half a mile around the Coliseum, -where he found traces of Nero’s palace in a number of -places on the perimeter. For the Golden House was much -more than the complex of rooms just described. It was a gigantic -system (<a href="#ip_7_13">Fig. 7.13</a>) of parks, with lawns, groves, pastures, -a zoo. Over its central pool later rose the great bulk -of the Coliseum. Within these grounds, twice the extent of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> -Vatican City, was a great Versailles in the midst of the -teeming metropolis. The eighty-odd rooms we have been -describing made up but one of several palaces in the -grounds. And an American, Miss E. B. Van Deman, working -from some very unlikely-looking architectural blocks piled -beside the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the old -Forum, was able in 1925 to restore on paper (<a href="#ip_7_14">Fig. 7.14</a>) the -monumental approach, over 350 feet wide, to the palace -grounds from the old Forum and Palatine. It was a mile -long, with arcades of luxury shops, and eight rows of pillars. -Its plan is concealed today under mounds of dumped earth -between the Hall of the Vestals and the Arch of Titus. Beside -it rose a colossal statue of Nero, 120 feet tall, now -marked by a pattern in the pavement. When Hadrian desired -to remove the statue to make room for his Temple of -Venus and Rome, it took twenty-four elephants to do the -job. But decades before, his predecessors the Flavians had -done what they could, with the Baths of Titus and the Flavian -Amphitheater (the proper name of the Coliseum) to -erase the memory of Nero’s monstrous extravagance, and -turn his palace grounds to public use.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>The four archaeological examples from the Julio-Claudian -age discussed in this chapter were chosen for their intrinsic -interest, not to illustrate a thesis. But they do prove a point -all the same. Tiberius’ <i>al fresco</i> dining room, with its monstrous -and tortured statuary (even though some of it be -later in date); Caligula’s houseboats, with their incredibly -heavy profusion of work in colored marble, mosaic, and -bronze; Nero’s Golden House, with its labyrinth of gaudy -and over-decorated rooms of state, all testify to a decadent -extravagance beyond Hollywood’s wildest aspirations. By -comparison, the cool, quiet taste of the subterranean basilica -is an oasis and a relief, but even this is a commentary on -Claudius’ intolerance. And it has about it an air of holier-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>than-thou -Brahminism, the furthest possible contrast with -the warmth, the close contact with common people, which -marked the Christianity that was to be preached in Rome -not long after the basilica-sect was outlawed. One cannot -but marvel at the staying-power of the organism that could -survive this prodigality, this cleavage between class and -mass, for over three centuries. But as we focus our attention -upon the excesses of court and of metropolis, we ought not -to forget that in the municipal towns of Italy and the Empire -life went on, more modestly, quietly, and decently. -Archaeology gives us precious proof of this in a pair of -buried cities of the Flavian Age, Pompeii and Herculaneum.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_8" class="vspace">8<br /> - -<span class="subhead">The Victims of Vesuvius</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>One day in 1711 a peasant digging a well on his property -in Resina, on the bay five miles southeast of Naples, came -upon a level of white and polychrome architectural marbles, -obviously ancient. This chance find led to the discovery of -what proved to be the buried town of Herculaneum, destroyed -in the eruption of Vesuvius of August 24, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 79. -Workmen digging in 1748 by the Sarno canal, nine miles -farther along the bay, found bronzes and marbles on a -site which an inscription, discovered fifteen years later, -identified as Herculaneum’s more famous sister city, Pompeii. -Thus began a saga of excavation which has told the -modern world more about ancient life than any other dig -in the long history of archaeology, and this in two towns -which have left almost no record in literature. In a few -hours of a summer afternoon the eruption stopped the life -of two flourishing little cities dead in its tracks: dinner on -the tables, the wine-shops crowded, sacrifices at the moment -of being offered, funerals in progress, prisoners in the -stocks, watchdogs on their chains. The townsfolk had not -even time to gather their possessions. Ironically, going back -for their little hoards of gold and silver spelled death for -many of them, under the hail of pumice-stone and ashes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -(or, at Herculeaneum, the river of lava) which asphyxiated -(<a href="#ip_8_1">Fig. 8.1</a>) or engulfed them. At Herculaneum, on the afternoon -of the eruption, rain turned the volcanic ash to mud, -which solidified, burying the town thirty to forty feet deep. -Electric drills and mechanical shovels are needed to dig -there, so progress has been slow. Even Pompeii, under its -shallower layer of pumice-pebbles and light ash, is still only -about three-fifths excavated.</p> - -<div id="ip_8_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_062.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.1</span> Pompeii, victims of Vesuvius, from House of Cryptoporticus.</p> - -<p>(V. Spinazzola, <i>Pompeii: ... Via dell’ Abbondanza</i>, 1, p. 443)</p></div></div> - -<p>For a century and a half after their rediscovery the two -sites were treated almost entirely as a quarry for works of -art, as a plaything for the various dynasties that misruled -Naples, and as a romantic stop on the Grand Tour. The -discovery of ancient artifacts here revolutionized the taste -of Europe: Ludwig of Bavaria built a replica of a Pompeian -house at Aschaffenburg; Winckelmann, the great Romantic -art historian, conceived here many of his notions of -the wonders of Greek art; Casanova’s brother copied some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -of the paintings, and did a brisk business in forgeries. Nelson’s -mistress, Lady Hamilton, was a frequent visitor: her -husband was British ambassador to Naples. Goethe was -impressed by Pompeii’s smallness; Napoleon’s marshal Murat -supervised the dig, and Garibaldi made Alexandre -Dumas his Director of Antiquities here. A generation of -Victorians sobbed over <i>The Last Days of Pompeii</i>, and the -young Queen herself visited the Site in 1838.</p> - -<p>But it was not till the era of scientific archaeology—which -came to Pompeii and Herculaneum with Fiorelli in 1860—that -the buried cities began to add their never-ceasing -stores to the sum of our knowledge of ancient town-planning, -public life, private life in town and country houses, -trade and tradesmen, religion, and art.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<div id="ip_8_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="600" height="405" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.2</span> Pompeii, air view. (University of Wisconsin Classics Dept. collection)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_8_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="700" height="545" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.3</span> Pompeii, plan. (MPI)</div></div> - -<p>One of the results of scientific excavation at Pompeii was -to reveal at last the town plan (<a href="#ip_8_2">Fig. 8.2</a>), after decades -spent in sporadic digging for treasure trove, in cutting paintings -out of walls, filling in the excavated houses, and moving -on without system to a new area. The plan as now -revealed (<a href="#ip_8_3">Fig. 8.3</a>) shows the least regular streets in the -southwest quadrant of the town around the Forum; this, -therefore, should be the oldest part; and in fact architectural -terracottas found here, in the so-called <i>Foro triangolare</i>, -are dated in the sixth century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> Elsewhere the pattern -of a rectangular grid is clear, making possible the -division of the city for purposes of archaeological reference -into nine regions. Each region is subdivided into numbered -blocks, or <i>insulae</i>; each <i>insula</i> into numbered houses. The -whole 160 acres, big enough for a population of from fifteen -to twenty thousand, is surrounded by a wall, in which archaeologists, -on the basis of building materials and techniques, -have detected four phases. The earliest, with a facing -of squared limestone, dates from the fifth century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>; -the latest, marked by the addition of high towers, from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -time of Sulla, who settled some of his veterans here in a -colony grandiosely named the <i>Colonia Veneria Cornelia -Pompeianorum</i>. Masons’ marks from the third phase (280–180 -<span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) are in Oscan letters, the alphabet of ancient Italy’s -major language, next after Latin and Greek. Inscriptions -(street signs for example) show that Oscan persisted as -Pompeii’s third language, along with Latin and Greek (for -the area around Naples had originally been settled by -Greeks, and they kept their culture), down almost to the -time of the eruption. The wall shows the marks of the stone -catapult-balls of the Sullan siege; some of the balls were -found preserved as souvenirs in houses. After the Sullan -phase the wall was allowed to fall into disrepair, mute evidence -of the security of the Augustan peace.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Whatever curtailment of liberty seemed a price worth -paying for security in Rome, Pompeii at least enjoyed an -active political life. The evidence is a vast series of election -“posters,” painted in red and black on house and shop walls. -In these, individuals and groups (for example, the fullers -or laundrymen, the fruit-vendors, the fishermen, dyers, bakers, -goldsmiths, muleteers, and a private club of gay blades -who call themselves the <i>seribibi</i>, late drinkers) urge their -fellow-citizens to vote for candidates for aedile, the highest -municipal office. For one block of supporters the candidate’s -gratitude must have been extremely limited: the notice -read: “The sneak-thieves support Vatia for the aedileship.” -The bases for the invitations to vote for a candidate like -“Vote for <i>X</i>: he won’t squander public funds,” will have a -strong appeal for the modern reader.</p> - -<p>There was no interference with due process, to judge by -the basilica in the Forum, where Pompeii’s legal business -was transacted: it is Pompeii’s largest and most important -public building. Tiles found in it stamped in Oscan come -from a level which shows that the building dates at least<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -from 120 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> Across the Forum from the basilica is the -<i>comitium</i>, for town meetings and elections: at the south -end of the Forum are three buildings, identified as the -meeting-place of the town council, with municipal offices -on either side.</p> - -<p>Pompeii was well-supplied, too, with public amenities. -The streets were paved, and supplied at the main intersections -with stepping stones, which did not interfere with the -passage of high-axled wagons, though some stepping stones -were removed in 1815 to allow the Queen of Naples’ coach -to pass. (Nowadays visitors with a taste for ostentation can -be carried through Pompeii in a sedan chair.) Lead water-pipes -found everywhere show that all but the very humblest -houses were supplied with running water. There were -no less than three sets of public baths, of which the largest -was under construction when the catastrophe came. The -baths had radiant heating and elegant stuccoed vaults. -There were separate sets of rooms for men and for women, -and an enormous number of lamps found in one establishment -shows that it was in use also in the evening hours.</p> - -<p>That the intellectual as well as the physical needs of the -population were catered to is deduced from the existence -of two stone theaters, one open to the sky, with a capacity -of 5,000; one roofed, a <i>théatre intime</i>, for about 800. Both -antedate the earliest stone theater in Rome. But the Pompeians -did not push the intellectual life to extremes. The -portico behind the large theater was remodelled in Nero’s -reign to make a barracks for gladiators, complete with -armory and lock-up, where three of them were found asphyxiated -in the stocks. The amphitheater has seats for -20,000. Legends scrawled on its walls, and on house-walls -all over town, testify to the gladiators’ popularity with their -fans: gladiatorial records are registered (twenty-four fights, -twenty-four victories; the losers most often are murdered -and forgotten), and one champion is recorded as <i>SVSPIRIVM -PVELLARVM</i>, the one the girls sigh for.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p> - -<div id="ip_8_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29.625em;"> - <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="474" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.4</span> Pompeii, House of the Moralist.</p> - -<p>(Spinazzola, <i>op. cit.</i>, 2, p. 728)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_8_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_064b.jpg" width="600" height="548" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.5</span> Pompeii, House of the Moralist, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(Spinazzola, <i>op. cit.</i>, 2, p. 756)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_8_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="600" height="533" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.6</span> Pompeii, House of the Moralist, triclinium.</p> - -<p>(Spinazzola, <i>op. cit.</i>, 2, p. 752)</p></div></div> - -<p>But Pompeii’s greatest contribution is to our knowledge, -almost indecently intimate, of the private life of its inhabitants. -This information comes primarily from the town -houses and the suburban and rustic villas. The best guidebooks -go into some detail on seventy-eight of these in Pompeii, -and thirty-one in Herculaneum; hundreds more go -unrecorded. In the face of this <i>embarras de richesse</i>, rigorous -selection is necessary, and a description of a few houses -and villas must suffice. To represent town houses I choose -the “House of the Moralist” (<i>Regio</i> III, <i>Insula</i> iv, House -2–3), on the Via dell’ Abbondanza, a shopping street of -average houses. (The aristocratic quarter was in <i>Regio</i> VI.) -Excavations on this street by Vittorio Spinazzola between -1910 and 1923 were carried out according to a method -new in Pompeii, which made the dead street come alive -with extraordinary vividness. Spinazzola’s meticulousness -preserved and reconstructed the traces of upper stories, -with windows, balconies, and loggias; of gardens, with the -discovered roots of their trees and plants replaced by modern -ones of the same species. The colorful painted signs -and notices on the house and shop fronts, instead of being -detached as in the past and transferred to the museum in -Naples, were left <i>in situ</i>, protected by glass and awnings, -and the house interiors, with their furniture and wall-paintings, -were kept intact. All this Spinazzola published in -1953 in a colossal book of 1110 folio pages, with over 1000 -figures and ninety-six large plates. His account is the more -important because the House of the Moralist, having been -kept inviolate by volcanic ashes for so many centuries, was -badly damaged by Allied bombs in 1943. (There were -Germans quartered in the hotels near the excavation entrance.) -The ground floor plan (Figs. <a href="#ip_8_4">8.4</a> and <a href="#ip_8_5">8.5</a>) of that -house shows two dwellings thrown into one. The smaller, -on the left, has typical features: its vestibule leading to an -<i>atrium</i> or patio off which open a summer and a winter dining -room and a light-well planted with flowers and shrubs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> -The winter dining-room is frescoed in glossy black; it has -a vaulted, coffered ceiling, and a high window closed by -a shutter planned to slide into the wall. The usual peristyle, -or rectangular portico behind the <i>atrium</i>, is missing, its -function supplied by the loggias on the upper floor and -the large sunken garden behind the larger house. The garden -was planned as a little grove sacred to Diana. Her -statue was found in the middle of the garden, with a little -bronze incense-burner in the shape of a ram still in place -on its pedestal, and large trees planted around it. The -pleasant summer dining room fills the garden’s southwest -corner. In it the marble-topped table was found set for a -meal or sacrifice (<a href="#ip_8_6">Fig. 8.6</a>). In the corner was a brazier and -a pitcher for hot water. Three couplets painted on the wall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -prescribed etiquette for the diners, and give the house its -name: “Don’t put your dirty feet on our couch covers; if -you bicker at table you’ll have to go home; be modest and -don’t make eyes at another man’s wife.” There was a dumb-waiter -to serve the pleasant loggias on the upper floor overlooking -the garden. The pointed jars, amphorae, in the basement, -suggest that the Moralist was a wine merchant. A -stamp found there gives his name: Gaius Arrius Crescens. -Election notices painted on the house front show that he -and his family were up to their ears in local politics.</p> - -<p>A sumptuous suburban dwelling is the sixty-room Villa -of the Mysteries outside Pompeii’s Herculaneum gate, the -noblest and grandest known of its kind. It was built on a -seaward-facing slope, with a terrace and subterranean -vaults. A careful analysis by its excavator, Amedeo Maiuri, -of its building materials and décor shows six phases, of -which the earliest, in squared blocks of local limestone, -includes the rectangular block of rooms numbered 2–8 and -11–21 in the plan (<a href="#ip_8_7">Fig. 8.7</a>), and is dated 200–150 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> At -this stage the villa was surrounded on three sides by a -pleasant open portico, and the curved exedra or belvedere -(see the plan) did not yet exist. The next stage is marked -by the use of handsome light gray tufa instead of limestone, -includes the peristyle and small <i>atrium</i> (<i>atriolum</i> in the -plan), and the modest bathing rooms (42–44) beyond. It -dates from the time of Sulla. The next two periods are -dated from the prevalent styles of wall-painting, to be discussed -in the section on art below. They take the villa’s -building history through the reign of Augustus. In the Julio-Claudian -period—the date is again made precise by the style -of painting—the villa became useful as well as ornamental: -the rustic quarters 52–60 were added, and an upper floor -overlooking the vestibule. The latter is more elegant than -the rustic quarters, less so than the noble eastern rooms. -The inference is that in this period the owner used the villa -only occasionally, leaving the management of its business<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -end to a resident factor who lived on the upper floor (see -the reconstruction, <a href="#ip_8_8">Fig. 8.8</a>) where he could keep his eye -on the bailiff and the slave farm-hands. The portico (P 1–4) -was now provided with a windowed wall between its columns, -and the sunrooms (9–10) were created, with their -splendid view, open to the southern sunshine, ideal for -a winter siesta.</p> - -<div id="ip_8_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_066.jpg" width="800" height="513" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.7</span> Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries.</p> - -<p>(A. Maiuri, <i>La Villa dei Misteri</i>, p. 41)</p></div></div> - -<p>When the volcano finally struck, the villa was undergoing -extensive remodelling, having apparently not yet recovered -from an earlier catastrophe for which there is other -evidence, both archaeological and literary: an earthquake -in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 62. The master’s quarters were found empty of their -contents, as though after the earthquake he had moved -out altogether, and sold his elegant furniture at auction. -A stamp reveals the name of the new owner: Lucius Istacidius -Zosimus. Istacidius is a noble Samnite (Oscan) -name; Zosimus is Creek. The inference is that the new -owner was a freedman of the former master, who bought -up the property and turned the entire establishment into -a farmhouse. Evidence of the tasteless change from elegance -to stark practicality was found everywhere: piles of -mortar, columns and architraves taken down and stored, -rooms closed off, an ugly new wall run straight across one -of the most tasteful rooms in the master’s quarters (6), a -heap of onions piled on a mosaic floor in an alcoved master -bedroom, farm tools in the graceful southwest sunroom (9). -The apsidal room (25) was apparently destined to become -a shrine to the Emperor. In it the statue of Augustus’ consort, -the Empress Livia, in painted marble with the head -inserted in a second-hand torso (which was found [<a href="#ip_8_9">Fig. 8.9</a>] -propped against the peristyle wall) was apparently to -be set up.</p> - -<div id="ip_8_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="600" height="534" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.8</span> Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(A. Maiuri, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 56)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_8_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.4375em;"> - <img src="images/i_067b.jpg" width="455" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.9</span> Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, Statue of Livia, as found.</p> - -<p>(A. Maiuri, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 227)</p></div></div> - -<p>On the rustic side of the villa, business was going on as -usual. The winepress (<a href="#ip_8_10">Fig. 8.10</a>) was ready for use in the -coming vintage; rough wine was ready in large amphorae -protected by woven straw like a modern <i>fiascone</i> of Chianti<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -or Vesuvio. Farm tools (picks, hoe, shovel, hammer, pruning -hooks) were found hanging in a room (32) beside the -vestibule. The porter was on duty. He was found dead in -his dark little room (35), on his finger a cheap iron ring -set with an engraved carnelian, by his side the five bronze -coins which may have been his life savings. He must have -heard the dying screams of the adolescent girl whose skeleton -was found in the vestibule nearby. Three women were -crushed in the rustic quarters (55) when the roof fell in. -The excavators found their disordered skeletons, their gold -rings and bracelets, a necklace of gold and glass paste beads, -and, lying nearby, ten silver coins. In the cryptoporticus -were found the bodies of four men, with wine or water -jugs by their side. They had hoped the sturdy vaults would -hold, and they did, but the mephitic fumes proved deadly. -(Altogether, it is calculated that Vesuvius claimed 2,000 -victims in Pompeii.) The nine wretched cadavers in the -Villa of the Mysteries were the last inhabitants of a mansion -which in its day had been one of the most elegant in -all Italy.</p> - -<p>Though space does not permit a detailed account of the -fascinating things Herculaneum has to tell us, the subject -of suburban villas cannot be left without mentioning a -famous one there, still not fully explored, where in 1752 -were found, in a narrow room with cupboards, a vast number -of what were at first taken for charred billets of wood. -Later, traces of writing were found on them: they turned -out to be papyri, a whole library of 1800 rolls. A machine -invented to unroll them ruined more scrolls than it unwound, -but finally, by 1806, ninety-six were deciphered. -They proved to be works of an Epicurean philosopher -named Philodemus, to whose patron Lucius Calpurnius -Piso (father of Caesar’s wife Calpurnia) and his descendants -the villa may have belonged. It had a gracious peristyle, -gardens, fishponds, and a belvedere overlooking the -sea at the end of a long graveled walk. In the garden was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -found a whole gallery of sculpture in bronze and marble, -now included among the most famous pieces in the National -Museum in Naples. Here a cultured Roman patrician could -combine in the ideal Epicurean way the calm contemplation -of the beauties of nature and of art with the philosophic -study of the atomic structure of the universe.</p> - -<div id="ip_8_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="424" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.10</span> Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries. Wine-press, reconstructed.</p> - -<p>(Maiuri, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 101)</p></div></div> - -<p>A more rustic villa, between Pompeii and Boscoreale to -the north, shows what the establishment of a capital farmer -of the first century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> was like. The owner’s quarters were -modest. Business came first: most of the ground floor is -taken up with stable, wine and oil presses, threshing floor, -and slaves’ quarters. Slaves were a problem: one rustic -villa has quarters for thirty and stocks for fourteen. The -Boscoreale wine store had a 23,000 gallon capacity, and -enough stone jars were found to hold 1,300 gallons of olive -oil. The proprietor of this villa, however, was not without -his fondness for aesthetic ostentation. In a wine vat here -was found in 1895 a treasure of 108 embossed silver vessels -and 1000 gold coins. They were bought by the banker -Count Edward de Rothschild, much to Italian disgust, and -presented to the Louvre. One pair of cups represents a -series of skeletons, one garlanded, another with a heavy bag -of money, a third with a roll of papyrus, a fourth with a -lyre; the whole bears the legend, the tragic irony of which -the proprietor of the villa was to discover: “Seize hold on -life; tomorrow is uncertain.” Another treasure in silver, -of 118 pieces, all now securely in the Naples museum, was -discovered in 1930 in a nail-studded chest in the strong -room under a town house (I.x.4) called the “House of the -Menander” after a fresco of the dramatist on the walls.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>But it is not only the nabobs, their villas, and their treasures -which Pompeii reveals to us. Ancient tradesmen, their -lives, work, and tastes, about which literature tells us almost -nothing, become more real for us here than anywhere else<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -in the ancient world except Ostia. In the market facing the -Forum the excavators found fruit in glass containers, and -the skeletons of fish and sheep. There are inns for muleteers -and carters by the city gates, and innumerable wine shops, -the bar open to the street, its top pierced to hold cool -amphorae of wine or covered bronze vessels for hot drinks -(<a href="#ip_8_11">Fig. 8.11</a>). Wine prices are scratched on walls, together -with other <i>graffiti</i> of more or less extreme indecency, referring -usually to the oldest of the professions. One says, -“I am yours—for two <i>asses</i>” (the <i>as</i> was a small copper coin -worth, at the time this <i>graffito</i> was scribbled, about two-and-a-half -cents). Another, in large letters over a bench -at the Porta Marina, advises loungers to READ THIS SIGN -FIRST, and offers the charms of a Greek prostitute named -Attiké at sixteen <i>asses</i>. This sort of thing prompted the -more sober-sided Pompeians to write more than once on -the walls (of the large theater, amphitheater, and basilica) -the couplet, one of the most famous of the hundreds found -at Pompeii:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“<i>I wonder, wall, that you do not go smash,</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Who have to bear the weight of all this trash!</i>”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">Other <i>graffiti</i> complain of unrequited love: “I’d like to bash -Venus’ ribs in” (from the basilica), or “Here Vibius lay -alone and longed for his beloved” (perhaps from an inn). -Snatches from the love-poets, Ovid and (strangely) the -tortured, neurotic Propertius, are frequent, and tags of -Vergil remembered from schooldays. <i>Graffiti</i> keep a running -account of daily purchases of cheese, bread, oil, and -wine; or the number of eggs laid daily by the chickens. A -reward is offered for the recovery of a stolen bronze pitcher. -Income property is advertised for rent, or gentlemen’s upstairs -flats (<i>cenacula equestria</i>). A metal worker, doing a -brisk business in chamber pots, has scratched on his wall -a memo of the days fairs are held in nearby towns. He made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -surveyors’ instruments as well: our only example of a surveyor’s -plane table (<i>groma</i>) comes from his shop. In a -bronze-bound chest in the house of a rich freedman banker, -Lucius Caecilius Jucundus, were found his complete (and -involved) accounts, on 153 wax tablets. His bronze bust, -with its shrewd, ugly, kindly face, warts and all (<a href="#ip_8_12">Fig. 8.12</a>), -was also found in the house. It reveals the very type of the -<i>nouveaux riches</i>, not in the least ashamed of being “in -trade,” who came to be the ruling class in the last days of -Pompeii.</p> - -<p>The wealth of tradesmen can be judged by the quality -of the decoration of their houses, in which they often plied -their trade, for the ancient world’s slave economy did not -foster the factory system. Thus in the house of the jeweler -Pinarius Cerialis (III,iv,4), his showcase was found containing -fine engraved cornelians, agates, and amethysts, some -of the work unfinished, and also the tiny, delicate tools of -his trade. In the House of the Surgeon (VI.1,9–10) surgical -instruments were found, including probes, catheters, gynaecological -forceps, pliers for pulling teeth, and little spoons, -perhaps for extracting wax from the ears. These provide -our best evidence for ancient surgical techniques.</p> - -<p>Stephanus’ <i>fullonica</i> (laundry: I.vi.7) was found with -the imprint of the fallen front door left clearly in the ashes. -The padlock was on the outside, from which the inference -is that this establishment served as laundry only; if it had -been a dwelling, the lock would have been on the inside. A -skeleton behind the door had with him a bag of 107 gold -and silver coins. Since two-thirds of them had been minted -years before, under the Republic, one assumes that this was -not merely the day’s take, but a hoard; all the shop’s moveable -capital. Built in at the back were the small vats where -the dirty clothes were trodden, to get out the dirt and -grease, and the larger ones for rinsing. The upper floor and -courtyard were used for drying: in the courtyard wall were -found the small putholes for the canes over which the wet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -clothes were hung. Near the entrance was the clothes press, -in which a pressing board was worked down upon the folded -clothes by means of a pair of large wooden screws.</p> - -<div id="ip_8_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="600" height="393" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.11</span> Pompeii, <i>thermopolium</i> or bar. (MPI)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_8_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_069b.jpg" width="600" height="566" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.12</span> Naples, National Museum. Bronze bust of -Caecilius Jucundus, from Pompeii.</p> - -<p>(B. Maiuri, <i>Il Museo Nazionale di Napoli</i>, p. 71)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_8_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_069c.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.13</span> Pompeii, House of D. Octavius Quartio, garden, -reconstruction. (Spinazzola, <i>op. cit.</i>, 1, p. 418)</div></div> - -<p>Across the street from the laundry a painted shop front -shows the operations of a felter’s establishment, where wool -was matted together with a fixative, under repeated manipulation -and pressure, until it acquired a consistent texture, -like a piece of cloth. Felt was in demand for caps, cloaks, -slippers, and blankets (the latter for both man and horse). -The shop sign shows workmen at tables holding the carding -comb and knives of their trade. In the middle of the picture -other men, naked to the waist, are at work at shallow troughs -impregnating the wool with the coagulant (Pliny the Elder -says it was vinegar) which is being heated by a stove beneath -the troughs. To the right, the proprietor—his name -was Verecundus—proudly holds up a red-striped finished -sample. To the left, Mercury, the patron of tradesmen, is -painted emerging from a Tuscan temple with a money bag -in his hand (“Hurrah for profit,” says a Pompeian <i>graffito</i>). -Below is the proprietor’s wife at a table, in spirited conversation -with a female customer who is trying on slippers. -No literary discussion, primary or secondary, can match the -vivid concreteness of this archaeological record.</p> - -<p>The house (II.v.1–4) of Decimus Octavius Quartio (or -Marcus Loreius Tiburtinus—authorities differ about the occupant’s -name) belonged to a potter, to judge by a small -kiln, with the potter’s stool and samples of his wares, found -in a workroom. This is interesting enough, but more interesting -still is this tradesman’s taste, as revealed by his house -and garden. Hardly a corner of the house is left unfrescoed, -and the paintings include two ambitious cycles; nine episodes -from the saga of Hercules, and fourteen from the -<i>Iliad</i>. (The House of the Cryptoporticus [I.vi.2–4] presents -twenty-five <i>Iliad</i> episodes from an original 86, badly damaged -when the last owner, an obvious Babbitt, turned the -cryptoporticus into a wine cellar and made over the dining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> -room for public use.) The potter was besides a connoisseur -of gardens; his is the most charming that Pompeii can boast. -His <i>impluvium</i>—for catching rainwater in the <i>atrium</i> (courtyard -or patio)—is double-walled, for flower-boxes; behind -the <i>atrium</i> is a formal flower bed, with walks around it on -three sides; the chief feature of the sunken back garden -(<a href="#ip_8_13">Fig. 8.13</a>), nearly twice the area of the house itself, is a -pair of long narrow fish pools, planned perpendicular to -each other to form a T, and trellised (<a href="#ip_8_14">Fig. 8.14</a>) so that -vines could grow over them. The walls of the pools were -painted blue to deepen the color of the water. At one end -of the crossbar of the T is the pleasantest <i>al fresco</i> dining -alcove imaginable. Statuettes embellish the alcove and the -sides of the pool. There is a little shrine in the alcove; another, -with a fountain, where the two pools meet; still -another, with a fountain in front of it, two-thirds of the way -along the upright of the T. Putholes in the garden wall show -that there were shed roofs there to protect exotic plants -and flowers. The plum trees, oaks, shrubs, arbors, and plants -with which the garden was filled in orderly rows, with -walks between, have been replanted, after identifying them -from their roots found in the ashes. Forty-four amphorae -were found buried to their necks in a row along one side -of the garden. Perhaps they served as flower pots; it is -equally possible that they were a wine store, for this potter’s -house has no wine cellar. In a corner and under the -arbors along the walks there were wooden seats and little -marble tables, for rustic picnics in the pleached shade. The -difference of levels, the fountains, shrines, statues, arbors, -trees, and the painted colors, red, gray, green, yellow, and -blue, all judiciously restored, make this age-old garden -extraordinarily vivacious. Here archaeology has once more -given the lie to the hackneyed stereotype of the lifelessness -and colorlessness of classical antiquity, and has proved that -in landscape-gardening, at any rate, there is something to -be said for the <i>bourgeois</i> taste of Pompeian tradesmen.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -Some had a taste for music, too, to judge by some frescoes -in the small but gracious House of Fabia (I.vi.15). One -portrays the mistress of the house with sheet music in her -hand. Another shows what appears to be a music lesson, -our only example of the lyre being played four hands. Indeed -archaeology, by revealing these middlebrows to us -in three dimensions, their shops and artifacts, inns and bars, -street signs and <i>graffiti</i>, loves licit and illicit, tools and -equipment, their tastes and pleasures, has given us, especially -in Pompeii, a truer picture of the average, ordinary ancient -Italian man than Latin literature provides. For Latin literature, -with some exceptions like Plautus’ plays, tends to be -written by highbrows for highbrows. (Yet paradoxically, the -best literary picture of an ancient Babbitt, Petronius’ Trimalchio, -<i>was</i> drawn by a highbrow for highbrows.)</p> - -<div id="ip_8_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.14</span> Pompeii, House of D. Octavius Quartio, garden, with trellis and pool. (Spinazzola, <i>op. cit.</i>, 1, p. 396)</div></div> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Pompeii has enriched, too, our knowledge of the ancient -Italian’s relation to his gods. The archaeological documents -for Pompeian religion include the temples, innumerable -household shrines, wayside altars, frescoes, inscriptions, and -<i>graffiti</i>. Of the ten temples, three, ruined in the earthquake, -had not been repaired at the time of the final débacle, -seventeen years later. One had reverted to the use of a -private association, and two were dedicated to the Imperial -cult, to which generally only lip service was paid. One piece -of evidence on this is the cynical <i>graffito</i> from a farm in -nearby Boscotrecase: “Augustus Caesar’s mother was only -a woman.” Of the rest, only the temple of the Egyptian Isis -shows real signs of the prosperity that comes from devout -support. The truth is that the real god of Pompeii—as of -most other cities ancient and modern—was the God of Gain. -The state religion, cold and formal, offered little comfort: -the warmth and promise came from Oriental religions, of -which Isis-worship was one and Christianity another. There -is no evidence of Christianity’s having penetrated Pompeii -by <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 79, unless the ominous <i>graffito</i>, “SODOMA, GO<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>MORA,” -be taken as a sign. But Pompeii, close to the -Italian end of the trade-route from Alexandria, is permeated -with things Egyptian, and there is much evidence of enthusiasm -for the cult of Isis. The earliest building stones of -the temple (VII.vii) belong to the end of the second century -<span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, and were thrown down in the earthquake of <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 62. -But <i>this</i> temple was not left derelict: it was immediately -reconstructed from the ground up in the name of a six-year-old -boy, who was rewarded for his piety by honorary membership -in the town council. The cult, with its promise of -personal immortality, received rich gifts from its votaries. -Its marble lustral basin, for holy water; statues and statuettes, -including of course the goddess herself, with her rattle that -kept off evil spirits; the striking bronze bust of an actor-donor; -lamps; sacrificial knives; the ornamental marble curb -of a well; candelabra, and rich frescoes, some with likenesses -of white-robed, shaven-headed priests, which decorated the -precinct and the walls, are now among the treasures of the -National Museum in Naples.</p> - -<p>Family cults flourished in Pompeii more than the official -religion, to judge by the fact that nearly every house and -workshop has its private shrine, usually housing busts of -ancestors (for in this the Romans were downright Japanese), -and adorned with a picture of a snake, representing the -family’s Genius, or guardian spirit. Sometimes, as in the -House of the Cryptoporticus, there is a handsomely decorated -private shrine to one of the Olympian deities, in this -case Diana. The trades had their patron saints: Mercury -(god also of thieves) for commerce; Minerva, who invented -weaving, for the clothmakers; the hearth goddess Vesta for -the bakers. The front of the felter’s shop described above is -emblazoned with a magnificent Venus in a chariot drawn -by four elephants. Sex, too, had its enthusiastic worshipers: -a dyer’s vat (IX.vii.2) bears a relief of an enormous winged -phallus, set in a temple whose <i>acroteria</i> are also phalluses, -of smaller size. But perhaps the perfect symbol of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -religion of this tradesmen’s town is a fresco in the House -of the Cryptoporticus, in which the family of Aeneas (the -symbol of Rome) is shown guided to its destiny by Mercury, -the god of trade.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Is all this great art? A fair answer to the question should -come from an analysis of what is usually regarded as the -masterpiece of Pompeian painting, the fresco in Room 5 of -the Villa of the Mysteries.</p> - -<p>This analysis must be prefaced by a word about the four -more or less successive styles into which archaeologists have -succeeded in dividing the vast corpus of Pompeian painting. -The First (or “incrustation”) Style, found in buildings (<i>e.g.</i>, -at Palestrina) dated by their fabric and technique from -150 to 80 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, uses colored stucco to imitate marble dadoes, -rusticated blocks, and revetments. The Second (or “architectural”) -Style (80 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>-<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 14) imitates architectural -forms, uses perspective, and throws the field to be painted -open to mythical or religious subjects. The Third (or -“Egyptianizing”) Style (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 14–62) flattens out painted -architectural detail into painted “surrounds” or frames for -panels which look like hanging tapestries, worked out with -fine detail in a miniaturist’s technique. The Fourth (or -“ornamental”) Style (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 62–79) features infinite vistas, -with figures moving amid fantastic architecture. Examples -of the last three styles are frequent in the Villa of the -Mysteries, but the great sequence from which the Villa takes -its name is of the Second Style and Augustus’ reign.</p> - -<div id="ip_8_15" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="600" height="359" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 8.15</span> Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, fresco: woman being scourged. (MPI)</div></div> - -<p>In this sequence, against a background of brilliant Pompeian -red, are painted, almost life-size, a series of twenty-nine -figures subdivided into ten groups. At the left of the -door in the northwest corner (as one enters from Room 4) -a boy reads what is apparently a ritual from a papyrus roll; -a woman, perhaps his mother, points to the words with a -stylus. Next is a scene of ritual washing of a myrtle branch;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -one of the servers, in deep décolleté, and with pointed ears, -carries the papyrus ritual roll at her waist in a fold of -her <i>stola</i>. In the next group a fat, blonde-bearded, naked -old Silenus plays a lyre, a faun plays his pipe, and his -consort gives suck to a goat. Then comes the figure of a -woman in motion so violent that her drapery swirls about -her as she raises a hand in horror at one of the scenes that -follows. But between her and the scene that repels her are -three other groups. First, another trio, of a Silenus and two -fauns. The Silenus is giving one of the fauns a drink out of -a silver bowl; the other faun frightens the drinker with a -Silenus mask held so as to be reflected in the surface of the -wine. Second, the central scene, in the center of the east -wall: a naked god, identified as Bacchus by the thyrsus (the -staff tipped with a pine cone) which lies athwart his body, -and by the vine leaves in his hair, leans back in the lap of -a figure who must be his bride, Ariadne. Third, a kneeling -woman unveils an erect purple-draped object, surely the -Mystery of Mysteries, a phallus. Beyond her is the scene of -horror (<a href="#ip_8_15">Fig. 8.15</a>): a half-naked female figure with huge -black wings raises a whip to scourge a woman, surely the -candidate for initiation, who cowers, her back bare, her face -buried, in the lap of a seated woman who strokes the victim’s -dishevelled hair to comfort her. Beyond her a naked Bacchante -whirls in an orgiastic dance, clicking castanets high -in the air above her head. In the last two scenes a woman in -bridal yellow, on an elegant ivory stool, does her hair while -a Cupid holds a mirror. Another Cupid, with his bow, looks -on. And finally, a matron, with her mantle draped over her -head like a priestess, sits, leaning on a cushion of purple and -gold, on a chair with a footstool, and watches gravely.</p> - -<p>This fresco, which clearly portrays a Dionysiac ritual, -and connects it with marriage and fertility, has undeniable -power. It packs into a confined space—it is less than sixty -feet long, on three sides of a room measuring only 16 × 23 -feet—movement, rest, fear, horror, magic, abandon, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -orgy. It illustrates better than anything else from Pompeii -how the Augustan age assimilated Hellenistic Greek art into -an Italian idiom. Yet somehow the final impression, here and -in lesser examples of Pompeian painting, is that the artist -is working from a memory of great paintings seen in collections -or museums, from a repertory, or from sketch books -of famous works of art. His work is well above the inn-sign -or wallpaper level, he is competent and sophisticated; no -hack, but no genius either. And so, with all respect for the -natural enthusiasm of the excavator, the question with which -this section began must be answered in the negative. This -is not great art, but it is the next thing to it, and no modern -<i>bourgeoisie</i> since the sixteenth-century Dutch has had the -taste to fill its houses with such able work. But we must -conclude that the great value of Pompeian art is in documentation, -of the practical taste of ordinary people.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Maximilian, later to be Emperor of Mexico, when he -visited Pompeii in 1851, found it terrible, its rooms like -painted corpses. Since then, modern archaeological methods -(scientific, not miraculous) have brought the corpses to -life. What archaeology has presented to us here, as at its -best it always does, is not things but people, at work and -play, in house and workshop, worshiping and blaspheming, -and after their fashion patronizing the arts. So vividly does -archaeology reveal them that we are moved to say with -Francis Bacon, “<i>These</i> are the ancient times, when the -world is ancient, and not those which we account ancient, -by a computation backwards from ourselves.”</p> - -<p>As the rain of ashes was covering Pompeii, and the river -of lava engulfing Herculaneum, life in Rome, that Eternal -City, went on. It was the age of the Flavians. Vespasian, the -<i>bourgeois</i> founder of the dynasty, died just a month before -Pompeii was buried. He and his sons, the good Titus and -the wicked Domitian, enriched Rome with splendid art and -architecture.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_9" class="vspace">9<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Flavian Rome</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Two <i>fora</i>, an amphitheater, an arch, a sculptured relief, -a palace, a stadium: these may stand as typical of archaeology’s -contributions to our knowledge of the Flavian age. As -in the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the buildings and the sculpture -epitomize the atmosphere of the time, the last three -decades of the first century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> After the excesses of Nero -and the bloodbath of <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 69—a year of civil war which saw -three Emperors in succession, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, -raised to the purple and then murdered—the Roman people -wanted “normalcy.” Under Vespasian and Titus they got -it; under Domitian the pendulum swung again—and so did -the headsman’s ax.</p> - -<p>Flavian architecture and art sum up, too, the personalities -of the Emperors. The bluff, no-nonsense Vespasian, the -Emperor of reconstruction, symbolized, in his majestic Forum -of Peace, what one of his staff called the “immense majesty” -of the peace he had brought to a war-torn world, and -Vespasian gave credit, in the frieze of the <i>Forum Transitorium</i>, -to the artisan class which was his ardent supporter. -Again, true to his <i>bourgeois</i> origins, he built for the people, -over the pool of Nero’s Golden House, the great amphitheater -which posterity was to call the Coliseum. Titus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -summed up the great moment of his short life when he -immortalized his capture of Jerusalem on his arch at the top -of the old Forum. Domitian, would-be <i>triumphator</i>, would-be -rival of his great predecessors, exalted, in the reliefs -recently found under the Cancelleria palace in Rome, the -military prowess of the dynasty which in his view culminated -in himself. He took over Vespasian’s <i>Forum Transitorium</i>, -to thrust himself into a class with Augustus and his own -father; reared on the Palatine a palace to outdo the Golden -House; and, with philhellenism genuine or affected, built -in the Campus Martius a stadium for footraces in the Greek -fashion.</p> - -<div id="ip_9_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="600" height="422" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.1</span> Rome, Forum of Peace, Colini and Gatti reconstruction -from <i>Forma Urbis</i>. (G. Lugli, <i>Roma antica</i>, Pl. 6)</div></div> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Since very little of Vespasian’s Forum of Peace remains -above ground, recourse for information about it must be had -in the first instance to literature. Pliny the Elder, who was -on Vespasian’s staff, described it as one of the most beautiful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -squares in the world, embellished as it was with trophies -of war, including the famous seven-branched gold candlestick -from the temple in Jerusalem, carved in relief on the -Arch of Titus.</p> - -<p>A fragment of the previously-mentioned Marble Plan of -Rome, the <i>Forma Urbis</i>, inscribed with the letters CIS -(<a href="#ip_9_1">Fig. 9.1</a>), is easily restored to something like [Forum Pa] -CIS, Forum of Peace. It shows a portico, on one side walled, -on the other colonnaded, the colonnade approached by -steps. An open space is incised with a series of three long -indented strips, apparently representing formal garden-plots. -The fragment also shows one right angle of a structure which -should be an altar.</p> - -<p>Faced with the thousand pieces of the Marble Plan, -archaeologists play the fascinating game of making joins, -as in a jigsaw puzzle. In 1899 Lanciani announced the discovery -of a new fragment which joined with the piece of -the Marble Plan already mentioned. It filled out the rectangular -shape of the altar, added two more rows of garden-plots, -and supplied another side to the portico, at right -angles to the other. This side had two rows of columns, four -of which were represented as of larger dimensions than the -others, and as standing on plinths or square bases. These -two fragments made possible restoration, on paper, of a -considerable part of the Forum’s plan. Given the Roman -architectural principle of axial symmetry, Lanciani could -be sure that the altar belonged in the middle of one side -of the portico-surrounded space, towards the back. He could -restore two more column-bases; and, knowing that there -must have been three rows of garden-plots on either side -of the altar, and that the scale of the Marble Plan was 1:200, -he could arrive at the original length of one inner side of the -portico—about 325 feet. But there paper hypothesis had to -rest, awaiting excavation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span></p> - -<div id="ip_9_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32.5625em;"> - <img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="521" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.2</span> Rome. <i>Forum Transitorium, Colonnacce</i> before excavation.</div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32.25em;"> - <img src="images/i_073b.jpg" width="516" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.3</span> Rome. <i>Forum Transitorium, Colonnacce</i> after excavation.</p> - -<p>(M. Scherer, <i>Marvels of Ancient Rome</i>, Pls. 162 and 165)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_074.jpg" width="600" height="407" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.4</span> Rome, Imperial Fora, model. (F. Castagnoli, <i>Roma antica</i>, Pl. 4)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -The opportunity did not arise until 1934, in connection -with systematizing and beautifying with lawns the borders -of Mussolini’s grandiose new Via dell’ Impero, already mentioned -as having been cut through slums from the Coliseum -to the Piazza Venezia. The two projecting columns of the -<i>Forum Transitorium</i> (“Forum of Nerva”), southeast of the -Forum of Augustus, were cleared, under the direction of -A. M. Colini, of medieval and modern detritus down to their -plinths (Figs. <a href="#ip_9_2">9.2</a> and <a href="#ip_9_3">9.3</a>); the podium of the Temple of -Minerva, at the end of this Forum, uncovered; and the -<i>peperino</i> wall behind the projecting columns isolated. Close -in back of this wall, on the Forum of Peace side, Colini found -large columns in African marble, which, he inferred, marked -the missing northwest side of that Forum. Its general location -had been known since 1818, but only now was there a -<i>precise</i> point in modern Rome’s subsoil from which, with -the help of the Marble Plan, the true dimensions of Vespasian’s -portico could be measured. Also, another fragment -of the Marble Plan, not joining the two previously mentioned, -showed the very stretch of wall and the columns<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -which Colini had been excavating, as well as the plan of -Minerva’s temple, whose podium he had uncovered.</p> - -<p>Now that the plan of Vespasian’s Forum could be precisely -fitted into the plan of modern Rome, it became clear -that some fragments of large fluted white marble columns, -found in the southeastern part of this area as long ago as -1875, belonged to the part of the portico where the larger -columns shown on the Marble Plan would fall. Colini now -made another join on the Marble Plan, adding to Lanciani’s -fragment another piece, previously known but not connected, -which showed the Temple of Peace at the back of the portico. -It was an apsidal building, wider than it was deep, with -a pedestal for the cult statue indicated in the apse. If it -survived today it would come within a few feet of touching -the north corner of the Basilica of Maxentius. The south -side of the rectangular hall to the right of it coincides with -the actual wall of the church of Sts. Cosmas and Damian, -which was the findspot—in 1562—of the fragments of the -Marble Plan itself. This square hall was one of the libraries -of Vespasian’s Forum. Since the principle of axial symmetry -nearly always operates, justifying the hypothesis that what -appears on one side of the axis of a Roman plan will have a -twin on the other; and since the Romans usually built their -libraries in pairs (one Latin, one Greek), Colini quite -reasonably restored on paper another rectangular hall to -the left of the apsidal temple. A section of the polychrome -marble pavement, excavated by Colini east of the church -wall, was less than an inch thick, too thin to be exposed to -the weather. Colini inferred that it must have been part -of the flooring of the library in which the Marble Plan was -displayed.</p> - -<p>An ingenious combination—“joins” recognized on the -Marble Plan, actual excavation, and inference—had now -made the Forum’s general outline clear, but Colini was not -yet done. Overlying the Forum’s outer (northeast) perimeter -wall, as he had plotted it, rose the medieval Torre dei<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> -Conti, built by the brother of Pope Innocent III. Re-examining -beneath this tower the ancient remains, in squared -travertine, ordinary tufa, and <i>peperino</i>, Colini was able to -establish that they formed part of Vespasian’s Forum, a -great ornamental rectangular niche on its northeast side, -with two columns of African marble in front of it. Symmetry -would dictate another matching niche further to the southeast -in the same wall, and a pair on the opposite side to -correspond. Pink granite columns found in the excavations -belonged to the portico; marble gutters proved that it had -a pitched roof. Finally, in 1938, the plan was complete -enough for a model of the Forum to be made (<a href="#ip_9_4">Fig. 9.4</a>) for -Mussolini’s Mostra Augustea della Romanità, a great exhibition -of models and photographs of Roman architecture -and engineering, casts of inscriptions, and replicas of artifacts.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>But Vespasian’s Forum, famous as it was, and valuable -as its restored plan is to illustrate archaeological inference -at work, is overshadowed by his mightiest monument, which -has survived to become the very symbol of pagan Rome to -modern times: the Flavian Amphitheater or Coliseum. More -perhaps than any other classical monument, its stones are -steeped in blood and memories; in the blood of gladiators -and wild beasts, and perhaps of Christian martyrs, in memories -of medieval battles, Renaissance plundering of stone -(much of the travertine in St. Peter’s came from it), and -Victorian moonlight visits. Having resisted earthquakes, -fire, and demolition, it is now menaced by the vibrations -of modern traffic. Work on strengthening its walls against -this new threat has been going on since 1956.</p> - -<p>For sheer mass the Coliseum deserves its name. It is a -third of a mile around, and the Italian engineer G. Cozzo -has calculated that 45,000 cubic meters of travertine went -into its outside wall, over twice as much into the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> -structure. But the achievement here is not mere massiveness, -but precise engineering, careful calculations of stresses and -strains, avoidance of crowding at entrances and exits, perfect -visibility, ingenuity in the arrangements for getting the -wild beasts into the arena. (Perhaps this is the place to -recall that it was upon the Coliseum that Charles Follen -McKim based his design for the Harvard Stadium.) The -site chosen, the bed of the pool of Nero’s Golden House, -was good propaganda and good engineering. Propaganda-wise, -it made for good public relations to turn a detested -Emperor’s pleasure grounds into a place for public enjoyment. -(Neither Vespasian nor the Roman mob would have -thought of the slaughter of men and beasts as anything -but enjoyable; their attitude at best was that of Hemingway -to a bullfight.) From the engineering point of view, it -saved much costly excavation to pump out the pool and -use it for the substructure of the arena, and in the low, -soft ground, footings could go deep: eight feet of concrete -under the <i>cavea</i>. Besides, the huge mass of debris from the -demolished Golden House could be cannily reused in the -new fabric. The first step was to erect a skeleton of travertine -piers, a double row, built of squared blocks held together -not with mortar but with metal clamps. The holes -where these clamps were wrenched out, 300 metric tons -of them, in the metal-starved Middle Ages, are visible today -throughout the fabric. Differences in construction suggest -that the huge project was divided into four quadrants, -each assigned to a different contractor. Most of the work -is honest, so that, for example, one cannot get the proverbial -penknife blade into the joints between the blocks of the -piers, but in the northwest quadrant the work is shoddy. -This is precisely the section that has given the most trouble -under the strain of the traffic vibrations of modern times.</p> - -<p>Inside the second concentric ellipse of piers begins a set -of radial walls which supported the seats. The slope of the -seats was perfectly calculated for perfect visibility. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -vaults of the lower levels were left open until the upper -level piers were finished. This made possible the use of -derricks to lift heavy blocks to the upper levels. The third-story -piers have one course of blocks projecting, to provide -a step to support the scaffolding required for building the -wall on the fourth level. This wall is built of smaller blocks -than those used on the lower levels, to facilitate lifting, and -it is full of second-hand materials; column drums, for example, -which may have come from the Golden House. The -outer face of the fourth-level wall is equipped with 240 -consoles, projecting brackets jutting out from the wall to -support masts. Corresponding to each in the cornice above -is a hole for the mast. The mast, Cozzo argues persuasively, -was fitted with rope and pulley. The rope descended obliquely -and was fastened to another below which ran elliptically -at a convenient height above the podium of the arena. -Awnings, fixed to these ropes, could be rolled up or down -in strips as the sun’s position dictated. Awnings being made -of canvas, this duty was assigned to detachments of sailors—the -logical Roman administrative mind at work.</p> - -<p>When the skeleton was finished, the space between the -piers in the radial walls was filled in, on the ground level -with tufa, on the second level with lighter materials, brick -and cement. Only then were the vaults completed. The -stairs were ingeniously planned to give access from the -ground direct to each level separately. This both emphasized -distinctions (VIPs in the lowest tier, women at the -top; compare the separate second-balcony stairs in modern -theaters) and facilitated entrance and exit. Each outside -entrance—there were originally eighty—bears a Roman numeral. -This corresponded to a number on the admission -ticket, and divided the 45,000 or 50,000 spectators into manageable -groups.</p> - -<p>The arena proper was surrounded by a wall, high enough -to protect the spectators from the beasts (VIPs not being -regarded as expendable), but not so high as to block the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -view of the arena from the seats behind. Slots in the top -of this wall are the postholes for a dismountable fence which -supplied additional protection. Literary sources say it was -of gilt metal surmounted by elephants’ tusks. In front of -the fence ran a catwalk where archers were stationed to -shoot beasts which got out of hand.</p> - -<p>The arena was originally floored with wooden planking, -removable for the mock naval battles which were staged -here in the early years of the amphitheater’s existence. Since -this had been the site of Nero’s artificial pool, flooding must -have been comparatively easy. But though slaves fought -and killed each other in these naval battles, they were less -sanguinary, and therefore less popular, than gladiatorial -contests or beast fights, and changing back and forth from -murder on water to murder on land was a nuisance, so -the naval battles were transferred elsewhere. The area below -the arena floor was then filled in with complicated substructures, -which finally revealed their secret to Cozzo in -1928.</p> - -<p>The area under the catwalk in each quadrant contains -eight cell-like rooms (A in <a href="#ip_9_5">Fig. 9.5</a>), each big enough to -hold a man, and approached by a short corridor. Opening -out of each corridor, forward and to the left of a man -sitting in the cell, are three adjoining shafts, a small square -one (a), a large rectangular one (b), and another square -one (c) of medium size. How are these to be explained? -Cozzo reasoned that a beast was released from his cage -near the center of the substructure, into the corridor (1) -shown in <a href="#ip_9_6">Fig. 9.6</a>, with a portcullis (a) at the end of it. -The portcullis was raised, and the beast charged into the -transverse corridor (2). This was too narrow for him to -turn back; he was therefore forced to go forward into the -open elevator-cage (3). The attendant in the cell (A in -the previous figure) then released a counterweight, whose -rope ran in shaft (a) of <a href="#ip_9_5">Fig. 9.5</a>, while the weight itself -rose and fell in shaft (c); the elevator-shaft is (b). The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> -elevator door then closed; the elevator rose, activated by -the counterweight, to position (4) in <a href="#ip_9_6">Fig. 9.6</a>. The beast -emerged into the narrow upper-level corridor (5–6), raced -up the ramp (7), and emerged, slavering for fresh meat, -through the trapdoor (8) into the arena.</p> - -<div id="ip_9_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="600" height="386" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.5</span> -Rome, Coliseum, -beast elevator.</p> - -<p>(G. Cozzo, <i>Ingegneri Romana</i>, Fig. 170)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_075b.jpg" width="600" height="315" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.6</span> -Rome, Coliseum, -beast elevator, -elevation.</p> - -<p>(Cozzo, <i>op. cit.</i>, Fig. 175)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_075c.jpg" width="600" height="407" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"> - -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.7</span> Rome, Coliseum, model, showing colossal statue of Nero (left center). -Arch of Constantine (bottom left), and gladiators’ barracks (right center). -(P. Bigot, <i>Rome Antique</i>, fac. p. 44)</p></div></div> - -<p>This is not the only ingenious device in the Coliseum. -The substructure piers along the arena’s long axis are cut -obliquely. Why? Cozzo reasoned that on them rested, at -an angle below the horizontal, hinged sections of the area -flooring, on which stage sets could be placed, and the whole -section of flooring raised by counterweights to the arena -level, to provide appropriate backdrops or scenery for the -fights. Against such backdrops, scenes from myth or history -were acted out, the protagonists tortured to death before -delighted spectators. We hear of 11,000 beasts, and -5,000 pairs of gladiators, fighting to the death in one session -in the arena. In 1937, demolition of houses east of the -Coliseum revealed the ground plan of part of the gladiators’ -barracks, with armory, infirmary, baths, and, for -training bouts, a miniature amphitheater, with seats for -rabid fans (<a href="#ip_9_7">Fig. 9.7</a>). To celebrate the millennium of Rome, -in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 248, elephants, elk, tigers, lions, leopards, hyenas, -hippopotamuses, a rhinoceros, zebras, giraffes, wild asses, -and wild horses (captured in Africa; see <a href="#ip_13_5">Fig. 13.5</a>) were -slaughtered in the Coliseum. This market of flesh did not -cease till the sixth Christian century.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Vespasian did not live to see the Coliseum completed. It -was dedicated, still unfinished, under Titus in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 80. The -chief surviving monument of Titus’ reign is his arch, commemorating -his conquest of the Jews in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 70, but, since -the inscription upon it refers to him as deified, it is clear -that the arch was not finished until after his death. Built -of valuable Pentelic marble, it would never have been preserved -if it had not been incorporated, in the Middle Ages,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> -into a fortress of the powerful family of the Frangipani. The -last vestiges of the Frangipani tower were not removed -from the arch until 1821. It was then reinforced and its -missing portions restored in travertine. It is chiefly famous -for the relief on its inner jamb showing (<a href="#ip_9_8">Fig. 9.8</a>) Titus’ -army carrying in triumph the spoils of Jerusalem, including -the table of the shewbread, the seven-branched candlestick, -and the silver trumpets. In the relief opposite, Titus stands -in a four-horse chariot, with the goddess Roma leading the -horses, and Victory crowning him with a laurel wreath. The -frieze under the cornice, not unrelated to the small inner -altar frieze of the Altar of Peace, portrays a procession of -priests, sacrificial animals, and troops carrying on their -shoulders small platforms bearing representations of cities -and places conquered by Roman arms, including a personification -of the River Jordan. The motif in the highest -part of the inner vault, showing Titus—who was a burly -man—carried off to heaven by an eagle, is as conventional -as the Ganymede in the vault of the underground basilica -at the Porta Maggiore. In the years since Augustus, Roman -official art had become conventional without ceasing to be -historical.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<div id="ip_9_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="600" height="371" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.8</span> Rome, Arch of Titus, showing relief with spoils -of Temple at Jerusalem. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<p>To the good Titus succeeded the wicked, psychopathic, -tyrannical Domitian, the greatest builder-Emperor since -Augustus, and one under whom the Empire took a long -stride on the road to absolutism. One evidence of Domitian’s -self-aggrandizement turned up unexpectedly in 1937, under -the Palazzo della Cancelleria in the Campus Martius, seat -of the papal Chancellery, and an enclave of Vatican City. -Curiously, the palace already had an intimate connection -with the Flavians: many of the stones in its fabric were -robbed in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century from -the Coliseum. In connection with extensive repairs to the -building, deep excavations beneath it revealed the tomb<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -of the consul Aulus Hirtius, a lieutenant of Julius Caesar’s, -who died in office, and in battle against Mark Antony, in -43 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> Leaning face inwards against this tomb were five -slabs which proved to be part of a marble historical relief. -A sixth slab was found later nearby, still within papal jurisdiction; -a seventh, found under the sidewalk, technically -outside the Pope’s control, was first claimed by the Roman -civil authorities, but a trade was made for the slab of the -Altar of Peace then in Vatican hands, and all the slabs are -now reunited in a courtyard of the Vatican Museum.</p> - -<div id="ip_9_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="600" height="474" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.9</span> (<i>top and bottom</i>) Vatican City. Cancelleria reliefs. (Musei Vatican)</div></div> - -<p>The seven slabs combine into two sections of some sixteen -figures each, almost complete (<a href="#ip_9_9">Fig. 9.9</a>). The more fragmentary -of the two contains near its right end an instantly -identifiable figure, with the characteristic beaked profile of -Vespasian (<a href="#ip_9_10">Fig. 9.10</a>). He is greeting a young man, surely -one of his sons. Comparison with known portraits of Titus -and Domitian leads to the conclusion that it is the latter -who is represented here. The greeting is taking place in the -presence of lictors, Vestals (identified from their characteristic -headdress), <i>apparitores</i> or beadles (at either end), -a helmeted female figure (the goddess Roma or, according<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> -to others, the war-goddess Bellona, or the personification of -martial courage), and two male figures, one bearded (the -Genius of the Senate), and one beardless, with a cornucopia -(the Genius of the Roman People). The other section -is at once more complete, more difficult to interpret, and -more interesting. Several of the conventional figures recur: -the lictors, Roma, the two <i>Genii</i>. There are also six soldiers -(in the uniform and with the arms of the praetorian guard); -the wing of a Victory; a helmeted female wearing the <i>aegis</i>, -the characteristic breastplate of Minerva; the helmeted, -bearded male figure beside her must be another divinity, -Mars. The remaining figure, the first on the second slab from -the left (see <a href="#ip_9_11">Fig. 9.11</a>), is rendered in profile, and is clearly -intended as a portrait, but close examination, by Dr. F.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> -Magi, Director of the Vatican Museums, shows that it was -reworked in antiquity.</p> - -<div id="ip_9_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_077b.jpg" width="600" height="326" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.10</span> Vatican City. Cancelleria reliefs. Detail of head of Vespasian. (Musei Vaticani)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_077c.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.11</span> Vatican City. Cancelleria reliefs. Detail showing how head -of Domitian was transformed into that of Nerva. (Musei Vaticani)</div></div> - -<p>Here archaeological ingenuity again goes to work. The -two sections of the total relief obviously (from the similar -technique and the recurrence of conventional figures in -both) belong together. The presence of Vespasian places -both sections in the Flavian age. Of the three Flavians, only -Domitian was sufficiently hated to have had <i>damnatio -memoriae</i> practiced upon him, to alter his portrait into -another’s. And the most conspicuous alteration of the head -consists in hacking off a fringe of curls on the forehead; -such a fringe was Domitian’s characteristic hair-style. It -remains to inquire whose the new profile is. In the context, -it must be an Emperor. The most likely candidate is Domitian’s -successor, Nerva, the first of the “five good Emperors.” -The new profile, with its irregular nose, lined forehead, -and sunken checks, suits the known iconography of -that tired old man. Left with the question why, then, the -portrait of Domitian on the other section of the relief was -left undamaged, Magi argued that the Senate, on second -thought, had considered the alteration into Nerva not -enough: the relief was dismantled altogether, and its slabs -carefully stacked against Hirtius’ tomb for the future use -of one of the stonecutters whose yards are known to have -been numerous in the area.</p> - -<p>Two questions remain: the occasion for carving the relief -in the first place, and the building that housed it. The occasion -for greeting Vespasian must be the most memorable -one of his reign: his triumphant return from Jerusalem in -<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 70. The occasion for greeting Domitian must be an -equally memorable one, almost certainly his setting out on -a campaign, or his return from a military victory (because -of the prominence of the winged figure and the Mars on -the relief). Domitian’s military successes were not many; -the likeliest is his campaign of <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 83 against a German -tribe, the Chatti. If carving the monument would take a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> -year, as competent sculptors report, the earliest possible -date for the finished relief would be <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 84; on grounds of -style one authority, Miss Jocelyn M. Toynbee, would date -it eight or nine years later. To celebrate the same victory, -Domitian built the Temple of Fortuna Redux (Good Luck -and Safe Return), and this temple, Magi thinks, is a reasonable -place to suppose the reliefs to have been displayed. -In them the whole Roman state is portrayed as asking of -the founder of the Flavian dynasty and of his son the peace -and prosperity which the Julio-Claudians had failed to -give. Like the fresco of the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii, -the relief is not great art but a great document, a measure -of the distance Roman sculpture had travelled in the -scant century since the Altar of Peace. It is a courtier’s -exaltation of a monarch; a solemn, highly rhetorical affirmation -of Imperial sovereignty and pride in Rome’s dominion. -And perhaps there is a moral in it, too: it summarizes the -history of the dynasty, from the triumphant reception of -the first Flavian to the explosion of hate which damned -the memory, by altering the face, of the last. And these -slabs, the expression of a despot’s pride, end leaning against -the simple tomb of a lieutenant of Julius Caesar who died -fighting, he would have said, to save for his fatherland its -free institutions.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>In <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 86 Domitian set about continuing the work begun -by Vespasian on the narrow Forum between the Forum of -Peace and that of Augustus, which we have had occasion -to mention earlier. (The final dedication was not to occur -until Nerva’s reign.) In effect this Forum was an ingenious -device to monumentalize the street which led from the old -Republican Forum to the unsavory Subura district and -workers’ quarter to the north. Caesar’s Forum was Venus’ -precinct; Augustus’ belonged to Mars. A convention had -been established, a canonical way of doing things: hence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -Vespasian dedicated his larger Forum to Peace, the <i>Forum -Transitorium</i> to Minerva. Domitian, his devotion to Minerva -already established by his having given her prominence -on the Cancelleria relief, now remodelled Vespasian’s temple -to her, raising it on a high podium. The podium alone -remains, with its relieving arch marking where the Cloaca -Maxima or great sewer passed below. But the original -monumentalizing of the street by Vespasian had involved -building a colonnade, of a type common in the frescoes of -the Pompeian Third and Fourth Styles. Along its architrave, -which was richly decorated on its under side, ran a continuous -frieze whose technique resembles that of the Cancelleria -relief on a small scale, for the art of the Flavian -reigns is recognizably related. The dentils in the cornice -show between them the characteristic “spectacles-signature” -of the architect Rabirius, who may have worked for Vespasian -as well as for Domitian.</p> - -<p>The surviving section of the frieze portrays Minerva -among the nine Muses, and the punishment of Arachne, -who for presuming to rival Minerva’s skill at weaving was -turned into a spider. The sculptor took the occasion to -carve artisans (the figure of a fuller survives) and household -scenes, of spinning, weaving, and dyeing, all under -Minerva’s special patronage. One sees the wool basket, the -upright loom, the scales for weighing the day’s stint, the -proud display of a finished roll of cloth. In the attic above -the surviving section of the frieze stands the goddess in relief, -wearing the characteristic cloak of a Roman general!</p> - -<p>Recent excavation has added little to earlier knowledge -of this Forum, but it is of absorbing interest for what it adds -to our portrait of the Flavians. Domitian takes over his -father’s plan, and pushingly insinuates himself, as it were, -between his father and the Empire’s founder, both of whom -he envied and tried to emulate. But it was beyond even his -effrontery to associate himself with the Minerva who was -patroness of artisans; nothing could be more incongruous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -than his connecting his elegant dilettantism with the homely -arts of the household. The frieze is probably a part of Vespasian’s -plan: its theme suits his plain personality, and the -references to handicrafts suit its location on a street leading -to a worker’s quarter. The support of the workers (and -of their wives, whose influence was all the more important -to win because it was indirect) was worth having, and -meanwhile Minerva’s connection with the Muses (the creative -arts and literature) could be turned by Domitian to -his purpose: he desired to be known as a patron of the -arts.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>The showiest surviving result of Domitian’s patronage -of the art of architecture is his palace on the Palatine, -planned by the famous Rabirius, and finished perhaps in -<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 92. Here is a return, after the comparative austerity -of his father’s and brother’s reigns, to the baroque extravagance -of Nero. Since no final publication of this important -complex has ever appeared, the best archaeology can do -is to comment on the palace as reflecting Domitian’s personality, -as indebted to earlier, and seminal of later Roman -architecture. Its throne room (21B on the plan, <a href="#ip_9_12">Fig. 9.12</a>), -with its colossal niches for statues, was built for an Emperor -with delusions of divinity. The dining room (H) had a dais -to elevate the god-Emperor above his guests, but the peristyle -(D), originally faced with marbles polished like mirrors -(to reflect possible assassins), was planned by a terrified -mortal who feared stabs in the back. (Blocks from the -peristyle cornice show, as in the <i>Forum Transitorium</i>, Rabirius’ -“spectacles-signature.”) The restless inward and outward -curves of the rooms at 21E in the west block (the public -part) of the palace, and at 23C and D in the eastern private -quarters, were made possible by the flexibility of poured -concrete, which, as we saw in Chapter V, makes it possible -to enclose space in any shape (see reconstruction, <a href="#ip_9_13">Fig. 9.13</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245<br /><a id="Page_246">246</a></span> -This fluidity appealed to Hadrian, the most gifted amateur -architect among the Emperors, and he imitated it, as we -shall see, in his Villa near Tivoli.</p> - -<div id="ip_9_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="800" height="727" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.12</span> Rome, Palatine, Palace of Domitian, plan. (G. Lugli, <i>Roma antica</i>, Pl. 8)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_078b.jpg" width="600" height="347" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.13</span> Rome, Palatine, Palace of Domitian, reconstruction. -(F. Castagnoli, <i>Roma antica</i>, Pl. 44.1)</div></div> - -<p>The <i>impluvium</i> (pool for rain-water) in the peristyle -(23B) of the private quarters contained a fountain, and -is curiously treated with cut-out segments of circles, with -cuttings in its top face for setting statues. This combination -of plays of water and works of art is in the taste of the Sperlonga -villa of Tiberius: ancient sources find a parallel between -that monarch’s suspicious, tyrannical nature and -Domitian’s. The small temple in the upper peristyle (24E), -connected with the “mainland” by a curious seven-arched -bridge, was built, to judge by its materials and technique, -two centuries later than Domitian. But his is the “stadium” -(26). Its portico makes it unlikely that it was ever a track -for running races in the Greek style; he was to build such -a stadium full-scale in the Campus Martius in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 93. The -Palatine stadium, in spite of its apsidal Imperial spectator’s -box (the model for Bramante’s Vatican Belvedere), was -probably a garden for shady strolling. Perhaps Hadrian had -this plan in mind when he built the so-called “Painted -Porch” or “Poecile” of his villa, to which we shall return. -It is hard to realize that all this splendor lies only 100 yards -from the site of “Romulus’” straw hut. The difference measures -the distance Roman culture had travelled in 800 years.</p> - -<p>Nowadays, one can sit under the umbrella pines of a -summer evening and hear symphony concerts played in -Domitian’s stadium-garden. On such occasions it may seem -less of a pity that the Palatine is incompletely excavated. -Here, on this hill of dreams, as Miss Scherer calls it, one -can imagine Domitian’s palace rich with many-colored -marbles, bright with paintings and gold. One can wander -in the dappled light among oleander and orange-trees, -golden broom and scarlet poppies, and admire how the mellow -brick glows rose-colored in the afternoon sunlight. One -can appreciate the mood of the Romantics for whom, a century<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -and a half ago, all Rome had this dream-like quality. -One can argue that their attitude may not have been scientific, -but it produced the classical revival in architecture. -Here is the old dilemma, but its horns are properly labelled -not art and science, but sentiment and intelligence. If we -want truly to understand ancient Rome, the choice is clear. -Sentiment is not a Roman quality; intelligence is. The atmosphere -of Domitian’s reign was not dream but nightmare. -The natural beauty of the Palatine is attractive but -adventitious; the essence of the place is of another kind, -starker, grander, more disciplined, than a nineteenth-century -water color, and behind it looms always the shadow -of violence.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Not violence but intelligence, and the affectation of Hellenism, -lies behind Domitian’s stadium (for Greek games) -and odeum, or music hall (for literary and musical competitions) -in the Campus Martius. The shape of the stadium -has been preserved almost intact in the loveliest of Rome’s -squares, the Piazza Navona (<a href="#ip_9_14">Fig. 9.14</a>). In 1936 the driving -of a great new street, the Corso del Rinascimento, north -and south through the Campus Martius, as a part of Mussolini’s -ambitious new city plan, gave an opportunity for -definitive examination of the stadium’s remains, preserved -in the cellars of shops and the crypts of churches. This Colini -undertook, and emerged from his mole-like labors with a -plan (<a href="#ip_9_15">Fig. 9.15</a>) and a model (<a href="#ip_9_16">Fig. 9.16</a>) of the stadium, -a prime example of what archaeology can do with bits and -pieces. Nowadays remains of the hemicycle are visible -under an insurance building outside the north end of the -<i>piazza</i>, and one travertine pier is to be seen under the arcade -of the Corsia Agonale, in the middle of the stadium’s east -side. Beneath this area are traces of the footings, of cement -poured in caissons, thicker and stronger the farther east -they go, to support the increasing weight of the rising tiers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> -of seats above. Brick stamps found here date the building -to <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 93 or a little after, with evidence of major repairs -under Hadrian—another Greek lover—and Caracalla—another -violent despot.</p> - -<div id="ip_9_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 36.4375em;"> - <img src="images/i_079.jpg" width="583" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.14</span> Rome, Piazza Navona, air view. -(A. M. Colini, <i>Stadium Domitiani</i>, frontispiece)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_15" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_079b.jpg" width="600" height="257" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.15</span> Rome, Stadium of Domitian. (Colini, <i>op. cit.</i>, Suppl. Pl. B)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_9_16" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_079c.jpg" width="600" height="483" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 9.16</span> Rome, Stadium of Domitian, Gismondi model. (Colini, <i>op. cit.</i>, Pl. 16)</div></div> - -<p>Colini found that Domitian’s architect, to compensate for -providing here only one <i>ambulacrum</i> or vaulted corridor -for sauntering, where the Coliseum had two, widened his -corridor at regular intervals between the stairs to provide -halls where spectators—the stadium had seats for 30,000—might -congregate between footraces. The stadium was built -in a repeated sequence: stair, entrance, hall, entrance, stair,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -which gives classical orderliness and efficiency to the plan -(perhaps Rabirius’). In the center of the west side was the -Imperial box: the crypt of the church of Sant’ Agnese marks -its substructure. Here, according to legend, the good saint -suffered martyrdom, condemned by the Emperor Diocletian -to the brothels that flourished in the stadium arcades. The -whole building profited by the experience of the builders -of the Coliseum, as they in turn had profited from the experience -of the builders of the Theater of Marcellus. Thus -its exterior was adorned with engaged columns, Doric on the -first level, Corinthian on the second. But the total effect -was deliberately different, graceful where the Coliseum was -massive, dedicated to Greek footraces instead of Roman -blood-sports. The only thing of its kind outside the Greek -world, the stadium was a deliberate flouting of Roman tradition. -This was in Domitian’s manner. The Roman people -rejected it, in theirs. To them, Greek footraces represented -foreign degeneracy, nudism, and immorality. No sooner -was the tyrant murdered (in a courtier’s plot sparked by -his wife) than they went back to their simple pleasures of -watching the murder of gladiators and wild beasts. Domitian’s -odeum, traces of which were found south of the stadium -in 1936–37, did not suffer the same fate, for it could -be used for pantomime (see <a href="#ip_13_1">Fig. 13.1</a>) and other degraded -forms of dramatic art.</p> - -<p>Here then, is a part, a small part, of what archaeology -can tell us of the prodigious Flavian activity in architecture -and in art. It will be noticed that, not for the first or the -last time in Roman history, the greatest tyrant is also the -greatest builder. (He is also Rome’s last great Emperor who -did not come from the provinces.) Absolutism was the price -Rome paid for its grandeur. But, in the century after Domitian’s -murder, absolutism marked time. Nerva’s successor, -the Spaniard Trajan, is the second of the “five good Emperors,” -under whom the metropolis and its port prospered, -and the provinces lived content.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_10" class="vspace">10<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Trajan: Port, Forum, Market, Column</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Archaeologically speaking, the most important sites in Italy -to illustrate Roman events and the Roman way of life in -the happy reign (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 98–117) of Trajan—called <i>Optimus -Princeps</i>, “best of princes”—are the port of Ostia, which in -his time reached its apogee, and his Forum, the last and -grandest of the Imperial Fora.</p> - -<p>Our present knowledge of Ostia, extending far beyond -the early <i>castrum</i> discussed in Chapter IV, is due in large -part to the devoted skill of Guido Calza. Under some pressure -from Mussolini, who wanted the dig finished for an -exposition scheduled for 1942 (but never inaugurated), he -supervised the removal in four years of over 600,000 cubic -yards of earth, recovering some seventy of the 170 acres -enclosed within Ostia’s Sullan wall. What he uncovered he -rejuvenated but did not falsify: his method was much the -same as Spinazzola’s in Pompeii. This was his principle: -“Better to brace than repair, better repair than restore, better -restore than embellish; never add or subtract.” His aim -was not to suppress inconvenient ugliness, but to remove -impediments to study and understanding. He restored mosaics, -making a clear distinction between the old <i>tesserae</i> -and the new; re-erected columns, put balconies back in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -place, rebuilt wooden ceilings to protect houses from the -weather. He detached wall-paintings, reinforced them with -cement and wire mesh, and replaced them, covered with -glass, and protected against mold by the insertion of lead -plates into the wall below the painting, to retard the spread, -by capillary action, of dampness. He sealed the tops of -walls, freed flights of stairs from rubble, opened out windows -which had been bricked up in late antiquity. He -planted trees, and set a privet hedge to mark the line of -the city wall. He restored the ancient drainage-system. The -result of all this careful work was to present to the modern -world a picture of Roman life under the Empire only a -shade less vivid than Pompeii. And the picture is not of a -provincial town, but of the very vestibule of Rome itself, -in fact a Rome in miniature, for Ostia gives an excellent -notion of what life in the metropolis was like at the height -of the Empire. And thanks to the careful work on the brick -stamps by Professor Herbert Bloch of Harvard, most of the -buildings excavated can be dated with a very fair degree of -precision, so that Ostia’s development can be accurately -traced from end to end.</p> - -<p>We know from an inscription that Trajan’s artificial harbor, -whose completion marked the beginning of Ostia’s -peak of prosperity, was built in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 104. Ostia proper was -at the very mouth of the Tiber, but silting, which today -has put the beach of modern Ostia (Ostia Lido) three miles -beyond the seawall of the ancient town, early made the -city docks impracticable for any but the smallest vessels, -so that Trajan built his harbor beside (indeed over the -necropolis of) Claudius’, two-and-a-half miles northwest of -the town. The traffic in grain and luxury goods to feed -and pander to the more or less refined tastes of the largest -and richest city in the world made Ostia vastly prosperous. -The evidence is building activity, dated by brick stamps, -impressed on building tiles, and bearing the names of consuls, -tile manufacturers, or both. There was a slight time-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>lag, -while prosperity built up. Only twelve per cent of the -datable buildings in Ostia belong to Trajan’s reign; forty-three -per cent were built or restored under Hadrian. Then -activity tapers off again: seventeen per cent of the buildings -are of Antonine date (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 138–192), while only twelve -per cent belong to the age of the Severi (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 193–235). -Thereafter Ostia, whose fortunes rose with Rome’s, declines -with her also.</p> - -<p>The most illuminating way to describe what archaeology -has to tell us about Ostia is to follow the plan used -for Pompeii, treating in order the town and its population, -municipal life and public amenities, housing arrangements, -trade and industry, and the evidence for Ostia’s religious -life. Art in Ostia hardly deserves separate treatment: it is, -naturally, less well-preserved than at Pompeii, and what -there is seldom rises above the level of pure documentation.</p> - -<p>The plan of Ostia (Figs. <a href="#ip_10_1">10.1</a> and <a href="#ip_10_2">10.2</a>) is regular but -not regimented. It has unity in variety; it combines utility, -a monumental quality, and the scenic. Its backbone is the -major east-west street, the <i>decumanus</i>, nearly a mile long, -and once colonnaded, which runs from the Porta Romana -straight to the Forum. Beyond the line of the west <i>castrum</i> -wall it forks sharply to the left, ending at the Porta Marina, -which once fronted directly on the sea. The main north-south -street, the <i>cardo</i>, began at the Porta Laurentina on -the south—Ostia’s triplicity of gates is an Etruscan heritage—and -ran, shaded and porticoed, northwestward to the dazzling -whiteness of the colonnaded, marble-enriched Forum. -Then it split in two on either side of Hadrian’s Capitolium -and passed north between balconied houses to the river. -Sixteen per cent of Ostia’s total area, exactly the same proportion -as a modern city such as Madison, Wisconsin, was -devoted to streets. Twelve per cent of Ostia was taken up -by baths, fifteen per cent by warehouses (for Ostia was -first and foremost a commercial town), and fifty-seven per -cent by houses, most of which are middle-class apartment -blocks. Knowing the total housing area available, and calculating -twenty-six square meters of space for each person, -Calza reckoned the maximum population at 35,000 to -40,000.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p> - -<div id="ip_10_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.1</span> Ostia. (G. Calza, <i>Scavi di Ostia</i>, 1)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_10_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_080b.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.2</span> Ostia, air view. (H. Kähler, <i>Rom und seine Welt</i>, Pl. 199)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> -The evidence for Ostia’s municipal life comes mostly -from inscriptions, over 6000 of them, many unpublished. -They show that Ostia, like most Italian towns, imitated -Rome: since Rome had a pair of chief municipal officers, -the consuls, Ostia had a pair also, the <i>duoviri</i>. There was -a town council of 110 members, which met in a marble-floored -council house facing the Forum. Legal activity went -on across the street in the basilica, also paved with marble, -and with a pleasant portico facing the Forum. It had a -charming frieze of Cupids carrying garlands. Both buildings -are of Trajanic date; the prevalence of marble in them -can be explained by the ease with which the stone could -be brought by ships in ballast. There was a municipal plutocracy, -whose names occur and recur on honorific decrees -(praising them for benefactions), and on tombs near the -Porta Romana and Porta Marina. The names are those of -businessmen and freedmen, not of the old Roman aristocratic -families. And as the years wear on men seldom hold -office more than once, for it grew to be an expensive honor. -If taxes assessed by the Imperial treasury were not collected -in full, town officers had to make up the deficit out of their -own pockets.</p> - -<p>Public amenities included a theater, baths, and a fire -department. The theater, built in Augustus’ reign (about -12 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), and often restored and enlarged, seats 2700, and -is used nowadays for outdoor performances of Greek and -Roman plays. Behind it is a portico where theater patrons -might saunter, with a temple in its midst built by Domitian. -In a combination of business with pleasure typical of Ostia, -seventy offices face the four sides of the portico. These -offices, to be discussed in more detail below, were maintained -by local branches of firms from all over the Empire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> -Ostia was well equipped with public baths. The three -most interesting belong to the middle years of the second -century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> The Baths of Neptune, near the theater (<i>Regio</i> -II, <i>Insula</i> iv), have a large entrance hall paved with a -spirited mosaic showing Neptune driving four sea-horses, -surrounded by Tritons, Nereids, dolphins ridden by Cupids, -fabulous sea monsters of every kind, and two young men -swimming. The Baths of the Seven Sages (<i>Reg.</i> III,x) are -named from a painting in their dressing room which depicts -the seven wise men of Greece, each labelled with an off-color -couplet describing in some detail the intimate connection -between constipation and the intellectual life. The -most interesting of all are the Forum Baths (<i>Reg.</i> I,xii). A -recent study by an American heating engineer, E. D. -Thatcher, underlines how well the Romans understood the -principles of radiant heating (of floors, walls, bathing pools, -and even vaults), and orientation of bathing rooms to catch -the maximum amount of sunlight, and to provide a windbreak, -so that, although the large windows were not glazed, -the rooms were usable on most days of the year, even in -winter, with additional provision, proved by put-holes, of -a rigging of canvas for the coldest days. If the windows -had been glazed, bathers could not have acquired a tan, -whose therapeutic and fashionable implications were the -same for an Ostian as for us. Thatcher calculates that an -unglazed room in the Forum Baths was usable ninety-eight -per cent of the time: hence glazing was not worth while. -The Romans knew, as the Forum Baths show, that the flow -of heat is always from a hotter body to a colder one, and -that air temperature alone is no criterion of comfort. In -fact one may be comfortable in a much lower air temperature -than that found in most American houses and public -buildings, provided one does not lose more heat than one -is generating at the time. The floor and wall surfaces of -the Forum Baths radiated enough warmth to keep bathers -comfortable in relatively cool air with unglazed windows.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> -The courtyard of the baths was paved with white mosaic to -reflect light and heat. A room which commanded a maximum -of sunlight has radiant heat in the floor only, not in -the walls. The various rooms of the baths were heated to -different temperatures; Romans achieved with differently -heated areas what we achieve with thermostats. The whole -complex of the Forum Baths, Thatcher concludes, shows a -sophistication in the use of radiant heating well beyond -what modern engineers have achieved.</p> - -<p>Though brick construction made Ostia more nearly fireproof -than a modern city of frame dwellings, the grain for -the dole stored in the city’s numerous warehouses was too -valuable a commodity to risk, so a cohort of firemen detached -from the main corps in Rome was kept at the ready -in barracks behind the Baths of Neptune (<i>Reg.</i> II,v). The -barracks, built under Hadrian, surround an arcaded courtyard -with rooms opening off. A latrine with a shrine in it -thriftily combines cleanliness with godliness. At the end -of the courtyard opposite the entrance is a platform which -still bears the bases of statues of Emperors worshiped by -the firemen as a part of the Imperial cult.</p> - -<p>As at Pompeii, so at Ostia, the houses are the most interesting -part of the city, not least because Ostian houses -differ completely in plan from Pompeian ones. The great -majority are apartment houses, tall, many-windowed brick -blocks, with or without shops on the ground floor. They -were designed to be rented out in flats, with separate access -to the upper stories from the street. Some have balconies, -opening both on the street and on garden courtyards where -many families shared the pergolas, fountains, trees, shrubs, -pools, and statue-studded lawns, as they shared also the -large common latrines. The Casa dei Dipinti (<i>Reg.</i> III,iv; -see <a href="#ip_10_3">Fig. 10.3</a>) is such a block, built in Hadrian’s reign. The -ground-floor flats have mosaic floors and paintings of mythological -scenes, figures of poets and dancers, landscapes, -and fantastic motifs. At the end of the garden is yet another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> -of Ostia’s combinations of the useful with the ornamental: -a number of large <i>dolia</i>, terracotta jars sunk in the ground -for storing oil or grain. Despite the panegyrics of the excavators, -there is a certain deadly sameness about these -flats where the lower middle class lived their lives of quiet -desperation, as they do in the unfashionable quarters of -Rome today.</p> - -<div id="ip_10_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_081.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.3</span> Ostia, Casa dei Dipinti, Gismondi’s reconstruction. (Alinari)</div></div> - -<p>The occupants of Ostia’s flats were largely tradesmen or -minor civil servants. Their livelihood came from Ostia’s -two artificial harbors (<a href="#ip_10_4">Fig. 10.4</a>). The earlier, begun under -Claudius in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 42, is now the site of a military airport, -whose engineers have preserved the traces (<a href="#ip_10_5">Fig. 10.5</a>) of -the two curving moles which enclosed a basin over 850,000 -square yards in area. Ancient sources say there was an -artificial island between the arms of the moles, with a lighthouse -on it which became the symbol of Ostia: it is often -figured in mosaics. A canal, now the Fiumicino branch of -the Tiber, connected the harbor with the main stream.</p> - -<p>Grandiose as it was, the harbor was ill-protected from -prevailing winds: a storm in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 62 wrecked 200 ships anchored -or berthed in it. Trajan therefore built a smaller -but more efficient basin (<a href="#ip_10_6">Fig. 10.6</a>), hexagonal in shape and -with numbered berths where ships might tie up to discharge -their cargoes directly into warehouses on all six -sides. A complicated entrance with a right-angled turn protected -it completely from the hazards which had plagued -Claudius’ harbor; it also was connected with the Claudian -canal. Nowadays it forms a pool on the Torlonia estate, and -access to it is almost invariably refused.</p> - -<div id="ip_10_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="600" height="347" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.4</span> Ostia, harbors. (Calza, <i>op. cit.</i>)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_10_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34.3125em;"> - <img src="images/i_082b.jpg" width="549" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"> - -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.5</span> Ostia, harbors of Claudius (traces of the mole show in a different -color in the air photograph), and of Trajan (the hexagon). -(Italian Ministry of Aeronautics)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_10_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_082c.jpg" width="600" height="305" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.6</span> Ostia, harbor of Trajan, model.</p> - -<p>(Mostra Augustea della Romanità, <i>Catalogo</i>, Fig. 104)</p></div></div> - -<p>The ships that unloaded at the quays of Claudius’ or -Trajan’s harbor came from all over the Mediterranean. Their -agents had their in-town offices in the portico behind the -Augustan theater, called by the Italians the <i>Piazzale delle -Corporazioni</i>. Each office had an emblem in mosaic before -its door, indicating the commodity it imported or the service -it rendered. These mosaics, plus inscriptions, document the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -greatest variety of goods and services, giving a clear idea -how busy the port of Rome was in the high Empire. The -commodities included furs, wood, grain, beans, melons, oil, -fish, wine, drugs, mirrors, flowers, ivory, gold, and silk. -Among the service personnel were the caulkers, cordwainers, -grain-measurers, maintenance-men for the docks, -warehouses, and embankments, shipwrights, bargemen, carpenters, -masons, muleteers, carters, stevedores, and divers -for sunken cargoes. The home offices, often recorded in -the mosaics, include ports famous or forgotten in North -Africa, Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain. Ostia proper, as well as -the ports, was full of warehouses where these multifarious -goods were stored. Their plan, multistoried around a courtyard, -was to influence the luxurious <i>palazzi</i> of the Renaissance. -(When McKim, Mead, and White built the Boston -Public Library, for example, their ultimate model was an -Ostia warehouse.) The headquarters of the various guilds -grew, in the second and third centuries, very luxurious, with -airy courtyards and temples in imported marble, testifying -to the power and prosperity of these ancient labor unions. -Perhaps, then as now, the labor leaders were more prosperous -than the rank and file, for in Ostia as in Pompeii, -the multitude of small shops, of fishmongers, fullers, and -millers, and the omnipresent <i>thermopolia</i> or bars, are humble -enough, often with dark, cramped living quarters behind -or on a mezzanine.</p> - -<p>Ostia’s world-wide trade made her a melting-pot, and -her temples reinforce the point. Besides the temples of the -Imperial cults and the official religion, like the Temple -of Rome and Augustus, Hadrian’s lofty Capitolium, and -the half-scale Pantheon, all in the Forum, there is, near -the Porta Laurentina (<i>Reg.</i> IV,i) the temple of the Phrygian -Great Mother, where her emasculated priests once clashed -their cymbals. Near the Porta Marina (<i>Reg.</i> III,xvii) is the -temple of the Egyptian Serapis, conveniently located for -sailors just in from the Levant. Everywhere there were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> -shrines of the Persian Mithras: eighteen of them have -been found, ranging in date from <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 160 to 250. They -always occupy a retired, obscure corner of a pre-existent -building; they are apparently intended to symbolize the -cave where Mithras was born to his life of struggle with -the powers of darkness for the immortal souls of men. They -are usually oblong with shallow benches along the sides, -with an altar or cult statue at the end. The favorite cult -statute is of Mithras slaying the bull; being washed in the -blood of a freshly slaughtered bull brought redemption into -immortality to Mithras’ votaries. One Ostian Mithraeum, -that of Felicissimus (<i>Reg.</i> V,ix; see <a href="#ip_10_7">Fig. 10.7</a>) has a mosaic -pavement representing the seven stages of initiation, somewhat -like the degrees of freemasonry. Each has its appropriate -symbol: the Crow, the Bridegroom, the Soldier, the -Lion, the Persian (with a scimitar), the Sun-runner, and -the Father, or Worshipful Master. The cult was for men -only: it appealed to merchants, freedmen and soldiers.</p> - -<p>In the fourth century in Ostia some of these were won -away by another Oriental religion, Christianity. A house -(<i>Reg.</i> IV, iii) with a mosaic of the communion chalice, set -with the Christian symbol of the fish (the initial letters of -the word for “fish” in Greek stand for “Jesus Christ, Son of -God, Saviour”) may have been the residence of the bishop. -A remodeled bath (<i>Reg.</i> III,i) made over into a humble -Christian basilica, may be the place where Augustine worshiped -in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 387, as recorded in his <i>Confessions</i>. Part of -the tombstone of his mother Monica, who died in Ostia, -was found a few years ago in the neighboring modern village -of Ostia Antica. The altar of the Mithraeum next to -the basilica was found smashed by Christian wrath into -a thousand pieces.</p> - -<div id="ip_10_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.4375em;"> - <img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="423" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.7</span> Ostia, Mithraeum of Felicissimus.</p> - -<p>(G. Becatti, <i>Scavi di Ostia</i>, 2, p. 107)</p></div></div> - -<p>When Saint Augustine worshiped in Ostia, the city was -already in full decline. The Emperor Constantine had revoked -its municipal status, and assigned it to the village -called Portus which had grown up around Trajan’s harbor.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -The cemetery of Portus, on Isola Sacra, the island between -the Fiumicino and the principal mouth of the Tiber, contains -a few Christian burials. It is chiefly noteworthy for the class -distinctions it reveals between the wealthy in their fine -vaulted brick tombs, embellished with paintings and mosaics -(very like those found in the cemetery under St. -Peter’s), and the poor, whose ashes rest in the miserable -amphorae stuck in the low-lying ground. By the end of the -fourth century, burials in this cemetery ceased, mute and -pathetic evidence of the decline of Portus itself. Ostia proper -agonized on to its end. The flat slabs of inscriptions are -re-used as shop-counters, or to mend pavements. Architectural -marbles are sawed up into latrine-seats. Statues are -reduced to lime or used, whole or decapitated, to repair -breaches in the city wall. The water-pipes break and are not -repaired, fallen house-walls are left lying, rubble piles up -forty feet deep. Sacked by the barbarian, decimated by -malaria, Ostia by the fifth century was desolate, and the -road to Rome overgrown with trees. Only a Christian chapel -by the theater, marking the spot where a Christian was -martyred, was left to mark the spot.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Besides embellishing the Forum at Ostia with its basilica -and council-house, Trajan, through his architect, the Syrian -Apollodorus of Damascus, adorned Rome with the last, -largest, and finest of the Imperial Fora (see Figs. <a href="#ip_5_13">5.13</a> and -<a href="#ip_9_4">9.4</a>). We know from an inscribed record, the <i>Fasti Ostienses</i>, -found in re-use to repair a floor in an ancient private house -in Ostia, that its dedication day was May 18, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 113. Its -general plan has been known since the French excavations -of 1812. Its inspiration is the porticoes of Caesar’s Forum -and the apses and the Hall of Fame of Augustus’. In conception -it is axially symmetric and tripartite: the Forum -proper, the basilica, and the famous Column behind, flanked -by a pair of libraries. Hadrian added the Temple of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> -Deified Trajan, now destroyed, which closed the vista to -the west.</p> - -<p>The Forum proper lay at right angles to the Forum of -Augustus, its façade bowed slightly out, like the <i>Forum -Transitorium</i>. Its entrance was through a triumphal arch, -added in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 117, after Trajan’s death. In the middle of the -great porticoed square, over 620 feet wide, with apses on -either side, was placed a great equestrian statue of Trajan; -the Romans used to say that never did a horse have such -a stable.</p> - -<p>At the back of the open square which forms the Forum -proper lay the basilica, its two short sides curved, like the -sides of the Forum, into apses. The basilica presents its long -side to the Forum as Italian basilicas regularly did, but was -much grander than the basilicas of Alba, Cosa, or even the -Basilica Julia in the old Forum. The basilica had two double -rows of columns, in gray granite and polychrome marble: -the yellow <i>giallo antico</i>, from Numidia; the striated green -<i>cipollino</i>, “onion-stone”; the purple-streaked <i>pavonazzetto</i>, -“peacock-stone”—Italian masons have over 500 different -names for marble. The architraves were marble, crystalline -white from Mt. Pentelicus in Attica. The walls were veneered -with marble, from Carrara. The roof was plated with gilt -bronze. It was this magnificence which the Christians -sought to imitate in their great early basilica churches in -Rome, where the high altar stood in the place of the judges’ -tribunal: Old St. Peter’s, Santa Sabina, St. John Lateran, St.-Paul’s-Without-the-Walls, -San Lorenzo. Trajan’s goodness as -<i>optimus princeps</i> was legendary to early Christians; Trajan’s -basilica supplied a noble model for early Christian churches; -Pope Sixtus V did Trajan a grave injustice when he replaced -his statue at the top of the Column with one of St. Peter.</p> - -<p>Behind the basilica a pair of small libraries, one Greek -and one Latin, faced the tiny square in the midst of which -rose Trajan’s 100-foot column. Its shaft, of Parian marble, -was wound about with 155 scenes on the twenty-three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -spirals of the great scroll, whose bands grow wider the -higher they go, so that they were “readable” to a great -height, especially from the library balconies. Unrolled, the -scroll would be 650 feet long. It described in 2500 figures -the events of Trajan’s two campaigns, of <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 101–102 and -105–106, against the Dacians, ancestors of the modern -Rumanians. It is because of Trajan’s conquests, imposing -Roman culture, that Rumanians speak a Romance language, -derived from Latin, today.</p> - -<p>To what that great scroll has to tell us about the Roman -attitude—and the sculptor’s—to the art of war we shall return. -For the moment another matter is of interest: the -inscription on the column-base. It states that the column -marks the height of earth that was removed to make room -for it. For centuries it was inferred that Trajan’s engineers -had cut away a whole saddle connecting the Esquiline with -the Capitoline Hill. But in 1907 Boni published the results -of excavations around the base of the column, which revealed -a street, a wall, and houses, dated by their pottery—Arretine -and earlier—to the late Republic. Hence there -probably never was a saddle of hill here. What then does the -inscription mean? Boni fixed his eye on the terraced slope -of the Quirinal to the north of the Forum, and concluded—rightly, -as later excavation proved—that what Trajan was -referring to was the cutting down and terracing of this -slope for some purpose to be connected with the Forum. -What that purpose was did not transpire until 1928, when -Corrado Ricci cleared the area of medieval and later accretions -and discovered the six levels of Trajan’s Market -(<a href="#ip_10_8">Fig. 10.8</a>).</p> - -<p>The terrace treatment clearly goes back for inspiration -to the Sanctuary of Fortune at Praeneste. Brick stamps -show that the Market was built before the Forum: the shape -in which the hill was dug out left space for the Forum apse -when it came to be built. Form follows function: the hemicycle -shows the classical virtues of symmetry, regularity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> -and creative exploitation of tradition, but the shape is -practical, too: it allows space for nearly twice as many -rooms as would have been possible with a rectilinear front. -The shop fronts are good-looking as well as utilitarian. The -ground floor rooms are handsomely framed in travertine; -the second level windows are arched, and framed with -pilasters, much as at Praeneste, with pediments alternately -curved and triangular, the triangular pediments are sometimes -deliberately broken, never coming to an apex, a trick -of style imitated with success by eighteenth century English -furniture designers like Chippendale. But this is an old -thing in a new way, for here the material is not stone but -brick, the beautifully-proportioned rose-red Roman kind, -used unashamedly without veneer of stucco or marble, like -the rose-red arcades of Renaissance Bologna.</p> - -<div id="ip_10_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="600" height="521" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.8</span> Rome, Trajan’s Market. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> -Some of the rooms have drains in the floor for carrying -of spilled liquid; the inference is that these were wine or -oil shops; those without such provision would be for dry -commodities like grain. There are 150 of these shops altogether, -all more or less identical. The whole complex has -the air not of private enterprise but of a government project, -and it seems a reasonable guess that here we have the headquarters -of the <i>annona</i>, the government dole of wine, oil, -and grain, the cargoes of the ships that docked in Trajan’s -port of Ostia.</p> - -<p>Access to the second level is by stairs at either end of the -hemicycle, not in the middle. The split approach is borrowed -from the exedra of Terrace VII at Praeneste. (It was brick -stamps in these stairs that enabled Bloch to date this complex -in the first decade of the second century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>). The -second-floor shops open onto a semicircular vaulted corridor -with windows opening on the Forum. On the third level -variety within unity, plus ease of access for wagons, is -achieved by a semicircular street on which the third level -shops face. A straight stretch of paving running north and -south, called the Via Biberatica—“Pepper or Spice Street”—and -concealed by the façade, contains shops with balconies, -as at Ostia. Stairs ascend from this level to a great rectangular -cross-vaulted basilical hall, with shops opening off it -at two levels. Some archaeologists think this was the place -where the dole was distributed; others see in it ancient -Rome’s wholesale grain, oil, and wine market, like the Pit -in Chicago where bidding fixes the day’s commodity prices. -The interconnecting suites of rooms on the fifth and sixth -levels are clearly not shops, but offices for administrative -personnel. One large centrally-located room, with a view -over the whole complex, would be a good place for the office -of the superintendent of the entire affair, the <i>praefectus -annonae</i>.</p> - -<p>Trajan’s Market did not let his people forget his generosity. -Trajan’s Column did not let them forget his prowess in war.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -Though casts have often been made of the reliefs on the -column—the earliest to the order of Francis I of France, in -1541—the best photographs were not taken until 1942, when -a scaffolding erected around the column to protect it from -air attack made close-ups possible. The <i>optimus princeps</i> -appears more than fifty times, larger than life. He dominates -the sea voyages (he handles the tiller personally), the -marches, the river-crossings, the councils of war, the reviews, -the encounters in the open field, the sieges, the sacrifices, -the submissions of enemy chiefs.</p> - -<p>Because of the fascinating detail of the reliefs, Trajan’s -Column tells us as much about the Roman army and navy -as Pompeii and Ostia do about civilian life. Nor is this all: -we learn a great deal, too, about provincial and native customs -and culture. Most important, the unknown sculptor -has impressed his personality and his feelings upon what -he carved. There is an occasional touch of rough humor—a -slave falling off a mule, a Dacian ducked in the Danube—and -a scene or two in which Trajan, deprecating the humility -of submissive native chiefs, seems to be following Vergil’s -advice to spare the meek. But the dominant note is Vergil’s, -too: the horror of war. Some of the detail is worth recording.</p> - -<p>The army and navy first. The transports, with cars in two -banks, and auxiliary sail, have ramming-beaks, adorned with -an enormous eye, for luck, or with a sea monster. The -soldiers are jacks-of-all-trades: we see them woodcutting -and reaping, but most often at the interminable work of -building palisaded camps, with tents of skins, a new camp -every night when they were on the march. They built their -permanent camps of squared stones: the sculptor shows the -soldiers carrying them in slings on their shoulders, or in -baskets. The walls had towers, with balconies, from which -flaming torches gave signals by night. Catapults were -mounted on the battlements; other catapults are horse or -mule drawn, or mounted on improvised wooden bases like -stacked railroad ties. We see the standards of the legions—<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>the -famed Eagles—and the standard-bearers, wearing animal -heads for helmets, like Hercules. On the march the men -carry their gear in bundles on the ends of their pikes, -like tramps with their worldly goods done up in a bandanna.</p> - -<p>We see something of provincial towns and their citizens. -The army embarked from an Adriatic port, Ancona or -Brindisi, and sailed across to Illyricum. Here the cities ape -Rome, with arches, columned temples, theaters, and amphitheaters. -The citizens turn out in a body, leading their -children by the hand, to greet their Emperor with upraised -right arms, as in a Fascist salute, and to offer sacrifice. The -Danube is crossed on a great bridge, the work of Apollodorus, -with masonry piers and wooden superstructure. Then one -is in wild country, with exotic flora and fauna, including an -especially bloodthirsty wild boar. The natives live in straw -huts, and wear trousers: this last, to a Roman, sure proof of -barbarism. In battle they use short hooked swords, and -carry sinister dragon-head standards. Their cavalry, horses -and all, are protected from head to foot with scaly armor.</p> - -<p>It is exciting, but it is terrible. Dacian women burn Romans -alive; Romans impale the severed heads of Dacians -before the walls of their camp (<a href="#ip_10_9">Fig. 10.9</a>), or present them, -dripping with gore, to the Emperor. A Dacian is assassinated -with a sword thrust as he pleads for mercy. Bodies are -trampled underfoot in battle, prisoners are dragged along -by the hair. The Dacian king commits suicide rather than -fall into Roman hands; his subjects burn their capital to -the ground to deny it to the Romans. The story of the first -campaigns is separated from the second by a Victory writing -on a shield; immediately thereafter the deadly, monotonous -round begins again. The pathos of some of the scenes -heightens the horror, as when two comrades carry tenderly -from the field the limp body of a mortally wounded Dacian -youth, or a whole tribe, with babies in arms, or children -carried on their fathers’ shoulders, comes to make the act -of submission. At the end looting, with the Dacian treasure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> -loaded on the backs of mules. These scenes, with their -implied criticism of warfare, are the closest the Romans -ever came to pacifism.</p> - -<div id="ip_10_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_085.jpg" width="600" height="557" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 10.9</span> Rome, Trajan’s Column, detail. -(P. Romanelli, <i>La colonna traiana</i>, Fig. 60)</div></div> - -<p>The province won with so much blood, sweat, and tears -by Trajan was consolidated by his successor Hadrian (who -had fought in the campaigns) and taught the arts of peace. -Hadrian, that restless traveler, spent little of his reign in -Rome, but he adorned the city with some of its grandest -buildings, for which he himself probably drew the plans, -and he built near suburban Tivoli a villa greater than Versailles.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_11" class="vspace">11<br /> - -<span class="subhead">An Emperor-Architect: Hadrian</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>About Trajan’s successor Hadrian (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 117–138) archaeology -and literature, interlocking, tell us so much that we can -write his biography from his buildings, with an occasional -assist from written sources. The buildings of his reign are -numerous and brilliantly designed. We shall take as examples -three from Rome and three from the unique complex -of his Villa near Tivoli: the Temple of Venus and Rome, -the Pantheon, and his mausoleum; the <i>Teatro Marittimo</i>, -the <i>Piazza d’Oro</i>, and the Canopus. All can be dated with -more precision than usual, because in Hadrian’s time the -practice became general of stamping bricks with the names -of the consuls of the year they were made. Professor Bloch’s -accurate study of, and sound inference from, over 4600 -stamps, most of them from Hadrian’s reign, have put all -students of Roman archaeology deeply in his debt.</p> - -<p>An attempt to understand Hadrian through his buildings -rests upon the hypothesis that he was himself his own -architect, inspired by the ferment of building activity in -Rome in Domitian’s and Trajan’s reigns, when he was growing -up. The hypothesis is perhaps justified by an inference -from an anecdote recorded by Dio Cassius, a Roman -senator and consul from Bithynia in northwest Asia Minor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> -who wrote in Greek a history of Rome from the beginning -to <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 229. Dio’s story is that once when Trajan was in -conference with his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus, -Hadrian interrupted, and Apollodorus, angered, said, “Oh, -go and design your pumpkins!” We infer that Apollodorus’ -reference to “pumpkins” was intended to pour scorn on -certain of Hadrian’s designs for vaults, involving pumpkin-like -concave segments with re-entrant groins between, such -as are still to be seen in Hadrian’s Villa, in the vestibule of -the Piazza d’Oro, and in the Serapeum at the end of the -Canopus (<a href="#ip_11_1">Fig. 11.1</a>). The same anecdote records that -Apollonius so piqued Hadrian, later, by his criticisms of the -design of the Emperor’s Temple of Venus and Rome, that -Hadrian had him first exiled and then put to death. This is -how Hadrian is established as an architect, and a vindictive -one at that.</p> - -<p>Hadrian’s most baroque flights of architectural fancy are -to be seen at his villa near Tivoli, where the various complexes -of buildings are scattered over an area 1000 yards one -way by 500 yards the other. The buildings, which far outdid -Nero’s Golden House in extent and grandeur, include palaces, -large and small, for manic and for depressive moods -(plan [<a href="#ip_11_2">Fig. 11.2</a>] A,G,R,S,T,U,V,W), guest-quarters (B), a -pavilion (C), dining rooms (D,E,K), baths (F,O,P), a library -(the apsed building to the right of G), porticoes -(H,J), pools (between H and J, and northwest of X), slave -quarters (J,N), a stadium (L), many cryptoporticoes (for -example, M), firemen’s barracks (between A and M), a -palaestra or wrestling ground (Q), and a vaulted temple of -Serapis (X). Excavation, and the carrying off of statues, -with which Roman museums are crammed, began as early -as 1535, and continues to the present. It has been followed -by reconstruction (<a href="#ip_11_3">Fig. 11.3</a>) and general tidying up: the -Italian authorities report the clearing away of 13,200 pounds -of briers!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span></p> - -<div id="ip_11_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.1</span> Tivoli, Hadrian’s Villa. Serapeum at Canopus, showing “pumpkin” vaults. (Piranesi)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p> - -<div id="ip_11_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="700" height="457" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.2</span> Tivoli, Hadrian’s Villa. -(H. Kähler, <i>Hadrian und seine Villa bei Tivoli</i>, Pl. 1)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_11_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_087b.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"> -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.3</span> Tivoli, Hadrian’s Villa, model. The round building -(left center) is the Teatro Marittimo; the Piazza d’Oro is at -the upper left; the Canopus, with colonnade, pool, and Serapeum, -is near the center of the upper right quadrant. (MPI)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -The setting of Hadrian’s villa near Tivoli takes full advantage -of landscape: the view embraces mountains in one -direction, distant Rome and the sea in the other. There is -the color of pines, olives, ripe grain, pasture, and vineyard, -the sound of cicadas by day and nightingales at twilight. -And when the villa was new, everywhere was the sound of -water and the color of marble. For this enormous Folly, this -Roman Versailles, the immensity of all this space devoted -to the whims of one man, untrammelled by any limitations -of technique or money, is the perfected product of 200 years -of Roman experience in elegant country living. Its builder -occupied it but little. Eleven of the twenty-one restless -years of his reign were spent in foreign travel. He named -parts of his villa for famous buildings and places he had -seen in the Greek East: the Academy and the Painted Porch -(<i>Stoa Poecile</i>) in Athens, the Canopus near Alexandria. He -even created a mile of cryptoporticoes which he called a -“Hell” (<i>Inferi</i>, the Lower Regions): in his tortured life he -had been there, too, as we shall see. But the buildings are -idiosyncratic, not imitative, except in the creative Roman -way. Hadrian, the Spaniard, was quick to learn. He always -spoke Latin with an accent (his Greek was better), but his -architecture was pure Graeco-Roman, using the architectural -vocabulary of the past to create a new architectural language -of his own.</p> - -<p>His earliest architectural essay at the villa, to judge from -the brick stamps, is the so-called “<i>Teatro Marittimo</i>” (the -round complex at G; see also <a href="#ip_11_4">Fig. 11.4</a>). Its earliest bricks -date from the first year of his reign. (Of course the bricks -need not have been used in the year they were made, and -indeed will often have been put aside for several years to -season.) Some bricks in the fabric of the <i>Teatro Marittimo</i> -are dated <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 123, an <i>annus mirabilis</i> in Roman brick production, -to meet the vast requirements of Hadrian’s many -projects, some ready to build, some still on the drawing-board. -These bricks point to later restorations of the original -plan, but the point here is that the fundamental design, very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -characteristic of Hadrian, must have been laid down early. -Much light on this complex, and on the villa as a whole, -has been cast by the sensitive, perceptive work of the -German Heinz Kähler, who, undaunted by the burning of -all his carefully drawn plans in World War II, redid and -published them in 1950, illuminating as never before our -picture of Hadrian as man and architect.</p> - -<div id="ip_11_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.4</span> Tivoli, Hadrian’s Villa, Teatro Marittimo, air view. -(H. Kähler, <i>Rom und seine Welt</i>, Pl. 188)</div></div> - -<p>The entrance to the <i>Teatro Marittimo</i> was through a -portico to the north (at the bottom of the air photograph) -which approached a door in a high circular brick wall, -insuring complete privacy from the rest of the villa. Inside -the wall was a circular portico, concentric with the portico -a moat. The <i>Teatro Marittimo</i> is now restored (through the -philanthropy of an Italian tire manufacturer, impressed by -the likeness of its plan to his product), and the moat is filled -with water. When it was dry, its floor showed a pair of -grooves in an arc, one on either side of the main axis. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> -grooves were made by the rollers of a drawbridge worked -from a small room on the edge of the inner circle. On the -site of one of the drawbridges there is now a permanent -foot-bridge, visible in the air photograph. On the circular -island, the columned arc between the drawbridges is a -vestibule where the Emperor might receive his friends. Beyond -it is a diamond-shaped peristyle, originally with a -fountain in the middle: its sides are segments of circles -which if projected would be tangent to the outer wall of the -moat. Beyond the peristyle is an apsidal room; the apse has -the same arc as the vestibule. This would be a pleasant -place for intimate dinner parties. The rooms on either side -might be bedrooms. A broad window opens from the dining -room onto the moat, with a view directly on an alcove let -into the circular wall on the axis of the far side. From the -alcove the view leads through eleven differently shaped and -differently lighted spaces back to the entrance portico and -a far-distant fountain to the north.</p> - -<p>It remains to describe the rooms east and west of the -peristyle. The central apsidal room of the three on the west -(to the right of the peristyle in the air photograph) is a -deep bath with a window over the moat. Steps lead up to -the low sill: Hadrian could choose between tub and moat -for bathing. To the south is the dressing room, to the north -the steam bath and furnace room. East of the peristyle is a -circular room whose interior cross-walls form a double T, -creating two alcoves for reading. Each would be appropriate -to its season: the eastern for winter mornings and summer -afternoons, the western for summer mornings and winter -afternoons. The two adjoining rooms would be just right for -a small library, of some 1500 rolls, half Greek and half Latin; -the main library lay conveniently to the southwest (right -center in the air photograph). It is tempting to see in this -suite of rooms the study where the Emperor wrote his -resigned, sentimental, mannered little poem to his soul (or -is it to the soul of his beloved Antinous?):</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“<i>Little soul, gentle and drifting,</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Guest and companion of my body,</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Now you will dwell below in pallid places,</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Stark and bare;</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>There you will abandon your play of yore.</i>”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">The remaining odd corners would house latrines, little conservatories, -cupboards, and pantries.</p> - -<p>This earliest Hadrianic building perfectly expresses one -aspect of the man: his genius, his moodiness, his striving for -form, his restlessness. With its wall, its moat, and its drawbridge, -it is all designed for privacy and quiet. From any -room one gets a view of variously lighted sections of space: -<i>chiaroscuro</i> to match moods grave and gay. In the midst of -axial symmetry, unrest is everywhere: in the curved forms, -in the abrupt switches from light to dark, from roofed -to open spaces, from horizontal architraves to the vertical -play of the central fountain. The unrest is central: the midpoint -is water and inaccessible. Tension and split are expressed -in the divided bridge approach. All is indirection, -schizophrenia, avoidance of forthrightness. As an architectural -exercise, it is uniquely abstract, a proposition of Euclid -in brick and marble, at one moment seeming to involve -nothing but circles, at another, nothing but squares. It is -probably no accident that its total diameter is almost exactly -the same as the Pantheon’s. It would have suited the complexity -of Hadrian’s mind to design a grandiose habitation -for all the gods to the self-same dimensions as this splendid -toy, the habitation of a restless, schizophrenic man whom his -subjects worshipped as a god. The gods had made Hadrian -in their own image; seconded by flattering courtiers, he was -returning the compliment.</p> - -<p>The next building in Hadrian’s architectural biography -is his Temple of Venus and Rome, built facing the Coliseum -to rival the most splendid buildings of Athens and the Greek -East. Literary sources give its foundation date as Rome’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -birthday, April 21, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 121; the brick-stamps, of 123, 134, -and the fourth century, tell the story of long years of building -and late restoration. The restoration probably followed -Hadrianic lines; at any rate the proportion of straight to -curved profiles in the apses—exactly half and half—is Hadrianic -language, repeated in the Pantheon. The essence of the -plan is two apses back to back, one for Venus and one for -the goddess Roma. They may be interpreted as a colossal -architectural pun. Venus is a goddess of love, Love is AMOR, -and AMOR is ROMA spelled backward. The symbolism -does not stop here. Hadrian is Caesar: his is the heritage, -if not the blood, of the Julian line, and the temple is a reminder -of the greatness of Rome, firmly established by -Augustus, and smiled upon by Augustus’ ancestress, Venus. -The plan (<a href="#ip_11_5">Fig. 11.5</a> and 11.6) was ingenious and devious, -in Hadrian’s manner. The exterior is foursquare and conventional: -the interior, with its vaults and apses, was novel -and emphasized curves: compare the interplay of the square -and the round in the <i>Teatro Marittimo</i>. Daring as it was, -the design was the butt of the criticisms which cost Apollodorus -his life. He had said that the temple should have -been set on a high podium, which could have housed various -paraphernalia useful in the Coliseum opposite, and that the -vaulted apses had been designed too low for the statues in -them: “If the goddesses wish to get up and go out, they -will be unable to do so.” The first half of Apollodorus’ criticism -is unjustified: Hadrian was designing a Greek temple, -not an Italic one. About the second half we cannot judge, -for certain, for brick stamps show the apses to belong to the -fourth century reconstruction, but the proportions, as we -saw, are Hadrianic (<a href="#ip_11_7">Fig. 11.7</a>). The temple was set in the -midst of a forest of sixty-six columns of grey granite. When -it was re-excavated in 1932, some of the columns were re-erected; -the positions of others were ingeniously marked -by clumps of shrubbery trimmed to the proper shape. The -excavators found under the pavement an octagonal room<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -interesting in itself, and significant for its place in Roman -architecture. The level at which it was found is lower than -that of Nero’s Golden House. (Hadrian’s temple was built -in the grounds of what had once been the Golden House; -the reader will recall the twenty-four elephants needed to -move the colossal statue of Nero and make room for the -temple.) The octagonal shape appears in the dining room -of the Golden House itself, in Domitian’s palace on the -Palatine, and in a room in the Small Baths at Hadrian’s -villa (O on the plan, <a href="#ip_11_2">Fig. 11.2</a>). The cupola of Nero’s -octagonal dining room, together with its lighting through -a hole in the roof, reappears on a grand scale in the Pantheon. -This is what we mean by saying that Hadrian adapted to -his own new architectural language the vocabulary of pre-Neronian, -Neronian, and Domitianic buildings. Here once -again modern archaeology illuminates the development of -Roman architecture by demonstrating and dating the classical -use of new things in old ways, and old things in new.</p> - -<div id="ip_11_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="600" height="311" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.5</span> Rome, Temple of Venus and Rome, Gismondi model. -(F. Castagnoli, <i>Roma antica</i>, Pl. 27.2)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_11_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_089b.jpg" width="600" height="377" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.6</span> Rome, Temple of Venus and Rome. -(Castagnoli, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 85, Fig. 2)</div></div> - -<p>Shortly after the consecration of the Temple of Venus and -Rome, Hadrian set out on the first of his great tours of his -Empire. He visited the western provinces, making arrangements, -among other things, for the building of the great -wall bearing his name that runs from Tyne to Solway in the -north of England. He visited the provinces of Africa, Cyrene -and Crete. Finally, in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 123, he reached Bithynia, and -there met Antinous (<a href="#ip_11_8">Fig. 11.8</a>), the sulky, langorous, adolescent -boy who, for the remaining seven years of his short -life, and even more after his tragic death by drowning—perhaps -suicide—in the suburb of Alexandria called Canopus, -was to dominate Hadrian’s existence and inspire his whole -creative activity. It is not surprising that the Emperor, -childless and unhappily married, should find deep satisfaction -in the company of this boy. The psychological aspects -of the affair, and the possible effect of Hadrian’s infatuation -upon his architecture have been treated with delicacy and -understanding by Marguerite Yourcenar and Eleanor Clark.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span></p> - -<div id="ip_11_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25.5625em;"> - <img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="409" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.7</span> -Rome, Temple of Venus and Rome, -apse (note size of scale figure). -(Paul MacKendrick photo)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_11_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 14.3125em;"> - <img src="images/i_090b.jpg" width="229" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.8</span> Antinous. (Alinari)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p> - -<div id="ip_11_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_090c.jpg" width="600" height="478" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.9</span> Rome, Pantheon. (Fototeca)</div></div> - -<p>The first Hadrianic building that could have been designed -after the meeting with Antinous is the Pantheon -(<a href="#ip_11_9">Fig. 11.9</a>), “the oldest important roofed building in the -world that still stands intact.” On the evidence of the brick-stamps, -its framework was complete by <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 125, and the -whole building perhaps finished by 128. Until 1892 the -building passed as the work of Augustus’ lieutenant Agrippa, -because the inscription that runs across the architrave of the -rectangular porch in front of the drum, “Marcus Agrippa -built this when he was consul for the third time” (27 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), -was taken at its face value. But in 1892 the entire fabric -was found to be full of stamped bricks of Hadrianic date, -and the building therefore Hadrianic throughout (with -Severan restorations, also recorded in an inscription). The -Agrippa inscription partly follows the Roman practice of -repeating the original dedication in a restored structure,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> -partly reflects the Emperor’s mock modesty. His involuted -nature found satisfaction in seldom inscribing his own name -on the buildings he designed. His contemporaries knew well -enough who the architect was. And the elaborate mystification -served also to point up his identifying himself with -Augustus, which we saw first in the Temple of Venus and -Rome. Whether Hadrian thought of himself as a new Augustus -or not, certainly Augustan domed buildings at the seaside -resort of Baiae, on the Bay of Naples, influenced his -architecture. Hadrian played the game out in the way he -handled the transition between the circular and the rectangular -parts of his plan (<a href="#ip_11_10">Fig. 11.10</a>). On either side of the -entrance to the drum, behind the porch, he designed rectangular -projections with huge half-vaulted apses cut out -of the front: one of these apses would have contained a -statue of Agrippa, the other of Augustus. And Romans passing -between them (through the great bronze entrance doors -that still survive) would marvel at how self-effacing was -their Emperor-architect.</p> - -<div id="ip_11_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.875em;"> - <img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="430" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.10</span> Rome, Pantheon. (G. Lugli, <i>Mon. Ant.</i>, 3, fac. p. 126)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_11_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;"> - <img src="images/i_091b.jpg" width="512" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.11</span> Rome, Pantheon, interior, 19th-century reconstruction, -drawing by fellows of French Academy in Rome.</div></div> - -<p>The interior (<a href="#ip_11_11">Fig. 11.11</a>) carries forward that liberation -of religious architecture from the Greek tyranny of the rectangular -box, which can only come about through the use -of poured concrete, and which we saw first in the Sanctuary -of Fortune at Praeneste. Here Hadrian plays with geometrical -abstractions, as in the Teatro Marittimo. The game is to -describe a sphere in a cylinder: if the curve of the dome -were projected beyond the point where it meets the vertical -walls of the drum, the bottom of the curve would be just -tangent with the floor. The very pavement, with its alternation -of squares and circles, plays up the geometrical <i>jeu -d’esprit</i>. (Beneath this pavement lies the simple rectangular -plan of Agrippa’s temple.) Furthermore, both the plan and -the interior view show that the walls of the drum are not -solid, and that they continue the architect’s vast toying with -geometrical concepts. The walls are lightened with niches -(for statues; one, of Venus, wore Cleopatra’s pearls in her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> -ears). The niches are alternately rectangular and curved; the -result is that the hemispherical cupola is supported not on -a solid wall but on eight huge piers. In order to reduce the -bearing weight of the superstructure upon the niches, into -the concrete fabric above the apertures were built, concealed -by polychrome marble revetment, elaborate brick -relieving arches, which run as barrel vaults right through -the walls. The cupola itself is designed with sunken stepped -coffers, to lighten it, and to exaggerate the perspective, and -to play yet again with the alternation of curve and straight -line. The concrete of the cupola, which is thinner toward -the top, is made with pumice, the lightest material available. -But in spite of the pains taken to lighten the enormous mass, -the piers gave under the weight of the cupola, and external -buttresses proved necessary (see plan, <a href="#ip_11_10">Fig. 11.10</a>), which -spoiled the exterior effect. Hadrian is an amateur to the end; -his vaults do not hold, his cupolas need bracing, his foundations -give—and yet the essence of his designs has lasted -forever.</p> - -<p>The Pantheon is lighted solely through the great hole, -thirty feet across, at the top of the cupola. (The building is -so large that the inconvenience from rain is negligible.) The -best possible idea of the perfection of this great building -is to be gained by looking down into the interior from high -above, from the edge of the hole in the roof. This dizzy -height, at which one may glory or despair according to the -measure of one’s acrophobia, is reached by a stair behind -the left apse in the porch. The stair gives access to the -cornice at the top of the drum; one then walks half-way -round the cornice, which is wide but unrailed, to the back -of the drum, where a flight of steps, only half-railed, leads -up over the lead plates (the original gilt bronze was sent -to Constantinople in the seventh century), to the aperture, -from which those with a head for heights can gauge the -aesthetic satisfaction of realizing that the interior is exactly -as high as it is wide. The total effect, massive, daring, playing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> -with space, yet not entirely successful technically, reflects -the man.</p> - -<p>One wonders what Hadrian’s tortured and cynical spirit -would make of the vicissitudes his building has suffered. A -Barberini pope in the seventeenth century used the bronze -of the porch roof to make the canopy over the high altar of -St. Peter’s, and guns for the papal fortress, Castel Sant’ -Angelo (which had once been Hadrian’s mausoleum); of -this vandalism the wags of 1625 made the famous epigram, -“<i>Quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini</i>,” which -might be paraphrased, “The Barberini rush in where barbarians -fear to tread.” At the same time Bernini added a pair -of ridiculous bell towers—called “the ass’s ears”—which were -not taken down until the nineteenth century. Perhaps -Hadrian would be better pleased to know that men like -himself were buried in his building: a great creative artist—Raphael—and -two Italian kings.</p> - -<p>While the Pantheon was being built, an activity unexampled -in the history of Roman architecture was going on -at the villa. To the fruitful years after 125 belongs the -uniquely inspired plan (<a href="#ip_11_12">Fig. 11.12</a>) of the most important -palace in the villa complex, called the <i>Piazza d’Oro</i>, the -Golden Square. Its “pumpkin” vestibule (K in the plan) -has already been mentioned. In many of its features, including -the hole in the roof, the eight supporting piers, and -the alternation of curved and rectilinear niches, it is a -quarter-scale Pantheon, but there is greater frankness in -the display of the structure, both internally, in the groined -vault, and externally, where the octagonal plan is left clearly -visible, instead of being concealed by the skin of the drum, -as in the Pantheon. Except perhaps for the cross-vaulted -passages N,N, the portico is conventional; excavation in the -summer of 1958 revealed footings for formal flower beds, -as in the portico of Pompey’s theater, and in Vespasian’s -Forum of Peace.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span></p> - -<div id="ip_11_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.12</span> Tivoli, Hadrian’s Villa, Piazza d’Oro. (H. Winnefeld)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -The part of the complex which shows Hadrian’s full -genius is the palace-block, south of the portico (plan A-I). -Here the vastness, sweep, and richness of the <i>Piazza d’Oro</i> -comes to its climax in a design which has been called lyrical, -feminine, and even Mozartian. Here, if anywhere, can be -detected the influence of Antinous. The frieze-motif, for -example, is Cupids (riding sea-monsters), but since this -theme is borrowed from the <i>Teatro Marittimo</i>, which, at -least in its earliest phase, antedates Antinous, too much -should not be made of it. The center of the composition is -the four-leaf-clover room at A, with a fountain in the middle. -Its walls sweep in and out, with a sinuous, wave-like movement, -as though the room were alive, and breathing. The -outswinging arcs open into light-wells (C,C; B is a curved -nymphaeum, with statue-niches alternately curved and rectilinear, -from beneath which the water flowed down steps -into a reflecting pool; the fourth side is the entrance). The -inswinging arcs open into bell-shaped rooms (a,a,a,a). These -serve to counter the thrust of the centrally-pierced cupola -(see the reconstruction, <a href="#ip_11_13">Fig. 11.13</a>), which may have successfully -solved the problem of transition from octagonal -ground-plan to circular dome. The cupola was supported -(none too well, for it has fallen and left no trace) on eight -delicate piers, in what we now see to be Hadrian’s standard -but ever-varied manner. The six tiny apsidal rooms (b) are -latrines; their water-supply came from fountains at the back -of the bell-shaped diagonal rooms, yet another example of -the Roman combination of the useful with the ornamental.</p> - -<p>Off the central clover-leaf open on each side five rectangular -rooms (I is a late addition), all but one barrel-vaulted; -the exception (G) had a cross-vault. Each set opens -onto a light well. At the back of the central room (E) in -each set is a statue-niche. The view from the back of these -rooms runs, as in the <i>Teatro Marittimo</i>, through variegated -light and shade. E was diagonally lit from the light-well; -the light-well itself, a variant on the conventional atrium, -had probably a square <i>compluvium</i>, or open skylight; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -central room was lit by the round cupola-aperture, and so -on. The whole design, with its indirect lighting, plays of -water, and works of art, is light and gay, reflecting the -Emperor’s brief years of pleasure with his <i>inamorato</i>; what -the Empress Sabina thought is not recorded. But here again -is the tension that comes from an inaccessible midpoint. -And whose statues were in the niches? Whatever may have -been the case in Antinous’ lifetime, after his death Hadrian -deified him, identifying him with Apollo, Dionysus, Hermes, -Silvanus, Osiris, and other gods, and surrounded himself -with reminders of him in marble. Of the statues of Antinous -in Roman museums, a number variously estimated at from -sixteen to thirty comes from the villa.</p> - -<p>Hadrian’s happiness was short-lived. In <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 128 he set -out again on his travels, accompanied by Antinous. They -wintered at Athens, which Hadrian enriched with monuments, -passed over into Asia Minor, and down through Syria -into Egypt. Here, in 130, Antinous died, probably a suicide, -to please his master or to avoid his passion. Hadrian’s grief -was more baroque than any of his buildings. From this point -his life becomes one long death-wish. The most massive symbol -of this is his mausoleum, whose great concrete drum, -approached by Hadrian’s bridge, the <i>Pons Aelius</i> (nowadays -the Ponte Sant’ Angelo) still dominates the right bank -of the Tiber near St. Peter’s. The latest Hadrianic bricks in -it are dated <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 134; it must have become an important part -of the Emperor’s plans when he returned to Rome, mourning -Antinous, in 132 or 133. Its plan goes back to Etruscan -<i>tumuli</i>, via the Mausoleum of Augustus—creative imitation -again. The square block on which the drum rests has almost -exactly the dimensions of the Augustan monument’s -diameter. A spiral ramp leads up to the tomb chamber in -the very center of the drum. The top was spread with earth -and planted with cypresses, the trees of death (<a href="#ip_11_14">Fig. 11.14</a>), -and the whole surmounted by a colossal group in bronze, -perhaps of Hadrian in a four-horse chariot, now replaced by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -the archangel Michael, who gives the mausoleum its present -name, Castel Sant’ Angelo. When the death he longed -for agonizingly came, from dropsy, in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 138, Hadrian’s -ashes were laid beside those of the wife he had never loved, -in the core of the monument which symbolized his despair -at the death of the only creature to whom this strange man -had ever given his affection. The great pile has been successively -fortress, prison (immuring, among others, the -great Renaissance scientist Giordano Bruno), and, since -1934, military museum.</p> - -<div id="ip_11_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="600" height="466" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.13</span></p> - -<p>Tivoli, Hadrian’s Villa, Piazza d’Oro, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(H. Kähler, <i>Hadrian</i>, Pl. 16)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_11_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_093b.jpg" width="600" height="538" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.14</span></p> - -<p>Rome, Hadrian’s Mausoleum, reconstruction.</p> - -<p>(S. R. Pierce, <i>Journ. Rom. Stud.</i> 15 [1925])</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_11_15" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 15em;"> - <img src="images/i_093c.jpg" width="184" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 11.15</span> Tivoli, -Hadrian’s Villa, -Canopus, plan. (MPI)</div></div> - -<p>But before his death Hadrian dedicated one more section -of the villa to mourning his loss. This is the Canopus (Figs. -<a href="#ip_11_1">11.1</a> and <a href="#ip_11_15">11.15</a>), named for the suburb of Alexandria where -Antinous met his untimely and unhappy end. The original -plan may have antedated Antinous’ death—the latest stamps -reported by Bloch are dated <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 126—but after the disaster -Hadrian, deliberately turning the knife in the wound, must -have made this complex a memorial of the place where it -happened. For the approach is along a pool (excavated and -restored 1954–1957) intended to be reminiscent of the canal -which gave access to the Canopus at Alexandria. The latest -finds make it possible to restore the pool with its south end -fitted with dining couches. The north end is apsidal, edged -with a curious colonnade whose architrave is flat over one -pair of columns and arched over the next pair. Along the -sides were found perfect (and entirely unimaginative) -copies of the Caryatids, the maidens who upheld the south -porch of the Erechtheum; these would be memories of past -happiness in Athens. Flanking the maidens were Sileni. -Other marbles, adorning the apsidal north end of the colonnade, -included, in order, an Amazon, a Hermes, a river god -representing the Tiber, another representing the Nile, an -Ares, and another Amazon. All this uninspired archaism is -depressing; in the ageing, heartbroken Hadrian taste and -inspiration alike are dead.</p> - -<p>The colonnade led to the terminal half-dome (another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> -“pumpkin,” it will be recalled) and secondary structures, -the whole long known as the Serapeum (there was such a -temple in the Alexandrian Canopus). It is complex in plan, -at once <i>nymphaeum</i> and temple, with its hemicycle deepened -at the back into a long narrow apsidal gallery in which -some commentators have seen a deep sexual significance. -Here Hadrian has turned, to catalyze his flagging inspiration, -to older civilizations, dead or dying like himself. Once -again, for the last time, and feebly, he has made of what -they have to offer something uniquely his own. In the Canopus, -as in the Teatro Marittimo and the Piazza d’Oro, there -is no single satisfactory viewpoint: the result is an effect of -motion, in curved space, in varied light and shade, involved -with water, the whole a polyphonic counterpart to Hadrian’s -own restlessness.</p> - -<p>The buildings we have studied present a partial portrait -of the man. Hadrian the hunter, the soldier, the statesman -comes out clearly in reliefs, coins, and inscriptions we have -not room to treat. But the buildings reflect the dilettante -Hadrian, uneasy, moody, whimsical, formal, distant, unapproachable, -tense, self-conscious, cold. They show many -facets of his character: in the Teatro Marittimo, his love of -privacy, and his restlessness; in the Temple of Venus and -Rome, the neat, abstract quality of his mind, his sense of -humor, his self-conscious pairing of himself with Augustus; -in the Pantheon, abstraction and Augustus again, plus an -awareness of his own grandeur; in the Piazzo d’Oro, complication, -involution, febrile gaiety. In the mausoleum, the -obsession with his own grandeur and with the memory of -Augustus recur, and something new has been added: death-wish -and posturing with grief. These last two attitudes are -to be read again in the fabric of the Canopus, together with -a failure of creativity which marks the beginning of the end.</p> - -<p>Hadrian is not the only Emperor whose personality may -be read in the artifacts of his reign, but he is unique in -being himself his own architect. This in turn creates a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> -problem. How much in his work is genuine self-expression, -how much mere playing with form? But the very putting -of the question gives insight into Hadrian’s character. The -key is schizophrenia: unrest and self-consciousness where -there might have been the easy confidence born of unchallenged -Empire; loneliness in the midst of a crowded court; -genius that failed; a love that killed. These are the contradictions -that have caused Hadrian to be saluted—a dubious -compliment—as “the first modern man.” In his architecture, -perhaps more eloquently and poignantly than in any other -Roman work, the mute stones speak.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>With Hadrian an era ends. Juvenal, who wrote during -his reign, is the last secular classical Latin poet of importance. -Hadrian’s successor, Antoninus Pius (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 138–161) -was modest and plain-living where Hadrian had been flamboyant -and extravagant. The autobiography (written in -Greek) of <i>his</i> successor, Marcus Aurelius (161–180), is -throughout a tacit criticism of Hadrian: his boy-love, his -architecture, his dilettantism. Marcus Aurelius’ son and -successor, Commodus (180–192), was a monstrous megalomaniac -beside whose excesses those of Caligula, Nero, or -Domitian pale into insignificance. The next dynasty, the -Severi (193–235), founded a military absolutism which degenerated -into anarchy (235–284). Under Diocletian (284–305) -absolutism is intensified and grows more rigid. Under -Constantine (306–337) the Empire’s creative center shifts -to Constantinople (old Byzantium made new, in the Greek -east), a new religion triumphs, and the story of Christian -archaeology begins. True, the two centuries from Hadrian -through Constantine are represented by some of Rome’s -most impressive surviving monuments: the Temple of Antoninus -and Faustina, the Column of Marcus Aurelius, -the Arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine, the -Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, Aurelian’s Wall, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> -the Basilica of Maxentius. But, artistically, many of these -are derivative; <i>e.g.</i>, Marcus Aurelius’ Column imitates -Trajan’s; Constantine’s arch incorporates reliefs from earlier, -more creative reigns. Yet while the artistic impulse flickers -and dies, Roman skill in military and civil engineering, as -exemplified in baths and aqueducts, roads and walls, continues -unabated.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_12" class="vspace">12<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Roman Engineering</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In this chapter strict chronology must be violated, and steps -retraced, to discuss in specific detail something of what -archaeology has to tell us about the most practical aspect -of the Romans’ genius: their talent for engineering. This -is best exemplified in roads, baths, aqueducts, and fortification-walls.</p> - -<p>We have reached in our historical survey the end of -Hadrian’s reign, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 138. By this date the main lines of -the great consular roads leading from Rome had all been -laid down, and later Emperors faced only the problems of -maintenance, till the barbarians cut Rome’s lines of communication, -and the moving of the administrative center -to Milan, Ravenna, and Constantinople reduced their importance. -The most recent archaeological investigation of -Roman roads in Italy has concentrated on tracing the lines -of major and minor Roman highways and the native tracks -that preceded them, a work of great urgency, in view of the -modernization which is rapidly changing the face of Italy, -especially in the vicinity of Rome.</p> - -<p>If we turn to Roman baths, like those of Caracalla in -Rome, begun in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 211, we are back on the chronological -track again, but we find that the last major archaeological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> -work upon them was done at the end of the last century, -and that their chief interest today lies in the inspiration -they have offered to modern architects.</p> - -<p>As for aqueducts, the last important ancient one was -built under the Emperor Alexander Severus, in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 226, -but working back from that date we can profitably review -the difficult and absorbing topographical work done in tracing -the courses of the major aqueducts by a devoted Englishman -and an American woman.</p> - -<p>Finally we shall review the work of another Englishman -in tracing the chronology and building techniques of ancient -Rome’s last great fortification, Aurelian’s Wall, begun -in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 271 and still in large part standing. Its alterations -and repairs have been traced down to the middle of the -sixth century of our era. The examples chosen should justify -the Romans’ high reputation for engineering skill, and -illuminate Roman history, at the same time underlining -on the one hand our debt, for the facts we know and the -inferences we draw, to the careful work of modern archaeologists, -and on the other the catalytic effect, in the case of -the baths, of Roman work upon our own architecture of the -day before yesterday.</p> - -<div id="ip_12_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_094.jpg" width="600" height="442" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.1</span> Roman road construction. (U.S. Bureau of Public Roads)</div></div> - -<p>Roman roads (see <a href="#ip_4_1">Fig. 4.1</a>) echoing to the measured -tread of marching legions, had made a large contribution -to unifying Italy by the time the last great consular highway, -the Via Aemilia, opened up the Po valley from Ariminum -to Placentia in 187 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, but their work of carrying -commerce and ideas was unceasing. Of course there were -roads in Italy before the Romans: the name and route of -the Via Salaria, from the salt-pans at the Tiber’s mouth -up the valley into the Apennines, suggest that it must have -been in use since prehistoric times. The Via Latina, named -not for a Roman consul but for a people potent in central -Italy until the Romans broke their league in 338 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, must -count as a pre-Roman road, and its winding course along -the foothills must antedate the draining of the Pomptine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> -marshes and the laying down of the straight course across -them from Rome to Tarracina and thence to Capua of the -<i>regina viarum</i>, the queen of roads, the Via Appia. It bears -the name of a Roman censor of 312 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> This is the first of -the great highways, and it deserves its fame for its bold -conquest of natural obstacles, its arrow-straight course -across the marshes, but its gravel surface was not replaced -by stone pavement until 293 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, and then only as far as -the suburb of Bovillae. And its course, like that of many -another Roman road, was not always so arrow-straight. -In the hills behind Tarracina it followed the contours; it -was not until Trajan’s time that another bold stroke of engineering -cut through the high, rocky Pesco Montano to -let the road pass by the more direct coastal route. (Some -authorities hold that the Romans preferred straight roads -because the front axles of their vehicles were rigid.) Trajan’s -engineers showed their pride in their work by incising -monumental Roman numerals, still visible, to mark the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> -depth of the cut every ten feet from the top down, until -the road level was triumphantly reached at CXX.</p> - -<p>Along the Appia, and the other consular roads radiating -from Rome, traces of the ancient stone paving are occasionally -preserved. The paving blocks are usually <i>selce</i> -(flint), polygonal in shape and closely fitted without mortar. -While most Roman roads prove on archaeological examination -to consist of paving blocks laid in a trench and packed -with earth and <i>selce</i> chips, it will be worthwhile to record -the ideal method of laying a pavement—strictly speaking -a mosaic pavement—as recommended by the architect Vitruvius, -a contemporary of Augustus. The method illustrates -the Roman engineer’s infinite capacity for taking -pains.</p> - -<p>After the field engineer (1 in the reconstruction, <a href="#ip_12_1">Fig. 12.1</a>), -assisted by the stake man (2), had aligned the road -with his <i>groma</i>, he ran levels with the <i>chorobates</i> (3) with -the roadman’s help (4). A plow (5) was used to loosen -earth and mark road margins; then workmen dug marginal -trenches (6) to the depth desired for the solid foundations. -Laborers (7) shoveled loose earth and carried it away in -baskets. The next step was to consolidate the roadbed with -a tamper (8). Now the roadbed was ready for its foundation, -the <i>pavimentum</i> (9), lime mortar or sand laid to -form a level base. Next came the <i>statumen</i>, or first course -(10), fist-size stones, cemented together with mortar or -clay, the thickness varying from ten inches to two feet. -Over this was laid the <i>rudus</i> or second course (11), nine -to twelve inches of lime concrete, grouted with broken -stone and pottery fragments. Next the <i>nucleus</i>, or third -course (12), concrete made of gravel or coarse sand mixed -with hot lime, placed in layers and compacted with a roller. -Its thickness was one foot at the sides, eighteen inches at -the crown of the road. Finally, the <i>summum dorsum</i> or top -course (13), polygonal blocks of <i>selce</i> six inches or more -thick, carefully fitted and set in the <i>nucleus</i> while the concrete<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> -was still soft. Sometimes, when archaeologists have -taken up a stretch of Roman road, they have found the -<i>selce</i> blocks rutted on the under side: the economical contractors, -happily untroubled by high-priced labor, had -repaired their road by turning the worn blocks upside down. -Standard curbs (14a and b) were two feet wide and -eighteen inches high; paved footpaths (15a and b) often -ran outside them. Conduits (16) under the curb, with -arched outlets (17) opening beside the right of way, took -care of draining surface water. Milestones (18) marked -the distance from Rome and the name of the Emperor responsible -for repairs. From the names of successive Emperors -on milestones of the same road, archaeologists have -calculated that the average life of a highway was thirty -to forty years.</p> - -<p>Two points should be emphasized: first, this represents -an ideal method of construction, not often exemplified in -practice; second, to a modern engineer a road like this -would seem insufficiently elastic, a five-foot wall in the flat, -too rigid for the stresses and strains to which it was subjected. -Hence perhaps the frequent need for repairs, but -Roman traffic was lighter than ours, and the very fact that -we can write about the roads at all is a tribute to their durability. -Upon roads like these, under the Empire, travelled -the Imperial posting service, with relays of messengers, and -post-houses where horses and carriages could be changed. -Under exceptional conditions the Emperor Tiberius, using -this service, once travelled 180 miles in a day, a rate of -speed not equalled on European roads until the nineteenth -century.</p> - -<p>The next major road laid out after the Appia must have -been the Valeria, which was needed for eastward communication -via Tivoli with the new colony of Alba Fucens, -founded, as we saw, in 303 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> Archaeology has shown -that in general the foundation of a colony precedes the laying -down of the metalled military road. This is true of Cosa<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> -(foundation date of the colony, 273 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>; probable date of -the Via Aurelia which served it, about 241); of Ariminum -(founded 268 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>; reached by the Via Flaminia in 220), -and of the Roman colonies in the Po valley; <i>e.g.</i>, Bononia -(Bologna: founded 189 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>; reached by the Via Aemilia -after 187). The full extension of the Via Valeria beyond -Alba to the Adriatic had to await the pacification of the -Samnite tribes of central Italy and the granting of citizenship -to Italians after the “Social” War, in 89 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> Milestones -on this last stretch belong to Claudius’ reign (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 41–54).</p> - -<p>A recent (1957) survey of the central section of the -Valeria by the Dutch scholar C. C. Van Essen illustrates the -methods and results of archaeologists working in the field -with topographical problems. Faced with the palimpsest -of more than two millennia overlying the road he wanted -to trace, Van Essen paid particular attention to such roadmarks -as Roman milestones; ancient tombs (which regularly -lined Roman roads in the vicinity of towns); supporting -walls, in Roman headers-and-stretchers; rock-hewn -causeways; bridges, where Roman materials and workmanship -can be distinguished from modern (as has been recently -done for the bridges of the Via Flaminia by Michael -Ballance of the British School at Rome; there the striking -thing is the predominance and good quality of the work -done under Augustus, who had a vested interest in assuring -efficient communications with his veterans dispersed in -colonies in north Italy). Stretches of ancient pavement are -rare on the Valeria, having been destroyed by medieval and -modern resurfacing, by the plow, and by torrents and earthquakes, -but the trench in which it was bedded can often -be distinguished on air photographs. What struck Van -Essen chiefly was the frequency with which the ancient -Via Valeria would run straight on, with steep gradients, -where the modern road resorts to sweeping curves or hairpin -bends. Ancient vehicles, the heaviest of which were -perhaps only a quarter the weight of a modern light European<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> -car (Roman wagon, perhaps 440 pounds; Volkswagen, -1650), and scarcely ever carried loads of over 1100 pounds, -would be less troubled by steep gradients than a modern -heavy truck. Even so, at Tagliacozzo, about six miles on the -Rome side of Alba Fucens, the grade is so steep that -Van Essen supposes the ancient inhabitants hired out oxen -to help the straining horses on the upslope. Van Essen -noted that the telegraph lines, following the comparatively -straight course of the ancient road, often gave a clue to -its presence. The ancient sixty-eighth milestone of the Valeria, -found, as we saw, within the walls of Alba Fucens, -provides a good comparison of the respective lengths of -the ancient and the modern roads. Since the Roman mile -(4861 English feet) was slightly shorter than the English, -sixty-eight Roman miles corresponds to slightly over sixty-two -English miles, whereas the modern Via Valeria covers -about 113 kilometers, or approximately seventy miles, to -reach Alba.</p> - -<p>Archaeologists have not confined their interests to the -great consular roads. Minor highways in areas away from -the main stream of traffic are often more rewarding, since -they tend to be better preserved, and offer some chance to -trace the pre-Roman systems that underlie or intersect them. -The district just north of Rome has been surveyed in this -way by members of the British School at Rome since 1954, -only just in time, for there prevails in this region a situation -analogous to the rapid disappearance of Indian remains -in the American West with the building of the great hydroelectric -dams. In the country north of Rome, since World -War II, there has been an extensive program of land expropriation, -reclamation, and resettlement of small farmers, -an excellent thing for rehabilitating the Italian peasantry, -but fatal for archaeological remains, since the plan involves -the use of the deep plow, an ideal instrument for obliterating -traces of ancient roadways. Thus it is that members -and friends of the British School, spurred on by the Director,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> -John Ward Perkins, a worthy successor of the indefatigable -Thomas Ashby, are to be seen braving wind and -weather as they scour the countryside for Roman and pre-Roman -roads from Veii to beyond Cività Castellana, armed -with large-scale maps, air photographs, and brown paper -bags for collecting the potsherds which are the evidence of -ancient roadside habitation.</p> - -<p>The British School’s most significant recent work has -been carried on from Nepi, a Roman colony allegedly of -383 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, twenty-eight miles north-northwest of Rome, and -Falerii Novi, about four miles farther north. Falerii Novi -was built by the Romans from the ground up in 241 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> -to house the inhabitants of Falerii Veteres (Cività Castellana) -a hostile native Faliscan center, which the Romans -completely destroyed. But the old city must have been -resettled, for ruts in the third century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> road connecting -the new city with the old are not of standard Roman width, -and were probably made by Faliscan wagons. The <i>cardo</i> -of the new settlement is formed by a new road connection -with the south, the Via Amerina (<a href="#ip_12_2">Fig. 12.2</a>); in the course -of exploring this the British archaeologists found traces from -which the older road system (<a href="#ip_12_3">Fig. 12.3</a>) which it partially -supplanted, may be inferred. At Torre dell’ Isola, just north -of Nepi, for example, they found, by the wall of a medieval -castle, sherds with the cord-impressed chevrons characteristic -of Villanovan ware, and part of one of the portable -hearths which we met first in the primitive hut on the -Palatine in Rome. These sherds provide evidence for habitation -here at least as early as on the Palatine. The discovery -of similar sherds within the walls of Etruscan Veii -suggests a people inferior culturally to the Etruscans, and -probably living in subjection to them.</p> - -<div id="ip_12_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.6875em;"> - <img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="507" height="700" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.2</span> Roman roads of the <i>ager Faliscus</i>. -(<i>Papers Brit. Sch. at Rome</i> 12 [1957], p. 68)</div></div> - -<p>These people were the Faliscans. Their settlements must -have required road connections, especially between their -chief city, old Falerii, and Veii, with which it was allied. -These roads the British archaeologists have identified in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> -deep cuttings, identified as pre-Roman by inscriptions in -Etruscan characters. (Faliscan was a dialect of Latin, but -Etruscan inscriptions occur.) These earliest cuttings, sometimes -nearly fifty feet deep, are driven impressively through -cliffs, cut downward from the surface in a succession of -working levels to match the slope of the finished road, with -careful attention paid to drainage. Pre-Roman stone piers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> -probably carried timber bridges, but most of the roads are -mere ridgeway tracks, not unlike the medieval and modern -farm tracks still to be found in the district. The Faliscans -were apparently capable of ambitious engineering, but were -driven by poverty to avoid it. The Romans used Faliscan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> -cuttings when they found it convenient, it being their way -to take things as they found them, introducing modifications -only to the minimum extent necessary to suit their own -needs.</p> - -<div id="ip_12_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.1875em;"> - <img src="images/i_095b.jpg" width="499" height="700" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.3</span> Faliscan roads of the <i>ager Faliscus</i>. -(<i>PBSR</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 105)</div></div> - -<p>The most interesting and the most certainly identified -Faliscan roads discovered in the British survey are in the -neighborhood of Grotta Porciosa, a fortified site about four -miles north-northeast of Cività Castellana and a mile and -a half west of the Tiber. It controlled the ridge between -two gorges, a natural route for a cross-country road between -the Tiber and the towns of Gallese, Corchiano, and Cività -Castellana. In these towns the Romans had no interest: the -two main Roman roads in this area run not cross-country -but north and south, the Via Flaminia close to the Tiber, -the Via Amerina on the high ground five or six miles to -the west. These roads bypassed all the towns just mentioned. -But the cross-country tracks, on which the local -inhabitants would travel, are visible both in air-photographs -and on the ground, where they show no trace of Roman -paving. At Grotta Porciosa itself, excavation would be required -to reach the early Faliscan level; the majority of -sherds found is local black glaze of a quite late pre-Roman -period (mid-third century <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>).</p> - -<p>What is most striking about the British results is the contrast -they point up between native and Roman. Where the -native tracks usually follow the line of least resistance, the -Roman Via Amerina is driven across any obstacle, with -what Ward Perkins aptly calls “ruthless thoroughness,” -whenever there is no reasonable alternative. One might -almost think that the new road was built deliberately to -impress; in any case the massive viaducts and lofty bridges -served to symbolize to the Faliscan peasantry the Roman -conqueror’s energy and resources, by which it was hopelessly -outclassed. With the same ruthlessness with which -they imposed their roads upon the landscape, the Romans -imposed law and order upon the countryside. The archaeological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> -evidence is the way in which the peasants shifted -from their old anarchical life in small strongholds of armed -retainers, which is what Grotta Porciosa must have been, -down into settled life in Roman cities, or in the open country -beside the Roman roads. The great primeval Ciminian -Forest, northwest of Nepi, once the fearsome haunt of -brigands, was cleared under the Romans and turned into -farms. When after eight centuries Roman power waned, -the countryside reverted to pre-Roman conditions; the -country-folk crept back into the cliff-top villages, there to -remain until quite recent times.</p> - -<p>These, the results of careful and enjoyable outdoor work -in the Italian countryside by a United Nations of archaeologists, -enable us to appreciate how the competence of -the Roman road-builders made possible both the cold-bloodedness -of the Roman conquest and the security of the -Roman peace.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>That security brought in its train prosperity, and even -luxury, of which the symbol is the grandiose Roman public -baths. Though Agrippa, Nero, Titus, and Trajan all built -baths whose sites and plans are known, the most grandiose, -and the clearest in plan, are the Baths of Caracalla, -begun in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 211. The Baths of Diocletian, built a century -later, are equally vast, but their plan has been obscured -by the incorporation into their fabric of the church of S. -Maria degli Angeli and the Terme Museum. The Baths of -Caracalla, known to thousands of visitors as the summer -setting for Rome’s outdoor opera, were built on a vast platform, -twenty feet high, with an area of 270,000 square feet, -greater than that of London’s Houses of Parliament. Excavations -in 1938, when the Baths were being prepared for -their metamorphosis into an outdoor opera house, revealed -in the substructure vaulted service corridors, wide enough -for vehicles, widening out at intersections into regular underground<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> -public squares, with provisions for rotary traffic. -Access to the lower reaches was by stairs let into the central -piers of the main building. The principal entrance to the -baths was to the north (over the edge of the platform at -the top center of the air-photograph, <a href="#ip_12_4">Fig. 12.4</a>). It was -flanked by numerous small rooms which in the difficult -post-war years housed teeming families of Italy’s homeless. -(Their unique opportunity of a summer evening to admire -the sleek prosperity of the operagoers recreated the gulf -that yawned between haves and have nots in Imperial -Rome, and contributed not a little to Italy’s unrest.)</p> - -<p>The main bath building was set in the northern half of -the great open space provided by the platform, and was -surrounded with gardens. Facing these on the perimeter -was a variety of halls, for lectures, reading, and exercise. -Those on the east and west were contained in curved projections -(exedras). A part of the western exedra appears -in the lower left corner of the air-photograph. Beneath it -in a subterranean vault was discovered in 1911 what was -at that time the largest Mithraeum (shrine of the Persian -god Mithras) in Rome.<a id="FNanchor_E" href="#Footnote_E" class="fnanchor">E</a> To the south (lower right on the -photograph) was a stadium whose seats were built against -the reservoir which supplied the baths: this was fed by a -branch from one of the great aqueducts, the Aqua Marcia.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_E" href="#FNanchor_E" class="fnanchor">E</a> In 1958 Dutch archaeologists excavated a larger one under the church -of S. Prisca on the Aventine Hill.</p></div> - -<p>The main block of the baths is distinguished for its axial -symmetry. The most prominent room was the circular <i>caldarium</i>, -or hot bath (just to the right of center in the photograph). -It is between its main piers that the opera stage -is set. Behind it the vast rectangular open space (82 × 170 -feet) is most logically interpreted as a grand concourse -whence the patrons of the baths (as many as 1600 in peak -hours) could move unimpeded to the bathing rooms of -their choice. This central room was groin-vaulted in coffered -concrete, in three great bays supported by eight piers -(<a href="#ip_12_5">Fig. 12.5</a>). The rooms around the central rectangle, with -their enormously thick walls, were ingeniously arranged as -buttresses to resist the thrust of the colossal vaults.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></p> - -<div id="ip_12_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_096.jpg" width="600" height="371" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.4</span> Rome, Baths -of Caracalla, air view.</p> - -<p>(Castagnoli, <i>Roma antica</i>, -Pl. 35)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_12_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28.1875em;"> - <img src="images/i_096b.jpg" width="451" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.5</span> Rome, baths -of Caracalla, great hall, -nineteenth century -reconstruction.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> -The large open spaces at the east and west ends of the -main block were exercise-grounds. The exedras adjacent to -their inner sides were decorated in the early fourth century -with the splendidly satiric mosaics of athletes now in the -Lateran Museum. With their broken noses, low foreheads, -and cauliflower ears, they are the very type of overspecialized -brutal brawn which intellectuals in all ages have delighted -to ridicule.</p> - -<p>The large rectangular area at the rear center was the -cold swimming pool, or <i>frigidarium</i>; perhaps the rooms on -either side were dressing rooms. Below the pavement of -the baths the excavators discovered tons of L- or T-shaped -iron bolted together in the form of a St. Andrew’s cross. -The possible inference is that some part of the baths was -roofed with iron girders, designed to support bronze plates -ingeniously contrived to reflect sunlight onto the bathers -below. (The evidence for the bronze plates and the sunroom -is not archaeological but literary, and, chiefly because -the literary source had little or no idea what he was talking -about, has raised apparently insoluble controversy.)</p> - -<p>Excavations were going on in the Baths on a langorous -summer afternoon in late June of 1901 which the American -architect Charles Follen McKim spent there. That -afternoon bore fruit soon after, when he was asked to design -for the Pennsylvania Railroad a great terminal station -in New York. McKim, lover of Rome and founder of the -American Academy there, belonged to the school of architects -for whom the grand manner, as found in Roman -baths, the Pantheon, and the Coliseum, formed the basis -of design for works of the first rank. He desired to symbolize -in Pennsylvania Station the monumental gateway to a -great city, which should at the same time perform efficiently -its function of handling large crowds. To a man of his training<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> -and prejudices, the Baths of Caracalla seemed to fill -the bill. He is reported to have assembled on one occasion -a huge band of workmen in the Baths in Rome, simply to -test the aesthetic effect of huge scale upon crowds passing -under the arches. (Crowds there must always have been, -in the heyday of the baths, motley, colorful crowds, speaking -many tongues; there is easily room for 2500 patrons -at a time. We may imagine them bathing, sauntering, -making assignations; conversing idly or upon philosophical -subjects; thronging the lecture rooms, the library, the picture-gallery; -running, jumping, racing, ball-playing, or watching -spectator-sports in the stadium at the back.)</p> - -<p>The station plan (<a href="#ip_12_6">Fig. 12.6</a>) shows how creatively McKim -imitated Roman architecture. The succession of portico, -vestibule, arcade, vestibule, staircase, which leads to what -before remodelling of 1958 was the climax in the great -central concourse, is noble architectural language, beautiful -ordering of space, which Hadrian would have understood, -and so is the balance in the façade, the alternating rhythms -throughout the building of open and closed, big and little, -wide and narrow. In the arcade, the repeated rhythms -(now spoiled by advertising) emphasize the traditional, and -the movement which is the essence of transportation. The -great central hall, once a pool of open space, is even larger -(340 × 210 feet, and 100 feet high) than the one that inspired -it in the Baths; it is longer than the nave of St. -Peter’s. In it McKim contrived to preserve simplicity, dignity, -and monumentality in spite of mechanical distractions, -as when he used the protruding tops of ventilator shafts as -pedestals for lamp-standards. The other refinements, too, -are in the Roman manner and material. The rich golden -stone facing of the great room is travertine imported from -Tivoli, here used for the first time in America (and now -badly in need of cleaning). The structural steel and glass -in the concourse leading to the trains may have been inspired -by the girders in the Baths of Caracalla. The statistics<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> -that record 1140 carloads of pink granite brought from New -England to build the half-mile of exterior walls are in the -Roman tradition, and so is the vast extent of the eight-acre -structure, and the six years it took to build. The efficiency -is Roman, too: access on all four sides, carriage drives twice -as wide as the normal New York street of 1910—when the -building was opened—a traffic-flow plan that separated incoming -and outgoing passengers.</p> - -<p>Pennsylvania Station belongs to a vanished era, an era -of princely magnificence, of willingness to spend on purely -aesthetic pleasure. The young architectural fellows of McKim’s -Academy in Rome are impatient with what it stands -for, but perhaps they are letting their understandable and -proper scorn of soulless copying—of which there is far too -much in American monumental architecture—stand in the -way of their appreciation of a building which has worn well, -and earned accolades—especially by contrast with recent -tawdry and misguided additions in plastic—from such emancipated -critics, friendly to modern trends in architecture, -as Talbot Hamlin and Lewis Mumford. In a day of what a -less temperate critic than these has called “the monstrous -repetition of cellular facades cloaked with vitreous indifference” -by “sedulous apes to the latest expressions of technological -baboonery,” it may be salutary to look with understanding -at how successful a modern architect of genius -can be with a Roman model.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>Roman baths needed oceans of water. It was supplied by -another triumph of Roman engineering, the system of -aqueducts. The eleventh and last of the ancient aqueducts -was built by the Emperor Alexander Severus in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 226; -the earliest, the Aqua Appia, dates back to the same builder -and the same year—312 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>—as the <i>regina viarum</i>. The -network (<a href="#ip_12_8">Fig. 12.8</a>) supplied Rome with over 250,000,000 -gallons of water every twenty-four hours. When New York -was thrice the size of Severan Rome, its aqueducts supplied -only 425,000,000 gallons daily.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p> - -<div id="ip_12_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26.1875em;"> - <img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="419" height="700" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.6</span> -New York, Pennsylvania Station, -McKim plan.</p> - -<p>(A. H. Granger, <i>Charles Follen McKim</i>, p. 77)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_12_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_097b.jpg" width="600" height="534" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.7</span> -New York, Pennsylvania Station, -waiting room, before “modernization.”</p> - -<p>(Granger, <i>op. cit.</i>, fac. p. 82)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p> - -<div id="ip_12_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="700" height="410" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.8</span> Rome and environs, map showing aqueducts. -(V. Scramuzza and P. MacKendrick, <i>The Ancient World</i>, Fig. 33a)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> -We owe our knowledge of Rome’s aqueducts to three -people, one ancient and two modern: Sextus Julius Frontinus, -water commissioner under Trajan, whose book on aqueducts -survives, Dr. Thomas Ashby, former Director of the -British School at Rome, and Miss Esther B. Van Deman of -the American Academy. For over thirty years, before -modernity removed the traces, this devoted pair tramped -the rough country between Tivoli and Rome, plotting the -courses of the major aqueducts. Their definitive work is -well-nigh as monumental as the aqueducts themselves. Together -they explored the mazy course of the aqueduct -channels, above ground and below, along crumbling cliffs -and the edge of deep gorges, over walls, through briers, -across turnip fields, in the cellars of farm-houses and wine-shops. -They climbed and waded; Ashby explored downshafts -“with the aid of several companions and a climber’s -rope,” and when they were through, the courses and the -building history especially of Rome’s four major aqueducts, -the Anio Vetus (272–269 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), the Marcia (144 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), the -Claudia (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 47), and the Anio Novus (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 52)—all repeatedly -repaired—were better known than they had been -since Frontinus’ day, and fellow archaeologists were in a -position to draw from their detailed pioneer work important -conclusions about Roman hydraulic engineering and about -Roman culture.</p> - -<p>Following Frontinus’ indications, Ashby and Miss Van -Deman found the sources of the four great aqueducts at -over 1000 feet above sea level, in springs or lakes in the -upper reaches of the Anio valley, near Subiaco, Mandela, -and Vicovaro. The airline distance of the sources from -Rome varies from twenty-four to twenty-seven miles, but -to follow the contours the aqueducts took a circuitous -course, so that their actual length is from forty-three to -sixty-two miles. Though the modern reader associates Roman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> -aqueducts with the magnificent lines of arches (<a href="#ip_12_9">Fig. 12.9</a>) -stretching across a once-empty Campagna near Rome, the -fact is that well under a third of a Roman aqueduct’s course -was normally carried on arches: the rest was tunnel or side-hill -channel. The reason for this was in part economy, in -part strategic considerations: an aqueduct below ground is -harder for an enemy to find and cut. When the Goths finally -did cut the aqueducts in the sixth century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>, the seven -hills of Rome became, and remained for centuries, unfit -for civilized habitation.</p> - -<div id="ip_12_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_099.jpg" width="600" height="422" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.9</span> Aqueducts near Capannelle, reconstruction (painting).</p> - -<p>(Deutsches Museum, Munich)</p></div></div> - -<p>The four aqueducts, Ashby and Miss Van Deman found, -followed the course of the Anio fairly closely from their -source to just below Tivoli, where, having lost half their -altitude, they turned south along the shoulder of the hills -to Gallicano. In this stretch, at Ponte Lupo, the Aqua -Marcia crosses a gorge on a bridge that would test the -mettle of the most seasoned archaeologist, for it epitomizes -Roman constructional history in stone and concrete for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> -almost nine centuries. After Gallicano the intrepid pair -traced the aqueducts’ course westward, where, by a system -of tunnels, inverted siphons (the Romans knew that water -would rise to its own level), and side-hill channels they -cross the broken gorges of the Campagna to a point south -of Capannelle racetrack, six miles from Rome, whence they -proceed on the famous arches to the Porta Maggiore. From -reservoirs in the city the water was distributed in lead pipes -(one, of Hadrianic date, has walls three inches thick, and -weighs eighty-eight pounds per running foot), with a strict -priority, first to public basins and fountains (the Aqua Julia -alone supplied 1200 of these), next to baths (extensions of -the Marcia supplied those of both Caracalla and Diocletian), -then to private houses. Surplus was used for flushing the -sewers. Attempts were made to control the priorities by -running the pipes for private use only from the highest -levels of the reservoirs, but Frontinus complains bitterly of -illegal tapping.</p> - -<p>In the Gallicano-Capannelle stretch special archaeological -ingenuity is required, first to find the channels, and then to -decide which belongs to which aqueduct. Where the channels -have entirely disappeared, through the disintegrating -action of floods, earthquake, tree roots, or plowing, the -course can be defined by plotting the occurrence of heaps -of calcium carbonate on the ground. This is the aqueduct -deposit. Roman water is extremely hard, and the heaps -mark where once there were downshafts (<i>putei</i>) for inspection -and cleaning the channels, which without such maintenance -would soon have become completely blocked with -deposit. Frontinus says the downshafts occurred regularly -every 240 feet, and Dr. Ashby found many at just this -interval.</p> - -<p>For distinguishing one aqueduct from another there are -many criteria. The first is construction materials. The earliest -aqueducts are built of cut stone, the latest of brick. Miss -Van Deman was famous for her precise dating of building<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> -materials; she was the only archaeologist in Rome who could -date a brick by the <i>taste</i> of the mortar. A second criterion -is quality of workmanship. The Claudia, for example, is -notoriously jerry-built: where abutments are found which -should be solid, but are instead one block thick, filled in -with earth behind, that channel belongs to the Aqua Claudia. -A third criterion is mineral deposits. Thus the Marcia was -famous for its purity; the crystalline lime deposits were -quarried in the Middle Ages, polished, and used to decorate -altars. The Anio Novus, on the other hand, is distinguished -by a singularly foul deposit. A fourth criterion is directness -of course: the older the aqueduct the more sinuously it runs; -a channel found meandering by itself along the contours -is likely to be that of the Anio Vetus.</p> - -<p>The total impression the aqueducts give is one of efficiency, -organization, and heedlessness of expense, under -the Republic as well as under the Empire. They were built -with the spoils of wars or the tribute of provinces. The -Marcia, built with the proceeds of the loot of Carthage and -Corinth, cost 180,000,000 sesterces, or $9,000,000 uninflated. -The Tepula, of 125 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>, was perhaps built with the profits -from the organization of the new province of Asia. From -Agrippa’s time onward, and especially in Frontinus’ administration, -the aqueduct service employed a large bureaucracy; -overseers, reservoir-superintendents, inspectors, stonemasons, -plasterers (the stone-built channels were lined with -two or three coats of hydraulic cement), and unskilled -laborers. Maintenance was a constant problem. Arches -needed propping, filling in, or brick facing; piers needed -to be buttressed or brick-encased. There was no attempt -to produce high pressure: lead pipes would not have stood -it, and for public use it was not necessary. There was no -attempt to make the aqueducts financially self-supporting: -their original building was one of the benefactions expected -of successful commanders. Since these nabobs expected a -<i>quid pro quo</i> in the gift of power, the aqueducts are a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> -symbol, under the Republic of irresponsible oligarchy, and -under the Empire of increasingly irresponsible autocracy, -though “good” Emperors like Augustus, Claudius, Trajan, -and Hadrian had a hand in them. In Augustus’ reign were -built the Julia, the Virgo, and the Alsietina. Trajan built -a northern line from Lago di Bracciano to Rome’s Trastevere -quarter on the right bank of the Tiber: part of its -course runs under the courtyard of the American Academy. -Hadrian executed major repairs, datable by the omnipresent -brick stamps. But even good Emperors knew no way of -financing such public works except bleeding the taxpayer. -In municipalities, private capital was absorbed in such -public enterprise, with no return in income or local employment -commensurate with the capital involved. So one -major conclusion from Ashby’s and Miss Van Deman’s work -is that the Romans were better engineers than they were -economists. Let the last word on aqueducts be Pliny the -Elder’s: “If one takes careful account of the abundant supply -of water for public purposes, for baths, pools, channels, -houses, gardens, suburban villas; the length of the aqueducts’ -courses—arches reared, mountains tunnelled, valleys -crossed on the level—he will confess that there has never -been a greater marvel in the whole world.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>One of the latest pieces of Roman engineering, to a -knowledge of which archaeology has recently contributed, -is Aurelian’s Wall. It has been meticulously studied by a -pupil of Ashby’s, I. A. Richmond, now Professor of Archaeology -of the Roman Empire at Oxford. Two-thirds of it is -still standing (<a href="#ip_12_10">Fig. 12.10</a>), to the disgust of those interested -in the unimpeded flow of Rome’s traffic, to the delight of -those in love with Rome’s past. It was twelve miles long, -twelve feet thick, sixty feet high; it had 381 towers, each -with a latrine, and eighteen portcullised gates, nine of which -survive (<a href="#ip_12_11">Fig. 12.11</a>). Though the Renaissance humanist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> -Poggio Bracciolini had examined the wall as early as 1431, -and the Frenchman Nicholas Audebert had studied it -scientifically in 1574, Richmond was still able to make important -contributions. He emphasizes, for example, that one-sixth -of the wall incorporated buildings: tombs, houses, -park walls, aqueducts, cisterns, porticoes, an amphitheater, -a fortress. The inference is that the wall had to be built -with speed and economy, in the face of the threat of barbarians -in north Italy and a depleted treasury. Strategic -reasons, of course, dictated the protection of the aqueducts. -The use of tombstones as latrine covers shows, says Richmond, -that the wall builders “had their religious scruples -under excellent control.” It was a sense of urgency and not -solicitude for works of art that prompted them, when they -built a garden wall at Porta San Lorenzo into the circuit, -to leave the statues in their niches and pack them round -with clay.</p> - -<div id="ip_12_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_100.jpg" width="600" height="401" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.10</span> Rome, Aurelian’s Wall, from south, near Porta Appia.</p> - -<p>(H. Kähler, <i>Rom und seine Welt</i>, Pl. 252)</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span></p> - -<div id="ip_12_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_100b.jpg" width="600" height="566" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><i>Aurelian’s Wall and Major Monuments</i></p></div> - -<div class="center"><div class="ilb"> -<p> -LEGEND<br /> -<br /> -<i>Roads and Gates</i><br /> -I Porta Pinciana—Via Salaria<br /> -II Porta Salaria<br /> -III Porta and Via Nomentana<br /> -IV Porta and Via Tiburtina<br /> -V Porta Praenestina (Maggiore): major aqueduct junction; Via Praenestina<br /> -VI Porta Asinaria—Via Tusculana<br /> -VII Porta and Via Latina<br /> -VIII Porta and Via Appia<br /> -IX Porta and Via Ostiensis<br /> -X Porta and Via Portuensis<br /> -XI Porta Aureliana (S. Pancrazio); Aquae Alsietina and Traiana; Via Aurelia<br /> -XII Porta and Via Flaminia<br /> -<br /> -<i>Monuments</i><br /> -1 Forum<br /> -2 Argentina Temples<br /> -3 Cloaca Maxima<br /> -4 Pompey’s Theater and Portico<br /> -5 Imperial Fora<br /> -6 Altar of Peace<br /> -7 Augustus’ Mausoleum<br /> -8 Subterranean Basilica<br /> -9 Golden House<br /> -10 Coliseum<br /> -11 Cancelleria Palace<br /> -12 Domitian’s Stadium<br /> -13 Temple of Venus and Rome<br /> -14 Pantheon<br /> -15 Hadrian’s Mausoleum<br /> -16 Baths of Caracalla<br /> -17 Baths of Diocletian<br /> -18 Cemetery under St. Peter’s -</p> -</div></div> - -<div class="caption"> -<p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 12.11</span> Rome, Aurelian’s Wall, plan, with major Imperial monuments.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> -Richmond also found that in the phase of the wall identified -as Aurelian’s by building materials and brick stamps, -the workmanship differed sharply from one curtain to another. -The inference from this was that various stretches -were assigned to various gangs of workmen—mostly civilian, -since the legions were needed in the North, and for Aurelian’s -campaign against the Parthians in the East. These -workmen belonged to the various city guilds, or <i>collegia</i>, -some experienced in construction, some not, but all pressed -into service in the emergency.</p> - -<p>Richmond distinguished the bottom twenty-four feet of -the wall as the original phase. It was built of brick-faced -concrete—that its bricks were often second-hand is inferred -from the many Hadrianic stamps—surmounted by a gallery -with loopholes outside and an open, bayed arcade inside, -with a crenellated wall-walk above. Access to the wall was -by the towers only; Richmond inferred that the planner -aimed to keep excited and irresponsible civilians from interfering -with defense, and the wall-detail from pilfering -or philandering in the adjoining houses and gardens. In this -phase the wall was plain, efficient, functional, simple, and -uniform, built to a standard size and pattern. Its many gates -show that there was no very formidable danger: the intent -was to provide a barrier to shut chance bodies of undesirables -out of the city as on far-flung frontiers structures like -Hadrian’s Wall shut them out of the Empire.</p> - -<p>In its second phase another thirty-six feet of wall was -fitted on to the base provided by Aurelian’s. In some places -the addition was only six feet thick, the other half of the -original width being left as a passage for the circulation of -materials and messages. A wall sixty feet high reduced the -required number of defenders, since it had nothing to fear -from an enemy equipped with scaling ladders. In this phase -machines did the work of men: if there were two <i>ballistae</i> -to a tower, the expensive and impressive total of pieces of -artillery would have been 762. Heightening the wall meant -heightening the tower, sometimes to five stories. A start was -made toward monumentalizing the gateways, but it petered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> -out, though the effect can be admired in the Porta Asinaria -near the Lateran, which was restored in 1957–58. For the -workmanship of this phase is identical with and therefore -of the same date as the Basilica and Circus of Maxentius -(who reigned <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 306–312); when he was defeated by Constantine -at the battle of the Milvian Bridge, and the capital -moved to Constantinople, neither the money nor the motive -for monumentality any longer existed.</p> - -<p>The next major alteration is dated by inscriptions to <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> -401–403, the reign of Honorius. It was prompted by the -threat that the city might be sacked by Alaric the Visigoth. -It involved second-hand stone facing for the curtains of the -wall, and square bases for the towers. The photograph -(<a href="#ip_12_10">Fig. 12.10</a>) shows this Honorian phase at the Porta Appia. -The upper stories of the round towers belong to Maxentius’ -addition, while halfway up the face of the curtain between -the rectangular towers to the left of the gate can be seen -the patching required to add Maxentius’ brickwork to the -battlements of Aurelian’s original wall. (To distinguish the -building phases of the Porta Appia, Richmond had to crawl -into the base of a tower through a very small hole, while -a small uninvited audience bet on his chances of sticking.) -The new battlements were built in a way that shows that -in this phase Rome could no longer afford artillery: archers -replaced <i>ballistae</i>. By now the Empire is Christian, and -crosses begin to appear on the keystones of the gate arches, -as prophylaxis against the devil. Later, in what Richmond -describes as “an age of vanishing standards of faith and -hygiene,” an indulgence of 100 days was granted for kissing -one of these crosses. They were no help: the wall was -assaulted by earthquakes (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 442), and by Goths (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> -536 and 546), and repeatedly repaired. Belisarius in 547 -restored it all, with the help of palisades, in twenty days, -and equipped it with spring-guns the force of whose projectiles -could impale five men, and with mantraps or deadfalls, -barrow-like devices which could be pushed over on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> -assailants. But the repairs are botched work, appropriate -to what Rome had become: no longer an Imperial capital, -but a minor metropolis of an outlying Byzantine province. -All the same, the wall was never really breached till the -advent of heavy artillery, when Garibaldi’s men attacked -the Porta San Pancrazio in 1849.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>What Richmond’s work has done is to epitomize, in the -history of a work of Roman engineering, Rome’s decline and -fall. This is the latest point in ancient history to which our -survey will take us. In the 1300 years since the Palatine huts -we have, with archaeology’s help, traced Rome’s rise to -grandeur and her agonizing decline. Spiritually, Rome never -fell. The Papacy in a sense is the ghost of the Roman Empire -sitting crowned upon its grave: the symbol is the Popes’ -palace-fortress installed in Hadrian’s mausoleum, or St. -Peter’s basilica overlying what is in part a pagan cemetery. -It will be appropriate in the final chapter to confront -Caesar with Christ, by describing a late Imperial hunting -lodge in Sicily, and a tomb beneath the high altar of St. -Peter’s, which by the fourth century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> was believed to be -the last resting place of the apostle who was a fisher of men.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_13" class="vspace">13<br /> - -<span class="subhead">Caesar and Christ</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In the official Italian archaeological journal <i>Notizie degli -Scavi</i> for 1951 were reported recent excavations of a grandiose -villa near Piazza Armerina, in central Sicily, which had -already received some notoriety in the press, for depicting -“Bikini girls” in very brief bathing suits (<a href="#ip_13_1">Fig. 13.1</a>). Of -this villa traces had always existed above ground, and as -early as 1754 the discovery had been reported there of a -“temple” (probably the basilica numbered 30 in the plan, -<a href="#ip_13_2">Fig. 13.2</a>), with a mosaic floor. In 1881 the trilobate complex -(46) was excavated, and in 1929 the great Sicilian archaeologist -Paolo Orsi, the expert on prehistoric remains on the -island, dug there. Major funds—500,000 lire—made possible -large-scale excavation between 1937 and 1943, as a part -of <i>Il Duce’s</i> plans for a major celebration of the bimillennary -of Augustus’ birth. After the war, government support -to the tune of 5,000,000 lire (which inflation reduced in -value to $8,000, only a tenth as much as the earlier grant) -made it possible to finish excavating the villa and to take -steps to preserve <i>in situ</i> the mosaics which are its chief -glory. This is one of the few excavations on Italian soil -whose chief avowed intent was to encourage tourism, and -it has succeeded. Piazza Armerina is a boom town, boasting -a new hotel, and its narrow streets are choked with sightseeing -busses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p> - -<div id="ip_13_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_101.jpg" width="440" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.1</span> Piazza Armerina, Imperial Villa, “Bikini girls” mosaic. -(B. Pace, <i>I Mosaici di Piazza Armerina</i>, Pl. 15)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> -Both the mosaics and the villa’s ambitious plan make it -a sight worth seeing. There are forty-two polychrome pavements, -involving the setting by the ancient workmen of -30,000,000 individual mosaic rectangles, or <i>tesserae</i>, over an -area of more than 3500 square yards, a complex unique in -extent in the Roman world. The plan, too, is one of the -most ambitious known to archaeology, rivalling that of -Nero’s Golden House, Hadrian’s villa, or Diocletian’s palace -at Spalato on the Dalmatian cost. The villa lies three-and-a-half -miles southwest of Piazza Armerina, nearly 2,000 feet -above sea level, on the west slope of Monte Mangone, in -the midst of green orchards and pleasant groves of nut trees. -Its altitude assured its being cool in summer; its setting -under the lee of the hill protected it from winter winds. -But the slope required terracing, and so the villa was laid -out on four levels centering on three peristyles and a portico -(plan 2,15,41,26). The parts are connected by irregular -rooms (13,14,40). The technique of the masonry shows that -the whole complex is of one build, characterized by asymmetrical -symmetry, strange, twisted ground-plans, a fondness -for curves, and off-center axes, all of which shows a -definite break with conventional classicism. The structure -is light and elastic: the dome over the three-lobed state -dining room (46), nowadays replaced by an unnecessarily -ugly modern roof to protect the mosaics, was built of pumice -concrete, lightened still further by setting in it lengths of -clay pipe and amphorae, to reduce the weight of the superstructure -on the bearing walls.</p> - -<div id="ip_13_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 36.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_102.jpg" width="584" height="800" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.2</span> Piazza Armerina, Imperial Villa, -Gismondi’s reconstruction. (Pace, <i>Mosaici</i>, p. 33)</div></div> - -<p>From a strange polygonal porticoed atrium (2) steps -lead down to a porticoed horseshoe-shaped latrine (6) and -to the baths (7–12), where spatial architecture runs riot, -with single and double apses, a clover-leaf, and an octagonal -<i>frigidarium</i> or room for taking a cold plunge (9). The -middle terrace, east of the baths, centers on a huge trap<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331<br /><a id="Page_332">332</a></span>ezoidal -peristyle (15), with a complex fountain, embellished -by a fish mosaic, in the middle, and living rooms opening -off to north and south. South of the peristyle a higher -terrace is occupied by an odd elliptical court, shaped like -a flattened egg, with a buttressed apse at the west end, the -trilobate dining room at the east, and a triple set of conventional -rectangular rooms, with mosaics of Cupids vintaging -and fishing, to the north and south. The total effect is -of an agreeable contrast between straight and curved walls. -Returning to the rectangular peristyle, we find to the east -of it a long double-apsed corridor, like the <i>narthex</i>, or long -narrow portico, in front of an early Christian church. East -of this is a suite of rooms centering on the vast, off-centered, -apsed basilica—larger than Domitian’s on the Palatine in -Rome—which was the earliest part of the villa excavated. -On either side of this is a series of rectangular and apsed -rooms, the private quarters and nursery, to judge by the -mosaics. An aqueduct limits the villa on the north and -east. The servants’ quarters are not yet excavated; they -probably lay to the southwest, to the left of the monumental -entrance (1). The whole is complicated, consistent, functional, -organic, clearly the work of a master architect who -will challenge comparison with the builder of the Sanctuary -of Fortune at Praeneste or with Hadrian himself.</p> - -<p>The mosaics must have been done in a hurry by huge -gangs of craftsmen, probably imported from North Africa, -since the technique resembles that of mosaics at Volubilis, -Hippo, Carthage, and Lepcis. Mosaic-making is slow work; -nowadays it takes a careful workman six days to lay a -square meter of tesserae. To finish the job in the space of -a few years must have required a swarm of as many as -500 artisans.</p> - -<p>Apart from their vast extent and their subject-matter—of -which more in the sequel—the mosaics are of prime importance -for the contribution they make to dating the villa.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> -About its date there is controversy. Professor Biagio Pace -(who excavated here in the ’30’s), relying on stylistic similarities -to late (fifth century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>) mosaics in Ravenna and -Constantinople, would date the villa in about <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 410, and -ascribe its ownership to a rich Sicilian landed proprietor. -Pace’s pupil G. V. Gentili, who was in charge of the 1950 -excavations, argues, following the Norwegian archaeologist -H. P. L’Orange, for an earlier date. One piece of evidence -not adduced by him is conclusive in his favor. The double-apsed -entrance (8) to the baths contains a spirited mosaic -depicting the Circus Maximus in Rome, full of life and -movement, with the chariots of the four stables, the Greens, -Blues, Whites, and Reds, all represented. The Green—the -Emperor’s favorite—wins, not without a collision. Down the -center of the oval track runs the <i>spina</i>, or division-wall, -surmounted by various monuments, including a single -obelisk in the center (<a href="#ip_13_3">Fig. 13.3</a>). Now it is known that -Augustus set up an obelisk in the Circus Maximus, and -that in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 357 Constantius added another: therefore any -representation of the Circus with only one obelisk must be -earlier than 357. Pace’s late date is therefore excluded.</p> - -<p>Is there any possibility of still more precise dating? -Gentili thinks there is. Beginning from the <i>a priori</i> proposition -that a complex architecturally and artistically as grand -as this must be beyond the means of any private citizen, -however rich, he assumes that the villa must have been -built to the order of an Emperor. Which one? To answer -this question he looked among the mosaics for possible -portraits, and he found them in several places. For example, -in the vestibule (13) between the baths and the trapezoidal -peristyle (15) there is an obvious portrait study of the -mistress of the villa flanked by two children, presumably her -son and daughter. The son has a squint. He is represented -again, with the same squint, in the northeast apse of the -<i>frigidarium</i> (9), in the room of the small hunting scene -(23), and in the vestibule of Cupid and Pan (35). (The -effect of the squint is achieved by setting one eye with a -square tessera, the other with a triangular one.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span></p> - -<div id="ip_13_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_103.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.3</span> Piazza Armerina, Imperial Villa, Circus Maximus mosaic. -(Dorothy MacKendrick photo)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_13_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_103b.jpg" width="600" height="446" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.4</span> Piazza Armerina, Imperial Villa, small hunting -scene, mosaic. (Pace, <i>Mosaici</i>, Fig. 30)</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> -Now was the time to have recourse to the study, there -to take down from the shelves the works of the Byzantine -chronicler John Malalas. He records that Maxentius, the -son of the Emperor Maximian Herculius (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 286–305), -Diocletian’s colleague, was cross-eyed. Armed with this -firm clue, Gentili examined the mosaics again, looking for -proof or disproof that the villa belonged to Maximian. He -found proof. Knowing that Maximian Herculius equated -himself with Hercules, as his name shows, he looked for, -and found, evidence in a colossal sculptured head of Hercules -from the basilica apse, and in the mosaic, of preoccupation -with that hero and his exploits. Over and over -again, in the borders of robes, in foliage, and self-standing -(in 4) he found representations of ivy, which was Hercules’ -symbol: the initial of its Latin name, <i>hedera</i>, is the initial -of the hero’s name. Furthermore, one of the most extensive -and important mosaics in the villa, that in the state dining -room (46), has as its subject the labors of Hercules. Gentili’s -case looks conclusively proven; it was buttressed when he -took up the Circus mosaic (8), to back it with concrete and -replace it, and found under it a hypocaust containing coins -of the late third century, presumably dropped by the workmen -who laid the mosaic in the first place.</p> - -<p>The subjects of the mosaics are in part more or less conventional -mythological scenes. Odysseus hoodwinks the -one-eyed Sicilian giant Polyphemus, making him drunk with -a great bowl of wine (27); an obliging dolphin rescues -the musician Arion from a watery grave (32), and Orpheus -with his lyre charms a vast array of animals, including a -goldfinch, a lizard, and a snail (39). Still more interesting -are the mosaics which show Maximian’s interests. He appears -to have had three obsessions: hunting, the circus, and -his children. The three scenes of the chase (23,26,33) have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> -prompted L’Orange to suggest that the villa was built as a -sumptuous hunting-lodge, but the great basilica shows that -it was adapted also to the uses of more formal protocol; -the Imperial court must sometimes have met here.</p> - -<p>The smaller hunting scene (23) is divided into five bands -(<a href="#ip_13_4">Fig. 13.4</a>). At the top, two eager hounds, one gray, one -red, are off in full cry after a fox. Next below, a young -hunter identified by Gentili as Constantius Chlorus, Maximian’s -adopted son, accompanied by our old friend the -squint-eyed Maxentius, sacrifices to Diana, the goddess of -the hunt. The third band is devoted to fowling—with birdlime—and -falconry, the fourth to the fox, gone to ground -and besieged in his den by the dogs. In the fifth, on the -left a stag is about to be caught in a net stretched across a -forest path in the unsporting Roman way; on the right is -a boar-hunt with an unorthodox hunter just about to make -the kill by dropping a large rock from above on the boar’s -head. In the center is a vivid huntsman’s picnic. The -hunters, wearing puttees, are sitting under a red awning. -While they are waiting, one of them feeds the dog. A black -boy blows on the fire, over which a succulent-looking -trussed bird is roasting. Servants fetch bread from a wicker -basket; another basket harbors two ample amphorae of -wine.</p> - -<p>This is an intimate <i>genre</i> scene. More impressive is the -large hunting scene which crowds the whole 190-foot length -of the double-apsed corridor (26). Here the aim portrayed -is to catch exotic North African animals alive for the wild -beast hunts in amphitheaters like the Coliseum. In the south -apse is a female figure symbolizing Africa, flanked by a -tiger and an amiable small elephant with a reticulated hide. -The figure in the opposite apse who has a bear on one side, -a panther on the other may be Rome, the animals symbolizing -her dominion over palm and pine. In this case -Africa is the point of departure of the captured beasts, -Rome their destination. Between the two apses the hunting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> -scenes unfold amid fantastic architecture in a rolling, -wooded landscape sloping down to the sea in the center, -teeming with fish. On land, animals attack each other (a -leopard draws blood from a stag’s belly), and hunters in -rich embroidered tunics hurl javelins, in the presence of the -Emperor, at snarling lions and tigers at bay, set traps baited -with kid for panthers (the kid being spread-eagled in a way -that looks curiously like a parody of the Crucifixion). The -hunters act as bearers—their heads camouflaged with leafy -twigs, like Birnam wood coming to Dunsinane—or drag a -lassoed bison toward the red ship that will transport it to -Italy. A horseman, having stolen a tiger cub, delays the -mother’s advance by dropping another cub in her path. -A hippopotamus and a rhinoceros are among the game; -smaller animals are hauled to the ships in crates on ox-carts; -a live trussed boar is carried slung on a pole; a recalcitrant -ostrich and an antelope are being pushed up a gangway -(<a href="#ip_13_5">Fig. 13.5</a>), while the gangway of another ship is groaning -under the weight of an elephant with a checkerboard hide -like the one flanking Africa in the apse. Most curious of all, -just in front of this same apse the tables are turned: a man -has taken refuge in a cage against the attack of a fabulous -winged griffin, with the head of a bird of prey. The crowded, -vivid, barbarous artistry of this mosaic brings us to the very -threshold of the Byzantine age; in Rome’s past, only the -Barberini mosaic at Palestrina can match it.</p> - -<p>In Maximian’s family even the children were brought up -to take part in blood sports. Room 36, a child’s room, perhaps -Maxentius’—his squint-eyed portrait recurs in the -anteroom (35)—portrays a child’s hunt, in three bands, full -of characteristic Roman insensibility to animal suffering. In -the upper band, a boy has hit a spotted hare full in the -breast with a hunting spear, while another has lassoed a -duckling. The middle band portrays hunting mishaps: a -small animal nips one fallen small boy in the leg; a cock -attacks another with its beak and spurs. In the bottom register<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> -one boy clubs a peacock, a second defends himself -with a shield against a buzzard, and a third has plunged -his hunting spear into the heart of a goat.</p> - -<div id="ip_13_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="600" height="480" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.5</span> Piazza Armerina, Imperial Villa, large hunting scene, mosaic (detail). (MPI)</div></div> - -<div id="ip_13_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_104b.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.6</span> Piazza Armerina, Imperial Villa, Labors of Hercules, mosaic (detail). -(Pace, <i>Mosaici</i>, Pl. 7)</div></div> - -<p>The child’s Circus (33), unlike the hunt, is rather fantastic -than brutal. Around a <i>spina</i> with a single obelisk, as -in room 8, run four miniature chariots drawn by pairs of -birds in the appropriate stable colors: green wood-pigeons, -blue plovers, red flamingoes, and white geese. As usual, -Green wins, and is awarded the palm. Servants with amphorae -sprinkle the track to lay the dust. It is all vivid, -detailed, alive, more illuminating than a dozen pages in a -handbook.</p> - -<p>The masterpiece among the mosaics is clearly the labors -of Hercules cycle in the <i>triclinium</i> (46). These were part -of a standard repertory, available for copying from a book -of cartoons (we have seen this sort of thing in Pompeii), -but here the artist has stamped his own personality on the -hackneyed scenes. In his hands they are at once learnedly -allusive and bloodily violent. Thus the Augean stables, -which Hercules cleaned by diverting a river to run through -them, are simply suggested by a river and a pitchfork. -Violence is often rather hinted at than insisted on, as in -the slit-like eye of the dying Nemean lion, or the Picasso-like -protruding eye of the terrified horse of Diomedes -(<a href="#ip_13_6">Fig. 13.6</a>). Sometimes the effect is gained by a topical -touch, as when Geryon, the triple-headed giant, is given -a suit of scaly armor, like the barbarians (cataphractarii) -on Trajan’s column. But the full baroque excess, as insistent -as in the frieze from the Pergamene altar, or the Laocoön -group, comes out in the scene in the east lobe where five -huge giants, foreshortened with a technique which anticipates -Michelangelo’s on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, -convulsively, despairingly, imploringly, yet full of impotent -rage, turn their deep-sunk eyes to heaven as they strive to -pull from their flesh Hercules’ deadly arrows, steeped in the -blood of the Centaur Nessus. In the north lobe the apotheosis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> -of Hercules is no doubt the mosaicist’s enforced tribute -to his Imperial master, but in the scenes of metamorphosis -in the entrance-ways to the apses—Daphne into a laurel, -Cyparissus into a cypress, Ambrosia into a vine—he is following -his own paradoxical bent, accepting as it were the -challenge of expressing so dynamic a thing as the change -from one form to another in the obdurate medium of mosaic.</p> - -<p>The ten “Bikini Girls” (38) come last, because these -mosaics, which overlie another set, are obviously later than -the rest. They owe their fame to the scantiness of their -costumes, as brief as any to be seen on modern European -beaches. Gentili thinks they are female athletes, being -awarded prizes, but Pace may be nearer the truth in supposing -that they are pantomime actresses, with tambourines -and <i>maracas</i>, performing in a sort of aquacade, the blue -<i>tesserae</i> in which they stand representing water. There is -ancient evidence for this curiously decadent art-form. Martial -speaks of actresses dressed—or undressed—as Nereids -swimming about in the Coliseum, and the Church fathers -fulminate against such spectacles. When the orchestra of -the most august of theaters, that of Dionysus in Athens, was -remodelled in Roman times to hold water, we must suppose, -since the space is too small for mock naval battles, that -the place once sacred to the choruses of Aeschylus, Sophocles, -and Euripides was thereafter used for the aquatic -antics of just such actresses as the Piazza Armerina mosaics -portray. Tastelessness and grandeur, conspicuous waste and -a daring architectural plan: this paradoxical blend, so -characteristic of the villa, explains both what is meant by -decline and why it took the Empire so long to fall.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>The villa at Piazza Armerina belongs to an age when -Christians were persecuted: the motifs in the mosaics are -almost aggressively pagan. But Maximian’s son-in-law Constantine -became in the end a convert to Christianity, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span> -built, beginning about <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 322, in honor of St. Peter, a -great basilica church on the Vatican Hill, replaced in the -Renaissance by the present building. In 1939, at the death -of Pope Pius XI, who had asked to be buried in the crypt -of St. Peter’s, excavations for his tomb created the occasion -for transforming the crypt into a lower church. In lowering -the floor level of the crypt for this purpose, the workmen -came, only eight inches down, upon the pavement of Old -St. Peter’s, Constantine’s church. This in turn rested upon -mausolea with their tops sliced off, and their interiors rammed -full of earth. At the direction of Pius XII, these -mausolea were scientifically excavated.</p> - -<p>What was revealed was a pagan Roman cemetery, in some -places thirty feet below the floor of the present church. The -mausolea were all in use and in good repair when Constantine -began his church in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 322: the earliest brick stamp -found in the area dates from the reign of Vespasian, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> -69–79. The excavations were carried out under conditions -comparable in difficulty only to the recovery of the Altar -of Peace: the same constant battle with seepage, the same -problem of underpinning one structure in order to read the -message of another. Under these formidable difficulties, the -cemetery was cleared, and archaeologists found the reason -why Constantine moved a million cubic feet of earth and -went so far as to violate sepulchres to build Old St. Peter’s -on just this site. Whatever modern walls it was necessary to -build were carefully marked with Pius XII brick-stamps, -that future archaeologists might be in no doubt as to which -masonry was modern and which ancient. The cemetery may -now be visited by small groups with special permission, -under the expert guidance of a polyglot archaeologist. The -story he has to tell was not published until over ten years -after the excavation began, in a massive two-volume <i>Report</i> -which stands fifteen and three-quarters inches high, contains -171 text figures and 119 plates, and weighs fourteen -pounds. Fortunately its objectivity is as impressive as its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> -bulk. The archaeological evidence is lucidly set forth, and -no conclusions are drawn which exceed it.</p> - -<p>We know from Tacitus that Nero, in his search for scapegoats -on whom to shift the blame for Rome’s great fire of -<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 64, martyred Christians in an amphitheater on the Vatican -Hill, and tradition has it that in this amphitheater St. -Peter, too, suffered martyrdom. It was to test the validity -of this tradition that Pius XII ordered the cemetery under -St. Peter’s excavated. What was found was a series of twenty-one -mausolea and one open area (P in the plan, <a href="#ip_13_7">Fig. 13.7</a>), -all facing southward onto a Roman street. The mausolea -are plain brick on the outside, highly baroque within, enriched -with mosaics, wall-paintings, and stucco-work. There -are both cremation and inhumation burials, but when the -mausolea were filled in inhumation was beginning to predominate. -Of the mausolea only M is entirely Christian in -décor; others began as pagan, later admitting Christian -burials, or adapt pagan motifs to Christian symbolism. M -contains the earliest known Christian mosaics, which Ward -Perkins and Miss Toynbee call a microcosm of the dramatic -history of Christianity’s peaceful penetration of the pagan -Roman Empire. They are dated by technique and motifs -to the middle of the third century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> The subjects are -Jonah and the whale, the Fisher of Men, the Good Shepherd, -and, in the vault, Christ figured as the sun. The wall -paintings of the cemetery are mostly pagan, the contractors’ -stock-in-trade, depicting in myth or in symbol the soul’s -victory over death. The great artistic interest of the mausolea -is in the stucco-work, both in relief and in the round, -superior in quality to that of the subterranean basilica at -the Porta Maggiore. Some of it is of unparalleled scale and -complexity, excellently preserved (<a href="#ip_13_8">Fig. 13.8</a>), and now protected -from dampness by large, constantly burning electric -heaters. Of stone sculpture in the round there is very little; -it was probably removed by Constantine’s workmen. But -there are many marble sarcophagi with pagan and Christian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> -motifs, testifying to the artistic revival enjoyed by the Roman -world with the peace of the Church in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 312. They -show how the stonemasons carved them as blanks, filling -in details like inscriptions and portrait busts to the customer’s -order. There is a pathetic one of a baby, who died, -the inscription tells us, when he was six months old. There -are reliefs of Biblical scenes: the children in the fiery furnace, -Joseph and his brethren, the three Magi, and what -may be the earliest Christian cross, dated about <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 340; -(an alleged cross at Herculaneum is more probably the -scar of a ripped-away wall bracket).</p> - -<div id="ip_13_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_105.jpg" width="440" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.7</span> Vatican City, excavations under St. Peter’s, plan of west end.</p> - -<p>(J. Toynbee and J. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter, p. 136)</p></div></div> - -<div id="ip_13_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_105b.jpg" width="600" height="513" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.8</span> Vatican City, excavations under St. Peter’s, Mausoleum F, stuccoes.</p> - -<p>(Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro)</p></div></div> - -<p>The cemetery tells us something about the status and -the religious convictions of its owners and occupants. Of -the persons recorded in its inscriptions, over half have Greek -names. They are freedmen or descendants of freedmen, -many in the Imperial civil service. Some are tradesmen, -some artisans. Only one was of Senatorial rank: his daughter’s -body was wrapped in purple and veiled in gold. The -richness of the tombs bespeaks an attitude that is modern -enough, or rather neither ancient nor modern, but a constant. -Paradoxically, importance is attached to material -things, to the race for riches and creature comforts, while -at the same time there is a preoccupation with the after -life, a return, after the skepticism of the earlier Empire, to -a belief in a personal immortality in store for those who -have led moral lives. The deceased are connected with the -world they have left behind by tubes for libations, that -wine and milk may be poured down on their bones. Heaven -is variously conceived: as a place of blessed sleep, or, like -the Etruscan heaven, a succession of banquets, wine, and -gardens. Grief is swallowed up in victory; the dead have -their patron heroes: Hermes, Hercules, Minerva, Apollo, -Dionysus, the Egyptian Isis or Horus—and Christ.</p> - -<p>But the pagan cemetery, interesting as it is for the light -it casts on the middle class of the early fourth century of -our era, is not the centrally important archaeological discovery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> -under St. Peter’s, nor does it supply the motive for -Constantine’s location of his church just here. That motive -the excavators found in the open space they named “Campo -P.” Campo P is separated from mausoleum R by a sloping -passage, called the Clivus; the drain under the passage -contains tiles with stamps dated between the years 147–161, -which fall within the reign of Antoninus Pius. A painted -brick wall, since made famous as the Red Wall, separates -the Clivus from Campo P. Into this wall are cut three superposed -niches, two in the fabric of the wall itself, one beneath -its foundations, which were actually raised on a sort of -bridge at this point to protect the cavity. In front of the -niches traces were found of a modest architectural façade, -called the Aedicula, or little shrine.</p> - -<p>In the cavity the excavators found human bones, which -they have never identified further than to describe them -as those of a person of advanced age and robust physique. -The Aedicula penetrated above the pavement of Old St. -Peter’s and formed its architectural focus. The conclusion -is inevitable that Constantine in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 322 planned his basilica -to rise just here, at great trouble and expense, because he -believed the lowest niche, under the Red Wall, to enshrine -a relic of overarching importance, nothing less than the -bones of St. Peter. There is thus no doubt whatever, on -objective evidence, that the Aedicula was reverenced in -the fourth Christian century as marking the burial place of -the founder of the Roman church.</p> - -<div id="ip_13_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="600" height="358" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.9</span> Vatican City, excavations under St. Peter’s, Campo P.</p> - -<p>(Toynbee and Ward Perkins, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 141)</p></div></div> - -<p>But this is not the end of the problem. The next question -is, “How early can the burial, by objective archaeological -evidence, be demonstrated to be?” The answer to this question -must be sought, if anywhere, in the context of Campo -P. This proved on excavation to be an area of poor graves, -marked, like those of the necropolis of the Port of Ostia -on Isola Sacra, simply by a surround and a pitched roof of -tiles, without any of the pomp of costly marble sarcophagus -or richly stuccoed mausoleum. It is to the class which would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> -be buried in such pathetic graves as these that the earliest -Roman Christians (of the age of Nero [<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 64]) must have -belonged. (Since the <i>Report</i> was published, Professor Magi, -whom we have already met in connection with the Cancelleria -reliefs, has discovered, under the Vatican City parking -lot, another cemetery, also of poor graves, of the first century -<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>; there is no cogent proof that they are Christian.) The -graves in Campo P (<a href="#ip_13_9">Fig. 13.9</a>) were found to lie at various -levels: the deepest must be the earliest. The deepest is the -one called by the excavators Gamma (see plan, γ, <a href="#ip_13_9">Fig. 13.9</a>): -it lies five-and-a-half feet below the pavement of Campo P, -and it partly underlies, and is therefore older than, the -foundations of the Red Wall, which in turn is dated by the -Clivus drain about the middle of the second century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> -Grave Theta (θ) is higher, and therefore later, than Gamma. -It is a poor grave, protected by tiles, one of which bears a -stamp of Vespasian’s reign (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 69–79). It is unsafe method -to date an archaeological find by a single brick stamp which -could be second-hand, used at any date later than its firing, -even much later. But the stamp creates at least a presumption<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> -that Theta may be dated as early as <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 79, and, if -so, Gamma must be earlier still. Since both these graves -appear to have been dug in such a way as to respect the -area just in front of the Aedicula, it follows that the bones -in the lowest niche must be earlier than either grave.</p> - -<p>This is the process by which it is possible (but not rigorously -necessary, on the evidence) to date the bones before -<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 79, perhaps in the reign of Nero; perhaps they are the -bones of a victim of the persecution of <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 64; perhaps -they are the bones of St. Peter. They were evidently disturbed -in antiquity, for this is not a proper burial, but -simply a collection of bones; the head, for example, is missing. -The original burial must have lain athwart the line -of the later Red Wall: when the builders of the Red Wall -hit upon it, they may, knowing the legend of St. Peter’s -martyrdom in the amphitheater somewhere near this spot, -have assumed that this was his grave, and so they arched -up the Red Wall’s foundations to avoid disturbing it. The -next step was to build the Aedicula (<a href="#ip_13_10">Fig. 13.10</a>), an act -associated in literary sources with Pope Anacletus (traditional -dates, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 76–88), but since not even the most pious -Catholics suppose the Aedicula to be this early, an emendation -of the name into Anicetus (<i>ca.</i> 155–165) is defensible: -it is paleographically plausible, and it suits the date of the -Red Wall. The traces of the Aedicula as found were asymmetrical: -its north supporting column had been moved to -make room for a wall that was built sometime before Constantine -to buttress the Red Wall, which had developed -a bad crack from top to bottom. The excavators found the -north face of this buttress wall covered with a palimpsest -of <i>graffiti</i>, only one of which—in Greek—refers to St. Peter -by name, though some others may do so in a cryptic way, -and all testify that this spot was one of particular sanctity, -much frequented by pilgrims.</p> - -<div id="ip_13_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30.9375em;"> - <img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="495" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"> -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap fig">Fig. 13.10</span> Vatican City, excavations under St. Peter’s. Aedicula, reconstruction -by G. U. S. Corbett. (Toynbee and Ward Perkins, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 161)</p></div></div> - -<p>The shrine under St. Peter’s is not the only spot in Rome -associated with St. Peter. Another is under the Church of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> -San Sebastiano, two-and-a-half miles out, just off the Appian -Way. Here excavation has found <i>graffiti</i> mentioning St. -Peter and St. Paul, a room for taking ceremonial meals, and -Christian tombs of the third century <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> Some scholars -believe, but without cogent archaeological evidence, that -St. Peter’s body, in whole or in part, was moved to this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> -retired spot off the main road, from the Vatican Hill, for -safety during the persecutions under the Emperor Valerian -in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 258. This would explain the association of the San -Sebastiano site with the apostle; the assumption that the -bones were returned to the Aedicula after the danger was -past would explain—though it is not the only possible explanation—the -disturbed state in which the excavators found -them.</p> - -<p>In any case, in the years between the building of the -Aedicula and the centering of Constantine’s church upon -it, there was continuity of pious commemoration of the spot. -This is proved by the <i>graffiti</i> on the buttress wall, and by -a series of burials, Alpha, Beta, Delta, Epsilon, and Mu (α, β, δ, ε, μ) -all motivated by a desire to be buried as close -as possible to the Aedicula, and all, to judge by their contents—remains -of cloth in Beta, for example, showed gold -threads—belonging to important people. Some scholars (not -including the excavators) have supposed that these are the -graves of early Popes.</p> - -<p>This was the state of affairs in Campo P when the building -of Constantine’s basilica began. The Aedicula was made -the focus of the whole building plan: it was left projecting -above the pavement of the new church, and it was covered -by a canopy upheld by twisted columns. (It is an extraordinary -coincidence that Bernini, when he built the canopy -over the altar of the Renaissance church, chose twisted -columns to uphold it, though he could not possibly have -known that Constantine’s canopy also involved this detail.) -Constantine’s architect, in the classical tradition, paid the -secular Roman basilica the compliment of creative imitation.</p> - -<p>It was not until about <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 600 that the altar was placed -directly over the shrine, and the presbytery raised to accommodate -it. By that time, the tradition was firmly established -that pious pilgrims should leave a votive coin in -front of the Aedicula: here in the fill the excavators found -1900 coins, Roman, papal, Italian, and from all over Europe,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> -ranging in date from before <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 161 uninterruptedly down -to the fourteenth century. Also about <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 600, at the same -time as the placing of the altar directly over the shrine, the -two upper niches in the Red Wall were combined into one, -the Niche of the Pallia, where the vestments of newly-consecrated -archbishops were put to be sanctified by close -contact with the bones of the first Bishop of Rome: a shaft -in the floor of the niche led down to the grave.</p> - -<p>The shrine and the Constantinian church survived the -sacks of Rome both by the Goths in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 410, and by the -Vandals in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 455; the Saracens in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 846 were not so -respectful. In their search for treasure they handled the -Aedicula very roughly, and it is likely that it is from this -sack, and not from the persecution of <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 258, that the -disturbance of the bones should be dated. In any case, after -the sack the life of the shrine went on as before, and in the -Renaissance church as in its predecessor the shrine remained -the focal point, one of the most venerated spots -in Christendom.</p> - -<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div> - -<p>With the shrine of St. Peter, venerable, still vital, going -back to the two roots of western civilization, pagan Rome -(itself the transmitter of Greek culture) and Christianity, -it is fitting that we should end our survey of what archaeology -has to tell us about the culture to which ours owes so -much. The two complexes, the grandiose pagan villa and -the humble Christian shrine, which we have discussed in -this chapter, are interrelated. The villa is one of the last -manifestations of a culture that is played out, the shrine -marks the beginning of a new culture that will produce its -own grandiose monuments and in its turn be threatened -by decline. In a sense, with the simplicity of St. Peter’s -shrine the historical cycle returns to the simplicity of primitive -Rome. But it is not simply a matter of returning to -beginnings and starting over again; the new culture stands<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span> -upon the shoulders of the old. The Christian shrine has the -look of a pagan tomb-monument in the Isola Sacra necropolis; -Constantine’s church has the look of a pagan Roman -basilica. The language of the Mass is still Latin; the Pope -is Pontifex Maximus. The striking thing is the continuity, -and this is the most important lesson that archaeology has -to teach. Again beneath St. Peter’s, as at so many other -ancient sites, what the archaeologist digs up is not things -but people. The remains in the niche under the Red Wall -are not dry bones; they are live history. The breathing of -life into that history is a major and largely unsung triumph -of the modern science of archaeology, patiently at work -over the last eighty years. To come to know a fragment of -our past is to recognize a piece of ourselves. Perhaps, as -archaeology interprets history, making the mute stones -speak, we may come to know our past so well that we -shall not be condemned to repeat it.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span></p> - -<div id="bib" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> - -<p>CHAPTER 1: <i>Prehistoric Italy</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>R. J. C. Atkinson, <i>Field Archaeology</i> (London, 1946)</p> - -<p>P. Barocelli, “Terremare, Palatino, orientazione dei <i>castra</i> -e delle città romane,” <i>Bulletino Communale</i> 70 (1942), -131–144</p> - -<p>John Bradford, “The Apulia Expedition: An Interim Report,” -<i>Antiquity</i> 24 (1950) 84–95</p> - -<p>——, <i>Ancient Landscapes</i> (London, 1957), 85–110</p> - -<p>F. von Duhn and F. Messerschmidt, <i>Italische Gräberkunde</i>, -2 vols. (Heidelberg, 1924–1939)</p> - -<p>C. F. C. Hawkes, <i>The Prehistoric Foundations of Europe</i> -(London, 1940)</p> - -<p>G. Kaschnitz-Weinberg, “Italien mit Sardinien, Sizilien, und -Malta,” in W. Otto and R. Herbig, <i>Handbuch der -Archäologie</i>, 2 (Munich, 1954), 311–397</p> - -<p>G. Lilliu, “1000 Years of Prehistory: Sardinia, the <i>Nuraghe</i> -of Barumini and its Village—a Recent Large-scale Excavation,” -<i>Illustrated London News</i> 232 (1958), 388–391</p> - -<p>H. L. Movius, Jr., “Age Determination by Radiocarbon Content,” -<i>Antiquity</i> 24 (1950), 99–101</p> - -<p>T. J. Peet, <i>The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy</i> (Oxford, -1909)</p> - -<p>D. Randall-MacIver, <i>Villanovans and Early Etruscans</i> (Oxford, -1924)</p> - -<p>——, <i>The Iron Age in Italy</i> (Oxford, 1927)</p> - -<p>——, <i>Italy before the Romans</i> (Oxford, 1928)</p> - -<p>G. Säflund, “Le terremare,” <i>Skrifter Utgivna av Svenska -Institutet i Rom</i> 7 (1939)</p> - -<p>R. B. K. Stevenson, “The Neolithic Cultures of Southeast -Italy,” <i>Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society</i> 13 (1947), -85–100</p> - -<p>J. Whatmough, <i>The Foundations of Roman Italy</i> (London, -1937)</p> - -<p>R. E. M. Wheeler, <i>Archaeology from the Earth</i> (Oxford, -1954, reprinted in Pelican Books, 1956)</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 2: <i>The Etruscans</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>N. Alfieri, “The Etruscans of the Po and the Discovery of -Spina,” <i>Italy’s Life</i>, No. 24 (1957), 91–104</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> -—— and P. E. Arias, <i>Spina</i> (Florence, 1958)</p> - -<p>P. E. Arias, “Considerazioni sulla città etrusca a Pian di -Misano (Marzabotto),” <i>Atti e Memorie della Deputazione -di Storia Patria per le Provincie dell’ Emilia e -di Romagna</i>, 4 (1953), 223–234</p> - -<p>S. Aurigemma, <i>Il R. Museo di Spina in Ferrara</i> (Ferrara, -1936)</p> - -<p>R. Bloch, “Volsinies étrusque: essai historique et topographique,” -<i>Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’École -française de Rome</i>, 59 (1947), 9–39</p> - -<p>J. Bradford, <i>Ancient Landscapes</i>, 111–144</p> - -<p>E. Brizio, “Relazione sugli scavi eseguiti a Marzabotto -presso Bologna dal novembre 1888 a tutto maggio -1889,” <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, 1 (1891), cols. 248–426</p> - -<p><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</i>, II.i,3 (Tarquinia) (Leipzig, -1936)</p> - -<p>G. Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>,<sup>3</sup> 2 vols. (London, -1883)</p> - -<p>M. Falkner, “Epigraphisches und archäologisches zur Stele -von Lemnos,” in W. Brandenstein, <i>Frühgeschichte und -Sprachwissenschaft</i> (Vienna, 1948), 91–109</p> - -<p>C. M. Lerici, “Periscopic Sighting and Photography to the -Archaeologist’s Aid,” <i>Ill. London News</i> 232 (1958), -774–775</p> - -<p>M. Pallottino, <i>Etruscologia</i><sup>3</sup> (Milan, 1955), Engl. trans., -Pelican books, 1955</p> - -<p>——, <i>Etruscan Painting</i> (Geneva, 1952)</p> - -<p>L. Pareti, <i>La Tomba Regolini-Galassi</i> (Vatican City, 1947)</p> - -<p>E. Pulgram, <i>The Tongues of Italy</i> (Cambridge, Mass., -1958)</p> - -<p>G. Ricci <i>et al.</i>, “Caere: Scavi di R. Mengarelli,” <i>Mon. Ant.</i> -42 (1955), cols. 1–1186</p> - -<p>J. B. Ward Perkins, “The Problem of Etruscan Origins,” <i>Harvard -Studies in Classical Philology</i> 64 (1959) 1–26</p> - -<p>G. E. W. Wolstenholme and C. M. O’Connor, eds., <i>Ciba -Foundation Symposium on Medical Biology and Etruscan -Origins</i> (London and Boston, 1959). Important -contributions by H. Hencken (29–47), and J. B. Ward -Perkins (89–92), among others.</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 3: <i>Early Rome</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>F. E. Brown, “The Regia,” <i>Memoirs of the American Academy -in Rome</i> 12 (1935), 67–88</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> -L. Curtius, A. Newrath, and E. Nash, <i>Das antike Rom</i><sup>3</sup> -(Vienna, 1957)</p> - -<p>A. Degrassi, <i>Inscriptiones Latinae liberae rei publicae</i>, I -(Florence, 1957)</p> - -<p>T. Frank, “Roman Buildings of the Republic: an Attempt -to Date them from their Materials,” <i>Papers and Monographs -of the Am. Acad. in Rome</i> 3 (1924)</p> - -<p>E. Gjerstad, “Il comizio romano dell’ età reppublicana,” -<i>Skrifter</i> 5 (1941), 97–158</p> - -<p>——, “Early Rome I,” <i>ib.</i> 17 (1953)</p> - -<p>——, “The Fortifications of Early Rome,” <i>ib.</i> 18 (1954), -50–65</p> - -<p>P. G. Goidanich, “L’iscrizione arcaica del Foro Romano e il -suo ambiente archeologico,” <i>Memorie dell’ Accademia -d’Italia</i>, series 7, vol. 3 (1943), 317–501</p> - -<p>R. Lanciani, <i>Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries</i> -(Boston, 1888)</p> - -<p>G. Lugli, <i>I monumenti antichi di Roma e suburbio</i>, 3 (Rome, -1938), 23–50</p> - -<p>——, <i>Roma antica: il centro monumentale</i> (Rome, 1946)</p> - -<p><i>Oxford Classical Dictionary</i> (Oxford, 1949), art. “Tabulae -Pontificum”</p> - -<p>S. B. Platner and T. Ashby, <i>A Topographical Dictionary -of Ancient Rome</i> (Oxford, 1929)</p> - -<p>S. M. Puglisi, “Gli abitatori primitivi del Palatino,” <i>Mon. -Ant.</i> 41 (1951), cols. 1–98</p> - -<p>L. Richardson, Jr., “Cosa and Rome: Comitium and Curia,” -<i>Archaeology</i> 10 (1957), 49–55</p> - -<p>I. S. Ryberg, <i>An Archaeological Record of Rome from the -Seventh to the Second Centuries B.C.</i> (London, 1940)</p> - -<p>G. Säflund, “Le mure di Roma reppublicana,” <i>Skrifter</i> 1 -(1932)</p> - -<p>M. R. Scherer, <i>Marvels of Ancient Rome</i> (New York and -London, 1955)</p> - -<p>I. G. Scott, “Early Roman Traditions in the Light of Archeology,” -<i>Mem. Am. Acad. in Rome</i> 7 (1929), 7–116</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 4: <i>Roman Colonies in Italy</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>G. Becatti, “Sviluppo urbanistico,” in G. Calza, <i>Scavi di -Ostia</i>, 1 (Rome, 1953)</p> - -<p>J. Bradford, <i>Ancient Landscapes</i>, 145–216</p> - -<p>F. E. Brown, “Cosa I: History and Topography,” <i>Mem. -Am. Acad. in Rome</i> 21 (1951), 7–113</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> -F. Castagnoli, “I più antichi esempi conservati di divisioni -agrarie romane,” <i>Bulletino del Museo della Civiltà -Romana</i> 18 (1953–1955), 1–9</p> - -<p>——, “La centuriazione de Cosa,” <i>Mem. Am. Acad. in -Rome</i> 24 (1956), 147–165</p> - -<p>——, “Le ricerche sui resti della centuriazione,” <i>Note -e discussioni erudite</i> a cura di Augusto Campana, 7 -(Rome, 1958)</p> - -<p>F. de Visscher and F. de Ruyt, “Les Fouilles d’Alba Fucens -(Italie centrale) en 1949 et 1950,” <i>L’Antiquité Classique</i> -20 (1951), 47–84 and later reports in successive -volumes. See also report of 1955 campaign, <i>Notizie -degli Scavi</i> (1957), 163–170</p> - -<p>G. Guiccardini Corsi Salviati, “La centuriazione romana -e un’ opera attuale di bonifica agraria,” <i>Studi Etruschi</i> -20 (1948–1949), 291–296</p> - -<p>P. MacKendrick, “Asphodel, White Wine, and Enriched -Thunderbolts,” <i>Greece and Rome</i>, new series, 1 (1954), -1–11</p> - -<p>——, “Roman Colonization and the Frontier Hypothesis,” -in W. D. Wyman and C. B. Kroeber, eds., <i>The Frontier -in Perspective</i> (Madison, 1957), 3–19</p> - -<p>J. Mertens and S. J. de Laet, “Massa d’Alba (Aquila): Scavi -di Alba Fucense,” <i>Not. Scav.</i>, ser. 8, vol. 4 (1950), -248–288</p> - -<p>——, “L’urbanizzazione del centro di Alba Fucense,” -<i>Memorie dell’ Accademia dei Lincei</i>, ser. 8, vol. 5 -(1954), 171–194</p> - -<p>L. Richardson, Jr., “Excavations at Cosa in Etruria, 1948–1952,” -<i>Antiquity</i> 27 (1953), 102–103</p> - -<p>Doris M. Taylor, “Cosa: Black-glaze Pottery,” <i>Mem. Am. -Acad. in Rome</i> 25 (1957), 68–193</p> - -<p>J. B. Ward Perkins, “Early Roman Towns in Italy,” <i>Town -Planning Review</i> 26 (1955), 127–154</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 5: <i>Nabobs as Builders: Sulla, Pompey, Caesar</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>F. Fasolo and G. Gullini, <i>Il Santuario della Fortuna Primigenia -a Palestrina</i>, 2 vols. (Rome, 1953)</p> - -<p>G. Gullini, Guida del Santuario della Fortuna Primigenia -a Palestrina (Rome, 1956)</p> - -<p>J. A. Hanson, <i>Roman Theater-Temples</i> (Princeton, 1958)</p> - -<p>H. Kähler, review of Fasolo and Gullini, <i>Gnomon</i> 30 (1958), -366–383</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> -——, “Das Fortunaheiligtum von Palestrina Praeneste,” -<i>Annales Universitatis Saraviensis (Philosophie-Lettres)</i> -7 (1958), 189–240</p> - -<p>Phyllis W. Lehmann, “The Setting of Hellenistic Temples,” -<i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i> 13.4 -(1954), 15–20</p> - -<p>G. Lugli, <i>Roma antica</i> (Rome, 1946), 177–179, 245–258 -(Caesar’s buildings)</p> - -<p>——, <i>I monumenti antichi</i>, 3 (Rome, 1938), 70–83 (Pompey’s -theater)</p> - -<p>Platner and Ashby, <i>op. cit.</i>, under Chapter 3</p> - -<p>Giovanna Quattrocchi, <i>Il Museo Archeologico Prenestino</i> -(Rome, 1956)</p> - -<p>Eugénie Strong, “The Art of the Roman Republic,” <i>Cambridge -Ancient History</i> 9 (1932), 803–841</p> - -<p>E. B. Van Deman, “The Sullan Forum,” <i>Journal of Roman -Studies</i> 12 (1922), 1–31</p> - -<p>C. C. Van Essen, <i>Sulla als Bouwheer</i> (Groningen, 1940)</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 6: <i>Augustus’ Buildings as Propaganda</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>B. Andreae, “Archäologische Funde und Grabungen im -Bereich der Soprintendenzen von Rom 1949–1956/7,” -<i>Arch. Anzeiger</i> (1957) cols. 110–358</p> - -<p>Curtius, Newrath, and Nash, <i>op. cit.</i>, under Chapter 3</p> - -<p>A. Degrassi, “Elogia,” <i>Inscriptiones Italiae</i> 13.3 (Rome, -1937)</p> - -<p>A. Degrassi, “L’edifizio dei Fasti Capitolini,” <i>Rendiconti -della pontifica accademia di archeologia</i> 21 (1945–1946), -57–104</p> - -<p>——, “Fasti,” <i>Inscriptiones Italiae</i> 13.1 (Rome, 1947)</p> - -<p>G. Lugli, <i>I monumenti antichi</i>, 3 (Rome, 1938), 194–211 -(mausoleum)</p> - -<p>——, <i>Monumenti minori del Foro Romano</i> (Rome, 1947), -77–84 (arch)</p> - -<p>G. Moretti, <i>Ara Pacis Augustae</i>, 2 vols., (Rome, 1948)</p> - -<p>H. Riemann, “Pacis Ara,” in Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll-Mittelhaus, -<i>Realenkyklopädie</i> 18 (1942), cols. 2082–2107</p> - -<p>I. S. Ryberg, “The Procession of the Ara Pacis,” <i>Mem. Am. -Acad. in Rome</i> 19 (1949), 79–101</p> - -<p>——, “Rites of the State Religion in Roman Art,” <i>ib.</i> -22 (1955)</p> - -<p>J. M. C. Toynbee, “The Ara Pacis Reconsidered and Historical -Art in Roman Italy,” <i>Proceedings of the British -Academy</i> 39 (1953), 67–95</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> -CHAPTER 7: <i>Hypocrite, Madman, Fool, and Knave</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>S. Aurigemma, <i>La basilica sotterranea neopitagorica di Porta -Maggiore in Roma</i> (Rome, 1954)</p> - -<p>G. Bandinelli, “Il monumento sotterraneo di Porta Maggiore -in Roma,” <i>Mon. Ant.</i> 31 (1927), cols. 601–848</p> - -<p>J. Carcopino, <i>La Basilique pythagoricienne de la porte -majeure</i> (Paris, 1926)</p> - -<p>G. Cultrera, “Nemi—la prima fase dei lavori per il recupero -delle navi romane,” <i>Not. Scav.</i> (1932), 206–292</p> - -<p>G. Iacopi, <i>I ritrovamenti dell’ antro cosidetto “di Tiberio” -a Sperlonga</i> (Rome, 1958)</p> - -<p>G. Ucelli, <i>Le navi di Nemi</i> (Rome, 1940)</p> - -<p>E. B. Van Deman, “The Sacra Via of Nero,” <i>Mem. Am. -Acad. in Rome</i> 5 (1925), 115–126</p> - -<p>C. C. Van Essen, “La topographie de la Domus Aurea -Neronis,” <i>Mededeelingen der Kon. Nederland. Akad. -van Wetenschappen</i>, afd. Letterkunde, nieuwe Reeks, -Deel 17 (Amsterdam, 1954), 371–398</p> - -<p>J. B. Ward Perkins, “Nero’s Golden House,” <i>Antiquity</i> 30 -(1956), 209–219</p> - -<p>F. Weege, “Das goldene Haus des Nero,” <i>Jahrbuch d. -deutsch. arch. Inst.</i> 28 (1913), 127–244</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 8: <i>The Victims of Vesuvius</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>R. C. Carrington, <i>Pompeii</i> (Oxford, 1936)</p> - -<p>E. C. Corti, <i>The Destruction and Resurrection of Pompeii -and Herculaneum</i> (London, 1951, unaltered from original -German of 1940)</p> - -<p>M. Della Corte, <i>Case ed abitanti di Pompeii</i><sup>2</sup> (Pompeii, -1954)</p> - -<p>E. Diehl, <i>Pompeianische Wandinschriften</i><sup>2</sup> (Bonn, 1930)</p> - -<p>A. Maiuri, <i>La Villa dei Misteri</i>,<sup>2</sup> 2 vols. (Rome, 1947)</p> - -<p>——, <i>Ercolano</i><sup>4</sup> (Ministry of Public Instruction <i>Guides</i>, -Rome, 1954)</p> - -<p>——, <i>Ercolano: I nuovi scavi (1927–1958)</i> I (Rome, -1958)</p> - -<p>——, <i>Pompeii</i><sup>8</sup> (MPI <i>Guides</i>, Rome, 1956)</p> - -<p>L. Richardson, Jr., “Pompeii: the Casa dei Dioscuri and its -Painters,” <i>Mem. Am. Acad. in Rome</i> 23 (1955)</p> - -<p>V. Spinazzola, <i>Pompeii alla luce degli scavi nuovi di Via -dell’ Abbondanza (Anni 1910–1923)</i>, 2 vols. and vol. -of plates (Rome, 1953)</p> - -<p>A. W. Van Buren, “Pompeii,” in <i>RE</i>, (1952) cols. 1999–2038</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> -CHAPTER 9: <i>Flavian Rome</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>P. H. von Blanckenhagen, <i>Flavische Architektur</i> (Berlin, -1940)</p> - -<p>A. M. Colini, “Forum Pacis,” <i>Bull. Comm.</i> 65 (1938), 7–40</p> - -<p>——, <i>Stadium Domitiani</i> (Rome, 1943)</p> - -<p>G. Cozzo, <i>Ingegneria Romana</i> (Roma, 1928)</p> - -<p>C. Liugli, <i>Roma antica</i> (Roma, 1946), 269–276 (Forum -Pacis, Forum Transitorium), 319–348 (Coliseum), 486–493, -509–516 (Palace of Domitian)</p> - -<p>F. Magi, <i>I Rilievi Flavi del Palazzo della Cancelleria</i> (Rome, -1945)</p> - -<p>M. Scherer, <i>op. cit.</i> in Ch. 3, 49–62 (Palatine); 75–76 (Arch -of Titus), 80–89 (Coliseum), 101–102 (Forum “of Nerva”)</p> - -<p>J. M. C. Toynbee, <i>The Flavian Reliefs from the Palazzo -della Cancelleria in Rome</i> (Oxford, 1957)</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 10: <i>Trajan: Port, Forum, Market, Column</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>C. Becatti, <i>Scavi di Ostia</i> 2 (Rome, 1954) (Mithraea)</p> - -<p>G. Boni, “Roma—Esplorazione del Forum Ulpium,” <i>Not. -Scav.</i> (1907), 361–427</p> - -<p>J. Bradford, <i>Ancient Landscapes</i>, 248–256 (Claudius’ and -Trajan’s harbors)</p> - -<p>G. Calza, <i>Scavi di Ostia</i>, 1 (Rome, 1953)</p> - -<p>—— and G. Becatti, <i>Ostia</i><sup>4</sup> (MPI <i>Guides</i>, Rome, 1957)</p> - -<p>——, <i>La necropoli del Porto di Roma nell’ Isola Sacra</i> -(Rome, 1940)</p> - -<p>J. Carcopino, <i>Daily Life in Ancient Rome</i> (New Haven, -1940), 173–184 (businessmen and manual laborers)</p> - -<p>P. Ducati, <i>L’arte classica</i><sup>3</sup> (Turin, 1948), 619–628 (Trajan’s -Forum and Column)</p> - -<p>K. Lehmann-Hartleben, “Die antiken Hafenanlagen des -Mittelmeeres,” <i>Klio</i>, Beiheft 14 (1923), 182–198 (Claudius’ -and Trajan’s harbors)</p> - -<p>G. Lugli, <i>Roma antica</i> (Rome, 1946), 278–307 (Trajan’s -Forum and Market)</p> - -<p>—— and C. Filibeck, <i>Il Porto di Roma imperiale e l’agro -Portuense</i> (Rome, 1935)</p> - -<p>R. Meiggs, art. “Ostia,” in <i>Oxf. Class. Dict.</i> (Oxford, 1949)</p> - -<p>P. Romanelli, <i>La colonna traiana: relievi fotografici eseguiti -in occasione dei lavori di protezione antiaerea</i> (Rome, -1942)</p> - -<p>E. D. Thatcher, “The Open Rooms of the Terme del Foro -at Ostia,” <i>Mem. Am. Acad. in Rome</i> 24 (1956), 167–264</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> -CHAPTER 11: <i>An Emperor-Architect: Hadrian</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>S. Aurigemma, <i>Villa adriana</i>^3 (Tivoli, 1955)</p> - -<p>H. Bloch, “I bolli laterizi e la storia edilizia romana,” <i>Bull. -Comm.</i> 65 (1937), 115–187</p> - -<p>E. Clark, <i>Rome and a Villa</i> (New York, 1952), 141–194</p> - -<p>H. Kähler, <i>Hadrian und seine Villa bei Tivoli</i> (Berlin, -1950)</p> - -<p>G. Lugli, <i>I monumenti antichi</i>, 3 (Roma, 1938), 123–150 -(Pantheon), 693–708 (Hadrian’s mausoleum)</p> - -<p>——, <i>Roma antica</i> (Rome, 1946), 234–240 (Temple of -Venus and Rome)</p> - -<p>D. S. Robertson, <i>A Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture</i><sup>2</sup> -(Cambridge, 1954), 246–251 (Pantheon), 252–254, -316 (Piazza d’Oro)</p> - -<p>A. W. Van Buren, “Recent Finds at Hadrian’s Tiburtine -Villa,” <i>Am. Journ. of Archaeology</i> 59 (1955), 215–217 -(Canopus)</p> - -<p>M. Yourcenar, <i>Mémoires d’Hadrien</i> (Paris, 1951; Engl. -trans., New York, 1954)</p> - -<p>L. Ziehen, art. “Pantheion,” in <i>RE</i> 18 (1949), cols. 729–741</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 12: <i>Roman Engineering</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>American Architect</i> 98 (Oct. 5, 1910), 113–118 (Pennsylvania -Station)</p> - -<p>W. J. Anderson, R. P. Spiers, and T. Ashby, <i>The Architecture -of Ancient Rome</i> (London, 1927), 99–113 (Baths)</p> - -<p>T. Ashby, <i>Aqueducts of Ancient Rome</i> (Oxford, 1935)</p> - -<p>Van Wyck Brooks, <i>The Dream of Arcadia</i> (New York, 1958), -239 ff.</p> - -<p>R. J. Forbes, <i>Notes on the History of Ancient Roads and -their Construction</i> (Amsterdam, 1934), 115–168</p> - -<p>M. W. Frederiksen and J. B. Ward Perkins, “The Ancient -Road Systems of the Central and Northern Ager Faliscus,” -<i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i> 12 (1957), -67–208</p> - -<p>H. S. Jones, <i>Companion to Roman History</i> (Oxford, 1912), -40–49 (Roads)</p> - -<p>L. Mumford, “The Disappearance of Pennsylvania Station,” -<i>New Yorker</i> 34 (June 7, 1958), 106–113</p> - -<p>H. Plommer, <i>Ancient and Classical Architecture</i> (London, -1956), 338–344 (Baths)</p> - -<p>Sir Albert Richardson, R.A., Letter to New York <i>Times</i>, -Mar. 1, 1959</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> -I. A. Richmond, <i>The City Wall of Imperial Rome</i> (Oxford, -1930)</p> - -<p>G. H. Stevenson, “Communications and Commerce,” in <i>The -Legacy of Rome</i> (ed. C. Bailey, Oxford, 1923), 141–172</p> - -<p>E. B. Van Deman, <i>The Building of the Roman Aqueducts</i> -(Washington, 1934)</p> - -<p>C. C. Van Essen, “The Via Valeria from Tivoli to Collarmele,” -<i>Papers Br. Sch. at Rome</i> 12 (1957), 22–38</p></blockquote> - -<p>CHAPTER 13: <i>Caesar and Christ</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>B. M. Apollonj-Ghetti, A. Ferrua, E. Josi, E. Kirschbaum, -<i>Esplorazioni sotto la confessione di San Pietro in Vaticano -eseguite negli anni 1940–1949</i>, 2 vols. (Rome, -1951)</p> - -<p>G. V. Gentili, “Piazza Armerina: grandiosa villa romana in -contrada Casale,” <i>Not. Scav.</i> (1951), 291–335</p> - -<p>——, <i>The Imperial Villa of Piazza Armerina</i> (MPI -<i>Guides</i>, Rome, 1956)</p> - -<p>H. P. L’Orange and E. Dyggve, “Is it a Palace of Maximian -Herculeus that the excavations of Piazza Armerina -bring to light?,” <i>Symbolae Osloenses</i> 29 (1952), 114–128</p> - -<p>M. Guarducci, <i>La tomba di Pietro</i> (Rome, 1959; there is -also an English translation)</p> - -<p>E. Kirschbaum, <i>The Tombs of Peter and Paul</i> (New York, -1959)</p> - -<p>B. Pace, <i>I mosaici di Piazza Armerina</i> (Rome, 1955)</p> - -<p>J. M. C. Toynbee and J. B. Ward Perkins, <i>The Shrine of -St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations</i> (London, 1956)</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="index"> -<h2 id="INDEX" class="nobreak nobreakafter p1">INDEX OF PROPER NAMES</h2> - -<ul class="index nobreak"> -<li class="ifrst nobreak">Achilles, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Actium, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Admiralty, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aemilius Paulus, L., <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aeneas, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agave, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agrippa, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agrippina, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alaric, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alba Fucens, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alba Longa, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alban Hills, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Albenga, 104<i>n.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Albinius, L., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alexander Severus, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Altheim, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amazon, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ambrosia, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anchises, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ancona, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ancus Martius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Andromache, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anicetus, Pope, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anio (tufa), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antinous, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antonia (major), <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antonia (minor), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antonines, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antoninus Pius, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antony, Mark, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anzio, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apollo, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apollodorus (of Damascus), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apulia. <i>See</i> Puglia</li> - -<li class="indx">Aqua Appia, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arachne, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ardea, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arene Candide, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ares, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arezzo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Argo, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ariadne, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ariminum. <i>See</i> Rimini</li> - -<li class="indx">Arion, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arno, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arnoaldi, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arretine ware, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arrius Crescens, C., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Artemis, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ascanius, s. of Aeneas, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ashby, T., <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athena, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athens, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Audebert, N., <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Augean Stables, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Augustus, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149–52</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Octavian</li> - -<li class="indx">Aules Feluskes, stele, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Babbitt, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Babylonia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bacchus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baiae, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ballance, M., <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Balzi Rossi, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barberini, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belgians, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belisarius, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bellona, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benacci, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benevento, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bernini, G. B., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bithynia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bituitus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bizerta, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bloch, H., <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bocchoris, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bologna, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bolsena, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bonaparte, Lucien, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boni, G., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boscoreale, villa at, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boscotrecase, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boston, Public Library, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bovianum Vetus, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bovillae, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bracciano, Lake, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bracciolini, Poggio, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bradford, John, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bramante, D., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brindisi, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Britannia, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">British School at Rome, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brizio, G., <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brown, F. E., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bruno, G., <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Byzantium, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Caecilius Jucundus, L., <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caere. <i>See</i> Cerveteri</li> - -<li class="indx">Cagliari, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caligula, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calpurnia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calpurnius Piso, L., <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calza, G., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Campagna, Roman, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Campo di Servirola, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canale, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canino, Princess of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Canopus, at Alexandria, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Bon, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Capestrano, Warrior of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Capua, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caracalla, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caravaggio, M., <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carcopino, J., <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carrhae, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carthage, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caryatids, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casanova, G. B., <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Castagnoli, F., 78<i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Castel Gandolfo, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Castellazzo di Fontanellato, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Castor, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cato the Elder, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">centuriation, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cerberus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Certosa, situla, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cerveteri, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ceryneia, Hind of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charun, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chatti, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chicago, Pit, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chippendale, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chiusi, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Christ, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Christianity, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cicero, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ciminian Forest, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Civil War, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cività Castellana, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clark, Eleanor, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Claudius Caecus, Ap., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Claudius, Emperor, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Claudius Marcellus, M., <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cleopatra, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clusium. <i>See</i> Chiusi</li> - -<li class="indx">Colini, A. M., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Columbus, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commodus, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Como, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Constantine, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340–42</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Constantius, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Constantius Chlorus, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cora, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corchiano, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corinth, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corinthian, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cortona, Pietro da, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cosa, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cozza, L., <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cozzo, G., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crassus, M. Licinius, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cremona, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crete, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crucifixion, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cumae, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cupids, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyclopean walls, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyparissus, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyprus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyrene, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dacia, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Danaids, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Danube, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daphne, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Degrassi, A., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Della Robbia ware, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Demeter, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dennis, G., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diana, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dimini, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diocletian, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diomedes, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dionysius I, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dionysus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Domitia, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Domitian, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240–43</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Domitius Ahenobarbus, L., <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doric, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drusus, Nero Claudius, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ducati, P., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dumas, A. (père), <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dutch art, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Egypt, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elba, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eleusinian mysteries, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ennius, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Epicureans, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Este, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruria, Etruscans, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25–61</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Euclid, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Euryalus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eurydice, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evander, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fabullus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Faesulae, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Falerii Novi, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Falerii Veteres. <i>See</i> Cività Castellana</li> - -<li class="indx">Faliscans, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fascists, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fasolo, F., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fasti</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Faustinus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ferrara, museum, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fidenae (tufa), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fiorelli, G., <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fiumicino, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flavian Amphitheater. <i>See</i> Rome, Coliseum</li> - -<li class="indx">Flavians, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Florence, Archaeological Museum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Forma Urbis.</i> <i>See</i> Marble Plan</li> - -<li class="indx">Francis I, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">François, A., <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frangipani, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frank, T., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frontinus, Sex. Julius, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Furies, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gabii, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gaius Caesar (g.-son of Augustus), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Galba, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gallese, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gallicano, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gamberini, R., <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ganymede, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Garibaldi, G., <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gauls, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Genius, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gentili, G. V., <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Geometric ware, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Georgics</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Germanicus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Germans, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Geryon, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Giant’s Grave, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Giglioli, G. Q., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gjerstad, E., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goethe, J. W. von, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Golasecca, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gomorrah, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goths, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gracchus:</li> -<li class="isub1">C. Sempronius, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">T. Sempronius (elder), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">T. Sempronius (younger), <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greece, Greeks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grotta Oscura (tufa), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grota Porciosa, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guglielmi, Marchese, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gullini, G., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gustav VI, King, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hades, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hadrian, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273–297</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Halicarnassus, Mausoleum of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hamilton, Emma Lady, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hamlin, T., <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hannibal, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harvard Stadium, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hector, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Helen, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hellenism, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hemingway, E., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herculaneum, <a href="#Page_195">195–97</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hercules, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hermes, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herodotus, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hesione, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hippo, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hippolytus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hirtius, A., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollywood, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Honorius, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horace, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horus, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Humbert I, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iacopi, G., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Iliad</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Illyricum, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ionic, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>,</li> -<li class="isub1">Ionic-Italic, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iphigenia, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron Age, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64–67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Isis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Istacidius Zosimus, L., <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Istituto Geografico Militare, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Italia, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Italic culture, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Japanese, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jason, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jefferson, T., <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jews, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jonah, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jordan R., <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Joseph, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Julia, d. of Augustus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Julia Domna, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Julio-Claudians, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Julius Caesar, C., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the elder, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Juno, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jupiter, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Juvenal, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kähler, H., <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kos, Sanctuary of Asclepius, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lamboglia, N., 104<i>n.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Lanciani, R., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Laocoön, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Latins, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Latium, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lavinium, 78<i>n.</i></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lays of Ancient Rome</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lehmann, Phyllis, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lemnos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leontini, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lepcis, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lerici, C. M., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Libby, W. F., <a href="#Page_15">15</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Ligorio, Pirro, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lilliu, G., <a href="#Page_15">15–17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lipari Is., <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liris valley, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Livia, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Livy, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">London, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">L’Orange, H. P., <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lorraine, Claude, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Louvre, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucilius, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucius Caesar, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucrece, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucretius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Luculli, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucullus:</li> -<li class="isub1">L. Licinius, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">M., <a href="#Page_120">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ludwig I, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lutatius Catulus, Q., <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">McKim, C. F., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Macro, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Macstrna, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Madison, Wis., <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maecenas, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magi, F., <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magi, the three, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maiuri, A., <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Malalas, John, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mandela, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marble:</li> -<li class="isub1">African, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Carrara, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Parian, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Pentelic, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marble Plan, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marcellus, M. Claudius, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maremma, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marius, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, 105<i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mars, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239–41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marsyas, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Martial, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Martyrs, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marzabotto, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31–33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Masseria Fongo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Matera, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maxentius, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maximian, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maximilian, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medea, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medusa, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Menelaus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mengarelli, P., <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mercury, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Messina, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Michael, archangel, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Michelangelo, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Milan, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minerva, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mithras, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mithridates VI, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Modena, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Molfetta, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monica, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monteverde (tufa), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moretti, G., <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mostra Augustea della Romanità, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mozart, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mumford, L., <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Murat, J., <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Muse(s), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mussolini, B., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mycenae, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Naples, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">museum, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nemean lion, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nemi, Lake, 104<i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nepi, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nereids, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nero, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171–73</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nerva, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nessus, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">New York, Pennsylvania Station, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nile, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Numa, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Numidia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>nuraghi</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Octavia, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Octavian, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Augustus</li> - -<li class="indx">Odysseus, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Olympic victors, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Olynthus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orestes, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orpheus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orsi, P., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orvieto, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Oscan, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Osimo, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Osiris, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ostia, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251–65</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Otho, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ovid, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pace, B., <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pacuvius, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paestum, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Palestrina, Sanctuary of Fortune, <a href="#Page_116">116–38</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Palladio, A., <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Palladium, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pan, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paris, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parma, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parthenon frieze, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parthians, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pascolare di Castello, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pasiphaë, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Passo di Corvo, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Patroclus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pega valley, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pelasgian walls, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Penates, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pergamum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Perseus, King, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Perugia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Perugino, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pesaro, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pesco Montano, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Petronius, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phaedra, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phaon, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philippi, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philodemus, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phoenicia, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phrygia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piacenza, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piazza Armerina, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Picasso, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Picenum, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pigorini, L., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piranesi, G. B., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pius:</li> -<li class="isub1">XI, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">XII, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Placentia. <i>See</i> Piacenza</li> - -<li class="indx">Plautus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pliny (elder), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pollux, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polybius, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polyphemus, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pompeii, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196–223</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pompey, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pomptine marshes, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ponte Lupo, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pontifex Maximus, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pope(s), the, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poppaea, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Populonia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Porsenna, Lars, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Portus, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Postumius, A., <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pozzuoli, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Praeneste. <i>See</i> Palestrina</li> - -<li class="indx">Pratica di Mare, 78<i>n.</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Propertius, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemy XI Alexander II, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Puglia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Puglisi, S. M., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quinctius Crispinus, T., <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Quintilius Varus, P., <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rabirius, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Randall-MacIver, D., <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Raphael Santi, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rasenna, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ravenna, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reggio Emilia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Regillus, Lake, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Remus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Renaissance, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Resina, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rhodes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ricci, C., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Richardson, L., Jr., <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Richmond, I. A., <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rimini, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roma, goddess, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Romantics, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roma Quadrata, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rome:</li> -<li class="isub1">—Altar of Peace, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156–70</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Altar of Piety, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span></li> -<li class="isub1">—American Academy in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Aqueducts, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314–21</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Arches:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Augustus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150–52</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Constantine, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Septimius Severus, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Titus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Atrium Vestae, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Aurelian’s Wall, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321–26</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Aventine Hill, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Basilicas:</li> -<li class="isub2">Aemilia, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Julia, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Maxentius, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Ulpia, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Baths:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Caracalla, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Diocletian, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Titus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Trajan, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—British School at, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Campus Martius, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Cancelleria reliefs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238–41</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Capitoline:</li> -<li class="isub2">Hill, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Temple, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Wolf, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Castel Sant’ Angelo. <i>See</i> Mausoleum of Hadrian</li> -<li class="isub1">—Churches:</li> -<li class="isub2">Gesù, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">SS. Cosma e Damiano, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Giovanni in Laterano, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Sebastiano, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">S. Francesca Romana, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Sant’ Agnese, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Paolo fuori le mura, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Santa Sabina, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Santa Maria degli Angeli, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Circuses:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Maxentius, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Maximus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Clivus Argentarius, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Cloaca Maxima, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Coliseum, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230–35</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Columns:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Trajan, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269–72</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Comitium, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—<i>Domus Aurea.</i> <i>See</i> Golden House, below</li> -<li class="isub1">—Equus Domitiani, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Esquiline Hill, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Fora:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Augustus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146–50</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Caesar, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Peace, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224–26</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Romanum, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Trajan, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265–66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Transitorium (“of Nerva”), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224–25</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241–43</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—French Academy, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Golden House, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189–94</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224–25</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—House of Livia, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Hut of Romulus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Largo Argentina, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">temples in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Mausolea:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Augustus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–56</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Hadrian, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Milvian Bridge, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Mithraea, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, 310<i>n.</i></li> -<li class="isub1">—Museums:</li> -<li class="isub2">Conservatori, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Lateran, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Terme, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Villa Giulia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2"><i>See also</i> Vatican City</li> -<li class="isub1">—Odeum of Domitian, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Palatine: <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Antiquarium, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Farnese Gardens, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Flavian Palace, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243–47</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">House of Griffins, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">huts, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">stadium, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Palazzi:</li> -<li class="isub2">Caffarelli, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">della Cancelleria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Fiano, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">del Senatore, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Venezia, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Pantheon:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Agrippa, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Hadrian, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285–89</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Piazze:</li> -<li class="isub2">Navona, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">del Popolo, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Pons Sublicius, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Ponte Sant’ Angelo, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Porte:</li> -<li class="isub2">Appia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Asinaria, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">del Popolo, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Maggiore, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Pancrazio, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Porticus of Octavia, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Quirinal, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Regia, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Rostra, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Septimontium, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—“Servian” Wall, <a href="#Page_85">85–90</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span></li> -<li class="isub1">—Stadium of Domitian, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247–50</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—subterranean basilica, at Pta. Maggiore, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182–89</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Subura, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Swedish Institute, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Tabularium, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Temples:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Antoninus and Faustina, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Castor, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Deified Julius, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Deified Trajan, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Fortuna Redux, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Minerva, <a href="#Page_228">228–29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Peace, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Venus and Rome, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280–83</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Venus Victrix, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Theaters:</li> -<li class="isub2">of Marcellus, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Pompey, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Torre dei Conti, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Trajan’s Market, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267–69</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Trastevere, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Vatican Hill, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Vesta, Shrine of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Vie:</li> -<li class="isub2">Biberatica, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">di Grotta Pinta, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">dell’ Impero, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> -<li class="isub1">—Ville:</li> -<li class="isub2">Medici, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">under Farnesina, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Romulus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roselle, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rosetta Stone, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rostra, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rothschild, Edward de, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ruspoli, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sabina, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sabines, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Säflund, G., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Paul, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Peter, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> - -<li class="indx">St. Peter’s. <i>See</i> Vatican City</li> - -<li class="indx">Salerno, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Samnites, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">San Fuoco d’Angelone, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">San Giovenale, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Severa (Pyrgi), <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sappho, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saracens, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sardinia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sargent, J. S., <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Satricum, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scherer, M., <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scylla, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sejanus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Septimius Severus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Servius Tullius, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sesklo, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sesto, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Severi, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sfax, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sicily, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Siculans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silenus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silius Italicus, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silvanus, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sixtus V, Pope, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Social War, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Civil War</li> - -<li class="indx">Sodom, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solway, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spalato, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sperlonga, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173–78</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spina, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spinazzola, V., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spoleto, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Statilius Taurus, T., <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stone, Kirk H., <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stone Age, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Subiaco, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sulla, L. Cornelius, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Su Nuraxi, <a href="#Page_15">15–17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Swedish Institute in Rome, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syphax, King, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syracuse, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syria, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tacitus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tagliacozzo, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarpeia, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarchunies Rumach, Cn., <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarquinia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40–42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46–48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarquinius Romanus, Cn., <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarquins: <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Tarquinius Priscus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Tarquinius Superbus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarracina, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tauris, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tavoliere, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tellus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>terremare</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Teutoberg Forest, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thatcher, E. D., <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thetis, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thoas, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tiber, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tiberius, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171–73</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tibur. <i>See</i> Tivoli</li> - -<li class="indx">Tin (god), <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Titus, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tivoli: <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">aqueducts near, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Hadrian’s Villa near, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274–80</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289–92</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294–95</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">T. of Hercules Victor, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">T. at Sibylla, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Villa d’Este, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torlonia, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torre dell’ Isola, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torre Galli, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Toynbee, Jocelyn M., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trajan, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Travertine, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trieste, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trimalchio, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Triptolemus, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tritons, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Troy, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tuchulcha, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tufas, table of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tullus Hostilius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turin, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turner, F. J., <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tuscan, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyne, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ulysses, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Uni, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vaglieri, D., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valadier, J., <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valerian, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valerius Maximus, Man., <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vandals, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Van Deman, E. B., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317–19</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Van Essen, C. C., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vatican City:</li> -<li class="isub1">cemetery under Annona, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Old St. Peter’s, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">St. Peter’s, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">St. Peter’s, cemetery under, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Vatican Museum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Vatican Palace, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Veii, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83–85</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Velasquez, D., <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Velcha, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Venus, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vergil, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Versailles, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vespasian, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240–43</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vesta, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vestals, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vesuvius, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vetulonia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vibenna, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vibo Valentia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vibrata valley, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vicovaro, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Victor Emanuel II, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Victoria, Queen, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Victory, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vie:</li> -<li class="isub1">Aemilia, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Amerina, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Appia, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Aurelia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Flaminia, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Latina, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Ostiensis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Salaria, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Tiburtina, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Valeria, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vienna, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Villanovan(s), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Virginia, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vitellius, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vitruvius, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volterra, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volubilis, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vulca, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vulci, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ward Perkins, J. B., <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weege, F., <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Winckelmann, J. J., <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wisconsin, U. of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yourcenar, M., <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zagreb, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -</ul> -</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 id="Transcribers_Notes" class="nobreak p1">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks were remedied when the correction was apparent, -and otherwise left unresolved.</p> - -<p>Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.</p> - -<p>Some images have been rotated 90° to make them easier to read.</p> - -<p>In the original book, two or three images often -were placed on the same page and sometimes overlapped each -other to save space. In this eBook, they are shown separately, -in Figure-number sequence.</p> - -<p>Images have been moved, when necessary, between paragraphs, -so the page numbers in the List of Illustrations do not always -match the actual positions of the images in this eBook.</p> - -<p>Images were of various sizes in the original book. Here, most -are shown at a uniformly-large size, while a few are shown -even larger to make details and text identifications readable.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#ip_2_9">Fig. 2.9</a></span> was printed as shown, apparently mirror-image, -perhaps as a rubbed impression.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#ip_7_4">Fig. 7.4</a></span> had no caption; the one shown in this eBook -was copied from the List of Illustrations.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#ip_8_7">Fig. 8.7</a></span>’s “Legend” was difficult to read and has not -been transcribed.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_301">301</a>: “CXX” was enclosed in a rectangular medallion.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Mute Stones Speak, by Paul Lachlan MacKendrick - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MUTE STONES SPEAK *** - -***** This file should be named 57308-h.htm or 57308-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/7/3/0/57308/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Charlie Howard, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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