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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 56507 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: The Errata (after the List of Plates) have been worked
+into the main text. All other apparent mistakes have been retained as
+printed. Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_); page
+numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to
+facilitate the use of the Index..
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GEOGRAPHICAL
+
+DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS
+
+_WITH A STUDY OF THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT FAUNAS AS ELUCIDATING
+THE PAST CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE._
+
+BY
+
+ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE,
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO," ETC.
+
+WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+_IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOLUME II._
+
+London: MACMILLAN AND CO. 1876.
+
+[_The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
+  BREAD STREET HILL.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
+
+  PART III. (_continued_).
+
+  ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF
+  ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS,
+  WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS.
+
+  CHAPTER XIV.
+
+  THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.
+
+  General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region (p. 5)--Distinctive
+  Characters of Neotropical Mammalia (p. 6)--Of Neotropical Birds (p. 7)--
+  Neotropical Reptiles (p. 9)--Fresh-water Fishes (p. 12)--Insects (p. 13)
+  --Coleoptera (p. 15)--Land Shells (p. 19)--Marine Shells (p. 20)--
+  Brazilian Sub-region (p. 21)--Its Mammalia (p. 23)--Its Birds (p. 24)--
+  Islands of Tropical South America, Galapagos (p. 29)--Chilian Sub-region
+  (p. 36)--Birds (p. 38)--Reptiles and Amphibia (p. 40)--Fresh-water
+  Fishes (p. 42)--Lepidoptera (p. 42)--Coleoptera (p. 44)--Islands of South
+  Temperate America (p. 49)--Mexican Sub-region (p. 51)--Mammalia and
+  Birds (p. 52)--Reptiles and Fishes (p. 54)--Insects (p. 55)--Relations of
+  the Mexican Sub-region to the North and South American Continents (p. 57)
+  --Islands of the Mexican Sub-region (p. 59)--The Antillean Sub-region
+  (p. 60)--Its Mammalia (p. 62)--Its Birds (p. 64)--Table of the Resident
+  Land Birds of the Antilles (p. 68)--Reptiles (p. 72)--Insects (p. 73)--
+  Land Shells (p. 75)--Past History of the Antilles (p. 78)--Summary of the
+  Past History of the Neotropical Region (p. 80)--Table I. Families of
+  Animals inhabiting the Neotropical Region (p. 85)--Table II. Genera of
+  Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the Neotropical Region (p. 91)
+                                                                      1-113
+
+  CHAPTER XV.
+
+  THE NEARCTIC REGION.
+  Zoological Characteristics of the Nearctic Region (p. 115)--List of
+  Typical Nearctic Genera of Land Birds (p. 118)--Summary of Nearctic
+  Vertebrata (p. 120)--Insects (p. 122)--Terrestrial and Fluviatile
+  Mollusca (p. 124)--The Californian Sub-region (p. 127)--The Rocky
+  Mountain Sub-region (p. 129)--The Alleghany Sub-region (p. 131)--The
+  Bermudas (p. 134)--The Canadian Sub-region (p. 135)--Greenland
+  (p. 138)--Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Nearctic Region
+  (p. 140)--Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the
+  Nearctic Region (p. 145)                                          114-153
+
+  CHAPTER XVI.
+
+  SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS
+                                                                    154-164
+
+  PART IV.
+
+  GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY: A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND
+  ANIMALS IN THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS.
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                      167-169
+
+  CHAPTER XVII.
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA.
+
+  Primates (p. 170)--General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates
+  (p. 179)--Chiroptera (p. 181)--Remarks on the Distribution of Chiroptera
+  (p. 185)--Insectivora (p. 186)--General Remarks on the Distribution of
+  Insectivora (p. 191)--Carnivora (p. 192)--General Remarks on the
+  Distribution of the Carnivora (p. 204)--Cetacea (p. 207)--Sirenia
+  (p. 210)--Ungulata (p. 211)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the
+  Ungulata (p. 226)--Proboscidea (p. 227)--Hyracoidea (p. 228)--Rodentia
+  (p. 229)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Rodentia (p. 243)--
+  Edentata (p. 244)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata
+  (p. 247)--Marsupialia (p. 248)--General Remarks on the Distribution of
+  Marsupialia (p. 253)--Monotremata (p. 253)                        170-254
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS.
+
+  Passeres (p. 255)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Passeres
+  (p. 299)--Picariæ (p. 302)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the
+  Picariæ (p. 322)--Psittaci (p. 324)--General Remarks on the Distribution
+  of the Psittaci (p. 329)--Columbæ (p. 331)--General Remarks on the
+  Distribution of the Columbæ (p. 335)--Gallinæ (p. 337)--General Remarks
+  on the Distribution of Gallinæ (p. 344)--Opisthocomi (p. 345)--Accipitres
+  (p. 345)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Accipitres (p. 351)
+  --Grallæ (p. 351)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Grallæ
+  (p. 362)--Anseres (p. 363)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the
+  Anseres (p. 367)--Struthiones (p. 368)--Struthious Birds recently Extinct
+  (p. 369)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones (p. 370)
+                                                                    255-371
+
+  CHAPTER XIX.
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.
+
+  Ophidia (p. 372)--General Remarks on the Distribution of Ophidia (p. 386)
+  --Lacertilia (p. 388)--General Remarks on the Distribution of Lacertilia
+  (p. 403)--Rhyncocephalina (p. 405)--Crocodilia (p. 405)--General Remarks
+  on the Distribution of Crocodilia (p. 406)--Chelonia (p. 407)--Remarks on
+  the Distribution of Chelonia (p. 410)--Amphibia, Pseudophidia (p. 411)--
+  Urodela (p. 411)--Anura (p. 414)--General Remarks on the Distribution of
+  Amphibia (p. 422)                                                 372-423
+
+  CHAPTER XX.
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH GENERA
+  AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.
+
+  Acanthopterygii (p. 424)---Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi (p. 437)--
+  Anacanthini (p. 439)--Physostomi (p. 441)--Lophobranchii (p. 456)--
+  Plectognathi (p. 457)--Sirenoidei (p. 458)--Ganoidei (p. 458)--
+  Chondropterygii (p. 460)--Cyclostomata (p. 463)--Leptocardii (p. 464)--
+  Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes (p. 464)                    424-467
+
+  CHAPTER XXI.
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF
+  INSECTS.
+
+  Lepidoptera (p. 470)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal
+  Lepidoptera and Sphingidea (p. 483)--Coleoptera (p. 486)--Cicindelidæ
+  (p. 486)--Carabidæ (p. 488)--Lucanidæ (p. 492)--Cetoniidæ (p. 494)--
+  Buprestidæ (p. 495)--Longicornia (p. 498)--General Observations on the
+  Distribution of Coleoptera (p. 502)                               468-503
+
+  CHAPTER XXII.
+
+  AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.
+
+  Cephalopoda (p. 505)--Gasteropoda (p. 507)--Pulmonifera (p. 512)--General
+  Observations on the Distribution of Land Mollusca (p. 522)--Pteropoda
+  (p. 531)--Brachiopoda (p. 532)--Conchifera (p. 533)--General Remarks on
+  the Distribution of Marine Mollusca (p. 537)                      504-539
+
+  CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+  SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND LINES OF MIGRATION OF THE SEVERAL
+  CLASSES OF ANIMALS.
+
+  Mammalia (p. 540)--Lines of Migration of the Mammalia (p. 544)--Birds
+  (p. 545)--Reptiles (p. 547)--Amphibia (p. 548)--Fresh-water Fishes
+  (p. 549)--Insects (p. 550)--Terrestrial Mollusca (p. 551)--Conclusion
+  (p. 552)                                                          540-553
+
+  GENERAL INDEX                                                         557
+
+
+
+
+MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.
+
+
+
+                                                             _To face page_
+
+  1. Map of the Neotropical Region                                        3
+
+  2. Plate   XIV. A Brazilian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia        24
+
+  3. Plate    XV. A Scene on the Upper Amazon, with some Characteristic
+                    Birds                                                28
+
+  4. Plate   XVI. The Chilian Andes, with Characteristic Animals         40
+
+  5. Plate  XVII. A Scene in Cuba, with Characteristic Animals           67
+
+  6. Map of the Nearctic Region                                         115
+
+  7. Plate XVIII. Scene in California with some Characteristic Birds    128
+
+  8. Plate   XIX. The North American Prairies with Characteristic
+                    Mammalia                                            130
+
+  9. Plate    XX. A Canadian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia        136
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA IN VOL. II.
+
+As in Vol. I. mis-spellings are not given here, being mostly corrected in
+the Index.
+
+
+  Page 111, No. 642, _for_ 1 _read_ 2.
+    "  111, No. 643, _for_ 15 _read_ 9.
+    "  267, line 7, _add_ Borneo.
+    "  276, line 10, _for_ 16 Genera _read_ 11 Genera.
+    "   "   8 lines from foot, for _Drepanornis_ read _Neodrepanis_.
+    "  291, 5 lines from foot, for _Sayornis_ read _Empidias_.
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
+OF ANIMALS.
+
+PART III. (_continued._)
+
+_ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY:_
+
+_A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND
+SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS._
+
+[Illustration: NEOTROPICAL REGION]
+
+
+
+
+{3}CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.
+
+
+This region, comprehending not only South America but Tropical North
+America and the Antilles, may be compared as to extent with the Ethiopian
+region; but it is distinguished from all the other great zoological
+divisions of the globe, by the small proportion of its surface occupied by
+deserts, by the large proportion of its lowlands, and by the altogether
+unequalled extent and luxuriance of its tropical forests. It further
+possesses a grand mountain range, rivalling the Himalayas in altitude and
+far surpassing them in extent, and which, being wholly situated within the
+region and running through eighty degrees of latitude, offers a variety of
+conditions and an extent of mountain slopes, of lofty plateaus and of deep
+valleys, which no other tropical region can approach. It has a further
+advantage in a southward prolongation far into the temperate zone,
+equivalent to a still greater extension of its lofty plateaus; and this
+has, no doubt, aided the development of the peculiar alpine forms of life
+which abound in the southern Andes. The climate of this region is
+exceptionally favourable. Owing to the lofty mountain range situated along
+its western margin, the moisture-laden trade winds from the Atlantic have
+free access to the interior. A sufficient proportion of this moisture
+reaches the higher slopes of the Andes, where its condensation gives rise
+to innumerable streams, which cut deep ravines and carry down such an
+amount of sediment, that they have formed the vast plains of the Amazon, of
+{4}Paraguay, and of the Orinooko out of what were once, no doubt, arms of
+the sea, separating the large islands of Guiana, Brazil, and the Andes.
+From these concurrent favourable conditions, there has resulted that
+inexhaustible variety of generic and specific forms with a somewhat limited
+range of family and ordinal types, which characterise neotropical zoology
+to a degree nowhere else to be met with.
+
+Together with this variety and richness, there is a remarkable uniformity
+of animal life over all the tropical continental portions of the region, so
+that its division into sub-regions is a matter of some difficulty. There
+is, however, no doubt about separating the West Indian islands as forming a
+well-marked subdivision; characterised, not only by that poverty of forms
+which is a general feature of ancient insular groups, but also by a number
+of peculiar generic types, some of which are quite foreign to the remainder
+of the region. We must exclude, however, the islands of Trinidad, Tobago,
+and a few other small islands near the coast, which zoologically form a
+part of the main land. Again, the South Temperate portion of the continent,
+together with the high plateaus of the Andes to near the equator, form a
+well-marked subdivision, characterised by a peculiar fauna, very distinct
+both positively and negatively from that of the tropical lowland districts.
+The rest of Tropical South America is so homogeneous in its forms of life
+that it cannot be conveniently subdivided for the purposes of a work like
+the present. There are, no doubt, considerable differences in various parts
+of its vast area, due partly to its having been once separated into three
+or more islands, in part to existing diversities of physical conditions;
+and more exact knowledge may enable us to form several provinces or perhaps
+additional sub-regions. A large proportion of the genera, however, when
+sufficiently numerous in species, range over almost the whole extent of
+this sub-region wherever the conditions are favourable. Even the Andes do
+not seem to form such a barrier as has been supposed. North of the equator,
+where its western slopes are moist and forest-clad, most of the genera are
+found on both sides. To the south of this line its western valleys are arid
+and its lower plains almost deserts; and thus the absence of a {5}number of
+groups to which verdant forests are essential, can be traced to the
+unsuitable conditions rather than to the existence of the mountain barrier.
+All Tropical South America, therefore, is here considered to form but one
+sub-region.
+
+The portion of North America that lies within the tropics, closely
+resembles the last sub-region in general zoological features. It possesses
+hardly any positive distinctions; but there are several of a negative
+character, many important groups being wholly confined to South America. On
+the other hand many genera range into Mexico and Guatemala from the north,
+which never reach South America; so that it is convenient to separate this
+district as a sub-region, which forms, to some extent, a transition to the
+Nearctic region.
+
+_General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region._--Richness combined
+with isolation is the predominant feature of Neotropical zoology, and no
+other region can approach it in the number of its peculiar family and
+generic types. It has eight families of Mammalia absolutely confined to it,
+besides several others which are rare elsewhere. These consist of two
+families of monkeys, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, both abounding in genera and
+species; the Phyllostomidæ, or blood-sucking bats; Chinchillidæ and Caviidæ
+among rodents; besides the greater part of the Octodontidæ, Echimyidæ and
+Cercolabidæ. Among edentata, it has Bradypodidæ, or sloths, Dasypodidæ, or
+armadillos, and Myrmecophagidæ, or anteaters, constituting nearly the
+entire order; while Procyonidæ, belonging to the carnivora, and
+Didelphyidæ, a family of marsupials, only extend into the Nearctic region.
+It has also many peculiar groups of carnivora and of Muridæ, making a total
+of full a hundred genera confined to the region. Hardly less remarkable is
+the absence of many wide-spread groups. With the exception of one genus in
+the West Indian islands and a _Sorex_ which reaches Guatemala and Costa
+Rica, the Insectivora are wholly wanting; as is also the extensive and
+wide-spread family of the Viverridæ. It has no oxen or sheep, and indeed no
+form of ruminant except deer and llamas; neither do its vast forests and
+grassy plains support a single form of non-ruminant ungulate, except the
+tapir and the peccary.
+
+{6}_Birds._--In birds, the Neotropical region is even richer and more
+isolated. It possesses no less than 23 families wholly confined within its
+limits, with 7 others which only extend into the Nearctic region. The names
+of the peculiar families are: Cærebidæ, or sugar-birds; Phytotomidæ, or
+plant-cutters; Pipridæ, or manakins; Cotingidæ, or chatterers;
+Formicariidæ, or ant-thrushes; Dendrocolaptidæ, or tree-creepers;
+Pteroptochidæ; Rhamphastidæ, or toucans; Bucconidæ, or puff-birds;
+Galbulidæ, or jacamas; Todidæ, or todies; Momotidæ, or motmots;
+Steatornithidæ, the guacharo, or oil-bird; Cracidæ, or curassows; Tinamidæ,
+or tinamous; Opisthocomidæ, the hoazin; Thinocoridæ; Cariamidæ; Aramidæ;
+Psophiidæ, or trumpeters; Eurypygidæ, or sun-bitterns; and Palamedeidæ, or
+horned-screamers. The seven which it possesses in common with North America
+are: Vireonidæ, or greenlets; Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers; Tanagridæ, or
+tanagers; Icteridæ, or hang-nests; Tyrannidæ, or tyrant-shrikes;
+Trochilidæ, or humming-birds; and Conuridæ, or macaws. Most of these
+families abound in genera and species, and many are of immense extent; such
+as Trochilidæ, with 115 genera, and nearly 400 species; Tyrannidæ, with
+more than 60 genera and nearly 300 species; Tanagridæ, with 43 genera and
+300 species; Dendrocolaptidæ with 43 genera and more than 200 species; and
+many other very large groups. There are nearly 600 genera peculiar to the
+Neotropical region; but in using this number as a basis of comparison with
+other regions we must remember, that owing to several ornithologists having
+made the birds of South America a special study, they have perhaps been
+more minutely subdivided than in the case of other entire tropical regions.
+
+_Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Mammalia._--It is important also to
+consider the kind and amount of difference between the various animal forms
+of this region and of the Old World. To begin with the Quadrumana, all the
+larger American monkeys (Cebidæ) differ from every Old World group in the
+possession of an additional molar tooth in each jaw; and it is in this
+group alone that the tail is developed into a prehensile organ of wonderful
+power, adapting the animals to a purely arboreal life. Four of the genera,
+comprising more than half the {7}species, have the prehensile tail, the
+remainder having this organ either short, or lax as in the Old World
+monkeys. Other differences from Old World apes, are the possession of a
+broad nasal septum, and a less opposable thumb; and the absence of
+cheek-pouches, ischial callosities, and a bony ear-tube. The Hapalidæ, or
+marmozets, agree with the Cebidæ in all these characters, but have others
+in addition which still more widely separate them from the Simiidæ; such as
+an additional premolar tooth, acute claws, and thumb not at all opposable;
+so that the whole group of American monkeys are radically different from
+the remainder of the order.
+
+The Procyonidæ are a distinct family of Carnivora, which make up for the
+scarcity of Mustelidæ in South America. The Suidæ are represented by the
+very distinct genus _Dicotyles_ (Peccary) forming a separate sub-family,
+and differing from all other genera in their dentition, the absence of tail
+and of one of the toes of the hind feet, the possession of a dorsal gland,
+and only two mammæ. The rodents are represented by the Chinchillidæ and
+Caviidæ, the latter comprising the largest animals in the order. The
+Edentata are almost wholly confined to this region; and the three families
+of the sloths (Bradypodidæ), armadillos (Dasypodidæ), and ant-eaters
+(Myrmecophagidæ), are widely separated in structure from any Old World
+animals. Lastly, we have the opossums (Didelphyidæ), a family of
+marsupials, but having no close affinity to any of the numerous Australian
+forms of that order. We have already arrived at the conclusion that the
+presence of marsupials in South America is not due to any direct
+transference from Australia, but that their introduction is comparatively
+recent, and that they came from the Old World by way of North America (vol.
+i., p. 155). But the numerous and deep-seated peculiarities of many other
+of its mammalia, would indicate a very remote origin; and a long-continued
+isolation of South America from the rest of the world is required, in order
+to account for the preservation and development of so many distinct groups
+of comparatively low-type quadrupeds.
+
+_Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Birds._--The birds which are
+especially characteristic of this region, present similar distinctive
+features. In the enormous group of Passerine {8}birds which, though
+comprising nearly three-fourths of the entire class, yet presents hardly
+any well-marked differences of structure by which it can be subdivided--the
+families confined to America are, for the most part, more closely related
+to each other than to the Old World groups. The ten families forming the
+group of "Formicaroid Passeres," in our arrangement (vol. i., p. 94), are
+characterised by the absence of singing muscles in the larynx, and also by
+an unusual development of the first primary quill; and seven of this series
+of families (which are considered to be less perfectly developed than the
+great mass of Old World passeres) are exclusively American, the three
+belonging to the Eastern hemisphere being of small extent. Another group of
+ten families--our "Tanagroid Passeres," are characterised by the abortion
+or very rudimentary condition of the first quill; and of these, five are
+exclusively American, and have numerous genera and species, while only two
+are non-American, and these are of small extent. On the other hand the
+"Turdoid Passeres," consisting of 23 families and comprising all the true
+"singing-birds," is poorly represented in America; no family being
+exclusively Neotropical, and only three being at all fully represented in
+South America, though they comprise the great mass of the Old World
+passeres. These peculiarities, which group together whole series of
+families of American birds, point to early separation and long isolation,
+no less surely than the more remarkable structural divergences presented by
+the Neotropical mammalia.
+
+In the Picariæ, we have first, the toucans (Rhamphastidæ); an extraordinary
+and beautiful family, whose enormous gaily-coloured bills and long
+feathered tongues, separate them widely from all other birds. The Galbulidæ
+or jacamars, the motmots (Momotidæ), and the curious little todies (Todidæ)
+of the Antilles, are also isolated groups. But most remarkable of all is
+the wonderful family of the humming-birds, which ranges over all America
+from Tierra del Fuego to Sitka, and from the level plains of the Amazon to
+above the snow-line on the Andes; which abounds both in genera, species,
+and individuals, and is yet strictly confined to this continent alone! How
+vast must have been the time required to develop those beautiful and
+{9}highly specialized forms out of some ancestral swift-like type; how
+complete and long continued the isolation of their birthplace to have
+allowed of their modification and adaptation to such divergent climates and
+conditions, yet never to have permitted them to establish themselves in the
+other continents. No naturalist can study in detail this single family of
+birds, without being profoundly impressed with the vast antiquity of the
+South American continent, its long isolation from the rest of the land
+surface of the globe, and the persistence through countless ages of all the
+conditions requisite for the development and increase of varied forms of
+animal life.
+
+Passing on to the parrot tribe, we find the peculiar family of the
+Conuridæ, of which the macaws are the highest development, very largely
+represented. It is in the gallinaceous birds however that we again meet
+with wholly isolated groups. The Cracidæ, including the curassows and
+guans, have no immediate relations with any of the Old World families.
+Professor Huxley considers them to approach nearest to (though still very
+remote from) the Australian megapodes; and here, as in the case of the
+marsupials, we probably have divergent modifications of an ancient type
+once widely distributed, not a direct communication between the southern
+continents. The Tinamidæ or tinamous, point to a still more remote
+antiquity, since their nearest allies are believed to be the Struthiones or
+ostrich tribe, of which a few representatives are scattered widely over the
+globe. The hoazin of Guiana (Opisthocomus) is another isolated form, not
+only the type of a family, but perhaps of an extinct order of birds.
+Passing on to the waders, we have a number of peculiar family types, all
+indicative of antiquity and isolation. The _Cariama_ of the plains of
+Brazil, a bird somewhat intermediate between a bustard and a hawk, is one
+of these; the elegant _Psophia_ or trumpeter of the Amazonian forests; the
+beautiful little sun-bittern of the river banks (_Eurypyga_); and the
+horned screamers (_Palamedea_), all form distinct and isolated families of
+birds, to which the Old World offers nothing directly comparable.
+
+_Reptiles._--The Neotropical region is very rich in varied forms of reptile
+life, and the species are very abundant. It has six {10}altogether peculiar
+families, and several others which only range into the Nearctic region, as
+well as a very large number of peculiar or characteristic genera. As the
+orders of reptiles differ considerably in their distributional features,
+they must be considered separately.
+
+The snakes (Ophidia) differ from all other reptiles, and from most other
+orders of vertebrates, in the wide average distribution of the families; so
+that such an isolated region as the Neotropical possesses no peculiar
+family, nor even one confined to the American continent. The families of
+most restricted range are--the Scytalidæ, only found elsewhere in the
+Philippine islands; the Amblycephalidæ, common to the Oriental and
+Neotropical regions; and the Tortricidæ, most abundant in the Oriental
+region, but found also in the Austro-Malay islands and Tropical South
+America. Sixteen of the families of snakes occur in the region, the
+Colubridæ, Amblycephalidæ, and Pythonidæ, being those which are best
+represented by peculiar forms. There are 25 peculiar or characteristic
+genera, the most important being _Dromicus_ (Colubridæ); _Boa_,
+_Epicrates_, and _Ungalia_ (Pythonidæ); _Elaps_ (Elapidæ); and
+_Craspedocephalus_ (Crotalidæ).
+
+The lizards (Lacertilia) are generally more restricted in their range;
+hence we find that out of 15 families which inhabit the region, 5 are
+altogether peculiar, and 4 more extend only to N. America. The peculiar
+families are Helodermidæ, Anadiadæ, Chirocolidæ, Iphisiadæ, and
+Cercosauridæ; but it must be noted that these all possess but a single
+genus each, and only two of them (Chirocolidæ and Cercosauridæ) have more
+than a single species. The families which range over both South and North
+America are Chirotidæ, Chalcidæ, Teidæ, and Iguanidæ; the first and second
+are of small extent, but the other two are very large groups, the Teidæ
+possessing 12 genera and near 80 species; the Iguanidæ 40 genera and near
+150 species; the greater part of which are Neotropical. There are more than
+50 peculiar or highly characteristic genera of lizards, about 40 of which
+belong to the Teidæ and Iguanidæ, which thus especially characterize the
+region. The most important and characteristic genera are the following;
+_Ameiva_ (Teidæ); _Gymnopthalmus_ (Gymnopthalmidæ); {11}_Celestus_ and
+_Diploglossus_ (Scincidæ); _Sphærodactylus_ (Geckotidæ); _Liocephalus_,
+_Liolæmus_, _Proctotretus_, and many smaller genera (Iguanidæ). The three
+extensive Old World families Varanidæ, Lacertidæ, and Agamidæ, are absent
+from the entire American continent.
+
+In the order Crocodilia, America has the peculiar family of the alligators
+(Alligatoridæ), as well as several species of true crocodiles
+(Crocodilidæ). The Chelonia (tortoises) are represented by the families
+Testudinidæ and Chelydidæ, both of wide range; but there are six peculiar
+genera,--_Dermatemys_ and _Staurotypus_ belonging to the former
+family,--_Peltocephalus_, _Podocnemis_, _Hydromedusa_, and _Chelys_, to the
+latter. Some of the Amazon river-turtles of the genus _Podocnemys_ rival in
+size the largest species of true marine turtles (Cheloniidæ), and are
+equally good for food.
+
+_Amphibia._--The Neotropical region possesses representatives of sixteen
+families of Amphibia of which four are peculiar; all belonging to Anoura or
+tail-less Batrachians. The Cæciliadæ or snake-like amphibia, are
+represented by two peculiar genera, _Siphonopsis_ and _Rhinatrema_. Tailed
+Batrachians are almost unknown, only a few species of _Spelerpes_
+(Salamandridæ) entering Central America, and one extending as far south as
+the Andes of Bogota in South America. Tail-less Batrachians on the other
+hand, are abundant; there being 14 families represented, of which
+4,--Rhinophryndæ, Hylaplesidæ, Plectromantidæ, and Pipidæ are peculiar.
+None of these families contain more than a single genus, and only the
+second more than a single species; so that it is not these which give a
+character to the South American Amphibia-fauna. The most important and best
+represented families are, Ranidæ (true frogs), with eleven genera and more
+than 50 species; Polypedatidæ (tree-frogs) with seven genera and about 40
+species; Hylidæ (tree-frogs) with eight genera and nearly 30 species;
+Engystomidæ (toads) (5 genera), Bombinatoridæ (frogs), (4 genera),
+Phryniscidæ and Bufonidæ (toads), (each with 2 genera), are also fairly
+represented. All these families are widely distributed, but the Neotropical
+genera are, in almost every case, peculiar.
+
+{12}_Fresh-water fishes._--The great rivers of Tropical America abound in
+fish of many strange forms and peculiar types. Three families, and three
+sub-family groups are peculiar, while the number of peculiar genera is
+about 120. The peculiar families are Polycentridæ, with two genera;
+Gymnotidæ, a family which includes the electric eels, (5 genera); and
+Trygonidæ, the rays, which are everywhere marine except in the great rivers
+of South America, where many species are found, belonging to two genera. Of
+the extensive family Siluridæ, three sub-families Siluridæ anomalopteræ, S.
+olisthopteræ, and S. branchiolæ, are confined to this region. The larger
+and more important of the peculiar genera are the following: _Percilia_,
+inhabiting Chilian and _Percichthys_ South Temperate rivers, belong to the
+Perch family (Percidæ); _Acharnes_, found only in Guiana, belongs to the
+Nandidæ, a family of wide range in the tropics; the Chromidæ, a family of
+exclusively fresh-water fishes found in the tropics of the Ethiopian,
+Oriental and Neotropical regions, are here represented by 15 genera, the
+more important being _Acara_ (17 sp.), _Heros_ (26 sp.), _Crenicichla_ (9
+sp.), _Satanoperca_ (7 sp.). Many of these fishes are beautifully marked
+and coloured. The Siluridæ proteropteræ are represented by 14 genera, of
+which _Pimelodus_ (42 sp.), and _Platystoma_ (11 sp.), are the most
+important; the Siluridæ stenobranchiæ by 11 genera, the chief being _Doras_
+(13 sp.), _Auchenipterus_ (9 sp.), and _Oxydoras_ (7 sp.). The Siluridæ
+proteropodes are represented by 16 genera, many of them being among the
+most singular of fresh-water fishes, clothed in coats of mail, and armed
+with hooks and serrated spines. The following are the most
+important,--_Chætostomus_ (25 sp.), _Loricaria_ (17 sp.), _Plecostonus_ (15
+sp.) and _Callichthys_ (11 sp.). The Characinidæ are divided between
+Tropical America and Tropical Africa, the former possessing about 40 genera
+and 200 species. The Haplochitonidæ are confined to South America and
+Australia; the American genus being _Haplochiton_. The Cyprinodontidæ are
+represented by 18 genera, the most important being, _Pæcilia_ (16 sp.),
+_Girardinus_ (10 sp.), and _Gambusia_ (8 sp.) The Osteoglossidæ, found in
+Australian and African rivers, are represented in South America by the
+peculiar _Arapaima_, the "pirarucu" of the {13}Amazon. The ancient
+Sirenoidei, also found in Australia and Africa, have the _Lepidosiren_ as
+their American representative. Lastly, _Ellipisurus_ is a genus of rays
+peculiar to the fresh waters of South America. We may expect these numbers
+to be largely increased and many new genera to be added, when the extensive
+collections made by Agassiz in Brazil are described.
+
+_Summary of Neotropical Vertebrates._--Summarizing the preceding facts, we
+find that the Neotropical region possesses no less than 45 families and
+more than 900 genera of Vertebrata which are altogether peculiar to it;
+while it has representatives of 168 families out of a total of 330, showing
+that 162 families are altogether absent. It has also representatives of 131
+genera of Mammalia of which 103 are peculiar to it, a proportion of 4/5;
+while of 683 genera of land-birds no less than 576 are peculiar, being
+almost exactly 5/6 of the whole. These numbers and proportions are far
+higher than in the case of any other region.
+
+
+_Insects._
+
+The Neotropical region is so excessively rich in insect life, it so abounds
+in peculiar groups, in forms of exquisite beauty, and in an endless
+profusion of species, that no adequate idea of this branch of its fauna can
+be conveyed by the mere enumeration of peculiar and characteristic groups,
+to which we are here compelled to limit ourselves. Our facts and figures
+will, however, furnish data for comparison; and will thus enable those who
+have some knowledge of the entomology of any other country, to form a
+better notion of the vast wealth of insect life in this region, than a more
+general and picturesque description could afford them.
+
+_Lepidoptera._--The Butterflies of South America surpass those of all other
+regions in numbers, variety and beauty; and we find here, not only more
+peculiar genera and families than elsewhere, but, what is very remarkable,
+a fuller representation of the whole series of families. Out of the 16
+families of butterflies in all parts of the world, 13 are found here, and 3
+of these are wholly peculiar--Brassolidæ, Heliconidæ, and Eurygonidæ, with
+a fourth, Erycinidæ, which only extends into the Nearctic {14}region; so
+that there are 4 families peculiar to America. These four families comprise
+68 genera and more than 800 species; alone constituting a very important
+feature in the entomology of the region. But in almost all the other
+families there are numbers of peculiar genera, amounting in all to about
+200, or not far short of half the total number of genera in the
+world--(431). We must briefly notice some of the peculiarities of the
+several families, as represented in this region. The Danaidæ consist of 15
+genera, all peculiar, and differing widely from the generally sombre-tinted
+forms of the rest of the world. The delicate transparent-winged Ithomias of
+which 160 species are described, are the most remarkable. _Melinæa_,
+_Napeogenes_, _Ceratina_ and _Dircenna_ are more gaily coloured, and are
+among the chief ornaments of the forests. The Satyridæ are represented by
+25 peculiar genera, many of great beauty; the most remarkable and elegant
+being the genus _Hætera_ and its allies, whose transparent wings are
+delicately marked with patches of orange, pink, or violet. The genus
+_Morpho_ is perhaps the grandest development of the butterfly type, being
+of immense size and adorned with the most brilliant azure tints, which in
+some species attain a splendour of metallic lustre unsurpassed in nature.
+The Brassolidæ are even larger, but are crepuscular insects, with rich
+though sober colouring. The true Heliconii are magnificent insects, most
+elegantly marked with brilliant and strongly contrasted tints. The
+Nymphalidæ are represented by such a variety of gorgeous insects that it is
+difficult to select examples. Prominent are the genera _Catagramma_ and
+_Callithea_, whose exquisite colours and symmetrical markings are unique
+and indescribable; and these are in some cases rivalled by _Agrias_ and
+_Prepona_, which reproduce their style of coloration although not closely
+allied to them. The Erycinidæ, consisting of 59 genera and 560 species,
+comprise the most varied and beautiful of small butterflies; and it would
+be useless to attempt to indicate the unimaginable combinations of form and
+colour they present. It must be sufficient to say that nothing elsewhere on
+the globe at all resembles them. In Lycænidæ the world-wide genus _Thecla_
+is wonderfully developed, and the South {15}American species not only
+surpass all others in size and beauty, but some of them are so gorgeous on
+the under surface of their wings, as to exceed almost all the combinations
+of metallic tints we meet with in nature. The last family, Hesperidæ, is
+also wonderfully developed here, the species being excessively numerous,
+while some of them redeem the character of this generally sober family, by
+their rich and elegant coloration.
+
+In the only other group of Lepidoptera we can here notice, the Sphingina,
+the Neotropical region possesses some peculiar forms. The magnificent
+diurnal butterfly-like moths, _Urania_, are the most remarkable; and they
+are rendered more interesting by the occurrence of a species closely
+resembling them in Madagascar. Another family of day-flying moths, the
+Castniidæ, is almost equally divided between the Neotropical and Australian
+regions, although the genera are more numerous in the latter. The American
+Castnias are large, thick-bodied insects, with a coarse scaly surface and
+rich dull colours; differing widely from the glossy and gaily coloured
+Agaristas, which are typical of the family in the East.
+
+_Coleoptera._--This is so vast a subject that, as in the case of the
+regions already treated, we must confine our attention to a few of the more
+important and best known families as representatives of the entire order.
+
+Cicindelidæ.--We find here examples of 15 out of the 35 genera of these
+insects; and 10 of these genera are peculiar. The most important are
+_Oxychila_ (11 sp.), _Hiresia_ (14 sp.), and _Ctenostoma_ (26 sp.).
+_Odontochila_ (57 sp.) is the most abundant and characteristic of all, but
+is not wholly peculiar, there being a species in the Malay archipelago.
+_Tetracha_, another large genus, has species in Australia and a few in
+North America and Europe. The small genus _Peridexia_ is divided between
+Brazil and Madagascar,--a somewhat similar distribution to that of _Urania_
+noticed above. One genus, _Agrius_, is confined to the southern extremity
+of the continent.
+
+Carabidæ.--Besides a considerable number of cosmopolitan or wide-spread
+genera, this family is represented by more than 100 genera which are
+peculiar to the Neotropical region. The {16}most important of these are
+_Agra_ (150 sp.), _Ardistonus_ (44 sp.), _Schizogenius_ (25 sp.),
+_Pelecium_ (24 sp.), _Calophena_ (22 sp.), _Aspidoglossa_ (21 sp.), and
+_Lia_, _Camptodonotus_, _Stenocrepis_, and _Lachnophorus_, with each more
+than 12 species. These are all tropical; but there are also a number of
+genera (26) peculiar to Chili and South Temperate America. The most
+important of these are _Antarctia_ (29 sp,), all except two or three
+confined to South Temperate America; _Scelodontis_ (10 sp.), mostly
+Chilian; _Feronomorpha_ (6 sp.) all Chilian; and _Tropidopterus_ (4 sp.),
+all Chilian. _Helluomorpha_ (18 sp.), is confined to North and South
+America; _Galerita_, _Callida_, and _Tetragonoderus_, are large genera
+which are chiefly South American but with a few species scattered over the
+other tropical regions, _Casnonia_ and _Lebia_ are cosmopolite, but most
+abundant in South America. _Pachyteles_ is mostly South American but with a
+few species in West Africa; while _Lobodonotus_ has one species in South
+America and two in Africa.
+
+Lucanidæ.--The Neotropical species of this family almost all belong to
+peculiar genera. Those common to other regions are _Syndesus_, confined to
+Tropical South America and Australia, and _Platycerus_ which is Palæarctic
+and Nearctic, with one species in Brazil. The most remarkable genus is
+undoubtedly _Chiasognathus_, confined to Chili. These are large insects of
+metallic green colours, and armed with enormous serrated mandibles. The
+allied genera, _Pholidotus_ and _Sphenognathus_, inhabit Tropical South
+America. _Streptocerus_ confined to Chili, is interesting, as being allied
+to the Australian _Lamprima_. The other genera present no remarkable
+features; but _Sclerognathus_ and _Leptinoptera_ are the most extensive.
+
+Cetoniidæ.--These magnificent insects are but poorly represented in
+America; the species being mostly of sombre colours. There are 14 genera,
+12 of which are peculiar. The most extensive genus is _Gymnetis_, which,
+with its allies _Cotinis_ and _Allorhina_, form a group which comprehends
+two-thirds of the Neotropical species of the family. The only other genera
+of importance are, _Inca_ (7 sp.), remarkable for their large size, and
+being the only American group in which horns are developed on the head;
+{17}and _Trigonopeltastes_ (6 sp.), allied to the European _Trichius_. The
+non-peculiar genera are, _Stethodesma_, of which half the species are
+African and half tropical American; and _Euphoria_, confined to America
+both North and South.
+
+Buprestidæ.--In this fine group the Neotropical region is tolerably rich,
+having examples of 39 genera, 18 of which are peculiar to it. Of these, the
+most extensive are _Conognatha_ and _Halecia_, which have a wide range over
+most parts of the region; and _Dactylozodes_, confined to the south
+temperate zone. Of important genera which range beyond the region,
+_Dicerca_ is mainly Nearctic and Palæarctic; _Cinyra_ has a species in
+North America and one in Australia; _Curis_ is divided between Chili and
+Australia; the Australian genus _Stigmodera_ has a species in Chili;
+_Polycesta_ has a species in Madagascar, two in the Mediterranean region,
+and a few in North America; _Acherusia_ is divided between Australia and
+Brazil; _Ptosima_ has one species in south temperate America, the rest
+widely scattered from North America to the Philippines; _Actenodes_ has a
+single species in North America and another in West Africa; _Colobogaster_
+has two in West Africa, one in Java and one in the Moluccas. The relations
+of South America and Australia as indicated by these insects has already
+been sufficiently noticed under the latter region.
+
+Longicornia.--The Neotropical Longicorn Coleoptera are overwhelming in
+their numbers and variety, their singularity and their beauty. In the
+recent Catalogue of Gemminger and Harold, it is credited with 516 genera,
+489 of which are peculiar to it; while it has only 5 genera in common
+(exclusively) with the Nearctic, and 4 (in the same way) with the
+Australian region. Only the more important genera can be here referred to,
+under the three great families into which these insects are divided.
+
+The Prionidæ are excessively numerous, being grouped in 64 genera, more
+than double the number possessed by any other region; and 61 of these are
+peculiar. The three, common to other regions, are, _Parandra_ and
+_Mallodon_, which are widely distributed; and _Ergates_, found also in
+California and Europe. The most remarkable genera are, the
+magnificently-coloured _Psalidognathus_ and _Pyrodes_; the large and
+strangely marked {18}_Macrodontia_; and _Titanus_, the largest insect of
+the entire family.
+
+Of the Cerambycidæ there are 233 genera, exceeding by one-half, the number
+in any other region; and 225 of these are peculiar. Only 2 are common to
+the Neotropical and Nearctic regions exclusively, and 3 to the Neotropical
+and Australian. The most extensive genera are the elegant _Ibidion_ (80
+sp.); the richly-coloured _Chrysoprasis_ (47 sp.); the prettily-marked
+_Trachyderes_ (53 sp.); with _Odontocera_ (25 sp.); _Criodon_ (22 sp.); and
+a host of others of less extent, but often of surpassing interest and
+beauty. The noteworthy genera of wide range are, _Oeme_ and _Cyrtomerus_,
+which have each a species in West Africa, and _Hammatocerus_, which has one
+in Australia.
+
+The Lamiidæ have 219 genera, and this is the only tropical region in which
+they do not exceed the Cerambycidæ. This number is almost exactly the same
+as that of the Oriental genera, but here there are more peculiar groups,
+203 against 160 in the other region. The most extensive genera are
+_Hemilophus_ (80 sp.), _Colobothea_ (70 sp.), _Acanthoderes_ (56 sp.),
+_Oncoderes_ (48 sp.), _Lepturgus_ (40 sp.), _Hypsioma_ (32 sp.), and
+_Tæniotes_ (20 sp.). _Macropus longimanus_, commonly called the harlequin
+beetle, is one of the largest and most singularly-marked insects in the
+whole family. _Leptostylus_ has a single species in New Zealand;
+_Acanthoderes_ has one species in Europe, W. Africa, and Australia,
+respectively; _Spalacopsis_ has a species in W. Africa; _Pachypeza_ is
+common to S. America and the Philippines; _Mesosa_ is Oriental and
+Palæarctic, but has one species on the Amazon; _Apomecyna_ ranges through
+the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, but has two species in S. America;
+_Acanthocinus_ has one species in Tasmania, and the rest in South America,
+North America, and Europe; _Phæa_ is wholly Neotropical, except two species
+in the Philippine Islands.
+
+_General Conclusions as to the Neotropical Insect-fauna._--Looking at the
+insects of the Neotropical region as a whole, we are struck with the vast
+amount of specialty they present; and, considering how many causes there
+are which must lead to the dispersal of insects, the number of its groups
+which are scattered {19}over the globe is not nearly so great as we might
+expect. This points to a long period of isolation, during which the various
+forms of life have acted and reacted on each other, leading to such a
+complex yet harmoniously-balanced result as to defy the competition of the
+chance immigrants that from time to time must have arrived. This is quite
+in accordance with the very high antiquity we have shown most insect-forms
+to possess; and it is no doubt owing to this antiquity, that such a
+complete diversity of _generic_ forms has been here brought about, without
+any important deviation from the great _family_ types which prevail over
+the rest of the globe.
+
+
+_Land Shells._--The Neotropical region is probably the richest on the globe
+in Terrestrial Mollusca, but this is owing, not to any extreme
+productiveness of the equatorial parts of the continent, where almost all
+other forms of life are so largely developed, but to the altogether
+exceptional riches of the West India Islands. The most recent estimates
+show that the Antilles contain more species of land shells than all the
+rest of the region, and almost exactly as many as all continental America,
+north and south.
+
+Mr. Thomas Bland, who has long studied American land shells, points out a
+remarkable difference in the distribution of the Operculated and
+Inoperculated groups, the former being predominant on the islands, the
+latter on the continent. The Antilles possess over 600 species of
+Operculata, to about 150 on the whole American continent, the genera being
+as 22 to 14. Of Inoperculata the Antilles have 740, the Continent 1,250,
+the genera being 18 and 22. The proportions of the two groups in each
+country are, therefore:
+
+               West India Islands.    American Continent.
+
+  Operculata     Gen. 22  Sp. 608         14    151
+  Inoperculata    "   18   "  737         22   1251
+
+The extensive family of the Helicidæ is represented by 22 genera, of which
+6 are peculiar. _Spiraxis_ is confined to Central America and the Antilles;
+_Stenopus_ and _Sagda_ are Antillean only; _Orthalicus_, _Macroceramus_,
+and _Bulimulus_ have a wider range, the last two extending into the
+southern United {20}States. Important and characteristic genera are,
+_Glandina_, in all the tropical parts of the region; _Cylindrella_, in
+Central America and the Antilles; _Bulimus_, containing many large and
+handsome species in South America; _Stenogyra_, widely spread in the
+tropics; and _Streptaxis_, in Tropical South America.
+
+Among the Operculata, the Aciculidæ are mostly Antillean, two genera being
+peculiar there, and one, _Truncatella_, of wide distribution, but most
+abundant in the West Indian Islands. The Cyclostomidæ are represented by 15
+genera, 9 being peculiar to the region, and 5 of these (belonging to the
+sub-family Licinidæ) to the Antilles only. Of these peculiar genera
+_Cistula_ and _Chondropoma_ are the most important, ranging over all the
+tropical parts of the region. Other important genera are _Cyclotus_ and
+_Megalomastoma_; while _Cyclophorus_ also occurs all over the region. The
+Helicinidæ are mostly Neotropical, six out of the seven genera being found
+here, and four are peculiar. _Stoastoma_, is one of the largest genera;
+and, with _Trochatella_ and _Alcadia_, is confined to the Antilles, while
+the wide-spread _Helicina_ is most abundant there.
+
+The Limacidæ, or Old World slugs, are absent from the region, their place
+being taken by the allied family, Oncidiadæ.
+
+_Marine Shells._--We go out of our usual course to say a few words about
+the marine shells of this region, because their distribution on the two
+sides of the continent is important, as an indication of the former
+separation of North and South America, and the connection of the Atlantic
+and Pacific Oceans. It was once thought that no species of shells were
+common to the two sides of the Central American Isthmus, and Dr. Mörch
+still holds that opinion; but Dr. Philip Carpenter, who has paid special
+attention to the subject, considers that there are at least 35 species
+absolutely identical, while as many others are so close that they may be
+only varieties. Nearly 70 others are distinct but representative species.
+The genera of marine mollusca are very largely common to the east and west
+coasts, more than 40 being so named in the lists published by Mr. Woodward.
+The West Indian Islands being a rich shell district, produce a number of
+peculiar forms, and the west coast of {21}South America is, to some extent,
+peopled by Oriental and Pacific genera of shells. On the west coast there
+is hardly any coral, while on the east it is abundant, showing a difference
+of physical conditions that must have greatly influenced the development of
+mollusca. When these various counteracting influences are taken into
+consideration, the identity or close affinity of about 140 species and 40
+genera on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama becomes very important;
+and, combined with the fact of 48 species of fish (or 30 per cent. of those
+known) being identical on the adjacent coasts of the two oceans (as
+determined by Dr. Günther), render it probable that Central America has
+been partially submerged up to comparatively recent geological times. Yet
+another proof of this former union of two oceans is to be found in the
+fossil corals of the Antilles of the Miocene age, which Dr. Duncan finds to
+be more allied to existing Pacific forms, than to those of the Atlantic or
+even of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+
+NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS.
+
+In the concluding part of this work devoted to geographical zoology, the
+sub-regions are arranged in the order best adapted to exhibit them in a
+tabular form, and to show the affinities of the several regions; but for
+our present purpose it will be best to take first in order that which is
+the most important and most extensive, and which exhibits all the peculiar
+characteristics of the region in their fullest development. We begin
+therefore with our second division.
+
+
+_II. Tropical South-America, or the Brazilian Sub-region._
+
+This extensive district may be defined as consisting of all the tropical
+forest-region of South America, including all the open plains and pasture
+lands, surrounded by, or intimately associated with, the forests. Its
+central mass consists of the great forest-plain of the Amazons, extending
+from Paranaiba on the north coast of Brazil (long. 42° W.) to Zamora, in
+the province of Loja (lat. 4° S., long. 79° W.), high up in the Andes, on
+the west;--a distance in a straight line of more than 2,500 English miles,
+{22}along the whole of which there is (almost certainly) one continuous
+virgin forest. Its greatest extent from north to south, is from the mouths
+of the Orinooko to the eastern slopes of the Andes near La Paz in Bolivia
+and a little north of Sta. Cruz de la Sierra (lat. 18° S.), a distance of
+about 1,900 miles. Within this area of continuous forests, are included
+some open "campos," or patches of pasture lands, the most important
+being,--the Campos of the Upper Rio Branco on the northern boundary of
+Brazil; a tract in the interior of British Guiana; and another on the
+northern bank of the Amazon near its mouth, and extending some little
+distance on its south bank at Santarem. On the northern bank of the
+Orinooko are the Llanos, or flat open plains, partly flooded in the rainy
+season; but much of the interior of Venezuela appears to be forest country.
+The forest again prevails from Panama to Maracaybo, and southwards in the
+Magdalena valley; and on all the western side of the Andes to about 100
+miles south of Guayaquil. On the N.E. coast of Brazil is a tract of open
+country, in some parts of which (as near Ceara) rain does not fall for
+years together; but south of Cape St. Roque the coast-forests of Brazil
+commence, extending to lat. 30° S., clothing all the valleys and hill sides
+as far inland as the higher mountain ranges, and even penetrating up the
+great valleys far into the interior. To the south-west the forest country
+reappears in Paraguay, and extends in patches and partially wooded country,
+till it almost reaches the southern extension of the Amazonian forests. The
+interior of Brazil is thus in the position of a great island-plateau,
+rising out of, and surrounded by, a lowland region of ever-verdant forest.
+The Brazilian sub-region comprises all this forest-country and its included
+open tracts, and so far beyond it as there exists sufficient woody
+vegetation to support its peculiar forms of life. It thus extends
+considerably beyond the tropic in Paraguay and south Brazil; while the
+great desert of Chaco, extending from 25° to 30° S., lat. between the
+Parana and the Andes, as well as the high plateaus of the Andean range,
+with the strip of sandy desert on the Pacific coast as far as to about 5°
+of south latitude, belong to south temperate America, or the sub-region of
+the Andes.
+
+{23}Having already given a sketch, of the zoological features of the
+Neotropical region as a whole, the greater part of which will apply to this
+sub-region, we must here confine ourselves to an indication of the more
+important groups which, on the one hand, are confined to it, and on the
+other are absent; together with a notice of its special relations to other
+regions.
+
+_Mammalia._--Many of the most remarkable of the American monkeys are
+limited to this sub-region; as _Lagothrix_, _Pithecia_, and _Brachyurus_,
+limited to the great Amazonian forests; _Eriodes_ to south-east Brazil; and
+_Callithrix_ to tropical South America. All the marmosets (Hapalidæ) are
+also confined to this sub-region, one only being found at Panama, and
+perhaps extending a little beyond it. Among other peculiar forms, are 8
+genera of bats; 3 peculiar forms of wild dog; _Pteronura_, a genus of
+otters; _Inia_, a peculiar form of dolphin inhabiting the upper waters of
+the Amazon; tapirs of the genus _Tapirus_ (a distinct genus being found
+north of Panama); 4 genera of Muridæ; _Ctenomys_, a genus of Octodontidæ;
+the whole family of Echimyidæ, or spiny rats, (as far as the American
+continent is concerned) consisting of 8 genera and 28 species; _Chætomys_,
+a genus of Cercolabidæ; the capybara (_Hydrochoerus_) the largest known
+rodent, belonging to the Caviidæ; the larger ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_);
+sloths of the genus _Bradypus_; 2 genera of armadillos (Dasypodidæ); and
+two peculiar forms of the opossum family (Didelphyidæ). No group that is
+typically Neotropical is absent from this sub-region, except such as are
+peculiar to other single sub-regions and which will be noticed accordingly.
+The occurrence of a solitary species of hare (_Lepus braziliensis_) in
+central Brazil and the Andes, is remarkable, as it is cut off from all its
+allies, the genus not being known to occur elsewhere on the continent
+further south than Costa Rica. The only important external relation
+indicated by the Mammalia of this sub-region is towards the Ethiopian
+region, 2 genera of Echimyidæ, _Aulacodes_ and _Petromys_, occurring in
+South and South-east Africa.
+
+_Plate IV. Characteristic Neotropical Mammalia._--Our illustration
+represents a mountainous forest in Brazil, the part of South America where
+the Neotropical Mammalia are perhaps best {24}developed. The central and
+most conspicuous figure is the collared ant-eater, (_Tamandua
+tetradactyla_), one of the handsomest of the family, in its conspicuous
+livery of black and white. To the left are a pair of sloths (_Arctopithecus
+flaccidus_) showing the curious black spot on the back with which many of
+the species are marked, and which looks like a hole in the trunk of a tree;
+but this mark seems to be only found on the male animal. The fur of many of
+the sloths has a greenish tinge, and Dr. Seemann remarked its resemblance
+to the _Tillandsia usneoides_, or "vegetable horsehair," which clothes many
+of the trees in Central America; and this probably conceals them from their
+enemies, the harpy-eagles. On the right are a pair of opossums (_Didelphys
+azaræ_), one of them swinging by its prehensile tail. Overhead in the
+foreground are a group of howling monkeys (_Mycetes ursinus_) the largest
+of the American Quadrumana, and the noisiest of monkeys. The large hollow
+vessel into which the hyoid bone is transformed, and which assists in
+producing their tremendous howling, is altogether unique in the animal
+kingdom. Below them, in the distance, are a group of Sapajou monkeys
+(_Cebus_ sp.); while gaudy screaming macaws complete the picture of
+Brazilian forest life.
+
+_Birds._--A very large number of genera of birds, and some entire families,
+are confined to this sub-region, as will be seen by looking over the list
+of genera at the end of this chapter. We can here only notice the more
+important, and summarize the results. More than 120 genera of Passeres are
+thus limited, belonging to the following 12 families: Sylviidæ (1),
+Troglodytidæ (2), Coerebidæ (4), Tanagridæ (26), Fringillidæ (8), Icteridæ
+(5), Pteroptochidæ (3), Dendrocolaptidæ (12), Formicariidæ (16), Tyrannidæ
+(22), Cotingidæ (16), Pipridæ (10). Of the Picariæ there are 76 peculiar
+genera belonging to 9 families, viz., Picidæ (2), Rhamphastidæ (1),
+Cuculidæ (1), Bucconidæ (2), Galbulidæ (5), Momotidæ (2), Podargidæ (1),
+Caprimalgidæ (4), Trochilidæ (58). There are 3 peculiar genera of Psittaci,
+8 of Gallinæ, the only genus of Opisthocomidæ, 3 of Accipitres, 1 of
+Rallidæ, _Psophia_ and _Eurypyga_ types of distinct families, and 1 genus
+of Ardeidæ, Palamedeidæ, and Anatidæ respectively. The preceding
+enumeration shows how very rich this sub-region is in peculiar types of all
+the most characteristic American families, such as the Tanagridæ,
+Tyrannidæ, Cotingidæ, Formicariidæ, Trochilidæ, and Galbulidæ. A
+considerable proportion of the genera of the Chilian and Mexican
+sub-regions also occur here, so that out of about 680 genera of Neotropical
+land-birds more than 500 are represented in this sub-region.
+
+
+
+Plate XIV.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A BRAZILIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.
+
+{25}Without entering minutely into the distribution of species it is
+difficult to sub-divide this extensive territory with any satisfactory
+result.[1] The upland tract between the Amazon and Orinooko, which may be
+termed Guiana, was evidently once an island, yet it possesses few marked
+distinctive features. Brazil, which must have formed another great island,
+has more speciality, but the intermediate Amazonian forests form a perfect
+transition between them. The northern portion of the continent west of the
+Orinooko has more character; and there are indications that this has
+received many forms from Central and North America, and thus blended two
+faunas once more distinct than they are now. The family of wood-warblers
+(Mniotiltidæ) seems to have belonged to this more northern fauna; for out
+of 18 genera only 5 extend south of the equator, while 6 range from Mexico
+or the Antilles into Columbia, some of these being only winter immigrants
+and no genus being exclusively South American. The eastern slopes of the
+Andes constitute, however, the richest and best marked province of this
+sub-region. At least 12 genera of tanagers (Tanagridæ) are found here only,
+with an immense number of Fringillidæ,--the former confined to the forests;
+the latter ranging to the upland plains. The ant-thrushes (Formicariidæ) on
+the other hand seem more abundant in the lowlands, many genera being
+peculiar to the Amazonian forests. The superb chatterers (Cotingidæ) also
+seem to have their head-quarters in the forests of Brazil and Guiana, and
+to have thence spread {26}into the Amazonian valley. Guiana still boasts
+such remarkable forms as the cardinal chatterer (_Phoenicocercus_), the
+military chatterer (_Hæmatoderus_), as well as _Querula_, _Gymnoderus_, and
+_Gymnocephalus_; but the first three pass to the south side of the Lower
+Amazon. Here also belong the cock of the rock (_Rupicola_), which ranges
+from Guiana to the Andes, and the marvellous umbrella-birds of the Rio
+Nigro and Upper Amazon (_Cephalopterus_), which extends across the
+Ecuadorean Andes and into Costa Rica. Brazil has _Ptilochloris_,
+_Casiornis_, _Tijuca_, _Phibalura_, and _Calyptura_; while not a single
+genus of this family, except perhaps _Heliochæra_, is confined to the
+extensive range of the Andes. Almost the same phenomena are presented by
+the allied Pipridæ or manakins, the greater part of the genera and species
+occurring in Eastern South America, that is in Brazil, Guiana, and the
+surrounding lowlands rather than in the Andean valleys. The same may be
+said of the jacamars (Galbulidæ) and puff-birds (Bucconidæ); but the
+humming-birds (Trochilidæ) have their greatest development in the Andean
+district. Brazil and Guiana have each a peculiar genus of parrots; Guiana
+has three peculiar genera of Cracidæ, while the Andes north of the equator
+have two. The Tinamidæ on the other hand have their metropolis in Brazil,
+which has two or three peculiar genera, while two others seem confined to
+the Andes south of the equator. The elegant trumpeters (Psophiidæ) are
+almost restricted to the Amazonian valley.
+
+Somewhat similar facts occur among the Mammalia. At least 3 genera of
+monkeys are confined to the great lowland equatorial forests and 1 to
+Brazil; _Icticyon_ (Canidæ) and _Pteronura_ (Mustelidæ) belong to Guiana
+and Brazil; and most of the Echimyidæ are found in the same districts. The
+sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos all seem more characteristic of the
+eastern districts than of the Andean; while the opossums are perhaps
+equally plentiful in the Andes.
+
+The preceding facts of distribution lead us to conclude that the highlands
+of Brazil and of Guiana represent very ancient lands, dating back to a
+period long anterior to the elevation of the Andean range (which is by no
+means of great geological {27}antiquity) and perhaps even to the elevation
+of the continuous land which forms the base of the mountains. It was, no
+doubt, during their slow elevation and the consequent loosening of the
+surface, that the vast masses of debris were carried down which filled up
+the sea separating the Andean chain from the great islands of Brazil and
+Guiana, and formed that enormous extent of fertile lowland forest, which
+has created a great continent; given space for the free interaction of the
+distinct faunas which here met together, and thus greatly assisted in the
+marvellous development of animal and vegetable life, which no other
+continent can match. But this development, and the fusion of the various
+faunas into one homogeneous assemblage must have been a work of time; and
+it is probable that most of the existing continent was dry land before the
+Andes had acquired their present altitude. The blending of the originally
+distinct sub-faunas has been no doubt assisted by elevations and
+depressions of the land or of the ocean, which have alternately diminished
+and increased the land-area. This would lead to a crowding together at one
+time, and a dispersion at others, which would evidently afford opportunity
+for many previously restricted forms to enter fresh areas and become
+adapted to new modes of life.
+
+From the preceding sketch it will appear, that the great sub-region of
+Tropical South America as here defined, is really formed of three
+originally distinct lands, fused together by the vast lowland Amazonian
+forests. In the class of birds sufficient materials exist for separating
+these districts; and that of the Andes contains a larger series of peculiar
+genera than either of the other sub-regions here adopted. But there are
+many objections to making such a sub-division here. It is absolutely
+impossible to define even approximate limits to these divisions--to say for
+example where the "Andes" ends and where "Brazil" or "Amazonia" or "Guiana"
+begins; and the unknown border lands separating these are so vast, that
+many groups, now apparently limited in their distribution, may prove to
+have a very much wider range. In mammalia, reptiles, and insects, it is
+even more difficult to maintain such divisions, so that on the whole it
+seems better to treat the entire area as one sub-region, {28}although
+recognizing the fact of its zoological and geographical diversity, as well
+as its vast superiority over every other sub-region in the number and
+variety of its animal forms.
+
+The reptiles, fishes, mollusca, and insects of this sub-region have been
+sufficiently discussed in treating of the entire region, as by far the
+larger proportion of them, except in the case of land-shells, are found
+here.
+
+_Plate XV. Characteristic Neotropical Birds._--To illustrate the
+ornithology of South America we place our scene on one of the tributaries
+of the Upper Amazon, a district where this class of animals is the most
+prominent zoological feature, and where a number of the most remarkable and
+interesting birds are to be found. On the left we have the umbrella-bird
+(_Cephalopterus ornatus_), so called from its wonderful crest, which, when
+expanded, completely overshadows its head like an umbrella. It is also
+adorned with a long tassel of plumes hanging from its breast, which is
+formed by a slender fleshy tube clothed with broad feathers. The bird is as
+large as a crow, of a glossy blue-black colour, and belongs to the same
+family as the exquisitely tinted blue-and-purple chatterers. Flying towards
+us are a pair of curl-crested toucans (_Pteroglossus beauharnaisii_),
+distinguished among all other toucans by a crest composed of small black
+and shining barbless plumes, resembling curled whalebone. The general
+plumage is green above, yellow and red beneath, like many of its allies. To
+the right are two of the exquisite little whiskered hummers, or
+"frill-necked coquettes," as they are called by Mr. Gould, (_Lophornis
+gouldi_). These diminutive birds are adorned with green-tipped plumes
+springing from each side of the throat, as well as with beautiful crests,
+and are among the most elegant of the great American family of
+humming-birds, now numbering about 400 known species. Overhead are perched
+a pair of curassows (_Crax globulosa_), which represent in America the
+pheasants of the Old World. There are about a dozen species of these fine
+birds, most of which are adorned with handsome curled crests. That figured,
+is distinguished by the yellow caruncular swellings at the base of the
+bill. The tall crane-like bird near the water is one of the trumpeters,
+(_Psophia leucoptera_), elegant birds with silky plumage peculiar to the
+Amazon valley. They are often kept in houses, where they get very tame and
+affectionate; and they are useful in catching flies and other house
+insects, which they do with great perseverance and dexterity.
+
+
+
+Plate XV.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A FOREST SCENE ON THE UPPER AMAZON, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.
+
+
+{29}_Islands of Tropical South America._
+
+These are few in number, and, with one exception, not of much interest.
+Such islands as Trinidad and Sta. Catherina form parts of South America,
+and have no peculiar groups of animals. The small islands of Fernando
+Noronha, Trinidad, and Martin Vaz, off the coast of Brazil, are the only
+Atlantic islands somewhat remote from land; while the Galapagos Archipelago
+in the Pacific is the only group whose productions have been carefully
+examined, or which present features of special interest.
+
+_Galapagos Islands._--These are situated on the equator, about 500 miles
+from the coast of Ecuador. They consist of the large Albemarle island, 70
+miles long; four much smaller (18 to 25 miles long), named Narborough,
+James, Indefatigable, and Chatham Islands; four smaller still (9 to 12
+miles long), named Abingdon, Bindloes, Hood's, and Charles Islands. All are
+volcanic, and consist of fields of black basaltic lava, with great numbers
+of extinct craters, a few which are still active. The islands vary in
+height from 1,700 to 5,000 feet, and they all rise sufficiently high to
+enter the region of moist currents of air, so that while the lower parts
+are parched and excessively sterile, above 800 or 1,000 feet there is a
+belt of comparatively green and fertile country.
+
+These islands are known to support 58 species of Vertebrates,--1 quadruped,
+52 birds and 5 reptiles, the greater part of which are found nowhere else,
+while a considerable number belong to peculiar and very remarkable genera.
+We must therefore notice them in some detail.
+
+_Mammalia._--This class is represented by a mouse belonging to the American
+genus _Hesperomys_, but slightly different from any found on the continent.
+A true rat (_Mus_), slightly differing from any European species, also
+occurs; and as there can be little doubt that this is an escape from a
+ship, somewhat {30}changed under its new conditions of life (the genus
+_Mus_ not being indigenous to the American continent), it is not
+improbable, as Mr. Darwin remarks, that the American mouse may also have
+been imported by man, and have become similarly changed.
+
+_Birds._[2]--Recent researches in the islands have increased the number of
+land-birds to thirty-two, and of wading and aquatic birds to twenty-three.
+All the land birds but two or three are peculiar to the islands, and
+eighteen, or considerably more than half, belong to peculiar genera. Of the
+waders 4 are peculiar, and of the swimmers 2. These are a rail (_Porzana
+spilonota_); two herons (_Butorides plumbea_ and _Nycticorax pauper_); a
+flamingo (_Phoenicopterus glyphorhynchus_); while the new aquatics are a
+gull (_Larus fuliginosus)_, and a penguin (_Spheniscus mendiculus_).
+
+The land-birds are much more interesting. All except the birds of prey
+belong to American genera which abound on the opposite coast or on that of
+Chili a little further south, or to peculiar genera allied to South
+American forms. The only _species_ not peculiar are, _Dolichonyx
+oryzivorus_, a bird of very wide range in America and of migratory habits,
+which often visits the Bermudas 600 miles from North America,--and _Asio
+accipitrinus_, an owl which is found almost all over the world. The only
+genera not exclusively American are _Buteo_ and _Strix_, of each of which a
+peculiar species occurs in the Galapagos, although very closely allied to
+South American species. There remain 10 genera, all either American or
+peculiar to the Galapagos; and on these we will remark in systematic order.
+
+1. _Mimus_, the group of American mocking-thrushes, is represented by three
+distinct and well-marked species. 2. _Dendroeca_, an extensive and
+wide-spread genus of the wood-warblers (Mniotiltidæ), is represented by one
+species, which ranges over the greater part of the archipelago. The genus
+is especially abundant in Mexico, the Antilles, and the northern parts of
+{31}tropical America, only one species extending south as far as Chili. 3.
+_Certhidea_, a peculiar genus originally classed among the finches, but
+which Mr. Sclater, who has made South American birds his special study,
+considers to belong to the _Coerebidæ_, or sugar-birds, a family which is
+wholly tropical. Two species of this genus inhabit separate islands. 4.
+_Progne_, the American martins (Hirundinidæ), is represented by a peculiar
+species. 5. _Geospiza_, a peculiar genus of finches, of which no less than
+eight species occur in the archipelago, but not more than four in any one
+island. 6. _Camarhynchus_ (6 sp.) and 7. _Cactornis_ (4 sp.) are two other
+peculiar genera of finches; some of the species of which are confined to
+single islands, while others inhabit several. 8. _Pyrocephalus_, a genus of
+the American family of tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidæ), has one peculiar
+species closely allied to _T. rubineus_, which has a wide range in South
+America. 9. _Myiarchus_, another genus of the same family which does not
+range further south than western Ecuador, has also a representative species
+found in several of the islands. 10. _Zenaida_, an American genus of
+pigeons, has a species in James Island and probably in some of the others,
+closely allied to a species from the west coast of America.
+
+It has been already stated that some of the islands possess peculiar
+species of birds distinct from the allied forms in other islands, but
+unfortunately our knowledge of the different islands is so unequal and of
+some so imperfect, that we can form no useful generalizations as to the
+distribution of birds among the islands themselves. The largest island is
+the least known; only one bird being recorded from it, one of the
+mocking-thrushes found nowhere else. Combining the observations of Mr.
+Darwin with those of Dr. Habel and Prof. Sundevall, we have species
+recorded as occurring in seven of the islands. Albemarle island has but one
+definitely known species; Chatham and Bindloe islands have 11 each;
+Abingdon and Charles islands 12 each; Indefatigable island and James island
+have each 18 species. This shows that birds are very fairly distributed
+over all the islands, one of the smallest and most remote (Abingdon)
+furnishing as many as the much larger Chatham Island, which is also the
+nearest {32}to the mainland. Taking the six islands which seem tolerably
+explored, we find that two of the species (_Dendroeca aureola_ and
+_Geospiza fortis_) occur in all of them; two others (_Geospiza strenua_ and
+_Myiarchus magnirostris_) in five; four (_Mimus melanotis_, _Geospiza
+fuliginosa_, _G. parvula_, and _Camarhynchus prosthemelas_) in four
+islands; five (_Certhidea olivacea_, _Cactornis scandens_, _Pyrocephalus
+nanus_), and two of the birds of prey, in three islands; nine (_Certhidea
+fusca_, _Progne concolor_, _Geospiza nebulosa_, _G. magnirostris_,
+_Camarhynchus psittaculus_, _C. variegatus_, _C. habeli_ and _Asio
+accipitrinus_) in two islands; while the remaining ten species are confined
+to one island each. These peculiar species are distributed among the
+islands as follows. James, Charles and Abingdon islands, have 2 each;
+Bindloes, Chatham, and Indefatigable, 1 each. The amount of speciality of
+James Island is perhaps only apparent, owing to our ignorance of the fauna
+of the adjacent large Albemarle island; the most remote islands north and
+south, Abingdon and Charles, have no doubt in reality most peculiar
+species, as they appear to have. The scarcity of peculiar species in
+Chatham Island is remarkable, it being large, very isolated, and the
+nearest to the mainland. There is still room for exploration in these
+islands, especially in Albemarle, Narborough, and Hood's islands of which
+we know nothing.
+
+_Reptiles._--The few reptiles found in these islands are very interesting.
+There are two snakes, a species of the American genus _Herpetodryas_, and
+another which was at first thought to be a Chilian species (_Psammophis
+Temminckii_), but which is now considered to be distinct. Of lizards there
+are four at least, belonging to as many genera. One is a species of
+_Phyllodactylus_, a wide-spread genus of Geckotidæ; the rest belong to the
+American family of the Iguanas, one being a species of the Neotropical
+genus _Leiocephalus_, the other two very remarkable forms, _Trachycephalus_
+and _Oreocephalus_ (formerly united in the genus _Amblyrhynchus_). The
+first is a land, the second a marine, lizard; both are of large size and
+very abundant on all the islands; and they are quite distinct from any of
+the very numerous genera of Iguanidæ, spread all over the American
+continent. The last {33}reptile is a land tortoise (_Testudo nigra_) of
+immense size, and also abundant in all the islands. Its nearest ally is the
+equally large species of the Mascarene Islands; an unusual development due,
+in both cases, to the absence of enemies permitting these slow but
+continually growing animals to attain an immense age. It is believed that
+each island has a distinct variety or species of tortoise.
+
+_Insects_.--Almost the only insects known from these islands are some
+Coleoptera, chiefly collected by Mr. Darwin. They consist of a few peculiar
+species of American or wide-ranging genera, the most important being, a
+_Calosoma_, _Poecilus_, _Solenophorus_, and _Notaphus_, among the Carabidæ;
+an _Oryctes_ among the Lamellicornes; two new genera of obscure Heteromera;
+two Curculionidæ of wide-spread genera; a Longicorn of the South American
+genus _Eburia_; and two small Phytophaga,--a set of species highly
+suggestive of accidental immigrations at rare and distant intervals.
+
+_Land-Shells._--These consist of small and obscure species, forming two
+peculiar sub-genera of _Bulimulus_, a genus greatly developed on the whole
+West coast of America; and a single species of _Buliminus_, a genus which
+ranges over all the world except America. As in the case of the birds, most
+of the islands have two or three peculiar species.
+
+_General Conclusions._--These islands are wholly volcanic and surrounded by
+very deep sea; and Mr. Darwin is of opinion, not only that the islands have
+never been more nearly connected with the mainland than at present, but
+that they have never been connected among themselves. They are situated on
+the Equator, in a sea where gales and storms are almost unknown. The main
+currents are from the south-west, an extension of the Peruvian drift along
+the west coast of South America. From their great extent, and their
+volcanoes being now almost extinct, we may assume that they are of
+considerable antiquity. These facts exactly harmonize with the theory, that
+they have been peopled by rare accidental immigrations at very remote
+intervals. The only peculiar _genera_ consist of birds and lizards, which
+must therefore have been the earliest {34}immigrants. We know that small
+Passerine birds annually reach the Bermudas from America, and the Azores
+from Europe, the former travelling over 600, the latter over 1000 miles of
+ocean. These groups of islands are both situated in stormy seas, and the
+immigrants are so numerous that hardly any specific change in the resident
+birds has taken place. The Galapagos receive no such annual visitants;
+hence, when by some rare accident a few individuals of a species did
+arrive, they remained isolated, probably for thousands of generations, and
+became gradually modified through natural selection under completely new
+conditions of existence. Less rare and violent storms would suffice to
+carry some of these to other islands, and thus the archipelago would in
+time become stocked. It would appear probable, that those which have
+undergone most change were the earliest to arrive; so that we might look
+upon the three peculiar genera of finches, and _Certhidea_, the peculiar
+form of Coerebidæ, as among the most ancient inhabitants of the islands,
+since they have become so modified as to have apparently no near allies on
+the mainland. But other birds may have arrived nearly at the same time, and
+yet not have been much changed. A species of very wide range, already
+adapted to live under very varied conditions and to compete with varied
+forms of life, might not need to become modified so much as a bird of more
+restricted range, and more specialized constitution. And if, before any
+considerable change had been effected, a second immigration of the same
+species occurred, crossing the breed would tend to bring back the original
+type of form. While, therefore, we may be sure that birds like the finches,
+which are profoundly modified and adapted to the special conditions of the
+climate and vegetation, are among the most ancient of the colonists; we
+cannot be sure that the less modified form of tyrant-flycatcher or
+mocking-thrush, or even the unchanged but cosmopolitan owl, were not of
+coeval date; since even if the parent form on the continent has been
+changed, successive immigrations may have communicated the same change to
+the colonists.
+
+The reptiles are somewhat more difficult to account for. We know, however,
+that lizards have some means of dispersal over {35}the sea, because we find
+existing species with an enormous range. The ancestors of the
+_Amblyrhynchi_ must have come as early, probably, as the earliest birds;
+and the same powers of dispersal have spread them over every island. The
+two American genera of lizards, and the tortoises, are perhaps later
+immigrants. Latest of all were the snakes, which hardly differ from
+continental forms; but it is not at all improbable that these latter, as
+well as the peculiar American mouse, have been early human importations.
+Snakes are continually found on board native canoes whose cabins are
+thatched with palm leaves; and a few centuries would probably suffice to
+produce some modification of a species completely isolated, under
+conditions widely different from those of its native country. Land-shells,
+being so few and small, and almost all modifications of one type, are a
+clear indication of how rare are the conditions which lead to their
+dispersal over a wide extent of ocean; since two or three individuals,
+arriving on two or three occasions only during the whole period of the
+existence of the islands, would suffice to account for the present fauna.
+Insects have arrived much more frequently; and this is in accordance with
+their habits, their lower specific gravity, their power of flight, and
+their capacity for resisting for some time the effects of salt water.
+
+We learn, then, from the fauna of these islands, some very important facts.
+We are taught that tropical land-birds, unless blown out of their usual
+course by storms, rarely or never venture out to sea, or if they do so, can
+seldom pass safely over a distance of 500 miles. The immigrants to the
+Galapagos can hardly have averaged a bird in a thousand years. We learn,
+that of all reptiles lizards alone have some tolerably effective mode of
+transmission across the sea; and this is probably by means of currents, and
+in connection with floating vegetation. Yet their transmission is a far
+rarer event than that of land-birds; for, whereas three female immigrants
+will account for the lizard population, at least eight or ten ancestors are
+required for the birds. Land serpents can pass over still more rarely, as
+two such transmissions would have sufficed to stock the islands with their
+snakes; and it is not certain that either of these occurred without the aid
+of man. {36}It is doubtful whether mammals or batrachians have any means of
+passing, independently of man's assistance; the former having but one
+doubtfully indigenous representative, the latter none at all. The
+remarkable absence of all gay or conspicuous flowers in these tropical
+islands, though possessing a zone of fairly luxuriant shrubby vegetation,
+and the dependence of this phenomenon on the extreme scarcity of insects,
+has been already noticed at Vol. I. p. 461, when treating of a somewhat
+similar peculiarity of the New Zealand fauna and flora.
+
+
+_I. South Temperate America, or the Chilian Sub-region._
+
+This sub-region may be generally defined as the temperate portion of South
+America. On the south, it commences with the cold damp forests of Tierra
+del Fuego, and their continuation up the west coast to Chiloe and northward
+to near Santiago. To the east we have the barren plains of Patagonia,
+gradually changing towards the north into the more fertile, but still
+treeless, pampas of La Plata. Whether this sub-region should be continued
+across the Rio de la Plata into Uruguay and Entre-rios, is somewhat
+doubtful. To the west of the Parana it extends northward over the Chaco
+desert, till we approach the border of the great forests near St. Cruz de
+la Sierra. On the plateau of the Andes, however, it must be continued still
+further north, along the "paramos" or alpine pastures, till we reach 5° of
+South latitude. Beyond this the Andes are very narrow, having no double
+range with an intervening plateau; and although some of the peculiar forms
+of the temperate zone pass on to the equator or even beyond it, these are
+not sufficiently numerous to warrant our extending the sub-region to
+include them. Along with the high Andes it seems necessary to include the
+western strip of arid country, which is mostly peopled by forms derived
+from Chili and the south temperate regions.
+
+_Mammalia._--This sub-region is well characterised by the possession of an
+entire family of mammalia having Neotropical affinities--the Chinchillidæ.
+It consists of 3 genera--_Chinchilla_ (2 sp.), inhabiting the Andes of
+Chili and Peru as far as 9° south latitude, and at from 8,000 to 12,000
+feet altitude; _Lagidium_ (3 sp.), ranging over the Andes of Chili, Peru,
+and South Ecuador, {37}from 11,000 to 16,000 feet altitude; and
+_Lagostomus_ (1 sp.), the "viscacha," confined to the pampas between the
+Uruguay and Rio Negro. Many important genera are also confined to this
+sub-region. _Auchenia_ (4 sp.), including the domesticated llamas and
+alpacas, the vicugna which inhabits the Andes of Peru and Chili, and the
+guanaco which ranges over the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
+Although this genus is allied to the Old World camels, it is a very
+distinct form, and its introduction from North America, where the family
+appear to have originated, may date back to a remote epoch. _Ursus
+ornatus_, the "spectacled bear" of the Chilian Andes, is a remarkable form,
+supposed to be most allied to the Malay bear, and probably forming a
+distinct genus, which has been named _Tremarctos_. Four genera of
+Octodontidæ are also peculiar to this sub-region, or almost so;
+_Habrocomus_ (1 sp.) is Chilian; _Spalacopus_ (2 sp.) is found in Chili and
+on the east side of the southern Andes; _Octodon_ (3 sp.) ranges from Chili
+into Peru and Bolivia; _Ctenomys_ (6 sp.) from the Straits of Magellan to
+Bolivia, with one species in South Brazil. _Dolichotis_, one of the Cavies,
+ranges from Patagonia to Mendoza, and on the east coast to 37½° S.
+latitude. _Myopotamus_ (1 sp.), the coypu (Echimyidæ), ranges from 33° to
+48° S. latitude on the west side of the Andes, and from the frontiers of
+Peru to 42° S. on the east side. _Reithrodon_ and _Acodon_, genera of
+Muridæ, are also confined to Temperate South America; _Tolypeutes_ and
+_Chlamydophorus_, two genera of armadillos, the latter very peculiar in its
+organization and sometimes placed in a distinct family, are found only in
+La Plata and the highlands of Bolivia, and so belong to this sub-region.
+_Otaria_, one of the "eared seals" (Otariidæ), is confined to the coasts of
+this sub-region and the antarctic islands. Deer of American groups extend
+as far as Chiloe on the west, and the Straits of Magellan on the east
+coast. Mice of the South American genera _Hesperomys_ and _Reithrodon_, are
+abundant down to the Straits of Magellan and into Tierra del Fuego, Mr.
+Darwin having collected more than 20 distinct species. The following are
+the genera of Mammalia which have been observed on the shores of the
+Straits of Magellan, those marked * extending into Tierra del Fuego:
+{38}*_Pseudalopex_ (two wolf-like foxes), _Felis_ (the puma), _Mephitis_
+(skunks), _Cervus_ (deer), *_Auchenia_ (guanaco), *_Ctenomys_ (tucu-tucu),
+*_Reithrodon_ and *_Hesperomys_ (American mice).
+
+_Birds._--Three families of Birds are confined to this
+sub-region,--Phytotomidæ (1 genus, 3 sp.), inhabiting Chili, La Plata, and
+Bolivia; Chionididæ (1 genus, 2 sp.) the "sheath-bills," found only at the
+southern extremity of the continent and in Kerguelen's Island, which with
+the other antarctic lands perhaps comes best here; Thinocoridæ (2 genera, 6
+species) an isolated family of waders, ranging over the whole sub-region
+and extending northward to the equatorial Andes. Many genera are also
+peculiar: 3 of Fringillidæ, and 1 of Icteridæ; 9 of Dendrocolaptidæ, 6 of
+Tyrannidæ, 3 of Trochilidæ, and 4 of Pteroptochidæ,--the last four South
+American families. There is also a peculiar genus of parrots
+(_Henicognathus_) in Chili; two of pigeons (_Metriopelia_ and _Gymnopelia_)
+confined to the Andes and west coast from Peru to Chili; two of Tinamous,
+_Tinamotes_ in the Andes, and _Calodromus_ in La Plata; three of
+Charadriidæ, _Phægornis_, _Pluvianellus_, and _Oreophilus_; and _Rhea_, the
+American ostriches, inhabiting all Patagonia and the pampas. Perhaps the
+Cariamidæ have almost as much right here as in the last sub-region,
+inhabiting as they do, the "pampas" of La Plata and the upland "campos" of
+Brazil; and even among the wide-ranging aquatic birds, we have a peculiar
+genus, _Merganetta_, one of the duck family, which is confined to the
+temperate plateau of the Andes.
+
+Against this extensive series of characteristic groups, all either of
+American type or very distinct forms of Old World families, and therefore
+implying great antiquity, we find, in mammalia and birds, very scanty
+evidence of that direct affinity with the north temperate zone, on which
+some naturalists lay so much stress. We cannot point to a single
+terrestrial genus, which is characteristic of the north and reappears in
+this south temperate region without also occurring over much of the
+intervening land. _Mustela_ seems only to have reached Peru; _Lepus_ is
+isolated in Brazil; true _Ursus_ does not pass south of Mexico. In birds,
+the northern groups rarely go further south than Mexico or the Columbian
+Andes; and the only case of discontinuous {39}distribution we can find
+recorded is that of the genus of ducks, _Camptolæmus_, which has a species
+on the east side of North America and another in Chili and the Falkland
+Islands, but these, Professor Newton assures me, do not properly belong to
+the same genus. Out of 30 genera of land-birds collected on the Rio Negro
+in Patagonia, by Mr. Hudson, only four extend beyond the American
+continent, and the same exclusively American character applies equally to
+its southern extremity. No list appears to have been yet published of the
+land-birds of the Straits of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego. The following
+is compiled from the observations of Mr. Darwin, the recent voyage of
+Professor Cunningham, and other sources; and will be useful for comparison.
+
+  TURDIDÆ.
+     1. Turdus falklandicus.
+
+  TROGLODYTIDÆ.
+     2. Troglodytes magellanicus.
+
+  FRINGILLIDÆ.
+     3. Chrysomitris barbata.
+    *4. Phrygilus gayi.
+    *5.     "     aldunatii.
+     6.     "     fruticeti.
+    *7.     "     xanthogrammus.
+     8. Zonotrichia pileata.
+
+  ICTERIDÆ.
+     9. Sturnella militaris.
+    10. Curæus aterrimus.
+
+  HIRUNDINIDÆ.
+    11. Hirundo meyeni.
+
+  TYRANNIDÆ.
+    12. Tænioptera pyrope.
+    13. Myiotheretes rufiventris.
+    14. Muscisaxicola mentalis.
+    15. Centrites niger.
+    16. Anæretes parulus.
+    17. Elainea griseogularis.
+
+  DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ.
+    18. Upucerthia dumetoria.
+   *19. Cinclodes patagonicus.
+   *20.     "     fuscus.
+   *21. Oxyurus spinicauda.
+
+  PTEROPTOCHIDÆ.
+   *22. Scytalopus magellanicus.
+
+  PICIDÆ.
+   *23. Campephilus magellanicus.
+    24. Picus lignarius.
+
+  ALCEDINIDÆ.
+    25. Ceryle stellata.
+
+  TROCHILIDÆ.
+    26. Eustephanus galeritus.
+
+  CONURIDÆ.
+    27. Conurus patagonus.
+
+  VULTURIDÆ.
+    28. Cathartes aura.
+    29. Sarcorhamphus gryphus.
+
+  FALCONIDÆ.
+    30. Circus macropterus.
+    31. Buteo erythronotus.
+    32. Geranoaëtus melanolencus.
+    33. Accipiter chilensis.
+    34. Cerchneis sparverius.
+    35. Milvago albogularis.
+    36. Polyborus tharus.
+
+  STRIGIDÆ.
+    37. Asio accipitrinus.
+    38. Bubo magellanicus.
+    39. Pholeoptynx cunicularia.
+    40. Glaucidium nana.
+    41. Syrnium rufipes.
+
+  STRUTHIONIDÆ.
+    42. Rhea darwinii.
+
+{40}In the above list the species marked * extend to Tierra del Fuego. It
+is a remarkable fact that so many of the species belong to genera which are
+wholly Neotropical, and that the specially South American families of
+Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Dendrocolaptidæ, Pteroptochidæ, Trochilidæ, and
+Conuridæ, should supply more than one-third of the species; while the
+purely South American genus _Phrygilus_, should be represented by four
+species, three of which abound in Tierra del Fuego.
+
+_Plate XVI. A Scene in the Andes of Chili, with characteristic
+Animals._--The fauna of South Temperate America being most fully developed
+in Chili, we place the scene of our illustration in that country. In the
+foreground we have a pair of the beautiful little chinchillas (_Chinchilla
+lanigera_), belonging to a family of animals peculiar to the sub-region.
+There are only two species of this group, both confined to the higher
+Andes, at about 8000 feet elevation. Coming round a projecting ridge of the
+mountain, are a herd of vicunas (_Auchenia vicugna_), one of that peculiar
+form of the camel tribe found in South America and confined to its
+temperate and alpine regions. The upper bird is a plant-cutter (_Phytotoma
+rara_), of sober plumage but allied to the beautiful chatterers, though
+forming a separate family. Below, standing on a rock, is a plover-like
+bird, the _Thinocorus orbignianus_, which is considered to belong to a
+separate family, though allied to the plovers and sheath-bills. Its habits
+are, however, more those of the quails or partridges, living inland in dry
+and desert places, and feeding on plants, roots, and insects. Above is a
+condor, the most characteristic bird of the high Andes.
+
+_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These groups show, for the most part, similar
+modifications of American and Neotropical forms, as those we have seen to
+prevail among the birds. Snakes do not seem to go very far south, but
+several South American genera of Colubridæ and Dendrophidæ occur in Chili;
+while _Enophrys_ is peculiar to La Plata, and _Callorhinus_ to Patagonia,
+both belonging to the Colubridæ. The Elapidæ do not extend into the
+temperate zone; but _Craspedocephalus_, one of the Crotalidæ, occurs at
+Bahia Blanca in Patagonia (Lat. 40° S.)
+
+
+
+Plate XVI.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE CHILIAN ANDES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.
+
+{41}Lizards are much more numerous, and there are several peculiar and
+interesting forms. Three families are represented; Teidæ by two
+genera--_Callopistes_ peculiar to Chili, and _Ameiva_ which ranges over
+almost the whole American continent and is found in Patagonia; _Geckotidæ_
+by four genera, two of which,--_Caudiverbera_ and _Homonota_--are peculiar
+to Chili, while _Sphærodactylus_ and _Cubina_ are Neotropical, the former
+ranging to Patagonia, the latter to Chili; and lastly the American family
+Iguanidæ represented by eight genera, no less than six being peculiar, (or
+almost so,) to the South temperate region. These are _Leiodera_,
+_Diplolæmus_ and _Proctrotretus_, ranging from Chili to Patagonia;
+_Leiolæmus_, from Peru to Patagonia; _Phrymaturus_, confined to Chili, and
+_Ptygoderus_ peculiar to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The other two
+genera, _Oplurus_ and _Leiosaurus_, are common to Chili and tropical South
+America.
+
+Tortoises appear to be scarce, a species of _Hydromedusa_ only being
+recorded. Of the Amphibia, batrachia (frogs and toads) alone are
+represented, and appear to be tolerably abundant, seventeen species having
+been collected by Mr. Darwin in this sub-region. Species of the South
+American genera _Phryniscus_, _Hylaplesia_, _Telmatobius_, _Cacotus_,
+_Hylodes_, _Cyclorhamphus_, _Pleurodema_, _Cystignathus_, and _Leiuperus_,
+are found in various localities, some extending even to the Straits of
+Magellan,---the extreme southern limit of both Reptilia and Amphibia,
+except one lizard (_Ptygoderus_) found by Professor Cunningham in Tierra
+del Fuego. There are also four peculiar genera, _Rhinoderma_ belonging to
+the Engystomidæ; _Alsodes_ and _Nannophryne_ to the Bombinatoridæ;
+_Opisthodelphys_ to the Hylidæ; and _Calyptocephalus_ to the Discoglossidæ.
+
+It thus appears, that in the Reptiles all the groups are typically
+American, and that most of the peculiar genera belong to families which are
+exclusively American. The Amphibia, on the other hand, present some
+interesting external relations, but these are as much with Australia as
+with the North temperate regions. The Bombinatoridæ are indeed Palæarctic,
+but a larger proportion are Neotropical, and one genus inhabits New
+Zealand. The Chilian genus _Calyptocephalus_ is allied to Australian
+tropical genera. {42}The Neotropical genera of Ranidæ, five of which extend
+to Chili and Patagonia, belong to a division which is Australian and
+Neotropical, and which has species in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions.
+
+_Fresh-water Fishes._--These present some peculiar forms, and some very
+interesting phenomena of distribution. The genus _Percilia_ has been found
+only in the Rio de Maypu in Chili; and _Percichthys_, also belonging to the
+perch family, has five species confined to the fresh waters of South
+Temperate America, and one far away in Java. _Nematogenys_ (1 sp.) is
+peculiar to Chili; _Trichomycterus_ reaches 15,000 feet elevation in the
+Andes,--both belonging to the Siluridæ; _Chirodon_ (2 sp.), belonging to
+the Characinidæ, is peculiar to Chili; and several other genera of the same
+family extend into this sub-region from Brazil. The family _Haplochitonidæ_
+has a remarkable distribution; one of its genera, Haplochiton (2 sp.),
+inhabiting Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, while the other,
+_Prototroctes_, is found only in South Australia and New Zealand. Still
+more remarkable is _Galaxias_ (forming the family Galaxidæ), the species of
+which are divided between Temperate South America, and Australia, Tasmania,
+and New Zealand; and there is even one species (_Galaxias attenuatus_)
+which is found in the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, and Tasmania, as well
+as in the Falkland Islands and Patagonia. _Fitzroya_ (1 sp.) is found only
+at Montevideo; _Orestias_ (6 sp.) is peculiar to Lake Titicaca in the high
+Andes of Bolivia; _Jenynsia_ (1 sp.) in the Rio de la Plata--all belonging
+to the characteristic South American family of the Cyprinodontidæ.
+
+_Insects._--It is in insects more than in any other class of animals, that
+we find clear indications of a not very remote migration of northern forms,
+along the great mountain range to South Temperate America, where they have
+established themselves as a prominent feature in the entomology of the
+country. The several orders and families, however, differ greatly in this
+respect; and there are some groups which are only represented by
+modifications of tropical forms, as we have seen to be almost entirely the
+case in birds and reptiles.
+
+{43}_Lepidoptera._--The butterflies of the South Temperate Sub-region are
+not numerous, only about 29 genera and 80 species being recorded. Most of
+these are from Chili, which is sufficiently accounted for by the general
+absence of wood on the east side of the Andes from Buenos Ayres to South
+Patagonia. The families represented are as follows: Satyridæ, with 11
+genera and 27 species, are the most abundant; Nymphalidæ, 2 genera and 8
+species; Lemoniidæ, 1 genus, 1 species; Lycænidæ, 3 genera, 8 species;
+Pieridæ, 6 genera, 14 species; Papilionidæ, 2 genera, 8 species; Hesperidæ,
+4 genera, 13 species. One genus of Satyridæ (_Elina_) and 2 of Pieridæ
+(_Eroessa_ and _Phulia_) are peculiar to Chili. The following are the
+genera whose derivation must be traced to the north temperate
+zone:--_Tetraphlybia_, _Neosatyrus_, and 3 allied genera of 1 species each,
+were formerly included under _Erebia_, a northern and arctic form, yet
+having a few species in South Africa; _Argyrophorus_, allied to _Æneis_, a
+northern genus; _Hipparchia_, a northern genus yet having a species in
+Brazil;--all Satyridæ. The Nymphalidæ are represented by the typical north
+temperate genus _Argynnis_, with 7 species in Chili; _Colias_, among the
+Pieridæ, is usually considered to be a northern genus, but it possesses
+representatives in South Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Malabar, New
+Grenada, and Peru, as well as Chili, and must rather be classed as
+cosmopolitan. These form a sufficiently remarkable group of northern forms,
+but they are accompanied by others of a wholly Neotropical origin. Such are
+_Stibomorpha_ with 6 species, ranging through South America to Guatemala,
+and _Eteona_, common to Chili and Brazil (Satyridæ); _Apodemia_ (Lemoniidæ)
+confined to Tropical America and Chili. _Hesperocharis_ and _Callidryas_
+(Pieridæ), both tropical; and _Thracides_ (Hesperidæ) confined to Tropical
+America and Chili. Other genera are widely scattered; as, _Epinephile_
+found also in Mexico and Australia; _Cupido_, widely spread in the tropics;
+_Euryades_, found only in La Plata and Paraguay, allied to South American
+forms of _Papilio_, to the Australian _Eurycus_, and the northern
+_Parnassius_; and _Heteropterus_, scattered in Chili, North America, and
+Tropical Africa. We find then, among butterflies, a large north-temperate
+element, {44}intermingled in nearly equal proportions with forms derived
+from Tropical America; and the varying degrees of resemblances of the
+Chilian to the northern species, seems to indicate successive immigrations
+at remote intervals.
+
+_Coleoptera._--It is among the beetles of South Temperate America that we
+find some of the most curious examples of remote affinities, and traces of
+ancient migrations. The Carabidæ are very well represented, and having been
+more extensively collected than most other families, offer us perhaps the
+most complete materials. Including the Cicindelidæ, about 50 genera are
+known from the South Temperate Sub-region, the greater part from Chili, but
+a good number also from Patagonia and the Straits of Magellan. Of these
+more than 30 are peculiar, and most of them are so isolated that it is
+impossible to determine with precision their nearest allies.
+
+The only remarkable form of Cicindelidæ is _Agrius_, a genus allied to the
+_Amblycheila_ and _Omus_ of N.W. America. Two genera of Carabidæ,
+_Cascellius_ and _Baripus_, are closely allied to _Promecoderus_, an
+Australian genus; and another, _Lecanomerus_, has one species in Chili and
+the other in Australia. Five or six of the peculiar genera are undoubtedly
+allied to characteristic Palæarctic forms; and such northern genera as
+_Carabus_, _Pristonychus_, _Anchomenus_, _Pterostichus_, _Percus_,
+_Bradycellus_, _Trechus_, and _Bembidium_, all absent from Tropical
+America, give great support to the view that there is a close relation
+between the insects of the northern regions and South Temperate America. A
+decided tropical element is, however, present. _Tropopterus_ is near
+_Colpodes_, a Tropical and South American genus; _Mimodromius_ and
+_Plagiotelium_ are near _Calleida_, a South American genus; while
+_Pachyteles_, _Pericompsus_, _Variopalpus_, and _Calleida_ are widely
+spread American groups. The preponderance of northern forms seems, however,
+to be undoubted.
+
+Six Carabidæ are known from Juan Fernandez, 3 being identical with Chilian
+species and 3 peculiar. As the island is 350 miles from the mainland, we
+have here a proof of how readily insects may be transported great
+distances.
+
+{45}The Palæarctic affinity of the South Temperate Carabidæ may be readily
+understood, if we bear in mind the great antiquity of the group, and the
+known long persistence of generic and specific forms of Coleoptera; the
+facility with which they may be transported to great distances by gales and
+hurricanes, either on land or over the sea; and, therefore, the probability
+that suitable stations would be rapidly occupied by species already adapted
+to them, to the exclusion of those of the adjacent tracts which had been
+specialised under different conditions. If, for example, we carry ourselves
+back to the time when the Andes had only risen to half their present
+altitude, and Patagonia had not emerged from the ocean (an epoch not very
+remote geologically), we should find nearly all the Carabidæ of South
+America, adapted to a warm, and probably forest-covered country. If, then,
+a further considerable elevation of the land took place, a large temperate
+and cold area would be formed, without any suitable insect inhabitants.
+During the necessarily slow process of elevation, many of the tropical
+Carabidæ would spread upwards, and some would become adapted to the new
+conditions; while the majority would probably only maintain themselves by
+continued fresh immigrations. But, as the mountains rose, another set of
+organisms would make their way along the highest ridges. The abundance and
+variety of the North Temperate Carabidæ, and their complete adaptation to a
+life on barren plains and rock-strewn mountains, would enable them rapidly
+to extend into any newly-raised land suitable to them; and thus the whole
+range of the Rocky Mountains and Andes would obtain a population of
+northern forms, which would overflow into Patagonia, and there, finding no
+competitors, would develope into a variety of modified groups. This
+migration was no doubt effected mainly, during successive glacial epochs,
+when the mountain-range of the Isthmus of Panama, if moderately increased
+in height, might become adapted for the passage of northern forms, while
+storms would often carry insects from peak to peak over intervening forest
+lowlands or narrow straits of sea. If this is the true explanation, we
+ought to find no such preponderant northern element in groups which {46}are
+proportionally less developed in cold and temperate climates. Our further
+examination will show how far this is the case.
+
+Lucanidæ.--Only four genera are known in the sub-region. Two are peculiar,
+_Chiasognathus_ and _Streptocerus_, the former allied to Tropical American,
+the latter to Australian genera; the other two genera are exclusively South
+American.
+
+Cetoniidæ.--These seem very scarce, only a few species of the Neotropical
+genus _Gymnetis_ reaching Patagonia.
+
+Buprestidæ.--These are rather numerous, many very beautiful species being
+found in Chili. Nineteen genera are represented in South Temperate America,
+and 5 of these are peculiar to it; 3 others are South American genera; 2
+are Australian, and the remainder are wide-spread, but all are found also
+in Tropical America. The only north-temperate genus is _Dicerca_, and even
+this occurs also in the Antilles, Brazil, and Peru. Of the peculiar genera,
+the largest, _Dactylozodes_ (26 sp.), has one species in South Brazil, and
+is closely allied to _Hyperantha_, a genus of Tropical America;
+_Epistomentis_ is allied to _Nascis_, an Australian genus; _Tyndaris_ is
+close to _Acmoeodera_, a genus of wide range and preferring desert or dry
+countries. The other two are single species of cosmopolitan affinities. On
+the whole, therefore, the Buprestidæ are unmistakeably Neotropical in
+character.
+
+Longicorns.--Almost the whole of the South Temperate Longicorns inhabit
+Chili, which is very rich in this beautiful tribe. About 75 genera and 160
+species are known, and nearly half of the genera are peculiar. Many of the
+species are large and handsome, rivalling in beauty those of the most
+favoured tropical lands. Of the 8 genera of Prionidæ 6 are peculiar, but
+all are allied to Tropical American forms except _Microplophorus_, which
+belongs to a group of genera spread over Australia, Europe, and Mexico. The
+Cerambycidæ are much more abundant, and their affinities more interesting.
+Two (_Syllitus_ and _Pseudocephalus_) are common to Australia and Chili.
+Twenty-three are Neotropical; and among these _Ibidion_, _Compsocerus_,
+_Callideriphus_, _Trachyderes_, and _Xylocharis_, are best represented.
+Twenty are {47}altogether peculiar, but most of them are more or less
+closely allied to genera inhabiting Tropical America. Some, as the handsome
+_Cheloderus_ and _Oxypeltus_, have no close allies in any part of the
+world. _Holopterus_, though very peculiar, shows most resemblance to a New
+Zealand insect. _Sibylla_, _Adalbus_, and _Phantagoderus_, have Australian
+affinities; while _Calydon_ alone shows an affinity for north-temperate
+forms. One species of the northern genus, _Leptura_, is said to have been
+found at Buenos Ayres.
+
+The Lamiidæ are less abundant. Nine of the genera are Neotropical. Two
+(_Apomecyna_ and _Exocentrus_) are spread over all tropical regions. Ten
+genera are peculiar; and most of these are related to Neotropical groups or
+are of doubtful affinities. Only one, _Aconopterus_, is decidedly allied to
+a northern genus, _Pogonochærus_. It thus appears, that none of the Lamiidæ
+exhibit Australian affinities, although these are a prominent feature in
+the relations of the Cerambycidæ.
+
+
+
+It is evident, from the foregoing outline, that the insects of South
+Temperate America, more than any other class of animals, exhibit a
+connection with the north temperate regions, yet this connection is only
+seen in certain groups. In Diurnal Lepidoptera and in Carabidæ, the
+northern element is fully equal to the tropical, or even preponderates over
+it. We have already suggested an explanation of this fact in the case of
+the Carabidæ, and with the butterflies it is not more difficult. The great
+mass of Neotropical butterflies are forest species, and have been developed
+for countless ages in a forest-clad tropical country. The north temperate
+butterflies, on the other hand, are very largely open-country species,
+frequenting pastures, mountains, and open plains, and often wandering over
+an extensive area. These would find, on the higher slopes of mountains, a
+vegetation and conditions suited to them, and would occupy such stations in
+less time than would be required to adapt and modify the forest-haunting
+groups of the American lowlands. In those groups of insects, however, in
+which the conditions of life are nearly the same as regards both temperate
+and tropical species, the superior {48}number and variety of the tropical
+forms has given them the advantage. Thus we find that among the Lucanidæ,
+Buprestidæ, and Longicorns, the northern element is hardly perceptible.
+Most of these are either purely Neotropical, or allied to Neotropical
+genera, with the admixture, however, of a decided Australian element. As in
+the case of the Amphibia and fresh-water fishes, the Australian affinity,
+as shown by insects, is of two kinds, near and remote. We have a few genera
+common to the two countries; but more commonly the genera are very
+distinct, and the affinity is shown by the genera of both countries
+belonging to a group peculiar to them, but which may be of very great age.
+In the former case, we must impute some of the resemblance of the two
+faunas to an actual interchange of forms within the epoch of existing
+genera--a period of vast and unknown duration in the class of insects;
+while in the latter case, and perhaps also in many of the former, it seems
+more in accordance with the whole of the phenomena, to look upon most of
+the instances as survivals, in the two southern temperate areas, of the
+relics of groups which had once a much wider distribution. That this is the
+true explanation, is suggested by the numerous cases of discontinuous and
+scattered distribution we have had to notice, in which every part of the
+globe, without exception, is implicated; and there is a reason why these
+survivals should be rather more frequent in Australia and temperate South
+America, inasmuch as these two areas agree in the absence of a considerable
+number of otherwise cosmopolitan vertebrate types, and are also in many
+respects very similar in climatic and other physical conditions. The
+preponderating influence of the organic over the physical environment, as
+taught by Mr. Darwin, leads us to give most weight to the first of the
+above-mentioned causes; to which we may also impute such undoubted cases of
+survival of ancient types as the Centetidæ of the Antilles and
+Madagascar--both areas strikingly deficient in the higher vertebrate forms.
+The probable mode and time of the cross migration between Australia and
+South America, has been sufficiently discussed in our chapter on the
+Australian region, when treating of the origin and affinities of the New
+Zealand fauna.
+
+
+{49}_Islands of the South Temperate Sub-region._
+
+These are few, and of not much zoological interest. Tierra del Fuego,
+although really an island, is divided from the mainland by so narrow a
+channel that it may be considered as forming part of the continent. The
+guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_) ranges over it, and even to small islands
+further south.
+
+_The Falkland Islands._--These are more important, being situated about 350
+miles to the east of Southern Patagonia; but the intervening sea is
+shallow, the 100 fathom line of soundings passing outside the islands. We
+have therefore reason to believe that they have been connected with South
+America at a not distant epoch; and in agreement with this view we find
+most of their productions identical, while the few that are peculiar are
+closely allied to the forms of the mainland.
+
+The only indigenous Mammals are a wolf-like fox (_Pseudalopex antarcticus_)
+said to be found nowhere else, but allied to two other species inhabiting
+Southern Patagonia; and a species of mouse, probably one of the American
+genera _Hesperomys_ or _Reithrodon_.
+
+Sixty-seven species of Birds have been obtained in these islands, but only
+18 are land-birds; and even of these 7 are birds of prey, leaving only 11
+Passeres. The former are all common South American forms, but one species,
+_Milvago australis_, seems peculiar. The 11 Passeres belong to 9 genera,
+all found on the adjacent mainland. Three, or perhaps four, of the species
+are however peculiar. These are _Phrygilus melanoderus_, _P.
+xanthogrammus_, _Cinclodes antarcticus_, and _Muscisaxicola macloviana_.
+The wading and swimming birds are of little interest, except the penguins,
+which are greatly developed; no less than eight species being found, five
+as residents and three as accidental visitors.
+
+No reptiles are known to inhabit these islands.
+
+_Juan Fernandez._--This island is situated in the Pacific Ocean, about 400
+miles west of Valparaiso in Chili. It is only a few miles in extent, yet it
+possesses four land-birds, excluding the powerful Accipitres. These are
+_Turdus falklandicus_; _Anæretes {50}fernandensis_, one of the Tyrannidæ;
+and two humming-birds, _Eustephanus fernandensis_ and _E. galeritus_. The
+first is a widespread South Temperate species, the two next are peculiar to
+the island, while the last is a Chilian species which ranges south to
+Tierra del Fuego. But ninety miles beyond this island lies another, called
+"Mas-a-fuero," very much smaller; yet this, too, contains four species of
+similar birds; one, _Oxyurus mas-a-fueræ_, allied to the wide-spread South
+Temperate _O. spinicauda_, and _Cinclodes fusus_, a South Temperate
+species--both Dendrocolaptidæ; with a humming-bird, _Eustephanus leyboldi_,
+allied to the species in the larger island. The preceding facts are taken
+from papers by Mr. Sclater in the _Ibis_ for 1871, and a later one in the
+same journal by Mr. Salvin (1875). The former author has some interesting
+remarks on the three species of humming-birds of the genus _Eustephanus_,
+above referred to. The Chilian species, _E. galeritus_, is green in both
+sexes. _E. fernandensis_ has the male of a fine red colour and the female
+green, though differently marked from the female of _E. galeritus_. _E.
+leyboldi_ (of Mas-a-fuera) has the male also red and the female green, but
+the female is more like that of _E. galeritus_, than it is like the female
+of its nearer ally in Juan Fernandez. Mr. Sclater supposes, that the
+ancient parent form of these three birds had the sexes alike, as in the
+present Chilian bird; that a pair (or a female having fertilised ova)
+reached Juan Fernandez and colonised it. Under the action of sexual
+selection (unchecked by some conditions which had impaired its efficacy on
+the continent) the male gradually assumed a brilliant plumage, and the
+female also slightly changed its markings. Before this change was completed
+the bird had established an isolated colony on Mas-a-fuera; and here the
+process of change was continued in the male, but from some unknown cause
+checked in the female, which thus remains nearer the parent form. Lastly
+the slightly modified Chilian bird again reached Juan Fernandez and exists
+there side by side with its strangely altered cousin.
+
+All the phenomena can thus be accounted for by known laws, on the theory of
+very rare accidental immigrations from the {51}mainland. The species are
+here so very few, that the greatest advocate for continental extensions
+would hardly call such vast causes into action, to account for the presence
+of these three birds on so small and so remote an island, especially as the
+union must have continued down to the time of existing species. But if
+accidental immigration has sufficed here, it will also assuredly have
+sufficed where the islands are larger, and the chances of reaching them
+proportionately greater; and it is because an important principle is here
+illustrated on so small a scale, and in so simple a manner as to be almost
+undeniable, that we have devoted a paragraph to its elucidation.
+
+A few Coleoptera from Juan Fernandez present analogous phenomena. All
+belong to Chilian genera, while a portion of them constitute peculiar
+species.
+
+Land-shells are rather plentiful, there being about twenty species
+belonging to seven genera, all found in the adjacent parts of South
+America; but all the species are peculiar, as well as four others found on
+the island of Mas-a-fuera.
+
+
+_III. Tropical North America, or the Mexican Sub-region._
+
+This sub-region is of comparatively small extent, consisting of the
+irregular neck of land, about 1,800 miles long, which connects the North
+and South American continents. Almost the whole of its area is mountainous,
+being in fact a continuation of the great range of the Rocky Mountains. In
+Mexico it forms an extensive table-land, from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the
+sea, with numerous volcanic peaks from 12,000 to 18,000 feet high; but in
+Yucatan and Honduras, the country is less elevated, though still
+mountainous. On the shores of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, there
+is a margin of low land from 50 to 100 miles wide, beyond which the
+mountains rise abruptly; but on the Pacific side this is almost entirely
+wanting, the mountains rising almost immediately from the sea shore. With
+the exception of the elevated plateaus of Mexico and Guatemala, and the
+extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan, the whole of Central America is
+clothed with forests; and as its surface is much broken up into hill and
+valley, and the volcanic {52}soil of a large portion of it is very fertile,
+it is altogether well adapted to support a varied fauna, as it does a most
+luxuriant vegetation. Although many peculiar Neotropical types are absent,
+it yet possesses an ample supply of generic and specific forms; and, as far
+as concerns birds and insects, is not perhaps inferior to the richest
+portions of South America in the number of species to be found in equal
+areas.
+
+Owing to the fact that the former Republic of Mexico comprised much
+territory that belongs to the Nearctic region, and that many Nearctic
+groups extend along the high-lands to the capital city of Mexico itself,
+and even considerably further south, there is much difficulty in
+determining what animals really belong to this sub-region. On the
+low-lands, tropical forms predominate as far as 28° N. latitude; while on
+the cordilleras, temperate forms prevail down to 20°, and are found even
+much farther within the tropics.
+
+_Mammalia._--Very few peculiar forms of Mammalia are restricted to tropical
+North America; which is not to be wondered at when we consider the small
+extent of the country, and the facility of communication with adjacent
+sub-regions. A peculiar form of tapir (_Elasmognathus bairdi_) inhabits
+Central America, from Panama to Guatemala, and, with _Myxomys_, a genus of
+Muridæ, are all at present discovered. _Bassaris_, a remarkable form of
+Procyonidæ, has been included in the Nearctic region, but it extends to the
+high-lands of Guatemala. _Heteromys_, a peculiar genus of Saccomyidæ or
+pouched rats, inhabits Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Trinidad. Five
+genera of monkeys extend here,--_Ateles_, _Mycetes_, _Cebus_,
+_Nyctipithecus_, and _Saimiris_; the two former alone reaching Mexico, the
+last only going as far as Costa Rica. Other typical Neotropical forms are
+_Galera_, the tayra, belonging to the weasel family; _Nasua_, the
+coatimundi; _Dicotyles_, the peccary; _Cercolabes_, the tree porcupine;
+_Dasyprocta_, the agouti; _Cælogenys_, the paca; _Choloepus_, and
+_Arctopithecus_, sloths; _Cyclothurus_, an ant-eater; _Tatusia_, an
+armadillo; and _Didelphys_, oppossum. Of Northern forms, _Sorex_, _Vulpes_,
+_Lepus_, and _Pteromys_ reach Guatemala.
+
+_Birds._--The productiveness of this district in bird life, may {53}be
+estimated from the fact, that Messrs. Salvin and Sclater have catalogued
+more than 600 species from the comparatively small territory of Guatemala,
+or the portion of Central America between Mexico and Honduras. The great
+mass of the birds of this sub-region are of Neotropical families and
+genera, but these are intermingled with a number of migrants from temperate
+North America, which pass the winter here; with some northern forms on the
+high-lands; and with a considerable number of peculiar genera, mostly of
+Neotropical affinities.
+
+The genera of birds peculiar to this sub-region belong to the following
+families:--Turdidæ (2 genera); Troglodytidæ (1 gen.); Vireonidæ (1 gen.);
+Corvidæ (2 gen.); Ampelidæ (1 gen.); Tanagridæ (1 gen.); Fringillidæ (2
+gen.); Icteridæ (1 gen.); Formicariidæ (2 gen.); Tyrannidæ (2 gen.);
+Cotingidæ (1 gen.); Momotidæ (1 gen.); Trogonidæ (1 gen.); Trochilidæ (14
+gen.); Conuridæ (1 gen.); Cracidæ (2 gen.); Strigidæ (1 gen.); in all 37
+genera of land-birds. The Neotropical families that do not extend into this
+sub-region are, Pteroptochidæ; the sub-family _Furnariinæ_ of the
+Dendrocolaptidæ; the sub-family _Conophaginæ_ of the Tyrannidæ; the
+sub-family _Rupicolinæ_ of the Cotingidæ; Phytotomidæ; Todidæ;
+Opisthocomidæ; Chionididæ; Thinocoridæ; Cariamidæ; Psophiidæ; Eurypygidæ;
+Palamedeidæ; and Struthionidæ. On the other hand Paridæ, Certhiidæ,
+Ampelidæ, and Phasianidæ, are northern families represented here, but which
+do not reach South America; and there are also several northern genera and
+species, of Turdidæ, Troglodytidæ, Mniotiltidæ, Vireonidæ, Fringillidæ,
+Corvidæ, Tetraonidæ, and Strigidæ, which are similarly restricted. Some of
+the most remarkable of the Neotropical genera only extend as far as Costa
+Rica and Veragua,--countries which possess a rich and remarkable fauna.
+Here only are found an umbrella bird, (_Cephalopterus glabricollis_); a
+bell bird (_Chasmorhynchus tricarunculatus_); and species of _Dacnis_
+(Ceroebidæ), _Buthraupis_, _Eucometis_, _Tachyphonus_ (Tanagridæ),
+_Xiphorhynchus_ (Dendrocolaptidæ); _Hypocnemis_ (Formicariidæ);
+_Euscarthmus_ (Tyrannidæ); _Attila_ (Cotingidæ); _Piprites_ (Pipridæ);
+_Capito_, _Tetragonops_ (Megalæmidæ); _Selenidera_ (Rhamphastidæ);
+_Neomorphus_ {54}(Cuculidæ); _Monasa_ (Bucconidæ); many genera of
+Trochilidæ; and _Nothocercus_ (Tinamidæ); none of which extend further
+north. A considerable number of the peculiar genera noted above, are also
+found in this restricted area, which is probably one of the richest
+ornithological districts on the globe.
+
+_Reptiles._--These are much less known than the preceding classes, but they
+afford several peculiar and interesting forms. Snakes are perhaps the least
+remarkable; yet there are recorded 4 peculiar genera of Calamariidæ, 1 of
+Colubridæ, 1 of Homalopsidæ, 3 of Dipsadidæ; while _Boa_ and _Elaps_ are in
+common with South America. Lizards are much more specially developed.
+_Chirotes_, one of the Amphisbænians, is confined to Mexico and the
+southern part of the Nearctic region; _Heloderma_ forming a peculiar
+family, Helodermidæ, is Mexican only; _Abronia_ and _Barissia_ (Zonuridæ)
+are also Mexican, as is _Siderolampus_ belonging to the Scincidæ, while
+_Blepharactitis_ (same family) inhabits Nicaragua; _Brachydactylus_, one of
+the geckoes, is from Costa Rica; while _Phymatolepis_, _Lamanctus_,
+_Corytheolus_, _Cachrix_, _Corythophanes_ and _Chamæleopsis_, all belonging
+to the Iguanidæ, are confined to various parts of the sub-region. In the
+same family we have also the Antillean, _Cyclura_, and the Nearctic
+_Phrynosoma_ and _Tropidolepis_, as well as the wide-spread American genus
+_Anolius_.
+
+Among the tortoises, _Staurotypus_, allied to _Chelydra_, is found in
+Mexico and Guatemala; and another genus, _Claudius_, has been lately
+described from Mexico.
+
+_Amphibia._--These are chiefly Batrachians; _Rhinophryna_ (forming a
+peculiar family) being confined to Mexico; _Triprion_, a genus of Hylidæ,
+inhabiting Yucatan, with _Leyla_ and _Strabomantis_ (Polypedatidæ) found
+only in Costa Rica and Veragua, are peculiar genera. The Salamandridæ, so
+abundant in the Nearctic region, are represented by a few species of
+_Amblystoma_ and _Spelerpes_.
+
+_Fresh-water fish._--Since the British Museum catalogue was published, a
+valuable paper by Dr. Günther, in the Transactions of the Zoological
+Society for 1868, furnishes much additional information on the fishes of
+Central America. In that part of the region south of Mexico, 106 species of
+fresh-water fishes are {55}enumerated; and 17 of these are found in streams
+flowing into both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On the whole, 11
+families are represented among the fresh-water fish, and about 38 genera.
+Of these, 14 are specially Nearctic,--_Amiurus_ (Siluridæ); _Fundulus_
+(Cyprinodontidæ); _Sclerognathus_ (Cyprinidæ); and _Lepidosteus_
+(Ganoidei). A much larger number are Neotropical; and several Neotropical
+genera, as _Heros_ and _Poecilia_, are more largely developed here than in
+any other part of the region. There are also a considerable number of
+peculiar genera;--_Petenia_, _Theraps_, and _Neotrophus_ (Chromides);
+_Ælurichthys_ (Siluridæ); _Chalcinopsis_ (Characniidæ); _Characodon_,
+_Belonesox_, _Pseudoxiphophorus_, _Platypoecilus_, _Mollienesia_, and
+_Xiphophorus_ (Cyprinodontidæ). A few peculiar Antillean forms are also
+present; as _Agonostoma_ (Mugilidæ); _Gambusia_ and _Girardinuus_
+(Cyprinodontidæ). The other families represented are Percidæ (1 genus);
+Pristopomatidæ (2 gen.); Gobiidæ (1 gen.); Clupeidæ (2 gen.); and Gymnotidæ
+(1 genus).
+
+On the whole the fish-fauna is typically Neotropical, but with a small
+infusion of Nearctic forms. There are a considerable proportion of peculiar
+genera, and almost all the species are distinct from those of other
+countries. The predominant family is that of the Cyprinodontidæ,
+represented by 12 genera; and the genus _Heros_ (Chromidæ) has here its
+maximum development, containing between thirty and forty species. Dr.
+Günther considers that a number of sub-faunas can be distinguished,
+corresponding to some extent, with the islands into which the country would
+be divided by a subsidence of about 2,000 feet. The most important of these
+divisions is that separating Honduras from Costa Rica, and as it also
+divides a very marked ornithological fauna we have every reason to believe
+that such a division must have existed during the latter portion of the
+tertiary epoch. We shall find some farther evidence of this division in the
+next class.
+
+_Insects._--The butterflies of various parts of Central America and Mexico,
+having been largely collected, offer us some valuable evidence as to the
+relations of this sub-region. Their general character is wholly
+Neotropical, about one half of the {56}South American genera being found
+here. There are also a few peculiar genera, as, _Drucina_ (Satyridæ);
+_Microtia_ (Nymphalidæ); _Eumæus_ (Lycænidæ); and _Eucheira_ (Pieridæ).
+_Clothilda_ (Nymphalidæ) is confined to this sub-region and the Antilles.
+The majority of the genera range over the whole sub-region from Panama to
+Mexico, but there are a considerable number, comprising many of the most
+characteristic South American forms, which do not pass north of Costa Rica
+or Nicaragua. Such are _Lycorea_, _Ituna_, _Thyridia_, _Callithomia_,
+_Oleria_ and _Ceratina_,--all characteristic South American groups of
+Danaidæ; _Pronophila_ and _Dynastor_ (Satyridæ); _Protogonius_, _Pycina_,
+_Prepona_, _Nica_, _Ectima_ and _Colænis_ (Nymphalidæ); _Eurybia_ and
+_Methonella_ (Nemeobiidæ); _Hades_, and _Panthemos_ (Erycinidæ).
+
+_Coleoptera._--These present some interesting features, but owing to their
+vast number only a few of the more important families can be noticed.
+
+Cicindelidæ.--The only specially Neotropical genera recorded as occurring
+in this sub-region, are _Ctenostoma_ and _Hiresia_, both reaching Mexico.
+
+Carabidæ.--Several genera are peculiar. _Molobrus_ is found in all parts of
+the sub-region, while _Onychopterygia_, _Phymatocephalus_, and
+_Anisotarsus_ are Mexican only. There are about 20 South American genera,
+most of which extend to Mexico, and include such characteristic Neotropical
+forms as _Agra_, _Callida_, _Coptodera_, _Pachyteles_, _Ardistomus_,
+_Aspidoglossa_, _Stenocrepis_, and _Pelecium_.
+
+Lucanidæ.--Of this important family there is, strange to say, not a single
+species recorded in Gemminger and Harold's catalogue up to 1868! It is
+almost impossible that they can be really absent; yet their place seems to
+he, to some extent, supplied by an unusual development of the allied
+Passalidæ, of which there are five South American and six peculiar genera.
+
+Cetoniidæ.--All the larger South American genera extend to Mexico, which
+country possesses 3 peculiar forms, _Ischnoscelis_, _Psilocnemis_, and
+_Dialithus_; while _Trigonopeltastes_ is characteristic, having 4 Mexican,
+1 Brazilian, and 1 North American species.
+
+{57}Buprestidæ.--In this family there are no peculiar genera. All the large
+South American groups are absent, the only important and characteristic
+genus being _Stenogaster_.
+
+Longicorns.--This important group is largely developed, the country being
+well adapted to them; and their distribution presents some features of
+interest.
+
+In the Prionidæ there are 6 peculiar genera, the largest being _Holonotus_
+with 3 species; two others, _Derotrachus_ and _Mallaspis_, are
+characteristic; 3 more are common to South America, and 1 to Cuba. The
+Cerambycidæ are much more numerous, and there are 24 peculiar genera, the
+most important being _Sphenothecus_, _Entomosterna_, and _Cyphosterna_;
+while _Crioprosopus_ and _Metaleptus_ are characteristic of the sub-region,
+although extending into South America; about 12 Neotropical genera extend
+to Mexico or Guatemala, while 12 more stop short, as far as yet known, at
+Nicaragua. Lamiidæ have a very similar distribution; 13 genera are
+peculiar, the most important being _Monilema_, _Hamatoderus_, and
+_Carneades_, while _Phæa_ and _Lagochirus_ are characteristic. About
+sixteen typical Neotropical genera extend to Mexico, and 15 more only reach
+Nicaragua, among which are such important genera as _Anisopus_,
+_Lepturgus_, and _Callia_.
+
+The land-shells are not sufficiently known to furnish any corresponding
+results. They are however mostly of South American genera, and have
+comparatively little affinity for those of the Antilles.
+
+_Relations of the Mexican sub-region to the North and South American
+Continents._--The sudden appearance of numerous South American forms of
+Edentata in temperate North America, in Post-Tertiary times, as narrated in
+Chapter VII., together with such facts as the occurrence of a considerable
+number of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central
+American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of North and
+South America is comparatively a recent occurrance, and that during the
+Miocene and Pliocene periods, they were separated by a wide arm of the sea.
+The low country of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged, leaving the
+highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North {58}American
+continent, and forming part of the Tertiary "Nearctic region." This is
+clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic forms which do not pass south
+of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys (_Meleagris_) are a striking example,
+and by the comparative poverty of this area in typical Neotropical groups.
+During the Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of climate
+between North and South America that now prevails; for when a luxuriant
+vegetation covered what are now the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the country
+south of the great lakes must have been almost or quite tropical. At an
+early Tertiary period, the zoological differences of the Nearctic and
+Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they are now, South
+America being a huge island, or group of islands--a kind of Australia of
+the New World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata;
+while North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and perhaps formed
+a part of the great Old World continent. There were also one or more very
+ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene times) of the two continents,
+admitting of the entrance of the ancestral types of Quadrumana into South
+America, and, somewhat later, of the Camelidæ; while the isthmus south of
+Nicaragua was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made
+insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich variety of
+Neotropical types that still characterises it. When the final union of the
+two continents took place, the tropical climate of the lower portions of
+Guatemala and Mexico would invite rapid immigration from the south; while
+some northern forms would extend their range into and beyond the newly
+elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a composite
+character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to determine its northern
+limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotropical, forms which are perhaps
+comparatively recent immigrants; and it would perhaps be a more accurate
+representation of the facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of
+Mexico and Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still
+belonging to the Nearctic region, of which the whole country so recently
+formed a part.
+
+The long-continued separation of North and South America {59}by one or more
+arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further rendered necessary by the
+character of the molluscan fauna of the Pacific shores of tropical America,
+which is much more closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of
+West Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and many of
+the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of very closely allied or
+identical species, shows that the union of the two oceans continued into
+late Tertiary times. When the evidence of both land and sea animals support
+each other as they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as
+certain as if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof
+of these successive subsidences.
+
+_Islands of the Mexican Sub-region._--The only islands of interest
+belonging to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and Socorro, recently
+investigated by Col. Grayson for some of the American Natural History
+societies.
+
+Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast of
+north-western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Blas. The largest is about 15
+miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizontally stratified deposits, of
+moderate height and flat-topped, and everywhere covered with luxuriant
+virgin forests. They appear to lie within the 100 fathom line of soundings.
+Fifty-two species of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on
+these islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picariæ (7 being
+humming-birds); 10 Accipitres; 2 parrots, and 3 pigeons. All were Mexican
+species except 4, which were new, and presumably peculiar to the islands,
+and one tolerably marked variety. The new species belong to the following
+genera;--_Parula_ and _Granatellus_ (Mniotiltidæ); _Icterus_ (Icteridæ);
+and _Amazilia_ (Trochilidæ). A small _Psittacula_ differs somewhat from the
+same species on the mainland.
+
+There are a few mammalia on the islands; a rabbit (_Lepus_) supposed to be
+new; a very small opossum (_Didelphys_), and a racoon (_Procyon_). There
+are also several tree-snakes, a _Boa_, and many lizards. The occurrence of
+so many mammalia and snakes is a proof that these islands have been once
+joined to the mainland; but the fact that some of the species of both birds
+and {60}mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very
+recent one. At the same time, as all the species are very closely allied to
+those of the opposite coasts when not identical, we may be sure that the
+subsidence which isolated them is not geologically remote.
+
+Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether different
+from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further south (19 S.
+Latitude), and about 300 miles from the coast, in deep water. It is about
+2,000 feet high, very rugged and bare, and wholly volcanic. No mammalia
+were observed, and no reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus
+(_Uta_) characteristic of the deserts of N.-Western Mexico. The only
+observed land-shell (_Orthalicus undatus_) also inhabits N.-W. Mexico. Only
+14 species of birds were obtained, of which 9 were land-birds; but of these
+4 were new species, one a peculiar variety, and another (_Parula
+insularis_) a species first found in the Tres Marias. With the exception of
+this bird and a _Buteo_, all the land-birds belonged to different _genera_
+from any found on the Tres Marias, though all were Mexican forms. The
+peculiar species belonged to the genera _Harporhynchus_ (Turdidæ);
+_Troglodytes_ (Troglodytidæ); _Pipilo_ (Fringillidæ); _Zenaidura_
+(Columbidæ); and a variety of _Conurus holochrous_ (Psittacidæ).
+
+The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of peculiar
+species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and their situation
+in deep water 300 miles from land,--all indicate that they have not formed
+part of the continent, but have been raised in the ocean; and the close
+relation of their peculiar species to those living in N.-Western Mexico,
+renders it probable that their antiquity is not geologically great.
+
+The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of Panama, are
+known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckoo of the _Coccyzus_ type, which
+is considered by some ornithologists to constitute a peculiar genus,
+_Nesococcyx_.
+
+
+_IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region._
+
+The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the most interesting
+of zoological sub-regions. In position they {61}form an unbroken chain
+uniting North and South America, in a line parallel to the great Central
+American isthmus; yet instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the
+productions of Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these
+countries, possessing in some groups a degree of speciality only to be
+found elsewhere in islands far removed from any continent. They consist of
+two very large islands, Cuba and Hayti;[3] two of moderate size, Jamaica
+and Portorico; and a chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla,
+Barbuda, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
+Barbadoes, and Grenada, with a host of intervening islets. Tobago,
+Trinidad, Margarita, and Curaçao, are situated in shallow water near the
+coast of South America, of which they form part zoologically. To the north
+of Cuba and Hayti are the Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and
+islands, 700 miles long, and although very poor in animal life, belonging
+zoologically to the Antilles. All the larger islands, and most of the
+smaller ones (except those of coral formation) are very mountainous and
+rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000 feet in Hayti and Jamaica, and to
+nearly the same height in Cuba. All, except where they have been cleared by
+man, are covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation; the temperature is
+high and uniform; the rains ample; the soil, derived from granitic and
+limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile; and as the four larger islands
+together are larger than Great Britain, we might expect an ample and
+luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case; and there are probably no
+land areas on the globe, so highly favoured by nature in all the essentials
+for supporting animal life, and at the same time so poor in all the more
+highly organised groups of animals. Before entering upon our sketch of the
+main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will be well to note a
+few peculiarities in the physical structure of the islands, which have an
+important bearing on their past {62}history, and will enable us to account
+for much that is peculiar in the general character of their natural
+productions.
+
+If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St. Bartholomew, we
+shall divide the Archipelago into two very different groups. The southern
+range of islands, or the Lesser Antilles, are, almost without exception,
+volcanic; beginning with the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St.
+Eustatius, and ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and Antigua
+are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with the
+volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth. The islands to the
+north and west are none of them volcanic; many are very large, and these
+have all a central nucleus of ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note,
+that the channels between these islands are not of excessive depth, and
+that their outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges,
+point to a former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is continued
+westward in Cuba, and eastward in Portorico; while the south-western
+peninsula extends in a direct line towards Jamaica, the depth between them
+being 600 fathoms. Between Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms;
+while close to the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep,
+from more than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000 south of
+Hayti, and 2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity of Portorico. The
+importance of the division here pointed out will be seen, when we state,
+that indigenous mammalia of peculiar genera are found on the western group
+of islands only; and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of
+Antillian zoology are developed.
+
+_Mammalia._--The mammals of the West Indian Islands are exceedingly few,
+but very interesting. Almost all the orders most characteristic of South
+America are absent. There are no monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata.
+Besides bats, which are abundant, only two orders are represented; rodents,
+by peculiar forms of a South American family; and insectivora (an order
+entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a family largely
+developed in Madagascar and found nowhere else. The early voyagers mention
+"Coatis" and "Agoutis" as being {63}found in Hayti and the other large
+islands, and it is not improbable that species allied to _Nasua_ and
+_Dasyprocta_ did exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the
+invaders; though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied to
+the existing species, which do bear some general resemblance to these two
+forms.
+
+The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of species and
+by several peculiar genera. The American family of Phyllostomidæ or
+vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of which three, _Lonchorina_,
+_Brachyphylla_, and _Phyllonycteris_, are peculiar, the latter being found
+only in Cuba. The Vespertilionidæ have four genera, of which one,
+_Nycticellus_, is confined to Cuba. There are six genera of Noctilionidæ,
+of which one, _Phyllodia_, is confined to Jamaica.
+
+The Insectivora are represented by the genus _Solenodon_, of which two
+species are known, one inhabiting Cuba the other Hayti. These are small
+animals about the size of a cat, with long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like
+tail, and long claws. Their peculiar dentition and other points of their
+anatomy shows that they belong to the family Centetidæ, of which five
+different genera inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied
+to them in any other part of the world but in these two islands.
+
+Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands, but they
+are very imperfectly known.
+
+The rodents belong to the family Octodontidæ, or, according to some
+authors, to the Echimyidæ, both characteristic South American groups. They
+consist of two genera, _Capromys_, containing three or four species
+inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica; while _Plagiodontia_ (very closely allied) is
+confined to Hayti. A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus
+_Hesperomys_, is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other
+islands. A _Dasyprocta_ or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical
+with, a South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and
+Grenada, and perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal of any size
+indigenous to the Lesser Antilles. All the islands in which sugar is
+cultivated are, however, overrun with European rats and mice, and it is not
+improbable that these may have {64}starved out and exterminated some of the
+smaller native rodents.
+
+_Birds._--The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in number and
+variety to those of the mainland, are yet sufficiently abundant and
+remarkable, to offer us good materials for elucidating the past history of
+the country, when aided by such indications as geology and physical
+geography can afford.
+
+The total number of land-birds which are permanent residents in the West
+India islands is, as nearly as can be ascertained from existing materials,
+203. There are, in addition to this number, according to Prof. Baird, 88
+migrants from North America, which either spend the winter in some of the
+islands or pass on to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55
+genera, and it is an interesting fact that so many as 40 of these genera
+have no resident representatives in the islands. This is important, as
+showing that this northern migration is probably a recent and superficial
+phenomenon, and has not produced any (or a very slight) permanent effect on
+the fauna. The migratory genera which have permanent residents, and almost
+always representative species, in the islands, are in most cases
+characteristic rather of the Neotropical than of the Nearctic fauna, as the
+following list will show; _Turdus_, _Dendroeca_, _Vireo_, _Polioptila_,
+_Agelæus_, _Icterus_, _Contopus_, _Myiarchus_, _Tyrannus_, _Antrostomus_,
+_Chordeiles_, _Coccyzus_, _Columba_. By far the larger part of these birds
+visit Cuba only; 81 species being recorded as occurring in that island,
+while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in Porto Rico and St. Croix,
+and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad. Setting aside these migratory birds, as
+having no bearing on the origin of the true Antillean fauna, we will
+discuss the residents somewhat in detail.
+
+The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera and 26
+families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or nearly so--Turdidæ,
+Sylviidæ, Corvidæ, Hirundinidæ, Fringillidæ, Picidæ, Cuculidæ,
+Caprimulgidæ, Cypselidæ, Trogonidæ, Psittacidæ, Columbidæ, Tetraonidæ,
+Falconidæ, and Strigidæ; 5 are American only--Vireonidæ, Mniotiltidæ,
+Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Trochilidæ; 4 are Netropical only or almost
+{65}exclusively--Coerebidæ, Tanagridæ, Cotingidæ, Conuridæ; 1 is Antillean
+only--Todidæ; while 1--Ampelidæ--is confined (in the western hemisphere) to
+North America, and almost to the Nearctic region. Of the 95 genera, no less
+than 31, or almost exactly one-third, are peculiar; while of the 203
+resident species, 177 are peculiar, the other 26 being all inhabitants of
+South or Central America. Considering how closely the islands approach the
+continent in several places--Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela--this amount
+of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably unexampled
+in any other part of the globe. The most interesting of these peculiar
+genera are the following: 4 of Turdidæ, or thrushes--1 confined to the
+large islands, 1 to the whole archipelago, while 2 are limited to the
+Lesser Antilles; 2 genera of Tanagridæ, confined to the larger islands; 2
+of Trogonidæ, also confined to the larger islands; 5 of hummingbirds, 3
+confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles; 2 of cuckoos, one
+represented in all the large islands, the other in Jamaica only; 2 of owls,
+one peculiar to Jamaica, the other represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas,
+Portorico, and Cuba; and lastly, _Todus_, constituting a peculiar family,
+and having representative species in each of the larger islands, is
+especially interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are
+wholly Neotropical--the Momotidæ, Galbulidæ, and Todidæ. The presence of
+this peculiar form, with 2 trogons; 10 species of parrots, all but one
+peculiar; 16 peculiar humming-birds belonging to 8 genera; a genus of
+Cotingidæ; 10 peculiar tanagers belonging to 3 genera; 9 Coerebidæ of 3
+genera; together with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as
+_Coereba_, _Certhiola_, _Sycalis_, _Phonipara_, _Elainea_, _Pitangus_,
+_Campephilus_, _Chloronerpes_, _Nyctibius_, _Stenopsis_, _Lampornis_,
+_Calypte_, _Ara_, _Chrysotis_, _Zenaida_, _Leptoptila_, and _Geotrygon_,
+sufficiently demonstrate the predominant affinities of this fauna; although
+there are many cases in which it is difficult to say, whether the ancestors
+of the peculiar genera or species may not have been derived from the
+Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical region.
+
+The several islands differ considerably in their apparent
+{66}productiveness, but this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge of
+Cuba and Jamaica being much more complete than of Hayti. The species of
+resident land-birds at present known are as follows:--
+
+  Cuba               68 species of which 40 are peculiar to it.
+  Hayti              40    "         "   17         "        "
+  Jamaica            67    "         "   41         "        "
+  Portorico          40    "         "   15         "        "
+  Lesser Antilles    45    "         "   24         "        "
+
+If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon as (½) when a
+genus is common to two islands only, the numbers are as follows:--Cuba 7½,
+Hayti 3½, Jamaica 8½, Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 3½. These figures show
+us, that although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated of
+the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the
+number of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds,--and although
+this superiority may be in part due to its having been more investigated,
+it is probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also been well explored. This
+fact indicates, that the West Indian islands have undergone great changes,
+and that they were not peopled by immigration from surrounding countries
+while in the condition we now see them; for in that case the smaller and
+more remote islands would be very much poorer, while Cuba, which is not
+only the largest, but nearest to the mainland in two directions, would be
+immensely richer, just as it really is in migratory birds.
+
+The number of birds common to the four larger islands is very
+small--probably not more than half a dozen; between 20 and 30 are common to
+some two of the islands (counting the Lesser Antilles as one island) and a
+few to three; but the great mass of the species (at least 140) are confined
+each to some one of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is
+an amount of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled
+elsewhere, and which must have required a remarkable series of physical
+changes to bring about. What those changes probably were, we shall be in a
+better position to consider when we have completed our survey of the
+various classes of land animals.
+
+
+
+Plate XVII.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.
+
+{67}In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included with Cuba,
+as regards the birds they have in common; but they possess some half dozen
+species not found elsewhere, and even one central American genus of
+humming-birds (_Doricha_) not found in any other part of the Antilles. We
+have thus given Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses,
+so that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than shown
+by our figures.
+
+The destruction of the forests and the increase of population, with,
+perhaps, the use of firearms, seem to have led to the extermination of some
+species of birds in the smaller islands. Professor Newton has called
+attention to the work of M. Ledru, who, in 1796, described the birds of St.
+Thomas. He mentions a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only
+being now known, and very scarce; also a green pigeon and a tody, both now
+unknown. No less than six species of parrots are said to have been formerly
+found in Guadeloupe and Martinique, which are now extinct.
+
+_Plate XVII. Illustrating the peculiar Mammalia and Birds of the
+Antilles._--The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest of the West
+Indian islands, and one in which all its peculiar zoological features are
+well developed. In the foreground is the agouta (_Solenodon cubanus_), a
+remarkable insectivorous animal which, with another species inhabiting
+Hayti, has no allies on the American continent; nor anywhere in the world
+but in Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting the
+family Centetidæ, to which _Solenodon_ is said undoubtedly to belong. Above
+it are a pair of hutias (_Capromys fournieri_), rat-like animals belonging
+to the South American family Octodontidæ. They live in the forests, and
+climb trees readily, eating all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of
+the genus are known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above
+these animals is a white-breasted trogon (_Prionoteles temnurus_), confined
+to Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the top of the picture are
+a pair of todies (_Todus multicolor_), singular little insectivorous birds
+allied to the motmots, but forming a very distinct family which is confined
+to the islands of the {68}Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured
+birds,--green above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in
+their movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds
+(_Sporadinus ricordi_), not very remarkable in this beautiful family, but
+introduced here because they belong to a genus which is confined to the
+Greater Antilles.
+
+
+_Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds._--As the birds of the West
+Indian islands are particularly interesting and their peculiarities
+comparatively little known, we give here a table of the genera of
+land-birds, compiled from all available sources of information. Owing to
+the numerous independent observations on which it is founded, the
+discrepancies of nomenclature, and uncertainty in some cases as to the
+locality of species, it can only be looked upon as an approximative summary
+of the existing materials on Antillean ornithology.
+
+
+_TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES._
+
+NOTE.--Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (_a_) after
+(1) indicates a species common to two islands: but where there are two or
+more species in an island, or the localities are doubtful, this indication
+cannot be given. All species not otherwise noted are peculiar to the
+Antilles.
+
+  Key to columns:
+  Column 1 Cuba.
+     "   2 Bahamas.
+     "   3 Hayti.
+     "   4 Jamaica.
+     "   5 Portorico & St. Croix.
+     "   6 Lesser Antilles.
+     "   7 Total resident species.
+
+  ----------------+-----------------------------+----+---------------------
+                  |      Number of Species in   |    |
+     Family and   |         each Island.        |    |
+       Genus.     +----+----+----+----+----+----+    |   Remarks.
+                  |  1 |  2 |  3 |  4 |  5 |  6 |  7 |
+  ----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------
+  TURDIDÆ.        |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Turdus         | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Five species migrate
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    to Cuba
+   _Mimocichla_   |  2 |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  5 |
+   _Margarops_    | -- | -- | 1a | -- | 1a |  3 |  4 | Martinique, St.
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Lucia, Guada.
+   _Rhamphocinclus_ -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | Martinique and St.
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Lucia
+   _Cinclocerthia_| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  3 |  3 | Nevis to St. Lucia
+   Mimus          |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 | (?)| -- |  3 | Another species
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   migrates to the
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Antilles
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  SYLVIIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Myiadestes     |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |  3 | St. Lucia
+   Polioptila     |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  VIREONIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Vireosylvia    |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 | One S. American
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
+   Vireo          |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 | -- |  4 | Five species migrate
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   to Cuba
+   _Laletes_      | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Phoenicomanes_| -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  CORVIDÆ.        |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Corvus         |  1 | -- | 1a |  1 | 1a | -- |  3 |
+   Cyanocorax     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  MNIOTILTIDÆ.    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Perissoglossa  |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  1 | N. American species
+   Dendroeca      |  2 |  2 |  1 |  3 |  1 |  1 |  7 | Twelve sp. migrate
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   to W. I.
+   _Teretristis_  |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  COEREBIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Certhiola      | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |  7 | Dominica and
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique
+   _Glossiptila_  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Coereba        |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  AMPELIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   _Dulus_        | (?)| -- |  1 | (?)| (?)| (?)|  2 | One species locality
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   unknown
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  HIRUNDINIDÆ.    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Progne         | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |
+   Pterochelidon  |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |
+   Hirundo        |  1 | -- | 1a | 1a | -- | -- |  2 | One S. American
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  TANAGRIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Euphonia       | 1a | -- | 1a |  1 |  1 |  1 |  4 | St. Bartholom. &
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique
+   _Spindalis_    |  2 |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- |  5 |
+   _Phænicophilus_| -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Saltator       | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | Guadeloupe and St.
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Lucia
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  FRINGILLIDÆ.    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    _Loxigilla_   | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |  3 | Martinique and
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Dominica
+    _Melopyrrha_  |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Sycalis        | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
+   Phonipara      |  3 | -- |  3 |  3 |  2 | -- |  4 | One S. American
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
+   Chrysomitris   | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ICTERIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Icterus        |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |  6 |
+   Agelæus        |  2 | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  3 |
+   Sturnella      |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
+   _Nesopsar_     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Scolecophagus  |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Quiscalus      | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |  4 | St. Lucia,
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |  Martinique and
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |  Barbadoes
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  TYRANNIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Elainea        | -- | -- | -- |  2 | -- |  1 |  3 |
+   Pitangus       | 1a | -- | -- | 1a |  1 | -- |  2 |
+   Contopus       | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 | St. Lucia
+   Myiarchus      |  2 | -- |  1 |  3 |  1 | 1b |  7 | One S. American
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species (b)
+   _Blacicus_     | 1a | -- | 1a |  1 | -- | -- |  2 |
+   Tyrannus       |  2 | -- | -- | 1b | 1b | 2b |  3 | One sp. in Cen.
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   America (b)
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  COTINGIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Hadrostomus    | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  PICIDÆ.         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Campephilus    |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Xiphidiopicus_|  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Melanerpes     | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |
+   Chloronerpes   | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Centurus       |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  3 |
+   Colaptes       |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
+   _Nesoceleus_   |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Picumnus_     | -- | -- | ?1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  CUCULIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   _Saurothera_   |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- |  4 |
+   _Hyetornis_    | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  2 |
+   Coccygus       |  1 | -- |  2 |  1 |  1 |  1 |  3 | Dominica, St. Lucia,
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   all Neotropical
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
+   Crotophaga     |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 | N. & Cen. American
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  TODIDÆ.         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   _Todus_        |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 |  1 | -- |  5 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  TROGONIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   _Prionoteles_  |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Temnotrogon_  | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  CAPRIMULGIDÆ.   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Nyctibius      | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Neotropical species
+   Chordeiles     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Antrostomus    |  2 | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 | One Neotropical
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
+   _Siphonorhis_  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Stenopsis      | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | Martinique
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   (S. America sp.)
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  CYPSELIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Cypselus       |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Panyptila      | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
+   Hemiprocne     | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
+   Cypseloides    | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  TROCHILIDÆ.     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Lampornis      | -- | -- | 1a |  1 | 2a | 1a |  3 |
+   Doricha        | -- |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
+   _Eulampis_     | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  2 |  2 | St. Croix, Dominica,
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   St. Lucia,
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique
+   _Aithurus_     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Mellisuga_    | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Calypte        |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Orthorhynchus_| -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  2 |  3 | Domin., Martini.,
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   St. Lucia
+   _Sporadinus_   |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  3 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  CONURIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Ara            |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
+   Conurus        |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 | St. Thomas
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  PSITTACIDÆ.     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Chrysotis      |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 |  1 |  3 |  8 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  COLUMBIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Columba        |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 |  2 |  1 |  3 | One in Honduras
+   Chamæpelia     | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 |
+   Zenaida        |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |
+   Leptoptila     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Geotrygon      |  2 | -- |  1 |  2 |  1 |  2 |  5 | St. Lucia,
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique, one
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species Mexican
+   _Starnoenas_   |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  TETRAONIDÆ.     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Ortyx          |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  FALCONIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Accipiter      |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
+   Hypotriorchis  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
+   Cerchneis      |  2 | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  2 |
+   Cymindis       |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+   Polyborus      |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  STRIGIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+   Nyctalops      |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
+   _Pseudoscops_  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
+   _Gymnoglaux_   |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  2 | St. Croix and St.
+                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Thomas
+   Glaucidium     |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
+  ----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------
+
+         {Number of families of resident land-birds in the Antilles   26
+  TOTALS { "     "  genera          "        "                "       95
+         { "     "  species         "        "                "      203
+
+{72}_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These classes not having been systematically
+collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful
+revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The
+following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described,
+will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the
+birds--a general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to
+those of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar
+types.
+
+Snakes.--_Arrhyton_ (Calamariidæ) from Cuba, _Hypsirhynchus_ from
+Barbadoes, _Cryptodacus_ from Cuba, _Ialtris_ from Hayti, and _Coloragia_
+from Cuba (all Colubridæ), have been described as genera peculiar to the
+Antilles. _Phylodryas_ and _Dromicus_ (Colubridæ) are Antillean and
+Neotropical; _Ahætulla_, (Dendrophidæ) has the same distribution but
+extends to tropical Africa; _Epicrates_ and _Corallus_ (Pythonidæ) are
+Neotropical and Antillean; while _Chilabothrus_ from Jamaica and _Ungalia_
+from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonidæ) are found elsewhere only in Central
+America and Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidæ except an introduced
+species of _Craspedocephalus_ in St. Lucia.
+
+Lizards are more numerous. _Ameiva_ (Teidæ) is found all over America,
+_Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba; _Gymnopthalmus_
+is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidæ seven genera are noted.
+_Celestus_ (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles; _Camilia_ (1
+species) to Jamaica, _Panoplus_ (1 species) and _Embryopus_ (1 species) to
+Hayti; _Diplogossus_ is Antillean and South American; while _Plestiodon_
+and _Mabouya_ are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidæ there are four genera;
+_Phyllodactylus_ and _Hemidactylus_ which are cosmopolite; _Sphærodactylus_
+which is wholly American; and _Cubina_ found only in Martinique and Brazil.
+Of Iguanidæ there are six genera; _Anolis_, which ranges all over America;
+_Polychrus_, which is Neotropical; _Iguana_ and _Liocephalus_ which are
+South American; _Tropedurus_ found in Cuba and Brazil; and _Cyclura_ only
+known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America.
+
+_Amphibia._--The genus _Trachycephalus_, belonging to the {73}Hylidæ or
+tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles; Cuba, Hayti, and
+Jamaica possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South
+America. Other genera are, _Peltaphryne_ (Bufonidæ) from Portorico;
+_Phyllobates_ (Polypedatidæ) from Cuba; _Leiuperus_ (Ranidæ) from
+Hayti,--all Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no
+representative occurs, although they are so characteristic a feature of the
+Nearctic region.
+
+_Fresh-water fish._--The same general remarks apply to these as to the
+reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted--_Lebistes_, a form of
+Cyprinodontidæ from Barbadoes; other genera of the same family being,
+_Haplochilus_, _Rivulus_, and _Girardinus_, widely spread in the
+Neotropical region; while _Gambusia_ is confined to Central America,
+Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridæ by
+_Chætostomus_, found in Portorico and South America; Chromidæ by the South
+American _Acara_; Mugillidæ by the Central American _Agonostoma_; and
+Percidæ by the North American _Centrarchus_, of which a species is recorded
+from Cuba.
+
+_Insects._--The various West Indian islands have not been well explored
+entomologically; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty
+renders them little attractive to the professional collector, while the
+abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. We can,
+therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total
+absence of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real
+phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge.
+Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the
+chief groups of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.
+
+_Lepidoptera._--The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented,
+the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting; yet there
+are a few peculiar and very characteristic forms which show great
+isolation, while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are
+exclusively or characteristically Antillean,--_Calisto_ belonging to the
+Satyridæ, with four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina;
+_Clothilda_ {74}(Nymphalidæ) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and
+2 in Central America; _Lucinia_ (Nymphalidæ) 2 species, confined to Jamaica
+and Hayti; and _Kricogonia_ belonging to the Pieridæ, which has 2 West
+Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a
+special relation to Central America are _Euptoieta_, _Eumæus_, and
+_Nathalis_. Almost all the other genera are South American, the total
+number recorded in each family as occurring in the West Indian islands,
+being, 3 of Danaidæ; 1 of Heliconiidæ; 2 of Satyridæ; 18 of Nymphalidæ; 1
+of Erycinidæ; 4 of Lycænidæ; 6 of Pieridæ; 1 of Papilionidæ, and 10 of
+Hesperidæ. The genus _Papilio_ is represented by about 20 species, 2 of
+which are North American, 4 South American, while the rest form little
+characteristic groups allied to those of Central America. The most marked
+feature seems to be the scarcity of Satyridæ and the almost total absence
+of Erycinidæ, with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms
+of Danaidæ and Nymphalidæ.
+
+_Coleoptera._--Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ are very poorly represented, by a
+few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No
+Lucanidæ are recorded. Of Cetoniidæ, _Gymnetis_ only appears to be
+represented. Buprestidæ seem to be more numerous; 15 genera being recorded,
+but almost all of wide distribution. One only is
+peculiar--_Tetragonoschoma_, found in Hayti; _Halecia_ is the only
+exclusively South American genus; _Chalcophora_ is widely scattered over
+the tropical regions but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the
+Nearctic region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the
+Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well
+represented, or which has been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera
+are known from the West Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar.
+Prionidæ are proportionately very numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of
+which are widely distributed in both South and North America, 1 is North
+American, and 1 South American, while the following are
+peculiar,--_Stenodontes_ (Hayti and Cuba); _Dendroblaptus_ (Cuba);
+_Monodesmus_ (Cuba and Jamaica); _Prosternodes_ (Cuba); _Solenoptera_ and
+_Elateropsis_, the two largest genera found in most of the {75}islands. Of
+Cerambycidæ there are 16 genera, 2 of which range all over America, 4 are
+Neotropical, 1 South American only, while the following are confined to the
+islands,--_Merostenus_, _Pentomacrus_, and _Eburiola_ (Jamaica);
+_Bromiades_ (Cuba); _Trichrous_, _Heterops_, and _Pæciloderma_ (Antilles).
+One genus, _Smodicum_, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in
+South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamiidæ there are 14
+genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to Central America and Mexico,
+1 to the United States and Cuba, while 2, _Proecha_ and _Phidola_, are
+confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are curiously
+distributed;--_Spalacopsis_ is South American, with 4 species in Cuba and
+Tropical Africa; _Lagocheirus_ is Neotropical, with a species in Australia;
+while _Leptostilus_ is characteristic of the Antilles and North America,
+with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand. These cases of
+erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of phenomena among
+which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently explained by the great
+antiquity of these groups and their former wide distribution. They may be
+supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like
+_Callichroma_, _Clytus_, and many others, almost universally distributed.
+
+All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidæ and Lamiidæ are allied to
+Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidæ, however, are mostly allied to
+Mexican and North American groups, and one, _Monodesmus_, belongs to a
+group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South
+Africa.
+
+_Land-shells._--This subject has already been generally treated under the
+Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important
+a part. We must therefore now confine ourselves mainly to the internal
+distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of
+the facts.
+
+The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian
+islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first
+and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which
+render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these
+conditions {76}are, they will be more effective where the islands have been
+long separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems
+most probable that the great development of land-shells in islands, is due
+to the absence or deficiency of the vertebrata, which on continents supply
+a variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is
+supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a
+continent at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental
+variety of vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken
+place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find
+the development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each
+other. The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania; and we
+have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself,
+continental Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly
+insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species.
+
+The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land-shells
+are of a physical nature. A great extent of limestone-rock is one; and in
+the larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the
+surface consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is
+the character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock
+itself. A much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the
+whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very favourable to
+the specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals.
+Equally favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface,
+affording everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking
+Jamaica as an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a
+wonderful degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground
+can hardly be found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock-bound
+valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of
+the entire surface is limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains
+this rock is worn, fissured, and honeycombed, so as to afford ample shelter
+and concealment for land-shells.
+
+{77}It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and Hayti,
+are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less
+known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather
+more species than Jamaica; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus
+(_Diplopoma_), the latter has 3 (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, and _Jamaicea_),
+as well as two others only represented in the other islands by single
+species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are known as from
+the two former islands. It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in
+common with Cuba and others with Jamaica, which show that those islands
+have more connection with it, than with each other; just as we found to be
+the case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer
+species than Hayti; and, as many of the genera common to the other three
+islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the
+islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique) more Antillean genera
+disappear or become very rare, while some continental forms take their
+place. The islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental
+character; the genus _Bulimus_, so largely developed on the continent, only
+reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of land-shells, of
+which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar; all the genera being Antillean.
+The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and Cuba, but closest with the latter
+island.
+
+In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera; 9
+operculate (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, _Jamaicea_, _Licina_, _Choanopoma_,
+_Ctenopoma_, _Diplopoma_, _Stoastoma_, _Lucidella_); and 2 inoperculate
+(_Sagda_ and _Stenopus_), besides _Cyclostomus_, which belongs to the Old
+World and is not found on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that
+many of the Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic,
+rather than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus
+_Diplommatina_ has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of _Ennea_
+occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas; a clear indication that land-shells are
+liable to be accidentally imported, and to become established in the less
+productive islands.
+
+Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, {78}there is good
+reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European
+occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these
+molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon
+extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a
+comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests; and as we know
+that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being
+often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever
+the native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land
+shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have been
+almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have
+been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species
+have almost certainly been exterminated.
+
+_General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian
+Islands._--The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of
+these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an
+ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most
+resemblance to that which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number
+of peculiar genera in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to
+those in common with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that,
+subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a very large
+tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and,
+by the interaction of competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially
+modified organisms. We have already shown that the outline of the present
+islands and the depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the
+position and extent of this ancient land; which not improbably occupied the
+space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the
+Mosquito Coast. This land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla,
+and probably northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it
+perhaps extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela,
+while Panama and Costa Pica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the
+Lesser Antilles had no existence.
+
+The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed {79}account, is
+Jamaica; and taking this as a type of what will probably be found in Cuba
+and Hayti, we must place the continental period as having occurred after
+the close of the Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since
+a large portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of
+marine limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, believed to be of Pliocene age.
+After some time, the land between Hayti and South America subsided, and
+still later that between Central America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large
+tract of land remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer
+and more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in extinct
+Mammalia of large size, belonging to the peculiar South American family of
+the chinchillas, which have been found in caves in the small islands of
+Anguilla, and which, from the character of the land-shells associated with
+them, are believed to be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery
+is most interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from the
+exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly exist in the abundant
+limestone strata of the larger islands. This extensive Antillean land,
+after long continuing undivided, was at length broken up by subsidence into
+several islands; but as this alone would not account for the almost
+complete annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that the
+subsidence was continued much farther, so as greatly to reduce the size and
+increase the number of the islands. This is indicated, by the extensive
+alluvial plains in Cuba and Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica; and by
+elevated beds of Post-pliocene marls in the latter island.
+
+The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the main features
+of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of the American continent.
+There remains the affinity with Madagascar, indicated by _Solenodon_, and a
+few cases of African and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells; but
+these are far too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation.
+Such cases of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in all
+the regions, and in almost every group of animals; and we look upon them
+almost all, as cases of survival, under favourable {80}conditions, of once
+wide-spread groups. If no wild species of the genus _Equus_ were now to be
+found, except in South Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in
+South Temperate America, where their fossil remains show us they did exist
+not very long ago, what a strong fact it would have appeared for the
+advocates of continental extensions! Yet it would have been due to no
+former union of the great southern continents, but to the former extensive
+range of the family or the genus to which the two isolated remnants
+belonged. And if such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata,
+it is still more likely to be applicable to similar cases occurring among
+insects or mollusca, the genera of which we have every reason to believe to
+be usually much older than those of vertebrates. It is in these classes
+that examples of widely scattered allied species most frequently occur; and
+the facility with which they are diffused under favourable conditions,
+renders any other explanation than that here given altogether superfluous.
+
+The _Solenodon_ is a member of an order of Mammalia of low type
+(Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but which has begun to
+die out, and which has left a number of curious and isolated forms thinly
+scattered over three-fourths of the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an
+isolated remnant of this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable;
+and the fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean
+species belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has developed
+into several distinct types, does not afford the least shred of argument on
+which to found a supposed independent land connection between these two
+sets of islands.
+
+
+_Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region._
+
+We have already discussed this subject, both in our account of extinct
+animals, and in various parts of the present chapter. It is therefore only
+necessary here, briefly to review and summarise the conclusions we have
+arrived at.
+
+The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards its
+deficiencies or its specialities, points to a long continuance of isolation
+from the rest of the world, with a few very distant {81}periods of union
+with the northern continent. The latest important separation took place by
+the submergence of parts of Nicaragua and Honduras, and this separation
+probably continued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods; but
+some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the union between
+the two continents took place which has continued to our day. Earlier
+submergences of the isthmus of Panama probably occurred, isolating Costa
+Rica and Veragua, which then may have had a greater extension, and have
+thus been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna.
+
+The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may, probably, also
+have been submerged; thus isolating Guatemala and Yucatan, and leading to
+the specialization of some of the peculiar forms that now characterise
+those countries and Mexico.
+
+The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have varied much in
+extent. Originally, they probably formed part of Central America, and may
+have been united with Yucatan and Honduras in one extensive tropical land.
+But their separation from the continent took place at a remote period, and
+they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which have probably
+undergone much submergence in recent times. This has led to that poverty of
+the higher forms of life, combined with the remarkable speciality, which
+now characterises them; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient
+resemblance to that of Central America to indicate its origin.
+
+The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge from the
+remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast depths of the oceans
+east and west of it, has not during Tertiary, and probably not even during
+Secondary times, been united with any other continent, except through the
+intervention of North America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it
+probably received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Rodents, at a
+time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia on the globe. It
+appears to have remained long isolated, and to have already greatly
+developed these groups of animals, before it received, in early Tertiary
+times, the ancestors of its marmosets and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some
+of its peculiar forms of {82}Carnivora. Later, it received its Camelidæ,
+peccaries, mastodons, and large Carnivora; and later still, just before the
+Glacial epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two
+latter having since become extinct. All this time its surface was
+undergoing important physical changes. What its earlier condition was we
+cannot conjecture, but there are clear indications that it has been broken
+up into at least three large masses, and probably a number of smaller ones;
+and these have no doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so
+as at one time to reduce their area and separate them still more widely
+from each other, and at another period to unite them into continental
+masses. The richness and varied development of the old fauna of South
+America, as still existing, proves, however, that the country has always
+maintained an extensive area; and there is reason to believe that the last
+great change has been a long continued and steady increase of its surface,
+resulting in the formation of the vast alluvial plains of the Amazon,
+Orinoko, and La Plata, and thus greatly favouring the production of that
+wealth of specific forms, which distinguishes South America above all other
+parts of our globe.
+
+The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably had a
+considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times; and this, as well
+as the comparatively recent elevation of the Andes, has given rise to some
+degree of intermixture of two distinct faunas, with that proper to South
+Temperate America itself. The most important of these, is the considerable
+Australian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles
+and fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may be traced to
+several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even solid fields of ice, may,
+during the Glacial epoch, have afforded many opportunities for the passage
+of the more cold-enduring groups; while the greater extension of southern
+lands and islands during the warm periods--which there is reason to believe
+prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern regions in Miocene
+times--would afford facilities for the passage of the reptiles and insects
+of more temperate zones. That no actual land-connection occurred, is proved
+by the total absence {83}of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the
+two countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the
+resemblances that do exist. The northern element consists almost wholly of
+insects; and is evidently due to the migration of arctic and north
+temperate forms along the ridges and plateaus of the Andes; and most likely
+occurred when these organisms were driven southward at successive cold or
+Glacial periods.
+
+A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual zoological
+condition of South America and Africa. In both we see a very ancient
+land-area extending into the South Temperate zone, isolated at a very early
+period, and developing only a low grade of Mammalian life; chiefly
+Edentates and Rodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other.
+Later we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including Quadrumana,
+which soon acquired a large and special development in the tropical
+portions of each country. Still later we have an irruption into both of
+northern forms, which spread widely over the two regions, and having become
+extinct in the land from whence they came, have been long held to be the
+original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the various forms of
+antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion in Africa; while
+in America we have deer and peccaries, the tapir, opossums, and the puma.
+
+On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines of the
+zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced with some degree
+of certainty; but, owing to the absence of information as to the most
+important of the geological periods--the Miocene and Eocene--we have no
+clue to the character of its early fauna, or to the land connections with
+other countries, which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times.
+
+
+
+
+{84}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.
+
+
+In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes
+of animals in the Neotropical region, the following sources of information
+have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and
+catalogues used in the compilation of the Fourth Part of this work.
+
+_Mammalia._--D'Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La Plata; Darwin,
+and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America; Tschudi, for Peru; Frazer, for
+Ecuador; Salvin, for Guatemala; Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for
+Quadrumana N. of Panama; Gundlach, for Cuba; and papers by Dr. J. E. Gray,
+and Mr. Tomes.
+
+_Birds._--Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator; Notes by Darwin, and
+Cunningham; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot, Newton, Semper, and
+Sundevall, for various islands of the Antilles; and papers by Hudson,
+Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott, Sclater, and Salvin.
+
+
+{85}TABLE I.
+
+_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION._
+
+EXPLANATION.
+
+  Names in _italics_ show the families which are peculiar to the region.
+
+  Names enclosed thus (......) indicate families which barely enter the
+  region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.
+
+  Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV.
+
+  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+                       | Sub-regions       |
+                       | 1=Chili.          |
+    Order and Family   | 2=Brazil.         |   Range beyond the Region.
+                       | 3=Mexico.         |
+                       | 4=Antilles.       |
+  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
+                       | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. |
+  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  MAMMALIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  PRIMATES.            |    |    |    |    |
+    4. _Cebidæ_        |    | -- | -- |    |
+    5. _Hapalidæ_      |    | -- | (?)|    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CHIROPTERA.          |    |    |    |    |
+   10. _Phyllostomidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | California
+   12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   13. Noctilionidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  INSECTIVORA.         |    |    |    |    |
+   18. Centetidæ       |    |    |    | -- | Madagascar
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CARNIVORA.           |    |    |    |    |
+   23. Felidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+   28. Canidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+   29. Mustelidæ       | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+   30. Procyonidæ      | -- | -- | -- |    | N. America
+   32. Ursidæ          | -- |    |    |    | All regions but Ethiopian and
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
+   33. Otariidæ        | -- |    |    |    | S. temperate zone
+   35. Phocidæ         | -- |    |    | (?)| N. and S. temperate zones
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CETACEA.             |    |    |    |    |
+   36 to 41            | -- |    |    |    | Oceanic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  SIRENIA.             |    |    |    |    |
+   42. Manatidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Tropical shores
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  UNGULATA.            |    |    |    |    |
+   44. Tapiridæ        |    | -- | -- |    | Indo-Malaya
+   47. Suidæ           |    | -- | -- |    | Cosmopolite, excl. Australia
+   48. Camelidæ        | -- |    |    |    | Palæarctic
+   50. Cervidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Ethiopian and
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  RODENTIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+   55. Muridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   59. Saccomyidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Nearctic
+   61. Sciuridæ        |    | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+   63. _Chinchillidæ_  | -- |    |    |    |
+   64. Octodontidæ     | -- | -- |    | -- | Africa
+   65. Echimyidæ       | -- | -- |    |    | Ethiopian
+   66. Cercolabidæ     |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic
+   68. _Caviidæ_       | -- | -- | -- | -- |
+   70. Leporidæ        |    | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  EDENTATA.            |    |    |    |    |
+   71. _Bradypodidæ_   |    | -- | -- |    |
+   73. _Dasypodidæ_    | -- | -- | -- |    |
+   75. _Myrmecophagidæ_|    | -- | -- |    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  MARSUPIALIA.         |    |    |    |    |
+   76. Didelphyidæ     | -- | -- | -- |    | Temperate N. America
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  BIRDS.               |    |    |    |    |
+  PASSERES.            |    |    |    |    |
+    1. Turdidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+    2. Sylviidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+    5. Cinclidæ        |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
+    6. Troglodytidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
+    8. Certhiidæ       |    |    | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
+    9. Sittidæ         |    |    | -- |    | All regions, excl. Africa
+   10. Paridæ          |    |    | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
+   20. Corvidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   26. _Coerebidæ_     |    | -- | -- | -- |
+   27. Mniotiltidæ     |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+   28. Vireonidæ       |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+   29. Ampelidæ        |    |    | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+   30. Hirundinidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   31. Icteridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+   32. Tanagridæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+   33. Fringillidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+   38. Motacillidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   38a. _Oxyrhamphidæ_ |    | -- | -- |    |
+   39. Tyrannidæ       | -- | -- | -- |--  | Nearctic
+   40. _Pipridæ_       |    | -- | -- |    |
+   41. _Cotingidæ_     | -- | -- | -- | -- |
+   42. _Phytotomidæ_   | -- |    |    |    |
+   44._Dendrocolaptidæ_| -- | -- | -- |    |
+   45. _Formicariidæ_  |    | -- | -- |    |
+   46. _Pteroptochidæ_ | -- | -- |    |    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PICARIÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
+   51. Picidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+   54. Megalæmidæ      |    | -- | -- |    | Ethiopian, Oriental
+   55. _Rhamphastidæ_  |    | -- | -- |    |
+   58. Cuculidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   60. _Bucconidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
+   61. _Galbulidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
+   64. _Todidæ_        |    |    |    | -- |
+   65. _Momotidæ_      |    | -- | -- |    |
+   66. Trogonidæ       |    | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental
+   67. Alcedinidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   72. _Steatornithidæ_|    | -- |    |    |
+   73. Caprimulgidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   74. Cypselidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   75. Trochilidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PSITTACI.            |    |    |    |    |
+   80. Conuridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | S. United States
+   81. Psittacidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  COLUMBÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
+   84. Columbidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  GALLINÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
+   87. Tetraonidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   88. Phasianidæ      |    |    | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+   91. _Cracidæ_       |    | -- | -- |    |
+   92. _Tinamidæ_      | -- | -- | -- |    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  OPISTHOCOMI.         |    |    |    |    |
+   93. _Opisthocomidæ_ |    | -- |    |    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  ACCIPITRES.          |    |    |    |    |
+   94. Vulturidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+   96. Falconidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   97. Pandionidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   98. Strigidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  GRALLÆ.              |    |    |    |    |
+   99. Rallidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  100. Scolopacidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  101. _Chionididæ_    | -- |    |    |    |
+  102. _Thinocoridæ_   | -- |    |    |    |
+  103. Parridæ         |    | -- | -- |    | Tropical regions
+  105. Charadriidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  108. _Cariamidæ_     | -- | -- |    |    |
+  109. _Aramidæ_       |    | -- | -- |    |
+  110. _Psophiidæ_     |    | -- |    |    |
+  111. _Eurypygidæ_    |    | -- | -- |    |
+  113. Ardeidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  114. Plataleidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+  115. Ciconiidæ       | -- | -- | -- |    | Nearly cosmopolite
+  116. _Palamedeidæ_   | -- | -- |    |    |
+  117. Phoenicopteridæ | -- | -- | -- |    | Ethiopian, Indian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  ANSERES.             |    |    |    |    |
+  118. Anatidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  119. Laridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  120. Procellariidæ   | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  121. Pelecanidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  122. Spheniscidæ     | -- |    |    |    | S. temperate zone
+  124. Podicipidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  STRUTHIONES.         |    |    |    |    |
+  126. Struthionidæ    | -- |    |    |    | Ethiopian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  REPTILIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  OPHIDIA.             |    |    |    |    |
+    1. Typhlopidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Tropical regions and
+                       |    |    |    |    |   S. Palæarctic
+    2. Tortricidæ      |    | -- |    |    | Oriental, N.-W. America
+    5. Calamariidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm countries
+    6. Oligodontidæ    |    | -- |    |    | Oriental, Japan
+    7. Colubridæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+    8. Homalopsidæ     | -- |    |    | -- | All the regions
+   11. Dendrophidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions
+   12. Dryiophidæ      |    | -- | -- |    | Oriental, Ethiopian
+   13. Dipsadidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | All tropical regions
+   14. Scytalidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Philippine Islands
+   16. Amblycephalidæ  |    | -- | -- |    | Oriental
+   17. Pythonidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   California
+   20. Elapidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Tropical regions, Japan,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   S. Carolina
+   23. Hydrophidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Oriental, Australian,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Madagascar
+   24. Crotalidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  LACERTILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
+   27. Chirotidæ       |    |    | -- |    | Missouri
+   28. Amphisbænidæ    | -- | -- |    | -- | Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic
+   29. Lepidosternidæ  | -- | -- |    |    | Ethiopian
+   31. _Helodermidæ_   |    |    | -- |    |
+   32. Teidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+   34. Zonuridæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Ethiopian,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   S. Europe, and N. India
+   35. _Chalcidæ_      | -- | -- | -- |    | Nearctic
+   36. _Anadiadæ_      |    | -- |    |    |
+   37. _Chirocolidæ_   |    | -- |    |    |
+   38. _Iphisadæ_      |    | -- |    |    |
+   39. _Cercosauridæ_  |    | -- |    |    |
+   41. Gymnopthalmidæ  |    | -- |    | -- | Australian, Ethiopian,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Palæarctic
+   45. Scincidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   49. Geckotidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   50. Iguanidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CROCODILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
+   55. Crocodilidæ     |    | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   N. Australian
+   56. Alligatoridæ    |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CHELONIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+   57. Testudinidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australian
+   58. Chelydidæ       |    | -- |    |    | Ethiopian, Australian
+   60. Cheloniidæ      |    |    |    |    | Marine
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  AMPHIBIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  PSEUDOPHIDIA.        |    |    |    |    |
+    1. Ceciliadæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Oriental, Ethiopian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  URODELA.             |    |    |    |    |
+    6. (Salamandridæ)  |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  ANOURA.              |    |    |    |    |
+    7. _Rhinophrynidæ_ |    |    | -- |    |
+    8. Phryniscidæ     | -- | -- | -- |    | Ethiopian, Australian, Java
+    9. _Hylaplesidæ_   | -- | -- |    | -- |
+   10. Bufonidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australia
+   12. Engystomidæ     | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Palæarctic
+   13. Bombinatoridæ   | -- | -- |    |    | Palæarctic, New Zealand
+   14. _Plectromantidæ_| -- |    |    |    |
+   15. Alytidæ         |    | -- |    |    | All regions but Oriental
+   16. Pelodryadæ      | -- | -- |    |    | Australia
+   17. Hylidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian
+   18. Polypedatidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | All the regions
+   19. Ranidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   20. Discoglossidæ   | -- | -- |    |    | All regions but Nearctic
+   21. _Pipidæ_        |    | -- |    |    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  FISHES.              |    |    |    |    |
+  (FRESHWATER).        |    |    |    |    |
+  ACANTHOPTERYGII.     |    |    |    |    |
+    3. Percidæ         | -- | -- |    | -- | All regions but Australian
+   11. (Trachinidæ)    | -- |    |    |    | Australia
+   12. Scienidæ        | (?)| -- | -- | (?)| All regions but Australian
+   33. Nandidæ         |    | -- |    |    | Oriental
+   34. _Polycentridæ_  |    | -- | -- |    |
+   38. Mugillidæ       |    | (?)| -- | -- | Australian, Ethiopian
+   52. Chromidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PHYSOSTOMI.          |    |    |    |    |
+   59. Siluridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions
+   60. Characinidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian
+   61. Haplochitonidæ  | -- |    |    |    | S. Australia
+   67. Galaxidæ        | -- |    |    |    | Tasmania and New Zealand
+   73. Cyprinodontidæ  | -- | -- | -- | -- | Absent from Australia
+   78. Osteoglossidæ   |    | -- |    |    | All tropical regions
+   84. _Gymnotidæ_     |    | -- |    |    |
+   85. Symbranchidæ    |    | -- |    |    | Oriental, Australian,
+                       |    |    |    |    |    (? marine)
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  DIPNOI.              |    |    |    |    |
+   92. Sirenoidei      |    | -- |    |    | Ethiopian, Australian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PLAGIOSTOMATA.       |    |    |    |    |
+  112. _Trygonidæ_     |    | -- |    |    |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  INSECTS.             |    |    |    |    |
+  LEPIDOPTERA (PART).  |    |    |    |    |
+  DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).|    |    |    |    |
+   1. Danaidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions, and to
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Canada
+   2. Satyridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   4. Morphidæ         |    | -- | -- |    | Australian, Oriental
+   5. _Brassolidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
+   6. Acræidæ          |    | -- | -- |    | All tropical regions
+   7. _Heliconiidæ_    |    | -- | -- | -- |
+   8. Nymphalidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   9. Libytheidæ       |    | -- |    | -- | Absent from Australia
+  10. Nemeobiidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Not in Australia or Nearctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |   regions
+  11. _Eurygonidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
+  12. Erycinidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
+  13. Lycænidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  14. Pieridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  15. Papilionidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  16. Hesperidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  SPHINGIDEA.          |    |    |    |    |
+   17. Zygænidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   18. Castniidæ       |    | -- | -- | -- | Australian
+   20. Uraniidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions
+   21. Stygiidæ        |    | -- |    |    | Palæarctic
+   22. Ægeriidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in Australia
+   23. Sphingidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
+
+{91}TABLE II.
+
+_GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL
+REGION._
+
+EXPLANATION.
+
+  Names in _italics_ show the genera peculiar to the region.
+
+  Names enclosed thus (......) indicate genera which barely enter the
+  region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.
+
+  Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.
+
+
+  _MAMMALIA._
+
+  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
+  Order, Family, and | No. of|     Range within     |     Range beyond
+    Genus.           |Species|      the Region.     |      the Region.
+  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
+                     |       |                      |
+  PRIMATES.          |       |                      |
+  CEBIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  1. _Cebus_         |   18  | Costa Rica to        |
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  2. _Lagothrix_     |    5  | Upper Amazon and     |
+                     |       |   E. Andes           |
+  3. _Eriodes_       |    3  | East Brazil, S. of   |
+                     |       |   Equator            |
+  4. _Ateles_        |   14  | Almost all tropical  |
+                     |       |   America            |
+  5. _Mycetes_       |   10  | E. Guatemala to      |
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  6. _Pithecia_      |    7  | Equatorial Forests   |
+  7. _Brachiurus_    |    5  | Equatorial Forests   |
+  8. _Nyctipithecus_ |    5  | Nicaragua to Amazonia|
+  9. _Saimiris_      |    3  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  10. _Callithrix_   |   11  | Panama to Paraguay   |
+                     |       |                      |
+  HAPALIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  11. _Hapale_       |    9  | Brazil and Upper     |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+  12. _Midas_        |   24  | Equatorial America   |
+                     |       |   to Panama          |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CHIROPTERA.        |       |                      |
+  PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ.     |       |                      |
+  13. _Lonchorina_   |    1  | West Indian Islands  |
+  14. _Macrophyllum_ |    1  | Brazil               |
+  15. _Vampyrus_    }|       |                      |
+  16. _Lophostoma_  }|   25  | Tropical America and |
+                    }|       |   Chili              |
+  17. _Phyllostoma_ }|       |                      |
+  18. Macrotus       |    1  | Antilles and Mexico  | California
+  19. _Schizostoma_  |    5  | South America        |
+  20. _Brachyphylla_ |    1  | Antilles             |
+  21. _Glossophaga_  |    8  | Tropical America     |
+  22._Phyllonycteris_|    2  | Cuba                 |
+  23. _Artibeus_     |    4  |S. America & Antilles,|
+                     |       |   Costa Rica         |
+  24. _Stenoderma_   |    7  | The whole region     |
+  25. _Sturnira_     |    3  | Chili to Guatemala   |
+  26. _Desmodus_     |    3  | Chili to Mexico      |
+  27. _Saccopteryx_  |    1  | Ecuador              |
+  28. _Diphylla_     |    1  | Brazil               |
+  29. _Centurio_     |    3  | Brazil to Mexico     |
+                     |       |                      |
+  VESPERTILIONIDÆ.   |       |                      |
+  30. Lasiurus       |    2  | Tropical America     | Nearctic
+  31. Scotophilus    |    7  | Antilles, Mexico to  | Nearc., Austral.,
+                     |       |   S. America         |   Orien.
+  32. Vespertilio    |   12  | The whole region     | Cosmopolite
+  33. Nycticejus     |    3  | S. Temperate America | Nearctic, India,
+                     |       |                      |   Tropical Africa
+  34. _Natalus_      |    1  | S. America and       |
+                     |       |   Antilles           |
+  35. _Furipterus_   |    2  | S. America           |
+  36. _Thyroptera_   |    2  | S. America           |
+  37. _Nycticellus_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
+  38. Taphozous      |    5  | S. America           | Ethiopian, Oriental,
+                     |       |                      |   Austro-Malayan
+  39. _Diclidurus_   |    1  | Brazil               |
+                     |       |                      |
+  NOCTILIONIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  40. _Noctilio_     |    2  | Paraguay to W. Indies|
+  41. _Mormops_      |    1  | Antilles and Mexico  |
+  42. _Phyllodia_    |    1  | Jamaica              |
+  43. _Chilonycteris_|    5  | Brazil and West      |
+                     |       |   Indies             |
+  44. _Pteronotus_   |    1  | Trinidad             |
+  45. Nyctinomus     |    2  | La Plata to Antilles | S. Nearc., Orien.,
+                     |       |   & Costa Rica       |   Madag.
+  46. Molossus       |   16  | Paraguay and Chili   | Ethiopian, S.
+                     |       |   to Antilles        |  Palæarc., Australian
+                     |       |                      |
+  INSECTIVORA.       |       |                      |
+  CENTETIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  47. _Solenodon_    |    2  | Cuba and Hayti       |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SORICIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+      (Sorex         |    1  | Guatemala and Costa  | All other reg. but
+                     |       |   Rica)              |   Austrl.
+                     |       |                      |
+  CARNIVORA.         |       |                      |
+  FELIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  48. Felis          |   13  | The whole region,    | All regions but
+                     |       |   excl. Antilles     |   Austral.
+                     |       |                      |
+  CANIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  49. _Icticyon_     |    1  | Brazil               |
+  50. _Chrysocyon_   |    1  | S. America           |
+      (Lupus         |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica)| Northern genus
+  51. _Lycalopex_    |    2  | S. America           |
+  52. _Pseudalopex_  |    5  | S. America, Falkland |
+                     |       |   Islands, & Tierra  |
+                     |       |   del Fuego          |
+  53. _Thous_        |    2  | S. America to Chili  |
+                     |       |                      |
+  MUSTELIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  54. Mustela        |    2  | Andes of Peru        | All other reg. but
+                     |       |                      |   Austrl.
+  55. _Galictis_     |    2  | S. America to Chili  |
+                     |       |   & Patagonia        |
+  56. _Lontra_       |    3  |Central and S. America|
+                     |       | to Chonos Archipelago|
+  57. Nutria         |    1  | W. coast of America  | W. coast of N.
+                     |       |  to Chiloe           |   America
+  58. _Pteronura_    |    1  | Surinam and Brazil   |
+  59. Mephitis       |    3  | Mexico to Sts. of    | Nearctic to Canada
+                     |       |   Magellan           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PROCYONIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  60. Procyon        |    1  | Tropical America     | Nearctic to Canada
+  61. _Nasua_        |    5  | Mexico to Paraguay & |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  62. _Cercoleptes_  |    1  | Mexico to Peru and   |
+                     |       |   N. Brazil          |
+  63. Bassaris       |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | California and Texas
+                     |       |                      |
+  URSIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  64. _Tremarctos_   |    1  | Andes of Peru and    |
+                     |       |   Chili              |
+                     |       |                      |
+  OTARIIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  65. _Otaria_       |    1  | Chili, La Plata, and |
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+  66. Arctocephalus  |    1  | Falkland Islands &   | New Zealand
+                     |       |   Cape Horn          |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PHOCIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  67. Stenorhynchus  |    1  | Falkland Islands     | New Zealand
+  68. Lobodon        |    1  | Antarctic shores     |
+  69. Leptonyx       |    1  | Antarctic shores,    | S. Australia
+                     |       |   E. Patagonia       |
+  70. Ommatophoca    |    1  | Antarctic shores     |
+  71. Morunga        |    1  | Falkland Islands     | California, S. temp.
+                     |       |                      |   zone
+  72. Cystophora     |    1  | Antilles             | N. Atlantic
+                     |       |                      |
+  CETACEA.           |       |                      |
+  DELPHINIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  73. _Inia_         |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SIRENIA.           |       |                      |
+  MANATIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  74. Manatus        |    1  | Gulf of Mexico to N. | W. Africa
+                     |       |   Brazil, Amazon R.  |
+                     |       |                      |
+  UNGULATA.          |       |                      |
+  TAPIRIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  75. Tapirus        |    2  | Equatorial S. America| Indo-Malaya
+  76. _Elasmognathus_|    1  | Panama to Guatemala  |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SUIDÆ.             |       |                      |
+  77. _Dicotyles_    |    2  | Mexico to Paraguay   | Texas
+                     |       |                      |
+  CAMELIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  78. _Auchenia_     |    4  | Temp. S. America,    |
+                     |       |   from Cape Horn to  |
+                     |       |   Andes of Peru      |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CERVIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  79. Cervus         |   12  | Mexico to Patagonia  | All regions but
+                     |       |  and Tierra del Fuego|   Ethiopian and
+                     |       |                      |   Australian
+                     |       |                      |
+  RODENTIA.          |       |                      |
+  MURIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  80. Reithrodon     |    4  | South Temp. America  | United States
+                     |       |   to Tierra del Fuego|
+  81. _Acodon_       |    1  | Peru, 14,000 ft.     |
+                     |       |   elevation          |
+  82. _Myxomys_      |    1  | Guatemala            |
+  83. Hesperomys     |   76  | The whole region     | Nearctic
+  84. _Holochilus_   |    4  | S. America           |
+  85. _Oxymycterus_  |    3  | Brazil and La Plata  |
+  86. _Drymomys_     |    1  | Peru                 |
+  87. _Neotomys_     |    2  | S. America           |
+      (Fiber         |    1  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
+                     |       |                      |
+  SACCOMYIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  88. _Heteromys_    |    6  | Mexico, Honduras,    |
+                     |       | Costa Rica & Trinidad|
+                     |       |                      |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SCIURIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  89. Sciurus        |   30  | Mexico to Paraguay   | All reg. but
+                     |       |                      |   Australian
+                     |       |                      |
+  CHINCHILLIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  90. _Chinchilla_   |    2  | Andes of Chili and   |
+                     |       |   Peru               |
+  91. _Lagidium_     |    3  | Chili to Ecuador     |
+                     |       |   (11,000 to         |
+                     |       |     16,000 ft.)      |
+  92. _Lagostomus_   |    1  | Uruguay to Rio Negro |
+                     |       |   of Patagonia       |
+                     |       |                      |
+  OCTODONTIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  93. _Habrocomus_   |    2  | Chili                |
+  94. _Capromys_     |    3  | Cuba and Jamaica     |
+  95. _Plagiodontia_ |    1  | Hayti                |
+  96. _Spalacopus_   |    2  | Chili and E. of Andes|
+  97. _Octodon_      |    3  | Chili, Peru, and     |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  98. _Ctenomys_     |    6  | S. Brazil to Tierra  |
+                     |       |  del Fuego           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  ECHIMYIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  99. _Dactylomys_   |    2  | Guiana and Brazil    |
+  100. _Cercomys_    |    1  | Central Brazil       |
+  101. _Lasiuromys_  |    1  | St. Paulo, Brazil    |
+  102. _Myopotamus_  |    1  | S. half of tropical  |
+                     |       |   S. America         |
+  103. _Carterodon_  |    1  | Central Brazil       |
+  104. _Mesomys_     |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
+  105. _Echimys_     |   11  | Equatorial America   |
+                     |       |   to Paraguay        |
+  106. _Loncheres_   |   10  | New Granada to Brazil|
+                     |       |                      |
+  CERCOLABIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  107. _Cercolabes_  |   12  | Mexico to Paraguay   |
+  108. _Chætomys_    |    1  | N. Brazil            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CAVIIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  109. _Dasyprocta_  |    9  | Paraguay to Mexico   |
+                     |       |   and Lesser Antilles|
+  110. _Coelogenys_  |    2  | Guatemala to Paraguay|
+  111. _Hydrochoerus_|    1  | Guiana to La Plata   |
+  112. _Cavia_       |    9  | Brazil and Peru to   |
+                     |       |   Magellan Sts.      |
+  113. _Kerodon_     |    6  | Brazil and Peru to   |
+                     |       |   Magellan Sts.      |
+  114. _Dolichotis_  |    1  | The Pampas and       |
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+                     |       |                      |
+  LEPORIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  115. Lepus         |    1  | Central Brazil and   | All regions but
+                     |       |   Andes, Costa Rica  |   Austral.
+                     |       |   to Mexico          |
+                     |       |                      |
+  EDENTATA.          |       |                      |
+  BRADYPODIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  116. _Choloepus_   |    2  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+  117. _Bradypus_    |    2  | Amazon to Rio de     |
+                     |       |   Janeiro            |
+  118._Arctopithecus_|    8  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+                     |       |                      |
+  DASYPODIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  119. _Tatusia_     |    5  | Rio Grande, Texas,   |
+                     |       |   to Patagonia       |
+  120. _Prionodontes_|    1  | Surinam to Paraguay  |
+  121. _Dasypus_     |    4  | Brazil to Chili and  |
+                     |       | La Plata, Costa Rica?|
+  122. _Xenurus_     |    3  | Guiana to Paraguay,  |
+                     |       |   Costa Rica?        |
+  123. _Tolypeutes_  |    2  | Bolivia and La Plata |
+  124._Chlamydophorus_    2  | La Plata and Bolivia |
+                     |       |                      |
+  MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ.    |       |                      |
+  125. _Myrmecophaga_|    1  | Costa Rica?, &       |
+                     |       |   N. Braz., to Parag.|
+  126. _Tamandua_    |    2  | Guatemala to Paraguay|
+  127. _Cyclothurus_ |    2  | Honduras and Costa   |
+                     |       |   Rica to Paraguay   |
+                     |       |                      |
+  MARSUPIALIA.       |       |                      |
+  DIDELPHYIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  128. Didelphys     |   20  | Mexico to Uruguay    | Temperate N. America
+                     |       |   and S. Chili       |
+  129. _Chironectes_ |    1  | Guiana and Brazil,   |
+                     |       |   Costa Rica         |
+  130. _Hyracodon_   |    1  | Ecuador              |
+
+  _BIRDS._
+
+  PASSERES.          |       |                      |
+  TURDIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+    1. Turdus        |   32  | The whole reg. to    | Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |   Tierra del Fuego   |
+    2._Rhodinocichla_|    1  | Mexico to Venezuela  |
+    3. _Melanoptila_ |    1  | Honduras             |
+    4. _Catharus_    |   10  | Mexico to Ecuador    |
+                     |       |   and Columbia       |
+    5. _Margarops_   |    4  | Hayti and Lesser     |
+                     |       |   Antilles           |
+    6. Mimus         |   16  | Nearly the whole     | Nearctic
+                     |       |   region             |
+    7. _Melanotis_   |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala |
+    8. Galeoscoptes  |    1  | Mexico to Panama     | Nearctic
+    9. _Mimocichla_  |    4  | Cuba to Porto Rico   |
+      (Harporhynchus |    3  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
+   10._Cinclocerthia_|    3  | Lesser Antilles      |
+   11._Ramphocinclus_|    1  | Martinique and       |
+                     |       |   St. Lucia          |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SYLVIIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+   12. _Myiadestes_  |    8  |Mexico and Antilles   | N. & W. of N. America
+                     |       |  to Peru and Bolivia |
+   13. _Cichlopsis_  |    1  | Brazil               |
+       (Sialia       |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala)| United States &
+                     |       |                      |   Canada
+   14. Regulus       |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+   15. Polioptila    |    6  | Mexico and Cuba to   | Cen. and S. U. States
+                     |       |  Bolivia and La Plata|
+                     |       |                      |
+  CINCLIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+   16. Cinclus       |    4  | Mexico to Venezuela  | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+                     |       |    and Peru          |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TROGLODYTIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+   17. Troglodytes   |    5  | Mexico to Straits of | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+                     |       |   Magellan           |
+   18. Thryophilus   |   13  | Mexico to Central    | N.-W. America
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+   19. Thryothorus   |   12  | Mexico to S. Brazil  | N. America
+   20. Cistothorus   |    3  | Mexico to Chili and   | N. America
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+   21. _Donacobius_  |    2  | Columbia to Brazil   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+   22._Campylorhynchus_  18  | Mexico to Brazil and | New Mexico
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+   23. _Cyphorhinus_ |    5  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
+   24._Microcerculus_|    5  | Mexico to Peru       |
+   25. _Henicorhina_ |    2  | Mexico to Peru       |
+       (Salpinctes   |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
+       (Catherpes    |    1  | Mexico)              | Gila and Colorado
+   26. _Cinnicerthia_|    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+   27. _Uropsila_    |    1  | Mexico               |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CERTHIIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+       (Certhia      |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| North temperate genus
+                     |       |                      |
+  SITTIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+       (Sitta        |    2  | Mexico)              | North temperate genus
+                     |       |                      |
+  PARIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+       (Parus        |    1  | Mexico)              | Nearc., Palæarc.,
+                     |       |                      |   Orient.
+       (Lophophanes  |    2  | Mexico)              | North temperate genus
+       (Psaltriparus |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic
+                     |       |                      |
+  CORVIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+   28. Cyanocitta    |   16  | Mexico to Peru and   |Nearctic
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+   29. _Cyanocorax_  |   12  | Mexico to Paraguay,  |
+                     |       |   Jamaica            |
+   30. _Calocitta_   |    2  | Mexico to Guatemala  |
+   31. _Psilorhinus_ |    3  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+   32. Corvus        |    4  | Mexico to Guatemala, | Cosmop., excl.
+                     |       |   Cuba to Porto Rico |   S. Amer.
+                     |       |                      |
+  COEREBIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+   33. _Diglossa_    |   14  | Mexico to Guiana,    |
+                     |       |   Peru, and Bolivia  |
+   34. _Diglossopis_ |    1  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
+   35. _Oreomanes_   |    1  | Ecuador              |
+   36. _Conirostrum_ |    6  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+   37. _Hemidacnis_  |    1  | Columbia and Upper   |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+   38. _Dacnis_      |   13  | Costa Rica to Guiana |
+                     |       |   & S. Brazil        |
+   39. _Certhidea_   |    2  | Galapagos Islands    |
+   40. _Chlorophanes_|    2  | Brazil to Central    |
+                     |       |   America, Cuba      |
+   41. _Coereba_     |    4  | Mexico and Cuba to   |
+                     |       |   Guiana and Brazil  |
+   42. _Certhiola_   |   10  | Antilles to Ecuador  | Florida
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+   43. _Glossiptila_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
+                     |       |                      |
+  MNIOTILTIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+   44. Siurus        |    3  | Mexico to Columbia,  | S. & E. States &
+                     |       |   Antilles           |   Canada
+   45. Mniotilta     |    1  | Columbia to Mexico   | Eastern United States
+                     |       |   and Antilles       |
+   46. Parula        |    5  | Brazil and Ecuador   | Eastern U. S. &
+                     |       |   to Mexico          |   Canada
+   47. Protonotaria  |    1  | Venezuela to Central | Florida to Ohio
+                     |       |  America and W. India|
+   48. Helminthophaga|    5  | Mexico to Columbia   | North America
+   49. Helmintherus  |    1  | Mexico to Veragua    | U. States to Canada
+   50. Perissoglossa |    1  | Cuba, Hayti, and     | E. United States
+                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
+   51. Dendroeca     |   25  | Mexico & W. Indies to| All N. America
+                     |       |   Ecuador and Chili  |
+   52. _Oporornis_   |    1  | Guatemala to Panama  |
+   53. Geothlypis    |   10  | Brazil to Mexico     | All N. America
+   54. Setophaga     |   12  | Mexico to Brazil     | E. U. States & Canada
+   55. _Cardellina_  |    1  | Guatemala and Mexico |
+   56. _Ergaticus_   |    2  | Guatemala and Mexico |
+   57. Myiodioctes   |    3  | Columbia to Mexico   | U. States and Canada
+   58. _Basileuterus_|   22  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+   59. Icteria       |    1  | Costa Rica to Mexico | E. and Central United
+                     |       |                      |   States to Canada
+   60. _Granatellus_ |    3  | Amazon to Mexico     |
+   61. _Teretristis_ |    2  | Cuba                 |
+                     |       |                      |
+  VIREONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+   62. Vireosylvia   |    9  | Venezuela to Mexico  | All N. America
+                     |       |   & Antilles         |
+   63. Vireo         |   10  | Mexico to Costa Rica | All United States
+                     |       |   & Antilles         |
+   64. _Neochloe_    |    1  | Mexico               |
+   65. _Hylophilus_  |   16  | Brazil to Mexico     |
+   66. _Laletes_     |    1  | Jamaica              |
+   67._Phoenicomanes_|    1  | Jamaica              |
+   68. _Vireolanius_ |    4  | Mexico to Amazon     |
+   69. _Cychloris_   |    9  | Mexico to Paraguay   |
+                     |       |                      |
+  AMPELIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+   70. _Dulus_       |    2  | Hayti                |
+      (Ampelis       |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| N. temperate genus
+   71. _Ptilogonys_  |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+      (Phainopepla   |    1  | Mexico)              | Gila and Lower
+                     |       |                      |   Colorado
+                     |       |                      |
+  HIRUNDINIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+   72. Hirundo       |    9  | Mexico and Antilles  | Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |   to Chili and       |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+   73. Petrochelidon |    3  | Mexico and Antilles  | Nearctic
+                     |       |   to Paraguay        |
+   74. _Atticora_    |    6  | Guatemala to Peru    |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+   75. Cotyle        |    2  | Central America to   | All regions but
+                     |       |   La Plata           |   Austral.
+   76. Stelgidopteryx|    4  | Mexico to Brazil     | S. United States
+   77. Progne        |    4  | The whole region     | Nearctic
+                     |       |                      |
+  ICTERIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+   78. _Clypeicterus_|    1  | Upper Amazon         |
+   79. _Ostinops_    |    8  | Mexico to Guiana,    |
+                     |       |   Brazil, and Bolivia|
+   80. _Cassiculus_  |    1  | Mexico               |
+   81. _Cassicus_    |   10  | Mexico to S. Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+   82. Icterus       |   33  | Mexico to Antilles   | All U. States &
+                     |       |   and La Plata       |   Canada
+   83. Dolichonyx    |    1  | Mexico to Paraguay,  | E. U. States and
+                     |       |   Galapagos          |   Canada
+   84. Molothrus     |    8  | Mexico to La Plata   | All U. States &
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |   Canada
+   85. Agelæus       |    6  | Mexico to Paraguay,  | All U. States &
+                     |       |   Cuba, Porto Rico   |   Canada
+      (Xanthocephalus|    1  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
+   86. _Xanthosomus_ |    4  | Venezuela to La Plata|
+   87._Amblyrhamphus_|    1  | Bolivia and La Plata |
+   88._Gymnomystax_  |    1  | Guiana and Amazonia  |
+   89._Pseudoleistes_|    2  | Brazil and La Plata  |
+   90. _Leistes_     |    3  | Venezuela to Paraguay|
+                     |       |    & Bolivia         |
+   91. Sturnella     |    4  | Cuba and Mexico to   | All U. States &
+                     |       |   Chili, Falkland    |   Canada
+                     |       |   Islands & Tierra   |
+                     |       |   del Fuego          |
+   92. _Curoeus_     |    1  | Chili to Magellan    |
+                     |       |   Straits            |
+   93. _Nesopsar_    |    1  | Jamaica              |
+       (Scolecophagus|    1  | Mexico, Cuba ?)      | Nearctic genus
+   94. _Lampropsar_  |    4  | Guatemala to Peru    |
+                     |       |   and Guiana         |
+   95. Quiscalus     |    9  | Mexico to Antilles & | S. and E. United
+                     |       |   Venezuela          |   States to Labrador
+   96. _Hypopyrrhus_ |    1  | Columbia             |
+   97. _Aphobus_     |    1  | Brazil Paraguay and  |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+   98. _Cassidix_    |    1  | Mexico to Brazil and |
+                     |       |  Guiana              |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TANAGRIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+   99. _Procnias_    |    2  | Brazil and Peru to   |
+                     |       |   Columbia           |
+  100. _Chlorophonia_|    7  | Brazil to Mexico     |
+  101. _Euphonia_    |   32  | Mexico and W. Indies |
+                     |       | to Brazil and Bolivia|
+                     |       |                      |
+  102. _Tanagrella_  |    4  | Columbia to Guiana   |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  103. _Chlorochrysa_|    2  | Columbia to Peru     |
+  104. _Pipridea_    |    2  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  105. _Diva_        |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  106. _Calliste_    |   56  | Guatemala to Bolivia |
+                     |       |   & Paraguay         |
+  107. _Iridornis_   |    4  | Columbia to Peru     |
+  108._Poecilothraupis_   4  |Columbia to Bolivia   |
+  109._Stephanophorus_    1  | Brazil and La Plata  |
+  110. _Buthraupis_  |    5  | Veragua to Bolivia   |
+  111. _Compsocoma_  |    5  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+  112. _Dubusia_     |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  113. _Tanagra_     |   12  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  114. _Spindalis_   |    5  | Porto Rico to Bahamas|
+  115._Rhamphocoelus_|   11  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  116._Phlogothraupis_    1  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  117. _Euchætes_    |    1  | Eastern Ecuador      |
+  118. _Pyranga_     |   11  | Mexico to Bolivia and| U. States and Canada
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  119. _Orthogonys_  |    2  | Brazil and Guiana    |
+  120. _Lamprotes_   |    2  | Brazil and Columbia  |
+  121._Phænicothraupis_   7  | Mexico to Paraguay   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  122. _Lanio_       |    4  | Mexico to Bolivia    |
+  123. _Eucometis_   |    5  | Costa Rica to Bolivia|
+  124._Trichothraupis_    1  | S. Brazil and Paraguay
+  125. _Creurgops_   |    1  | West Ecuador         |
+  126. _Tachyphonus_ |   11  | Nicaragua to Paraguay|
+  127. _Cypsnagra_   |    1  | S. Brazil and Bolivia|
+  128. _Nemosia_     |   11  |Venezuela, W. Ecuador,|
+                     |       |  to Brazil and       |
+                     |       |  Bolivia             |
+  129. _Pyrrhocoma_  |    1  | S. Brazil and Paraguay
+  130._Chlorospingus_|   18  | Mexico to Peru and   |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  131. _Buarremon_   |   20  | Mexico to S. Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  132._Phænicophilus_|    1  | Hayti                |
+  133. _Arremon_     |   12  | Mexico to S. Brazil  |
+  134. _Oreothraupis_|    1  | East Ecuador         |
+  135. _Cissopis_    |    3  | Columbia to Peru and |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  136. _Lamprospiza_ |    1  | Guiana               |
+  137. _Psittospiza_ |    2  | Columbia to Peru     |
+  138. _Saltator_    |   17  | Mexico to La Plata   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  139. _Diucopis_    |    2  | Upper Amazon and     |
+                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
+  140. _Orchesticus_ |    3  | Tropical S. America  |
+  141. _Pitylus_     |    8  | Mexico to Brazil and |
+                     |       |   Ecuador            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  FRINGILLIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  142. Chrysomitris  |   12  | Mexico to Brazil,    | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+                     |       |   Chili and Patagonia|
+  143. _Sycalis_     |    9  | Mexico to Chili and  |
+                     |       |   La Plata, Jamaica  |
+  144. Coccothraustes|    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+  145. _Geospiza_    |    7  | Galapagos Islands    |
+  146. _Camarhynchus_|    5  | Galapagos Islands    |
+  147. _Cactornis_   |    4  | Galapagos Islands    |
+  148. _Phrygilus_   |   10  | Columbia to Fuegia and
+                     |       |   Falkland Islands   |
+  149. _Xenospingus_ |    1  | Peru                 |
+  150. _Diuca_       |    3  | Peru, Chili, and     |
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+  151. _Emberizoides_|    3  | Venezuela to Paraguay|
+  152. _Donacospiza_ |    1  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
+  153. _Chamæospiza_ |    1  | Mexico               |
+  154. Embernagra    |    9  | Mexico to La Plata   | Rocky Mountains
+  155. _Hæmophila_   |    6  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  156. Atlapetes     |    1  | Mexico               | Nearctic?
+  157. _Pyrgisoma_   |    5  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  158. Pipilo        |    4  | Mexico to Guatemala  | All Nearctic region
+  159. Junco         |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | United States
+  160. Zonotrichia   |    5  | Mexico to Straits of | Nearctic
+                     |       |   Magellan           |
+       (Melospiza    |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
+       (Spizella     |    3  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
+       (Passerculus  |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
+       (Pooecetes    |    1  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
+  161. Ammodramus    |    1  | Guatemala            | Nearctic
+  162. Coturniculus  |    4  | Mexico to Bolivia,   | E. & N. of N. America
+                     |       |   Jamaica            |
+  163. Peucæa        |    4  | Mexico               | S. E. States &
+                     |       |                      |   California
+  164. _Tiaris_      |    1  | Brazil               |
+  165. _Volatinia_   |    1  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+       (Cyanospiza   |    4  | Mexico and Central   | Nearctic
+                     |       |   America)           |
+  166. _Paroaria_    |    6  | Trop. S. America,    |
+                     |       |   E. of Andes        |
+  167._Coryphospingus_    4  | Tropical S. America  |
+  168._Porphyrospiza_|    1  | Brazil               |
+  169. _Haplospiza_  |    2  | Mexico and Brazil    |
+  170. _Phonipara_   |    5  | Mexico to Columbia,  |
+                     |       |   Greater Antilles   |
+  171. Poospiza      |   12  | Mexico to Bolivia and| W. & Central
+                     |       |   La Plata           |   U. States
+  172. _Spodiornis_  |    1  | Ecuador              |
+       (Carpodacus   |    2  | Mexico)              | Nearctic, Palæarctic
+  173. Cardinalis    |    2  | Mexico to Venezuela  | S. & S. Cent.
+                     |       |                      |   U. States
+  174. Guiraca       |    6  | Mexico to Brazil and | Southern U. States
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  175. _Amaurospiza_ |    2  | Costa Rica and Brazil|
+  176. Hedymeles     |    2  | Mexico to Columbia   | Nearctic
+  177. _Pheucticus_  |    5  | Mexico to Peru and   |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  178. _Oryzoborus_  |    6  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
+                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
+  179. _Melopyrrha_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
+  180. _Loxigilla_   |    4  | Antilles             |
+  181. _Spermophila_ |   44  | Mexico to Bolivia and| Texas
+                     |       |   Uruguay            |
+  182. _Catamenia_   |    4  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+  183. _Neorhynchus_ |    1  | W. Peru              |
+  184._Catamblyrhynchus_  1  | Columbia             |
+       (Loxia        |    1  | Mexico)              | North temperate genus
+       (Calamospiza  |    1  | Mexico)              | Arizona and Texas
+       (Chondestes   |    1  | Mexico)              | W. and Cent.
+                     |       |                      |   U. States
+       (Euspiza      |    1  | Mexico to Columbia)  | S.-E. U. States,
+                     |       |                      |   Palæarc.
+  185. _Gubernatrix_ |    1  | Paraguay and La Plata|
+       (Plectrophanes|    1  | Mexico)              | N. temp. & Arctic
+                     |       |                      |   genus
+                     |       |                      |
+  ALAUDIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  186. Otocorys      |    1  | Mexico, Andes of     | Nearc. & Palæarc.
+                     |       |   Columbia           |   genus
+                     |       |                      |
+  MOTACILLIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  187. Anthus        |    4  | Mexico to Patagonia  | Cosmopolite
+                     |       |  and Falkland Islands|
+                     |       |                      |
+  OXYRHAMPHIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  187a. _Oxyrhamphus_|    2  | Brazil to Costa Rica |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TYRANNIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  188. _Conophaga_   |   11  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  189. _Corythopis_  |    2  | Brazil and Guiana    |
+  190. _Agriornis_   |    5  | Ecuador, Peru, and   |
+                     |       |   Chili              |
+  191. _Myiotheretes_|    3  | Columbia to Ecuador, |
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+  192. _Tænioptepa_  |    8  | S. Brazil and Bolivia|
+                     |       |   to Patago.         |
+  193. _Ochthodioeta_|    1  | Columbian Andes      |
+  194. _Ochthæca_    |   17  | Andes, Bolivia to    |
+                     |       |   Columbia and       |
+                     |       |   Venezuela          |
+  195. Sayornis      |    4  | Mexico to Ecuador    | E. United Sts. to
+                     |       |                      |   Canada
+  196. _Fluvicola_   |    4  | Guiana & W. Ecuador  |
+                     |       |   to Brazil, and     |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  197. _Arundinicola_|    1  | Tropical S. America  |
+  198. _Alectorurus_ |    2  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
+  199. _Cybernetes_  |    1  | Brazil               |
+  200. _Sysopygis_   |    1  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
+  201. _Cnipolegus_  |    9  | Amazonia to Patagonia|
+  202. _Lichenops_   |    1  | Brazil and La Plata  |
+  203. _Muscipipra_  |    1  | S. Brazil            |
+  204. _Copurus_     |    3  | Costa Rica to        |
+                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
+  205. _Machetornis_ |    1  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+  206._Muscisaxicola_|   11  | Andes of Ecuador to  |
+                     |       |   Chili and Patagonia|
+  207. _Centrites_   |    2  | Bolivia to Patagonia |
+  208. _Muscigralla_ |    1  | W. Ecuador           |
+  209._Platyrhynchus_|    7  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  210. _Todirostrum_ |   11  | Tropical N. and      |
+                     |       |   S. America         |
+  211. _Oncosotma_   |    2  | Tropical N. America  |
+  212. _Euscarthmus_ |   12  | Costa Rica to W.     |
+                     |       |   Ecuador, Brazil,   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  213. _Orchilus_    |    2  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  214. _Colopterus_  |    2  | Veragua to Columbia  |
+                     |       |   and Guiana         |
+  215. _Hemitriccus_ |    1  | Brazil               |
+  216._Phylloscartes_|    1  | Columbia to Brazil   |
+  217. _Hapalocercus_|    3  | Brazil to Chili and  |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  218. _Habrura_     |    1  | Uruguay              |
+  219._Pogonotriccus_|    2  | Brazil and Columbia  |
+  220. _Leptotriccus_|    2  | Brazil and Veragua   |
+  221. _Stigmatura_  |    2  | Upper Amazon to      |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  222. _Serphophaga_ |    7  | Columbia to Chili and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  223. _Anæretes_    |    4  | Columbia to Chili and|
+                     |       |  La Plata, Magell.   |
+                     |       |  Sts. & Juan Fernand.|
+  224. _Cyanotis_    |    1  | W. Peru to La Plata  |
+  225. _Mionectes_   |    4  | Mexico to Brazil and |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  226. _Leptopogon_  |    6  | Mexico to Peru and   |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  227. _Capsiempis_  |    1  | Chiriqui to Brazil   |
+  228. _Phyllomyias_ |    5  | Columbia to Brazil   |
+  229. _Ornithion_   |    4  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  230. _Tyrannulus_  |    3  | Guatemala to Amazonia|
+  231. _Tyranniscus_ |    9  | Guatemala to E. Peru |
+  232. _Elainea_     |   18  | Mexico to Tierra del |
+                     |       |   Fuego, Antilles    |
+  233. _Empidagra_   |    1  | Bolivia and La Plata |
+  234. _Legatus_     |    2  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  235. _Sublegatus_  |    2  | Venezuela and Lower  |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+  236. _Myiozetetes_ |    8  | Mexico to W. Peru and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  237._Rhynchocyclus_|   10  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  238. _Conopias_    |    3  | Venezuela to Peru and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  239. _Pitangus_    |    7  | Mexico to La Plata,  |
+                     |       |   Antilles           |
+  240. _Sirystes_    |    2  | Panama to Brazil     |
+  241. _Myiodynastes_|    6  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  242. _Megarhynchus_|    1  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  243. _Muscivora_   |    5  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  244. _Hirundinea_  |    3  | Columbia & Guiana to |
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  245. _Cnipodectes_ |    1  | Panama to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Amazon           |
+  246. _Myiobius_    |   13  | Mexico to W. Peru,   |
+                     |       |   Bolivia, and       |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  247. _Pyrocephalus_|    3  | Tropical N. and S.   | Gila and Rio Grande
+                     |       |   America and        |
+                     |       |   Galapagos Islands  |
+  248. _Empidochanes_|    4  | Venezuela to         |
+                     |       |   S. Brazil.         |
+  249. _Mitrephorus_ |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  250. Empidonax     |   12  | Mexico to Columbia & | All N. America
+                     |       |   Ecuador            |
+  251. Contopus      |   10  | Mexico to Amazonia,  | N. & E. of Rocky
+                     |       |   Antilles           |   Mtns.
+  252. _Myiochanes_  |    1  | Amazonia and Brazil  |
+  253. Myiarchus     |   12  | Mexico to W. Ecuador | East and West Coasts
+                     |       |   & Brazil, Galapagos|   to  Canada
+                     |       |   and Antilles       |
+  254. _Blacicus_    |    2  | Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica |
+       (Empidias     |    1  | Mexico)              | Eastern United States
+  255. _Empidonomus_ |    1  | Guiana and Brazil    |
+  256. Tyrannus      |   11  | All tropical         | All U. States to
+                     |       |   sub-regions        |   Canada
+  257. _Milvulus_    |    2  | Tropical N. and S.   | Texas
+                     |       |   America            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PIPRIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  258. _Piprites_    |    4  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+  259. _Masius_      |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  260. _Chloropipo_  |    1  | Columbia             |
+  261. _Xenopipo_    |    1  | Guiana and Columbia  |
+  262. _Pipra_       |   19  |Trop. N. and S. America
+  263. _Neopipo_     |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
+  264._Machæropterus_|    4  | Columbia to Brazil   |
+  265. _Ilicura_     |    1  | Brazil               |
+  266. _Chiroxiphia_ |    5  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+  267. _Metopia_     |    1  | Brazil               |
+  268. _Metopothrix_ |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
+  269._Chiromachæris_|    6  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  270. _Hetoropelma_ |   10  | Mexico to Guiana and |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  271. _Heterocercus_|    2  | Guiana and Upper     |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+  272. _Schiffornis_ |    2  |Upper Amazon and Brazil
+                     |       |                      |
+  COTINGIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  273. _Tityra_      |    6  | Tropical N. and S.   |
+                     |       |   America            |
+  274. _Hadrostomus_ |    5  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil, Jamaica  |
+  275. _Pachyhamphus_|   11  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  276. _Lathria_     |    5  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  277. _Aulia_       |    3  | Veragua to Brazil    |
+  278. _Lipaugus_    |    3  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Guiana         |
+  279. _Ptilochloris_|    2  | Brazil               |
+  280. _Attila_      |    8  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+                     |       |   and Guiana         |
+  281. _Casiornis_   |    2  | S. Brazil to Paraguay|
+  282. _Rupicola_    |    3  | Guiana to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
+  283._Phoenicocercus_    2  | Guiana and Amazonia  |
+  284. _Tijuca_      |    1  | Brazil               |
+  285. _Phibalura_   |    1  | Brazil               |
+  286. _Pipreola_    |    7  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
+                     |       |   and Peru           |
+  287. _Ampelio_     |    4  | Columbia to Peru and |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  288. _Carpodectes_ |    1  | Nicaragua and Costa  |
+                     |       |   Rica               |
+  289. _Heliochæra_  |    2  | Columbia to Peru and |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  290. _Cotinga_     |    6  | Guatemala to Peru and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  291. _Xipholena_   |    3  | Guiana to Brazil     |
+  292. _Iodopleura_  |    3  | Guiana to Brazil     |
+  293. _Calyptura_   |    1  | Brazil               |
+  294. _Querula_     |    1  | Panama to Amazonia   |
+  295. _Hæmatoderus_ |    1  |Guiana and Lower Amazon
+  296._Chasmorhynchus_    4  | Costa Rica to Guiana |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  297._Gymnocephalus_|    1  | Guiana and Rio Negro |
+  298. _Gymnoderus_  |    1  |Guiana and Upper Amazon
+  299. _Pyroderus_   |    3  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+  300._Cephalopterus_|    3  | Costa Rica to W.     |
+                     |       | Ecuador & Upr. Amazon|
+                     |       |                      |
+  PHYTOTOMIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  301. _Phytotoma_   |    3  | Bolivia, Chili, and  |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ.   |       |                      |
+  302. _Geobates_    |    1  | South Brazil         |
+  303. _Geositta_    |    6  | Peru to Chili and    |
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+  304. _Furnarius_   |    9  | Guiana & W. Ecuador  |
+                     |       |   to La Plata        |
+  305. _Clibanornis_ |    1  | S. Brazil            |
+  306. _Upucerthia_  |    4  | Andes of Ecuador to  |
+                     |       |   Chili and Patagonia|
+  307. _Cinclodes_   |    5  | Ecuador to Chili,    |
+                     |       |   Patagonia and      |
+                     |       |   Tierra del Fuego   |
+  308. _Henicornis_  |    2  | Patagonia            |
+  309. _Lochmias_    |    2  | Venezuela and Brazil |
+  310. _Sclerurus_   |    6  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  311. _Oxyurus_     |    2  | Chili to Tierra del  |
+                     |       |   Fuego, and         |
+                     |       |   Masafuera Islands  |
+  312. _Sylviortho-  |    1  | Chili                |
+          rhynchus_  |    1  | Chili                |
+  313. _Phlæocryptes_|    1  | W. Peru to La Plata  |
+  314._Leptasthenura_|    5  | Andes of Ecuador to  |
+                     |       |  Brazil and Patagonia|
+  315. _Synallaxis_  |   55  | The whole region     |
+                     |       |   (excl. Antilles)   |
+  316. _Coryphistera_|    1  | La Plata             |
+  317. _Anumbius_    |    1  | Paraguay and La Plata|
+  318. _Limnornis_   |    1  | Uruguay and La Plata |
+  319._Placellodomus_|    4  | Venezuela to Peru and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  320. _Thripophaga_ |    3  | Brazil and Columbia  |
+  321._Pseudocolaptes_    1  | Columbia to Peru     |
+  322. _Homorus_     |    3  | Brazil, Bolivia, and |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  323. _Thripadectes_|    1  | Columbia             |
+  324. _Ancistrops_  |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
+  325. _Automolus_   |    9  | Mexico to Amazonia   |
+  326. _Philydor_    |   14  |Tropical South America|
+                     |       |                      |
+  327. _Heliobletus_ |    1  | Brazil               |
+  328. _Anabatoides_ |    1  | Brazil               |
+  329. _Anabazenops_ |    5  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  330. _Xenops_      |    3  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  331. _Sittasomus_  |    3  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  332. _Margarornis_ |    4  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  333._Glyphorhynchus_    1  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  334. _Pygarrhicus_ |    1  | Chili                |
+  335. _Dendrocincla_|   10  | Mexico to Venezuela  |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  336._Dendrocolaptes_    7  | Guatemala to Peru and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  337. _Nasica_      |    1  | Guiana               |
+  338. _Drymornis_   |    1  | La Plata             |
+  339._Xiphocolaptes_|    5  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  340._Dendrexetastes_    2  | Guiana               |
+  341. _Dendrornis_  |   14  | Mexico, W. Ecuador   |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  342. _Dendroplex_  |    2  | Columbia & Venezuela |
+                     |       |   to Brazil          |
+  343. _Picolaptes_  |   14  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  344._Xiphorhynchus_|    4  | Veragua to Brazil    |
+                     |       |                      |
+  FORMICARIIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  345. _Cymbilanius_ |    1  | Amazonia and Guiana  |
+  346. _Batara_      |    1  | S. Brazil            |
+  347. _Thamnophilus_|   47  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  348. _Biatas_      |    1  | Brazil               |
+  349. _Thamnistes_  |    2  | Central America and  |
+                     |       |   Ecuador            |
+  350. _Pygoptila_   |    2  | Amazonia             |
+  351. _Neoctantes_  |    1  | Amazonia             |
+  352. _Clytoctantes_|    1  | Eastern Ecuador      |
+  353. _Dysithamnus_ |   12  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  354. _Thamnomanes_ |    2  | Ecuador, Guiana, and |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  355._Herpsilochmus_|    4  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  356. _Myrmotherula_|   21  | Tropical S. America  |
+  357. _Formicivora_ |   14  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  358. _Terenura_    |    3  | Veragua to W. Ecuador|
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  359._Psilorhamphus_|    1  | Central Brazil       |
+  360. _Microbates_  |    1  | Cayenne              |
+  361. _Rhamphocænus_|    4  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+  362. _Cercomacra_  |    9  | Cen. America to W.   |
+                     |       |   Equador & S. Brazil|
+  363. _Pyriglena_   |    4  | Ecuador to Peru and  |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  364. _Gymnocichla_ |    2  | Honduras to Panama   |
+  365. _Percnostola_ |    3  |Guiana and Upper Amazon
+  366. _Heterocnemis_|    3  |Guiana and Upper Amazon
+  367. _Myrmeciza_   |   11  |Veragua to W. Ecuador,|
+                     |       |   Bolivia, and Brazil|
+  368. _Hypocnemis_  |   15  | Costa Rica to W.     |
+                     |       |   Ecuador & Brazil   |
+  369. _Pithys_      |    5  | Nicaragua to Amazonia|
+  370. _Rhopoterpe_  |    1  | Guiana               |
+  371. _Phlogopsis_  |    4  | Nicaragua to Guiana  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  372. _Formicarius_ |    9  | Mexico to Brazil and |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  373. _Pittasoma_   |    1  | Panama and Veragua   |
+  374. _Chamæza_     |    4  | Columbia to Brazil   |
+  375. _Grallaria_   |   20  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  376. _Grallaricula_|    5  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
+                     |       |                      |
+  PTEROPTOCHIDÆ.     |       |                      |
+  377. _Scytalopus_  |    8  | Columbia & Brazil to |
+                     |       |   Chili and Tierra   |
+                     |       |   del Fuego          |
+  378. _Merulaxis_   |    1  | Central Brazil       |
+  379. _Rhinocrypta_ |    2  | La Plata and         |
+                     |       |   Patagonia          |
+  380. _Liosceles_   |    1  | Madeira Valley       |
+  381. _Pteroptochus_|    2  | Chili and Chiloe     |
+  382. _Hylactes_    |    3  | Chili                |
+  383. _Acropternis_ |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  384. _Triptorhinus_|    1  | Chili                |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PICARIÆ.           |       |                      |
+  PICIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  385. _Picumnus_    |   14  | Honduras to Brazil   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  386. Picus         |    6  | Mexico, Chili, La    | All reg. but Austral.
+                     |       |  Plata, and S.       |   & Ethiopian
+                     |       |  Patagonia           |
+       (Sphyrapicus  |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
+  387. Campephilus   |   12  | Mexico to Patagonia, | Nearctic
+                     |       |   Cuba               |
+  388. Dryocopus     |    4  | Mexico to S. Brazil  | Palæarctic
+  389. _Celeus_      |   15  | Mexico and S. Brazil |
+  390. _Nesoceleus_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
+  391. _Chrysoptilus_|    6  | Tropical S. America  |
+  392. Centurus      |   10  | Mexico to Venezuela, | Nearctic
+                     |       |   Antilles           |
+  393. _Chloronerpes_|   35  | Tropical America,    |
+                     |       |   Hayti              |
+  394._Xiphidiopicus_|    1  | Cuba                 |
+  395. Melanerpes    |    9  | Mexico to Brazil,    | Nearctic
+                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
+  396. _Leuconerpes_ |    1  | Brazil, Bolivia      |
+  397. Colaptes      |    7  | Open country of trop.| Nearctic
+                     |       |   America, Greater   |
+                     |       |   Antilles           |
+  398. _Hypoxanthus_ |    1  | Venezuela and Ecuador|
+                     |       |                      |
+  MEGALÆMIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  399. _Capito_      |   10  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
+                     |       |   and Guiana         |
+  400. _Tetragonops_ |    2  | Costa Rica and       |
+                     |       |   Ecuador            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  RHAMPHASTIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  401. _Rhamphastos_ |   12  | All tropical America |
+  402. _Pteroglossus_|   16  | Mexico to Guiana and |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  403. _Selenidera_  |    7  | Veragua to Brazil    |
+  404. _Andigena_    |    6  |Columbia to W. Ecuador,
+                     |       |   Bolivia and Brazil |
+  405._Aulacorhamphus_   10  | Mexico to Venezuela  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CUCULIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  406. _Crotophaga_  |    3  | Tropical America and | Nearctic to
+                     |       |   Antilles           |   Pennsylvania
+  407. _Guira_       |    1  | Brazil and Paraguay  |
+  408. _Neomorphus_  |    4  | Nicaragua to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Upper Amazon   |
+  409. _Geococcyx_   |    1  | Guatemala            | Texas to Calfornia
+  410. _Dromococcyx_ |    2  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  411. _Diplopterus_ |    1  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  412. _Saurothera_  |    4  | Greater Antilles     |
+  413. _Hyetornis_   |    2  | Jamaica and Hayti    |
+  414. _Piaya_       |    3  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  415. _Morococcyx_  |    1  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  416. Coccygus      |   10  | Tropical America and | Nearctic
+                     |       |   Antilles, Cocos    |
+                     |       |   Islands            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  BUCCONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  417. _Bucco_       |   21  | Guatemala to Guiana, |
+                     |       |  Paraguay and Bolivia|
+  418. _Malacoptila_ |   10  | Guatemala to Guiana, |
+                     |       |   W. Ecuador and     |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  419. _Nonnula_     |    5  | Columbia and Amazonia|
+  420. _Monasa_      |    7  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+  421. _Chelidoptera_|    2  | Columbia to Guiana   |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  GALBRILIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  422. _Galbula_     |    9  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  423. _Urogalba_    |    2  |Guiana to Lower Amazon|
+                     |       |                      |
+  424. _Brachygalba_ |    4  | Columbia to Brazil   |
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
+  425._Jacamaralcyon_|    1  | Brazil               |
+  426. _Jacamerops_  |    2  | Columbia to Amazonia |
+  427._Galbalcyrhynchus_  1  | Upper Amazon         |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TODIDÆ.            |       |                      |
+  428. _Todus_       |    5  | Greater Antilles     |
+                     |       |                      |
+  MOMOTIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  429. _Momotus_     |   10  | Mexico to W. Ecuador,|
+                     |       |   Brazil and Bolivia |
+  430. _Urospatha_   |    1  |Costa Rica to Columbia|
+  431._Baryphthengus_|    1  | Brazil and Paraguay  |
+  432. _Hylomanes_   |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala |
+  433._Prionirhynchus_    2  | Guatemala to Upper   |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+  434. _Eumomota_    |    1  | Honduras to Chiriqui |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TROGONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  435. _Prionoteles_ |    1  | Cuba                 |
+  436. _Temnotrogon_ |    1  | Hayti                |
+  437. _Trogon_      |   22  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Parag.           |
+  438. _Euptilotis_  |    1  | Mexico               |
+  439. _Pharomacrus_ |    5  | Guatemala to Upper   |
+                     |       |   Amazon and Bolivia |
+                     |       |                      |
+  ALCEDINIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  440. Ceryle        |    8  | Mexico to Brazil,    | Nearc., S. Palæarc.,
+                     |       |   Patagonia and Chili|   Orien.
+                     |       |                      |
+  STEATORNITHIDÆ.    |       |                      |
+  441. _Steatornis_  |    1  | Columb., Venezuela, &|
+                     |       |   Trinidad           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CAPRIMULGIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  442. _Nyctibius_   |    6  | Brazil to Guatemala  |
+                     |       |   & Jamaica          |
+  443. _Hydropsalis_ |    8  | Columbia & Guiana to |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  444. Antrostomus   |   10  | Mexico and Cuba to   | All U. States to
+                     |       | Bolivia and  La Plata|   Canada
+  445. _Stenopsis_   |    4  |Martinique to Columb.,|
+                     |       |   W. Peru and Chili  |
+  446. _Siphonorhis_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
+  447._Heleothreptus_|    1  | Central Brazil       |
+  448. _Nyctidromus_ |    1  | Central America to   |
+                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
+  449. _Podager_     |    1  | Tropical S. America  |
+  450. _Lurocalis_   |    2  | Guiana to Brazil     |
+  451. Chordeiles    |    7  | Mexico to W. Peru and| All U. States to
+                     |       |   Brazil Jamaica and |   Canada
+                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
+  452. _Nyctiprogne_ |    1  | Amazonia             |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CYPSELIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  453. Cypselus      |    3  | Antilles to Guiana   | The Eastern
+                     |       |   and Bolivia        |   Hemisphere
+  454. _Panyptila_   |    3  | Guatemala and Guiana |
+  455. Chætura       |    9  | Mexico to Ecuador and| Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  456. _Hemiprocne_  |    3  | Mexico to La Plata,  |
+                     |       |   Jamaica and Hayti  |
+  457. _Cypseloides_ |    2  | Brazil and Peru      |
+  458. _Nephoecetes_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TROCHILIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  459. _Grypus_      |    1  | Brazil               |
+  460. _Androdon_    |    1  | Ecuador              |
+  461. _Eutoxeres_   |    2  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
+  462. _Glaucis_     |    2  | Panama to Brazil     |
+  463. _Phaethornis_ |   14  | Tropical N. and      |
+                     |       |   S. America         |
+  464. _Pygmornis_   |    8  | Mexico to Guiana and |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  465. _Threnetes_   |    4  |Costa Rica to Amazonia|
+                     |       |   and W. Ecuador     |
+  466. _Dolerisca_   |    1  | Venezuela            |
+  467. _Eupetomena_  |    1  | Guiana to Brazil     |
+  468._Sphenoproctus_     2  | Mexico to Guatemala  |
+  469._Campylopterus_     9  | Mexico to Amazonia   |
+  470. _Phæochroa_   |    2  | Guatemala to Columbia|
+  471. _Aphantochroa_|    3  | Ecuador and Brazil   |
+  472. _Urochroa_    |    1  | Ecuador              |
+  473. _Sternoclyta_ |    1  | Venezuela            |
+  474. _Eugenes_     |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  475. _Coeligena_   |    1  | Mexico               |
+  476. _Lamprolæma_  |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala |
+  477. _Delattria_   |    2  | Guatemala            |
+  478. _Oreopyra_    |    4  |Costa Rica to Chiriqui|
+  479. _Heliopædica_ |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala |
+  480. _Topaza_      |    2  | Guiana               |
+  481._Oreotrochilus_|    6  | Ecuador to Peru and  |
+                     |       |   Chili              |
+  482. _Lampornis_   |    7  | Mexico & W. India to |
+                     |       |   Amazonia           |
+  483. _Eulampis_    |    2  | Lesser Antilles      |
+  484. _Avocettula_  |    1  | Guiana               |
+  485. _Lafresnaya_  |    2  |Venezuela and Columbia|
+  486. _Doryphora_   |    5  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
+  487. _Chalybura_   |    5  |Costa Rica to Columbia|
+  488. _Heliodoxa_   |    5  |Costa Rica to Venezue.|
+                     |       |   & Boliv.           |
+  489. _Iolæma_      |    2  | Ecuador to Peru      |
+  490. _Phæolæma_    |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  491. _Eugenia_     |    1  | Ecuador              |
+  492. _Aithurus_    |    1  | Jamaica              |
+  493. _Thalurania_  |   10  | Costa Rica to Guiana,|
+                     |       |   Ecuador and Brazil |
+  494. _Panoplites_  |    3  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  495. _Florisuga_   |    2  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+  496. _Microchera_  |    2  | Nicaragua to Veragua |
+  497. _Lophorius_   |    7  | Mexico to Brazil,    |
+                     |       |   Peru, & Bolivia    |
+  498. _Polemistria_ |    2  | Columbia to S. Brazil|
+  499. _Discura_     |    2  | Brazil               |
+  500. _Gouldia_     |    4  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
+                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
+  501. Trochilus     |    2  | Mexico to Veragua    | To Canada and Sitka
+  502. _Mellisuga_   |    1  | Jamaica to Hayti     |
+  503. _Calypte_     |    3  | Mexico and Cuba      |
+  504. Selasphorus   |    7  | Mexico to Veragua    | W. & Cen. United
+                     |       |                      |   States
+  505. Atthis        |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala | California and
+                     |       |                      |   Colorado
+  506. _Stellula_    |    1  | Mexico               |
+  507. _Calothorax_  |    2  | Mexico               |
+  508. _Acestrura_   |    3  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
+  509. _Chætocercus_ |    3  | Venezuela and Ecuador|
+  510. _Myrtis_      |    2  | Ecuador to Bolivia,  |
+                     |       |   W. of Andes        |
+  511. _Thaumastura_ |    1  | W. Peru              |
+  512. _Rhodopis_    |    2  | W. Peru and Chili    |
+  513. _Doricha_     |    5  | Mexico to Veragua,   |
+                     |       |   Bahamas            |
+  514. _Tilmatura_   |    1  | Guatemala            |
+  515. _Calliphlox_  |    2  | Ecuador and Brazil   |
+  516. _Loddigesia_  |    1  | Peruvian Andes       |
+  517. _Steganura_   |    6  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
+  518. _Lesbia_      |    6  | Columbia to Peru     |
+  519. _Cynanthus_   |    2  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
+  520. _Sparganura_  |    4  | Columbia to Bolivia &|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  521. _Pterophanes_ |    1  | Columbia to Peru     |
+  522. _Aglæactis_   |    4  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+  523. _Oxypogon_    |    2  | Venezuela and Columbia            |
+  524. _Oreonympha_  |    1  | Peru                 |
+  525._Rhamphomicron_|    6  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+  526. _Urosticte_   |    2  | Ecuador              |
+  527. _Metallura_   |    6  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+  528. _Adelomia_    |    4  | Venezuela to Peru &  |
+                     |       |    Bolivia           |
+  529. _Avocettinus_ |    1  | Columbia             |
+  530. _Anthocephala_|    1  | Columbia             |
+  531. _Chrysolampis_|    1  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+  532._Orthorhynchus_|    2  | Lesser Antilles      |
+  533. _Cephalolepis_|    3  | Brazil               |
+  534. _Clais_       |    1  |Venezuela and Columbia|
+  535. _Baucis_      |    1  | Mexico to Veragua    |
+  536. _Heliactin_   |    1  | Brazil               |
+  537. _Heliothrix_  |    3  | Guatemala to Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+  538. _Schistes_    |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  539. _Phlogophilus_|    1  | Ecuador              |
+  540. _Augastes_    |    2  | Brazil               |
+  541. _Petasophora_ |    5  | Mexico to Peru and   |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  542._Chrysobronchus_    3  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+  543. _Patagona_    |    1  | Ecuador to Bolivia   |
+                     |       |   and Chili          |
+  544. _Docimastes_  |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  545. _Helianthea_  |    7  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
+  546. _Heliotrypha_ |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  547. _Heliangelus_ |    6  | Venezuela to Peru    |
+  548. _Diphlogæna_  |    3  | Bolivia              |
+  549. _Clytolæma_   |    2  | E. Ecuador and Brazil|
+  550. _Bourcieria_  |    5  | Venezuela to Peru    |
+  551. _Lampropygia_ |    4  | Venezuela to Bolivia |
+  552. _Heliomastes_ |    5  | Mexico to Ecuador &  |
+                     |       |   Venezuela          |
+  553. _Lepidolarynx_|    1  | Brazil               |
+  554. _Calliperidia_|    1  | Central Brazil and   |
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  555. _Eustephanus_ |    3  | Chili, S. Patagonia, |
+                     |       |   and Juan Fernandez |
+                     |       |   Island             |
+  556. _Eriocnemis_  |   14  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
+  557. _Cyanomyia_   |    6  | Mexico to Peru       |
+  558. _Hemistilbon_ |    1  | Mexico               |
+  559. _Leucippus_   |    2  | Peru and Bolivia     |
+  560. _Thaumatias_  |   15  | Mexico to Guiana,    |
+                     |       |   Upr. Amazon, and   |
+                     |       |    Brazil            |
+  561. _Amazilia_    |   14  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Peru             |
+  562. _Saucerottia_ |    7  | Costa Rica to Columb.|
+                     |       |   & Venezue.         |
+  563. _Eupherusa_   |    3  | Mexico to Veragua    |
+  564. _Chrysuronia_ |    5  | Guatemala to Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & La Plata         |
+  565. _Eucephala_   |    7  | Venezuela to Guiana  |
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  566. _Panterpe_    |    1  | Costa Rica and       |
+                     |       |   Chiriqui           |
+  567. _Juliamyia_   |    2  | Panama to Ecuador    |
+  568. _Circe_       |    3  | Mexico               |
+  569. _Phæoptila_   |    1  | Mexico               |
+  570. _Damophila_   |    1  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
+  571. _Hylocharis_  |    3  | Amazonia and Brazil  |
+  572. _Sapphironia_ |    2  | Columbia and Veragua |
+  573. _Sporadinus_  |    3  | Cuba, Bahamas, Hayti,|
+                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
+  574._Chlorostilbon_     8  | Mexico to Brazil and |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  575. _Panychlora_  |    3  |Venezuela and Columbia|
+  576._Smaragdochrysis_   1  | Brazil               |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PSITTACI.          |       |                      |
+  CONURIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  577. _Ara_         |   15  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America, Cuba,     |
+                     |       |   Jamaica (extinct)  |
+  578. _Rhyncopsitta_|    1  | Mexico               |
+  579._Henicognathus_|    1  | Chili                |
+  580. Conurus       |   30  | The whole region     | S. & S.E. United
+                     |       |                      |   States
+  581. _Pyrrhura_    |   16  | Costa Rica to        |
+                     |       |   Paraguay & Bolivia |
+  582._Bolborhynchus_|    7  | Mexico to Peru,      |
+                     |       |   Central Brazil, and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  583. _Brotogerys_  |    9  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PSITTACIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  584. _Caica_       |    9  | Mexico to Amazonia   |
+  585. _Chrysotis_   |   32  | All the tropical     |
+                     |       |   sub-regions        |
+  586. _Triclaria_   |    1  | Brazil               |
+  587. _Deroptyus_   |    1  | Guiana and Rio Negro |
+  588. _Pionus_      |    9  | Costa Rica to Bolivia|
+                     |       |   and Brazil         |
+  589. _Urochroma_   |    7  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+  590. _Psittacula_  |    6  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
+                     |       |   & Brazil           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  COLUMBÆ.           |       |                      |
+  591. Columba       |   18  |Trop. sub-regions with| All regions but
+                     |       |   Chili and La Plata |   Austral.
+  592. Zenaidura     |    2  | Mexico to Veragua    | Nearctic
+  593. Chamæpelia    |    6  | Mexico to Brazil and | S. Nearctic
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  594. _Columbula_   |    2  | Brazil and La Plata  |
+                     |       |   to Chili           |
+  595. _Scardafella_ |    2  | Guatemala and Brazil |
+  596. _Zenaida_     |   10  | Antilles and S.      |
+                     |       |   America to Chili   |
+                     |       |   and La Plata       |
+  597. Melopelia     |    2  | Mexico to Chili      | South & West
+                     |       |                      |   Nearctic
+  598. _Peristera_   |    4  | Mexico to Brazil     |
+  599. _Metriopelia_ |    2  | W. America from      |
+                     |       |   Ecuador to Chili   |
+  600. _Gymnopelia_  |    1  | West Peru and Bolivia|
+  601. _Leptoptila_  |   11  | Tropical sub-regions |
+  602. _Geotrygon_   |   14  | Tropical sub-regions |
+  603. _Starnoenas_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
+                     |       |                      |
+  GALLINÆ.           |       |                      |
+  TETRAONIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  604. _Odontophorus_|   17  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  605. _Dendrortyx_  |    3  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
+  606. Cyrtonyx      |    3  | Mexico to Guatemala  | S. Central United
+                     |       |                      |   States
+  607. Ortyx         |    5  | Mexico to Costa Rica,| Nearctic to Canada
+                     |       |   Cuba               |
+  608. _Eupsychortyx_|    5  | Mexico to Columbia   |
+                     |       |   and Guiana         |
+       (Callipepla   |    2  | Mexico)              | California
+                     |       |                      |
+  PHASIANIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  609. Meleagris     |    2  | Mexico and Honduras  | Nearctic
+                     |       |                      |
+  CRACIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  610. _Crax_        |    8  | Mexico to Venezuela &|
+                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
+  611. _Nothocrax_   |    1  | Guiana and Upper     |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+  612. _Pauxi_       |    1  | Guiana and Venezuela |
+  613. _Mitua_       |    2  | Guiana to Peru       |
+  614. _Stegnolæma_  |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
+  615. _Penelope_    |   13  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  616. _Penelopina_  |    1  | Guatemala            |
+  617. _Pipile_      |    3  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Peru           |
+  618. Aburria       |    1  | Columbia             |
+  619. _Chamæpetes_  |    2  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
+  620. _Ortalida_    |   18  | Trop. North and South| New Mexico
+                     |       |   America            |
+  621. _Oreophasis_  |    1  | Guatemala            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  TINAMIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  622. _Tinamus_     |    7  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  623. _Nothocercus_ |    3  |Costa Rica to Venezue.|
+                     |       |   & Ecuador          |
+  624. _Crypturus_   |   16  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  625. _Rhynchotus_  |    2  | Brazil to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  626. _Nothoprocta_ |    4  | Ecuador to Bolivia   |
+                     |       |   and Chili          |
+  627. _Nothura_     |    4  | Brazil to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  628. _Taoniscus_   |    1  | Brazil and Paraguay  |
+  629. _Calodromas_  |    1  | La Plata             |
+  630. _Tinamotis_   |    1  | Andes of Peru and    |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+                     |       |                      |
+  OPISTHOCOMI.       |       |                      |
+  OPISTHOCOMIDÆ      |       |                      |
+  631. _Opisthocomus_|    1  | Guiana and Lower     |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+                     |       |                      |
+  ACCIPITRES.        |       |                      |
+  VULTURIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  (CATHARTINÆ.)      |       |                      |
+  632._Sarcorhamphus_|    2  | The Andes and S. of  |
+                     |       |   41° S. Lat.        |
+  633. _Cathartes_   |    1  | Mexico to 20° S. Lat.|
+  634. Catharista    |    1  | Mexico to 40° S. Lat.| S. United States
+  635. Pseudogryphis |    3  | Mexico to Falkland   | United States
+                     |       |   Ids., Cuba, Jamaica|
+                     |       |                      |
+  FALCONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  636. Polyborus     |    2  | The whole region     | California and
+                     |       |                      |   Florida
+  637. _Ibycter_     |    8  | Guatemala to Terra   |
+                     |       |   del Fuego          |
+  638. Circus        |    3  | Nearly the whole     | Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |   region             |
+  639. _Micrastur_   |    7  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  640. _Geranospiza_ |    2  | Trop. North and South|
+                     |       |   America            |
+  641. Antenor       |    1  | Mexico to Chili and  | California and Texas
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  642. Astur         |    2  | Trop. N. and S.      | Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |   America            |
+  643. Accipiter     |    9  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
+  644._Heterospizias_|    1  | Trop. S. America,    |
+                     |       |   E. of Andes        |
+  645. Tachytriorchis|    2  | Mexico to Paraguay   | California
+  646. Buteo         |    9  | Mexico to Patagonia  | Almost cosmopolite
+  647. _Buteola_     |    1  | Veragua to Amazonia  |
+  648. Asturina      |    7  | Mexico to Bolivia and| S.E. United States
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  649. _Busarellus_  |    1  | Brazil and Guiana    |
+  650. _Buteogallus_ |    1  | Columbia and Guiana  |
+  651. _Urubutinga_  |   12  | Mexico to Brazil and |
+                     |       |   Bolivia            |
+  652._Harpyhaliæetus_    1  | Veragua to Chili &   |
+                     |       |   N. Patagonia       |
+  653. _Morphnus_    |    1  | Panama to Amazonia   |
+  654. _Thrasaëtus_  |    1  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  655. Lophotriorchis|    1  | Bogota               | Indo-Malaya
+  656. _Spiziastur_  |    1  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+  657. Spizaëtus     |    4  | Mexico to Paraguay   | Africa, India, Malaya
+  658._Herpetotheres_|    1  | S. Mexico to Bolivia |
+                     |       |   & Paraguay         |
+  659. Nauclerus     |    1  | Mexico to Brazil     | S. United States
+  660. _Rostrhamus_  |    3  | Antilles to Brazil   | Florida
+                     |       |   and Peru           |
+  661. _Leptodon_    |    4  | Central America to S.|
+                     |       |   Brazil and Bolivia |
+  662. Elanus        |    1  | Mexico to Chili      | Califor., Old World
+                     |       |                      |   trop.
+  663. _Gampsonyx_   |    1  | Trinidad to Brazil   |
+  664. _Harpagus_    |    3  | Central America to   |
+                     |       |   Brazil & Peru      |
+  665. _Ictinia_     |    2  | Mexico to Brazil     | South United States
+  666. _Spiziapteryx_|    1  | La Plata             |
+  667. Falco         |    3  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
+  668. Cerchneis     |    3  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |                      |
+  PANDIONIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  669. Pandion       |    1  | The whole region     | Cosmopolite
+                     |       |                      |
+  STRIGIDÆ.          |       |                      |
+  670. Glaucidium    |    6  | The whole region     | W. United Sts.,
+                     |       |                      |   Palæarc.
+  671. Micrathene    |    1  | Mexico               | Arizona, New Mexico
+  672. Pholeoptynx   |    1  | The whole region     | N. W. America & Texas
+  673. Bubo          |    1  | The whole region     | All regions but
+                     |       |                      |   Austral.
+  674. Scops         |    6  | Mexico to Brazil and | Almost cosmopolite
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+  675. _Gymnoglaux_  |    2  | West India Islands   |
+  676. _Lophostrix_  |    2  | Guatemala to Lower   |
+                     |       |   Amazon             |
+  677. Syrnium       |    3  | Mexico to Patagonia  | All regions but
+                     |       |                      |   Austral.
+  678. _Ciccaba_     |   10  | Mexico to Peru and   |
+                     |       |   Paraguay           |
+  679. _Nyctalatinus_|    1  | Columbia             |
+  680. _Pulsatrix_   |    2  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
+                     |       |   and Peru           |
+  681. Asio          |    2  | The whole region     | All regions but
+                     |       |                      |   Austral.
+  682. _Nyctalops_   |    1  | Cuba and Mexico to   |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+  683. _Pseudoscops_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
+       (Nyctale      |    1  | Mexico)              | N. Temperate genus
+  684. Strix         |    2  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
+
+  _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._
+
+                     |       |                      |
+  GRALLÆ.            |       |                      |
+  RALLIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  Aramides           |   23  | The whole region     | Nearctic
+  _Heliornis_        |    1  | Tropical America     |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SCOLOPACIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  Eureunetes         |    3  | The whole region     | Nearctic
+                     |       |                      |
+  CHIONIDIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  Chionis            |    2  | Sts. of Magellan,    | Kerguelen's Island
+                     |       |   Falkland Ids.      |
+                     |       |                      |
+  THINOCORIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  _Attagis_          |    4  | Andes to Fuegia and  |
+                     |       |  Falkland Islands    |
+  _Thinocoris_       |    2  | Peru, Chili, and     |
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  CHARADRIIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  _Phægornis_        |    1  | Temperate S. America |
+  _Oreophilus_       |    1  | Temperate S. America |
+  _Pluvianellus_     |    1  | Temperate S. America |
+  _Aphriza_          |    1  |W. coast of S. America| W. coast of
+                     |       |                      |   N. America
+                     |       |                      |
+  CARIAMIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  _Cariama_          |    2  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
+                     |       |                      |
+  ARAMIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  _Aramus_           |    5  | Mexico and Cuba to   |
+                     |       |   Brazil             |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PSOPHIIDÆ.         |       |                      |
+  _Psophia_          |    6  | Equatorial S. America|
+                     |       |                      |
+  EURYPYGIDÆ.        |       |                      |
+  _Eurypyga_         |    2  | Tropical America     |
+                     |       |                      |
+  ARDEIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  _Tigrisoma_        |    3  | The whole region     |
+  _Cancroma_         |    1  | Tropical S. America  |
+                     |       |                      |
+  PALAMEDEIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  _Palamedea_        |    1  | Equatorial America   |
+  _Chauna_           |    2  | Columbia, Brazil, and|
+                     |       |   La Plata           |
+                     |       |                      |
+  ANSERES.           |       |                      |
+  ANATIDÆ.           |       |                      |
+  _Cairina_          |    1  | Tropical S. America  |
+  _Merganetta_       |    3  | Andes                |
+  _Micropterus_      |    1  | Temperate S. America |
+                     |       |                      |
+  SPHENISCIDÆ.       |       |                      |
+  Eudyptes           |    6  |  Temperate S. America| Antarctic shores
+  Aptenodytes        |    2  |  Falkland Islands    | Antarctic shores
+                     |       |                      |
+  STRUTHIONES.       |       |                      |
+  STRUTHIONIDÆ.      |       |                      |
+  685. _Rhea_        |    3  | S. Temperate America |
+
+{114}CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE NEARCTIC REGION.
+
+
+This region consists almost wholly of Temperate North America as defined by
+physical geographers. In area it is about equal to the Neotropical region.
+It possesses a vast mountain range traversing its entire length from north
+to south, comparable with, and in fact a continuation of, the Andes,--and a
+smaller range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains of
+Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river-system of the
+Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon; and in its vast group of
+fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it possesses a feature unmatched by any
+other region, except perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety
+of climate between arctic and tropical; extensive forests and vast
+prairies; a greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But
+these great advantages are somewhat neutralized by other physical features.
+It extends far towards the north, and there it reaches its greatest width;
+while in its southern and warmest portion it suddenly narrows. The northern
+mass of land causes its isothermal lines to bend southwards; and its winter
+temperature especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes in
+Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting animal life; the
+amount and character of which must be, to a great extent, determined by the
+nature of the least favourable part of the year. Again, owing to the
+position of its mountain ranges and the direction of prevalent winds, a
+large extent of its interior, east of the Rocky Mountains, is bare and
+arid, and often almost desert; while the most favoured districts,--those
+east of the Mississippi and west of the Sierra Nevada, bear but a small
+proportion to its whole area. Again, we know that at a very recent period
+geologically, it was subjected to a very severe Glacial epoch, which
+wrapped a full half of it in a mantle of ice, and exterminated a large
+number of animals which previously inhabited it. Taking all this into
+account, we need not be surprised to find the Nearctic region somewhat less
+rich and varied in its forms of life than the Palæarctic or the Australian
+regions, with which alone it can fairly be compared. The wonder rather is
+that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect, and that it
+should possess such a variety of groups, and such a multitude of forms, in
+every class of animals.
+
+
+[Illustration: NEARCTIC REGION]
+
+{115}_Zoological characteristics of the Nearctic Region._--Temperate North
+America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mammalia, 48 of Birds,
+18 of Reptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of Fresh-water Fish. The first three
+numbers are considerably less than the corresponding numbers for the
+Palæarctic region, while the last two are greater--in the case of fishes
+materially so, a circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of
+fresh-water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the
+Mississippi, to which the Palæarctic region has nothing comparable. But
+although somewhat deficient in the total number of its families, this
+region possesses its full proportion of peculiar and characteristic family
+and generic forms. No less than 13 families or sub-families of Vertebrata
+are confined to it, or just enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These
+are,--three of mammalia, Antilocaprinæ, Saccomyidæ and Haploodontidæ; one
+of birds, Chamæidæ; one of reptiles, Chirotidæ; two of amphibia, Sirenidæ
+and Amphiumidæ; and the remaining six of fresh-water fishes. The number of
+peculiar or characteristic genera is perhaps more important for our
+purpose; and these are very considerable, as the following enumeration will
+show.
+
+_Mammalia._--Of the family of moles (Talpidæ) we have 3 peculiar genera:
+_Condylura_, _Scapanus_, and _Scalops_, as well as the remarkable
+_Urotrichus_, found only in California and Japan. In the weasel family
+(Mustelidæ) we have _Latax_, a peculiar kind of otter; _Taxidea_, allied to
+the badgers; and one of the {116}remarkable and characteristic skunks is
+separated by Dr. J. E. Gray as a genus--_Spilogale_. In the American family
+Procyonidæ, a peculiar genus (_Bassaris_) is found in California and Texas,
+extending south along the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. _Eumetopias_,
+and _Halicyon_, are seals confined to the west coast of North America. The
+Bovidæ, or hollow-horned ruminants, contain three peculiar forms;
+_Antilocapra_, the remarkable prong-buck of the Rocky Mountains;
+_Aplocerus_, a goat-like antelope; and _Ovibos_, the musk-sheep, confined
+to Arctic America and Greenland. Among the Rodents are many peculiar
+genera: _Neotoma_, _Sigmodon_, and _Fiber_, belong to the Muridæ, or rats;
+_Jaculus_ to the Dipodidæ, or jerboas. The very distinct family
+_Saccomyidæ_, or pouched rats, which have peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind
+of outer hairy mouth, consists of five genera all confined to this region,
+with one of doubtful affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the
+squirrel family (Sciuridæ), _Cynomys_, the prairie-dogs, are peculiar; and
+_Tamias_, the ground squirrel, is very characteristic, though found also in
+North Asia. _Haploodon_, or sewellels, consisting of two species, forms a
+distinct family; and _Erethizon_ is a peculiar form of tree porcupine
+(Cercolabidæ). True mice and rats of the genus _Mus_ are not indigenous to
+North America, their place being supplied by a distinct genus
+(_Hesperomys_), confined to the American continent.
+
+_Birds._--The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic region
+are not very numerous, because, there being no boundary but one of climate
+between it and the Neotropical region, most of its characteristic forms
+enter a short distance within the limits we are obliged to concede to the
+latter. Owing also to the severe winter-climate of a large part of the
+region (which we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large
+proportion of its birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in the
+West-Indian islands or Mexico, some going as far as Guatemala, and a few
+even to Venezuela.
+
+In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there is good reason
+for believing that the existing union of North and South America is a quite
+recent occurrence; and that the {117}separation was effected by an arm of
+the sea across what is now Nicaragua, with perhaps another at Panama. This
+would leave Mexico and Guatemala joined to North America, and forming part
+of the Nearctic region, although no doubt containing many Neotropical
+forms, which they had received during earlier continental periods; and
+these countries might at other times have been made insular by a strait at
+the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species.
+The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these Neotropical forms
+to those parts where the climate is really tropical; and thus Mexico has
+attained its present strongly marked Neotropical character, although
+deficient in many of the most important groups of that region.
+
+In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw any decided
+line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, but rather to apply, in
+the case of each genus, a test which will show whether it was probably
+derived at a comparatively recent date from one region or the other. The
+test referred to, is the existence of peculiar species of the genus, in
+what are undoubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If, for
+example, all the species of a genus occur in North America, some, or even
+all, of them, migrating into the Neotropical region in winter, while there
+are _no peculiar Neotropical species_, then we must class that genus as
+strictly Nearctic; for if it were Neotropical it would certainly have
+developed _some_ peculiar resident forms. Again, even if there should be
+one or two resident species peculiar to that part of Central America north
+of the ancient dividing strait, with an equal or greater number of species
+ranging over a large part of Temperate North America, the genus must still
+be considered Nearctic. Examples of the former case, are _Helminthophaga_
+and _Myiodioctes_, belonging to the Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers, which
+range over _all_ Temperate North America to Canada, where _all_ the species
+are found, but in each case one of the species is found in South America,
+probably as a winter migrant. Of the latter, are _Ammodramus_ and _Junco_
+(genera of finches), which range over the whole United States, but each
+have one peculiar species in Guatemala. These {118}may be claimed as
+exclusively Nearctic genera, on the ground that Guatemala was recently
+Nearctic; and is now really a transition territory, of which the lowlands
+have been invaded and taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna,
+while the highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic
+forms.
+
+In his article on "Birds," in the new edition of the "Encyclopædia
+Britannica" (now publishing), Professor Newton points out, that the number
+of _peculiar genera_ of Nearctic birds is much less than in each of the
+various sub-divisions of the Neotropical region; and that the total number
+of genera is also less, while the bulk of them are common either to the
+Neotropical or Palæarctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case if any
+fixed geographical boundary is taken; and it would thus seem that the
+"Nearctic" should, in birds, form a sub-region only. But, if we define
+"Nearctic genera" as above indicated, we find a considerable amount of
+speciality, as the following list will show. The names not italicised are
+those which are represented in Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species:--
+
+
+LIST OF TYPICAL NEARCTIC GENERA OF LAND BIRDS.
+
+   1. _Oreoscoptes_
+   2. _Harporhynchus_
+   3. _Sialia_
+   4. _Chamæa_
+   5. _Catherpes_
+   6. _Salpinctus_
+   7. _Psaltriparus_
+   8. _Auriparus_
+   9. _Gymnokitta_
+  10. _Picicorvus_
+  11. _Mniotilta_
+  12. _Oporornis_
+  13. _Icteria_
+  14. _Helmintherus_
+  15. _Helminthophaga_
+  16. _Myiodioctes_
+  17. _Phænopepla_
+  18. _Xanthocephalus_
+  19. _Scolecophagus_
+  20. Pipilo
+  21. Junco
+  22. _Melospiza_
+  23. Spizella
+  24. _Passerculus_
+  25. _Pooecetes_
+  26. Ammodromus
+  27. _Cyanospiza_
+  28. _Pyrrhuloxia_
+  29. _Calamospiza_
+  30. Chondestes
+  31. _Centronyx_
+  32. _Neocorys_
+  33. _Empidias_
+  34. _Sphyrapicus_
+  35. _Hylatomus_
+  36. _Trochilus_
+  37. _Atthis_
+  38. _Ectopistes_
+  39. _Centrocercus_
+  40. _Pediocætes_
+  41. _Cupidonia_
+    ? Ortyx
+  42. _Oreortyx_
+  43. _Lophortyx_
+  44. Callipepla
+  45. Cyrtonyx
+  46. Meleagris
+  47. _Micrathene_
+
+The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or typically so,
+but entering more or less into the debatable ground of the Neotropical
+region; though none possess any peculiar species in the ancient Neotropical
+land south of Nicaragua. But we have, besides these, a number of genera
+which we are {119}accustomed to consider as typically European, or
+Palæarctic, having representatives in North America; although in many cases
+it would be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera, represented
+in Europe, since America possesses more species than Europe or North Asia.
+The following is a list of genera which have as much right to be considered
+typically Nearctic as Palæarctic:--
+
+   1. Regulus
+   2. Certhia
+   3. Sitta
+   4. Parus
+   5. Lophophanes
+   6. Lanius
+   7. Perisoreus
+   8. Pica
+   9. Corvus
+  10. _Ampelis_
+  11. Loxia
+  12. Pinicola
+  13. Linota
+  14. _Passerelia_
+  15. _Leucosticte_
+  16. _Euspiza_
+  17. _Plectrophanes_
+  18. Tetrao
+  19. Lagopus
+  20. _Nyctala_
+  21. _Archibuteo_
+  22. Haliæetus
+
+The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of Nearctic
+species, and have every right to be considered typically Nearctic; while
+the remainder are so well represented by peculiar species, that it is quite
+possible many of them may have originated here, rather than in the
+Palæarctic region, all alike being quite foreign to the Neotropical.
+
+On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second table,
+making 54 genera which we may fairly class as typically Nearctic, out of a
+total of 168 genera of land-birds, or nearly one-third of the whole. This
+is an amount of peculiarity which is comparable with that of either of the
+less isolated regions; and, combined with the more marked and more
+exclusively peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully
+establishes Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the
+Neotropical and the Palæarctic.
+
+_Reptiles._--Although temperate climates are always comparatively poor in
+reptiles, a considerable number of genera are peculiar to the Nearctic
+region. Of snakes, there are, _Conophis_, _Chilomeniscus_, _Pituophis_, and
+_Ischnognathus_, belonging to the Colubridæ; _Farancia_, and _Dimodes_,
+Homalopsidæ; _Lichanotus_, one of the Pythonidæ; _Cenchris_,
+_Crotalophorus_, _Uropsophorus_, and _Crotalus_, belonging to the Crotalidæ
+or rattlesnakes.
+
+Of Lizards, _Chirotes_, forming a peculiar family; _Ophisaurus_, {120}the
+curious glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuridæ; with _Phrynosoma_ (commonly
+called horned toads), _Callisaurus_, _Uta_, _Euphryne_, _Uma_, and
+_Holbrookia_, genera of Iguanidæ.
+
+Testudinidæ, or Tortoises, show a great development of the genus _Emys_;
+with _Aromochelys_ and _Chelydra_ as peculiar genera.
+
+_Amphibia._--In this class the Nearctic region is very rich, possessing
+representatives of nine of the families, of which two are peculiar to the
+region, and there are no less than fifteen peculiar genera. _Siren_ forms
+the family Sirenidæ; _Menobranchus_ belongs to the Proteidæ; _Amphiuma_ is
+the only representative of the Amphiumidæ; there are nine peculiar genera
+of Salamandridæ. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we have
+_Scaphiopus_, belonging to the Alytidæ; _Pseudacris_ to the Hylidæ; and
+_Acris_ to the Polypedatidæ.
+
+_Fresh-water Fishes._--The Nearctic region possesses no less than five
+peculiar family types, and twenty-four peculiar genera of this class. The
+families are Aphredoderidæ, consisting of a single species found in the
+Eastern States; Percopsidæ, founded on a species peculiar to Lake Superior;
+Heteropygii, containing two genera peculiar to the Eastern States;
+Hyodontidæ and Amiidæ, each consisting of a single species. The genera are
+as follows: _Paralabrax_, found in California; _Huro_, peculiar to Lake
+Huron; _Pileoma_, _Boleosoma_, _Bryttus_ and _Pomotis_ in the Eastern
+States--all belonging to the perch family. _Hypodelus_ and _Noturus_,
+belonging to the Siluridæ. _Thaleichthys_, one of the Salmonidæ peculiar to
+the Columbia river. _Moxostoma_, _Pimephales_, _Hyborhynchus_,
+_Rhinichthys_, in the Eastern States; _Ericymba_, _Exoglossum_,
+_Leucosomus_, and _Carpiodes_, more widely distributed; _Cochlognathus_, in
+Texas; _Mylaphorodon_ and _Orthodon_, in California; _Meda_, in the river
+Gila; and _Acrochilus_, in the Columbia river--all belonging to the
+Cyprinidæ. _Scaphirhynchus_, found only in the Mississippi and its
+tributaries, belongs to the sturgeon family (Accipenseridæ).
+
+_Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata._--The Nearctic region possesses 24
+peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, and 29 of
+fresh-water fishes, making 123 in all. Of these 70 are mammals and
+land-birds, out of a total of 242 {121}genera of these groups, a proportion
+of about two-sevenths. This is the smallest proportion of peculiar genera
+we have found in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of such
+isolated and exceptional forms that they constitute separate families, so
+that we have no less than 12 families of vertebrata confined to the region.
+The Palæarctic region has only 3 peculiar families, and even the Oriental
+region only 12; so that, judged by this test, the Nearctic region is
+remarkably well characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the
+migration of many of its peculiar forms during the Glacial period, it has
+recently lost some of its speciality; and we should therefore give some
+weight to the many characteristic groups it possesses, which, though not
+quite peculiar to it, form important features in its fauna, and help to
+separate it from the other regions with which it has been thought to be
+closely allied. It is thus well distinguished from the Palæarctic region by
+its Procyonidæ, or racoons, _Hesperomys_, or vesper mice, and _Didelphys_,
+or opossums, among Mammalia; by its Vireonidæ, or greenlets, Mniotiltidæ,
+or wood-warblers, Icteridæ, or hang-nests, Tyrannidæ, or tyrant shrikes,
+and Trochilidæ, or humming-birds, among birds, families which, extending to
+its extreme northern limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of
+it as of the Neotropical region; by its Teidæ, Iguanidæ, and _Cinosternum_,
+among reptiles; and by its Siluridæ, and Lepidosteidæ, among fishes. From
+the Neotropical region it is still more clearly separated, by its numerous
+insectivora; by its bears; its Old World forms of ruminants; its beaver;
+its numerous _Arvicolæ_, or voles; its _Sciuropterus_, or flying squirrels;
+_Tamias_, or ground-squirrels; and _Lagomys_, or marmots, among mammals;
+its numerous Paridæ, or tits, and Tetraonidæ, or grouse, among birds; its
+Trionychidæ among reptiles; its Proteidæ, and Salamandridæ, among Amphibia;
+and its Gasterosteidæ, Atherinidæ, Esocidæ, Umbridæ, Accipenseridæ, and
+Polydontidæ, among fishes.
+
+These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the absolutely
+peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that the Nearctic region
+cannot with propriety be combined with {122}any other. Though not very
+rich, and having many disadvantages of climate and of physical condition,
+it is yet sufficiently well characterized in its zoological features to
+rank as one of the well-marked primary divisions of the earth's surface.
+
+There is one other consideration bearing on this question which should not
+be lost sight of. In establishing our regions we have depended wholly upon
+their _now_ possessing a sufficient number and variety of animal forms, and
+a fair proportion of peculiar types; but when the validity of our
+conclusion on these grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by
+an appeal to the past history of the region in question. In this case we
+find a remarkable support to our views. During the whole Tertiary period,
+North America was, zoologically, far more strongly contrasted with South
+America than it is now; while, during the same long series of ages, it was
+always clearly separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palæarctic
+region by the exclusive possession of important families and numerous
+genera of Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct fauna in Chapter
+VII. Not only may we claim North America as now forming one of the great
+zoological regions, but as having continued to be one ever since the Eocene
+period.
+
+
+_Insects._
+
+In describing the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, many of the
+peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been incidentally
+referred to; and as a tolerably full account of the distribution of the
+several families is given in the Fourth Part of our work (Chapter XXI.), we
+shall treat the subject very briefly here.
+
+_Lepidoptera._--The butterflies of the Nearctic region have lately been
+studied with much assiduity, and we are now able to form some idea of their
+nature and extent. Nearly 500 species belonging to about 100 genera have
+been described; showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought
+to be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than
+Europe, and probably about as rich as the more extensive Palæarctic region.
+There is, however, very little speciality in the {123}forms. A considerable
+number of Neotropical types enter the southern States; but there are hardly
+any peculiar genera, except one of the Lycænidæ and perhaps a few among the
+Hesperidæ, The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of
+Papilios, belonging to types (_P. turnus_ and _P. troilus_) which are
+characteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palæarctic region in
+some genera which we are accustomed to consider as pre-eminently European;
+such as _Argynnis_, _Melitæa_, _Grapta_, _Chionabas_, and a few others.
+Still, we must acknowledge, that if we formed our conclusions from the
+butterflies alone, we could hardly separate the Nearctic from the
+Palæarctic region. This identity probably dates from the Miocene period;
+for when our existing arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation,
+butterflies would have been plentiful; and as the cold came on, these would
+move southwards both in America and Europe, and, owing to the long
+continuance of the generic types of insects, would remain little modified
+till now.
+
+_Coleoptera._--Only a few indications can be given of the peculiarities of
+the Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelidæ the region possesses, besides the
+cosmopolite _Cicindela_, four other genera, two of which--_Amblychile_ and
+_Omus_--are peculiar to the West Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Of Carabidæ
+it possesses _Dicælus_, _Pasimachus_, _Eurytrichus_, _Sphæroderus_,
+_Pinacodera_, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it;
+_Helluomorpha_, _Galerita_, _Callida_, and _Tetragonoderus_, in common with
+South America; and a large number of characteristic European forms.
+
+The Lucanidæ are all of European types. The region is poor in Cetoniidæ,
+but has representatives of the South American _Euphoria_, as well as of
+four European genera. Of Buprestidæ it has the South American _Actenodes_;
+a single species of the Ethiopian and Eastern _Belionota_, in California;
+and about a dozen other genera of European and wide distribution.
+
+Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera, representatives
+of five Neotropical, and thirteen Palæarctic genera; as well as many of
+wider distribution. _Prionus_ is the chief representative of the Prionidæ;
+_Leptura_ and _Crossidius_ of the {124}Cerambycidæ; _Leptostylus_,
+_Liopus_, _Graphidurus_, and _Tetraopes_, of the Lamiidæ, the latter genus
+being confined to the region.
+
+
+_Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca._
+
+The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong to the
+Inoperculate or Pulmoniferous division; the Operculata being represented
+only by a few species of _Helicina_ and _Truncatella_, chiefly in the
+Southern States. According to Mr. Binney's recent "Catalogue of the
+Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of North America," the fauna consists of
+the following genera:--_Glandina_ (6 sp.); _Macrocyclis_ (5 sp.); _Zonites_
+(37 sp.); _Vitrina_ (4 sp.); _Limax_ (5 sp.); _Arion_ (3 sp.); _Ariolimax_
+(3 sp.); _Prophysaon_ (1 sp.); _Binneia_ (1 sp.); _Hemiphillia_ (1 sp.);
+_Patula_ (16 sp.); _Helix_ (80); _Holospira_ (2 sp.); _Cylindrella_ (2
+sp.); _Macroceramus_ (2 sp.); _Bulimulus_ (8 sp.); _Cionella_ (2 sp.);
+_Stenogyra_ (4 sp.); _Pupa_ (19 sp.); _Strophia_ (1 sp.); _Vertigo_ (6
+sp.); _Liguus_ (1 sp.); _Orthalicus_ (2 sp.); _Punctum_ (1 sp.); _Succinea_
+(26 sp.); _Tebennophorus_ (1 sp.); _Pallifera_ (1 sp.); _Veronicella_ (2
+sp.).
+
+All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the following have a
+more restricted distribution; _Macrocyclis_ has only one species in the
+East, the rest being Californian or Central; _Ariolimax_, _Prophysaon_,
+_Binneia_, and _Hemiphillia_, are confined to the Western sub-region. Lower
+California has affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of
+which two are true _Bulimi_, a genus unknown in other parts of the region.
+The Central or Rocky Mountain sub-region is chiefly characterised by six
+peculiar species of _Patula_. The Eastern sub-region is by far the richest,
+nine-tenths of the whole number of species being found in it. The Alleghany
+Mountains form the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly
+half the total number of species, and at least 24 species found nowhere
+else. The southern States have also several peculiar species, but they are
+not so productive as the Alleghanies. The Canadian sub-region possesses 32
+species, of which nearly half are northern forms more or less common to the
+whole Arctic regions, and several of this character have spread southwards
+all {125}over the United States. Species of _Vitrina_, _Zonites_, _Pupa_,
+and _Succinea_, are found in Greenland; and Eastern Palæarctic species of
+_Vitrina_, _Patula_, and _Pupa_ occur in Alaska. More than 30 species of
+shells living in the Eastern States, are found fossil in the Post-Pliocene
+deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi.
+
+_Fresh-water Shells._--North America surpasses every other part of the
+globe in the number and variety of its fresh-water mollusca, both univalve
+and bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as follows:--Melaniadæ, 380
+species; Paludinidæ, 58 species; Cycladidæ, 44 species; and Unionidæ, 552
+species. The last family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874,
+according to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study; but it is
+probable that many of these are such as would be considered varieties by
+most conchologists. Many of the species of _Unio_ are very large, of varied
+forms, and rich internal colouring, and the group forms a prominent feature
+of the Nearctic fauna. By far the larger proportion of the fresh-water
+shells inhabit the Eastern or Alleghany sub-region; and their great
+development is a powerful argument against any recent extensive submergence
+beneath the ocean of the lowlands of North America.
+
+
+_The Nearctic Sub-regions._
+
+The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty clearly indicated
+by physical features and peculiarities of climate and vegetation, are by no
+means so strongly marked out in their zoology as we might expect. The same
+genera, as a rule, extend over the whole region; while the species of the
+several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast range of the
+Rocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier against this wide
+dispersal of the same forms of life; and although some important groups are
+limited by it, these are exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile
+valleys and plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either
+side; and both to the north and south there are passes which can be freely
+traversed by most animals during the summer. Previous to the glacial epoch
+there was probably a warm period, when every part of the range supported an
+abundant and varied {126}fauna, which, when the cold period arrived, would
+descend to the lowlands, and people the country to the east, west, and
+south, with similar forms of life.
+
+The first, and most important sub-division we can make, consists of the
+Eastern United States, extending across the Mississippi and the more
+fertile prairies, to about the 100°th. meridian of west longitude, where
+the arid and almost desert country commences. Southwards, the boundary
+bends towards the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To
+the north the limits are undefined; but as a considerable number of species
+and genera occur in the United States but not in Canada, it will be
+convenient to draw the line somewhere near the boundary of the two
+countries, except that the district between lakes Huron and Ontario, and
+probably Nova Scotia, may be included in the present sub-region. As far
+west as the Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country; and it
+is still well wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant vegetation.
+
+The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated, and often
+arid district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great plateaus, and the
+barren plains of its eastern slope; extending northwards to near the
+commencement of the great forests north of the Saskatchewan, and southward
+to the Rio Grande del Norte, the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas,
+as shown on our maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert
+character, although the higher valleys of the Rocky Mountains are often
+well wooded, and in these are found some northern and some western types.
+
+The third, or Californian sub-region, is small, but very luxuriant,
+occupying the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Sierra
+Nevada and the Pacific. To the north it may include Vancouver's Island and
+the southern part of British Columbia, while to the south it extends to the
+head of the Gulf of California.
+
+The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America; and is a
+country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards the Arctic Ocean. It
+has fewer peculiar species to characterise it than any other, but it
+possesses several characteristic arctic {127}forms, while many of those
+peculiar to the south are absent; so that it is a very convenient, if it
+should not be considered an altogether natural, sub-region.
+
+We will now give an outline of the most important zoological features of
+each of these divisions, taking them in the order in which they are
+arranged in the Fourth Part of this work. California comes first, as it has
+some tropical forms not found elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from
+the Neotropical region.
+
+
+_I. The Western or Californian Sub-region._
+
+This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly favourable
+climate, and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps the richest portion
+of the continent, both zoologically and botanically. Its winters are far
+milder than those of the Eastern States in corresponding latitudes; and
+this, perhaps, has enabled it to support several tropical forms which give
+a special character to its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region,
+that bats of the families Phyllostomidæ and Noctilionidæ, and a serpent of
+the tropical family, Pythonidæ, are found, as well as several Neotropical
+forms of birds and reptiles.
+
+_Mammalia._--The following genera are not found in any other part of the
+Nearctic region. _Macrotus_ (Phyllostomidæ), one species in California;
+_Antrozous_ (Vespertilionidæ), one species on the West Coast; _Urotrichus_
+(Talpidæ) one species in British Columbia; sub-genus _Nesorex_ (Soricidæ),
+one species in Oregon; _Bassaris_ (Procyonidæ), California; _Enhydra_
+(Mustelidæ), Pacific Coast; _Morunga_ (Phocidæ), California; _Haploodon_
+(Haploodontidæ) a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and
+constituting a peculiar family found only in California and British
+Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms also extend into this
+sub-region:--_Taxidea_, _Procyon_, _Didelphys_, _Sciuropterus_, _Tamias_,
+_Spermophilus_, _Dipodomys_, _Perognathus_, _Jaculus_.
+
+_Birds._--Few genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub-region, since
+most of the Western forms extend into the central district, yet it has a
+few. _Glaucidium_, a genus of Owls, is confined {128}(in the Nearctic
+region) to California; _Chamæa_, a singular form allied to the wrens, and
+forming a distinct family, is quite peculiar; _Geococcyx_, a Neotropical
+form of cuckoo, extends to California and Southern Texas. The following
+genera are very characteristic of the sub-region, and some of them almost
+confined to it: _Myiadestes_ (Sylviidæ); _Psaltriparus_ (Paridæ);
+_Cyanocitta_, _Picicorvus_ (Corvidæ); _Hesperiphona_, _Peucæa_,
+_Chondestes_ (Fringillidæ); _Selasphorus_, _Atthis_ (Trochilidæ);
+_Columba_, _Melopelia_ (Columbidæ); _Oreortyx_ (Tetraonidæ).
+
+_Reptiles._--The following genera are not found in any other part of the
+Nearctic region: _Charina_ (Tortricidæ); _Lichanotus_ (Pythonidæ);
+_Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ); _Phyllodactylus_ (Geckotidæ); _Anolius_ and
+_Tropidolepis_ (Iguanidæ). _Sceloporus_ (Iguanidæ) is only found elsewhere
+in Florida. All the larger North American groups of lizards and snakes are
+also represented here; but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the
+absence of lakes and large rivers.
+
+_Amphibia._--California possesses two genera of Salamandridæ, _Aneides_ and
+_Heredia_, which do not extend to the other sub-regions.
+
+_Fresh-water Fish._--There are two or three peculiar genera of Cyprinidæ,
+but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this group.
+
+_Plate XVIII. Illustrative of the Zoology of California and the Rocky
+Mountains._--We have chosen for the subject of this illustration, the
+peculiar Birds of the Western mountains. The two birds in the foreground
+are a species of grouse (_Pediocætes Columbianus_), entirely confined to
+this sub-region; while the only other species of the genus is found in the
+prairies north and west of Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to
+northern and western America. The crested birds in the middle of the
+picture (_Oreortyx picta_), are partridges, belonging to the American
+sub-family Odontophorinæ. This is the only species of the genus which is
+confined to California and Oregon. The bird at the top is the blue crow
+(_Gymnokitta cyanocephala_), confined to the Rocky Mountains and Sierra
+Nevada from New Mexico and Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging
+to the Central sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker; but
+according to the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resemblances
+to the jays, and certainly forms a distinct genus. The grizzly bear (_Ursus
+ferox_) in the background, is one of the characteristic animals of the
+Californian highlands.
+
+
+
+Plate XVIII.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.
+
+
+{129}_II. The Central, or Rocky Mountain Sub-region._
+
+This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from 2,000
+to 5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid; and, except in the
+immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the higher slopes of the
+mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Its zoology is therefore peculiar.
+Many of the most characteristic genera and families of the Eastern States
+are absent; while a number of curious desert and alpine forms give it a
+character of its own, and render it very interesting to the naturalist.
+
+_Mammalia._--The remarkable prong-horned antelope (_Antilocapra_), the
+mountain goat (_Aplocerus_), the mountain sheep or bighorn (_Ovis
+montana_), and the prairie-dog (_Cynomys_), one of the Rodentia, are
+peculiar to this sub-region; while the family of the Saccomyidæ, or pouched
+rats, is represented by many forms and is very characteristic. Here is also
+the chief home of the bison. The glutton (_Gulo_) and marmot (_Lagomys_)
+enter it from the north; while it has the racoon (_Procyon_), flying
+squirrel (_Sciuropterus_), ground squirrel (_Tamias_), pouched marmot
+(_Spermophilus_) and jumping mouse (_Jaculus_) in common with the countries
+east or west of it.
+
+_Plate XIX. Illustrative of the Zoology of the Central Plains or
+Prairies._--We here introduce four of the most characteristic mammalia of
+the great American plains or prairies, three of them being types confined
+to North America. The graceful animals on the left are the prong-horned
+antelopes (_Antilocapra americana_), whose small horns, though hollow like
+those of the antelopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the
+right we have the prairie-dogs of the trappers (_Cynomys ludovicianus_)
+which, as will be easily seen, are rodents, and allied to the marmots of
+the European Alps. Their burrows are numerous on the prairies, and the
+manner in which they perch {130}themselves on little mounds and gaze on
+intruders, is noticed by all travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is
+one of the extraordinary pouched rats of America (_Geomys bursarius_).
+These are burrowing animals, feeding on roots; and the mouth is, as it
+were, double, the outer portion very wide and hairy, behind which is the
+small inner mouth. Its use may be to keep out the earth from the mouth
+while the animal is gnawing roots. A mouth so constructed is found in no
+other animals but in these North American rats. In the distance is a herd
+of bisons (_Bison americanus_), the typical beast of the prairies.
+
+_Birds._--This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds, both residents,
+and migrants from the south or north. Among the peculiar resident species
+we may probably reckon a dipper, (_Cinclus_); _Salpinctes_, one of the
+wrens; _Poospiza_, _Calamospiza_, genera of finches; _Picicorvus_,
+_Gymnokitta_, genera of the crow family; _Centrocercus_ and _Pediocætes_,
+genera of grouse. As winter migrants from the north it has _Leucosticte_
+and _Plectrophanes_, genera of finches; _Perisoreus_, a genus of the crow
+family; _Picoides_, the Arctic woodpecker; and _Lagopus_, ptarmigan. Its
+summer migrants, many of which may be resident in the warmer districts, are
+more numerous. Such are, _Oreoscoptes_, a genus of thrushes;
+_Campylorhynchus_ and _Catherpes_, wrens; _Paroides_, one of the tits;
+_Phænopepla_, allied to the waxwing; _Embernagra_ and _Spermophila_, genera
+of finches; _Pyrocephalus_, one of the tyrant shrikes; _Callipepla_ and
+_Cyrtonyx_, American partridges. Besides these, the more widely spread
+genera, _Harporhynchus_, _Lophophanes_, _Carpodacus_, _Spizella_, and
+_Cyanocitta_, are characteristic of the central district, and two genera of
+humming-birds--_Atthis_ and _Selasphorus_--only occur here and in
+California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are represented by
+distinct allied species in the western, central, and eastern divisions of
+the United States, corresponding to our sub-regions.
+
+
+
+Plate XIX.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE AMERICAN PRAIRIES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.
+
+{131}It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should extend
+across the Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas, at the southern
+extremity of the peninsula, should be decidedly more "Central" than
+"Californian" in its ornithology. Prof. Baird says, that its fauna is
+almost identical with that of the Gila River, and has hardly any relation
+to that of Upper California. It possesses a considerable number (about
+twenty) of peculiar species of birds, but all belong to genera
+characteristic of the present sub-region; and there is no resemblance to
+the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the Neotropical region.
+
+_Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes._--A large number of snakes and lizards
+inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet been classified with
+sufficient precision to enable us to make much use of them. Among lizards,
+Iguanidæ, Geckotidæ, Scincidæ, and Zonuridæ, appear to be numerous; and
+many new genera of doubtful value have been described. Among snakes,
+Calamariidæ, Colubridæ, and Crotalidæ are represented. Among Amphibia,
+_Siredon_, one of the Proteidæ, is peculiar. The rivers and lakes of the
+Great Central Basin, and the Colorado River, contain many peculiar forms of
+Cyprinidæ.
+
+
+_III. The Eastern or Alleghany Sub-region._
+
+This sub-region contains examples of all that is most characteristic of
+Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undulating or mountainous
+forest-clad country, with a warm or temperate climate, but somewhat extreme
+in character, and everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable life. To the
+west, across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open, gradually
+rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid plains of the
+central sub-region. To the south, in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana, a
+sub-tropical climate prevails, and winter is almost unknown. To the north,
+in Michigan and New England, the winters are very severe, and streams and
+lakes are frozen for months together. These different climates, however,
+produce little effect on the forms of animal life; the species to some
+extent change as we go from north to south, but the same types everywhere
+prevail. This portion of the United States, having been longest inhabited
+by Europeans, has been more thoroughly explored than other parts of North
+America; and to this more complete knowledge its superior zoological
+richness {132}may be to some extent due; but there can be little doubt that
+it is also positively, and not merely relatively, more productive in varied
+forms of animal life than either of the other sub-regions.
+
+_Mammalia._--There seems to be only one genus absolutely peculiar to this
+sub-region--the very remarkable _Condylura_, or star-nosed mole, only found
+from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, and as far as about 94° west longitude.
+It also has opossums (_Didelphys_) in common with California, and three out
+of four species of _Scalops_, a genus of moles; as well as the skunk
+(_Mephitis_), American badger (_Taxidea_), racoon (_Procyon_), pouched rat
+(_Geomys_), beaver rat (_Fiber_), jumping mouse (_Jaculus_), tree porcupine
+(_Erethizon_), and other characteristic Nearctic forms.
+
+_Birds._--The birds of this sub-region have been carefully studied by
+American naturalists, and many interesting facts ascertained as to their
+distribution and migrations. About 120 species of birds are peculiar to the
+east coast of the United States, but only about 30 of these are residents
+all the year round in any part of it; the bird population being essentially
+a migratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south in summer.
+The largest number of species seems to be congregated in the district of
+the Alleghany mountains. A considerable proportion of the passerine birds
+winter in Central America and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle
+States or Canada to breed; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do
+not possess many birds which may be called permanent residents. Thus, in
+East Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in the district of Columbia 54
+species, found all the year round, out of about 130 which breed in these
+localities; very much below the number which permanently reside in Great
+Britain.
+
+This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive possession of
+_Ectopistes_, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose enormous flocks and
+breeding places have been so often described; and _Cupidonia_, a remarkable
+genus of grouse. The only Nearctic parrot, _Conurus carolinensis_, is found
+in the Southern States; as well as _Crotophaga_, a South American genus
+usually associated with the cuckoos. _Helmintherus_ and {133}_Oporornis_,
+genera of wood-warblers, may be considered to be peculiar to this
+sub-region, since in each case only one of the two species migrates as far
+as Central America; while two other genera of the same family, _Siurus_ and
+_Setophaga_, as well as the finch genus, _Euspiza_, do not extend to either
+of the western sub-regions. _Parus_, a genus of tits, comes into the
+district from the north; _Otocorys_, an alpine lark, and _Coturniculus_, an
+American finch, from the west; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as
+_Antrostomus_ (the whip-poor-will goatsuckers); _Helminthophaga_,
+_Dendræca_, and _Myiodioctes_ (wood-warblers); _Vireo_ (greenlets);
+_Dolichonyx_ (rice-bird); _Quiscalus_ (troupial); _Meleagris_ (turkey); and
+_Ortyx_ (American partridge), are wide-spread and abundant. In Mr. J. A.
+Allen's elaborate and interesting paper on the birds of eastern North
+America, he enumerates 32 species which breed only in the more temperate
+portions of this province, and may therefore be considered to be especially
+characteristic of it. These belong to the following genera:--_Turdus_,
+_Galeoscoptes_, _Harporhynchus_, _Sialia_, _Dendræca_, _Wilsonia_,
+_Pyranga_, _Vireo_, _Lanivireo_, _Lophophanes_, _Coturniculus_,
+_Ammodromus_, _Spizella_, _Euspiza_, _Hedymeles_, _Cyanospiza_, _Pipilo_,
+_Cardinalis_, _Icterus_, _Corvus_, _Centurus_, _Melanerpes_, _Antrostomus_,
+_Coccyzus_, _Ortyx_, and _Cupidonia_.
+
+_Reptiles._--In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing many
+peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region. Among snakes it has
+the genera _Farancia_ and _Dimodes_ belonging to the fresh-water snakes
+(Homalopsidæ); the South American genus _Elaps_; and 3 genera of
+rattlesnakes, _Cenchris_, _Crotalophorus_, and _Crotalus_. The following
+genera of snakes are said to occur in the State of New York:--_Coluber_,
+_Tropidonotus_, _Leptophis_, _Calamaria_, _Heterodon_, _Trigonocephalus_,
+_Crotalus_, _Psammophis_, _Helicops_, _Rhinostoma_, _Pituophis_, and
+_Elaps_.
+
+Among lizards, _Chirotes_, forming a peculiar family of Amphisbenians,
+inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable glass-snake,
+_Ophisaurus_, belonging to the family Zonuridæ, is peculiar to the Southern
+States; and the South American _Sphærodactylus_, one of the gecko family,
+reaches Florida. Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New
+{134}York are, _Scincus_, _Tropidolepis_, _Plestiodon_, _Lygosoma_,
+_Ameiva_, and _Phrynosoma_.
+
+Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abundant; and the
+genera _Aromochelys_, _Chelydra_, _Terrapene_, and _Trionyx_, are nearly,
+if not quite, confined to this division of the region.
+
+_Amphibia._--Almost all the remarkable forms of Urodela, or tailed
+batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such as _Siren_
+and _Pseudobranchus_, constituting the family Sirenidæ; _Menobranchus_,
+allied to the _Proteus_ of Europe; _Amphiuma_, an eel-like creature with
+four rudimentary feet, constituting the family Amphiumidæ; _Notopthalmus_,
+_Desmognathus_, and _Menopoma_, belonging to the Salamandridæ; together
+with several other genera of wider range. Of Anura, or tail-less
+batrachians, there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of
+toads, _Engystoma_, extends as far as South Carolina.
+
+_Fishes._--Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the great lakes,
+almost all the peculiar forms of North American fishes are confined to this
+sub-region. Such are _Perca_, _Pileoma_, _Huro_, _Bryttus_, and _Pomotis_
+(Percidæ); the families Aphredoderidæ and Percopsidæ; several genera of
+Cyprinodontidæ and Cyprinidæ; and the family Polydontidæ.
+
+
+_Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region._
+
+_The Bermudas._--These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about 700 miles
+from the coast of Carolina, are chiefly interesting for the proof they
+afford of the power of a great variety of birds to cross so wide an extent
+of ocean. There are only 6 or 8 species of birds which are permanent
+residents on the islands, all common North American species; while no less
+than 140 species have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are
+stragglers, many only noticed once; others appear frequently and in great
+numbers, but very few, perhaps not a dozen, come every year, and can be
+considered regular migrants. The permanent residents are, a greenlet
+(_Vireo noveboracensis)_, the catbird (_Galeoscoptes carolinensis_), the
+blue bird (_Sialia sialis_), the cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), the
+American crow (_Corvus {135}americanus_), and the ground dove (_Chamæpelia
+passerina_). The most regular visitants are a kingfisher (_Ceryle alcyon_),
+the wood-wagtail (_Siurus noveboracensis_), the rice-bird (_Dolichonyx
+oryzivorus_), and a moorhen (_Gallinula galeata_). Besides the American
+species, four European birds have been taken at the Bermudas: _Saxicola
+oenanthe_, _Alauda arvensis_ (perhaps introduced), _Crex pratensis_, and
+_Scolopax gallinago_.
+
+A common American lizard, _Plestiodon longirostris_, is the only land
+reptile found on the islands.
+
+
+_IV. The Sub-Arctic or Canadian Sub-region._
+
+This sub-region serves to connect together the other three, since they all
+merge gradually into it; while to the north it passes into the circumpolar
+zone which is common to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The greater
+portion of it is an extensive forest-district, mostly of coniferæ; and
+where these cease towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar
+ocean. It possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as
+the glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the more
+southern sub-regions; as well as the polar bear and arctic fox; but it also
+has some peculiar forms, and many of the most characteristic Nearctic
+types. The remarkable musk-sheep (_Ovibos_) is confined to this sub-region,
+ranging over a considerable extent of country north of the forests, as well
+as Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the
+Post-pliocene epoch. Such purely Nearctic genera as _Procyon_, _Latax_,
+_Erethizon_, _Jaculus_, _Fiber_, _Thomomys_, and _Hesperomys_, abound, many
+of them ranging to the shores of Hudson's Bay and the barren wastes of
+northern Labrador. Others, such as _Blarina_, _Condylura_, and _Mephitis_,
+are found only in Nova Scotia and various parts of Canada. About 20 species
+of Mammalia seem to be peculiar to this sub-region.
+
+_Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada._--We have here a group of
+Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the colder parts of the United
+States. Conspicuous in the foreground is the skunk (_Mephitis mephitica_),
+belonging to a genus of the weasel family found only in America. This
+animal is {136}celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive
+liquid, the odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal
+animals, and are generally marked, as in the species represented, with
+conspicuous bands and patches of white. This enables them to be easily seen
+at night, and thus serves to warn larger animals not to attack them. To the
+left is the curious little jumping mouse (_Jaculus hudsonius_), the
+American representative of the Palæarctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the
+left is the tree porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), belonging to the family
+Cercolabidæ, which represents, on the American continent, the porcupines of
+the Old World. In the background is the elk or moose (_Alces americanus_),
+perhaps identical with the European elk, and the most striking inhabitant
+of the northern forests of America, as the bison is of the prairies.
+
+_Birds._--Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few resident
+birds, the numbers which breed in it are perhaps greater than in the other
+sub-regions, because a large number of circumpolar species are found here
+exclusively. From a comparison of Mr. Allen's tables it appears, that more
+than 200 species are regular migrants to Canada in the breeding season, and
+nearly half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a
+considerable number of genera of the American families Tyrannidæ and
+Mniotiltidæ, as well as the American genera _Sialia_, _Progne_, _Vireo_,
+_Cistothorus_, _Junco_, _Pipilo_, _Zonotrichia_, _Spizella_, _Melospiza_,
+_Molothrus_, _Agelæus_, _Cyanura_, _Sphyrapicus_, and many others; so that
+the ornithology of these northern regions is still mainly Nearctic in
+character. Besides these, it has such specially northern forms as _Surnia_
+(Strigidæ); _Picoides_ (Picidæ); _Pinicola_ (Fringillidæ); as well as
+_Leucosticte_, _Plectrophanes_, _Perisoreus_, and _Lagopus_, which extend
+further south, especially in the middle sub-region. No less than 212
+species of birds have been collected in the new United States territory of
+Alaska (formerly Russian America), where a humming-bird (_Selasphorus
+rufus_) breeds. The great majority of these are typically American,
+including such forms as _Colaptes_, _Helminthophaga_, _Siurus_, _Dendræca_,
+_Myiodioctes_, _Passerculus_, _Zonotrichia_, _Junco_, _Spizella_,
+_Melospizpa_, _Passerella_, _Scoleophagas_, _Pediocetes_, and _Bonasa_;
+together with many northern birds common to both continents. Yet a few
+Palæarctic forms, not known in other parts of the sub-region, appear here.
+These are _Budytes flava_, _Phylloscopus kennicottii_, and _Pyrrhula
+coccinea_, all belonging to genera not occurring elsewhere in North
+America. Considering the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and
+the high probability that there was an actual land connection at, and south
+of, Behring's Straits, in late Tertiary times, it is somewhat remarkable
+that the admixture of Palæarctic and Nearctic groups is not greater than it
+is. The Palæarctic element, however, forms so small apportion of the whole
+fauna, that it may be satisfactorily accounted for by the establishment of
+immigrants since the Glacial period. The great interest felt by
+ornithologists in the discovery of the three genera above-named, with a
+wren allied to a European species, is an indication that the faunas even of
+the northern parts of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions are, as regards
+birds, radically distinct. It may be mentioned that the birds of the
+Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known, almost wholly Nearctic. The
+number of land-birds known from Alaska is 77; and from the Aleutian Isles
+16 species, all of which, except one, are North American.
+
+
+
+Plate XX.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.
+
+{137}_Reptiles._--These are comparatively few and unimportant. There are
+however five snakes and three tortoises which are limited to Canada proper;
+while further north there are only Amphibia, represented by frogs and
+toads, and a salamander of the genus _Plethodon_.
+
+_Fishes._--Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic region
+are represented here, especially those of the perch, salmon, and pike
+families; but there seem to be few or no peculiar genera.
+
+_Insects._--These are far less numerous than in the more temperate
+districts, but are still tolerably abundant. In Canada there are 53 species
+of butterflies, viz., Papilionidæ, 4; Pieridæ, 2; Nymphalidæ, 21; Satyridæ,
+3; Lycænidæ 16, and Hesperidæ 7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly
+in the southern parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is
+shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the {138}shores of
+Lake Superior; 177 being Geodephaga and 39 Longicorns.
+
+_Greenland._--This great arctic island must be considered as belonging to
+the Nearctic region, since of its six land mammals, three are exclusively
+American (_Myodes torquatus_, _Lepus glacialis_, and _Ovibos moschatus_),
+while the other three (_Vulpes lagopus_, _Ursus maritimus_, and _Rangifer
+tarandus_) are circumpolar. Only fourteen land-birds are either resident
+in, or regular migrants to the country; and of these two are European
+(_Haliæetus albicilla_, and _Falco peregrinus_), while three are American
+(_Anthus ludovicianus_, _Zonotrichia leucophrys_, and _Lagopus rupestris_),
+the rest being arctic species common to both continents. The waders and
+aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between both continents;
+but the land-birds which visit Greenland as stragglers are mostly American.
+Yet although the Nearctic element somewhat preponderates, Greenland really
+belongs to that circumpolar debateable land, which is common to the two
+North Temperate regions.
+
+
+
+_Concluding remarks._--We have already discussed pretty fully, though
+somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the Nearctic region;
+first in our chapter on Zoological regions, then in our review of extinct
+faunas, and lastly in the earlier part of this chapter. It will not
+therefore be necessary to go further into the question here; but we shall,
+in our next chapter, give a brief summary of the general conclusions we
+have reached as to the past history and mutual zoological relations of all
+the great divisions of the earth.
+
+
+{139}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.
+
+In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of
+animals in the Nearctic region, the following sources of information have
+been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs,
+and catalogues used in the compilation of the 4th Part of this work.
+
+_Mammalia._--Professor Baird's Catalogue; Allen's List of the Bats; Mr.
+Lord's List for British Columbia; Brown, for Greenland; Packard for
+Labrador.
+
+_Birds._--Baird, Cassin, and Allen's Lists for United States; Richardson's
+Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; and papers by Brown, Coues,
+Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor Newton.
+
+
+{140}TABLE I.
+
+_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION._
+
+EXPLANATION.
+
+  Names in _italics_ show the families which are peculiar to the region.
+
+  Names inclosed thus (......) show families which barely enter the region,
+  and are not considered properly to belong to it.
+
+  Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.
+
+  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
+                       | Sub-regions       |
+                       | 1=California.     |
+    Order and Family   | 2=Rocky Mntns.    |   Range beyond the Region.
+                       | 3=Alleghanies.    |
+                       | 4=Canada.         |
+  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
+                       | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. |
+  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  MAMMALIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  CHIROPTERA.          |    |    |    |    |
+  10. Phyllostomidæ    | -- |    |    |    | Neotropical
+  12. Vespertilionidæ  | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  13. Noctilionidæ     | -- |    |    |    | Tropical regions
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  INSECTIVORA.         |    |    |    |    |
+  21. Talpidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+  22. Soricidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere, excl.
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australia
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CARNIVORA.           |    |    |    |    |
+  23. Felidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian
+  28. Canidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian
+  29. Mustelidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian
+  30. Procyonidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+  32. Ursidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental
+  33. Otariidæ         | -- |    |    | -- | N. and S. temperate zones
+  34. Trichechidæ      |    |    |    | -- | Arctic regions
+  35. Phocidæ          | -- |    |    | -- | N. and S. temperate zones
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CETACEA.             |    |    |    |    |
+  36 to 41.            |    |    |    |    | Oceanic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  UNGULATA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  47. Suidæ            |    |    | -- |    | All other continents but
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australia
+  50. Cervidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian and
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
+  52. Bovidæ           | -- | -- |    | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, Oriental
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  RODENTIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  55. Muridæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+  57. Dipodidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Ethiopian
+  59. _Saccomyidæ_     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Mexican sub-region
+  60. Castoridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+  61. Sciuridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+  62. _Haploodontidæ_  | -- |    |    |    |
+  66. Cercolabidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+  69. Lagomyidæ        |    | -- |    | -- | Palæarctic
+  70. Leporidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  MARSUPIALIA.         |    |    |    |    |
+  76. Didelphyidæ      | -- |    | -- |    | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  BIRDS.               |    |    |    |    |
+  PASSERES.            |    |    |    |    |
+   1. Turdidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   2. Sylviidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   5. Cinclidæ         |    | -- |    | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental, Andes
+   6. Troglodytidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+   7. _Chamæidæ_       | -- |    |    |    |
+   8. Certhiidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
+   9. Sittidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
+  10. Paridæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere
+  19. Laniidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere
+  20. Corvidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  26. (Coerebidæ)      |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical family
+  27. Mniotiltidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+  28. Vireonidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+  29. Ampelidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Antilles, Guatemala
+  30. Hirundinidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  31. Icteridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+  32. Tanagridæ        |    | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
+  33. Fringillidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+  37. Alaudidæ         |    | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Neotropical
+  38. Motacillidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  39. Tyrannidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PICARIÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
+  51. Picidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+  58. Cuculidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Almost cosmopolite
+  67. Alcedinidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  73. Caprimulgidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  74. Cypselidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+  75. Trochilidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PSITTACI.            |    |    |    |    |
+  80. Conuridæ         |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  COLUMBÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
+  84. Columbidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  GALLINÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
+  87. Tetraonidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+  88. Phasianidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Palæarctic, Oriental,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Ethiopian, Honduras
+  91. (Cracidæ)        |    | -- |    |    | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  ACCIPITRES.          |    |    |    |    |
+  94. Vulturidæ        | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+  96. Falconidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  97. Pandionidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  98. Strigidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  GRALLÆ.              |    |    |    |    |
+  99. Rallidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  100. Scolopacidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  105. Charadriidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  107. Gruidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Neotropical
+  113. Ardeidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  114. Plataleidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+  115. Ciconiidæ       |    |    | -- |    | All the regions
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  ANSERES.             |    |    |    |    |
+  118. Anatidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  119. Laridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  120. Procellariidæ   | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  121. Pelecanidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  123. Colymbidæ       |    |    |    | -- | North temperate and arctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |   zones
+  124. Podicipidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  125. Alcidæ          | -- |    |    | -- | North temperate and arctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |   zones
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  REPTILIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  OPHIDIA.             |    |    |    |    |
+   5. Calamariidæ      | -- | -- | -- |    | All the regions
+   6. Oligodontidæ     |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical, Oriental, Japan
+   7. Colubridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+   8. Homalopsidæ      |    |    | -- |    | All the regions
+  17. Pythonidæ        | -- |    |    |    | All tropical regions
+  20. Elapidæ          |    |    | -- |    | All tropical regions, Japan
+  24. Crotalidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical, Palæarctic,
+                       |    |    |    |    |   Oriental
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  LACERTILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
+  27. _Chirotidæ_      |    | -- | -- |    | Mexico
+  32. Teidæ            | -- | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
+  34. Zonuridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+  35. Chalcidæ         |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
+  45. Scincidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Almost cosmopolite
+  49. Geckotidæ        | -- | -- | -- |    | Almost cosmopolite
+  50. Iguanidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CROCODILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
+  56. Alligatoridæ     |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  CHELONIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  57. Testudinidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australian
+  59. Trionychidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Ethiopian, Oriental, Japan
+  60. Cheloniidæ       |    |    |    |    | Marine
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  AMPHIBIA.            |    |    |    |    |
+  URODELA.             |    |    |    |    |
+   2. _Sirenidæ_       |    |    | -- |    |
+   3. Proteidæ         |    |    | -- |    | Palæarctic
+   4. _Amphiumidæ_     |    |    | -- |    |
+   5. Menopomidæ       |    |    | -- |    | Palæarctic
+   6. Salamandridæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Andes, Palæarctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  ANOURA.              |    |    |    |    |
+  10. Bufonidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australia
+  12. Engystomidæ      |    |    | -- |    | All regions but Nearctic
+  15. Alytidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Oriental
+  17. Hylidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian
+  18. Polypedatidæ     |    |    | -- |    | All the regions
+  19. Ranidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  FISHES (FRESHWATER). |    |    |    |    |
+  ACANTHOPTERYGII.     |    |    |    |    |
+   1. Gasterosteidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+   3. Percidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   4. _Aphredoderidæ_  |    |    | -- |    |
+  12. Scienidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
+  37. Atherinidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  PHYSOSTOMI.          |    |    |    |    |
+  59. Siluridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions
+  65. Salmonidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, New Zealand
+  66. _Percopsidæ_     |    |    |    | -- |
+  70. Esocidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+  71. Umbridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+  73. Cyprinodontidæ   | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
+  74. _Heteropygii_    |    |    | -- |    |
+  75. Cyprinidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in S. America or Australia
+  77. _Hyodontidæ_     | -- | -- | -- | -- |
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  GANOIDEI.            |    |    |    |    |
+  93. _Amiidæ_         | -- | -- | -- | -- |
+  95. _Lepidosteidæ_   | -- | -- | -- | -- |
+  96. Accipenseridæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
+  97. Polydontidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Palæarctic
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  INSECTS.             |    |    |    |    |
+  LEPIDOPTERA (PART)   |    |    |    |    |
+  DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).|    |    |    |    |
+   1. Danaidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions
+   2. Satyridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   7. (Heliconidæ)     |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
+   8. Nymphalidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+   9. Libytheidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Not in Australia
+  12. Erycinidæ        | -- | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
+  13. Lycænidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  14. Pieridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  15. Papilionidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  16. Hesperidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+                       |    |    |    |    |
+  SPHINGIDEA.          |    |    |    |    |
+  17. Zygænidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+  18. Castniidæ        |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical, Australian
+  22. Ægeriidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in Australia
+  23. Sphingidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
+
+{145}TABLE II.
+
+_LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC
+REGION._
+
+EXPLANATION.
+
+  Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region.
+
+  Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region,
+  and are not considered properly to belong to it.
+
+  Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.
+
+
+_MAMMALIA._
+
+  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
+  Order, Family, and | No. of|     Range within     |     Range beyond
+    Genus.           |Species|      the Region.     |      the Region.
+  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
+                      |     |                       |
+  CHIROPTERA.         |     |                       |
+  PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ.      |     |                       |
+   1. Macrotus        |   1 | California Mexico,    |
+                      |     |   Antilles            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  VESPERTILIONIDÆ.    |     |                       |
+   2. Scotophilus     |   5 | Universal, to Hudson's| Neotr., Orient.,
+                      |     |    Bay                |   Austral.
+   3. Vespertilio     |   6 | Universal, to Hudson's| Cosmopolite.
+                      |     |   Bay                 |
+   4. Nycticejus      |   1 | South and East        | India, Tropical
+                      |     |                       |   Africa, temperate
+                      |     |                       |   S. America
+   5. Lasiurus        |   3 | Temp. N. Amer. to     | Tropical America
+                      |     |   Nova Scotia         |
+   6. _Synotus_       |   2 |S. E. and Central States
+   7. _Autrozous_     |   1 | W. Coast              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  NOCTILIONIDÆ.       |     |                       |
+   8. Nyctinomus      |   1 | Cal. and S. Central   |Neotropical, Oriental,
+                      |     |   Sub-region          |   S. Palæarctic
+                      |     |                       |
+  INSECTIVORA.        |     |                       |
+  TALPIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+   9. _Condylura_     |   1 | Eastern N. America    |
+  10. _Scapanus_      |   2 | New York to San       |
+                      |     |   Francisco           |
+  11. _Scalops_       |   3 | S. of Great Lakes &   |
+                      |     |   Brit. Columb.       |
+  12. Urotrichus      |   1 | British Columbia      | Japan
+                      |     |                       |
+  SORICIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  13. Sorex           |  16 | The whole region      | Palæarc., Ethiop.,
+                      |     |                       |   Orien.
+  14. Neosorex        |   1 | Vancouver's Island    |
+                      |     |   (a sub-genus)       |
+  15. Blarina         |   7 | Canada to Mexico      |
+                      |     |   (a sub-genus)       |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CARNIVORA.          |     |                       |
+  FELIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+  16. Felis           |   5 | S. of 55° N. Latitude | All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Australian
+  17. Lynx            |   3 | S. of 56° N. Latitude | Palæarctic
+                      |     |                       |
+  CANIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+  18. Lupus           |   6 | All N. America        | Palæarctic, Oriental
+  19. Vulpes          |   6 | N. America to Arctic  | Palæarc., Ethiop.,
+                      |     |   Ocean and Greenland |    Orient.
+                      |     |                       |
+  MUSTELIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  20. Martes          |   2 | Pennsylvania to       | Palæarctic, Oriental
+                      |     |   Paget's Sound       |
+  21. Mustela         |  11 | All N. America        | Peru, Palæarctic,
+                      |     |                       |   Ethiopian, Oriental
+  22. Gulo            |   1 | Rocky Mountains and   | N. Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  23. _Latax_         |   2 | United States and     |
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  24. Enhydris        |   1 | Pacific coast         |W. coast of S. America
+  25. _Taxidea_       |   2 |Arkansas to 58° N. Lat.|
+  26. Mephitis        |   6 | United States and     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  PROCYONIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  27. Procyon         |   2 | Texas to Canada,      | Neotropical
+                      |     |   California          |
+  28. Bassaris        |   1 | California and Texas  | Guatemala and Mexico
+                      |     |                       |
+  URSIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+  29. Ursus           |   3 | N. America and        | Palæarctic, Oriental
+                      |     |   Greenland           |
+                      |     |                       |
+  OTARIIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  30. Callorhinus     |   1 | Behring's Straits     | Kamschatka
+  31. Zalophus        |   1 | S. California to      | Japan
+                      |     |   N. Pacific          |
+      _Eumetopias_    |   1 | California to         |
+                      |     |   Behring's Straits   |
+                      |     |                       |
+  TRICHECHIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+  32. Trichechus      |   1 | Arctic Ocean to 66° N.| Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Lat. in N. America  |
+  PHOCIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+  33. Callocephalus   |   1 | Greenland             | Palæarctic
+  34. Pagomys         |   1 | N. Atlantic and       | Japan
+                      |     |   N. Pacific          |
+  35. Pagophilus      |   1 | N. Atlantic and       | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   N. Pacific          |
+  36. _Halicyon_      |   1 | N. W. coast of America|
+  37. Phoca           |   1 | Northern Coast        | Palæarctic
+  38. Halichoerus     |   1 | Greenland             | Palæarctic
+  39. Morunga         |   1 | California            | S. temperate shores
+  40. Cystophora      |     | Greenland             | N. Atlantic
+                      |     |                       |
+  UNGULATA.           |     |                       |
+  SUIDÆ.              |     |                       |
+  41. Dicotyles       |   1 | Texas to Red River,   | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Arkansas            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CERVIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+  42. Alces           |   1 | N. E. United States & | N. Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  43. Rangifer        |   2 | Maine to Arctic Ocean | Arctic zone
+                      |     |   & Greenl.           |
+  44. Cervus          |   6 | N. America to 57° N.  | Neotr., Palæarc.,
+                      |     |   Lat.                |   Orien.
+                      |     |                       |
+  BOVIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+  45. Bison           |   1 | Between Missouri &    | E. Europe
+                      |     |   Rocky Mtns.         |
+  46. _Antilocapra_   |   1 | Central plains from   |
+                      |     |   Rio Grande to       |
+                      |     |   British Columbia    |
+  47. _Aplocerus_     |   1 | Northern Rocky        |
+                      |     |   Mountains           |
+  48. Capra           |   1 | Upper Missouri and    | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Rocky Mountains     |
+                      |     |   northwards          |
+  49. _Ovibos_        |   1 | Arctic America and    |
+                      |     |   Greenland           |
+                      |     |                       |
+  RODENTIA.           |     |                       |
+  MURIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+  50. Reithrodon      |   5 | N. America to Lat.    | Neotropical
+                      |     |   39° N.              |
+  51. Hesperomys      |  16 | Temperate N. America  | Neotropical
+  52. _Neotoma_       |   7 | Temperate N. America  |
+  53. _Sigmodon_      |   2 | S. and S. E. States   |
+  54. Arvicola        |  27 | Texas and California  |  Palæarctic
+                      |     |   to Hudson's Bay     |
+  55. Myodes          |   3 | N. United States to   | N. Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Arctic Reg. and     |
+                      |     |   Greenland           |
+  56. _Fiber_         |   1 | All N. America        | Mexico
+                      |     |                       |
+  DIPODIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  57. _Jaculus_       |   1 | Pennsylvania to Canada|
+                      |     |   and California      |
+                      |     |                       |
+  SACCOMYIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  58. _Dipodomys_     |   5 | New Mexico to Columbia|
+                      |     |   River and Carolina  |
+  59. _Perognathus_   |   6 | New Mexico to British |
+                      |     |   Columbia            |
+  60. _Thomomys_      |   2 | Upper Missouri to     |
+                      |     |   Hudson's Bay        |
+  61. _Geomys_        |   5 | New Mexico to Alabama |
+                      |     |   and Nebraska        |
+  62. _Saccomys_      |   1 | N. America            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CASTORIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  63. Castor          |   1 | N. Mexico to Labrador | Palæarctic
+                      |     |                       |
+  SCIURIDÆ            |     |                       |
+  64. Sciurus         |  18 | N. America to Labrador| All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Australian
+  65. Sciuropterus    |   4 | California & E. States| Palæarctic, Oriental
+                      |     |   northwds.           |
+  66. Tamias          |   4 | Mexico and Virginia   | Mexico, N. Asia
+                      |     |   to Canada           |
+  67. Spermophilus    |  15 | N., W., & Central     | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   N. America          |
+  68. _Cynomys_       |   2 | Rio Grande to Missouri|
+                      |     |    (Central)          |
+  69. Arctomys        |   4 | Virginia and Nebraska,|  N. Palæarctic
+                      |     |   northws.            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  HAPLOODONTIDÆ.      |     |                       |
+  70. _Haploodon_     |   2 | California and British|
+                      |     |   Columbia            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CERCOLABIDÆ         |     |                       |
+  71. _Erethizon_     |   2 |Pennsylvania to Canada,|
+                      |     |   & Pacific coast     |
+  LAGOMYIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  72. Lagomys         |   1 | Rocky Mountains, 42°  | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   to 60° N. Lat.      |
+                      |     |                       |
+  LEPORIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  73. Lepus           |  15 | All N. America to     | All regs. but
+                      |     |   Greenland           |   Australian
+                      |     |                       |
+  MARSUPIALIA.        |     |                       |
+  DIDELPHYIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+  74. Didelphys       |   2 | From Hudson's River & | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Lower California,   |
+                      |     |   southward           |
+
+  _BIRDS._
+
+  PASSERES.           |     |                       |
+  TURDIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+    1. Turdus         |   9 | The whole region      | Almost cosmopolite
+    2. Mimus          |   2 | All U. States and to  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+    3. Galeoscoptes   |   1 | E. of N. America      | To Panama
+    4. _Oreoscoptes_  |   1 | California and Rocky  | Mexico
+                      |     |   Mountains           |
+    5. _Harporhynchus_|   7 | N. America, chiefly   | Mexico
+                      |     |   the west            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  SYLVIIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+    6. Myiadestes     |   1 | W. of Rocky Mountains | Neotropical
+                      |     |   and to Canada       |
+    7. _Sialia_       |   3 | All United States and | Mexico and Guatemala
+                      |     |   to Canada           |
+    8. Regulus        |   3 | All United States &   | Palæarc., Cent.
+                      |     |   to Labrador         |   America
+    9. Polioptila     |   3 | Central and Southern  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   U. States           |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CINCLIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+   10. Cinclus        |   1 | Rocky Mountains and   | Andes, Palæarctic
+                      |     |   British America     |
+                      |     |                       |
+  TROGLODYTIDÆ.       |     |                       |
+   11. Troglodytes    |   3 | N. America            | Neotropical,
+                      |     |                       |   Palæarctic
+   12. Thryophilus    |   1 | N. W. America         | Neotropical
+   13. Thryothorus    |   3 | All N. America        | Neotropical
+   14. Cistothorus    |   2 | N. America            | Neotropical
+      (Campylorhynchus|   1 | Gila and Rio Grande)  | Neotropical genus
+   15. _Salpinctes_   |   1 | Rocky Mountains to    |
+                      |     |   Oregon              |
+   16. _Catherpes_    |   1 | Gila and Colorado     |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CHAMÆIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+   17. _Chamæa_       |   1 | California            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CERTHIIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+   18. Certhia        |   2 | All United States and | Palæarctic, Guatemala
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  SITTIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+   19. Sitta          |   5 | All United States and | Palæarctic, Mexico
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  PARIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+   20. Parus          |   8 | All United States and | Palæarc., Orien.,
+                      |     |   Canada              |   Mexico
+   21. Lophophanes    |   4 | All United States     | Palæarctic, Mexico
+   22. _Psaltriparus_ |   3 | Central & Western     | Mexico and Guatemala
+                      |     |   N. America          |
+   23. _Auriparus_    |   1 | Rio Grande Valley     |
+                      |     |                       |
+  LANIIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+   24. Lanius         |   4 | All N. America        | Palæarc., Ethio.,
+                      |     |                       |   Orient.
+                      |     |                       |
+  CORVIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+   25. Perisoreus     |   1 | Canada and Rocky      | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Mountains           |
+   26. Cyanocitta     |   9 | All United States and | Neotropical
+                      |     |   to Canada           |
+   27. _Gymnokitta_   |   1 | Central and N. W.     |
+                      |     |   States              |
+   28. _Picicorvus_   |   1 | Central and Western   |
+                      |     |   States to Sitka     |
+   29. Pica           |   2 | Central and Western   | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   States to Arctic    |
+                      |     |    Ocean              |
+   30. Corvus         |   7 | All N. America        | Cosmop., excl.
+                      |     |                       |   S. Amer.
+                      |     |                       |
+  COEREBIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+      (Certhiola      |   1 | Florida; summer       | Neotropical genus
+                      |     |   migrant)            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  MNIOTILTIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+   31. _Mniotilta_    |   1 | Eastern States        | Antilles, Andes of
+                      |     |                       |   Columbia (migrant)
+   32. Parula         |   1 | Eastern States and    | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   33. Protonotaria   |   1 | Ohio and southwards   | Neotrop. to Venezuela
+   34._Helminthophaga_|   8 | All N. America        | Mexico to Columbia
+   35. _Helmintherus_ |   2 | S. and E. States to   | Mexico to Veragua
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   36. Perissoglossa  |   1 | Eastern United States | Antilles
+   37. Dendroeca      |  22 | All N. America        | Mex. to Ecuador &
+                      |     |                       |   Chili
+   38. _Oporornis_    |   2 | Eastern States        | Guatemala and Panama
+   39. Geothlypis     |   4 | All N. America        | Neotropical
+   40. Setophaga      |   2 | E. States & Canadian  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   sub-region          |
+   41. _Myiodioctes_  |   5 | United States and     | Mex. to Columb.
+                      |     |   Canada              |   (migr.)
+   42. Siurus         |   3 | S. and E. States to   | Mexico to Columbia
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   43. _Icteria_      |   2 | E. and Central States | Mexico to Costa Rica
+                      |     |   to Canada           |
+                      |     |                       |
+  VIREONIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+   44. Vireosylvia    |   7 | All N. America        |Antilles and Venezuela
+   45. Vireo          |   6 | All United States     | Antilles and Costa
+                      |     |                       |   Rica
+                      |     |                       |
+  AMPELIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+   46. Ampelis        |   2 | All N. America        | Palæarctic, Guatemala
+   47. _Phænopepla_   |   1 |Gila and Lower Colorado| Mexico
+                      |     |                       |
+  HIRUNDINIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+   48. Hirundo        |   3 | All N. America        | Almost cosmopolite
+   49. Petrochelidon  |   1 | All N. America        | Neotropical
+   50. Cotyle         |   1 | All N. America        | All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Australian
+   51. Stelgidopteryx |   1 | Southern States       | Neotropical
+   52. Progne         |   1 | All N. America        | Neotropical
+                      |     |                       |
+  ICTERIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+   53. Icterus        |   7 | All United States and | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   54. Dolichonyx     |   1 | Eastern States and    | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   55. Molothrus      |   1 | All United States and | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   56. Agelæus        |   3 | All United Slates and | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   57._Xanthocephalus_|   1 | The whole region      | Mexico
+   58. Sturnella      |   2 | All United States and | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   59. _Scolecophagus_|   2 | All United States and | Mexico
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   60. Quiscalus      |   4 | S. and E. States to   | Mexico to Venezuela
+                      |     |   Labrador            |
+                      |     |                       |
+  TANAGRIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+   61. Pyranga        |   4 | United Stales and     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  FRINGILLIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+   62. Chrysomitris   |   7 | The whole region      | Neotropical,
+                      |     |                       |   Palæarctic
+   63. Coccothraustes |   1 | W. and N. W. America  | Palæarctic, Guatemala
+   64. Embernagra     |   1 |Rocky Mountain district| Neotropical
+   65. _Pipilo_       |   9 | All N. America        | Mexico and Guatemala
+   66. _Junco_        |   5 | All United States     | Mexico and Guatemala
+   67. Zonotrichia    |   5 | The whole region      | Neotropical
+   68. _Melospiza_    |   7 | All United States to  | Mexico and Guatemala
+                      |     |   Sitka               |
+   69. _Spizella_     |   6 | N. America            | Mexico and Guatemala
+   70. _Passerella_   |   3 | The whole region      | Northern Asia
+   71. _Passerculus_  |   6 | The whole region      | Mexico and Guatemala
+   72. _Pooecetes_    |   1 | All United States     | Mexico
+   73. _Ammodromus_   |   3 | All United States     | Mexico and Guatemala
+   74. Coturniculus   |   3 |E. and N. of N. America| Neotropical
+   75. Peucæa         |   3 | S. Atlantic States and| Mexico
+                      |     |   California          |
+   76. _Cyanospiza_   |   5 | All United States to  | Central American
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   77. Poospiza       |   2 | California and S.     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Central States      |
+   78. Carpodacus     |   5 | The whole region      | Mexico, Palæarctic
+   79. Cardinalis     |   1 | S. and S. Central     | Mexico to Venezuela
+                      |     |   States              |
+   80. _Pyrrhuloxia_  |   1 | Texas and Rio Grande  |
+   81. Guiraca        |   1 | Southern States       | Neotropical
+   82. Hedymeles      |   2 | All United States     | Mexico to Columbia
+      (Spermophila    |   1 | Texas)                | Neotropical genus
+   83. Loxia          |   2 | N. of Pennsylvania    | Palæarctic
+   84. Pinicola       |   1 | Boreal America        | Palæarctic
+   85. Linota         |   2 | E. and N. of N.       | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   America             |
+   86. Leucosticte    |   4 | Alaska to Utah        | Palæarctic
+   87. _Calamospiza_  |   1 | Arizona and Texas to  | Mexico
+                      |     |   Mexico              |
+   88. _Chondestes_   |   1 | Western, Cen., &      | Mexico
+                      |     |   Southern States     |
+   89. Euspiza        |   2 | S. Eastern States     | Palæarc., Columb.
+                      |     |                       |   (mig.)
+   90. Plectrophanes  |   6 | Boreal America and E. | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   side of Rocky       |
+                      |     |   Mountains           |
+   91. _Centronyx_    |   1 | Mouth of Yellowstone  |
+                      |     |   River               |
+                      |     |                       |
+  ALAUDIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+   92. Otocorys       |   1 | High central plains to| Palæarc., Mexico,
+                      |     |   E. States and Canada|   Andes of Columbia
+                      |     |                       |
+  MOTACILLIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+   93. Anthus         |   1 | The whole region      | Cosmopolite
+   94. _Neocorys_     |   1 |  Nebraska             |
+                      |     |                       |
+  TYRANNIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+   95. Sayornis       |   3 | E. States to Canada,  | Mexico to Ecuador
+                      |     |   California          |
+      (Pyrocephalus   |   1 | Gila and Rio Grande)  | Neotropical
+   96. Empidonax      |   7 | The whole region      | Mexico to Ecuador
+   97. Contopus       |   3 | N. and E. of Rocky    | Mexico to Amazonia
+                      |     |   Mountains           |
+   98. Myiarchus      |   2 | E. and W. coasts and  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+   99. _Empidias_     |   1 | Eastern States        | Mexico
+  100. Tyrannus       |   4 | All United States to  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+       (Milvulus      |   1 | Texas)                | Neotropical genus
+                      |     |                       |
+  PICARIÆ.            |     |                       |
+  PICIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+  101. Picoides       |   3 | Arctic zone and Rocky | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Mounts.             |
+  102. Picus          |   6 | All United States and | All regs. but Eth.
+                      |     |   Canada              |   & Aus.
+  103. _Sphyrapicus_  |   6 | Brit. Columbia and    | Mexico and Guatemala
+                      |     |   Pennsylvania        |
+                      |     |   southwards          |
+  104. Campephilus    |   2 | United States and     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  105. _Hylatomus_    |   1 | E. and W. States and  |
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  106. Centurus       |   3 | The whole region      | Mexico to Venezuela
+  107. Melanerpes     |   3 | United States and     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   S. Canada           |
+  108. Colaptes       |   3 | United States and     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CUCULIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  109. Crotophaga     |   2 | E. States from        | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Pennsylvania S.     |
+  110. Coccyzus       |   3 | S. E. and Cen. States | Neotropical
+                      |     |   to Canada           |
+  111. Geococcyx      |   1 | California to New Mex.| Guatemala
+                      |     |   & Texas             |
+                      |     |                       |
+  ALCEDINIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  112. Ceryle         |   2 | The whole region,     | Neotropical S.
+                      |     |                       |  Palæarctic, Oriental
+                      |     |                       |
+  CAPRIMULGIDÆ.       |     |                       |
+  113. Chordeiles     |   3 | All United States to  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  114. Antrostomus    |   3 | All United States to  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CYPSELIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  115. Nephoecetes    |   1 | N. W. America Jamaica |
+  116. Chætura        |   2 | All U. States &       | Almost cosmopolite
+                      |     |   British Columbia    |
+                      |     |                       |
+  TROCHILIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  117. _Trochilus_    |   2 | The whole region      | Mexico to Veragua
+                      |     |                       |   (? mi.)
+  118. Selasphorus    |   2 | W. coast and Centre   | Mexico to Veragua
+  119. _Atthis_       |   2 | California and        | Mexico to Guatemala
+                      |     |   Colorado Valley     |
+                      |     |                       |
+  PSITTACI.           |     |                       |
+  CONURIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  120. Conurus        |   1 | S. and S. E. States   | Neotropical
+                      |     |                       |
+  COLUMBÆ.            |     |                       |
+  COLUMBIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  121. Columba        |   3 | W. and Central States | All regs. but
+                      |     |   to Canada           |   Australian
+  122. _Ectopistes_   |   1 | E. coast to Cen.      |
+                      |     |   plains, Canada and  |
+                      |     |   British Columbia    |
+  123. Melopelia      |   1 | W. and S. Central     | Neotropical
+                      |     |   States              |
+  124. Zenaidura      |   1 | All United States to  | Mexico to Veragua
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  125. Chæmepelia     |   1 | California and S. E.  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   States              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  GALLINÆ.            |     |                       |
+  TETRAONIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  126. Cyrotonyx      |   1 | S. Central States     | Mexico and Guatemala
+  127. Ortyx          |   5 | All United States and | Mexico to Honduras
+                      |     |   to Canada           |   and Costa Rica
+  128. Callipepla     |   1 | California            | Mexico
+  129. _Lophortyx_    |   2 | Arizona and California|
+  130. _Oreortyx_     |   1 | California and Oregon |
+  131. Tetrao         |   3 | N. and N. W. America  | Palæarctic
+  132. _Centrocercus_ |   1 | Rocky Mountains       |
+  133. _Pediocætes_   |   2 | N. and N. W. America  |
+  134. _Cupidonia_    |   1 | E. & N. Cen. States   |
+                      |     |   and Canada          |
+  135. Bonasa         |   1 | N. United States and  | Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+  136. Lagopus        |   4 | Arctic zone and to 39°| Palæarctic
+                      |     |   N. Lat. in Rocky    |
+                      |     |   Mountains           |
+                      |     |                       |
+  PHASIANIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  137. _Meleagris_    |   2 | E. and Central States | Mexico, Honduras
+                      |     |   to Canada           |
+  CRACIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+       (Ortalida      |   1 | New Mexico)           | Neotropical genus
+                      |     |                       |
+  ACCIPITRES.         |     |                       |
+  VULTURIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  _Sub-Family_        |     |                       |
+  (CATHARTINÆ.)       |     |                       |
+  138. Catharista     |   1 | United States to      | Neotropical
+                      |     |   40° N. Lat.         |
+  139. Psuedogryphis  |   2 | United States to      | Neotropical
+                      |     |   49° N. Lat.         |
+                      |     |                       |
+  FALCONIDÆ.          |     |                       |
+  140. Polyborus      |   1 | S. States to Florida  | Neotropical
+                      |     |   & California        |
+  141. Circus         |   1 | All N. America        | Nearly cosmopolite
+  142. Antenor        |   2 | California and Texas  | Neotropical
+  143. Astur          |   1 | All N. America        | Almost cosmopolite
+  144. Accipiter      |   3 | All temperate         | Almost cosmopolite
+                      |     |   N. America          |
+  145. Tachytriorchis |   1 | New Mexico to         | Neotropical
+                      |     |   California          |
+  146. Buteo          |  12 | All N. America        | All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Australian
+  147. Archibuteo     |   3 | All N. America N.     | Palæarctic
+  148. Asturina       |   1 | S. E. States          | Neotropical
+  149. Aquila         |   1 | The whole region      | Palæarc., Ethiop.,
+                      |     |                       |   Indian
+  150. Haliæetus      |   2 | All N. America        | All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Neotropical
+  151. Nauclerus      |   1 | E. coast to           | Neotropical
+                      |     |   Pennsylvania and    |
+                      |     |   Wisconsin           |
+       (Rostrhamus    |   1 | Florida)              | Neotropical
+  152. Elanus         |   1 | Southern and Western  | Tropical regions
+                      |     |   States              |
+  153. Ictinia        |   1 | Southern States       | Neotropical
+  154. Falco          |   7 | The whole region      | Almost cosmopolite
+  155. Hierofalco     |   2 | N. of N. America      | N. Palæarctic
+  156. Cerchneis      |   1 | All N. America        | Almost cosmopolite
+                      |     |                       |
+  PANDIONIDÆ.         |     |                       |
+  157. Pandion        |   1 | Temperate N.          | America Cosmopolite
+                      |     |                       |
+  STRIGIDÆ.           |     |                       |
+  158. Surnia         |   1 | Arctic & N. Temperate | N. Palæarctic
+                      |     |   America             |
+  159. Nyctea         |   1 | S. Carolina to        | N. Palæarctic
+                      |     |   Greenland           |
+  160. Glaucidium     |   1 | Oregon and California | Neotropical,
+                      |     |                       |   Palæarctic
+  161. _Micrathene_   |   1 | Arizona and New Mexico| Mexico
+  162. Pholeoptynx    |   1 | N. W. America, Texas  | Neotropical
+  163. Bubo           |   1 | All N. America        | All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Australian
+  164. Scops          |   2 | The whole region      | Almost cosmopolite
+  165. Syrnium        |   2 | E. States, California,| All regs. but
+                      |     |   Canada              |   Australian
+  166. Asio           |   2 | The whole region      | All regs. but
+                      |     |                       |   Australian
+  167. Nyctale        |   3 | All N. America        | Palæarctic
+  168. Strix          |   1 | Temperate N. America  | Almost cosmopolite
+
+  _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._
+
+  GRALLÆ              |     |                       |
+  SCOLOPACIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+    Micropelma        |   1 | N. America            | Andes to Chili
+    _Philohela_       |   1 | Eastern States to     |
+                      |     |   Canada              |
+                      |     |                       |
+  CHARADRIIDÆ.        |     |                       |
+    Aphriza           |   1 |  W. coast of America  | West of S. America
+                      |     |                       |
+  ANSERES.            |     |                       |
+  ANATIDÆ.            |     |                       |
+    Aix               |   1 | N. America            | China
+    Bucephala         |   4 | N. America            | Europe
+    Oedemia           |   3 | N. America            | Europe
+    Harelda           |   1 | Arctic                | Arctic Seas
+    Somateria         |   5 | Arctic                | North Palæarctic
+    _Camptolæmus_     |   1 | N. E. America         |
+                      |     |   (? extinct)         |
+                      |     |                       |
+  LARIDÆ.             |     |                       |
+    _Creagrus_        |   1 | California and        |
+                      |     |   N. Pacific coasts   |
+
+{154}CHAPTER XVI.
+
+SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS.
+
+
+Having now closed our survey of the animal life of the whole earth--a
+survey which has necessarily been encumbered with a multiplicity of
+detail--we proceed to summarize the general conclusions at which we have
+arrived, with regard to the past history and mutual relations of the great
+regions into which we have divided the land surface of the globe.
+
+All the palæontological, no less than the geological and physical evidence,
+at present available, points to the great land masses of the Northern
+Hemisphere as being of immense antiquity, and as the area in which the
+higher forms of life were developed. In going back through the long series
+of the Tertiary formations, in Europe, Asia, and North America, we find a
+continuous succession of vertebrate forms, including all the highest types
+now existing or that have existed on the earth. These extinct animals
+comprise ancestors or forerunners of all the chief forms now living in the
+Northern Hemisphere; and as we go back farther and farther into the past,
+we meet with ancestral forms of those types also, which are now either
+confined to, or specially characteristic of, the land masses of the
+Southern Hemisphere. Not only do we find that elephants, and rhinoceroses,
+and hippopotami, were once far more abundant in Europe than they are now in
+the tropics, but we also find that the apes of West Africa and Malaya, the
+lemurs of Madagascar, the Edentata of Africa and South America, and the
+{155}Marsupials of America and Australia, were all represented in Europe
+(and probably also in North America) during the earlier part of the
+Tertiary epoch. These facts, taken in their entirety, lead us to conclude
+that, during the whole of the Tertiary and perhaps during much of the
+Secondary periods, the great land masses of the earth were, as now,
+situated in the Northern Hemisphere; and that here alone were developed the
+successive types of vertebrata from the lowest to the highest. In the
+Southern Hemisphere there appear to have been three considerable and very
+ancient land masses, varying in extent from time to time, but always
+keeping distinct from each other, and represented, more or less completely,
+by Australia, South Africa, and South America of our time. Into these
+flowed successive waves of life, as they each in turn became temporarily
+united with some part of the northern land. Australia appears to have had
+but one such union, perhaps during the middle or latter part of the
+Secondary epoch, when it received the ancestors of its Monotremata and
+Marsupials, which it has since developed into a great variety of forms. The
+South African and South American lands, on the other hand, appear each to
+have had several successive unions and separations, allowing first of the
+influx of low forms only (Edentata, Insectivora and Lemurs); subsequently
+of Rodents and small Carnivora, and, latest of all, of the higher types of
+Primates, Carnivora and Ungulata.
+
+During the whole of the Tertiary period, at least, the Northern Hemisphere
+appears to have been divided, as now, into an Eastern and a Western
+continent; always approximating and sometimes united towards the north, and
+then admitting of much interchange of their respective faunas; but on the
+whole keeping distinct, and each developing its own special family and
+generic types, of equally high grade, and generally belonging to the same
+Orders. During the Eocene and Miocene periods, the distinction of the
+Palæarctic and Nearctic regions was better marked than it is now; as is
+shown by the floras no less than by the faunas of those epochs. Dr.
+Newberry, in his Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the
+Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, states, that although the Miocene flora of
+Central North {156}America corresponds generally with that of the European
+Miocene, yet many of the tropical, and especially the Australian types,
+such as _Hakea_ and _Dryandra_, are absent. Owing to the recent discovery
+of a rich Cretaceous flora in North America, probably of the same age as
+that of Aix-la-Chapelle in Europe, we are able to continue the comparison;
+and it appears, that at this early period the difference was still more
+marked. The predominant feature of the European Cretaceous flora seems to
+have been the abundance of Proteaceæ, of which seven genera now living in
+Australia or the Cape of Good Hope have been recognised, besides others
+which are extinct. There are also several species of _Pandanus_, or
+screw-pine, now confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and
+along with these, oaks, pines, and other more temperate forms. The North
+American Cretaceous flora, although far richer than that of Europe,
+contains no Proteaceæ or _Pandani_, but immense numbers of forest trees of
+living and extinct genera. Among the former we have oaks, beeches, willows,
+planes, alders, dog-wood, and cypress; together with such American forms as
+magnolias, sassafras, and liriodendrons. There are also a few not now found
+in America, as _Araucaria_ and _Cinnamomum_, the latter still living in
+Japan. This remarkable flora has been found over a wide extent of
+country--New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, and near the sources of the Missouri
+in the latitude of Quebec--so that we can hardly impute its peculiarly
+temperate character to the great elevation of so large an area. The
+intervening Eocene flora approximates closely, in North America, to that of
+the Miocene period; while in Europe it seems to have been fully as tropical
+in character as that of the preceding Cretaceous period; fruits of _Nipa_,
+_Pandanus_, _Anona_, _Acacia_, and many Proteaceæ, occurring in the London
+clay at the mouth of the Thames.
+
+These facts appear, at first sight, to be inconsistent, unless we suppose
+the climates of Europe and North America to have been widely different in
+these early times; but they may perhaps be harmonised, on the supposition
+of a more uniform and a somewhat milder climate then prevailing over the
+whole Northern Hemisphere; the contrast in the vegetation of these
+countries {157}being due to a radical difference of type, and therefore not
+indicative of climate. The early European flora seems to have been a
+portion of that which now exists only in the tropical and sub-tropical
+lands of the Eastern Hemisphere; and, as much of this flora still survives
+in Australia, Tasmania, Japan, and the Cape of Good Hope, it does not
+necessarily imply more than a warm and equable temperate climate. The early
+North American flora, on the other hand, seems to have been essentially the
+same in type as that which now exists there, and which, in the Miocene
+period, was well represented in Europe; and it is such as now flourishes
+best in the warmer parts of the United States. But whatever conclusion we
+may arrive at on the question of climate, there can be no doubt as to the
+distinctness of the floras of the ancient Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;
+and the view derived from our study of their existing and extinct
+faunas--that these two regions have, in past times, been more clearly
+separated than they are now--receives strong support from the unexpected
+evidence now obtained as to the character and mutations of their vegetable
+forms, during so vast an epoch as is comprised in the whole duration of the
+Tertiary period.
+
+The general phenomena of the distribution of living animals, combined with
+the evidence of extinct forms, lead us to conclude that the Palæarctic
+region of early Tertiary times was, for the most part, situated beyond the
+tropics, although it probably had a greater southward extension than at the
+present time. It certainly included much of North Africa, and perhaps
+reached far into what is now the Sahara; while a southward extension of its
+central mass may have included the Abyssinian highlands, where some truly
+Palæarctic forms are still found. This is rendered probable by the fossils
+of Perim Island a little further east, which show that the characteristic
+Miocene fauna of South Europe and North India prevailed so far within the
+tropics. There existed, however, at the extreme eastern and western limits
+of the region, two extensive equatorial land-areas, our Indo-Malayan and
+West African sub-regions--both of which must have been united for more or
+less considerable periods with the northern continent. They would then have
+received {158}from it such of the higher vertebrates as were best adapted
+for the peculiar climatal and organic conditions which everywhere prevail
+near the equator; and these would be preserved, under variously modified
+forms, when they had ceased to exist in the less favourable and constantly
+deteriorating climate of the north. At later epochs, both these equatorial
+lands became united to some part of the great South African continent (then
+including Madagascar), and we thus have explained many of the similarities
+presented by the faunas of these distant, and generally very different
+countries.
+
+During the Miocene period, when a subtropical climate prevailed over much
+of Europe and Central Asia, there would be no such marked contrast as now
+prevails between temperate and tropical zones; and at this time much of our
+Oriental region, perhaps, formed a hardly separable portion of the great
+Palæarctic land. But when, from unknown causes, the climate of Europe
+became less genial, and when the elevation of the Himalayan chain and the
+Mongolian plateau caused an abrupt difference of climate on the northern
+and southern sides of that great mountain barrier, a tropical and a
+temperate region were necessarily formed; and many of the animals which
+once roamed over the greater part of the older and more extensive region,
+now became restricted to its southern or northern divisions respectively.
+Then came the great change we have already described (vol. i. p. 288),
+opening the newly-formed plains of Central Africa to the incursions of the
+higher forms of Europe; and following on this, a still further
+deterioration of climate, resulting in that marked contrast between
+temperate and tropical faunas, which is now one of the most prominent
+features in the distribution of animal as well as of vegetable forms.
+
+It is not necessary to go into any further details here, as we have
+already, in our discussion of the origin of the fauna of the several
+regions, pointed out what changes most probably occurred in each case.
+These details are, however, to a great extent speculative; and they must
+remain so till we obtain as much knowledge of the extinct faunas and past
+geological history of the southern lands, as we have of those of Europe and
+North {159}America. But the broad conclusions at which we have now arrived
+seem to rest on a sufficiently extensive basis of facts; and they lead us
+to a clearer conception of the mutual relations and comparative importance
+of the several regions than could be obtained at an earlier stage of our
+inquiries.
+
+If our views of the origin of the several regions are correct, it is clear
+that no mere binary division--into north and south, or into east and
+west--can be altogether satisfactory, since at the dawn of the Tertiary
+period we still find our six regions, or what may be termed the rudiments
+of them, already established. The north and south division truly represents
+the fact, that the great northern continents are the seat and birth-place
+of all the higher forms of life, while the southern continents have derived
+the greater part, if not the whole, of their vertebrate fauna from the
+north; but it implies the erroneous conclusion, that the chief southern
+lands--Australia and South America--are more closely related to each other
+than to the northern continent. The fact, however, is that the fauna of
+each has been derived, independently, and perhaps at very different times,
+from the north, with which they therefore have a true genetic relation;
+while any intercommunion between themselves has been comparatively recent
+and superficial, and has in no way modified the great features of animal
+life in each. The east and west division, represents--according to our
+views--a more fundamental diversity; since we find the northern continent
+itself so divided in the earliest Eocene, and even in Cretaceous times;
+while we have the strongest proof that South America was peopled from the
+Nearctic, and Australia and Africa from the Palæarctic region: hence, the
+Eastern and Western Hemispheres are the two great branches of the tree of
+life of our globe. But this division, taken by itself, would obscure the
+facts--firstly, of the close relation and parallelism of the Nearctic and
+Palæarctic regions, not only now but as far back as we can clearly trace
+them in the past; and, secondly, of the existing radical diversity of the
+Australian region from the rest of the Eastern Hemisphere.
+
+Owing to the much greater extent of the old Palæarctic region (including
+our Oriental), and the greater diversity of {160}Mammalia it appears to
+have produced, we can have little doubt that here was the earliest seat of
+the development of the vertebrate type; and probably of the higher forms of
+insects and land-molluscs. Whether the Nearctic region ever formed one mass
+with it, or only received successive immigrations from it by northern
+land-connections both in an easterly and westerly direction, we cannot
+decide; but the latter seems the most probable supposition. In any case, we
+must concede the first rank to the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, as
+representing the most important part of what seems always to have been the
+Great Continent of the earth, and the source from which all the other
+regions were supplied with the higher forms of life. These once formed a
+single great region, which has been since divided into a temperate and a
+tropical portion, now sufficiently distinct; while the Nearctic region has,
+by deterioration of climate, suffered a considerable diminution of
+productive area, and has in consequence lost a number of its more
+remarkable forms. The two temperate regions have thus come to resemble each
+other more than they once did, while the Oriental retains more of the
+zoological aspect of the great northern regions of Miocene times. The
+Ethiopian, from having been once an insular region, where lower types of
+vertebrates alone prevailed, has been so overrun with higher types from the
+old Palæarctic and Oriental lands that it now rivals, or even surpasses,
+the Oriental region in its representation of the ancient fauna of the great
+northern continent. Both of our tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere
+possess faunas which are, to some extent, composite, being made up in
+different proportions of the productions of the northern and southern
+continents,--the former prevailing largely in the Oriental, while the
+latter constitutes an important feature in the Ethiopian fauna. The
+Neotropical region has probably undergone great fluctuations in early
+times; but it was, undoubtedly, for long periods completely isolated, and
+then developed the Edentate type of Mammals and the Formicaroid type of
+Passerine birds into a variety of forms, comparable with the diversified
+Marsupials of Australia, and typical Passeres of the Eastern Hemisphere.
+{161}It has, however, received successive infusions of higher types from
+the north, which now mingle in various degrees with its lower forms. At an
+early period it must have received a low form of Primates, which has been
+developed into the two peculiar families of American monkeys; while its
+llamas, tapirs, deer, and peccaries, came in at a later date, and its
+opossums and extinct horses probably among the latest. The Australian
+region alone, after having been united with the great northern continent at
+a very early date (probably during the Secondary period) has ever since
+remained more or less completely isolated; and thus exhibits the
+development of a primeval type of mammal, almost wholly uninfluenced by any
+incursions of a later and higher type. In this respect it is unique among
+all the great regions of the earth.
+
+We see, then, that each of our six regions has had a history of its own,
+the main outlines of which we have been able to trace with tolerable
+certainty. Each of them is now characterised--as it seems to have been in
+all past time of which we have any tolerably full record--by well-marked
+zoological features; while all are connected and related in the complex
+modes we have endeavoured to unravel. To combine any two or more of these
+regions, on account of existing similarities which are, for the most part,
+of recent origin, would obscure some of the most important and interesting
+features of their past history and present condition. And it seems no less
+impracticable to combine the whole into groups of higher rank; since it has
+been shown that there are two opposing modes of doing this, and that each
+of them represents but one aspect of a problem, which can only be solved by
+giving equal attention to all its aspects.
+
+
+
+For reasons which have been already stated, and which are sufficiently
+obvious, we have relied almost exclusively on the distribution of living
+and extinct mammalia, in arriving at these conclusions. But we believe they
+will apply equally to elucidate the phenomena presented by the distribution
+of all terrestrial organisms, when combined with a careful consideration of
+the {162}various means of dispersal of the different groups, and the
+comparative longevity of their species and genera. Even insects, which are
+perhaps of all animals the farthest removed from mammalia in this respect,
+agree, in the great outlines of their distribution, with the vertebrate
+orders. The Regions are admittedly the same, or nearly the same for both;
+and the discrepancies that occur are of a nature which can be explained by
+two undoubted facts--the greater antiquity, and the greater facilities for
+dispersal, of insects.
+
+But this principle, if sound, must be carried farther, and be applied to
+plants also. There are not wanting indications that this may be
+successfully done; and it seems not improbable, that the reason why
+botanists have hitherto failed to determine, with any unanimity, which are
+the most natural phytological regions, and to work out any connected theory
+of the migrations of plants, is, because they have not been furnished with
+the clue to the past changes of the great land masses, which could only be
+arrived at by such an examination of the past and present distribution of
+the higher animals as has been here attempted. The difficulties in the way
+of the study of the distribution of plants, from this point of view, will
+be undoubtedly very great; owing to the unusual facilities for distribution
+many of them possess, and the absence of any group which might take the
+place of the mammalia among animals, and serve as a guide and standard for
+the rest. We cannot expect the regions to be so well defined in the case of
+plants as in that of animals; and there are sure to be many anomalies and
+discrepancies, which will require long study to unravel. The Six Great
+Regions here adopted, are however, as a whole, very well characterised by
+their vegetable forms. The floras of tropical America, of Australia, of
+South Africa, and of Indo-Malaya, stand out with as much individuality as
+do the faunas; while the plants of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions,
+exhibit resemblances and diversities, of a character not unlike those found
+among the animals.
+
+This is not a mere question of applying to the vegetable kingdom a series
+of arbitrary divisions of the earth which have been {163}found useful to
+zoologists; for it really involves a fundamental problem in the theory of
+evolution. The question we have to answer, is, firstly--whether the
+distribution of plants is, like that of animals, mainly and primarily
+dependent on the past revolutions of the earth's surface; or, whether
+other, and altogether distinct causes, have had a preponderating influence
+in determining the range and limits of vegetable forms; and,
+secondly--whether those revolutions have been, in their general outlines,
+correctly interpreted by means of a study of the distribution and
+affinities of the higher animals. The first question is one for botanists
+alone to answer; but, on the second point, the author ventures to hope for
+an affirmative reply, from such of his readers as will weigh carefully the
+facts and arguments he has adduced.
+
+
+
+The remaining part of this volume, will consist, of a systematic review of
+the distribution of each family of animals, and an application of the
+principles already established to elucidate the chief phenomena they
+present. The present chapter must, therefore, be considered as the
+conclusion of the argumentative and theoretical part of the present work;
+but it must be read in connection with the various discussions in Parts II.
+and III., in which the conclusions to be drawn from the several groups of
+facts have been successively given;--and especially in connection with the
+general observations at the end of each of the six chapters on the
+Zoological Regions.
+
+The hypothetical view, as to the more recent of the great Geographical
+changes of the Earth's surface, here set forth, is not the result of any
+preconceived theory, but has grown out of a careful study of the facts
+accumulated, and has led to a considerable modification of the author's
+previous views. It may be described, as an application of the general
+theory of Evolution, to solve the problem of the distribution of animals;
+but it also furnishes some independent support to that theory, both by
+showing what a great variety of curious facts are explained by its means,
+and by answering some of the objections, {164}which have been founded on
+supposed difficulties in the distribution of animals in space and time.
+
+It also illustrates and supports the geological doctrine, of the general
+permanence of our great continents and oceans, by showing how many facts in
+the distribution of animals can only be explained and understood on such a
+supposition; and it exhibits, in a striking manner, the enormous influence
+of the Glacial epoch, in determining the existing zoological features of
+the various continents.
+
+And, lastly, it furnishes a more consistent and intelligible idea than has
+yet been reached by any other mode of investigation, of all the more
+important changes of the earth's surface that have probably occurred during
+the entire Tertiary period; and of the influence of these changes, in
+bringing about the general features, as well as many of the more
+interesting details and puzzling anomalies, of the Geographical
+Distribution of Animals.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY:_
+
+_A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND ANIMALS IN THEIR
+GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS._
+
+
+{167}INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+In the preceding part of our work, we have discussed the geographical
+distribution of animals from the point of view of the geographer; taking
+the different regions of the earth in succession, and giving as full an
+account as our space would permit of their chief forms of animal life. Now,
+we proceed from the standpoint of the systematic zoologist; taking in
+succession each of the families with which we deal, and giving an account
+of the distribution, both of the entire family and, as far as practicable,
+of each of the genera of which it is composed. As in the former part, our
+mode of treatment led us to speculate on the past changes of the earth's
+surface; so here we shall endeavour to elucidate the past migrations of
+animals, and thus, to some extent, account for their actual distribution.
+
+The tabular headings, showing the range of the family in each region, will
+enable the reader to determine at a glance the general distribution of the
+group, as soon as he has familiarised himself, by a study of our general
+and regional maps, with the limits of the regions and sub-regions, and the
+figures (1 to 4) by which the latter are indicated. Much pains have been
+taken, to give the number of the known genera and species in each family,
+correctly; but these numbers must, in most cases, only be looked upon as
+approximations; because, owing to constant accessions of fresh material on
+the one hand, and the discovery that many supposed species are only
+varieties, on the other, such statistics are in a continual state of
+fluctuation. In the number of genera there is the greatest uncertainty; as
+will be seen by the two sets of numbers sometimes given, which denote the
+genera according to different modern authorities.
+
+{168}There is also a considerable difference in the dependence to be placed
+on the details given in the different classes of animals. In Mammalia and
+Birds some degree of accuracy has, it is hoped, been attained; the
+classification of these groups being much advanced, and the materials for
+their study ample. In Reptiles this is not the case, as there is no
+recently published work dealing with the whole subject, or with either of
+the larger orders. An immense number of new species and new genera of
+snakes and lizards, have been described in the last twenty years; and Dr.
+Günther--our greatest authority on reptiles in this country--has kindly
+assisted me in incorporating such of these as are most trustworthy, in a
+general system; but until entire Orders have been described or catalogued
+on a uniform plan, nothing more than a general approximation to the truth
+can be arrived at. Still, so many of the groups are well defined, and have
+a clearly limited distribution, that some interesting and valuable
+comparisons may be made.
+
+For Fishes, the valuable "Catalogue" of Dr. Günther was available, and it
+has rarely been attempted to go beyond it. A large number of new species
+have since been described, in all parts of the world; but it is impossible
+to say how many of these are really new, or what genera they actually
+belong to. The part devoted to this Class is, therefore, practically a
+summary of Dr. Günther's Catalogue; and it is believed that the discoveries
+since made will not materially invalidate the conclusions to be drawn from
+such a large number of species, which have been critically examined and
+classified on a uniform system by one of our most able naturalists. When a
+supplement to this catalogue is issued, it will be easier to make the
+necessary alterations in distribution, than if a mass of untrustworthy
+materials had been mixed up with it.
+
+For Insects, excellent materials are furnished, in the Catalogue of Mr.
+Kirby for Butterflies and in that of Drs. Gemminger and Harold for
+Coleoptera. I have also made use of some recently published memoirs on the
+Insects of Japan and St. Helena, and a few other recent works; and have, I
+believe, elaborated a more extensive series of facts to illustrate the
+distribution of insects, {169}than has been made use of by any previous
+writer. Several discussions on the bearing of the facts of insect
+distribution, will also be found under the several Regions, in the
+preceding part of this work.
+
+Terrestrial Mollusca form a group, as to the treatment of which I have most
+misgivings; owing to my almost entire ignorance of Malacology, and the
+great changes recently made in the classification of shells. There is also
+much uncertainty as to genera and sub-genera, which is very puzzling to one
+who merely wishes to get at general results. Finding it impossible to
+incorporate the new matter with the old, or to harmonise the different
+classifications of modern conchologists, I thought it better to confine
+myself to the standard works of Martens and Pfeiffer, with such additions
+of new species as I could make without fear of going far wrong. In some
+cases I have made use of recent monographs--especially on the shells of
+Europe, North America, the West Indian Islands, and the Sandwich Islands;
+and have, I venture to hope, not fallen into much error in the general
+conclusions at which I have arrived.
+
+
+
+
+{170}CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA.
+
+
+
+_Order I.--PRIMATES._
+
+FAMILY 1.--SIMIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 12 Species).
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Simiidæ, or Anthropoid Apes, comprehend those forms of the monkey-tribe
+which, in general organization, approach nearest to man. They inhabit the
+tropics of the Old World, and are most abundant near the equator; but they
+are limited to certain districts, being quite unknown in eastern and
+southern Africa, and the whole peninsula of Hindostan.
+
+The genus _Troglodytes_ (or _Mimetes_, as it is sometimes named)
+comprehends the chimpanzee and gorilla. It is confined to the West African
+sub-region, being found on the coast about 12° North and South of the
+equator, from the Gambia to Benguela, and as far inland as the great
+equatorial forests extend. There are perhaps other species of chimpanzee;
+since Livingstone met with what he supposed to be a new species in the
+forest region west of Lake Tanganyika, while Dr. Schweinfurth found one in
+the country beyond the western watershed of the Nile. The gorilla is
+confined within narrower limits on and near the equator.
+
+{171}We have to pass over more than 70° of longitude before we again meet
+with Anthropoid Apes, in the northern part of Sumatra--where a specimen of
+the orang-utan (_Simia satyrus_) now in the Calcutta Museum, was obtained
+by Dr. Abel, and described by him in the _Asiatic Researches_, vol.
+xv.--and in Borneo, from which latter island almost all the specimens in
+European museums have been derived. There are supposed to be two species of
+_Simia_ in Borneo, a larger and a smaller; but their distinctness is not
+admitted by all naturalists. Both appear to be confined to the swampy
+forests near the north, west, and south coasts.
+
+The Gibbons, or long-armed apes, forming the genus _Hylobates_, (7 species)
+are found in all the large islands of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, except
+the Philippines; and also in Sylhet and Assam south of the Brahmaputra
+river, eastward to Cambodja and South China to the west of Canton, and in
+the island of Hainan.
+
+The Siamang (_Siamanga syndactyla_) presents some anatomical peculiarities,
+and has the second and third toes united to the last joint, but in general
+form and structure it does not differ from _Hylobates_. It is the largest
+of the long-armed apes, and inhabits Sumatra and the Malay peninsula.
+
+
+FAMILY 2.--SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. (2 Genera, 30 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Semnopithecidæ, are long-tailed monkeys without cheek-pouches, and with
+rather rounded faces, the muzzle not being prominent. They have nearly the
+same distribution as the last family, but are more widely dispersed in both
+Africa and Asia, one species just entering the Palæarctic region.
+
+The Eastern genus _Presbytes_ or _Semnopithecus_ (29 species), is spread
+over almost the whole of the Oriental region wherever the forests are
+extensive. They extend along the Himalayas to beyond Simla, where a species
+has been observed at an altitude of 11,000 {172}feet, playing among
+fir-trees laden with snow wreaths. On the west side of India they are not
+found to the north of 14° N. latitude. On the east they extend into Arakan,
+and to Borneo and Java, but not apparently into Siam or Cambodja. Along the
+eastern extension of the Himalayas they again occur in East Thibet; a
+remarkable species with a large upturned nose (_S. roxellana_) having been
+discovered by Père David at Moupin (about Lat. 32° N.) in the highest
+forests, where the winters are severe and last for several months, and
+where the vegetation, and the other forms of animal life, are wholly those
+of the Palæarctic region. It is very curious that this species should
+somewhat resemble the young state of the proboscis monkey (_S. nasalis_),
+which inhabits one of the most uniform, damp, and hot climates on the
+globe--the river-swamps of Borneo.
+
+_Colobus_, the African genus (11 species), is very closely allied to the
+preceding, differing chiefly in the thumb being absent or rudimentary. They
+are confined to the tropical regions--Abyssinia on the east, and from the
+Gambia to Angola and the island of Fernando Po, on the west.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--CYNOPITHECIDÆ. (7 Genera, 67 Species).
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family comprehends all the monkeys with cheek pouches, and the
+baboons. Some of these have very long tails, some none; some are dog-faced,
+others tolerably round-faced; but there are so many transitions from one to
+the other, and such a general agreement in structure, that they are now
+considered to form a very natural family. Their range is more extensive
+than any other family of Quadrumana, since they not only occur in every
+part of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but enter the Palæarctic region
+in the east and west, and the Australian region as far as the islands of
+Timor and Batchian. The African genera {173}are _Myiopithecus_,
+_Cercopithecus_, _Cercocebus_, _Theropithecus_, and _Cynocephalus_; the
+Oriental genera, _Macacus_, and _Cynopithecus_.
+
+_Myiopithecus_ (1 species), consisting of the talapoin monkey of West
+Africa, differs from the other African monkeys in the structure of the last
+molar tooth; in the large ears, short face, and wide internasal septum; in
+this respect, as well as in its grace and gentleness, resembling some of
+the American monkeys.
+
+_Cercopithecus_ (24 species), contains all the more graceful and prettily
+coloured monkeys of tropical Africa, and comprises the guenons, the
+white-nosed, and the green monkeys. They range from the Gambia to the
+Congo, and from Abyssinia to the Zambesi.
+
+_Cercocebus_ (5 species), the mangabeys, of West Africa, are very closely
+allied to the eastern genus _Macacus_.
+
+_Theropithecus_ (2 species), including the gelada of Abyssinia and an
+allied species, resemble in form the baboons, but have the nostrils placed
+as in the last genus.
+
+_Cynocephalus_ (10 species), the baboons, are found in all parts of Africa.
+They consist of animals which vary much in appearance, but which agree in
+having an elongated dog-like muzzle with terminal nostrils, and being of
+terrestrial habits. Some of the baboons are of very large size, the
+mandrill (_C. maimon_) being only inferior to the orang and gorilla.
+
+_Macacus_ (25 species), is the commonest form of eastern monkey, and is
+found in every part of the Oriental region, as well as in North Africa,
+Gibraltar, Thibet, North China, and Japan; and one of the commonest
+species, _M. cynomolgus_, has extended its range from Java eastward to the
+extremity of Timor. The tail varies greatly in length, and in the Gibraltar
+monkey (_M. innus_) is quite absent. A remarkable species clothed with very
+thick fur, has lately been discovered in the snowy mountains of eastern
+Thibet.
+
+_Cynopithecus_ (? 2 sp.).--This genus consists of a black baboon-like Ape,
+inhabiting Celebes, Batchian, and the Philippine Islands; but perhaps
+introduced by man into the latter islands and into Batchian. It is doubtful
+if there is more than one species. The tail of this animal is a fleshy
+tubercle, the nostrils as in _Macacus_, but the muzzle is very prominent;
+and the {174}development of the maxillary bones into strong lateral ridges
+corresponds to the structure of the most typical baboons. This species
+extends further east than any other quadrumanous animal.
+
+
+FAMILY 4.--CEBIDÆ. (10 Genera, 78 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3  --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cebidæ, which comprehend all the larger American Monkeys, differ from
+those of the Old World by having an additional molar tooth in each jaw, and
+a broad nasal septum; while they have neither cheek-pouches nor ischial
+callosities, and the thumb is never completely opposable. Some have
+prehensile tails, especially adapting them for an arboreal life. They are
+divided into four sub-families,--Cebinæ, Mycetinæ, Pitheciinæ, and
+Nyctipithecinæ. The Cebidæ are strictly confined to the forest regions of
+tropical America, from the southern part of Mexico to about the parallel of
+30° South Latitude. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Sub-family_, Cebinæ.--_Cebus_ (18 sp.), is the largest genus of American
+monkeys, and ranges from Costa Rica to Paraguay. They are commonly called
+sapajous. _Lagothrix_ (5 sp.), the woolly monkeys, are rather larger and
+less active than the preceding; they are confined to the forests of the
+Upper Amazon Valley, and along the slopes of the Andes to Venezuela and
+Bolivia. _Ateles_ (14 sp.), the spider monkeys, have very long limbs and
+tail. They range over the whole area of the family, and occur on the west
+side of the Equatorial Andes and on the Pacific coast of Guatemala.
+_Eriodes_ (3 sp.), are somewhat intermediate between the last two genera,
+and are confined to the eastern parts of Brazil south of the equator. The
+three last mentioned genera have very powerful prehensile tails, the end
+being bare beneath; whereas the species of _Cebus_ have the tail
+{175}completely covered with hair, although prehensile, and therefore not
+so perfect a grasping organ.
+
+_Sub-family_, Mycetinæ, consists of but a single genus, _Mycetes_ (10 sp.),
+the howling monkeys, characterized by having a hollow bony vessel in the
+throat formed by an enlargement of the hyoid bone, which enables them to
+produce a wonderful howling noise. They are large, heavy animals, with a
+powerful and perfect prehensile tail. They range from East Guatemala to
+Paraguay. (Plate XIV., vol. ii., p. 24.)
+
+_Sub-family_, Pitheciinæ, the sakis, have a non-prehensile bushy tail.
+_Pithecia_ (7 sp.), has the tail of moderate length; while _Brachiurus_ (5
+sp.) has it very short. Both appear to be restricted to the great
+equatorial forests of South America.
+
+_Sub-family_, Nyctipithecinæ, are small and elegant monkeys, with long,
+hairy, non-prehensile tails. _Nyctipithecus_ (5 sp.), the night-monkeys or
+douroucoulis, have large eyes, nocturnal habits, and are somewhat lemurine
+in their appearance. They range from Nicaragua to the Amazon and eastern
+Peru. _Saimiris_ or _Chrysothrix_ (3 sp.), the squirrel-monkeys, are
+beautiful and active little creatures, found in most of the tropical
+forests from Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia. _Callithrix_ (11 sp.), are
+somewhat intermediate between the last two genera, and are found all over
+South America from Panama to the southern limits of the great forests.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--HAPALIDÆ. (2 Genera, 32 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hapalidæ, or marmosets, are very small monkeys, which differ from the
+true Cebidæ in the absence of one premolar tooth, while they possess the
+additional molar tooth; so that while they have the same number of teeth
+(thirty-two) as the Old World monkeys, they differ from them even more than
+do the {176}Cebidæ. The thumb is not at all opposable, and all the fingers
+are armed with sharp claws. The hallux, or thumb-like great toe, is very
+small; the tail is long and not prehensile. The two genera _Hapale_ (9
+sp.), and _Midas_ (24 sp.), are of doubtful value, though some naturalists
+have still further sub-divided them. They are confined to the tropical
+forests of South America, and are most abundant in the districts near the
+equator.
+
+
+_Sub-order--LEMUROIDEA._
+
+FAMILY 6.--LEMURIDÆ. (11 Genera, 53 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Lemuridæ, comprehending all the animals usually termed Lemurs and many
+of their allies, are divided by Professor Mivart--who has carefully studied
+the group--into four sub-families and eleven genera, as follows:--
+
+_Sub-family_ Indrisinæ, consisting of the genus _Indris_ (5 sp.), is
+confined to Madagascar.
+
+_Sub-family_ Lemurinæ, contains five genera, viz.:--_Lemur_, (15 sp.);
+_Hapalemur_ (2 sp.); _Microcebus_ (4 sp.); _Chirogaleus_ (5 sp.); and
+_Lepilemur_ (2 sp.);--all confined to Madagascar.
+
+_Sub-family_ Nycticebinæ, contains four genera, viz.:--_Nycticebus_ (3
+sp.)--small, short-tailed, nocturnal animals, called slow-lemurs,--range
+from East Bengal to South China, and to Borneo and Java; _Loris_ (1 sp.)--a
+very small, tail-less, nocturnal lemur, which inhabits Madras, Malabar, and
+Ceylon; _Perodicticus_ (1 sp.)--the potto--a small lemur with almost
+rudimentary forefinger, found at Sierra Leone (Plate V., vol. i., p. 264);
+_Arctocebus_ (1 sp.)--the angwantibo,--another extraordinary form in which
+the forefinger is quite absent and the first toe armed with a long
+claw,--inhabits Old Calabar.
+
+{177}_Sub-family_ Galaginæ, contains only the genus _Galago_ (14 sp.),
+which is confined to the African continent, ranging from Senegal and
+Fernando Po to Zanzibar and Natal.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--TARSIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The curious _Tarsius spectrum_, which constitutes this family, inhabits
+Sumatra, Banca, and Borneo, and is also found in some parts of Celebes,
+which would bring it into the Australian region; but this island is
+altogether so anomalous that we can only consider its productions to have
+somewhat more affinity with the Australian than the Oriental region, but
+hardly to belong to either. The Tarsier is a small, long-tailed, nocturnal
+animal, of curious structure and appearance; and it forms the only link of
+connection with the next family, which it resembles in the extraordinary
+development of the toes, one of which is much larger and more slender than
+the rest. (Plate VIII., vol. i. p. 337.)
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--CHIROMYIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Aye-aye, (_Chiromys_), the sole representative of this family, is
+confined to the island of Madagascar. It was for a long time very
+imperfectly known, and was supposed to belong to the Rodentia; but it has
+now been ascertained to be an exceedingly specialized form of the Lemuroid
+type, and must be considered to be one of the most extraordinary of the
+mammalia now inhabiting the globe. (Plate VI., vol. i., p. 278.)
+
+
+{178}_Fossil Quadrumana._
+
+Not much progress has yet been made in tracing back the various forms of
+Apes and Monkeys to their earliest appearance on the globe; but there have
+been some interesting recent discoveries, which lead us to hope that the
+field is not yet exhausted. The following is a summary of what is known as
+to the early forms of each family:--
+
+_Simiidæ._--Two or three species of this family have been found in the
+Upper Miocene deposits of France and Switzerland. _Pliopithecus_, of which
+a species has been found at each locality, was allied to the gibbons
+(_Hylobates_), and perhaps to _Semnopithecus_. A more remarkable form,
+named _Dryopithecus_, as large as a man, and having peculiarities of
+structure which are thought by Gervais and Lartet to indicate a nearer
+approach to the human form than any existing Ape, has been found in strata
+of the same age in France.
+
+_Semnopithecidæ._--Species of _Semnopithecus_ have been found in the Upper
+Miocene of Greece, and others in the Siwalik Hills of N. W. India, also of
+Upper Miocene age. An allied form also occurs in the Miocene of Wurtemburg.
+_Mesopithecus_ from Greece is somewhat intermediate between _Semnopithecus_
+and _Macacus_.
+
+Remains supposed to be of _Semnopithecus_, have also occurred in the
+Pliocene of Montpellier.
+
+_Cynopithecidæ._--_Macacus_ has occurred in Pliocene deposits at Grays,
+Essex; and also in the South of France along with _Cercopithecus_.
+
+_Cebidæ._--In the caves of Brazil remains of the genera _Cebus_, _Mycetes_,
+_Callithrix_, and _Hapale_, have been found; as well as an extinct form of
+larger size--_Protopithecus_.
+
+_Lemuroidea._--A true lemur has recently been discovered in the Eocene of
+France; and it is supposed to be most nearly allied to the peculiar West
+African genera, _Perodicticus_ and _Arctocebus_.
+
+_Cænopithecus_, from the Swiss Jura, is supposed to have affinities both
+for the Lemuridæ and the American Cebidæ.
+
+In the lower Eocene of North America remains have been {179}discovered,
+which are believed to belong to this sub-order: but they form two distinct
+families,--Lemuravidæ and Limnotheridæ. Other remains from the Miocene are
+believed to be intermediate between these and the Cebidæ,--a most
+interesting and suggestive affinity, if well founded. For the genera of
+these American Lemuroidea, see vol. i., p. 133.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates._
+
+The most striking fact presented by this order, from our present point of
+view, is the strict limitation of well-marked families to definite areas.
+The Cebidæ and Hapalidæ would alone serve to mark out tropical America as
+the nucleus of one of the great zoological divisions of the earth. In the
+Eastern Hemisphere, the corresponding fact is the entire absence of the
+order from the Australian region, with the exception of one or two outlying
+forms, which have evidently transgressed the normal limits of their group.
+The separation of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions is, in this order,
+mainly indicated by the distribution of the genera, no one of which is
+common to the two regions. The two highest families, the Simiidæ and the
+Semnopithecidæ, are pretty equally distributed about two equatorial foci,
+one situated in West Africa, the other in the Malay archipelago,--in Borneo
+or the Peninsula of Malacca;--while the third family, Cynopithecidæ, ranges
+over the whole of both regions, and somewhat overpasses their limits. The
+Lemuroid group, on the other hand, offers us one of the most singular
+phenomena in geographical distribution. It consists of three families, the
+species of which are grouped into six sub-families and 13 genera. One of
+these families and two of the sub-families, comprising 7 genera, and no
+less than 30 out of the total of 50 species, are confined to the one island
+of Madagascar. Of the remainder, 3 genera, comprising 15 species, are
+spread over tropical Africa; while three other genera with 5 species,
+inhabit certain restricted portions of India and the Malay islands. These
+curious facts point unmistakably to the former existence of a large tract
+of land in what is now the Indian Ocean, connecting Madagascar on the one
+hand with Ceylon, and with the Malay countries on the {180}other. About
+this same time (but perhaps not contemporaneously) Madagascar must have
+been connected with some portion of Southern Africa, and the whole of the
+country would possess no other Primates but Lemuroidea. After the
+Madagascar territory (very much larger than the existing island) had been
+separated, a connection appears to have been long maintained (probably by a
+northerly route) between the more equatorial portions of Asia and Africa;
+till those higher forms had become developed, which were afterwards
+differentiated into _Simia_, _Presbytes_, and _Cynopithecus_, on the one
+hand, and into _Troglodytes_, _Colobus_, and _Cynocephalus_, on the other.
+In accordance with the principle of competition so well expounded by Mr.
+Darwin, we can understand how, in the vast Asiatic and African area north
+of the Equator, with a great variety of physical conditions and the
+influence of a host of competing forms of life, higher types were developed
+than in the less extensive and long-isolated countries south of the
+Equator. In Madagascar, where these less complex conditions prevailed in a
+considerable land-area, the lowly organized Lemuroids have diverged into
+many specialized forms of their own peculiar type; while on the continents
+they have, to a great extent, become exterminated, or have maintained their
+existence in a few cases, in islands or in mountain ranges. In Africa the
+nocturnal and arboreal _Galagos_ are adapted to a special mode of life, in
+which they probably have few competitors.
+
+How and when the ancestors of the Cebidæ and Hapalidæ entered the South
+American continent, it is less easy to conceive. The only rays of light we
+yet have on the subject are, the supposed affinities of the fossil
+_Cænopithecus_ of the Swiss, and the Lemuravidæ of the North American
+Eocene, with both Cebidæ and Lemuroids, and the fact that in Miocene or
+Eocene times a mild climate prevailed up to the Arctic circle. The
+discovery of an undoubted Lemuroid in the Eocene of Europe, indicates that
+the great Northern Continent was probably the birthplace of this low type
+of mammal, and the source whence Africa and Southern Asia were peopled with
+them, as it was, at a later period, with the higher forms of monkeys and
+apes.
+
+
+{181}_Order II.--CHIROPTERA._
+
+FAMILY 9.--PTEROPIDÆ. (9 Genera, 65 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pteropidæ, or fruit-eating Bats, sometimes called flying-foxes, are
+pretty evenly distributed over the tropical regions of the Old World and
+Australia. They range over all Africa and the whole of the Oriental Region,
+and northward, to Amoy in China and to the South of Japan. They are also
+found in the more fertile parts of Australia and Tasmania, and in the
+Pacific Islands as far east as the Marianne and Samoa Islands; but not in
+the Sandwich Islands or New Zealand.
+
+The genera of bats are exceedingly numerous, but they are in a very
+unsettled state, and the synonymy is exceedingly confused. The details of
+their distribution cannot therefore be usefully entered into here. The
+Pteropidæ differ so much from all other bats, that they are considered to
+form a distinct suborder of Chiroptera, and by some naturalists even a
+distinct order of Mammalia.
+
+No fossil Pteropidæ have been discovered.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ. (31 Genera, 60 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. --|1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Phyllostomidæ, or simple leaf-nosed Bats, are confined to the
+Neotropical region, from Mexico and the Antilles to the {182}southern
+limits of the forest region east of the Andes, and to about lat. 33° S. in
+Chili. None are found in the Nearctic region, with the exception of one
+species in California (_Macrotus Californicus_), closely allied to Mexican
+and West Indian forms. The celebrated blood-sucking vampyre bats of South
+America belong to this group. Two genera, _Desmodus_ and _Diphylla_, form
+Dr. Peters' family Desmodidæ. Mr. Dobson, in his recently published
+arrangement, divides the family into five groups:--Mormopes, Vampyri,
+Glossophagæ, Stenodermata, and Desmodontes.
+
+Numerous remains of extinct species of this family have been found in the
+bone-caves of Brazil.
+
+
+FAMILY 11.--RHINOLOPHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 70 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Rhinolophidæ, or Horse-shoe Bats (so-called from a curiously-shaped
+membranous appendance to the nose), range over all the Ethiopian and
+Oriental regions, the southern part of the Palæarctic region, Australia and
+Tasmania. They are most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, where
+twelve genera are found; while only five inhabit the Australian and
+Ethiopian regions respectively. Europe has only one genus and four species,
+mostly found in the southern parts, and none going further north than the
+latitude of England, where two species occur. Two others are found in
+Japan, at the opposite extremity of the Palæarctic region.
+
+The genera _Nycteris_ and _Megaderma_, which range over the Ethiopian and
+Oriental regions to the Moluccas, are considered by Dr. Peters to form a
+distinct family, Megadermidæ; and Mr. Dobson in his recent arrangement
+(published after our first {183}volume was printed) adopts the same family
+under the name of Nycteridæ. The curious Indian genus _Rhinopoma_, which,
+following Dr. J. E. Gray, we have classed in this family, is considered by
+Mr. Dobson to belong to the Noctilionidæ.
+
+_Fossil Rhinolophidæ._--Remains of a species of _Rhinolophus_ still living
+in England, have been found in Kent's Cavern, near Torquay.
+
+
+FAMILY 12.--VESPERTILIONIDÆ (18 Genera, 200 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The small bats constituting the family Vespertilionidæ, have no
+nose-membrane, but an internal earlet or _tragus_, and often very large
+ears. They range over almost the whole globe, being apparently only limited
+by the necessity of procuring insect food. In America they are found as far
+north as Hudson's Bay and the Columbia river; and in Europe they approach,
+if they do not pass the Arctic circle. Such remote islands as the Azores,
+Bermudas, Fiji Islands, Sandwich Islands, and New Zealand, all possess
+species of this group of bats, some of which probably inhabit every island
+in warm or temperate parts of the globe.
+
+The genus _Taphozous_, which, in our Tables of Distribution in vol. i. we
+have included in this family, is placed by Mr. Dobson in his family
+Emballonuridæ, which is equivalent to our next family, Noctilionidæ.
+
+_Fossil Vespertilionidæ._--Several living European bats of this
+family--_Scotophilus murinus_, _Plecotus auritus_, _Vespertilio noctula_,
+and _V. pipestrellus_--have been found fossil in bone-caves in various
+parts of Europe.
+
+Extinct species of _Vespertilio_ have occurred in the Lower Miocene at
+Mayence, in the Upper Miocene of the South of France, and in the Upper
+Eocene of the Paris basin.
+
+
+{184}FAMILY 13.--NOCTILIONIDÆ. (14 Genera, 50 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Noctilionidæ, or short-headed Bats, are found in every region, but are
+very unequally distributed. Their head-quarters is the Neotropical region,
+where most of the genera occur, and where they range from Mexico to Buenos
+Ayres and Chili, while in North America there is only one species in
+California. They are unknown in Australia; but one species occurs in New
+Zealand, and another in Norfolk Island. Several species of _Dysopes_ (or
+_Molossus_) inhabit the Oriental region; one or two species being widely
+distributed over the continent, while two others inhabit the Indo-Malayan
+Islands. A species of this same genus occurs in South Africa, and another
+in Madagascar and in the Island of Bourbon; while one inhabits Southern
+Europe and North Africa, and another is found at Amoy in China. It will be
+seen therefore, that these are really South American bats, which have a few
+allies widely scattered over the various regions of the globe. Their
+affinities are, according to Mr. Tomes, with the Phyllostomidæ, a purely
+South American family. The species which forms the connecting link is the
+_Mystacina tuberculata_, a New Zealand bat, which may, with almost equal
+propriety be placed in either family, and which affords an interesting
+illustration of the many points of resemblance between the Australian and
+Neotropical regions.
+
+Dr. Peters has separated this family into three,--Mormopidæ, which is
+wholly Neotropical, and is especially abundant in the West Indian Islands;
+Molossidæ, chiefly consisting of the genus _Molossus_; and Noctilionidæ,
+comprising the remainder of the family, and wholly Neotropical. Mr. Dobson,
+however, classes the Mormopes with the Phyllostomidæ, and reduces the
+{185}Molossi to the rank of a sub-family. In our first volume we have
+classed _Rhinopoma_ with the Rhinolophidæ, and _Taphozous_ with the
+Vespertilionidæ; but according to Mr. Dobson both these genera belong to
+the present family.
+
+
+_Remarks on the Distribution of the Order Chiroptera._
+
+Although the bats, from their great powers of flight, are not amenable to
+the limitations which determine the distribution of other terrestrial
+mammals, yet certain great facts of distribution come out in a very
+striking manner. The speciality of the Neotropical region is well shown,
+not only by its exclusive possession of one large family (Phyllostomidæ),
+but almost equally so by the total absence of two others (Pteropidæ and
+Rhinolophidæ). The Nearctic region is also unusually well marked, by the
+total absence of a family (Rhinolophidæ) which is tolerably well
+represented in the Palæarctic. The Pteropidæ well characterize the tropical
+regions of the Old World and Australia; while the Vespertilionidæ are more
+characteristic of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, which together
+possess about 60 species of this family.
+
+The bats are a very difficult study, and it is quite uncertain how many
+distinct species are really known. Schinz, in his _Synopsis Mammalium_
+(1844) describes 330, while the list given by Mr. Andrew Murray in his
+_Geographical Distribution of Mammalia_ (1866), contains 400 species. A
+small number of new species have been since described, but others have been
+sunk as synonyms, so that we can perhaps hardly obtain a nearer
+approximation to the truth than the last number. In Europe there are 35
+species, and only 17 in North America.
+
+_Fossil Chiroptera._--The fossil remains of bats that have yet been
+discovered, being chiefly allied to forms still existing in the same
+countries, throw no light on the origin or affinities of this remarkable
+and isolated order of Mammalia; but as species very similar to those now
+living were in existence so far back as Miocene or even Eocene times, we
+may be sure the group is one of immense antiquity, and that there has been
+ample time for the amount of variation and extinction required to bring
+about {186}the limitation of types, and the peculiarities of distribution
+we now find to exist.
+
+
+_Order III.--INSECTIVORA._
+
+FAMILY 14.--GALEOPITHECIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The singular and isolated genus _Galeopithecus_, or flying lemur, has been
+usually placed among the Lemuroidea, but it is now considered to come best
+at the head of the Insectivora. Its food however, seems to be purely
+vegetable, and the very small, blind, and naked young, closely attached to
+the wrinkled skin of the mother's breast, perhaps indicates some affinity
+with the Marsupials. This animal seems, in fact, to be a lateral offshoot
+of some low form, which has survived during the process of development of
+the Insectivora, the Lemuroidea, and the Marsupials, from an ancestral
+type. Only two species are known, one found in Malacca, Sumatra, and
+Borneo, but not in Java; the other in the Philippine islands (Plate VIII.
+vol. i. p. 337).
+
+
+FAMILY 15.--MACROSCELIDIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Macroscelides, or elephant shrews, are extraordinary little animals,
+with trunk-like snout and kangaroo-like hind-legs. They are almost confined
+to South Africa, whence they extend up the east coast as far as the Zambezi
+and Mozambique. A {187}single outlying species of _Macroscelides_ inhabits
+Barbary and Algeria; while the two genera _Petrodromus_, and _Rhyncocyon_,
+each represented by a single species, have only been found at Mozambique.
+
+
+FAMILY 16.--TUPAIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tupaiidæ are squirrel-like shrews, having bushy tails, and often
+climbing up trees, but also feeding on the ground and among low bushes. The
+typical _Tupaia_ (7 species), are called ground squirrels by the Malays.
+They are most abundant in the Malay islands and Indo-Chinese countries, but
+one species is found in the Khasia Mountains, and one in the Eastern Ghauts
+near Madras. The small shorter-tailed _Hylomys_ (2 species) is found from
+Tenasserim to Java and Borneo; while the elegant little _Ptilocerus_ (1
+species) with its long pencilled tail, is confined to Borneo; (Plate VIII.
+vol. i. p. 337). The family is therefore especially Malayan, with outlying
+species in northern and continental India.
+
+_Extinct Species._--_Oxygomphus_, found in the Tertiary deposits of
+Germany, is believed to belong to this family; as is _Omomys_, from the
+Pliocene of the United States.
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--ERINACEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 15 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. -- 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hedgehogs, comprised in the genus _Erinaceus_ (14 species), are widely
+distributed over the Palæarctic, and a part of the {188}Oriental regions;
+but they only occur in the Ethiopian region in South Africa and in the
+Deserts of the north, which more properly belong to the Palæarctic region.
+They are absent from the Malayan, and also from the Indo-Chinese
+sub-regions; except that they extend from the north of China to Amoy and
+Formosa and into the temperate highlands of the Western Himalayas. The
+curious _Gymnura_ (1 species) is found in Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay
+peninsula.
+
+_Extinct Species._--The common hedgehog has been found fossil in several
+Post-tertiary deposits, while extinct species occur in the lower Miocene of
+Auvergne and in some other parts of Europe. Many of these remains are
+classed in different genera from the living species;--(_Amphechinus_,
+_Tetracus_, _Galerix_.)
+
+
+FAMILY 18.--CENTETIDÆ. (6 Genera, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Centetidæ are small animals, many of them having a spiny covering,
+whence the species of _Centetes_ have been called Madagascar hedgehogs. The
+genera _Centetes_ (2 species), _Hemicentetes_ (1 species), _Ericulus_ (1
+species), _Echinops_ (3 species), and the recently described _Oryzorictes_
+(1 species), are all exclusively inhabitants of Madagascar, and are almost
+or quite tail-less. The remaining genus, _Solenodon_, is a more slender and
+active animal, with a long, rat-like tail, shrew-like head, and coarse fur;
+and the two known species are among the very few indigenous mammals of the
+West Indian islands, one being found in Cuba (Plate XVII., vol. ii., p.
+67), the other in Hayti. Although presenting many points of difference in
+detail, the essential characters of this curious animal are, according to
+Professors Peters and Mivart, identical with the rest of the Centetidæ. We
+have thus a most remarkable and well-established case of discontinuous
+distribution, two portions of the same family {189}being now separated from
+each other by an extensive continent, as well as by a deep ocean.
+
+_Extinct Species._--Remains found in the Lower Miocene of the South of
+France are believed to belong to the genus _Echinops_, or one closely
+allied to it.
+
+
+FAMILY 19.--POTAMOGALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Potamogale_ was founded on a curious, small, otter-like animal
+from West Africa, first found by M. Du Chaillu at the Gaboon, and
+afterwards by the Portuguese at Angola. Its affinities are with several
+groups of Insectivora, but it is sufficiently peculiar to require the
+establishment of a distinct family for its reception. (Plate V., vol. i.,
+p. 264.)
+
+
+FAMILY 20.--CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3.-- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Chrysochloridæ, or golden moles, of the Cape of Good Hope have been
+separated by Professor Mivart into two genera, _Chrysochloris_ and
+_Chalcochloris_. They are remarkable mole-like animals, having beautiful
+silky fur, with a metallic lustre and changeable golden tints. They are
+peculiar to the Cape district, but one species extends as far north as the
+Mozambique territory. Their dentition is altogether peculiar, so as to
+completely separate them from the true moles.
+
+
+{190}FAMILY 21.--TALPIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Moles comprise many extraordinary forms of small mammalia especially
+characteristic of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, only
+sending out a few species of _Talpa_ along the Himalayas as far as Assam,
+and even to Tenasserim, if there is no mistake about this locality; while
+one species is found in Formosa, the northern part of which is almost as
+much Palæarctic as Oriental. The genus _Talpa_ (7 species), spreads over
+the whole Palæarctic region from Great Britain to Japan; _Scaptochirus_ (1
+species) is a recent discovery in North China; _Condylura_ (1 species), the
+star-nosed mole, inhabits Eastern North America from Nova Scotia to
+Pennsylvania; _Scapanus_ (2 species) ranges across from New York to St.
+Francisco; _Scalops_ (3 species), the shrew-moles, range from Mexico to the
+great lakes on the east side of America, but on the west only to the north
+of Oregon. An allied genus, _Myogale_ (2 species), has a curious
+discontinuous distribution in Europe, one species being found in South-East
+Russia, the other in the Pyrenees (Plate II., vol. i., p. 218). Another
+allied genus, _Nectogale_ (1 species), has recently been described by
+Professor Milne-Edwards from Thibet. _Urotrichus_ is a shrew-like mole
+which inhabits Japan, and a second species has been discovered in the
+mountains of British Columbia; an allied form, _Uropsilus_, inhabits East
+Thibet. _Anurosorex_ and _Scaptonyx_, are new genera from North China.
+
+_Extinct Species._--The common mole has been found fossil in bone-caves and
+diluvial deposits, and several extinct species of mole-like animals occur
+in the Miocene deposits of the South of France and of Germany. These have
+been described under the generic names _Dimylus_, _Geotrypus_,
+_Hyporissus_, _Galeospalax_; while _Palæospalax_ has been found in the
+Pliocene forest-beds of Norfolk {191}and Ostend. Species of _Myogale_ also
+occur from the Miocene downwards.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--SORICIDÆ. (1 Genus, 11 Sub-genera, 65 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Shrews have a wide distribution, being found throughout every region
+except the Australian and Neotropical; although, as a species is found in
+Timor and in some of the Moluccas, they just enter this part of the former
+region, while one found in Guatemala brings them into the latter. A number
+of species have recently been described from India and the Malay Islands,
+so that the Oriental region is now the richest in shrews, having 28
+species; the Nearctic comes next with 24; while the Ethiopian has 11, and
+the Palæarctic 10 species. The sub-genera are _Crossopus_, _Amphisorex_,
+_Neosorex_, _Crocidura_, _Diplomesodon_, _Pinulia_, _Pachyura_, _Blarina_,
+_Feroculus_, _Anausorex_.
+
+_Extinct Species._--Several species of _Sorex_ have been found fossil in
+the Miocene of the South of France, as well as the extinct genera
+_Mysarachne_ and _Plesiosorex_; and some existing species have occurred in
+Bone Caves and Diluvial deposits.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Insectivora._
+
+The most prominent features in the distribution of the Insectivora
+are,--their complete absence from South America and Australia; the presence
+of _Solenodon_ in two of the West Indian islands while the five allied
+genera are found only in Madagascar; and the absence of hedgehogs from
+North America. If we consider that there are only 135 known species of the
+order, 65 of which belong to the one genus _Sorex_; while the remaining 26
+genera contain only 70 species, which have to be classed in 8 distinct
+families, and present such divergent and highly specialized forms as
+_Galeopithecus_, _Erinaceus_, _Solenodon_, and _Condylura_, it becomes
+evident that we have here the detached fragments of a much more
+{192}extensive group of animals, now almost extinct. Many of the forms
+continue to exist only in islands, removed from the severe competition of a
+varied mammalian population, as in Madagascar and the Antilles; while
+others appear to have escaped extermination either by their peculiar
+habits--as the various forms of Moles; by special protection--as in the
+Hedgehogs; or by a resemblance in form, coloration, and habits to dominant
+groups in their own district--as the Tupaias of Malay which resemble
+squirrels, and the Elephant-shrews of Africa which resemble the jerboas.
+The numerous cases of isolated and discontinuous distribution among the
+Insectivora, offer no difficulty from this point of view; since they are
+the necessary results of an extensive and widely-spread group of animals
+slowly becoming extinct, and continuing to exist only where special
+conditions have enabled them to maintain themselves in the struggle with
+more highly organized forms.
+
+The fossil Insectivora do not throw much light on the early history of the
+order, since even as far back as the Miocene period they consist almost
+wholly of forms which can be referred to existing families. In North
+America they go back to the Eocene period, if certain doubtful remains have
+been rightly placed. The occurrence of fossil Centetidæ in Europe, supports
+the view we have maintained in preceding chapters, that the existing
+distribution of this family between Madagascar and the Antilles, proves no
+direct connection between those islands, but only shows us that the family
+once had an extensive range.
+
+
+_Order IV--CARNIVORA._
+
+FAMILY 23.--FELIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Sub-genera, 66 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cats are very widely distributed over the earth--with the exception of
+the Australian region and the island sub-region {193}of Madagascar and the
+Antilles--universally; ranging from the torrid zone to the Arctic regions
+and the Straits of Magellan. They are so uniform in their organization that
+many naturalists group them all under one genus, _Felis_; but it is now
+more usual to class at least the lynxes as a separate genus, while the
+hunting leopard, or cheetah, forms another. Dr. J. E. Gray divides these
+again, and makes 17 generic groups; but as this subdivision is not
+generally adopted, and does not bring out any special features of
+geographical distribution, I shall not further notice it.
+
+The genus _Felis_ (56 species) has the same general range as the whole
+family, except that it does not go so far north; the Amoor river in Eastern
+Asia, and 55° N. Lat. in America, marking its limits. _Lyncus_ (10 species)
+is a more northern group, ranging to the polar regions in Europe and Asia,
+and to Lat. 66° N. in America, but not going further south than Northern
+Mexico and the European shores of the Mediterranean, except the caracal,
+which may be another genus, and which extends to Central India, Persia,
+North Africa and even the Cape of Good Hope. The lynxes are thus almost
+wholly peculiar to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions. _Cynælurus_ (1
+species) the hunting leopard, ranges from Southern and Western India
+through Persia, Syria, Northern and Central Africa, to the Cape of Good
+Hope.
+
+_Extinct Felidæ._--More than twenty extinct species of true Felidæ have
+been described, ranging in time from the epoch of prehistoric man back to
+the Miocene or even the Eocene period. They occur in the south of England,
+in Central and South Europe, in North-West India, in Nebraska in North
+America, and in the caves of Brazil. Most of them are referred to the genus
+_Felis_, and closely resemble the existing lions, tigers, and other large
+cats. Another group however forms the genus _Machairodus_, a highly
+specialized form with serrated teeth. Five species have been described from
+Europe, Northern India, and both North and South America; and it is
+remarkable that they exhibit at least as wide a range, both in space and
+time, as the more numerous species referred to _Felis_. One of them
+undoubtedly coexisted {194}with man in England, while another, as well as
+the allied _Dinictis_, has been found in the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska,
+associated with _Anchitherium_ and other extinct and equally remarkable
+forms, which are certainly Miocene if not, as some geologists think,
+belonging to the Eocene period. These facts clearly indicate that we have
+as yet made little approach to discovering the epoch when Felidæ
+originated, since the oldest forms yet discovered are typical and highly
+specialized representatives of a group which is itself the most specialized
+of the Carnivora. Another genus, _Pseudælurus_, is common to the Miocene
+deposits of Europe and North America.
+
+
+FAMILY 24.--CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The _Cryptoprocta ferox_, a small and graceful cat-like animal, peculiar to
+Madagascar, was formerly classed among the Viverridæ, but is now considered
+by Professor Flower to constitute a distinct family between the Cats and
+the Civets.
+
+
+FAMILY 25.--VIVERRIDÆ. (8-33 Genera, 100 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Viverridæ comprise a number of small and moderate-sized carnivorous
+animals, popularly known as civets, genets, and ichneumons, highly
+characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, several of the genera
+being common to both. A species of _Genetta_, and one of _Herpestes_,
+inhabit South Europe; while _Viverra_ extends to the Moluccas, but is
+doubtfully indigenous. The extreme geographical limits of the family are
+marked by {195}_Genetta_ in France and Spain, _Viverra_ in Shanghae and
+Batchian Island, and _Herpestes_ in Java and the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+The following are the genera with their distribution as given by Dr. J. E.
+Gray in his latest British Museum Catalogue:
+
+Sub-family VIVERRINÆ.--_Viverra_ (3 species), North and tropical Africa,
+the whole Oriental region to the Moluccas; _Viverricula_ (1 species) India
+to Java; _Genetta_ (5 species), South Europe, Palestine, Arabia, and all
+Africa; _Fossa_ (1 species), Madagascar; _Linsang_ (2 species), Malacca to
+Java; _Poiana_ (1 species), West Africa; _Galidia_ (3 species), Madagascar;
+_Hemigalea_ (1 species), Malacca and Borneo; _Arctictis_ (1 species) Nepal
+to Sumatra and Java; _Nandinia_ (1 species), West Africa; _Paradoxurus_ (9
+species), the whole Oriental region; _Paguma_ (3 species), Nepal to China,
+Sumatra, and Borneo; _Arctogale_ (1 species), Tenasserim to Java.
+
+Sub-family HERPESTINÆ.--_Cynogale_ (1 species), Borneo; _Galidictis_ (2
+species), Madagascar; _Herpestes_ (22 species), South Palæarctic,
+Ethiopian, and Oriental regions; _Athylax_ (3 species), Tropical and South
+Africa; _Galogale_ (13 species), all Africa, North India, to Cambodja;
+_Galerella_ (1 species), East Africa; _Calictis_ (1 species), Ceylon (?);
+_Ariella_ (1 species), South Africa; _Ichneumia_ (4 species), Central,
+East, and South Africa; _Bdeogale_ (3 species), West and East Africa;
+_Urva_ (1 species), Himalayas to Aracan; _Tæniogale_ (1 species), Central
+India; _Onychogale_ (1 species), Ceylon; _Helogale_ (2 species) East and
+South Africa; _Cynictis_ (3 species), South Africa.
+
+Sub-family RHINOGALIDÆ.--_Rhinogale_ (1 species), East Africa; _Mungos_ (3
+species), all Africa; _Crossarchus_ (1 species), Tropical Africa;
+_Eupleres_ (1 species), Madagascar; _Suricata_ (1 species), South Africa.
+
+_Fossil Viverridæ._--Several species of _Viverra_ and _Genetta_ have been
+found in the Upper Miocene of France, and many extinct genera have also
+been discovered. The most remarkable of these was _Ictitherium_, from the
+Upper Miocene of Greece, which has also been found in Hungary, Bessarabia,
+and France. Some of the species were larger than any living forms of
+Viverridæ, and approached the hyænas. Other extinct genera are
+_Thalassictis_ {196}and _Soricictis_ from the Upper Miocene, the former as
+large as a panther; _Tylodon_, of small size, from the Upper Eocene; and
+_Palæonyctis_ from the Lower Eocene, also small and showing a very great
+antiquity for this family, if really belonging to it.
+
+
+FAMILY 26.--PROTELIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+
+The curious _Proteles_ or Aard-wolf, a highly-modified form of hyæna,
+approaching the ichneumons, and feeding on white ants and carrion, is
+peculiar to South Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 27.--HYÆNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hyænas are characteristically Ethiopian, to which region two of the
+species are confined. The third, _Hyæna striata_, ranges over all the open
+country of India to the foot of the Himalayas, and through Persia, Asia
+Minor, and North Africa. Its fossil remains have been found in France.
+
+_Extinct Species._--The cave hyæna (_H. spelæa_) occurs abundantly in the
+caverns of this country and of Central Europe, and is supposed to be most
+nearly allied to the _H. crocuta_ of South Africa. Another species is found
+in some parts of France. The earliest known true hyænas occur in the
+Pliocene formation in France, in the Red Crag (Older Pliocene) of England,
+and in the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik hills. In the Miocene period in
+Europe, quite distinct genera are found, such as Hyænictis and _Lycæna_
+from the Upper Miocene of Greece; {197}_Ictitherium_, supposed to be
+intermediate between Viverridæ and Hyænidæ; and _Thalassictis_, uniting the
+weasels and hyænas.
+
+
+FAMILY 28.--CANIDÆ. (3 Genera, 17 Sub-Genera, 54 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2? -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Canidæ, comprising the animals commonly known as dogs, wolves, and
+foxes, have an almost universal range over the earth, being only absent
+from the island sub-regions of Madagascar, the Antilles, Austro-Malaya, New
+Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. With the exception of two remarkable
+forms--the hyæna dog (_Lycaon picta_), and the great-eared fox (_Megalotis
+Lalandei_), both from South Africa--all the species are usually placed in
+the genus _Canis_, the distribution of which will be the same as that of
+the family. Dr. J. E. Gray, in his arrangement of the family (Proc. Zool.
+Soc., 1868), subdivides it into fifteen genera, the names and general
+distribution of which are as follows:--
+
+_Icticyon_ (1 species), Brazil; _Cuon_ (4 species), Siberia to Java;
+_Lupus_ (5 species), North America, Europe, India to Ceylon; _Dieba_ (1
+species), North and West Africa; _Simenia_ (1 species), Abyssinia;
+_Chrysocyon_ (2 species), North and South America; _Canis_ (4 species),
+India, Australia (indigenous?) _Lycalopex_ (2 species), South America;
+_Pseudalopex_ (5 species), South America and Falkland Islands; _Thous_ (2
+species), South America to Chili; _Vulpes_ (17 species), all the great
+continents, except South America and Australia; _Fennecus_ (4 species), all
+Africa; _Leucocyon_ (1 species), Arctic regions; _Urocyon_ (2 species),
+North America; _Nyctereutes_ (1 species), Japan, Amoorland to Canton (Plate
+III., vol. i. p. 226). These are all sub-genera according to Professor
+Carus, except _Icticyon_. The same author makes Lycaon a sub-genus, while
+Dr. Gray makes it a sub-family!
+
+_Extinct Species._--The dog, wolf, and fox, are found fossil in
+{198}caverns in many parts of Europe, and several extinct species have been
+found in Tertiary deposits in Europe, North India, and South America. Two
+species have been found so far back as the Eocene of France, but the
+fragments discovered are not sufficient to determine the characters with
+any certainty. In North America, several species of _Canis_ occur in the
+Pliocene of Nebraska and La Plata. The genus _Galecynus_, of the Pliocene
+of Oeninghen, and _Palæocyon_, of the Brazilian caves, are supposed to
+belong to the Canidæ. _Amphicyon_ abounded in the Miocene period, both in
+Europe and North America; and some of the species were as large as a tiger.
+Other extinct genera are, _Cynodictis_, _Cyotherium_, and _Galethylax_,
+from the Eocene of France; _Pseudocyon_, _Simocyon_, and _Hemicyon_, from
+the Miocene; but all these show transition characters to Viverridæ or
+Ursidæ, and do not perhaps belong to the present family.
+
+
+FAMILY 29.--MUSTELIDÆ. (21-28 Genera, 92 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3  --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Mustelidæ constitute one of those groups which range over the whole of
+the great continental areas. They may be divided into three
+sub-families--one, the Mustelinæ, containing the weasels, gluttons, and
+allied forms; a second, the Lutrinæ, containing the otters; and a third,
+often considered a distinct family, the Melininæ, containing the badgers,
+ratels, skunks, and their allies.
+
+In the first group (Mustelinæ) the genera _Martes_ and _Putorius_ (13
+species), range over all the Palæarctic region, and a considerable part of
+the Oriental, extending through India to Ceylon, and to Java and Borneo.
+Two species of _Martes_ (= _Mustela_ of Baird) occur in the United States.
+The weasels, forming the genus _Mustela_ (20 species), have a still wider
+range, extending into tropical Africa and the Cordilleras of Peru, but
+{199}not going south of the Himalayas in India. The North American species
+are placed in the genus _Putorius_ by Professor Baird. An allied genus,
+_Gymnopus_ (4 species), is confined to the third and fourth Oriental
+sub-regions. _Gulo_ (1 species), the glutton, is an arctic animal keeping
+to the cold regions of Europe and Asia, and coming as far south as the
+great lakes in North America. _Galictis_ (2 species), the grisons, are
+confined to the Neotropical region.
+
+The Otters (Lutrinæ) range over the whole area occupied by the family. They
+have been subdivided into a number of groups, such as _Barangia_ (1
+species), found only in Sumatra; _Lontra_, containing 3 South American
+species; _Lutra_ (7 species), ranging over the whole of the Palæarctic and
+Oriental regions; _Nutria_ (1 species), a sea-otter confined to the west
+coast of America from California to Chiloe; _Lutronectes_ (1 species), from
+Japan only; _Aonyx_ (5 species), found in West and South Africa, and the
+third and fourth Oriental sub-regions. _Hydrogale_ (1 species), confined to
+South Africa; _Latax_ (2 species), Florida and California to Canada and
+British Columbia; _Pteronura_ (1 species), Brazil and Surinam; and
+_Enhydris_ (1 species), the peculiar sea-otter of California, Kamschatka
+and Japan. The last two are the only groups of otters, besides _Lutra_,
+admitted by Professor Carus as genera.
+
+The Badgers and allies (Melininæ) have also a wide range, but with one
+exception are absent from South America. They comprise the following
+genera: _Arctonyx_ (1 species), Nepal to Aracan; _Meles_ (4 species), North
+Europe to Japan, and China as far south as Hongkong (Plate I., vol. i., p.
+195); _Taxidea_ (2 species), Central and Western North America to 58° N.
+Lat.; _Mydaus_ (1 species), mountains of Java and Sumatra; _Melivora_ (3
+species), Tropical and South Africa and India to foot of Himalayas;
+_Mephitis_ (12 species), America from Canada and British Columbia to the
+Straits of Magellan (Plate XX., vol. ii., p. 136). _Ictonyx_ (2 species),
+Tropical Africa to the Cape; _Helictis_ (4 species), Nepal to Java, Formosa
+and Shanghai (Plate VII., vol. i. p. 331).
+
+_Fossil Mustelidæ._--Species of otter, weasel, badger, and glutton, occur
+in European bone caves and other Post-tertiary deposits; and in North
+America _Galictis_, now found only in the Neotropical region, and, with
+_Mephitis_, occurring in Brazilian caves.
+
+{200}Species of _Mustela_ have been found in the Pliocene of France and of
+South America; and _Lutra_ in the Pliocene of North America.
+
+In the Miocene deposits of Europe several species of _Mustela_ and _Lutra_
+have been found; with the extinct genera _Taxodon_, _Potamotherium_, and
+_Palæomephitis_; as well as _Promephitis_ in Greece.
+
+In the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik Hills species of _Lutra_ and
+_Mellivora_ are found, as well as the extinct genera _Enhydrion_ and
+_Ursitaxus_.
+
+The family appears to have been unknown in North America during the Miocene
+period.
+
+
+FAMILY 30.--PROCYONIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Procyonidæ are a small, but very curious and interesting family of
+bear-like quadrupeds, ranging from British Columbia and Canada on the
+north, to Paraguay and the limits of the tropical forests on the south.
+
+The Racoons, forming the genus _Procyon_, are common all over North
+America; a well-marked variety or distinct species inhabiting the west
+coast, and another, most parts of South America. The genus _Nasua_, or the
+coatis (5 species?), extends from Mexico and Guatemala to Paraguay. The
+curious arboreal prehensile-tailed kinkagou (_Cercoleptes candivolvus_) is
+also found in Mexico and Guatemala, and in all the great forests of Peru
+and North Brazil. _Bassaris_ (2 species), a small weasel-like animal with a
+banded tail, has been usually classed with the Viverridæ or Mustelidæ, but
+is now found to agree closely in all important points of internal structure
+with this family. It is found in California, Texas, and the highlands of
+Mexico, and belongs therefore as much to the Nearctic as to the Neotropical
+region. A second species has recently been described by Professor Peters
+{201}from Coban in Guatemala, in which, country it has also been observed
+by Mr. Salvin.
+
+_Fossil Procyonidæ._--A species of _Nasua_ has been found in the bone caves
+of Brazil, and a _Procyon_ in the Pliocene or Post-pliocene deposits of
+Illinois and Carolina.
+
+
+FAMILY 31.--ÆLURIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Panda (_Ælurus fulgens_), of the forest regions of the Eastern
+Himalayas and East Thibet, a small cat-like bear, has peculiarities of
+organization which render it necessary to place it in a family by itself.
+(Plate VII. vol. i. p. 331). An allied genus, _Æluropus_, a remarkable
+animal of larger size and in colour nearly all white, has recently been
+described by Professor Milne-Edwards, from the mountains of East Thibet; so
+that the family may be said to inhabit the border lands of the Oriental and
+Palæarctic regions. These animals have their nearest allies in the coatis
+and bears.
+
+
+FAMILY 32.--URSIDÆ. (5 Genera, or Sub-genera, 15 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Bears have a tolerably wide distribution, although they are entirely
+absent from the Australian and Ethiopian, and almost so from the
+Neotropical region, one species only being found in the Andes of Peru and
+Chili. They comprise the following groups, some of which are doubtfully
+ranked as genera.
+
+_Thalassarctos_, the polar bear (1 species) inhabiting the Arctic regions;
+_Ursus_, the true bears (12 species), which range over {202}all the
+Nearctic and Palæarctic regions as far as the Atlas Mountains, the
+Indo-Chinese sub-region in the mountains, and to Hainan and Formosa;
+_Helarctos_, the Malay or sun-bear (1 species) confined to the Indo-Malayan
+sub-region; _Melursus_ or _Prochilus_, the honey-bear (1 species), confined
+to the first and second Oriental sub-regions, over which it ranges from the
+Ganges to Ceylon; and _Tremarctos_, the spectacled bear--commonly known as
+_Ursus ornatus_--which is isolated in the Andes of Peru and Chili, and
+forms a distinct group.
+
+_Fossil Ursidæ._--Two bears (_Ursus spelæus_ and _U. priscus_) closely
+allied to living species, abound in the Post-tertiary deposits of Europe;
+and others of the same age are found in North America, as well as an
+extinct genus, _Arctodus_.
+
+_Ursus arvernensis_ is found in the Pliocene formation of France, and the
+extinct genus _Leptarchus_ in that of North America.
+
+Several species of _Amphicyon_, which appears to be an ancestral form of
+this family, are found in the Miocene deposits of Europe and N. India;
+while _Ursus_ also occurs in the Siwalik Hills and Nerbudda deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 33.--OTARIIDÆ (4 Genera, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- | 1 -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Otariidæ, or Eared Seals, comprehending the sea-bears and sea-lions,
+are confined to the temperate and cold shores of the North Pacific, and to
+similar climates in the Southern Hemisphere, where the larger proportion of
+the species are found. They are entirely absent from the North Atlantic
+shores. Mr. J. A. Allen, in his recent discussion of this family (Bull.
+Harvard Museum) divides them into the following genera:--
+
+_Otaria_ (1 species), Temperate South America, from Chili to La Plata;
+_Callorhinus_ (1 species), Behring's Straits and Kamschatka;
+_Arctocephalus_ (3 species), temperate regions of the {203}Southern
+Hemisphere; _Zalophus_ (2 species), North Pacific, from California to
+Japan, and the shores of Australia and New Zealand; _Eumetopias_ (1
+species), Behring's Straits and California.
+
+_Fossil Otariidæ._--Remains supposed to belong to this family have been
+found in the Miocene of France.
+
+
+FAMILY 34.--TRICHECHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Morse, or Walrus (_Trichecus rosmarus_), which alone constitutes this
+family, is a characteristic animal of the North Polar regions, hardly
+passing south of the Arctic circle except on the east and west coasts of
+North America, where it sometimes reaches Lat. 60°. It is most abundant on
+the shores of Spitzbergen, but is not found on the northern shores of Asia
+between Long. 80° and 160° E., or on the north shores of America from 100°
+to 150° west.
+
+Its remains have been found fossil in Europe as far south as France, and in
+America as far as Virginia; but the small fragments discovered may render
+the identification uncertain.
+
+
+FAMILY 35.--PHOCIDÆ. (13 Genera, 21 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- 4? | 1 -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The earless or true Seals are pretty equally divided between the Northern
+and Southern Hemispheres, frequenting almost exclusively the temperate and
+cold regions, except two species said to occur among the West Indian
+islands. The genus _Phoca_ and its close allies, as well as _Halichoerus_
+and _Pelagius_, are {204}northern; while _Stenorhynchus_ and _Morunga_,
+with their allies, are mostly southern. The genera admitted by Dr. Gray in
+his catalogue are as follows:--
+
+_Callocephalus_ (3 species), Greenland, North Sea, also the Caspian Sea,
+and Lakes Aral and Baikal; _Pagomys_ (2 species), North Sea, North Pacific,
+and Japan; _Pagophilus_ (2 species), North Pacific and North Atlantic;
+_Halicyon_ (1 species), North West coast of America; _Phoca_ (2 species),
+North Atlantic and North Pacific, Japan; _Halichoerus_ (1 species),
+Greenland, North Sea, and Baltic; _Pelagius_ (2 species), Madeira,
+Mediterranean, Black Sea; _Stenorhynchus_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean,
+Falkland Islands, New Zealand; _Lobodon_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean;
+_Leptonyx_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean, South Australia, East Patagonia;
+_Ommatophoca_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean; _Morunga_ (2 species),
+California, Falkland Islands, Temperate regions of Southern Ocean;
+_Cystophora_ (2 species), North Atlantic, Antilles.
+
+_Fossil Seals._--Remains of living species of seals have been found in
+Post-tertiary deposits in many parts of Europe and in Algeria, as well as
+in New Zealand. _Pristiphoca occitana_ is a fossil seal from the Pliocene
+of Montpellier, while a species of _Phoca_ is said to have been found in
+the Miocene deposits of the United States.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Carnivora._
+
+_Terrestrial Carnivora._--For the purposes of geographical distribution,
+the terrestrial and aquatic Carnivora differ too widely to be considered in
+one view, their areas being limited by barriers of a very different nature.
+The terrestrial Carnivora form a very extensive and considerably varied
+group of animals, having, with the doubtful exception of Australia, a
+world-wide distribution. Yet the range of modification of form is not very
+great, and the occurrence of three families consisting of but one species
+each, is an indication of a great amount of recent extinction. One of the
+most marked features presented by this group is its comparative scarcity in
+the Neotropical region, only four families being represented there (not
+counting the Ursidæ, which has only one Andean species), and both genera
+and species are few in number. Even the Procyonidæ, which are especially
+South {205}American, have but two genera and six species in that vast area.
+We might therefore, from these considerations alone, conclude that
+Carnivora are a development of the northern hemisphere, and have been
+introduced into the Neotropical region at a comparatively recent epoch. The
+claim of the Nearctic region to be kept distinct from the Palæarctic (with
+which some writers have wished to unite it) is well maintained by its
+possession of at least six species of _Mephitis_, or skunk, a group having
+no close allies in any other region,--and the genera _Procyon_ and
+_Bassaris_,--for the latter, ranging from the high lands of Guatemala and
+Mexico to Texas and California, may be considered a Nearctic rather than a
+Neotropical form. In the other families, the most marked feature is the
+total absence of Ursidæ from the Ethiopian region. The great mass of the
+generic forms of Carnivora, however, are found in the Oriental and
+Ethiopian regions, which possess all the extensive group of Viverridæ
+(except a few species in the fourth Palæarctic sub-region) and a large
+number of Felidæ and Mustelidæ.
+
+_Aquatic Carnivora._--The aquatic Carnivora present no very marked features
+of distribution, except their preference for cold and temperate rather than
+tropical seas. Their nearest approximation to the terrestrial group, is
+supposed to be that of the Otariidæ to the Ursidæ; but this must be very
+remote, and the occurrence of both seals and bears in the Miocene period,
+shows, that until we find some late Secondary or early Tertiary formation
+rich in Mammalian remains, we are not likely to get at the transition forms
+indicating the steps by which the aquatic Carnivora were developed. The
+most interesting special fact of distribution to be noticed, is the
+occurrence of seals, closely allied to those inhabiting the northern seas,
+in the Caspian, Lake Aral, and Lake Baikal. In the case of the two
+first-named localities there is little difficulty, as they are connected
+with the North Sea by extensive plains of low elevation, so that a
+depression of less than 500 feet would open a free communication with the
+ocean. At a comparatively recent epoch, a great gulf of the Arctic ocean
+must have occupied the valley of the Irtish, and extended to the Caspian
+Sea; till the elevation of the Kirghiz Steppes cut off the
+{206}communication with the ocean, leaving an inland sea with its seals.
+Lake Baikal, however, offers much greater difficulties; since it is not
+only a fresh-water lake, but is situated in a mountain district nearly
+2,000 feet above the sea level, and entirely separated from the plains by
+several hundred miles of high land. It is true that such an amount of
+submergence and elevation is known to have occurred in Europe so recently
+as during the Glacial period; but Lake Baikal is so surrounded by
+mountains, that it must at that time have been filled with ice, if at
+anything like its present elevation. Its emergence from the sea must
+therefore have taken place since the cold epoch, and this would imply that
+an enormous extent of Northern Asia has been very recently under water.
+
+We are accustomed to look on Seals as animals which exclusively inhabit
+salt water; but it is probably from other causes than its saltness that
+they usually keep to the open sea, and there seems no reason why
+fresh-water should not suit them quite as well, provided they find in it a
+sufficiency of food, facilities for rearing their young, and freedom from
+the attacks of enemies. As already remarked in vol. i. p. 218, Mr. Belt's
+ingenious hypothesis (founded on personal examination of the Siberian
+Steppes), that during the Glacial period the northern ice-cap dammed up the
+waters of the northward flowing Asiatic rivers, and thus formed a vast
+fresh-water lake which might have risen as high as Lake Baikal, seems to
+offer the best solution of this curious problem of distribution.
+
+_Range of Carnivora in Time._--Carnivora have been found in all the
+Tertiary deposits, and comprise a number of extinct genera and even
+families. Several genera of Canidæ occur in the Upper Eocene of Europe; but
+the most remarkable fact is, that even in the Lower Eocene are found two
+well-marked forms, _Palæonyctis_, one of the Viverridæ, and _Arctocyon_,
+forming a distinct family type of very generalized characters, but
+unmistakably a carnivore. This last has been found at La Fère, in the
+north-east of France, in a deposit which, according to M. Gaudry, is the
+very lowest of the Lower Eocene formation in Europe. _Arctocyon_ is
+therefore one of the oldest, if not the very oldest, of the higher forms of
+mammal yet discovered.
+
+
+{207}_Order V.--CETACEA._
+
+
+FAMILY 36.--BALÆNIDÆ. (6 Genera, 14 Species.)
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Cold Seas of both Northern and
+Southern Hemispheres.
+
+This family comprises the whalebone or "right" whales, the best known
+species being the Greenland whale (_Balæna mysticetus_). Allied species are
+found in all parts of the southern seas, as far north as the Cape of Good
+Hope; while some of the northern species are found off the coast of Spain,
+and even enter the Mediterranean. As most of the species indicated are
+imperfectly known, and their classification by no means well settled, no
+useful purpose will be served by enumerating the genera or sub-genera.
+
+
+FAMILY 37.--BALÆNOPTERIDÆ. (9 Genera, 22 Species.)
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Cold and Temperate Seas of both Hemispheres.
+
+This family comprises the finner whales and rorquals, and are characterised
+by possessing a dorsal fin and having the baleen or whalebone less
+developed. They are abundant in all northern seas, less so in the southern
+hemisphere, but they seem occasionally to enter the tropical seas. The best
+known genera are _Megaptera_ (7 species); _Physalus_ (4 species); and
+_Balænoptera_ (2 species); all of which have species in the North Sea.
+
+
+FAMILY 38.--CATODONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, or Sub-Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--All the Tropical Oceans, extending north and south
+into Temperate waters.
+
+This family, comprising the cachalots or sperm whales, and black-fish, are
+separated from the true whales by having teeth in the lower jaw and no
+whalebone. They are pre-eminently a tropical, as distinguished from the two
+preceding which are {208}arctic and antarctic families. The spermaceti
+whale (_Catodon macrocephalus_) abounds in the Pacific Ocean and in the
+deep Moluccan Sea, and also in the Indian Ocean and the Mozambique Channel.
+In the Atlantic it is scarce, although it occasionally comes north as far
+as our shores.
+
+The genera of Catodontidæ as given by Dr. Gray are, _Catodon_ (2 species?),
+Warm Eastern Oceans; _Physeter_ (1 species), "the black fish," North Sea;
+_Cogia_ (2 species), South Temperate Oceans; _Euphysetes_ (1 species),
+Coast of Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 39.--HYPEROODONTIDÆ. (9 Genera or Sub-Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Southern
+Ocean.
+
+This family consists of the beaked whales, which have no permanent teeth in
+the upper jaw. The genera, according to Dr. Gray, are, _Hyperoodon_ (2
+species) "bottle-nosed whales," North Sea; _Lagenocetus_ (1 species), North
+Sea; _Epiodon_ (2 species), North and South Atlantic; _Petrorhynchus_ (2
+species), Mediterranean Sea and Southern Ocean; _Berardius_ (1 species),
+New Zealand; _Xiphius_ (1 species) North Atlantic; _Dolichodon_ (1
+species), Cape of Good Hope; _Neoziphius_ (1 species) Mediterranean;
+_Dioplodon_ (1 species), Indian Ocean.
+
+
+FAMILY 40.--MONODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+The "Narwhal" (_Monodon monoceros_) which constitutes this family, is
+placed by Dr. Gray along with the "white whales," in his family Belugidæ.
+It inhabits the North Sea.
+
+
+FAMILY 41.--DELPHINIDÆ. (24 Genera or Sub-Genera, 100 Species.)
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--All Oceans, Seas, and Great Rivers of the globe.
+
+This family, including the Porpoises, Dolphins, White Whales, &c., may be
+described as small, fish-shaped whales, having teeth {209}in both jaws.
+According to Dr. Gray they form seven families and 24 genera; according to
+Professor Carus, four sub-families and 8 genera, but as these groups appear
+to be established on quite different principles, and often differ widely
+from each other, I shall simply enumerate Dr. Gray's genera with their
+distribution as given in his British Museum Catalogue.
+
+_Platanista_ (2 species), long-snouted porpoises, inhabiting the Ganges and
+Indus; _Inia_ (1 species), a somewhat similar form, inhabiting the upper
+waters of the Amazonian rivers: _Steno_ (8 species), Indian Ocean, Cape of
+Good Hope, and West Pacific; _Sotalia_ (1 species), Guiana; _Delphinus_ (10
+species), all the oceans; _Clymenia_ (14 species), all the oceans;
+_Delphinapterus_ (1 species), South Atlantic; _Tursio_ (7 species),
+Atlantic and Indian Oceans; _Eutropia_ (2 species), Chili, and Cape of Good
+Hope; _Electra_, (8 species), all the oceans; _Leucopleurus_ (1 species),
+North Sea; _Lagenorhynchus_ (1 species), North Sea; _Pseudorca_ (2
+species), North Sea, Tasmania; _Orcaella_ (2 species), Ganges;
+_Acanthodelphis_ (1 species), Brazil; _Phocæna_ (2 species), North Sea;
+_Neomeris_ (1 species), India; _Grampus_ (3 species), North Sea,
+Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope; _Globiocephalus_ (14 species), all the
+oceans; _Sphærocephalus_ (1 species), North Atlantic; _Orca_ (9 species),
+Northern and Southern Oceans; _Ophysia_ (1 species), North Pacific;
+_Beluga_ (6 species), Arctic Seas, Australia; _Pontoporia_ (1 species),
+Monte Video.
+
+
+_Fossil Cetacea._
+
+Remains of Cetacea are tolerably abundant in Tertiary deposits, both in
+Europe and North America. In the Lower Pliocene of England, France, and
+Germany, extinct species of five or six living genera of whales and
+dolphins have been found; and most of these occur also in the Upper
+Miocene, along with many others, referred to about a dozen extinct genera.
+
+In the Post-pliocene deposits of Vermont and South Carolina, several
+extinct species have been found belonging to living genera; but in the
+Miocene deposits of the Eastern United States cetacean remains are much
+more abundant, more than 30 species of {210}extinct whales and dolphins
+having been described, most of them belonging to extinct genera.
+
+The Zeuglodontidæ, an extinct family of carnivorous whales, with
+double-fanged serrated molar teeth, whose affinities are somewhat doubtful,
+are found in the older Pliocene of Europe, and in the Miocene and Eocene of
+the Eastern United States. _Zeuglodon_ abounds in the United States, and
+one species reached a length of seventy feet. A species of this genus is
+said to have been found in Malta. _Squalodon_ occurs in Europe and North
+America; and in the latter country four or five other genera have been
+described, of which one, _Saurocetes_, has been found also at Buenos Ayres.
+
+
+_Order VI.--SIRENIA._
+
+FAMILY 42.--MANATIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species?)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|1. -- 3 -- |1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. -- 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Sea-cows are herbivorous aquatic animals living on the coasts or in the
+great rivers of several parts of the globe. _Manatus_ (2 species) inhabits
+both shores of the Atlantic, one species ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to
+North Brazil, and ascending the Amazon far into the interior of the
+continent; while the other is found on the west coast of Africa. _Halicore_
+(2 species?), the Dugong, is peculiar to the Indian Ocean, extending from
+Mozambique to the Red Sea, thence to Western India and Ceylon, the Malay
+Archipelago and the north coast of Australia. _Rytina_ (1 species),
+supposed to be now extinct, inhabited recently the North Pacific, between
+Kamschatka and Behring's Straits.
+
+_Fossil Sirenia._--Extinct species of _Manatus_ have been found in the
+Post-pliocene deposits of Eastern North America from {211}Maryland to
+Florida; and an extinct genus, _Prorastomus_, in some Tertiary deposits in
+the Island of Jamaica.
+
+In Post-pliocene deposits in Siberia, remains of _Rytina_ have been found;
+while several species of the extinct genus _Halitherium_, perhaps
+intermediate between _Manatus_ and _Halicore_, have been found in the older
+Pliocene and Upper Miocene of France and Germany.
+
+
+_Order VII.--UNGULATA._
+
+FAMILY 43.--EQUIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+                               LIVING SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Horses, Asses, and Zebras form a highly specialized group now confined
+to the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, but during the middle and later
+tertiaries having a very extensive range. The zebras (3 species) inhabit
+the greater part of the Ethiopian region, while the asses (4 species) are
+characteristic of the deserts of the Palæarctic region from North Africa
+and Syria to Western India, Mongolia, and Manchuria. The domestic horse is
+not known in a wild state, but its remains are found in recent deposits
+from Britain to the Altai Mountains, so that its disappearance is probably
+due to human agency.
+
+_Extinct Equidæ._--Extinct forms of this family are very numerous. The
+genus _Equus_ occurs in Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits in Europe,
+North America, and South America. In North America the species are most
+numerous. An allied genus _Hipparion_, having rudimentary lateral toes, is
+represented {212}by several species in the Pliocene of North America, while
+in Europe it occurs both in the Older Pliocene and Upper Miocene. Various
+other allied forms, in which the lateral toes are more and more developed,
+and most of which are now classed in a distinct family, Anchitheridæ, range
+back through the Miocene to the Eocene period. A sufficient account of
+these has already been given in vol. i. chap. vi. p. 135, to which the
+reader is referred for the supposed origin and migrations of the horse.
+
+
+Family 44--TAPIRIDÆ. (2 Genera? 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tapirs form a small group of animals whose discontinuous distribution
+plainly indicates their approaching extinction. For a long time only two
+species were known, the black American, and the white-banded Malay tapir,
+the former confined to the equatorial forests of South America, the latter
+to the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo (Plate VIII. vol. i. p. 337).
+Lately however another, or perhaps two distinct species (or according to
+Dr. J. E. Gray, four!) have been discovered in the Andes of New Granada and
+Ecuador, at an elevation of from 8,000 to 12,000 feet; while one or perhaps
+two more, forming the allied genus _Elasmognathus_, have been found to
+inhabit Central America from Panama to Guatemala.
+
+_Extinct Tapirs._--True tapirs inhabited Western Europe, from the latest
+Pliocene back to the earliest Miocene times; while they only occur in
+either North or South America in the Post-pliocene deposits and caves. The
+singular distribution of the living species is thus explained, since we see
+that they are an Old World group which only entered the American continent
+at a comparatively recent epoch. An ancestral form of this
+group--_Lophiodon_--is found in Miocene and Eocene deposits of {213}Europe
+and North America; while a still more ancient form of large size is found
+in the Lower Eocene of France and England, indicating an immense antiquity
+for this group of Mammalia. There are many other extinct forms connecting
+these with the Palæotheridæ, already noticed in chapter vi. (vol. i. pp.
+119-125).
+
+
+FAMILY 45.--RHINOCEROTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 9 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+                               LIVING SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+Living Rhinoceroses are especially characteristic of Africa, with Northern
+and Malayan India. Four or perhaps five species, all two-horned, are found
+in Africa, where they range over the whole country south of the desert to
+the Cape of Good Hope. In the Oriental region there are also four or five
+species, which range from the forests at the foot of the Himalayas
+eastwards through Assam, Chittagong, and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo and Java.
+Three of these are one-horned, the others found in Sumatra, and northwards
+to Pegu and Chittagong, two-horned. The Asiatic differ from the African
+species in some dental characters, but they are in other respects so much
+alike that they are not generally considered to form distinct genera. In
+his latest catalogue however (1873), Dr. Gray has four genera, _Rhinoceros_
+(4 species), and _Ceratorhinus_ (2 species), Asiatic; _Rhinaster_ (2
+species), and _Ceratotherium_ (2 species), African.
+
+_Extinct Rhinocerotidæ._--Numerous species of _Rhinoceros_ ranged over
+Europe and Asia from the Post-pliocene back to the Upper Miocene period,
+and in North America during the Pliocene period {214}only. The hornless
+_Acerotherium_ is Miocene only, in both countries. Other genera are
+_Leptodon_ from Greece, and _Hyracodon_ from Nebraska, both of Miocene age.
+More than 20 species of extinct rhinoceroses are known, and one has even
+been found at an altitude of 16,000 feet in Thibet.
+
+
+FAMILY 46.--HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+                               LIVING SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hippopotamus inhabits all the great rivers of Africa; a distinct
+species of a smaller size being found on the west coast, and on some of the
+rivers flowing into Lake Tchad.
+
+_Fossil Hippopotami._--Eight extinct species of _Hippopotamus_ are known
+from Europe and India, the former Post-pliocene or Pliocene, the latter of
+Upper Miocene age. They ranged as far north as the Thames valley. An
+extinct genus from the Siwalik Hills, _Merycopotamus_, according to Dr.
+Falconer connects _Hippopotamus_ with _Anthracotherium_, an extinct form
+from the Miocene of Europe, allied to the swine.
+
+
+FAMILY 47.--SUIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Swine may be divided into three well-marked groups, from peculiarities
+in their dentition. 1. The Dicotylinæ, or {215}peccaries (1 genus,
+_Dicotyles_). These offer so many structural differences that they are
+often classed as a separate family. 2. The true swine (3 genera, _Sus_,
+_Potamochoerus_, and _Babirusa_); and, 3. The Phacochoerinæ, or wart hogs
+(1 genus, _Phacochoerus_). These last are also sometimes made into a
+separate family, but they are hardly so distinct as the Dicotylinæ.
+
+The Peccaries (2 species), are peculiar to the Neotropical region,
+extending from Mexico to Paraguay. They also spread northwards into Texas,
+and as far as the Red River of Arkansas, thus just entering the Nearctic
+region; but with this exception swine are wholly absent from this region,
+forming an excellent feature by which to differentiate it from the
+Palæarctic.
+
+_Sus_ (14 species), ranges over the Palæarctic and Oriental regions and
+into the first Australian sub-region as far as New Guinea; but it is absent
+from the Ethiopian region, or barely enters it on the north-east.
+_Potamochoerus_ (3 species?), is wholly Ethiopian (Plate V. vol. i. p.
+278). _Babirusa_ (1 species), is confined to two islands, Celebes and
+Bouru, in the first Australian sub-region.
+
+_Phacochoerus_ (2 species), ranges over tropical Africa from Abyssinia to
+Caffraria.
+
+Dr. J. E. Gray divides true swine (_Sus_) into 7 genera, but it seems far
+better to keep them as one.
+
+_Fossil Suidæ._--These are very numerous. Many extinct species of wild hog
+(_Sus_), are found in Europe and North India, ranging back from the
+Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene formations. In the Miocene of Europe are
+numerous extinct genera, _Bothriodon_, _Anthracotherium_, _Palæochoerus_,
+_Hyotherium_, and some others; while in the Upper Eocene occur
+_Cebochoerus_, _Choeropotamus_, and _Acotherium_,--these early forms having
+more resemblance to the peccaries.
+
+None of these genera are found in America, where we have the living genus
+_Dicotyles_ in the Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits, both of North and
+South America; with a number of extinct genera in the Miocene. The chief of
+these are, _Elotherium_, _Perchoerus_, _Leptochoerus_, and _Nanohyus_, all
+from Dakota, and _Thinohyus_, from Oregon. One extinct genus, _Platygonus_,
+closely allied to _Dicotyles_, is found in the Post-pliocene of Nebraska,
+{216}Oregon, and Arkansas. _Elotherium_ is said to be allied to the peccary
+and hippopotamus. _Hyopotamus_, from the Miocene of Dakota, is allied to
+_Anthracotherium_, and forms with it (according to Dr. Leidy) a distinct
+family of ancestral swine.
+
+It thus appears, that the swine were almost equally well represented in
+North America and Europe, during Miocene and Pliocene times, but by
+entirely distinct forms; and it is a remarkable fact that these hardy
+omnivorous animals, should, like the horses, have entirely died out in
+North America, except a few peccaries which have preserved themselves in
+the sub-tropical parts and in the southern continent, to which they are
+comparatively recent emigrants. We can hardly have a more convincing proof
+of the vast physical changes that have occurred in the North American
+continent during the Pliocene and Post-pliocene epochs, than the complete
+extinction of these, along with so many other remarkable types of Mammalia.
+
+According to M. Gaudry, the ancestors of all the swine, with the
+hippopotami and extinct _Anthracotherium_, _Merycopotamus_, and many allied
+forms,--are the _Hyracotherium_ and _Pliolophus_, both found only in the
+London clay belonging to the Lower Eocene formation.
+
+
+FAMILY 48.--CAMELIDÆ. (2 Genera, 6 Species).
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+                               LIVING SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Camels are an exceedingly restricted group, the majority of the species
+now existing only in a state of domestication. The genus _Camelus_ (2
+species), is a highly characteristic desert form {217}of the Palæarctic
+region, from the Sahara to Mongolia as far as Lake Baikal. _Auchenia_ (4
+species), comprehending the Llamas and Alpacas, is equally characteristic
+of the mountains and deserts of the southern part of South America. Two
+species entirely domesticated inhabit the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes; and
+two others are found in a wild state, the vicuna in the Andes of Peru and
+Chili (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40), and the guanaco over the plains of
+Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
+
+_Extinct Camelidæ._--No fossil remains of camels have been found in Europe,
+but one occurs in the deposits of the Siwalik Hills, usually classed as
+Upper Miocene, but which some naturalists think are more likely of Older
+Pliocene age. _Merycotherium_, teeth of which have been found in the
+Siberian drift, is supposed to belong to this family.
+
+In North America, where no representative of the family now exists, the
+camel-tribe were once abundant. In the Post-pliocene deposits of California
+an _Auchenia_ has been found, and in those of Kansas one of the extinct
+genus _Procamelus_. In the Pliocene period, this genus, which was closely
+allied to the living camels, abounded, six or seven species having been
+described from Nebraska and Texas, together with an allied form
+_Homocamelus_. In the Miocene period different genera
+appear,--_Poebrotherium_, and _Protomeryx_,--while a _Procamelus_ has been
+found in deposits of this age in Virginia.
+
+In South America a species of _Auchenia_ has been found in the caves of
+Brazil, and others in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas, together with
+two extinct genera, _Palæolama_ and _Camelotherium_.
+
+We thus find the ancestors of the Camelidæ in a region where they do not
+now exist, but which is situated so that the now widely separated living
+forms could easily have been derived from it. This case offers a remarkable
+example of the light thrown by palæontology on the distribution of living
+animals; and it is a warning against the too common practice of assuming
+the direct land connection of remote continents, in order to explain
+similar instances of discontinuous distribution to that of the present
+family.
+
+
+{218}FAMILY 49.--TRAGULIDÆ. (2 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tragulidæ are a group of small, hornless, deer-like animals, with tusks
+in the upper jaw, and having some structural affinities with the camels.
+The musk-deer was formerly classed in this family, which it resembles
+externally; but a minute examination of its structure by M. Milne-Edwards,
+has shown it to be more nearly allied to the true deer. The Chevrotains, or
+mouse-deer, _Tragulus_ (5 species), range over all India to the foot of the
+Himalayas and Ceylon, and through Assam, Malacca, and Cambodja, to Sumatra,
+Borneo, and Java (Plate VIII., vol. i. p. 337). _Hyomoschus_ (1 species),
+is found in West Africa.
+
+_Extinct Tragulidæ._--A species of _Hyomoschus_ is said to have been found
+in the Miocene of the South of France, as well as three extinct genera,
+_Dremotherium_ (also found in Greece), with _Lophiomeryx_ from the Upper
+Miocene, said to be allied to _Tragulus_; and _Amphitragulus_ from the
+Lower Miocene, of more remote affinities, and sometimes placed among the
+Deer. There seems to be no doubt, however, that this family existed in
+Europe in Miocene times; and thus another case of discontinuous
+distribution is satisfactorily accounted for.
+
+
+FAMILY 50.--CERVIDÆ. (8 Genera, 52 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1  -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cervidæ, or deer tribe, are an extensive group of animals equally
+adapted for inhabiting forests or open plains, the Arctic {219}regions or
+the Tropics. They range in fact over the whole of the great continents of
+the globe, with the one striking exception of Africa, where they are only
+found on the shores of the Mediterranean which form part of the Palæarctic
+region. The following is the distribution of the genera.
+
+_Alces_ (1 species), the elk or moose, ranges all over Northern Europe and
+Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North China; and over
+Arctic America to Maine on the East, and British Columbia on the west. The
+American species may however be distinct, although very closely allied to
+that of Europe. _Tarandus_ (1 species), the reindeer, has a similar range
+to the last, but keeps farther north in Europe, inhabiting Greenland and
+Spitzbergen; and in America extends farther south, to New Brunswick and the
+north shore of Lake Superior. There are several varieties or species of
+this animal confined to special districts, but they are not yet well
+determined. _Cervus_ (40 species), the true deer, have been sub-divided
+into numerous sub-genera characteristic of separate districts. They range
+over the whole area of the family, except that they do not go beyond 57° N.
+in America and a little further in Europe and Asia. In South America they
+extend over Patagonia and even to Tierra del Fuego. They are found in the
+north of Africa, and over the whole of the Oriental region, and beyond it
+as far as the Moluccas and Timor, where however they have probably been
+introduced by man at an early period. _Dama_ (1 species), the fallow deer,
+is a native of the shores of the Mediterranean, from Spain and Barbary to
+Syria. _Capreolus_ (2 species), the roe-deer, inhabits all Temperate and
+South Europe to Syria, with a distinct species in N. China. _Cervulus_ (4
+species), the muntjacs, are found in all the forest districts of the
+Oriental region, from India and Ceylon to China as far north as Ningpo and
+Formosa, also southward to the Philippines, Borneo, and Java. _Moschus_ (1
+species), the musk-deer, inhabits Central Asia from the Amoor and Pekin, to
+the Himalayas and the Siamese mountains above 8000 ft. elevation. This is
+usually classed as a distinct family, but M. Milne-Edwards remarks, that it
+differs in no important points of organisation from the rest of the
+Cervidæ. _Hydropotes_ {220}(1 species) inhabits China from the Yang-tse
+Kiang northwards. This new genus has recently been discovered by Mr.
+Swinhoe, who says its nearest affinities are with _Moschus_. Other new
+forms are _Lophotragus_, and _Elaphodus_, both inhabiting North China; the
+former is hornless, the latter has very small horns about an inch long.
+
+_Extinct Deer._--Numerous extinct species of the genus _Cervus_ are found
+fossil in many parts of Europe, and in all formations between the
+Post-pliocene and the Upper Miocene. The Elk and Reindeer are also found in
+caves and Post-pliocene deposits, the latter as far south as the South of
+France. Extinct genera only, occur in the Upper Miocene in various parts of
+Europe:--_Micromeryx_, _Palæomeryx_, and _Dicrocercus_ have been described;
+with others referred doubtfully to _Moschus_, and an allied genus
+_Amphimoschus_.
+
+In N. America, remains of this family are very scarce, a _Cervus_ allied to
+the existing wapiti deer, being found in Post-pliocene deposits, and an
+extinct genus, _Leptomeryx_, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota and Oregon.
+Another extinct genus, _Merycodus_, from the Pliocene of Oregon, is said to
+be allied to camels and deer.
+
+In South America, several species of _Cervus_ have been found in the
+Brazilian caves, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata.
+
+It thus appears, that there are not yet sufficient materials for
+determining the origin and migrations of the Cervidæ. There can be little
+doubt that they are an Old World group, and a comparatively recent
+development; and that some time during the Miocene period they passed to
+North America, and subsequently to the Southern continent. They do not
+however appear to have developed much in North America, owing perhaps to
+their finding the country already amply stocked with numerous forms of
+indigenous Ungulates.
+
+
+{221}FAMILY 51.--CAMELOPARDALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+                               LIVING SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1  -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Camelopardalidæ, or giraffes, now consist of but a single species which
+ranges over all the open country of the Ethiopian region, and is therefore
+almost absent from West Africa, which is more especially a forest district.
+During the Middle Tertiary period, however, these animals had a wider
+range, over Southern Europe and Western India as far as the slopes of the
+Himalayas.
+
+_Extinct Species._--Species of _Camelopardalis_ have been found in Greece,
+the Siwalik Hills, and Perim Island at the entrance to the Red Sea; and an
+extinct genus, _Helladotherium_, more bulky but not so tall as the giraffe,
+ranged from the south of France to Greece and North-west India.
+
+
+FAMILY 52.--BOVIDÆ. (34 Genera, 149 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This large and important family, includes all the animals commonly known as
+oxen, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep, and goats, which have been classed by
+many naturalists in at least three, and sometimes four or five, distinct
+families. Zoologically, they {222}are briefly and accurately defined as,
+"hollow-horned ruminants;" and, although they present wide differences in
+external form, they grade so insensibly into each other, that no
+satisfactory definition of the smaller family groups can be found. As a
+whole they are almost confined to the great Old World continent, only a few
+forms extending along the highlands and prairies of the Nearctic region;
+while one peculiar type is found in Celebes, an island which is almost
+intermediate between the Oriental and Australian regions. In each of the
+Old World regions there are found a characteristic set of types. Antelopes
+prevail in the Ethiopian region; sheep and goats in the Palæarctic; while
+the oxen are perhaps best developed in the Oriental region.
+
+Sir Victor Brooke, who has paid special attention to this family, divides
+them into 13 sub-families, and I here adopt the arrangement of the genera
+and species which he has been so good as to communicate to me in MSS.
+
+Sub-family I. BOVINÆ (6 genera, 13 species). This group is one of the best
+marked in the family. It comprises the Oxen and Buffaloes with their
+allies, and has a distribution very nearly the same as that of the entire
+family. The genera are as follows: BOS (1 sp.), now represented by our
+domestic cattle, the descendants of the _Bos primigenius_, which ranged
+over a large part of Central Europe in the time of the Romans. The
+Chillingham wild cattle are supposed to be the nearest approach to the
+original species. _Bison_ (2 sp.), one still wild in Poland and the
+Caucasus; the other in North America, ranging over the prairies west of the
+Mississippi, and on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains (Plate XIX.,
+vol. ii., p. 129). _Bibos_ (3 sp.), the Indian wild cattle, ranging over a
+large part of the Oriental region, from Southern India to Assam, Burmah,
+the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Java. _Poephagus_ (1 sp.), the yak,
+confined to the high plains of Western Thibet. _Bubalus_ (5 sp.), the
+buffaloes, of which three species are African, ranging over all the
+continental parts of the Ethiopian region; one Northern and Central Indian;
+and the domesticated animal in South Europe and North Africa. _Anoa_ (1
+sp.), the small wild cow of Celebes, {223}a very peculiar form more nearly
+allied to the buffaloes than to any other type of oxen.
+
+Sub-family II. TRAGELAPHINÆ: (3 genera, 11 species). The Bovine Antelopes
+are large and handsome animals, mostly Ethiopian, but extending into the
+adjacent parts of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The genera are:
+_Oreas_ (2 sp.), elands, inhabiting all Tropical and South Africa.
+_Tragelaphus_ (8 sp.), including the bosch-bok, kudu, and other large
+antelopes, ranges over all Tropical and South Africa (Plate IV., vol. i.,
+p. 261). _Portax_ (1 sp.) India, but rare in Madras and north of the
+Ganges.
+
+Sub-family III. ORYGINÆ: (2 genera, 5 species). _Oryx_ (4 sp.) is a desert
+genus, ranging over all the African deserts to South Arabia and Syria;
+_Addax_ (1 sp.) inhabits North Africa, North Arabia, and Syria.
+
+Sub-family IV. HIPPOTRAGINÆ (1 genus, 3 species). The Sable Antelopes,
+_Hippotragus_, form an isolated group inhabiting the open country of
+Tropical Africa and south to the Cape.
+
+Sub-family V. GAZELLINÆ (6 genera, 23 species). This is a group of small or
+moderate-sized animals, most abundant in the deserts on the borders of the
+Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. _Gazella_ (17 sp.) is
+typically a Palæarctic desert group, ranging over the great desert plateaus
+of North Africa, from Senegal and Abyssinia to Syria, Persia, Beloochistan,
+and the plains of India, with one outlying species in South Africa.
+_Procapra_ (2 sp.), Western Thibet and Mongolia to about 110° east
+longitude. _Antilope_ (1 sp.) inhabits all the plains of India. _Æpyceros_
+(1 sp.) the pallah, inhabits the open country of South and South-east
+Africa. _Saiga_ (1 sp.) a singular sheep-faced antelope, which inhabits the
+steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia from Poland to the Irtish River,
+south of 55° north latitude. (Plate II., vol. i., p. 218.) _Panthalops_ (1
+sp.) confined to the highlands of Western Thibet and perhaps Turkestan.
+
+Sub-family VI. ANTILOCAPRINÆ (1 genus, 1 species), _Antilocapra_, the
+prong-horned antelope, inhabit both sides of the Rocky Mountains, extending
+north to the Saskatchewan and {224}Columbia River, west to the coast range
+of California, and east to the Missouri. Its remarkable deciduous horns
+seem to indicate a transition to the Cervidæ. (Plate XIX., vol. ii., p.
+129.)
+
+Sub-family VII. CERVICAPRINÆ (5 genera, 21 species). This group of
+Antelopes is wholly confined to the continental portion of the Ethiopian
+region. The genera are: _Cervicapra_ (4 sp.), Africa, south of the equator
+and Abyssinia; _Kobus_ (6 sp.), grassy plains and marshes of Tropical
+Africa; _Pelea_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Nanotragus_ (9 species), Africa,
+south of the Sahara; _Neotragus_ (1 sp.) Abyssinia and East Africa.
+
+Sub-family VIII. CEPHALOPHINÆ (2 genera, 24 species), Africa and India;
+_Cephalophus_ (22 sp.), continental Ethiopian region; _Tetraceros_ (2 sp.)
+hilly part of all India, but rare north of the Ganges.
+
+Sub-family IX. ALCEPHALINÆ (2 genera, 11 species), large African Antelopes,
+one species just entering the Palæarctic region. The genera are:
+_Alcephalus_ (9 sp.) all Africa and north-east to Syria; _Catoblepas_ (2
+sp.), gnus, Africa, south of the Equator.
+
+Sub-region X. BUDORCINÆ (1 genus, 2 species) _Budorcas_ inhabits the high
+Himalayas from Nepal to East Thibet.
+
+Sub-family XI. RUPICAPRINÆ (1 genus, 2 species) the Chamois, _Rupicapra_,
+inhabit the high European Alps from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. (Plate
+I., vol. i., p. 195.)
+
+Sub-family XII. NEMORHEDINÆ (2 genera, 10 species). These goat-like
+Antelopes inhabit portions of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, as well
+as the Rocky Mountains in the Nearctic region. _Nemorhedus_ (9 sp.) ranges
+from the Eastern Himalayas to N. China and Japan, and south to Formosa, the
+Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. _Aplocerus_ (1 sp.), the mountain goat of the
+trappers, inhabits the northern parts of California and the Rocky
+Mountains.
+
+Sub-family XIII. CAPRINÆ (2 genera, 23 species). The Goats and Sheep form
+an extensive series, highly characteristic of the Palæarctic region, but
+with an outlying species on the Neilgherries in Southern India, and one in
+the Rocky Mountains and California. The genera are _Capra_ (22 sp.) and
+_Ovibos_ (1 sp.). {225}The genus _Capra_ consists of several sub-groups
+which have been named as genera, but it is unnecessary here to do more than
+divide them into "Goats and Ibexes" on the one hand and "Sheep" on the
+other--each comprising 11 species. The former range over all the South
+European Alps from Spain to the Caucasus; to Abyssinia, Persia, and Scinde;
+over the high Himalayas to E. Thibet and N. China; with an outlying species
+in the Neilgherries. The latter are only found in the mountains of Corsica,
+Sardinia, and Crete, in Europe; in Asia Minor, Persia, and in Central and
+North-Eastern Asia, with one somewhat isolated species in the Atlas
+mountains; while in America a species is found in the Rocky Mountains and
+the coast range of California. _Ovibos_ (1 sp.), the musk-sheep, inhabits
+Arctic America north of lat. 60; but it occurs fossil in Post-glacial
+gravels on the Yena and Obi in Siberia, in Germany and France along with
+the Mammoth and with flint implements, and in caves of the Reindeer period;
+also in the brick earth in the south of England, associated with
+_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ and _Elephas antiquus_.
+
+_Extinct Bovidæ._--In the caverns and diluviums of Europe, of the
+Post-Pliocene period, the remains are found of extinct species of _Bos_,
+_Bison_, and _Capra_; and in the caverns of the south of France
+_Rupicapra_, and an antelope near _Hippotragus_. _Bos_ and _Bison_ also
+occur in Pliocene deposits. In the Miocene of Europe, the only remains are
+antelopes closely allied to existing species, and these are especially
+numerous in Greece, where remains referred to two living and four extinct
+genera have been discovered. In the Miocene of India numerous extinct
+species of _Bos_, and two extinct genera, _Hemibos_ and _Amphibos_, have
+been found, one of them at a great elevation in Thibet. Antelopes, allied
+to living Indian species, are chiefly found in the Nerbudda deposits.
+
+In North America, the only bovine remains are those of a _Bison_, and a
+sheep or goat, in the Post-pliocene deposits; and of two species of
+musk-sheep, sometimes classed in a distinct genus _Bootherium_, from beds
+of the same age in Arkansas and Ohio. _Casoryx_, from the Pliocene of
+Nebraska, is supposed to be allied to the antelopes and to deer.
+
+{226}In the caves of Brazil remains of two animals said to be antelopes,
+have been discovered. They are classed by Gervais in the genera _Antilope_
+and _Leptotherium_, but the presence of true antelopes in S. America at
+this period is so improbable, that there is probably some error of
+identification.
+
+The extinct family Sivatheridæ, containing the extraordinary and gigantic
+four-horned _Sivatherium_ and _Bramatherium_, of the Siwalik deposits, are
+most nearly allied to the antelopes.
+
+From the preceding facts we may conclude, that the great existing
+development of the Bovidæ is comparatively recent. The type may have
+originated early in the Miocene period, the oxen being at first most
+tropical, while the antelopes inhabited the desert zone a little further
+north. The sheep and goats seem to be the most recent development of the
+bovine type, which was probably long confined to the Eastern Hemisphere.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Ungulata._
+
+With the exception of the Australian region, from which this order of
+mammalia is almost entirely wanting, the Ungulata are almost universally
+distributed over the continental parts of all the other regions. Of the ten
+families, 7 are Ethiopian, 6 Oriental, 5 Palæarctic, 4 Neotropical, and 3
+Nearctic. The Ethiopian region owes its superiority to the exclusive
+possession of the hippopotamus and giraffe, both of which inhabited the
+Palæarctic and Oriental regions in Miocene times. The excessive poverty of
+the Nearctic region in this order is remarkable; the swine being
+represented only by _Dicotyles_ in its extreme southern portion, while the
+Bovidæ are restricted to four isolated species. Deer alone are fairly well
+represented. But, during the Eocene and Miocene periods, North America was
+wonderfully rich in varied forms of Ungulates, of which there were at least
+8 or 9 families; while we have reason to believe that during the same
+periods the Ethiopian region was excessively poor, and that it probably
+received the ancestors of all its existing families from Europe or Western
+Asia in later Miocene or Pliocene times. Many types that once abounded in
+both Europe and North America are now preserved only in South America and
+Central or Tropical Asia,--as {227}the tapirs and camels; while others once
+confined to Europe and Asia have found a refuge in Africa,--as the
+hippopotamus and giraffe; so that in no other order do we find such
+striking examples of those radical changes in the distribution of the
+higher animals which were effected during the latter part of the Tertiary
+period. The present distribution of this order is, in fact, utterly
+unintelligible without reference to the numerous extinct forms of existing
+and allied families; but as this subject has been sufficiently discussed in
+the Second Part of this work (Chapters VI. and VII.) it is unnecessary to
+give further details here.
+
+
+_Order VIII.--PROBOSCIDEA._
+
+FAMILY 53.--ELEPHANTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+                               LIVING SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |1  -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The elephants are now represented by two species, the African, which ranges
+all over that continent south of the Sahara, and the Indian, which is found
+over all the wooded parts of the Oriental region, from the slopes of the
+Himalayas to Ceylon, and eastward, to the frontiers of China and to Sumatra
+and Borneo. These, however, are but the feeble remnants of a host of
+gigantic creatures, which roamed over all the great continents except
+Australia during the Tertiary period, and several of which were
+contemporary with man.
+
+_Extinct Elephants._--At least 14 extinct species of _Elephas_, and a
+rather greater number of the allied genus _Mastodon_ (distinguished by
+their less complex grinding teeth) have now been {228}discovered. Elephants
+ranged over all the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions in Post-Pliocene times;
+in Europe and Central India they go back to the Pliocene; and only in India
+to the Upper Miocene period; the number of species increasing as we go back
+to the older formations.
+
+In North America two or three species of _Mastodon_ are Post-pliocene and
+Pliocene; and a species is found in the caves of Brazil, and in the
+Pliocene deposits of the pampas of La Plata, of the Bolivian Andes, and of
+Honduras and the Bahamas. In Europe the genus is Upper Miocene and
+Pliocene, but is especially abundant in the former period. In the East, it
+extends from Perim island to Burmah and over all India, and is mostly
+Miocene, but with perhaps one species Pliocene in Central India.
+
+An account of the range of such animals as belong to extinct families of
+Proboscidea, will be found in Chapters VI. and VII.; from which it will be
+seen that, although the family Elephantidæ undoubtedly originated in the
+Eastern Hemisphere, it is not improbable that the first traces of the order
+Proboscidea are to be found in N. America.
+
+
+_Order IX.--HYRACOIDEA._
+
+FAMILY 54.--HYRACIDÆ. (1 Genus. 10-12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Hyrax_, which alone constitutes this family, consists of small
+animals having the appearance of hares or marmots, but which more resemble
+the genus _Rhinoceros_ in their teeth and skeleton. They range all over the
+Ethiopian region, except Madagascar; a peculiar species is found in
+Fernando Po, and they just enter the Palæarctic as far as Syria. They may
+therefore be considered as an exclusively Ethiopian group. In Dr. Gray's
+{229}last Catalogue (1873) he divides the genus into three--_Hyrax_,
+_Euhyrax_ and _Dendrohyrax_--the latter consisting of two species confined
+apparently to West and South Africa.
+
+No extinct forms of this family have yet been discovered; the
+_Hyracotherium_ of the London clay (Lower Eocene) which was supposed to
+resemble _Hyrax_, is now believed to be an ancestral type of the Suidæ or
+swine.
+
+
+_Order X.--RODENTIA._
+
+FAMILY 55.--MURIDÆ. (37 Genera, 330 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Muridæ, comprising the rats and mice with their allies, are almost
+universally distributed over the globe (even not reckoning the domestic
+species which have been introduced almost everywhere by man), the
+exceptions being the three insular groups belonging to the Australian
+region, from none of which have any species yet been obtained. Before
+enumerating the genera it will be as well to say a few words on the
+peculiarities of distribution they present. The true mice, forming the
+genus _Mus_, is distributed over the whole of the world except N. and S.
+America where not a single indigenous species occurs, being replaced by the
+genus _Hesperomys_; five other genera, comprehending all the remaining
+species found in South America are peculiar to the Neotropical region.
+Three genera are confined to the Palæarctic region, and three others to the
+Nearctic. No less than twelve genera are exclusively Ethiopian, while only
+three are exclusively Oriental and three Australian.
+
+_Mus_ (100-120 sp.) the Eastern Hemisphere, but absent from the Pacific and
+Austro-Malayan Islands, except Celebes and Papua; _Lasiomys_ (1 sp.)
+Guinea; _Acanthomys_ (5-6 sp.) Africa, India and {230}N. Australia;
+_Cricetomys_ (1 sp.) Tropical Africa; _Saccostomus_ (2 sp.) Mozambique;
+_Cricetus_ (9 sp.) Palæarctic region and Egypt; _Cricetulus_ (1 sp.,
+Milne-Edwards, 1870) Pekin; _Pseudomys_ (1 sp.) Australia; _Hapalotis_ (13
+sp.) Australia; _Phlæomys_ (1 sp.) Philippines; _Platacanthomys_ (1 sp.,
+Blyth, 1865) Malabar; _Dendromys_ (2 sp.) S. Africa; _Nesomys_ (1 sp.
+Peters, 1870) Madagascar; _Steatomys_ (2 sp.) N. and S. Africa; _Pelomys_
+(1 sp.) Mozambique; _Reithrodon_ (9 sp.) N. America, Lat. 29° to Mexico,
+and south to Tierra del Fuego; _Acodon_ (1 sp.) Peru; _Myxomys_ (1 sp.)
+Guatemala; _Hesperomys_ (90 sp.) North and South America; _Holochilus_ (4
+sp.) South America; _Oxymycterus_ (4 sp.) Brazil and La Plata; _Neotoma_ (6
+sp.) U.S., East coast to California; _Sigmodon_ (2 sp.) Southern United
+States; _Drymomys_ (1 sp.) Peru; _Neotomys_ (2 sp.) S. America; _Otomys_ (6
+sp.) S. and E. Africa; _Meriones_ = _Gerbillus_ (20-30 sp.) Egypt, Central
+Asia, India, Africa; _Rhombomys_ (6 sp.) S. E. Europe, N. Africa, Central
+Asia; _Malacothrix_ (2 sp.) South Africa; _Mystromys_ (1 sp.) South Africa;
+_Psammomys_ (1 sp.) Egypt; _Spalacomys_ (1 sp.) India; _Sminthus_ (1-3 sp.)
+East Europe, Tartary, Siberia; _Hydromys_ (5 sp.) Australia and Tasmania;
+_Hypogeomys_ (1 sp., Grandidier, 1870) Madagascar; _Brachytarsomys_ (1 sp.,
+Günther, 1874) Madagascar; _Fiber_ (2 sp.) N. America to Mexico; _Arvicola_
+(50 sp.) Europe to Asia Minor, North Asia, Himalayas, Temp. N. America;
+_Cuniculus_ (1 sp.) N. E. Europe, Siberia, Greenland, Arctic America;
+_Myodes_ (4 sp.) Europe, Siberia, Arctic America, and Northern United
+States; _Myospalax_ = _Siphneus_ (2 sp.) Altai Mountains and N. China[4];
+_Lophiomys_ (1 sp.) S. Arabia, and N. E. Africa; _Echiothrix_ (1 sp.)
+Australia.
+
+_Extinct Muridæ._--Species of _Mus_, _Cricetus_, _Arvicola_, and _Myodes_,
+occur in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe; _Arvicola_, _Meriones_, and
+the extinct genus _Cricetodon_, with some others, in the Miocene.
+
+In North America, _Fiber_, _Arvicola_, and _Neotoma_, occur in caves;
+{231}an extinct genus, _Eumys_, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota, and
+another, _Mysops_, in the Eocene of Wyoming.
+
+In South America _Mus_, or more probably _Hesperomys_, is abundant in
+Brazilian caverns, and _Oxymycterus_ in the Pliocene of La Plata; while
+_Arvicola_ is said to have occurred both in the Pliocene and Eocene
+deposits of the same country.
+
+
+FAMILY 56.--SPALACIDÆ. (7 Genera, 17 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Spalacidæ, or mole-rats, have a straggling distribution over the Old
+World continents. They are found over nearly the whole of Africa, but only
+in the South-east of Europe, and West of Temperate Asia, but appearing
+again in North India, Malacca, and South China. _Ellobius_ (1 sp.), is
+found in South Russia and South-west Siberia; _Spalax_ (1 sp.), Southern
+Russia, West Asia, Hungary, Moldavia, and Greece (Plate II., vol. i. p.
+218); _Rhizomys_ (6 sp.), Abyssinia, North India, Malacca, South China;
+_Heterocephalus_ (1 sp.), Abyssinia; _Bathyerges_ (= _Orycterus_ 1 sp.),
+South Africa; _Georychus_ (6 sp.), South, Central, and East Africa;
+_Heliophobus_ (1 sp.), Mozambique.
+
+
+FAMILY 57.--DIPODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Jerboas, or jumping mice, are especially characteristic of the regions
+about the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, being found in South
+Russia, the Caspian district, Arabia, Egypt, {232}and Abyssinia; but they
+also extend over a large part of Africa, and eastward to India; while
+isolated forms occur in North America, and the Cape of Good Hope. _Dipus_ =
+_Gerbillus_ (20 sp.), inhabits North and Central Africa, South-East Europe,
+and across Temperate Asia to North China, also Afghanistan, India, and
+Ceylon; _Pedetes_ (1 sp.), South Africa to Mozambique and Angola; _Jaculus_
+= _Meriones_ (1 sp.), North America, from Nova Scotia and Canada, south to
+Pennsylvania and west to California and British Columbia (Plate XX., vol.
+ii. p. 135).
+
+_Extinct Dipodidæ._--_Dipus_ occurs fossil in the Miocene of the Alps; and
+an extinct genus, _Issiodromys_, said to be allied to _Pedetes_ of the Cape
+of Good Hope, is from the Pliocene formations of Auvergne in France.
+
+
+FAMILY 58.--MYOXIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dormice (_Myoxus_), are small rodents found over all the temperate
+parts of the Palæarctic region, from Britain to Japan; and also over most
+parts of Africa to the Cape, but wanting in India. Some of the African
+species have been separated under the name of _Graphidurus_, while those of
+Europe and Asia form the sub-genera _Glis_, _Muscardinus_, and _Eliomys_.
+
+_Extinct Myoxidæ._--_Myoxus_ ranges from the Post-pliocene of the Maltese
+caverns to the Miocene of Switzerland and the Upper Eocene of France; and
+an extinct genus _Brachymys_ is found in the Miocene of Central Europe.
+
+
+{233}FAMILY 59.--SACCOMYIDÆ. (6 Genera, 33 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Saccomyidæ, or pouched rats, are almost wholly confined to our second
+Nearctic sub-region, comprising the Rocky Mountains and the elevated plains
+of Central North America. A few species range from this district as far as
+Hudson's Bay on the north, to South Carolina on the east, and to California
+on the west, while one genus, doubtfully placed here, goes south as far as
+Honduras and Trinidad. The group must therefore be considered to be
+pre-eminently characteristic of the Nearctic region.
+
+The genera are,--_Dipodomys_ (5 sp.), North Mexico, California, the east
+slope of the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River, and one species in
+South Carolina; _Perognathus_ (6 sp.), North Mexico, California, east slope
+of the Rocky Mountains to British Columbia; _Thomomys_ (2 sp.), Upper
+Missouri, and Upper Columbia Rivers to Hudson's Bay; _Geomys_ (5 sp.),
+North Mexico, and east slope of Rocky Mountains to Nebraska (Plate XIX.,
+vol. ii. p. 129); _Saccomys_ (1 sp.), North America, locality unknown;
+_Heteromys_ (6 sp.), Mexico, Honduras, and Trinidad. _Geomys_ and
+_Thomomys_ constitute a separate family Geomyidæ, of Professor Carus; but I
+follow Professor Lilljeborg, who has made a special study of the Order, in
+keeping them with this family.
+
+In the Post-Pliocene deposits of Illinois and Nebraska, remains of an
+existing species of _Geomys_ have been found.
+
+
+{234}FAMILY 60.--CASTORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Beavers, forming the genus _Castor_, consist of two species, the
+American (_Castor canadensis_) ranging over the whole of North America from
+Labrador to North Mexico; while the European (_Castor fiber_) appears to be
+confined to the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from France to the
+River Amoor, over which extensive region it doubtless roamed in prehistoric
+times, although now becoming rare in many districts.
+
+_Extinct Castoridæ._--Extinct species of _Castor_ range back from the
+Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene in Europe, and to the Newer Pliocene in
+North America. Extinct genera in Europe are, _Trogontherium_, Post-Pliocene
+and Pliocene; _Chalicomys_, Older Pliocene; and _Steneofiber_, Upper
+Miocene. In North America _Castoroides_ is Post-Pliocene, and
+_Palæocastor_, Upper Miocene. The family thus first appears on the same
+geological horizon in both Europe and North America.
+
+
+FAMILY 61.--SCIURIDÆ.--(8 Genera, 180-200 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Squirrel family, comprehending also the marmots and prairie-dogs, are
+very widely spread over the earth. They are especially abundant in the
+Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Oriental regions, and rather less frequent in the
+Ethiopian and Neotropical, in which last region they do not extend south of
+Paraguay. They are absent from the West Indian islands, Madagascar, and
+Australia, only occurring in Celebes which doubtfully belongs to the
+Australian region. The genera are as follows:--
+
+{235}_Sciurus_ (100-120 sp., including the sub-genera Spermosciurus, Xerus,
+Macroxus, Rheithrosciurus, and Rhinosciurus), comprises the true squirrels,
+and occupies the area of the whole family wherever woods and forests occur.
+The approximate number of species in each region is as follows: Nearctic
+18, Palæarctic 6, Ethiopian 18, Oriental 50, Australian (Celebes) 5,
+Neotropical 30. _Sciuropterus_ (16-19 sp.), comprises the flat-tailed
+flying squirrels, which range from Lapland and Finland to North China and
+Japan, and southward through India and Ceylon, to Malacca and Java, with a
+species in Formosa; while in North America they occur from Labrador to
+British Columbia, and south to Minnesota and Southern California.
+_Pteromys_ (12 sp.), comprising the round-tailed flying squirrels, is a
+more southern form, being confined to the wooded regions of India from the
+Western Himalayas to Java and Borneo, with species in Formosa and Japan.
+_Tamias_ (5 sp.), the ground squirrels, are chiefly North American, ranging
+from Mexico to Puget's Sound on the west coast, and from Virginia to
+Montreal on the Atlantic coast; while one species is found over all
+northern Asia. _Spermophilus_ (26 sp.), the pouched marmots, are confined
+to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; in the former extending from the
+Arctic Ocean to Mexico and the west coast, but not passing east of Lake
+Michigan and the lower Mississippi; in the latter from Silesia through
+South Russia to the Amoor and Kamschatka, most abundant in the desert
+plains of Tartary and Mongolia. _Arctomys_ (8 sp.), the marmots, are found
+in the northern parts of North America as far down as Virginia and Nebraska
+to the Rocky Mountains and British Columbia, but not in California; and
+from the Swiss Alps eastward to Lake Baikal and Kamschatka, and south as
+far as the Himalayas, above 8,000 feet elevation. _Cynomys_ (2 sp.), the
+prairie-dogs, inhabit the plains east of the Rocky Mountains from the Upper
+Missouri to the Red River and Rio Grande (Plate XIX., vol. ii. p. 129).
+_Anomalurus_ (5 sp.), consists of animals which resemble flying-squirrels,
+but differ from all other members of the family in some points of internal
+structure. They form a very aberrant portion of the Sciuridæ, and,
+according to some naturalists, a distinct family. They inhabit West Africa
+and the island of Fernando Po.
+
+{236}_Extinct Sciuridæ._--These are tolerably abundant. The genus Sciurus
+appears to be a remarkably ancient form, extinct species being found in the
+Miocene, and even in the Upper Eocene formations of Europe. _Spermophilus_
+goes back to the Upper Miocene; _Arctomys_ to the Newer Pliocene. Extinct
+genera are, _Brachymys_, _Lithomys_ and _Plesiarctomys_, from the European
+Miocene, the latter said to be intermediate between marmots and squirrels.
+
+In North America, _Sciurus_, _Tamias_, and _Arctomys_ occur in the
+Post-pliocene deposits only. The extinct genera are _Ischyromys_, from the
+Upper Miocene of Nebraska; _Paramys_, allied to the marmots, and
+_Sciuravus_, near the squirrels, from the Eocene of Wyoming.
+
+Here we have unmistakable evidence that the true squirrels (_Sciurus_) are
+an Old World type, which has only recently entered North America; and this
+is in accordance with the comparative scarcity of this group in South
+America, a country so well adapted to them, and their great abundance in
+the Oriental region, which, with the Palæarctic, was probably the country
+of their origin and early development. The family, however, has been traced
+equally far back in Europe and North America, so that we have as yet no
+means of determining where it originated.
+
+
+FAMILY 62--HAPLOODONTIDÆ.--(1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Haploodon_ or _Aplodontia_, consists of two curious rat-like
+animals, inhabiting the west coast of America, from the southern part of
+British Columbia to the mountains of California. They seem to have
+affinities both with the beavers and marmots, and Professor Lilljeborg
+constitutes a separate family to receive them.
+
+
+{237}FAMILY 63.--CHINCHILLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Chinchillidæ, including the chinchillas and viscachas, are confined to
+the alpine zones of the Andes, from the boundary of Ecuador and Peru to the
+southern parts of Chili; and over the Pampas, to the Rio Negro on the
+south, and the River Uruguay on the east. _Chinchilla_ (2 sp.), the true
+chinchillas, are found in the Andes of Chili and Peru, south of 9° S. lat.,
+and from 8,000 to 12,000 feet elevation (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40);
+_Lagidium_ (3 sp.), the alpine viscachas, inhabit the loftiest plateaus and
+mountains from 11,000 to 16,000 feet, and extend furthest north of any of
+the family; while _Lagostomus_ (1 sp.), the viscacha of the Pampas, has the
+range above indicated. The family is thus confined within the limits of a
+single sub-region.
+
+_Extinct Chinchillidæ._--_Lagostomus_ has been found fossil in the caves of
+Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata. The only known extinct
+forms of this family are _Amblyrhiza_ and _Loxomylus_, found in
+cavern-deposits in the island of Anguilla, of Post-Pliocene age. These are
+very interesting, as showing the greater range of this family so recently;
+though its absence from North America and Europe indicates that it is a
+peculiar development of the Neotropical region.
+
+
+FAMILY 64.--OCTODONTIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{238}The Octodontidæ include a number of curious and obscure rat-like
+animals, mostly confined to the mountains and open plains of South America,
+but having a few stragglers in other parts of the world, as will be seen by
+our notes on the genera. The most remarkable point in their distribution
+is, that two genera are peculiar to the West Indian islands, while no
+species of the family inhabits the northern half of South America. The
+distribution of the genera is as follows:--_Habrocomus_ (2 sp.), Chili;
+_Capromys_ (3 sp.), two of which inhabit Cuba, the third Jamaica (Plate
+XVII. vol. ii. p. 67); _Plagiodontia_ (1 sp.), only known from _Hayti_;
+_Spalacopus_, including _Schizodon_ (2 sp.), Chili, and east side of
+Southern Andes; _Octodon_ (3 sp.), Peru, Bolivia, and Chili; _Ctenomys_ (6
+sp.), the tuco-tuco of the Pampas, the Campos of Brazil to Bolivia and
+Tierra del Fuego; _Ctenodactylus_ (1 sp.), Tripoli, North Africa;
+_Pectinator_ (1 sp.), East Africa, Abyssinia, 4,000 to 5,000 feet.
+
+_Capromys_ and _Plagiodontia_, the two West Indian genera, were classed
+among the Echimyidæ by Mr. Waterhouse, but Professor Lilljeborg removes
+them to this family.
+
+_Extinct Octodontidæ._--Species of _Ctenomys_ have been found in the
+Pliocene of La Plata, and an extinct genus _Megamys_, said to be allied to
+_Capromys_, in the Eocene of the same country. In Europe, _Palæomys_ and
+_Archæomys_ from the lower Miocene of Germany and France, are also said to
+be allied to _Capromys_.
+
+
+FAMILY 65.--ECHIMYIDÆ. (10 Genera, 30 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+
+The Echimyidæ, or spiny rats, are a family, chiefly South American, of
+which the Coypu, a large beaver-like water-rat from Peru and Chili is the
+best known. Two of the genera are found in South Africa, but all the rest
+inhabit the continent of South America, East of the Andes, none being yet
+known north {239}of Panama. The genera are as follows:--_Dactylomys_ (2
+sp.), Guiana and Brazil; _Cercomys_ (1 sp.), Central Brazil; _Lasiuromys_
+(1 sp.), San Paulo, Brazil; _Petromys_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Myopotamus_
+(1 sp.), the coypu, on the East side of the Andes from Peru to 42° S. lat.,
+on the West side from 33° to 48° S. lat.; _Carterodon_ (1 sp.), Minaes
+Geraes, Brazil; _Aulacodes_ (1. sp.), West and South Africa; _Mesomys_ (1
+sp.), Borba on the Amazon; _Echimys_ (11 sp.), from Guiana and the
+Ecuadorian Andes to Paraguay; _Loncheres_ (10 sp.), New Granada to Brazil.
+
+_Fossil and Extinct Echimyidæ._--The genus _Carterodon_ was established on
+bones found in the Brazilian caves, and it was several years afterwards
+that specimens were obtained showing the animal to be a living species.
+Extinct species of _Myopotamus_ and _Loncheres_ have also been found in
+these caves, with the extinct genera _Lonchophorus_ and _Phyllomys_.
+
+No remains of this family have been discovered in North America; but in the
+Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits of France there are many species of an
+extinct genus _Theridomys_, which is said to be allied to this group or to
+the next (Cercolabidæ). _Aulacodon_, from the Upper Miocene of Germany, is
+allied to the West African _Aulacodes_; and some other remains from the
+lower Miocene of Auvergne, are supposed to belong to _Echimys_.
+
+
+FAMILY 66.--CERCOLABIDÆ. (3 Genera, 13-15 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cercolabidæ, or arboreal porcupines, are a group of rodents entirely
+confined to America, where they range from the northern limit of trees on
+the Mackenzie River, to the southern limit of forests in Paraguay. There is
+however an intervening district, the Southern United States, from which
+they are absent. _Erethizon_ (3 sp.), the Canadian porcupine, is found
+throughout {240}Canada and as far south as Northern Pennsylvania, and west
+to the Mississippi (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135); an allied species
+inhabiting the west coast from California to Alaska, and inland to the head
+of the Missouri River; while a third is found in the north-western part of
+South America; _Cercolabes_ (12 sp.), ranges from Mexico and Guatemala to
+Paraguay, on the eastern side of the Andes; _Chætomys_ (1 sp.), North
+Brazil.
+
+_Extinct Cercolabidæ._--A large species of _Cercolabes_ has been found in
+the Brazilian caves, but none have been discovered in North America or
+Europe. We may conclude therefore that this is probably a South American
+type, which has thence spread into North America at a comparatively recent
+epoch. The peculiar distribution of _Cercolabes_ may be explained by
+supposing it to have migrated northwards along the west coast by means of
+the wooded slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It could then only reach the
+Eastern States by way of the forest region of the great lakes, and then
+move southward. This it may be now doing, but it has not yet reached the
+Southern States of Eastern North America.
+
+
+_Family_ 67.--HYSTRICIDÆ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The true Porcupines have a very compact and well-marked distribution, over
+the whole of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (except Madagascar), and
+the second Palæarctic sub-region. There is some confusion as to their
+sub-division into genera, but the following are those most usually
+admitted:--_Hystrix_ (5 sp.), South Europe to the Cape of Good Hope, all
+India, Ceylon, and South China; _Atherura_ (5 sp.), "brush-tailed
+porcupines," inhabit West Africa, India, to Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo;
+_Acanthion_ (2 sp.), Nepal and Malacca, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.
+
+_Extinct Hystricidæ._--Several extinct species of _Hystrix_ have {241}been
+found in the Pliocene and Miocene deposits of Europe, and one in the
+Pliocene of Nebraska in North America.
+
+FAMILY 68.--CAVIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 28 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cavies and Agoutis were placed in distinct families by Mr. Waterhouse,
+in which he is followed by Professor Carus, but they have been united by
+Professor Lilljeborg, and without pretending to decide which classification
+is the more correct I follow the latter, because there is a striking
+external resemblance between the two groups, and they have an identical
+distribution in the Neotropical region, and with one exception are all
+found east of the Andes. _Dasyprocta_ (9 sp.), the agouti, ranges from
+Mexico to Paraguay, one species inhabiting the small West Indian islands of
+St. Vincent, Lucia, and Grenada; _Cælogenys_ (2 sp.), the paca, is found
+from Guatemala to Paraguay, and a second species (somewhat doubtful) in
+Eastern Peru; _Hydrochoerus_ (1 sp.), the capybara inhabits the banks of
+rivers from Guayana to La Plata; _Cavia_ (9 sp.), the guinea-pigs, Brazil
+to the Straits of Magellan, and one species west of the Andes at Yça Peru;
+_Kerodon_ (6 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Magellan; _Dolichotis_ (1 sp,), the
+Patagonian cavy, from Mendoza to 48° 30' south latitude, on sterile plains.
+
+_Extinct Caviidæ._--_Hydrochoerus_, _Cælogenys_, _Dasyprocta_, and
+_Kerodon_, have occurred abundantly in the caves of Brazil, and the
+last-named genus in the Pliocene of La Plata. _Hydrochoerus_ has been found
+in the Post-Pliocene deposits of South Carolina. _Cavia_ and _Dasyprocta_
+are said to have been found in the Miocene of Switzerland and France. No
+well-marked extinct genera of this family have been recorded.
+
+If the determination of the above-mentioned fossil species of _Cavia_ and
+_Dasyprocta_ are correct, it would show that this now {242}exclusively
+South American family is really derived from Europe, where it has long been
+extinct.
+
+
+FAMILY 69.--LAGOMYIDÆ. (1 Genus, 11 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Lagomyidæ, or pikas, are small alpine and desert animals which range
+from the south of the Ural Mountains to Cashmere and the Himalayas, at
+heights of 11,000 to 14,000 feet, and northward to the Polar regions and
+the north-eastern extremity of Siberia. They just enter the eastern
+extremity of Europe as far as the Volga, but with this exception, seem
+strictly limited to the third Palæarctic sub-region. In America they are
+confined to the Rocky Mountains from about 42° to 60° north latitude.
+
+_Extinct Lagomyidæ._--Extinct species of _Lagomys_ have occurred in the
+southern parts of Europe, from the Post-Pliocene to the Miocene formations.
+_Titanomys_, an extinct genus, is found in the Miocene of France and
+Germany.
+
+
+FAMILY 70.--LEPORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 35-40 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hares and Rabbits are especially characteristic of the Nearctic and
+Palæarctic, but are also thinly scattered over the Ethiopian and Oriental
+regions. In the Neotropical region they are very scarce, only one species
+being found in South America, in the mountains of Brazil and various parts
+of the Andes, while one or two of the North American species extend into
+Mexico {243}and Guatemala. In the Nearctic region, they are most abundant
+in the central and western parts of the continent, and they extend to the
+Arctic Ocean and to Greenland. They are found in every part of the
+Palæarctic region, from Ireland to Japan; three species range over all
+India to Ceylon, and others occur in Hainan, Formosa, South China, and the
+mountains of Pegu; the Ethiopian region has only four or five species,
+mostly in the southern extremity and along the East coast. An Indian
+species is now wild in some parts of Java, but it has probably been
+introduced.
+
+_Extinct Leporidæ._--Species of _Lepus_ occur in the Post-Pliocene and
+Newer Pliocene of France; but only in the Post-Pliocene of North America,
+and the caves of Brazil.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Rodentia._
+
+With the exception of the Australian region and Madagascar, where Muridæ
+alone have been found, this order is one of the most universally and evenly
+distributed over the entire globe. Of the sixteen families which compose
+it, the Palæarctic region has 10; the Ethiopian, Nearctic, and Neotropical,
+each 9; and the Oriental only 5. These figures are very curious and
+suggestive. We know that the rodentia are exceedingly ancient, since some
+of the living genera date back to the Eocene period; and some ancestral
+types might thus have reached the remote South American and South African
+lands at the time of one of their earliest unions with the northern
+continents. In both these countries the rodents diverged into many special
+forms, and being small animals easily able to conceal themselves, have
+largely survived the introduction of higher Mammalia. In the Palæarctic and
+Nearctic regions, their small size and faculty of hibernation may have
+enabled them to maintain themselves during those great physical changes
+which resulted in the extermination or banishment of so many of the larger
+and more highly organised Mammalia, to which, in these regions, they now
+bear a somewhat inordinate proportion. The reasons why they are now less
+numerous and varied in the Oriental region, may be of two kinds. The
+comparatively small area of that region and its {244}uniformity of climate,
+would naturally lead to less development of such a group as this, than in
+the vastly more extensive and varied and almost equally luxuriant
+Palæarctic region of Eocene and Miocene times; while on the other hand the
+greater number of the smaller Carnivora in the tropics during the Pliocene
+and Post-Pliocene epochs, would be a constant check upon the increase of
+these defenceless animals, and no doubt exterminate a number of them.
+
+The Rodents thus offer a striking contrast to the Ungulates; and these two
+great orders afford an admirable illustration of the different way in which
+physical and organic changes may affect large and small herbivorous
+Mammalia; often leading to the extinction of the former, while favouring
+the comparative development of the latter.
+
+
+_Order XI.--EDENTATA._
+
+FAMILY 71.--BRADYPODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Sloths are a remarkable group of arboreal mammals, strictly confined to
+the great forests of the Neotropical region, from Guatemala to Brazil and
+Eastern Bolivia. None are found west of the Andes, nor do they appear to
+extend into Paraguay, or beyond the Tropic of Capricorn on the east coast.
+The genera as defined by Dr. Gray in 1871 are:--_Choloepus_ (2 sp.),
+"Sloths with two toes on fore limbs, sexes alike," Costa Rica to Brazil;
+_Bradypus_ (2 sp.), "Sloths with three toes on fore limbs, sexes alike,"
+Central Brazil, Amazon to Rio de Janeiro; _Arctopithecus_ (8 sp.), "Sloths
+with three toes on fore limbs, males with a coloured patch on the back,"
+Costa Rica to Brazil and Eastern Bolivia (Plate XIV., vol ii. p. 24).
+
+{245}_Extinct Bradypodidæ._--In the caves of Brazil are found three extinct
+genera of Sloths--_Cælodon_, _Sphenodon_, and _Ochotherium_. More distantly
+allied, and probably forming distinct families, are _Scelidotherium_ and
+_Megatherium_, from the caves of Brazil and the Pliocene deposits of La
+Plata and Patagonia.
+
+
+FAMILY 72.--MANIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Manididæ, or scaly ant-eaters, are the only Edentate Mammalia found out
+of America, They are spread over the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; in the
+former from Sennaar to West Africa and the Cape; in the latter from the
+Himalayas to Ceylon, and Eastward to Borneo and Java, as well as to South
+China, as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They have been sub-divided,
+according to differences in the scaly covering, into five groups, _Manis_,
+_Phatagin_, _Smutsia_, _Pholidotus_ and _Pangolin_, the three former being
+confined to Africa, the last common to Africa and the East, while
+_Pholidotus_ seems confined to Java. It is doubtful if these divisions are
+more than sub-genera, and as such they are treated here.
+
+No extinct species referable to this family are yet known.
+
+
+FAMILY 73.--DASYPODIDÆ. (6 Genera, 17 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dasypodidæ, or armadillos, are a highly characteristic Neotropical
+family, ranging from the northern extremity of the region {246}in south
+Texas, to 50° south latitude on the plains of Patagonia. The distribution
+of the genera is as follows:--_Tatusia_ (5 sp.), has the range of the whole
+family from the lower Rio Grande of Texas to Patagonia; _Prionodontes_ (1
+sp.), the giant armadillo, Surinam to Paraguay; _Dasypus_ (4 sp.), Brazil
+to Bolivia, Chili, and La Plata; _Xenurus_ (3 sp.), Guiana to Paraguay;
+_Tolypeutes_ (2 sp.), the three-banded armadillos, Bolivia and La Plata;
+_Chlamydophorus_ (2 sp.), near Mendoza in La Plata, and Santa Cruz de la
+Sierra in Bolivia.
+
+_Extinct Armadillos._--Many species of _Dasypus_ and _Xenurus_ have been
+found in the caves of Brazil, together with many extinct
+genera--_Hoplophorus_, _Euryodon_, _Heterodon_, _Pachytherium_, and
+_Chlamydotherium_, the latter as large as a rhinoceros. _Eutatus_, allied
+to _Tolypeutes_, is from the Pliocene deposits of La Plata.
+
+
+FAMILY 74.--ORYCTEROPODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Aard-vark, or Cape ant-eater (_Orycteropus capensis_) is a curious form
+of Edentate animal, with the general form of an ant-eater, but with the
+bristly skin and long obtuse snout of a pig. A second species inhabits the
+interior of North-East Africa and Senegal, that of the latter country
+perhaps forming a third species (Plate IV. vol. i. p. 261).
+
+_Extinct Orycteropodidæ._--The genus _Macrotherium_, remains of which occur
+in the Miocene deposits of France, Germany, and Greece, is allied to this
+group, though perhaps forming a separate family. The same may be said of
+the _Ancylotherium_, a huge animal found only in the Miocene deposits of
+Greece.
+
+
+{247}FAMILY 75.--MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The true ant-eaters are strictly confined to the wooded portions of the
+Neotropical region, ranging from Honduras to Paraguay on the East side of
+the Andes. The three genera now generally admitted are: _Myrmecophaga_ (1
+sp.), the great ant-eater, Northern Brazil to Paraguay; _Tamandua_ (2 sp.),
+4-toed ant-eaters, Guatemala, Ecuador to Paraguay (Plate XIV. vol. ii. p.
+24); _Cyclothurus_ (2 sp.), 2-toed ant-eaters, Honduras and Costa Rica to
+Brazil.
+
+_Extinct Ant-eaters._--The only extinct form of this family seems to be the
+_Glossotherium_, found in the caves of Brazil, and the Tertiary deposits of
+Uruguay. It is said to be allied to _Myrmecophaga_ and _Manis_.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata._
+
+These singular animals are almost confined to South America, where they
+constitute an important part of the fauna. In Africa, two family types are
+scantily represented, and one of these extends over all the Oriental
+region. In Pliocene and Post-Pliocene times the Edentata were wonderfully
+developed in South America, many of them being huge animals, rivalling in
+bulk, the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. As none of these forms resemble
+those of Africa, while the only European fossil Edentata are of African
+type, it seems probable that South Africa, like South America, was a centre
+of development for this group of mammalia; and it is in the highest degree
+probable that, should extensive fluviatile deposits of Pliocene or Miocene
+age be discovered in the former country, an extinct fauna, not less strange
+and grotesque than that of South America, will be brought to {248}light.
+From the fact that so few remains of this order occur in Europe, and those
+of one family type, and in Miocene deposits only, it seems a fair
+conclusion, that this represents an incursion of an ancient Ethiopian form
+into Europe analogous to that which invaded North America from the south
+during the Post-Pliocene epoch. The extension of the Manididæ, or scaly
+ant-eaters, over tropical Asia may have occurred at the same, or a somewhat
+later epoch.
+
+For a summary of the Numerous Edentata of North and South America which
+belong to extinct families, see vol. i. p. 147.
+
+
+_Order XII.--MARSUPIALIA._
+
+FAMILY 76.--DIDELPHYIDÆ. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Didelphyidæ, or true opossums, range throughout all the wooded
+districts of the Neotropical region from the southern boundary of Texas to
+the River La Plata, and on the west coast to 42° S. Lat., where a species
+of _Didelphys_ was obtained by Professor Cunningham. One species only is
+found in the Nearctic region, extending from Florida to the Hudson River,
+and west to the Missouri. The species named _Didelphys californica_
+inhabits Mexico, and only extends into the southern extremity of
+California. The species are most numerous in the great forest region of
+Brazil, and they have been recently found to the west of the Andes near
+Guayaquil, as well as in Chili. The exact number of species is very
+doubtful, owing to the difficulty of determining them from dried skins. All
+but two belong to the genus _Didelphys_, which has the range above given
+for the family (Plate XIV., vol. ii. p. 24); _Chironectes_ (1 sp.), the
+yapock or water opossum, inhabits Guiana and Brazil; _Hyracodon_ (1 sp.),
+is a small {249}rat-like animal discovered by Mr. Fraser in Ecuador, and
+which may perhaps belong to another family.
+
+_Extinct Didelphyidæ._--No less than seven species of _Didelphys_ have been
+found in the caves of Brazil, but none in the older formations. In North
+America the living species only, has been found in Post-Pliocene deposits.
+In Europe, however, many species of small opossums, now classed as a
+distinct genus, _Peratherium_, have been found in various Tertiary deposits
+from the Upper Miocene to the Upper Eocene.
+
+We have here a sufficient proof that the American Marsupials have nothing
+to do with those of Australia, but were derived from Europe, where their
+ancestors lived during a long series of ages.
+
+
+FAMILY 77.--DASYURIDÆ. (10 Genera, 30 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dasyuridæ, or native cats, are a group of carnivorous or insectivorous
+marsupials, ranging from the size of a wolf to that of a mouse. They are
+found all over Australia and Tasmania, as well as in New Guinea and the
+adjacent Papuan islands. Several new genera and species have recently been
+described by Mr. G. Krefft, of the Sydney Museum, and are included in the
+following enumeration. _Phasgogale_ (3 sp.), New Guinea, West, East, and
+South Australia; _Antechinomys_ (1 sp.), Interior of South Australia;
+_Antechinus_ (12 sp.), Aru Islands, all Australia, and Tasmania;
+_Chætocercus_ (1 sp.), South Australia; _Dactylopsila_ (1 sp.), Aru Islands
+and North Australia; _Podabrus_ (5 sp.), West, East, and South Australia,
+and Tasmania; _Myoictis_ (1 sp.), Aru Islands; _Sarcophilus_ (1 sp.),
+Tasmania; _Dasyurus_ (4 sp.), North, East, and South, Australia, and
+Tasmania; _Thylacinus_ (1 sp.), Tasmania (Plate XI., vol. i. p. 439).
+
+Extinct species of _Dasyurus_ and _Thylacinus_ have been found in the
+Post-Pliocene deposits of Australia.
+
+
+{250}FAMILY 78.--MYRMECOBIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The only representative of this family is the _Myrmecobius fasciatus_, or
+native ant-eater, a small bushy-tailed squirrel-like animal, found in the
+South and West of Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 79.--PERAMELIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Peramelidæ, or bandicoots, are small insectivorous Marsupials, having
+something of the form of the kangaroos. They range over the whole of
+Australia and Tasmania, as well as the Papuan Islands. The genus
+_Perameles_ (8 sp.), has the range of the family, one species being found
+in New Guinea and the Aru Islands (Plate XI., vol. i. p. 440); _Peragalea_
+(1 sp.), inhabits West Australia only; and _Choeropus_ (1 sp.), a beautiful
+little animal with something of the appearance of a mouse-deer, is found in
+both South, East, and West Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 80.--MACROPODIDÆ. (10 Genera, 56 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{251}The well-known Kangaroos are the most largely developed family of
+Marsupials, and they appear to be the form best adapted for the present
+conditions of life in Australia, over every part of which they range. One
+genus of true terrestrial kangaroos (_Dorcopsis_), inhabits the Papuan
+Islands, as do also the curious tree kangaroos (_Dendrolagus_) which,
+without much apparent modification of form, are able to climb trees and
+feed upon the foliage. The genera, as established by Mr. Waterhouse, are as
+follows: _Macropus_ (4 sp.), West, South, and East Australia, and Tasmania
+(Plate XII., vol. i. p. 441); _Osphranter_ (5 sp.), all Australia;
+_Halmaturus_ (18 sp.), all Australia and Tasmania; _Petrogale_ (7 sp.), all
+Australia; _Dendrolagus_ (2 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X., vol. i. p. 414);
+_Dorcopsis_ (2 sp.) Aru and Mysol Islands, and New Guinea; _Onychogalea_ (3
+sp.), Central Australia; _Lagorchestes_ (5 sp.), North, West, and South
+Australia; _Bettongia_ (6 sp.), West, South, and East, Australia, and
+Tasmania; _Hypsiprymnus_ (4 sp.), West and East Australia, and Tasmania.
+
+_Extinct Macropodidæ._--Many species of the genera _Macropus_ and
+_Hypsiprymnus_ have been found in the cave-deposits and other Post-Tertiary
+strata of Australia. Among the extinct genera are _Protemnodon_ and
+_Sthenurus_, which are more allied to the tree-kangaroos of New Guinea than
+to living Australian species; the gigantic _Diprotodon_, a kangaroo nearly
+as large as an elephant; and _Nototherium_, of smaller size.
+
+
+FAMILY 81.--PHALANGISTIDÆ. (8 Genera, 27 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Phalangistidæ, or phalangers, are one of the most varied and
+interesting groups of Marsupials, being modified in a variety of ways for
+an arboreal life. We have the clumsy-looking tail-less koala, or native
+sloth; the prehensile-tailed opossum-like phalangers; the beautiful flying
+oppossums, so closely resembling {252}in form the flying squirrels of North
+America and India, but often no larger than a mouse; the beautiful
+dormouse-like _Dromiciæ_, one species of which is only 2¼ inches long or
+less than the harvest-mouse; and the little _Tarsipes_, a true honey-sucker
+with an extensile tongue, and of the size of a mouse. These extreme
+modifications and specializations within the range of a single family, are
+sufficient to indicate the great antiquity of the Australian fauna; and
+they render it almost certain that the region it occupied was once much
+more extensive, so as to supply the variety of conditions and the struggle
+between competing forms of life, which would be required to develop so many
+curiously modified forms, of which we now probably see only a remnant.
+
+The Phalangistidæ not only range over all Australia and Tasmania, but over
+the whole of the Austro-Malayan sub-region from New Guinea to the Moluccas
+and Celebes. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--_Phascolarctos_
+(1 sp.), the koala, East Australia; _Phalangista_ (5 sp.), East, South, and
+West Australia, and Tasmania; _Cuscus_ (8 sp.), woolly phalangers, New
+Guinea, North Australia, Timor, Moluccas and Celebes; _Petaurista_ (1 sp.)
+large flying phalanger, East Australia; _Belideus_ (5 sp.), flying
+opossums, South, East, and North Australia, New Guiana and Moluccas;
+_Acrobata_ (1 sp.), pigmy flying opossum, South and East Australia;
+_Dromicia_ (5 sp.), dormouse-phalangers, West and East Australia, and
+Tasmania; _Tarsipes_ (1 sp.), West Australia.
+
+_Thylacoleo_, a large extinct marsupial of doubtful affinities, seems to be
+somewhat intermediate between this family and the kangaroos. Professor Owen
+considered it to be carnivorous, and able to prey upon the huge
+_Diprotodon_, while Professor Flower and Mr. Gerard Krefft, believe that it
+was herbivorous.
+
+
+FAMILY 82.--PHASCOLOMYIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{253}The Wombats are tail-less, terrestrial, burrowing animals, about the
+size of a badger, but feeding on roots and grass. They inhabit South
+Australia and Tasmania (Plate XI. vol. i. p. 439).
+
+An extinct wombat, as large as a tapir, has been found in the Australian
+Pliocene deposits.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of Marsupialia._
+
+We have here the most remarkable case, of an extensive and highly varied
+order being confined to one very limited area on the earth's surface, the
+only exception being the opossums in America. It has been already shown
+that these are comparatively recent immigrants, which have survived in that
+country long after they disappeared in Europe. As, however, no other form
+but that of the Didelphyidæ occurs there during the Tertiary period, we
+must suppose that it was at a far more remote epoch that the ancestral
+forms of all the other Marsupials entered Australia; and the curious little
+mammals of the Oolite and Trias, offer valuable indications as to the time
+when this really took place.
+
+A notice of these extinct marsupials of the secondary period will be found
+at vol. i. p. 159.
+
+
+_Order XIII.--MONOTREMATA._
+
+FAMILY 83.--ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The _Ornithorhynchus_, or duck-billed Platypus, one of the most remarkable
+and isolated of existing mammalia, is found in East and South Australia,
+and Tasmania.
+
+
+{254}FAMILY 84.--ECHIDNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The _Echidna_, or Australian Hedgehog, although quite as remarkable in
+internal structure as the Ornithorhynchus, is not so peculiar in external
+appearance, having very much the aspect of a hedgehog or spiny armadillo.
+The two species of this genus are very closely allied; one inhabits East
+and South Australia, the other Tasmania.
+
+_Extinct Echidnidæ._--Remains of a very large fossil species of _Echidna_
+have lately (1868) been discovered at Darling Downs in Australia.
+
+
+_Remark on the Distribution of the Monotremata._
+
+This order is the lowest and most anomalous of the mammalia, and nothing
+resembling it has been found among the very numerous extinct animals
+discovered in any other part of the world than Australia.
+
+
+
+
+{255}CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS.
+
+
+
+_Order I.--PASSERES._
+
+FAMILY 1.--TURDIDÆ. (21 Genera, 205 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The extensive and familiar group of Thrushes ranges over every region and
+sub-region, except New Zealand. It abounds most in the North Temperate
+regions, and has its least development in the Australian region. Thrushes
+are among the most perfectly organized of birds, and it is to this cause,
+perhaps, as well as to their omnivorous diet, that they have been enabled
+to establish themselves on a number of remote islands. Peculiar species of
+true thrush are found in Norfolk Island, and in the small Lord Howes'
+Island nearer Australia; the Island of St. Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea has
+a peculiar species; while the Mid-Atlantic island Tristan d'Acunha,--one of
+the most remote and isolated spots on the globe,--has a peculiarly modified
+form of thrush. Several of the smaller West Indian Islands have also
+peculiar species or genera of thrushes.
+
+The family is of somewhat uncertain extent, blending insensibly with the
+warblers (Sylviidæ) as well as with the Indian bulbuls {256}(Pycnonotidæ),
+while one genus, usually placed in it (_Myiophonus_) seems to agree better
+with _Enicurus_ among the Cinclidæ. The genera here admitted into the
+thrush family are the following, the numbers prefixed to some of the genera
+indicating their position in Gray's _Hand List of the Genera and Species of
+Birds_:--
+
+(1143) _Brachypteryx_ (8 sp.), Nepaul to Java and Ceylon (this may belong
+to the Timaliidæ); _Turdus_ (100 sp.) has the range of the whole family,
+abounding in the Palæarctic, Oriental and Neotropical regions, while it is
+less plentiful in the Nearctic and Ethiopian, and very scarce in the
+Australian; (934) _Oreocincla_ (11 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions,
+Australia and Tasmania; (942) _Rhodinocichla_ (1 sp.), Venezuela; (946)
+_Melanoptila_ (1 sp.), Honduras; (947 948) _Catharus_ (10 sp.) Mexico to
+Equador; (949 950) _Margarops_ (4 sp.), Hayti and Porto Rico to St. Lucia;
+(951) _Nesocichla_ (1 sp.), Tristan d'Acunha; (952) _Geocichla_ (8 sp.),
+India to Formosa and Celebes, Timor and North Australia; (954 955)
+_Monticola_ (8 sp.), Central Europe to South Africa and to China,
+Philippine Islands, Gilolo and Java; (956) _Orocætes_ (3 sp.), Himalayas
+and N. China; _Zoothera_ (3 sp.) Himalayas, Aracan, Java, and Lombok;
+_Mimus_ (20 sp.) Canada to Patagonia, West Indies and Galapagos; (962)
+_Oreoscoptes_ (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains and Mexico; (963) _Melanotis_ (2
+sp.), South Mexico and Guatemala; (964) _Galeoscoptes_ (1 sp.), Canada and
+Eastern United States to Cuba and Panama; (965 966) _Mimocichla_ (5 sp.),
+Greater Antilles; (967 968) _Harporhynchus_ (7 sp.), North America, from
+the great lakes to Mexico; _Cinclocerthia_ (3 sp.), Lesser Antilles; (970)
+_Rhamphocinclus_ (1 sp.), Lesser Antilles; _Chætops_ (3 sp.), South Africa;
+_Cossypha_ = _Bessonornis_ (15 sp.) Ethiopian region and Palestine.
+
+
+FAMILY 2.--SYLVIIDÆ. (74 Genera, 640 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{257}This immense family, comprising all the birds usually known as
+"warblers," is, as here constituted, of almost universal distribution. Yet
+it is so numerous and preponderant over the whole Eastern Hemisphere, that
+it may be well termed an Old-World group; only two undoubted genera with
+very few species belonging to the Nearctic region, while two or three
+others whose position is somewhat doubtful, are found in California and the
+Neotropical region.
+
+Canon Tristram, who has paid great attention to this difficult group, has
+kindly communicated to me a MSS. arrangement of the genera and species,
+which, with a very few additions and alterations, I implicitly follow. He
+divides the Sylviidæ into seven sub-families, as follows:
+
+1. Drymoecinæ (15 genera, 194 sp.), confined to the Old World and
+Australia, and especially abundant in the three Tropical regions. 2.
+Calamoherpinæ (11 genera, 75 sp.), has the same general distribution as the
+last, but is scarce in the Australian and abundant in the Palæarctic
+region; 3. Phylloscopinæ (11 genera, 139 sp.), has the same distribution as
+the entire family, but is most abundant in the Oriental and Palæarctic
+regions. 4. Sylviinæ (6 genera, 33 sp.), most abundant in the Palæarctic
+region, very scarce in the Australian and Oriental regions, absent from
+America. 5. Ruticillinæ (10 genera, 50 sp.); entirely absent from America
+and Australia; abounds in the Oriental and Palæarctic regions. 6.
+Saxicolinæ (12 genera, 126 sp.), absent from America (except the extreme
+north-west), abundant in the Oriental region and moderately so in the
+Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Australian. 7. Accentorinæ (6 genera, 21 sp.),
+absent from the Ethiopian region and South America, most abundant in
+Australia, one small genus (_Sialia_), in North America.
+
+The distribution of the several genera arranged under these sub-families,
+is as follows:
+
+1. DRYMOECINÆ.--(736) Orthotomus (13 sp.), all the Oriental region; (737)
+_Prinia_ (11 sp.), all the Oriental region; (738 740 742 746) _Drymoeca_
+(83 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, most abundant in the former; (743
+to 745 and 749 to 752) _Cisticola_ (32 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental
+regions, with South Europe, China {258}and Australia; (741) _Suya_ (5 sp.),
+Nepal to South China and Formosa; (773) _Sphenæacus_ (7 sp.), Australia,
+New Zealand, and Chatham Island, with one species (?) in South Africa; (770
+772) _Megalurus_ (4 sp.), Central India to Java and Timor; (774 775)
+_Poodytes_ (2 sp.), Australia; (766) _Amytis_ (3 sp.), Australia; (768)
+_Sphenura_ (4 sp.), Australia; (764) _Malurus_ (16 sp.), Australia and
+Tasmania; (762 763) _Chthonicola_ (3 sp.), Australia; (761) _Calamanthus_
+(2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (759) _Camaroptera_ (5 sp.), Africa and
+Fernando Po; (753) _Apalis_ (1 sp.), South Africa.
+
+2. CALAMOHERPINÆ.--(777 to 781 and sp. 2968) _Acrocephalus_ (35 sp.),
+Palæarctic, Ethiopian, continental part of Oriental region, Moluccas,
+Caroline Islands, and Australia; (782 818) _Dumeticola_ (4 sp.), Nepal to
+East Thibet, Central Asia, high regions; (783 790) _Potamodus_ (3 sp.),
+Central and South Europe, and East Thibet; (789 and sp. 2969) _Lusciniola_
+(1 sp.), South Europe; (791 792) _Locustella_ (8 sp.), Palæarctic region to
+Central India and China; (739) _Horites_ (5 sp.), Nepal to North-west China
+and Formosa; (784-786) _Bradyptetus_ = _Cettia_ (10 sp.), South Europe,
+Palestine, and South Africa; (747 748) _Catriscus_ (3 sp.), Tropical and
+South Africa; _Bernieria_ (2 sp.), and (756) _Ellisia_ (3 sp.), Madagascar;
+(832 a) _Mystacornis_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; (787) _Calamodus_ (2 sp.),
+Europe and Palestine; (734) _Tatare_ (2 sp.) Samoa to Marquesas Islands.
+
+3. PHYLLOSCOPINÆ.[5]--_Phylloscopus_ (18 sp.), all Palæarctic and Oriental
+regions to Batchian; (757 758 820) _Eremomela_ (16 sp.), Tropical and South
+Africa; (754) _Eroessa_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; [5]_Hypolais_ (12 sp.),
+Palæarctic region, all India, Timor, North and South Africa; (815 816 819)
+_Abrornis_ (26 sp.), Oriental region; (814) _Reguloides_ (4 sp.),
+Palæarctic and continental Oriental regions; (822) _Sericornis_ (7 sp.),
+Australia and Tasmania (823 824 1451) _Acanthiza_ (14 sp.), Australia and
+New Caledonia; (821) _Regulus_ (7 sp.), all Palæarctic and Nearctic regions
+and south to Guatemala; (890) _Polioptila_ (13 sp,); Paraguay to New
+Mexico; (825) _Gerygone_ (22 sp.), Australia, Papuan and Timor groups, New
+Zealand and Norfolk Island.
+
+{259}4. SYLVIINÆ.--(793) _Aedon_ (9 sp.), Spain and Palestine, to East and
+South Africa; (858) _Drymodes_ (2 sp.), Australia; (800) _Pyrophthalma_ (2
+sp.), South Europe and Palestine; (801) _Melizophilus_ (3 sp.), South-west
+Europe and North-east Africa; (802 804) _Sylvia_ = _Alsecus_ (8 sp.),
+Palæarctic region to India and Ceylon, and North-east Africa; (806 809)
+_Curruca_ (7 sp.), Central and South Europe, Madeira, Palestine, Central
+India, North-east Africa, and South Africa.
+
+5. RUTICILLINÆ.--(827) _Luscinia_ (2 sp.), West Asia, Europe, North Africa;
+(839) _Cyanecula_ (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, India, Ceylon, and
+China; (840) _Calliope_ (2 sp.), North Asia, Himalayas, Central India, and
+China; (838) _Erithacus_ (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, Japan, and
+North China; (828 830 837) _Ruticilla_ (20 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental
+regions to Senegal and Abyssinia, and east to Timor; abounds in Himalayas;
+(829) _Chæmarrhornis_ (1 sp.), Himalayas; (831 832 834) _Larvivora_ (10
+sp.), Oriental region and Japan; (833) _Notodela_ (3 sp.), Himalayas, Pegu,
+Formosa, Java; (835) _Tarsiger_ (2 sp.), Nepal; (841) _Grandala_ (1 sp.),
+High Himalayas of Nepal.
+
+6. SAXICOLINÆ.--(975) _Copsychus_ (7 sp.), all Oriental region and
+Madagascar; (976) _Kittacincla_ (5 sp.), Oriental region to {260}Ceylon,
+Andaman Islands, Formosa, and Borneo; (794-799) _Thamnobia_ (10 sp.),
+Ethiopian region and India to foot of Himalayas; (977) _Gervasia_ (2 sp.),
+Madagascar and Seychelle Islands; (845 847) _Dromolæa_ (18 sp.), Africa to
+South Europe, Palestine, North-west India, and North China; (842 843 846)
+_Saxicola_ (36 sp.), Africa, North-west India, whole Palæarctic region,
+migrating to Alaska and Greenland; (848 849) _Oreicola_ (5 sp.), Timor,
+Lombok, and Burmah; (844) _Cercomela_ (6 sp.), North-east Africa to
+North-west India; (850) _Pratincola_ (15 sp.), Europe, Ethiopian, and
+Oriental regions to Celebes and Timor; (917) _Ephthianura_ (3 sp.),
+Australia; (851-856) _Petroeca_ (17 sp.), Australian region, Papua to New
+Zealand, Chatham and Auckland Islands, and Samoa; (857) _Miro_ (2 sp.), New
+Zealand (doubtfully placed here).
+
+7. ACCENTORINÆ.--(771) _Cinclorhamphus_ (2 sp.), Australia; (860) _Origma_
+(1 sp.), East Australia; (859) _Sialia_ (8 sp.), United States to
+Guatemala; (861) _Accentor_ (12 sp.), Palæarctic region to Himalayas and
+North-west China; (703) _Orthonyx_ (4 sp.), East Australia and New Zealand
+(doubtfully placed here).
+
+The following two genera, which have been usually classed as Ampelidæ, are
+arranged by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin in the Sylviidæ:--
+
+(1362) _Myiadestes_ (8 sp.), Peru and Bolivia, along the Andes to Mexico
+and California, also the Antilles; (1364) _Cichlopsis_ (1 sp.), Brazil.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--TIMALIIDÆ. (35 Genera, 240 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Timaliidæ, or babbling thrushes, are a group of small strong-legged
+active birds, mostly of dull colours, which are especially characteristic
+of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound, while they are
+much less plentiful in {261}Australia and Africa. The Indo-Chinese
+sub-region is the head quarters of the family, whence it diminishes rapidly
+in all directions in variety of both generic and specific forms. Viscount
+Walden has kindly assisted me in the determination of the limits of this
+family, as to which there is still much difference of opinion. The
+distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows; and as the genera
+are widely scattered in the _Hand List_, reference numbers are prefixed in
+every case.
+
+(1023-1026 1008) _Pomatorhinus_ (27 sp.), the whole Oriental region
+(excluding Philippines), Australia and New Guinea; (1027) _Pterohinus_ (3
+sp.), North China, East Thibet; (1029 1030) _Malacocircus_ (9 sp.),
+Continental India and Ceylon, Arabia, Nubia; (1031) _Chatarrhæa_ (5 sp.),
+Abyssinia, Palestine, India, Nepal, Burmah, and Philippines; (1032)
+_Layardia_ (3 sp.), India and Ceylon; (1033) _Acanthoptila_ (1 sp.), Nepal;
+(1034) _Cinclosoma_ (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (1035 1036)
+_Crateropus_ (18 sp.), all Africa, Persia; (1037) _Hypergerus_ (1 sp.),
+West Africa; (1038) _Cichladusa_ (3 sp.), Tropical Africa; (1039)
+_Garrulax_ (23 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines); (1040)
+_Janthocincla_ (10 sp.), Nepal, to East Thibet, Sumatra, Formosa; (1041
+1042) _Gampsorhynchus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas; (1049) _Grammatoptila_ (1 sp.),
+North India; (1043-1045) _Trochalopteron_ (24 sp.), all India to China and
+Formosa; (1046) _Actinodura_ (4 sp.), Nepal to Burmah, 3,000-10,000 feet;
+(1047) _Pellorneum_ (4 sp.), Nepal to Ceylon, Tenasserim; (1158 1159)
+_Timalia_ (12 sp.), Malaya;[6] (1160) _Dumetia_ (2 sp.), Central India and
+Ceylon; (1162) _Stachyris_ (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Sumatra, Formosa;
+(1164) _Pyctorhis_ (3 sp.), India to Ceylon and Burmah; (1165) _Mixornis_
+(8 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; (1167) _Malacopteron_ (3 sp.), Malaya; (1168
+1169) _Alcippe_ (15 sp.), Ceylon and South India, Himalayas to Aracan,
+Malaya, Formosa, New Guinea; (1170) _Macronus_ (2 sp.), Malaya; (1171)
+_Cacopitta_ (5 sp.), Malaya; (1172) _Trichastoma_ (11 sp.), Nepal, Burmah,
+Malaya, Celebes; (1173) _Napothera_ (6 sp.), Malaya; (1174) _Drymocataphus_
+(8 sp.), Burmah, Malaya, Ceylon, {262}Timor; (1175) _Turdinus_ (5 sp.),
+Khasia Hills, Malacca, Tenasserim; (1176) _Trichixos_ (1 sp.), Borneo,
+Malacca; (1004) _Sibia_ (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Tenasserim, Formosa; (1177
+1178) _Alethe_ (4 sp.), West Africa; (1178 a) _Oxylabes_ (1 sp.),
+Madagascar; (1050) _Psophodes_ (2 sp.), South, East, and West Australia;
+(1048) _Turnagra_ (3 sp.), New Zealand.
+
+
+FAMILY 4.--PANURIDÆ. (4 Genera, 13 Species).
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This new family is adopted, at the suggestion of Professor Newton, to
+include some peculiar groups of Himalayan birds whose position has usually
+been among the Timaliidæ or the Paridæ, but which are now found to be
+allied to our Bearded Reedling. The supposed affinity of this bird for the
+Tits has been long known to be erroneous, and the family Panuridæ was
+formed for its reception (Yarrell's _British Birds_, 4th edit. p. 512). The
+genera having hitherto been widely scattered in systematic works, are
+referred to by the numbers of Mr. G. E. Gray's _Hand List_.
+
+(1901) _Paradoxornis_ (3 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; (1904)
+_Conostoma_ (1 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; (876) _Suthora_ (8 sp.),
+Himalayas to North-west China, Formosa; (877) _Chlenasicus_ (1 sp.),
+Darjeeling; (887) _Panurus_ (1 sp.), Central and Southern Europe; (1902)
+_Heteromorpha_ (1 sp.), Nepal, 10,000 feet altitude; _Cholornis_ (1 sp.),
+Moupin in East Thibet.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--CINCLIDÆ. (4 Genera, 27 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- | -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- ?4|1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{263}The Cinclidæ consist of a number of more or less thrush-like
+ground-birds, of which the most remarkable are the Dippers, forming the
+genus _Cinclus_. These are curiously distributed, from the Palæarctic
+region as a centre, to the alpine districts of North and South America;
+while the three genera which are here included as somewhat allied to
+_Cinclus_, all inhabit the Oriental region. The genera which I class in
+this family are the following:--
+
+(978) _Cinclus_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic region to West China and Formosa, Rocky
+Mountains, and Mexico in North America, and southward to the Andes of Peru;
+(916) _Enicurus_ (9 sp.), Himalayas to Java and West China; (979) _Eupetes_
+(4 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and New Guinea; (971) _Myiophonus_ (5 sp.),
+Himalayas to Ceylon, Java, South China, and Formosa.
+
+(981) _Mesites_ (1 sp.), Madagascar, is an anomalous bird placed with
+_Eupetes_ by Mr. G. R. Gray, but of very uncertain affinities.
+
+
+FAMILY 6.--TROGLODYTIDÆ. (17 Genera, 94 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Troglodytidæ, or Wrens, are small birds, rather abundant and varied in
+the Neotropical region, with a few species scattered through the Nearctic,
+Palæarctic, and parts of the Oriental regions, and one doubtful genus in
+Africa. The constitution of the family is by no means well determined. The
+South American genera are taken from Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's
+_Nomenclator Avium Neotropicalium_.
+
+_Tesia_ (2 sp.), Eastern Himalayas; _Pnoepyga_ (6 sp.), Himalayas to East
+Thibet, Java; (716 and 723) _Troglodytes_ (15 sp.), Neotropical, Nearctic,
+and Palæarctic regions to the Higher Himalayas; (697) _Rimator_ (1 sp.),
+Darjeeling; _Thryothorus_ (13 sp.), South Brazil to Mexico, Martinique, and
+Nearctic region; _Thryophilus_ (13 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and North-west
+America; _Cistothorus_ {264}(5 sp.), Patagonia to Greenland; _Uropsila_ (1
+sp.), Mexico; _Donacobius_ (2 sp.), Tropical America; _Campylorhynchus_ (18
+sp.), Brazil, and Bolivia to Mexico and the Gila valley; _Cyphorhinus_ (5
+sp.), Equatorial South America to Costa Rica; _Microcerculus_ (5 sp.),
+Brazil and Peru to Mexico; _Henicorhina_ (2 sp.), Peru and Guiana to Costa
+Rica; _Salpinctes_ (1 sp.), High Plains of Rocky Mountains; _Catherpes_ (1
+sp.), Mexico and Rio Grande; _Cinnicerthia_ (2 sp.), Ecuador and Columbia.
+(760) _Sylvietta_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa,--is placed in this
+family by Mr. Tristram.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--CHAMÆIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species).
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The bird which forms the genus _Chamæa_ inhabits California; and though
+allied to the wrens it has certain peculiarities of structure which, in the
+opinion of many ornithologists, require that it should be placed in a
+distinct family.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--CERTHIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 18 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3. 4 | 1.2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Certhiidæ, or Creepers, form a small family whose species are thinly
+scattered over North America from Mexico, the Palæarctic region, parts of
+the Oriental region, and Australia, where they are somewhat more abundant.
+The distribution of the genera is as follows:
+
+_Certhia_ (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, Nepal, and Sikhim;
+_Salpornis_ (1 sp.), Central India; _Tichodroma_, (1 sp.), South
+{265}Europe to Abyssinia, Nepal, and North China; _Rhabdornis_ (1 sp.),
+Philippine Islands; _Climacteris_ (8 sp.), Australia and New Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 9.--SITTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 31 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Sittidæ, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree-creeping
+birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the Certhiidæ, but
+with a more uniform range over the Oriental region, and extending to New
+Zealand and Madagascar. The genera are as follows:--
+
+_Sitta_ (17 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions to South India and
+Mexico; _Dendrophila_ (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah and Malaya;
+_Hypherpes_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Sittella_ (6 sp.), Australia and New
+Guinea. _Acanthisitta_ (1 sp.) and _Xenicus_ (4 sp.), New Zealand, are
+placed with some doubt in this family.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--PARIDÆ. (14 Genera, 92 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 | -- 2 -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Paridæ, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctic and Palæarctic
+regions; many fine species are found in the Himalayas, but they are
+sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian
+regions. The genera usually admitted into this family are the following,
+but the position of some of them, especially of the Australian forms, is
+doubtful.
+
+(864-867 870) _Parus_ (46 sp.), North America, from Mexico, Palæarctic, and
+Oriental regions, Tropical and South Africa; {266}(868 869) _Lophophanes_
+(10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to Sikhim, North America to Mexico;
+_Acredula_ = _Orites_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic region; _Melanochlora_ (2 sp.),
+Nepal to Sumatra; _Psaltria_ (1 sp.), Java; _Psaltriparus_ (3 sp.),
+Guatemala to California, and Rocky Mountains; _Auriparus_ (1 sp.), Rio
+Grande; (881 882) _Parisoma_ (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (883 884)
+_Ægithalus_ (6 sp.), South-east Europe to South Africa; (885 889)
+_Ægithaliscus_ (6 sp.), Afghanistan and Himalayas to Amoy; _Cephalopyrus_
+(1 sp.), North-west Himalayas; _Sylviparus_ (1 sp.), Himalayas and Central
+India; _Certhiparus_ (2 sp.), New Zealand; (879 880) _Sphenostoma_ (2 sp.),
+East and South Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 11.--LIOTRICHIDÆ. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Liotrichidæ, or Hill-Tits, are small, active, delicately-coloured
+birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their extension eastward to
+China. They are now generally admitted to form a distinct family. The
+genera are distributed as follows:
+
+(1146) _Liothrix_ (3 sp.), Himalayas to China; _Siva_ (3 sp.), Himalayas;
+_Minla_ (4 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; _Proparus_ (7 sp.), Nepal to
+East Thibet and Aracan; (1153) _Pteruthius_ (6 sp.), Himalayas to Java and
+West China; (1155) _Cutia_ (2 sp.), Nepal; (1019) _Yuhina_ (3 sp.), High
+Himalayas and Moupin; (1020) _Ixulus_ (3 sp.), Himalayas to Tenasserim;
+(1021) _Myzornis_ (1 sp.), Darjeeling.
+
+
+FAMILY 12.--PHYLLORNITHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{267}The Phyllornithidæ, or "Green Bulbuls," are a small group of
+fruit-eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and ranging
+over the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philippine Islands. The
+genera are:--
+
+(1022) _Phyllornis_ (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan; (1166)
+_Iora_ (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region; (1163) _Erpornis_ (2 sp.),
+Borneo, Himalayas, Hainan, and Formosa.
+
+
+FAMILY 13.--PYCNONOTIDÆ. (9 Genera, 139 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pycnonotidæ, Bulbuls, or fruit-thrushes, are highly characteristic of
+the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound; less plentiful in
+the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine and Japan in the
+Palæarctic, and to the Moluccas in the Australian region, but absent from
+the intervening island of Celebes. The genera are:--
+
+MICROSCELIS (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and Japan;
+_Pycnonotus_ (52 sp., in many sub-genera), Palestine to South Africa, the
+whole Oriental region, China and Japan; _Alcurus_ (1 sp.), Himalayas;
+_Hemixus_ (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan, Hainan; _Phyllastrephus_ (4 sp.), West
+and South Africa; _Hypsipetes_ (20 sp.), the whole Oriental region,
+Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands; _Tylas_ (1 sp.), Madagascar;
+_Criniger_ (30 sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines),
+West and South Africa, Moluccas; _Ixonotus_ (7 sp.), West Africa; (1015
+1017) _Setornis_ (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; _Iole_ (4 sp.),
+Aracan and Malaya; _Andropadus_ (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; (1157)
+_Lioptilus_ (1 sp.), South Africa.
+
+
+{268}FAMILY 14.--ORIOLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group characteristic of the
+Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the western Palæarctic
+region, and with some of the less typical forms in Australia. The genera
+are:--
+
+_Oriolus_ (24 sp.), Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the whole
+Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to Flores; (1073)
+_Analcipus_ (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and Borneo; _Mimeta_ (9 sp.),
+the Moluccas and Australia; _Sphecotheres_ (3 sp.), Timor and Australia.
+_Artamia_ (1 sp.), Madagascar,--perhaps belongs to the next family or to
+Laniidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY 15.--CAMPEPHAGIDÆ (3 Genera, 100 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Campephagidæ, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephaginæ of the _Hand List_, with
+the addition of _Cochoa_) are most abundant in the Australian region
+(especially in the Austro-Malay sub-region), less so in the Oriental, and
+still less in the Ethiopian region. The genera, for the most part as
+adopted by Dr. Hartlaub, are as follows:--
+
+_Pericrocotus_ (22 sp.), the whole Oriental region, extending north to
+Pekin, and east to Lombok; (1242-1244) _Lanicterus_ (4 sp.), West and South
+Africa; (1245 1246) _Graucalus_ (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and
+eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New {269}Hebrides, and Tasmania; _Artamides_
+(1 sp.), Celebes; _Pteropodocys_ (1 sp.), Australia; (1248 1250 1257 1258)
+_Campephaga_ (16 sp.), Austro-Malaya, and New Caledonia, Philippines, the
+Ethiopian region; _Volvocivora_ (8 sp.) the Oriental region (excluding
+Philippines); _Lalage_ (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago to New
+Caledonia and Australia; _Symmorphus_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Oxynotus_ (2
+sp.), Mauritius and Bourbon; (1204) _Cochoa_ (3 sp.), Himalayas, Java. The
+position of this last genus is doubtful. Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichidæ;
+Sundeval in the Sturnidæ; Bonaparte in the Dicruridæ; Professor Newton
+suggests the Pycnonotidæ; but it seems on the whole best placed here.
+
+
+FAMILY 16.--DICRURIDÆ. (6 Genera, 58 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dicruridæ, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruridæ of the _Hand List_, omitting
+the genus _Melænornis_), have nearly the same distribution as the last
+family, with which they are sometimes united. They are, however, most
+abundant and varied in the Oriental region, much less so both in the
+Australian and Ethiopian regions. The distribution of the genera is as
+follows:--
+
+_Dicrurus_ (46 sp., in several sub-genera), has the range of the whole
+family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in Australia;
+_Chætorhynchus_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Bhringa_ (2 sp.), Himalayas to Borneo
+(Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339); _Chibia_ (2 sp.), Himalayas eastward to North
+China; _Chaptia_ (3 sp.), all India to Malacca and Formosa; _Irena_ (4
+sp.), Central India, Assam, and Burmah to Borneo and the Philippine
+Islands. This last genus is placed by Jerdon among the Pycnonotidæ, but
+seems to come most naturally here or in the last family.
+
+
+{270}FAMILY 17.--MUSCICAPIDÆ. (44 Genera, 283 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Muscicapidæ, or Flycatchers (Muscicapinæ and Myiagrinæ of the _Hand
+List_, omitting _Cochoa_ and including _Pogonocichla_) form an extensive
+family of usually small-sized and often bright-coloured birds, very
+abundant in the warmer regions of the Old World and Australia, but becoming
+scarce as we approach the temperate and colder regions. They are wholly
+absent from North and South America. The genera, many of which are not well
+defined, are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Peltops_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; _Monarcha_ (28 sp.), Moluccas to the
+Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tasmania; _Leucophantes_ (1
+sp.), New Guinea; _Butalis_ (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions,
+Moluccas and Formosa; _Muscicapa_ (12 sp.), Europe and Africa;
+_Muscicapula_ (6 sp.), India to Western China; _Alseonax_ (1 sp.), South
+Africa; _Erythrosterna_ (7 sp.), Europe to China and Java; _Newtonia_ (1
+sp.), Madagascar; _Xanthopygia_ (2 sp.), Japan, China, Malacca; _Hemipus_
+(1 sp.), India and Ceylon; _Pycnophrys_ (1 sp.), Java; _Hyliota_ (2 sp.),
+West Africa; _Erythrocercus_ (2 sp.), West Africa and Zambesi; _Micræca_ (6
+sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan Islands; _Artomyias_ (2 sp.), West
+Africa; _Pseudobias_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Hemichelidon_ (3 sp.), the
+Oriental region and North China; _Smithornis_ (2 sp.), West and South
+Africa; _Megabias_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Cassinia_ (2 sp.), West Africa;
+_Bias_, (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Niltava_ (3 sp.), Himalayas to West
+China; _Cyornis_ (16 sp.), the whole Oriental region; _Cyanoptila_ (1 sp.),
+Japan, China, Hainan; _Eumyias_ (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and
+Sumatra; (1213 and 1216) _Siphia_ (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor;
+_Anthipes_ (1 sp.), Nepal; _Seisura_ (5 sp.), Australia and
+{271}Austro-Malaya (excluding Celebes); _Myiagra_ (16 sp.), Australia and
+Moluccas to Caroline and Samoa Islands; _Hypothymis_ (2 sp.), Oriental
+region and Celebes; _Elminia_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Muscitodus_ (2
+sp.), Fiji Islands; _Machærirhynchus_ (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and North
+Australia; _Platystira_ (12 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Rhipidura_
+(45 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions to the Samoa Islands and
+Tasmania; _Chelidorynx_ (1 sp.), North India; _Myialestes_ (2 sp.), India
+to Ceylon, China, Java and Celebes; _Tchitrea_ (26 sp.), the entire
+Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and to North China and Japan; _Philentoma_
+(4 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands; _Todopsis_ (6
+sp.), Papuan Islands; (836) _Pogonocichla_ (1 sp.), South Africa;
+(1061-1063) _Bradyornis_ (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1460)
+_Chasiempis_ (2 sp.), Sandwich Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 18.--PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. (5 Genera, 62 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pachycephalidæ, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycephalinæ of the _Hand
+List_ omitting _Colluricincla_, _Cracticus_, and _Pardalotus_) are almost
+confined to the Australian region, a single species extending to Java and
+Aracan, and another (?) to Madagascar. The family has generally been united
+with the Laniidæ, but most modern ornithologists consider it to be
+distinct. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Oreoeca_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Falcunculus_ (2 sp.), Australia;
+_Pachycephala_ (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji
+Islands, and Australia; _Hylocharis_ (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo-Malaya,
+and Aracan; _Calicalicus_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Eopsaltria_ (14 sp.),
+Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides; _Artamia_ (4 sp.),
+Madagascar,--may belong to this family, or to Laniidæ, Oriolidæ, or
+Artamidæ, according to different authors.
+
+
+{272}FAMILY 19.--LANIIDÆ. (19 Genera, 145 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Laniidæ, or Shrikes (Laniinæ and Malaconotinæ of the _Hand List_, and
+including _Colluricincla_), are most abundant and varied in Africa, less
+plentiful in the Oriental, Australian, and Palæarctic regions, with a few
+species in the Nearctic region as far as Mexico. The constitution of the
+family is, however, somewhat uncertain. The genera here admitted are:--
+
+_Colluricincla_ (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; _Rectes_ (18 sp.), Papuan
+Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands; (1462-1464 1466 1470
+1471-1473) _Lanius_ (50 sp.), the whole Nearctic, Palæarctic, Ethiopian,
+and Oriental regions, one species reaching Timor, none in Madagascar;
+_Laniellus_ (1 sp.), Java; _Hypocolius_ (1 sp.), Abyssinia and Upper Nile;
+_Corvinella_ (1 sp.), South and West Africa; _Urolestes_ (1 sp.), South and
+East Africa; _Tephrodornis_ (4 sp.), Oriental region to Hainan and Java;
+_Hypodes_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Fraseria_ (2 sp.), West Africa;
+_Cuphopterus_ (1 sp.), Princes' Island; _Nilaus_ (1 sp.), South and West
+Africa; _Prionops_ (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Eurocephalus_ (2 sp.), North,
+East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia; _Chaunonotus_ (1 sp.), West Africa;
+_Vanga_ (4 sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278); _Laniarius_ (36
+sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; _Telephonus_ (10 sp.), all Africa and
+South Europe; _Meristes_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Nicator_ (1
+sp.), East Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 20.--CORVIDÆ. (24 Genera, 190 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{273}The Corvidæ, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and somewhat
+heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit almost every part of the
+globe, although none of the genera are cosmopolitan. The true crows are
+found everywhere but in South America; the magpies, choughs, and
+nutcrackers are characteristic of the Palæarctic region; the jays are
+Palæarctic, Oriental, and American; while the piping crows are peculiarly
+Australian. The more detailed distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+Sub-family I. Gymnorhininæ (Piping Crows).--_Strepera_ (4 sp.), and
+_Gymnorhina_ (3 sp.), are Australian only; _Cracticus_ (9 sp.), ranges from
+New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put with the Shrikes, but it has
+more affinity with the preceding genera); _Pityriasis_ (1 sp.), Borneo (an
+extraordinary bird of very doubtful affinities); _Grallina_ (1 sp.),
+Australia, is put here by Sundevall,--among Motacillidæ, by Gould.
+
+Sub-family II. _Garrulinæ_ (Jays).--_Platylophus_ = _Lophocitta_ (4 sp.),
+Malaya; _Garrulus_ (12 sp.), Palæarctic region, China and Himalayas;
+_Perisoreus_ (2 sp.), North of Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; _Cyanurus_
+(22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada, most abundant in Central
+America, but absent from the Antilles; _Cyanocorax_ (15 sp.), La Plata to
+Mexico; _Calocitta_ (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; _Psilorhinus_ (3 sp.),
+Costa Rica to Texas; _Urocissa_ (6 sp.), Western Himalayas to China and
+Formosa; _Cissa_ (3 sp.), South-eastern Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon,
+Sumatra, and Java.
+
+Sub-family III. Dendrocittinæ (Tree Crows).--_Temnurus_ (3 sp.), Cochin
+China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java); _Dendrocitta_ (9 sp.), the Oriental
+region to Sumatra, Hainan, and Formosa; _Crypsirhina_ (3 sp.), Pegu, Siam,
+and Java; _Ptilostomus_ (2 sp.), West, East, and South Africa.
+
+Sub-family IV. Corvinæ (Crows and Magpies).--_Nucifraga_ (4 sp.),
+Palæarctic region to the Himalayas and North China; _Picicorvus_ (1 sp.),
+the Rocky Mountains and California; _Gymnokitta_ (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains
+and Arizona (Plate XVIII., Vol. II., p. 128); _Pica_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic
+region, Arctic America, and California; _Cyanopica_ (3 sp.), Spain,
+North-east Asia, Japan; {274}_Streptocitta_ (2 sp.), Celebes; _Charitornis_
+(1 sp.), Sula Islands; _Corvus_ (55 sp.), universally distributed except
+South America and New Zealand, but found in Guatemala and the Antilles to
+Porto Rico; reaches the extreme north of Europe and Asia; _Gymnocorvus_ (2
+sp.), Papuan Islands; _Picathartes_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Corvultur_ (2
+sp.), Tropical and South Africa.
+
+Sub-family V. Fregilinæ (Choughs).--_Fregilus_ (3 sp.), mountains and
+cliffs of Palæarctic region from West Europe to the Himalayas and North
+China, Abyssinia (Plate I., Vol. I., p. 195); _Corcorax_ (1 sp.),
+Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 21.--PARADISEIDÆ. (19 Genera, 34 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Paradiseidæ, or "Birds of Paradise," form one of the most remarkable
+families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity and the beauty of
+their plumage. Till recently the family was restricted to about eight
+species of the more typical Paradise birds, but in his splendid monograph
+of the group, Mr. Elliot has combined together a number of allied forms
+which had been doubtfully placed in several adjacent families. The various
+species of true Paradise birds, having ornamental plumes developed from
+different parts of the body, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and
+the adjacent Papuan Islands, one species only being found in the Moluccas
+and one in North Australia; while the less typical Bower-birds, having no
+such developments of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and east
+of Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution of the
+genera according to Mr. Elliot's monograph is as follows:--
+
+Sub-family I. Paradiseinæ.--_Paradisea_ (4 sp.), Papuan Islands;
+_Manucodia_ (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia; _Astrapia_ (1
+sp.), New Guinea; _Parotia_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Lophorhina_ (1 sp.), New
+Guinea; _Diphyllodes_ (3 sp.), Papuan {275}Islands; _Xanthomelus_ (1 sp.),
+New Guinea; _Cicinnurus_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; _Paradigalla_ (1 sp.),
+New Guinea; _Semioptera_ (1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian.
+
+Sub-family II. Epimachinæ.--_Epimachus_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Drepanornis_
+(1 sp.), New Guinea; _Seleucides_ (1 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X., Vol. I.,
+p. 414); _Ptilorhis_ (4 sp.), New Guinea and North Australia.
+
+Sub-family III. Tectonarchinæ (Bower-birds).--_Sericulus_ (1 sp.), Eastern
+Australia; _Ptilonorhynchus_ (1 sp.), Eastern Australia; _Chlamydodera_ (4
+sp.), North and East Australia; _Ælurædus_ (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and East
+Australia; _Amblyornis_ (1 sp.), New Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--MELIPHAGIDÆ. (23 Genera, 190 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+  (As in the _Hand List_, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly altering the
+  arrangement.)
+
+The extensive group of the Meliphagidæ, or Honey-suckers, is wholly
+Australian, for the genus _Zosterops_, which extends into the Oriental and
+Ethiopian regions, does not naturally belong to it. Several of the genera
+are confined to Australia, others to New Zealand, while a few range over
+the whole Australian region. The genera are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Myzomela_ (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Celebes to the
+Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia; _Entomophila_ (4 sp.),
+Australia and New Guinea; _Gliciphila_ (10 sp.), Australia, Timor, New
+Guinea, and New Caledonia; _Acanthorhynchus_ (2 sp.), Australia and
+Tasmania; Meliphaga (1 sp.), Australia; _Ptilotis_ (40 sp.), Gilolo and
+Lombok to Australia and Tasmania, and to the Samoa and Tonga Islands;
+_Meliornis_ (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; _Prosthemadera_ (1 sp.),
+_Pogonornis_ (1 sp.), New Zealand; _Anthornis_ (4 sp.), New Zealand and
+Chatham Islands; _Anthochæra_ (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
+{276}_Xanthotis_ (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and Australia; _Leptornis_ (2
+sp.), Samoa Islands and New Caledonia; _Philemon_ = _Tropidorhyncus_ (18
+sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania and New
+Caledonia; _Entomiza_ (2 sp.), Australia; _Manorhina_ (5 sp.), Australia
+and Tasmania; _Euthyrhynchus_ (3 sp.), New Guinea; _Melirrhophetes_ (2
+sp.), New Guinea; _Melidectes_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Melipotes_ (1 sp.),
+New Guinea; _Melithreptus_ (8 sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania;
+(397) _Moho_ (3 sp.), Sandwich Islands; _Chætoptila_ (1 sp.), Sandwich
+Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 23.--NECTARINIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 122 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Nectariniidæ, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group of
+insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant metallic plumage,
+and bearing a superficial resemblance to the American humming-birds,
+although not in any way related to them. They abound in the Ethiopian,
+Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as New Ireland, and south to
+Queensland, while one species inhabits the hot Jordan Valley in the
+Palæarctic region. For the Eastern genera I follow Lord Walden's
+classification (Ibis, 1870); the African species not having been so
+carefully studied are mostly placed in one genus. The genera adopted are as
+follows:--
+
+_Promerops_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Nectarinia_ (60 sp.), the whole
+Ethiopian region; _Cinnyricinclus_ (5 sp.), West Africa; _Neodrepanis_ (1
+sp.), Madagascar; _Arachnecthra_ (13 sp.), Palestine, all India to Hainan,
+the Papuan Islands, and North-east Australia; _Æthopyga_ (15 sp.),
+Himalayas and Central India to West China, Hainan, Java, and Northern
+Celebes; _Nectarophila_ (5 sp.), Central India and Ceylon, Assam and Aracan
+to Java, Celebes and the Philippines; _Chalcostetha_ (6 sp.), Malay
+Peninsula to New Guinea; _Anthreptes_ (1 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula to
+{277}Sula Islands, and Flores; _Cosmeteira_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands;
+_Arachnothera_ (15 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines)
+Celebes, Lombok, and Papuan Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 24.--DICÆIDÆ. (5 Genera, 107 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dicæidæ, or Flower-peckers, consist of very small, gaily-coloured
+birds, rather abundant over the whole Oriental and much of the Australian
+regions, and one genus extending over the Ethiopian region. The genera here
+adopted are the following:--
+
+(622) _Zosterops_ (68 sp.), the whole Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian
+regions, as far east as the Fiji Islands, and north to Pekin and Japan;
+(400-403) _Dicæum_ (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, except China, with
+the Australian region as far as the Solomon Islands; (404) _Pachyglossa_ (2
+sp. 1437 1442), Nepal and Northern Celebes; (405) _Piprisoma_ (2 sp.),
+Himalayas to Ceylon and Timor; (1450) _Pardalotus_ (10 sp.), Australia and
+Tasmania; (407-409) _Prionochilus_ (5 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and
+Papuan Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 25.--DREPANIDIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Drepanididæ are confined to the Sandwich Islands, and I follow Mr.
+Sclater's suggestion in bringing together the following genera to form this
+family:--
+
+_Drepanis_ (3 sp.); _Hemignathus_ (3 sp.); _Loxops_ (1 sp.); _Psittirostra_
+(1 sp.). If these are correctly associated, the great {278}differences in
+the bill indicate that they are the remains of a larger and more varied
+family, once inhabiting more extensive land surfaces in the Pacific.
+
+
+FAMILY 26.--COEREBIDÆ. (11 Genera, 55 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+  (According to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin.)
+
+The Coerebidæ, or Sugar-birds, are delicate little birds allied to the
+preceding families, but with extensile honey-sucking tongues. They are
+almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of America, only one species
+of _Certhiola_ ranging so far north as Florida. The following is the
+distribution of the genera:--
+
+_Diglossa_ (14 sp.), Peru and Bolivia to Guiana and Mexico; _Diglossopis_
+(1 sp.), Ecuador to Venezuela; _Oreomanes_ (1 sp.), Ecuador; _Conirostrum_
+(6 sp.), Bolivia to Ecuador and Columbia; _Hemidacnis_ (1 sp.), Upper
+Amazon and Columbia; _Dacnis_ (13 sp.), Brazil to Ecuador and Costa Rica;
+_Certhidea_ (2 sp.), Galapagos Islands; _Chlorophanes_ (2 sp.), Brazil to
+Central America and Cuba; _Coereba_ (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; _Certhiola_
+(10 sp.), Amazon to Mexico, West Indies, and Florida; _Glossoptila_ (1
+sp.), Jamaica.
+
+
+FAMILY 27.--MNIOTILTIDÆ. (18 Genera, 115 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+  (Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical, Baird and
+  Allen for the Nearctic region.)
+
+The Mniotiltidæ, or Wood-warblers, are an interesting group of small and
+elegant birds, allied to the preceding family and to the greenlets, and
+perhaps also to the warblers and tits of Europe. {279}They range over all
+North America from Panama to the Arctic regions, but do not extend far
+beyond the tropic in Southern America. They are almost as abundant in the
+Nearctic as in the Neotropical region; and considering the favourable
+conditions of existence in Tropical America, this fact, in connection with
+their absence from the South Temperate zone would lead us to suppose that
+they originated in North Temperate America, and subsequently spread
+southward into the tropics. This supposition is strengthened by the fact
+that their metropolis, in the breeding season, is to the north of the
+United States. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are as
+follows:--
+
+(918) _Siurus_ (4 sp.), Venezuela and West Indies to Eastern States and
+Canada; _Mniotilta_ (1 sp.), Venezuela, Mexico, and Antilles to the Eastern
+States; _Parula_ (5 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and the Eastern States, and
+Canada; _Protonotaria_ (1 sp.), Antilles to Ohio; _Helminthophaga_ (8 sp.),
+Columbia to Arctic America; _Helmintherus_ (2 sp.), Central America to
+Eastern States; _Perissoglossa_ (1 sp.), Antilles and Eastern States;
+_Dendroeca_ (33 sp.), Amazon to Antilles, and Arctic America, and south to
+Chili; _Oporornis_ (2 sp.), Guatemala to Eastern States; _Geothlypis_ (11
+sp.), all North America and Brazil; _Myiodioctes_ (5 sp.), all North
+America and Columbia; _Basileuterus_ (22 sp.), Bolivia and Brazil to
+Mexico; _Setophaga_ (15 sp.), Brazil to Canada; _Ergaticus_ (2 sp.),
+Guatemala and Mexico; _Cardellina_ (1 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; (1440)
+_Granatellus_ (3 sp.), Amazon to Mexico; (1441) _Teretristis_ (2 sp.),
+Cuba; (1439) _Icteria_ (2 sp.), Costa Rica and United States to Canada.
+
+
+FAMILY 28.--VIREONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 63 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical genera;
+Professor Baird and Mr. Allen for those of the Nearctic region.)
+
+{280}The Vireonidæ, or Greenlets, are a family of small fly-catching birds
+wholly restricted to the American continent, where they range from Paraguay
+to Canada. They are allied to the Mniotiltidæ and perhaps also to the
+Australian Pachycephalidæ. Only two of the genera, with about a dozen
+species, inhabit the Nearctic region. The distribution of the genera is as
+follows:--
+
+_Vireosylvia_ (13 sp.), Venezuela to Mexico, the Antilles, the Eastern
+States and Canada; _Vireo_ (14 sp.), Central America and the Antilles to
+Canada; _Neochloe_ (1 sp.), Mexico; _Hylophilus_ (20 sp.), Brazil to
+Mexico; _Laletes_ (1 sp.), Jamaica; _Vireolanius_ (5 sp.), Amazonia to
+Mexico; _Cychlorhis_ (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico.
+
+
+FAMILY 29.--AMPELIDÆ. (4 Genera, 9 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Ampelidæ, represented in Europe by the waxwing, are a small family,
+characteristic of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, but extending
+southward to Costa Rica and the West Indian islands. The genera are
+distributed as follows:--
+
+(1539) _Ampelis_ (3 sp.), the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, and
+southward to Guatemala; (1360) _Ptilogonys_ (2 sp.), Central America;
+(1442) _Dulus_ (2 sp.), West Indian Islands; (1361) _Phænopepla_ (1 sp.),
+Mexico and the Gila Valley.
+
+
+FAMILY 30.--HIRUNDINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 91 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{281}The Hirundinidæ, or Swallows, are true cosmopolites. Although they do
+not range quite so far north (except as stragglers) as a few of the extreme
+polar birds, yet they pass beyond the Arctic Circle both in America and
+Europe, _Cotyle riparia_ having been observed in the Parry Islands, while
+_Hirundo rustica_ has been seen both in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla.
+_Cotyle riparia_ and _Chelidon urbica_ also breed in great numbers in
+northern Lapland, latitude 67° to 70° north. Many of the species also, have
+an enormous range, the common swallow (_Hirundo rustica_) inhabiting
+Europe, Asia and Africa, from Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope and to the
+Moluccas. The genera of swallows are not well determined, a number having
+been established of which the value is uncertain. I admit the following,
+referring by numbers to the _Hand List_:--
+
+(215-221 226-228) _Hirundo_ (40 sp.), the range of the entire family; (222
+223) _Psalidoprogne_ (10 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (224) _Phedina_
+(1 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands; (225) _Petrochelidon_ (5 sp.),
+North and South America and Cape of Good Hope; (220-232 ?234) _Atticora_ (8
+sp.), the Neotropical region and ? Australia; (235 237) _Cotyle_ (11 sp.),
+Europe, India, Africa, North America, Antilles and Ecuador; (236)
+_Stelgidopteryx_ (5 sp.), La Plata to United States; (238 and 239)
+_Chelidon_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic region, Nepal, Borneo; (240-242) _Progne_ (5
+sp.), all North and South America.
+
+
+FAMILY 31.--ICTERIDÆ. (24 Genera, 110 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Icteridæ, or American hang-nests, range over the whole continent, from
+Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the Arctic Circle. Only about 20
+species inhabit the Nearctic region, while, as usual with exclusively
+American families, the larger proportion of the genera and species are
+found in the {282}tropical parts of South America. The genera adopted by
+Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are the following:--
+
+_Clypeicterus_ (1 sp.), Upper Amazon; _Ocycalus_ (2 sp.), Upper Amazon to
+Mexico; _Ostinops_ (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico; _Cassiculus_ (1
+sp.), Mexico; _Cassicus_ (10 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Costa Rica;
+_Icterus_ (34 sp.), La Plata to the Antilles and United States;
+_Dolichonyx_ (1 sp.), Paraguay to Canada; _Molothrus_ (8 sp.), La Plata to
+Northern United States; _Agelæus_ (7 sp.), La Plata and Chili to Northern
+United States; _Xanthocephalus_ (1 sp.), Mexico to California and Canada;
+_Xanthosomus_ (4 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; _Amblyrhamphus_ (1 sp.), La
+Plata and Bolivia; _Gymnomystax_ (1 sp.), Amazonia and Guiana;
+_Pseudoleistes_ (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil; _Leistes_ (3 sp.), La Plata
+to Venezuela; _Sturnella_ (5 sp.), Patagonia and Falkland Islands to Middle
+United States; _Curæus_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Nesopsar_ (1 sp.), Jamaica;
+_Scolecophgaus_ (2 sp.), Mexico to Arctic Circle; _Lampropsar_ (4 sp.),
+Amazonia and Ecuador to Mexico; _Quiscalus_ (10 sp.), Venezuela and
+Columbia to South and Central United States; _Hypopyrrhus_ (1 sp.),
+Columbia; _Aphobus_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia; _Cassidix_ (2 sp.), Brazil
+to Mexico and Cuba.
+
+
+FAMILY 32.--TANAGRIDÆ. (43 Genera, 304 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful fruit-eating
+birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only four species of a
+single genus (_Pyranga_) extending into the Eastern United States and Rocky
+Mountains. Southward they range to La Plata. They are especially abundant
+in the forest regions of South America east of the Andes, where no less
+than 40 out of the 43 genera occur; 23 of the genera are peculiar to this
+sub-region, while only 1 (_Phlogothraupis_) is {283}peculiar to Central
+America and Mexico, and 2 (_Spindalis_ and _Phænicophilus_) to the West
+Indian islands. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their
+distribution will be found at Vol. II., p. 99, in our account of
+Neotropical Zoology.
+
+
+FAMILY 33.--FRINGILLIDÆ. (74 Genera, 509 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The great family of the Fringillidæ, or finches, is in a very unsettled
+state as regards their division into genera, the most divergent views being
+held by ornithologists as to the constitution and affinities of many of the
+groups. All the Australian finch-like birds appear to belong to the
+Ploceidæ, so that the finches, as here constituted, are found in every
+region and sub-region, except the Australian region from which they are
+entirely absent--a peculiar distribution hardly to be found in any other
+family of birds.
+
+Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizidæ, or buntings, as a
+distinct family, but as the American genera have not been so divided I am
+obliged to keep them together; but the genera usually classed as "buntings"
+are placed last, as a sub-family. In the following arrangement of the
+genera, I have done what I could to harmonize the views of the best modern
+writers. For convenience of reference the succession of the genera is that
+of the _Hand List_, and the numbers of the sub-genera are given whenever
+practicable:--
+
+(1793 1795) _Fringilla_ (6 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region, including the
+Atlantic Islands; (1794) _Acanthis_ (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia, Persia, and
+North-West Himalayas; (1796) _Procarduelis_ (1 sp.), High Himalayas and
+East Thibet; (1797-1803) _Chrysomitris_ (18 sp.), Neotropical and Nearctic
+regions, Europe, and Siberia; (1804) _Metoponia_ (1 sp.), East Europe to
+North West Himalayas; (1805 and 1809) _Chlorospiza_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic
+region and Africa to the {284}Cape of Good Hope; (1806-1809) _Dryospiza_
+(14 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, Canaries, and all Africa; (1810)
+_Sycalis_ (18 sp.), the whole Neotropical region; (1811-1813 1816-1819)
+_Pyrgita_ (34 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, and all Africa; (1814)
+_Montifringilla_ (4 sp.), Palæarctic region; (1815) _Fringillauda_ (2 sp.),
+North-West Himalayas to East Thibet; (1820-1822) _Coccothraustes_ (6 sp.),
+Palæarctic region and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico; (1823) _Eophona_ (2
+sp.), China and Japan; (1824) _Mycerobas_ (2 sp.), Central Asia to Persia,
+High Himalayas, and East Thibet; (1825) _Chaunoproctus_ (1 sp.), Bonin
+Islands, south-east of Japan, (probably Palæarctic); (1826) _Geospiza_ (7
+sp.), Galapagos Islands; (1827) _Camarhynchus_ (5 sp.), Galapagos Islands;
+(1828) _Cactornis_ (4 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (1830-1832) _Phrygilus_ (10
+sp.), Columbia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands; (1833) _Xenospingus_ (1
+sp.), Peru; (1834) _Diuca_ (3 sp.), Peru to Chili and Patagonia; (1835 and
+1837) _Emberizoides_ (3 sp.), Venezuela to Paraguay; (1836) _Donacospiza_
+(1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata; (1839) _Chamæospiza_ (1 sp.), Mexico;
+(1838 and 1840) _Embernagra_ (9 sp.), Arizona to La Plata; (1841)
+_Hæmophila_ (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa Rica; (1842) _Atlapetes_ (1 sp.),
+Mexico; (1843) _Pyrgisoma_ (5 sp.). Mexico to Costa Rica; (1844 and 1845)
+_Pipilo_ (12 sp.), all North America to Guatemala; (1846) _Junco_ (6 sp.),
+all the United States to Guatemala; (1847) _Zonotrichia_ (9 sp.), the whole
+Nearctic and Neotropical regions; (1848 1849) _Melospiza_ (7 sp.), Sitka
+and United States to Guatemala; (1850) _Spizella_ (7 sp.), Canada to
+Guatemala; (1851) _Passerella_ (4 sp.), the Nearctic region and Northern
+Asia; (1852) _Passerculus_ (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala;
+(1853) _Pooecetes_ (1 sp.), all United States and Mexico; (1854)
+_Ammodromus_ (4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala; (1855) _Coturniculus_
+(6 sp.), north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia; (1856)
+_Peucæa_ (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico; (1857)
+_Tiaris_ (1 sp.), Brazil; (1858) _Volatinia_ (1 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and
+Bolivia; (1859) _Cyanospiza_ (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala; (1860 1861)
+_Paroaria_ (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the Andes; (1862)
+_Coryphospingus_ (4 sp.), Tropical South America; (1863) _Haplospiza_ (2
+sp.), Mexico and Brazil; (1864 1891) _Phonipara_ (8 sp.), Mexico to
+Columbia, the greater Antilles; (1865) _Poospiza_ {285}(13 sp.), California
+and South Central States to Bolivia and La Plata; (424) _Spodiornis_ (1
+sp.), Andes of Quito; (1866 1867) _Pyrrhula_ (9 sp.), the whole Palæarctic
+region to the Azores and High Himalayas; (1868) _Crithagra_ (17 sp.),
+Tropical and South Africa, Mauritius, Syria; (1869) _Ligurnus_ (2 sp.),
+West Africa; (1870 1871) _Carpodacus_ (18 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic
+regions to Mexico and Central India; (1872-1874) _Erythrospiza_ (6 sp.),
+Southern parts of Palæarctic region; (1875) _Uragus_ (2 sp.), Siberia and
+Japan; (1876) _Cardinalis_ (2 sp.), South and Central States to Venezuela;
+(1877) _Pyrrhuloxia_ (1 sp.), Texas and Rio Grande; (1878 1879) _Guiraca_
+(6 sp.), Southern United States to La Plata; (1880) _Amaurospiza_ (2 sp.),
+Costa Rica and Brazil; (1881) _Hedymeles_ (2 sp.), all United States to
+Columbia; (1882) _Pheucticus_ (5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia; (1883)
+_Oryzoborus_ (6 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and South Brazil; (1884)
+_Melopyrrha_ (1 sp.), Cuba; (1885) _Loxigilla_ (4 sp.), Antilles; (1886
+1887) _Spermophila_ (44 sp.), Texas to Bolivia and Uruguay; (1888)
+_Catamenia_ (4 sp.), Columbia to Bolivia; (1889) _Neorhynchus_ (3 sp.),
+West Peru; (1892) _Catamblyrhyncus_ (1 sp.), Columbia; (1893) _Loxia_ (7
+sp.), Europe to North-west India and Japan, Arctic America to Pennsylvania,
+Mexico; (1894) _Pinicola_ (3 sp.), Arctic America, North-east Europe to the
+Amoor, Camaroons Mountains West Africa; (1895) _Propyrrhula_ (1 sp.),
+Darjeeling in the winter,? Thibet; (1896) _Pyrrhospiza_ (1 sp.), Snowy
+Himalayas; (1897) _Hæmatospiza_ (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000-10,000
+feet; (1898 1899) _Linota_ (12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east
+of North America; (1900) _Leucosticte_ (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to
+Kamschatka, and from Alaska to Utah.
+
+Sub-family Emberizinæ.--(1995) _Calamospiza_ (1 sp.), Arizona and Texas to
+Mexico; (1906) _Chondestes_ (2 sp.), Western, Central, and Southern States
+to Mexico and Nicaragua; (1907-1910) _Euspiza_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic region,
+India, Burmah, and South China, South-east United States to Columbia;
+(1911-1920) _Emberiza_ (28 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region (continental),
+to Central India in winter; (1921) _Gubernatrix_ (1 sp.), Paraguay and La
+Plata, (according to Messrs. Sclater and Salvin this comes next to
+_Pipilo_); (1922) _Fringillaria_ (8 sp.), Africa and South Europe;
+{286}(1923-1925) _Plectrophanes_ (6 sp.), Arctic Zone to Northern Europe
+and North China, Arctic America, and east side of Rocky Mountains; (1926)
+_Centronyx_ (1 sp.), Mouth of Yellowstone River.
+
+
+FAMILY 34.--PLOCEIDÆ. (29 Genera, 252 species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Ploceidæ, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic of the
+Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly four-fifths of the
+species are found; the remainder being pretty equally divided between the
+Oriental and Australian regions. Like the true finches these have never
+been properly studied, and it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain what
+genera are natural and how far those of Australia and Africa are distinct.
+The following enumeration must therefore be taken as altogether tentative
+and provisional. When the genera adopted differ from those of the _Hand
+List_ they will be referred to by numbers.
+
+_Textor_ (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1650-1654 1657)
+_Hyphantornis_ (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1655 1656)
+_Symplectes_ (8 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Malimbus_ (9 sp.), West
+Africa; (1659 1661) _Ploceus_ (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Oriental
+region (excluding Philippines); (1660) _Nelicurvius_ (1 sp.), Madagascar;
+_Foudia_ (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, Tropical Africa; (1663
+1664) _Sporopipes_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1665-1667)
+_Pyromelana_ (14 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Abyssinia to 10,500 feet;
+_Philetærus_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Nigrita_ (7 sp.), West Africa to Upper
+Nile; _Plocepasser_ (4 sp.), East and South Africa; (1672-1674) _Vidua_ (7
+sp.), Tropical and South Africa (Plate V., Vol. I., p. 264); (1675-1677)
+_Coliuspasser_ (9 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Chera_ (1 sp.), South
+Africa; _Spermospiza_ (2 sp.), West Africa; _Pyrenestes_ (6 sp.), Tropical
+and South Africa; (1682-1687 1689 1692 1693 1698) _Estrilda_ (26 sp.),
+Tropical and South Africa, India, Burmah, and Java to Australia; (1688 1690
+1691 1695 1696) {287}_Pytelia_ (24 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1694)
+_Hypargos_ (2 sp.), Mozambique and Madagascar; (1697) _Emblema_ (1 sp.),
+North-west Australia (1699 1712-1717) _Amadina_ (15 sp.), Tropical and
+South Africa, Moluccas to Australia and the Samoa Islands; (1700 1701 1710)
+_Spermestes_ (8 sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar; (1702) _Amauresthes_
+(1 sp.), East and West Africa; (1703 1707-1709 1711) _Munia_ (30 sp.),
+Oriental region to Timor and New Guinea; (1704) _Donacola_ (3 sp.),
+Australia; (1705 1706) _Poephila_ (6 sp.), Australia; (1718-1721)
+_Erythrura_ (7 sp.), Sumatra to Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji
+Islands; (1722) _Hypochera_ (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 35.--STURNIDÆ. (29 Genera, 124 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Sturnidæ or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old-World group,
+extending to every part of the great Eastern continent and its islands, and
+over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa Islands and New Zealand, yet wholly
+absent from the mainland of Australia. The family appears to be tolerably
+well-defined, and the following genera are generally considered to belong
+to it: (1558 1559 1562) _Eulabes_ (13 sp.), the Oriental region to
+South-west China, Hainan, and Java,--and Flores, New Guinea and the Solomon
+Islands in the Australian region; _Ampeliceps_ (1 sp.), _Tenasserim_,
+Burmah, and Cochin China; _Gymnops_ (1 sp.), Philippine Islands;
+_Basilornis_ (2 sp.), Celebes and Ceram; _Pastor_ (1 sp.), South-east
+Europe to India, Ceylon, and Burmah; _Acridotheres_ (7 sp.), the whole
+Oriental region and Celebes; (1568 1569) _Sturnia_ (12 sp.), the whole
+Oriental region, North China, Japan, and Siberia, Celebes; _Dilophus_ (1
+sp.), South Africa; _Sturnus_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic region, to India and
+South China in winter; _Sturnopastor_ (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East
+Java; _Creadion_ (2 sp.), New Zealand; _Heterolocha_ (1 sp.), New Zealand;
+(1520) _Callæas_ {288}(2 sp.), New Zealand; _Buphaga_ (2 sp.), Tropical and
+South Africa; _Euryceros_ (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. I., p.
+278.) This genus and the last should perhaps form distinct families. (1577)
+_Juida_ (5 sp.), Central, West, and South Africa; (1578) _Lamprocolius_ (20
+sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Cinnyricinclus_ (2 sp.), Tropical and
+South Africa; _Onychognathus_ (2 sp.), West Africa; (1581) _Spreo_ (4 sp.),
+Tropical and South Africa; (1582-1585) _Amydrus_ (7 sp.), South and East
+Africa, Palestine; _Aplonis_ (9 sp.), New Caledonia to the Tonga Islands;
+(1587-1589) _Calornis_ (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago and eastward
+to the Ladrone and Samoa Islands; (1590) _Enodes_ (1 sp.), Celebes;
+_Scissirostrum_ (1 sp.), Celebes; (1592) _Saroglossa_ (1 sp.), Himalayas;
+(1593) _Hartlaubius_ (1 sp), Madagascar; _Fregilupus_ (1 sp.), Bourbon, but
+it has recently become extinct; (363) _Falculia_ (1 sp)., Madagascar.
+
+
+FAMILY 36.--ARTAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 17 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\___________________________________
+  /                                                                       \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN  | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS |SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |            |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --?|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |            |           |
+
+The Artamidæ, or Swallow-shrikes, are a curious group of birds, ranging
+over the greater part of the Oriental and Australian regions as far east as
+the Fiji Islands and south to Tasmania. Only a single species inhabits
+India, and they are more plentiful in Australia than in any other locality.
+The only well-marked genus is _Artamus_.
+
+There are a few Madagascar birds belonging to the genus _Artamia_, which
+some ornithologists place in this family, others with the Laniidæ, but
+which are here classed with the Oriolidæ.
+
+
+{289}FAMILY 37.--ALAUDIDÆ. (15 Genera, 110 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Alaudidæ, or Larks, may be considered as exclusively belonging to the
+great Eastern continent, since the Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australian
+regions have each only a single species. They abound most in the open
+plains and deserts of Africa and Asia, and are especially numerous in South
+Africa. The genera, including those recently established by Mr. Sharpe, are
+as follows:--
+
+_Otocorys_ (8 sp.); the Palæarctic region, North America and south to the
+Andes of Columbia, North India; (1928 1929) _Alauda_ (17 sp.), Palæarctic
+region, all Africa, the Peninsula of India, and Ceylon; (1931) _Galerita_
+(10 sp.), Central Europe to Senegal and Abyssinia, Persia, India and North
+China; (1932) _Calendula_ (2 sp.), Abyssinia and South Africa; (1933 1934)
+_Calandrella_ (6 sp.), Europe, North Africa, India, Burmah, North China,
+and Mongolia; (1935-1937) _Melanocorypha_ (7 sp.), South Europe to Tartary,
+Abyssinia, and North-west India; _Pallasia_ (sp. 7781), East Asia; (1938)
+_Certhilauda_ (4 sp.), South Europe, South Africa; _Heterocorys_ (sp. 7792)
+South Africa; (1939) _Alæmon_ (3 sp.), South-east Europe to Western India,
+and South Africa; (1940) _Mirafra_ (25 sp.), the Oriental and Ethiopian
+regions to Australia; (1941) _Ammomanes_ (10 sp.), South Europe to
+Palestine and Central India, and to Cape Verd Islands and South Africa;
+(1942 1943) _Megalophonus_ (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa;
+_Tephrocorys_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Pyrrhulauda_ (9 sp.), all Africa,
+Canary Islands, India and Ceylon.
+
+
+{290}FAMILY 38.--MOTACILLIDÆ. (9 Genera, 80 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Motacillidæ, or Wagtails and Pipits, are universally distributed, but
+are most abundant in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to
+which the true wagtails are almost confined. The following genera are
+usually adopted, but some of them are not very well defined:--
+
+_Motacilla_ (15 sp.), ranges over the greater part of Europe, Asia, and
+Africa, and to Alaska in North-west America; _Budytes_ (10 sp.), Europe,
+Africa, Asia to Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, and North Australia;
+_Calobates_ (3 sp.), South Palæarctic and Oriental regions to Java;
+_Nemoricola_ (1 sp.), Oriental region; _Anthus_ (30 sp.), all the great
+continents; _Neocorys_ (1 sp.), Central North America; _Corydalla_ (14
+sp.), South Europe to India, China, the Malay Islands, Australia, New
+Zealand and the Auckland Islands: _Macronyx_ (5 sp.), Tropical and South
+Africa; _Heterura_ (1 sp.), Himalayas.
+
+
+FAMILY 39.--TYRANNIDÆ. (71 Genera, 329 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tyrannidæ, or Tyrant Shrikes, form one of the most extensive and truly
+characteristic American families of birds; as they extend over the whole
+continent from Patagonia to the Arctic regions, and are found also in all
+the chief American islands--the Antilles, the Galapagos, the Falkland
+Islands, and {291}Juan Fernandez. As the genera are all enumerated in the
+table, at p. 101 of this volume, I shall here confine myself to the
+distribution of the sub-families, only referring to such genera as are of
+special geographical interest.
+
+Sub-family I. CONOPHAGINÆ (2 genera, 13 species). Confined to tropical
+South America, from Brazil and Bolivia to Guiana and Columbia.
+
+Sub-family II. TÆNIOPTERINÆ (19 genera, 76 species). This group ranges from
+Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the northern United States; yet it is
+almost wholly South American, only 2 genera and 4 species passing north of
+Panama, and none inhabiting the West Indian islands. _Empidias_ has 3
+species in North America, while _Tænioptera_, _Cnipolegus_,
+_Muscisaxicola_, and _Centrites_, range south to Patagonia.
+
+Sub-family III. PLATYRHYNICHINÆ (16 genera, 60 species). This sub-family is
+wholly Neotropical and mostly South American, only 7 of the genera passing
+Panama and but 3 reaching Mexico, while there are none in the West Indian
+islands. Only 3 genera extend south to the temperate sub-region, and one of
+these, _Anæretes_, has a species in Juan Fernandez.
+
+Sub-family IV. ELAINEINÆ (17 genera, 91 species). This sub-family is more
+exclusively tropical, only two genera extending south as far as Chili and
+La Plata, while none enter the Nearctic region. No less than 10 of the
+genera pass north of Panama, and one of these, _Elainea_, which ranges from
+Chili to Costa Rica has several species in the West Indian islands. About
+one fourth of the species of this sub-family are found north of Panama.
+
+Sub-family V. TYRANNINÆ (17 genera, 89 species). This sub-family is that
+which is best represented in the Nearctic region, where 6 genera and 24
+species occur. _Milvulus_ reaches Texas; _Tyrannus_ and _Myiarchus_ range
+over all the United States; _Sayornis_, the Eastern States and California;
+_Contopus_ extends to Canada; _Empidonax_ ranges all over North America;
+and _Pyrocephalus_ reaches the Gila Valley as well as the Galapagos
+Islands. No less than 5 genera of this sub-family occur in the West Indian
+islands.
+
+
+{292}FAMILY 39_a_.--OXYRHAMPHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Oxyrhamphus_ (2 sp.) which ranges from Brazil to Costa Rica, has
+usually been placed in the Dendrocolaptidæ; but Messrs Sclater and Salvin
+consider it to be the type of a distinct family group, most allied to the
+Tyrannidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY 40.--PIPRIDÆ. (15 Genera, 60 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pipridæ, or Manakins, have generally been associated with the next
+family, and they have a very similar distribution. The great majority of
+the genera and species are found in the equatorial regions of South
+America, only 9 species belonging to 5 genera ranging north of Panama,
+while 2 or 3 species extend to the southern limit of the tropical forests
+in Paraguay and Brazil. The genera which go north of Panama are _Piprites_,
+_Pipra_, _Chiroxiphia_, _Chiromachæris_, and _Hetoropelma_. _Pipra_ is the
+largest genus, containing 19 species, and having representatives throughout
+the whole range of the family. As in all the more extensive families
+peculiar to the Neotropical region, the distribution of the genera will be
+found in the tables appended to the chapter on the Neotropical region in
+the Third Part of this work. (Vol. II. p. 103).
+
+
+{293}FAMILY 41.--COTINGIDÆ. (28 Genera, 93 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cotingidæ, or Chatterers, comprise some of the most beautiful and some
+of the most remarkable of American birds, for such we must consider the
+azure and purple Cotingas, the wine-coloured white-winged Pompadour, the
+snowy carunculated Bell-birds, the orange-coloured Cocks-of-the-Rock, and
+the marvellously-plumed Umbrella-birds, (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28). The
+Cotingidæ are also one of the most pre-eminently Neotropical of all the
+Neotropical families, the great mass of the genera and species being
+concentrated in and around the vast equatorial forest region of the Amazon.
+Only 13 species extend north of Panama, one to the Antilles, and not more
+than 20 are found to the south of the Amazon Valley. Messrs. Sclater and
+Salvin divide the family into six sub-families, the distribution of which
+will be briefly indicated.
+
+Sub-family I. TITYRINÆ (3 genera, 22 species). Ranges from Brazil to
+Mexico, one species of _Hadrostomus_ inhabiting Jamaica.
+
+Sub-family II. LIPAUGINÆ (4 genera, 14 species) also ranges from Brazil to
+Mexico; one genus (_Ptilochloris_) is confined to Brazil.
+
+Sub-family III. ATTALINÆ (2 genera, 10 species). Ranges from Paraguay to
+Costa Rica; one genus (_Casiornis_) is confined to South Brazil and
+Paraguay.
+
+Sub-family IV. RUPICOLINÆ (2 genera, 5 species). This sub-family is
+restricted to the Amazonian region and Guiana, with one species extending
+along the Andean valleys to Bolivia. The genera are _Rupicola_ (3 species)
+and _Phænicocercus_ (2 species).
+
+Sub-family V. COTINGINÆ (10 genera, 28 species). Ranges from Southern
+Brazil and Bolivia to Nicaragua; only two species {294}(belonging to the
+genera _Carpodectes_ and _Cotinga_) are found north of Panama, and there
+are none in the West Indian islands. The great majority of these, the true
+Chatterers, are from the regions about the Equator.
+
+Sub-family VI. GYMNODERINÆ (7 genera, 14 species). Ranges from Brazil to
+Costa Rica; two species, of the genera _Chasmorhynchus_ and
+_Cephalopterus_, are found north of Panama, while there are none in the
+West Indian islands. Only 2 species are found south of the Amazon valley.
+
+
+FAMILY 42.--PHYTOTOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Phytotomidæ, or Plant-cutters, are singular thick-billed birds,
+strictly confined to the temperate regions of South America. The single
+genus, _Phytotoma_, is found in Chili, La Plata, and Bolivia. Their
+affinities are uncertain, but they are believed to be allied to the series
+of families with which they are here associated. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p.
+128).
+
+
+FAMILY 43.--EURYLÆMIDÆ. (6 Genera, 9 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Eurylæmidæ, or Broad-bills, form a very small family of birds, often
+adorned with striking colours, and which have their nearest allies in the
+South American Cotingidæ. They have a very limited distribution, from the
+lower slopes of the Himalayas through Burmah and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo,
+and Java. They are evidently the remains of a once extensive group, and
+from the small number of specific forms remaining, seem to be on {295}the
+road to extinction. Thus we may understand their isolated geographical
+position. The following are the names and distribution of the genera:--
+
+_Eurylæmus_ (2 species), Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo;
+_Corydon_ (1 species), Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p.
+339); _Psarisomus_ (1 species), Himalayas to Burmah, up to 6,000 feet;
+_Serilophus_ (2 species), Nepal to Tenasserim; _Cymbirhynchus_ (2 species),
+Siam to Sumatra and Borneo; _Calyptomena_ (1 species), Penang to Sumatra
+and Borneo.
+
+
+FAMILY 44.--DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ. (43 Genera, 217 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dendrocolaptidæ, or American Creepers, are curious brown-coloured birds
+with more or less rigid tail feathers, strictly confined to the continental
+Neotropical region, and very numerous in its south-temperate extremity.
+They are divided by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin into five sub-families, to
+which I shall confine my remarks on their distribution. The details of the
+numerous genera, being only interesting to specialists, will be given in
+the table of genera of the Neotropical region. No less than 13 of the
+genera are confined to South-Temperate America and the High Andes; 14 are
+restricted to Tropical South America, while not one is peculiar to Tropical
+North America, and only 15 of the 43 genera extend into that sub-region,
+showing that this is one of the pre-eminently South American groups.
+
+Sub-family I. FURNARIINÆ (8 genera, 30 species). Ranges over all South
+America, 4 genera and 18 species being restricted to the temperate
+sub-region; one species is found in the Falkland Islands.
+
+Sub-family II. SCLERURINÆ (1 genus, 6 species). Brazil to Guiana, Columbia,
+and north to Mexico.
+
+Sub-family III. SYNALLAXINÆ (12 genera, 78 species). Ranges from Patagonia
+to Mexico; 7 genera and 28 species are confined {296}to the temperate
+sub-region; species occur in the islands of Mas-a-fuera, Trinidad, and
+Tobago.
+
+Sub-family IV. PHILYDORINÆ (6 genera, 35 species). Confined to Tropical
+America from Brazil to Mexico; 4 genera and 8 species occur in Tropical
+North America.
+
+Sub-family V. DENDROCOLAPTINÆ (14 genera, 59 species). Ranges from Chili
+and La Plata to Mexico; only 3 species occur in the South Temperate
+sub-region, while 9 of the genera extend into Tropical North America. Two
+of the continental species occur in the island of Tobago, which, together
+with Trinidad, forms part of the South American rather than of the true
+Antillean sub-region.
+
+FAMILY 45.--FORMICARIIDÆ. (32 Genera, 211 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Formicariidæ, comprising the Bush-Shrikes and Ant-thrushes, form one of
+the most exclusively Neotropical families; and the numerous species are
+rigidly confined to the warm and wooded districts, only a single species
+extending to La Plata, and none to the Antilles or to the Nearctic region.
+Less than 30 species are found north of Panama. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin
+divide the group into three sub-families, whose distribution may be
+conveniently treated, as in the Dendrocolaptidæ, without enumerating the
+genera.
+
+Sub-family I. THAMNOPHILINÆ.--(10 genera, 70 species.) One species of
+_Thamnophilus_ inhabits La Plata; only 3 genera and 12 species are found
+north of Panama, the species of this sub-family being especially abundant
+in the Equatorial forest districts.
+
+Sub-family II. FORMICIVORINÆ.--(14 genera, 95 species.) Only 8 species
+occur north of Panama, and less than one-third of the species belong to the
+districts south of the Equator.
+
+{297}Sub-family III. FORMICARIINÆ.--(8 genera, 46 species.) About 12
+species occur north of Panama, and only 5 south of the Equatorial district.
+
+It appears, therefore, that this extensive family is especially
+characteristic of that part of South America from the Amazon valley
+northwards.
+
+
+FAMILY 46.--PTEROPTOCHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pteroptochidæ are a group of curious Wren-like birds, almost confined
+to the temperate regions of South America, extending along the Andes beyond
+the Equator, and with a few species in South-east Brazil, and one in the
+valley of the Madeira. The genera are as follows:--
+
+_Scytalopus_ (8 sp.), Chili and West Patagonia to the Andes of Columbia;
+_Merulaxis_ (1 sp.), South-east Brazil; _Rhinocrypta_ (2 sp.), Northern
+Patagonia and La Plata; _Lioscelis_ (1 sp.), Madeira valley; _Pteroptochus_
+(2 sp.), Chili; _Hylactes_ (3 sp.), Western Patagonia and Chili;
+_Acropternis_ (1 sp.), Andes of Ecuador and Columbia; _Triptorhinus_ (1
+sp.), Chili.
+
+
+FAMILY 47.--PITTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pittas comprise a number of beautifully-coloured Thrush-like birds,
+which, although confined to the Old World, are more nearly allied to the
+South American Pteroptochidæ than to any other family. They are most
+abundant in the Malay Archipelago, {298}between the Oriental and Australian
+divisions of which they are pretty equally divided. They seem, however, to
+attain their maximum of beauty and variety in the large islands of Borneo
+and Sumatra; from whence they diminish in numbers in every direction till
+we find single species only in North China, West Africa, and Australia, The
+genera here adopted are the following:--
+
+(1087 1088 1090 1092 1093) _Pitta_ (33 sp.), has the range of the family;
+(1089) _Hydrornis_ (3 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; _Eucichla_ (3 sp.),
+Malaya; _Melampitta_ (1 sp.), recently discovered in New Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 48.--PAICTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family was established by Professor Sundevall, for an anomalous bird
+of Madagascar, which he believes to have some affinity for the American
+Formicariidæ, but which perhaps comes best near the Pittas. The only genus
+is _Philepitta_, containing two species.
+
+
+FAMILY 49.--MENURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Menuridæ, or Lyre Birds, remarkable for the extreme elegance of the
+lyre-shaped tail in the species first discovered, are birds of a very
+anomalous structure, and have no near affinity to any other family. Two
+species of _Menura_ are known, confined to South and East Australia (Plate
+XII. Vol. I. p. 441).
+
+
+{299}FAMILY 50.--ATRICHIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Atrichia_, or Scrub-birds of Australia, have been formed into a
+separate family by Professor Newton, on account of peculiarities in the
+skeleton which separate them from all other Passeres. Only two species are
+known, inhabiting East and West Australia respectively. They are very
+noisy, brown-coloured birds, and have been usually classed with the
+warblers, near _Amytis_ and other Australian species.
+
+
+_General remarks on the distribution of the Passeres._
+
+The order Passeres, is the most extensive among birds, comprehending about
+5,700 species grouped in 870 genera, and 51 families. The distribution of
+the genera, and of the families considered individually, has been already
+sufficiently given, and we now have to consider the peculiarities of
+distribution of the families collectively, and in their relations to each
+other, as representing well-marked types of bird-structure. The first thing
+to be noted is, how very few of these families are truly cosmopolitan; for
+although there are seven which are found in each of the great regions, yet
+few of these are widely distributed throughout all the regions, and we can
+only find three that inhabit every sub-region, and are distributed with
+tolerable uniformity; these are the Hirundinidæ, or swallows, the
+Motacillidæ or wagtails and pipits, and the Corvidæ or crows,--but the
+latter is a family of so heterogeneous a nature, that it possibly contains
+the materials of several natural families, and if so divided, the parts
+would probably all cease to be cosmopolitan. The Sylviidæ, the
+{300}Turdidæ, and the Paridæ, are the only other families that approach
+universality of distribution, and all these are wanting in one or more
+sub-regions. If, now, we divide the globe into the New and the Old World,
+the former including the whole American continent, the latter all the rest
+of the earth, we find that the Old World possesses exclusively 23 families,
+the New World exclusively 14, of which 5 are common to North and South
+America. But if we take the division proposed by Professor Huxley--a
+northern world, comprising our first four regions (from Nearctic to
+Oriental), and a southern world comprising our last two regions (the
+Australian and Neotropical)--we find that the northern division possesses
+only 5 families exclusively, and the southern division 13 exclusively, of
+which not one is common to Australia and South America. This plainly
+indicates that, as far as the Passeres are concerned, the latter bipartite
+division is not so natural as the former. Again, if we compare temperate
+with tropical families (not too rigidly, but as regards their general
+character), we find in the northern hemisphere only two families that have
+the character of being typically temperate--the Cinclidæ, and in a less
+degree the Ampelidæ--both of small extent. In the southern hemisphere we
+have also two, the Phytotomidæ, and in a less degree, the Pteroptochidæ;
+making two wholly and two mainly temperate families. Of exclusively
+tropical families on the other hand, we have about 12, and several others
+that are mainly tropical.
+
+The several regions do not differ greatly in the number of families found
+in each. The Nearctic has 19, the Palæarctic 21, the Ethiopian 23, the
+Oriental 28, the Australian 29, and the Neotropical 23. But many of these
+families are only represented by a few species, or in limited districts;
+and if we count only those families which are tolerably well represented,
+and help to form the ornithological character of the region, the richness
+of the several tropical regions will appear to be (as it really is)
+comparatively much greater. The families that are confined to single
+regions are not very numerous, except in the case of the Neotropical
+region, which has 5. The Australian has only {301}3, the Oriental 1, the
+Ethiopian 1, and the other regions have no peculiar families.
+
+The distribution of the Passeres may be advantageously considered as
+divided into the five series of Turdoid, Tanagroid, Sturnoid, Formicarioid,
+and Anomalous Passeres. The Turdoid Passeres, consisting of the first 23
+families, are especially characteristic of the Old World, none being found
+exclusively in America, and only two or three being at all abundant there.
+The Tanagroid Passeres (Families 24-33) are very characteristic of the New
+World, five being confined to it, and three others being quite as abundant
+there as in the Old World; while there is not a single exclusively Old
+World family in the series, except the Drepanididæ confined to the Sandwich
+Islands. The Sturnoid Passeres (Families 34-38) are all exclusively Old
+World, except that two larks inhabit parts of North America, and a few
+pipits South America. The Formicarioid Passeres (Families 39-48) are
+strikingly characteristic of the New World, to which seven of the families
+exclusively belong; the two Old World groups being small, and with a very
+restricted distribution. The Anomalous Passeres (Families 49-50) are
+confined to Australia.
+
+The most remarkable feature in the geographical distribution of the
+Passeres is the richness of the American continent, and the large
+development of characteristic types that occurs there. The fact that
+America possesses 14 altogether peculiar families, while no less than 23
+Old-World families are entirely absent from it, plainly indicates, that, if
+this division does not represent the most ancient and radical separation of
+the land surface of the globe, it must still be one of very great
+antiquity, and have modified in a very marked way the distribution of all
+living things. Not less remarkable is the richness in specific forms of the
+13 peculiar American families. These contain no less than 1,570 species,
+leaving only about 500 American species in the 13 other Passerine families
+represented in the New World. If we make a deduction for those Nearctic
+species which occur only north of Panama, we may estimate the truly
+Neotropical species of Passerine birds at 1,900, which is almost exactly
+{302}_one-third_ of the total number of Passeres; a wonderful illustration
+of the Ornithological riches of South America.
+
+
+_Order II.--PICARIÆ._
+
+FAMILY 51.--PICIDÆ. (36 Genera, 320 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Woodpeckers are very widely distributed, being only absent from the
+Australian region beyond Celebes and Flores. They are most abundant in the
+Neotropical and Oriental regions, both of which possess a number of
+peculiar genera; while the other regions possess few or no peculiar forms,
+even the Ethiopian region having only three genera not found elsewhere. The
+soft-tailed Picumninæ inhabit the tropical regions only, _Picumnus_ being
+Neotropical, _Vivia_ and _Sasia_ Oriental, and _Verreauxia_ Ethiopian.
+_Picoides_, or _Apternus_, is an Arctic form peculiar to the Nearctic and
+Palæarctic regions. _Celeus_, _Chrysoptilus_, _Chloronerpes_, and some
+smaller genera, are Neotropical exclusively, and there are two peculiar
+forms in Cuba. _Yungipicus_, _Chrysocolaptes_, _Hemicercus_,
+_Mulleripicus_, _Brachypternus_, _Tiga_, and _Micropternus_, are the most
+important of the peculiar Oriental genera. _Dendropicus_ and _Geocolaptes_
+are Ethiopian; but there are no woodpeckers in Madagascar. The Palæarctic
+woodpeckers belong to the genera _Picus_--which is widely distributed,
+_Gecinus_--which is an Oriental form, and _Dryocopus_--which is South
+American. Except _Picoides_, the Nearctic woodpeckers are mostly of
+Neotropical genera; but _Sphyrapicus_ and _Hylatomus_ are peculiar. The
+geological record is, as yet, almost silent as to this family; but remains
+doubtfully referred to it have been found in the Miocene of Europe and the
+Eocene of the United States. Yet the group is evidently one of very high
+antiquity, as is shown by {303}its extreme isolation, its great
+specialization of structure, its abundant generic forms, and its wide
+distribution. It originated, probably, in Central Asia, and passed through,
+the Nearctic region to South America, in whose rich and varied forests it
+found the conditions for rapid development, and for the specialization of
+the many generic forms now found there.
+
+A large number of genera have been established by various authors, but
+their limitations and affinities are not very well made out. Those which
+seem best established are the following:--
+
+(2107-2112) _Picumnus_ (22 sp.). Tropical South America to Honduras; (2113)
+_Vivia_ (1 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet; (2114) _Sasia_ (2 sp.), Nepal to
+Java; (2115) _Verreauxia_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Picoides_ (5 sp.),
+northern parts of Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, and Mountains of East
+Thibet; _Picus_ (42 sp.), the whole Palæarctic, Oriental, Nearctic, and
+Neotropical regions; (2123) _Hyopicus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas and North China;
+(2124) _Yungipicus_ (16 sp.), Oriental region, and to Flores, Celebes,
+North China, and Japan; (2127-2129) _Sphyrapicus_ (7 sp.), Nearctic region,
+Mexico, and Bolivia; (2130-2133 2139) _Campephilus_ (14 sp.), Neotropical
+and Nearctic regions; _Hylatomus_ (1 sp.), Nearctic region; (2137 2140)
+_Dryocopus_ (5 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil, Central and Northern Europe;
+(2134) _Reinwardtipicus_ (1 sp.), Penang to Borneo; (2135 2136) _Venilia_
+(2 sp.), Nepal to Borneo; _Chrysocolaptes_ (8 sp.), India and Indo-Malaya;
+_Dendropicus_ (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Hemicercus_ (5 sp.),
+Malabar and Pegu to Malaya; _Gecinus_ (18 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental
+regions to Java; (2151-2156) _Dendromus_ (15 sp.), West and South Africa,
+Zanzibar, and Abyssinia; (2157-2159) _Mulleripicus_ (6 sp.), Malabar, Pegu,
+Indo-Malaya, and Celebes; _Celeus_ (17 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico;
+_Nesoceleus_ (sp. 8833) Cuba; (2162) _Chrysoptilus_ (9 sp.), Chili and
+South Brazil to Mexico; _Brachypternus_ (5 sp.), India, Ceylon, and China;
+(2165 2166) _Tiga_ (5 sp.), all India to Malaya; (2167) _Gecinulus_ (2
+sp.), South-east Himalayas to Burmah; _Centurus_ (13 sp.), Nearctic Region
+to Antilles and Venezuela; _Chloronerpes_ (35 sp.), Tropical America,
+Hayti; (2171) _Xiphidiopicus_ (1 sp.), Cuba; _Melanerpes_ (11 sp.), Brazil
+to {304}Canada, Porto Rico; _Leuconerpes_ (1 sp.), Bolivia to North Brazil;
+_Colaptes_ (9 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Arctic America, Greater
+Antilles; _Hypoxanthus_ (1 sp.), Venezuela and Ecuador; (2187)
+_Geocolaptes_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Miglyptes_ (3 sp.), Malaya;
+_Micropternus_ (8 sp.), India and Ceylon to South China, Sumatra and
+Borneo.
+
+
+FAMILY 52.--YUNGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Wrynecks (_Yunx_), which constitute this family, are small
+tree-creeping birds characteristic of the Palæarctic region, but extending
+into North and East Africa, over the greater part of the peninsula of India
+(but not to Ceylon), and just reaching the lower ranges of the Himalayas.
+There is also one species isolated in South Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 53.--INDICATORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Honey-guides (_Indicator_) constitute a small family of doubtful
+affinities; perhaps most nearly allied to the woodpeckers and barbets. They
+catch bees and sometimes kill small birds; and some of the species are
+parasitical like the cuckoo. Their distribution is very interesting, as
+they are found in every part of the Ethiopian region, except Madagascar,
+and in the Oriental region only in Sikhim and Borneo, being absent from the
+peninsula of India which is nearest, both geographically and zoologically,
+to Africa.
+
+
+{305}FAMILY 54.--MEGALÆMIDÆ. (13 Genera, 81 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Megalæmidæ, or Barbets, consist of rather small, fruit-eating birds, of
+heavy ungraceful shape, but adorned with the most gaudy colours, especially
+about the head and neck. They form a very isolated family; their nearest
+allies being, perhaps, the still more isolated Toucans of South America.
+Barbets are found in all the tropics except Australia, but are especially
+characteristic of the great Equatorial forest-zone; all the most remarkable
+forms being confined to Equatorial America, West Africa, and the Indo-Malay
+Islands. They are most abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and
+in the latter are universally distributed.
+
+In the beautiful monograph of this family by the Messrs. Marshall, the
+barbets are divided into three sub-families, as follows:--
+
+Pogonorhynchinæ (3 genera, 15 sp.), which are Ethiopian except the 2
+species of _Tetragonops_, which are Neotropical; Megalæminæ (6 genera, 45
+sp.), which are Oriental and Ethiopian; and Capitoninæ (4 genera, 18 sp.),
+common to the three regions.
+
+The genera are each confined to a single region. Africa possesses the
+largest number of peculiar forms, while the Oriental region is richest in
+species.
+
+This is probably a very ancient group, and its existing distribution may be
+due to its former range over the Miocene South Palæarctic land, which we
+know possessed Trogons, Parrots, Apes, and Tapirs, groups which are now
+equally abundant in Equatorial countries.
+
+{306}The following is a tabular view of the genera with their
+distribution:--
+
+  --------------------+------------------+----------------+----------------
+        Genera        |    Ethiopian     |    Oriental    |   Neotropical
+                      |     Region.      |     Region.    |     Region.
+  --------------------+------------------+----------------+----------------
+                      |                  |                |
+  POGONORHYNCHINÆ.    |                  |                |
+  Tricholæma     1 sp.|W. Africa         |                |
+  Pogonorhynchus 12 " |All Trop. & S. Af.|                |
+  Tetragonops     2 " |                  |                |Peru & Costa
+                      |                  |                |  Rica
+                      |                  |                |
+  MEGALÆMINÆ.         |                  |                |
+  Megalæma       29 " |                  |The whole region|
+  Xantholæma      4 " |                  |The whole region|
+  Xylobucco       2 " |W. Africa         |                |
+  Barbatula       9 " |Trop. & S. Africa |                |
+  Psilopogon      1 " |                  |                |Sumatra
+  Gymnobucco      2 " |W. Africa         |                |
+                      |                  |                |
+  CAPITONINÆ.         |                  |                |
+  Trachyphonus    5 " |Trop. & S. Africa |                |
+  Capito         10 " |                  |                |Equatorial Amer.
+                      |                  |                |  to Costa Rica
+  Calorhamphus    2 " |                  |Malay Pen.,     |
+                      |                  | Sumatra, Borneo|
+  Stactolæma      1 " |W. Africa         |                |
+                      |                  |                |
+  --------------------+------------------+----------------+----------------
+
+
+FAMILY 55.--RHAMPHASTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 51 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Toucans form one of the most remarkable and characteristic families of
+the Neotropical region, to which they are strictly confined. They differ
+from all other birds by their long feathered tongues, their huge yet
+elegant bills, and the peculiar texture and coloration of their plumage.
+Being fruit-eaters, and strictly adapted for an arboreal life, they are not
+found beyond the forest regions; but they nevertheless range from Mexico to
+Paraguay, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One genus, {307}_Andigena_,
+is confined to the forest slopes of the South American Andes. The genera
+are:--
+
+_Rhamphastos_ (12 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil; _Pteroglossus_ (16 sp.),
+Nicaragua to South Brazil (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28); _Selenidera_ (7 sp.),
+Veragua to Brazil, east of the Andes; _Andigena_ (6 sp.), the Andes, from
+Columbia to Bolivia, and West Brazil; _Aulacorhamphus_ (10 sp.), Mexico to
+Peru and Bolivia.
+
+
+FAMILY 56.--MUSOPHAGIDÆ. (2 Genera, 18 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Musophagidæ, or Plantain-eaters and Turacos, are handsome birds,
+somewhat intermediate between Toucans and Cuckoos. They are confined to the
+Ethiopian region and are most abundant in West Africa. The Plantain eaters
+(_Musophaga_, 2 sp.), are confined to West Africa; the Turacos (_Turacus_,
+16 sp., including the sub-genera _Corythaix_ and _Schizorhis_) range over
+all Africa from Abyssinia to the Cape (Plate V. Vol. I. p. 264).
+
+
+FAMILY 57.--COLIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Colies, consisting of the single genus _Colius_, are an anomalous group
+of small finch-like birds, occuping a position between the Picariæ and
+Passeres, but of very doubtful affinities. Their range is nearly identical
+with that of the Musophagidæ, but they are most abundant in South and East
+Africa.
+
+
+{308}FAMILY 58.--CUCULIDÆ. (35 Genera, 180 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cuculidæ, of which our well-known Cuckoo is one of the most widely
+distributed types, are essentially a tropical group of weak insectivorous
+birds, abounding in varied forms in all the warmer parts of the globe, but
+very scarce or only appearing as migrants in the temperate and colder
+zones. Many of the smaller Eastern species are adorned with the most
+intense golden or violet metallic lustre, while some of the larger forms
+have gaily-coloured bills or bare patches of bright red on the cheeks. Many
+of the cuckoos of the Eastern Hemisphere are parasitic, laying their eggs
+in other birds' nests; and they are also remarkable for the manner in which
+they resemble other birds, as hawks, pheasants, or drongo-shrikes. The
+distribution of the Cuckoo family is rather remarkable. They abound most in
+the Oriental region, which produces no less than 18 genera, of which 11 are
+peculiar; the Australian has 8, most of which are also Oriental, but 3 are
+peculiar, one of these being confined to Celebes and closely allied to an
+Oriental group; the Ethiopian region has only 7 genera, all of which are
+Oriental but three, 2 of these being peculiar to Madagascar, and the other
+common to Madagascar and Africa. America has 11 genera, all quite distinct
+from those of the Eastern Hemisphere, and only three enter the Nearctic
+region, one species extending to Canada.
+
+Remembering our conclusions as to the early history of the several regions,
+these facts enable us to indicate, with considerable probability, the
+origin and mode of dispersal of the cuckoos. They were almost certainly
+developed in the Oriental and Palæarctic regions, but reached the
+Neotropical at a very early date, where they have since been completely
+isolated. Africa must have long remained without cuckoos, the earliest
+immigration {309}being to Madagascar at the time of the approximation of
+that sub-region to Ceylon and Malaya. A later infusion of Oriental forms
+took place probably by way of Arabia and Persia, when those countries were
+more fertile and perhaps more extensive. Australia has also received its
+cuckoos at a somewhat late date, a few having reached the Austro-Malay
+Islands somewhat earlier.
+
+The classification of the family is somewhat unsettled. For the American
+genera I follow Messrs. Sclater and Salvin; and, for those of the Old
+World, Mr. Sharpe's suggestive paper in the _Proceedings of the Zoological
+Society_, 1873, p. 600. The following is the distribution of the various
+genera:--
+
+(2195) _Phænicophaës_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; (2196) _Rhamphococcyx_ (1 sp.),
+Celebes; (2196) _Rhinococcyx_ (1 sp.), Java; (2196 pt. and 2203)
+_Rhopodytes_ (6 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Hainan, and Malaya; (2203 pt)
+_Poliococcyx_ (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; (2197) _Dasylophus_ (1
+sp.), Philippine Islands; (2198) _Lepidogrammus_ (1 sp.), Philippine
+Islands; (2200) _Zanclostomus_ (1 sp.), Malaya; (2201) _Ceuthmochares_ (2
+sp.), Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar; (2202) _Taccocua_ (4 sp.),
+Himalayas to Ceylon and Malacca; (2204) _Rhinortha_ (1 sp.), Malacca,
+Sumatra, Borneo; (2199) _Carpococcyx_ (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra; (2220)
+_Neomorphus_ (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (2205 2206) _Coua_ (10 sp.),
+Madagascar; (2207) _Cochlothraustes_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; (2221)
+_Centropus_ (35 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the whole Oriental region,
+Austro-Malaya and Australia; (2213) _Crotophaga_ (3 sp.), Brazil to
+Antilles and Pennsylvania; (2212) _Guira_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Paraguay;
+(2209) _Geococcyx_ (2 sp.), Guatemala to Texas and California; (2211)
+_Dromococcyx_ (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (2210) _Diplopterus_ (1 sp.),
+Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil; (2208) _Saurothera_ (4 sp.), Greater
+Antilles; (2219) _Hyetornis_ (2 sp.), Jamaica and Hayti; (2215) _Piaya_ (3
+sp.), Mexico to West Ecuador and Brazil; (2218) _Morococcyx_ (1 sp.), Costa
+Rica to Mexico; (2214) _Coccygus_ (10 sp.), La Plata to Antilles, Mexico
+and Pennsylvania, Cocos Island; (2227) _Cuculus_ (22 sp.), Palæarctic,
+Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to Moluccas and Australia; (2229)
+_Caliecthrus_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; (2230-2232) _Cacomantis_ (15 sp.),
+Oriental and Australian {310}regions to Fiji Islands and Tasmania;
+(2233-2237) _Chrysococcyx_ (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the
+Oriental and Australian regions to New Zealand and Fiji Islands; (2238)
+_Surniculus_ (2 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Malaya; (2239) _Hierococcyx_ (7
+sp.), the Oriental region to Amoorland and Celebes; (2240 2241) _Coccystes_
+(6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental region, excluding
+Philippines; (2242) _Eudynamis_ (8 sp.), the Oriental and Australian
+regions, excluding Sandwich Islands; (2243) _Scythrops_ (1 sp.), East
+Australia to Moluccas and North Celebes.
+
+
+FAMILY 59.--LEPTOSOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The _Leptosomus discolor_, which constitutes this family, is a bird of very
+abnormal characters, having some affinities both with Cuckoos and Rollers.
+It is confined to Madagascar (Plate VI. Vol. I. p. 278).
+
+
+FAMILY 60.--BUCCONIDÆ. (5 Genera, 43 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Bucconidæ, or Puff-birds, are generally of small size and dull colours,
+with rather thick bodies and dense plumage. They form one of the
+characteristic Neotropical families, being most abundant in the great
+Equatorial forest plains, but extending as far north as Guatemala, though
+absent from the West Indian Islands.
+
+The genera are:--_Bucco_ (21 sp.), Guatemala to Paraguay, and West of the
+Andes in Ecuador; _Malacoptila_ (10 sp.), Guatemala {311}to Bolivia and
+Brazil; _Nonnula_ (3 sp.), Amazon and Columbia; _Monasa_ (7 sp.), Costa
+Rica to Brazil; _Chelidoptera_ (2 sp.), Columbia and Guiana to Brazil.
+
+
+FAMILY 61.--GALBULIDÆ. (6 Genera, 19 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Galbulidæ, or Jacamars, are small slender birds, of generally metallic
+plumage; somewhat resembling in form the Bee-eaters of the Old World but
+less active. They have the same general distribution as the last family,
+but they do not occur west of the Equatorial Andes. The genera are:--
+
+_Galbula_ (9 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia; _Urogalba_ (2 sp.),
+Guiana and the lower Amazon; _Brachygalba_ (4 sp.), Venezuela to Brazil and
+Bolivia; _Jacamaralcyon_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Jacamerops_ (2 sp.), Panama to
+the Amazon; _Galbalcyrhynchus_ (1 sp.), Upper Amazon.
+
+
+FAMILY 62.--CORACIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 19 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Rollers are a family of insectivorous birds allied to the Bee-eaters,
+and are very characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; but one
+species (_Coracias garrula_) spreads over the Palæarctic region as far
+north as Sweden and the Altai mountains, while the genus _Eurystomus_
+reaches the Amoor valley, Australia, and the Solomon Islands. The
+distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Coracias_ (8 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region, the Oriental {312}region
+except Indo-Malaya, the Palæarctic to the above-named limits, and the
+island of Celebes on the confines of the Australian region; _Eurystomus_ (8
+sp.), West and East Africa and Madagascar, the whole Oriental region except
+the Peninsula of India, and the Australian as far as Australia and the
+Solomon Islands; _Brachypteracias_ (possibly allied to _Leptosomus_?) (4
+sp.), Madagascar only, but these abnormal birds form a distinct sub-family,
+and according to Mr. Sharpe, three genera, _Brachypteracias_, _Atelornis_,
+and _Geobiastes_.
+
+A most remarkable feature in the distribution of this family is the
+occurrence of a true roller (_Coracias temminckii_) in the island of
+Celebes, entirely cut off from the rest of the genus, which does not occur
+again till we reach Siam and Burmah.
+
+The curious _Pseudochelidon_ from West Africa may perhaps belong to this
+family or to the Cypselidæ. (Ibis. 1861, p. 321.)
+
+
+FAMILY 63.--MEROPIDÆ. (5 Genera, 34 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Meropidæ, or Bee-eaters, have nearly the same distribution as the
+Rollers, but they do not penetrate quite so far either into the Eastern
+Palæarctic or the Australian regions. The distribution of the genera is as
+follows:--
+
+_Merops_ (21 sp.), has the range of the family extending on the north to
+South Scandinavia, and east to Australia and New Guinea; _Nyctiornis_ (3
+sp.), the Oriental region, except Ceylon and Java; _Meropogon_ (1 sp.),
+Celebes; _Meropiscus_ (3 sp.), West Africa; _Melittophagus_ (6 sp.),
+Ethiopian region, except Madagascar.
+
+
+{313}FAMILY 64.--TODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Todies are delicate, bright-coloured, insectivorous birds, of small
+size, and allied to the Motmots, although externally more resembling
+flycatchers. They are wholly confined to the greater Antilles, the islands
+of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico having each a peculiar species of
+_Todus_, while another species, said to be from Jamaica, has been recently
+described (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 67).
+
+
+FAMILY 65.--MOMOTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 17 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Motmots range from Mexico to Paraguay and to the west coast of Ecuador,
+but seem to have their head-quarters in Central America, five of the genera
+and eleven species occurring from Panama northwards, two of the genera not
+occurring in South America. The genera are as follows:--
+
+_Momotus_ (10 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia, one species extending to
+Tobago, and one to Western Ecuador; _Urospatha_ (1 sp.), Costa Rica to the
+Amazon; _Baryphthengus_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Paraguay; _Hylomanes_ (2 sp.),
+Guatemala; _Prionirhynchus_ (2 sp.), Guatemala to Upper Amazon; _Eumomota_
+(1 sp.), Honduras to Chiriqui.
+
+
+{314}FAMILY 66.--TROGONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 44 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Trogons form a well-marked family of insectivorous forest-haunting
+birds, whose dense yet puffy plumage exhibits the most exquisite tints of
+pink, crimson, orange, brown, or metallic green, often relieved by delicate
+bands of pure white. In one Guatemalan species the tail coverts are
+enormously lengthened into waving plumes of rich metallic green, as
+graceful and marvellous as those of the Paradise-birds. Trogons are
+tolerably abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, and are
+represented in Africa by a single species of a peculiar genus. The genera
+now generally admitted are the following:--
+
+_Trogon_ (24 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico, and west of the Andes in Ecuador;
+_Temnotrogon_ (1 sp.), Hayti; _Prionoteles_ (1 sp.), Cuba (Plate XVII. Vol.
+II. p. 67); _Apaloderma_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Harpactes_
+(10 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding China; _Pharomacrus_ (5 sp.),
+Amazonia to Guatemala; _Euptilotis_ (1 sp.), Mexico.
+
+Remains of _Trogon_ have been found in the Miocene deposits of France; and
+we are thus able to understand the existing distribution of the family. At
+that exceptionally mild period in the northern hemisphere, these birds may
+have ranged over all Europe and North America; but, as the climate became
+more severe they gradually became restricted to the tropical regions, where
+alone a sufficiency of fruit and insect-food is found all the year round.
+
+
+{315}FAMILY 67.--ALCEDINIDÆ. (19 Genera, 125 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Kingfishers are distributed universally, but very unequally, over the
+globe, and in this respect present some of the most curious anomalies to be
+found among birds. They have their metropolis in the eastern half of the
+Malay Archipelago (our first Australian sub-region), from Celebes to New
+Guinea, in which district no less than 13 out of the 19 genera occur, 8 of
+them being peculiar; and it is probable that in no other equally varied
+group of universal distribution, is so large a proportion of the generic
+forms confined to so limited a district. From this centre kingfishers
+decrease rapidly in every direction. In Australia itself there are only 4
+genera with 13 species; the whole Oriental region has only 6 genera, 1
+being peculiar; the Ethiopian also 6 genera, but 3 peculiar; and each of
+these have less than half the number of species possessed by the Australian
+region. The Palæarctic region possesses only 3 genera, all derived from the
+Oriental region; but the most extraordinary deficiency is shown by the
+usually rich Neotropical region, which possesses but a single genus, common
+to the larger part of the Eastern Hemisphere, and the same genus is alone
+found in the Nearctic region, the only difference being that the former
+possesses eight, while the latter has but a single species. These facts
+almost inevitably lead to the conclusion that America long existed without
+kingfishers; and that in comparatively recent times (perhaps during the
+Miocene or Pliocene period), a species of the Old World genus, _Ceryle_,
+found its way into North America, and spreading rapidly southward along the
+great river-valleys has become differentiated in South America into the few
+closely allied forms that alone inhabit that vast country--the richest in
+the world in {316}fresh-water fish, and apparently the best fitted to
+sustain a varied and numerous body of kingfishers.
+
+The names of the genera, with their distribution and the number of species
+in each, as given by Mr. Sharpe in his excellent monograph of the family,
+is as follows:--
+
+_Alcedo_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions (but absent
+from Madagascar), and extending into the Austro-Malayan sub-region;
+_Corythornis_ (3 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; _Alcyone_ (7 sp.),
+Australia and the Austro-Malayan sub-region, with one species in the
+Philippine Islands; _Ceryle_ (13 sp.), absent only from Australia, the
+northern half of the Palæarctic region, and Madagascar; _Pelargopsis_ (9
+sp.), the whole Oriental region; and extending to Celebes and Timor in the
+Austro-Malayan sub-region; _Ceyx_ (11 sp.), the Oriental region and
+Austro-Malayan sub-region, but absent from Celebes, and only one species in
+continental India and Ceylon; _Ceycopsis_ (1 sp.), Celebes; _Myioceyx_ (2
+sp.), West Africa; _Ipsidina_ (4 sp.), Ethiopian region; _Syma_ (2 sp.),
+Papua and North Australia; _Halcyon_ (36 sp.), Australian, Oriental, and
+Ethiopian regions, and the southern part of the Palæarctic; _Dacelo_ (6
+sp.), Australia and New Guinea; _Todirhamphus_ (3 sp.), Eastern Pacific
+Islands only; _Monachalcyon_ (1 sp.), Celebes; _Caridonax_ (1 sp.), Lombok
+and Flores; _Carcineutes_ (2 sp.), Siam to Borneo and Java; _Tanysiptera_
+(14 sp.), Moluccas New Guinea, and North Australia (Plate X. Vol. I. p.
+414); _Cittura_ (2 sp.), Celebes group; _Melidora_ (1 sp.), New Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 68.--BUCEROTIDIÆ. (12 Genera, 50 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hornbills form an isolated group of generally large-sized birds, whose
+huge bills form their most prominent feature. They are popularly associated
+with the American Toucans, but have no close relationship to them, and are
+now generally {317}considered to show most resemblance, though still a very
+distant one, to the kingfishers. They are abundant in the Ethiopian and
+Oriental regions, and extend eastward to the Solomon Islands. Their
+classification is very unsettled, for though they have been divided into
+more than twenty genera they have not yet been carefully studied. The
+following grouping of the genera--referring to the numbers in the _Hand
+List_--must therefore be considered as only provisional:--
+
+(1957 1958 1963) _Buceros_ (6 sp.), all Indo-Malaya, Arakan, Nepal and the
+Neilgherries (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); (1959-1961) _Hydrocissa_ (7 sp.),
+India and Ceylon to Malaya and Celebes; (1962) _Berenicornis_ (2 sp.),
+Sumatra and West Africa; (1964) _Calao_ (3 sp.), Tennaserim, Malaya,
+Moluccas to the Solomon Islands; (1965) _Aceros_ (1 sp.), South-east
+Himalayas; (1966 1967) _Cranorrhinus_ (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo,
+Philippines, Celebes; (1968) _Penelopides_ (1 sp.), Celebes; (1969-1971)
+_Tockus_ (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1972) _Rhinoplax_ (1 sp.),
+Sumatra and Borneo; (1973-1975) _Bycanistes_ (6 sp.), West Africa with East
+and South Africa; (1976 1977) _Meniceros_ (3 sp.), India and Ceylon to
+Tenasserim; (1978) _Bucorvus_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 69.--UPUPIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hoopoes form a small and isolated group of semi-terrestrial
+insectivorous birds, whose nearest affinities are with the Hornbills. They
+are most characteristic of the Ethiopian region, but extend into the South
+of Europe and into all the continental divisions of the Oriental region, as
+well as to Ceylon, and northwards to Pekin and Mongolia.
+
+
+{318}FAMILY 70.--IRRISORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Irrisors are birds of generally metallic plumage, which have often been
+placed with the Epunachidæ and near the Sun-birds, or Birds of Paradise,
+but which are undoubtedly allied to the Hoopoes. They are strictly confined
+to the continent of Africa, ranging from Abyssinia to the west coast, and
+southward to the Cape Colony. They have been divided into several
+sub-genera which it is not necessary here to notice (Plate IV. Vol. I. p.
+261).
+
+
+FAMILY 71.--PODARGIDÆ. (3 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Podargidæ, or Frog-mouths, are a family of rather large-sized nocturnal
+insectivorous birds, closely allied to the Goat-suckers, but distinguished
+by their generally thicker bills, and especially by hunting for their food
+on trees or on the ground, instead of seizing it on the wing. They abound
+most in the Australian region, but one genus extends over a large part of
+the Oriental region. The following are the genera with their
+distribution:--
+
+_Podargus_ (10 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and the Papuan Islands (Plate
+XII. Vol. I. p. 441); _Batrachostomus_ (6 sp.), the Oriental region
+(excluding Philippine Islands and China) and the northern Moluccas;
+_Ægotheles_ (4 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Papuan Islands.
+
+
+{319}FAMILY 72.--STEATORNITHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family contains a single bird--the Guacharo--forming the genus
+_Steatornis_, first discovered by Humboldt in a cavern in Venezuela, and
+since found in deep ravines near Bogota, and also in Trinidad. Although
+apparently allied to the Goat-suckers it is a vegetable-feeder, and is
+altogether a very anomalous bird whose position in the system is still
+undetermined.
+
+
+FAMILY 73.--CAPRIMULGIDÆ. (17 Genera, 91 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Goat-suckers, or Night-jars, are crepuscular insectivorous birds, which
+take their prey on the wing, and are remarkable for their soft and
+beautifully mottled plumage, swift and silent flight, and strange cries
+often imitating the human voice. They are universally distributed, except
+that they do not reach New Zealand or the remoter Pacific Islands. The
+South American genus, _Nyctibius_, differs in structure and habits from the
+other goat-suckers and should perhaps form a distinct family. More than
+half the genera inhabit the Neotropical region. The genera are as
+follows:--
+
+_Nyctibius_ (6 sp.), Brazil to Guatemala, Jamaica; _Caprimulgus_ (35 sp.),
+Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, with the Austro-Malay Islands
+and North Australia; _Hydropsalis_ (8 sp.), Tropical South America to La
+Plata; _Antrostomus_ (10 {320}sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Canada, Cuba;
+_Stenopsis_ (4 sp.), Martinique to Columbia, West Peru and Chili;
+_Siphonorhis_ (1 sp.), Jamaica; _Heleothreptus_ (1 sp.), Demerara;
+_Nyctidromus_ (2 sp.), South Brazil to Central America; _Scortornis_ (3
+sp.), West and East Africa; _Macrodipteryx_ (2 sp.), West and Central
+Africa; _Cosmetornis_ (1 sp.), all Tropical Africa; _Podager_ (1 sp.),
+Tropical South America to La Plata; _Lurocalis_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Guiana;
+_Chordeiles_ (8 sp.), Brazil and West Peru to Canada, Porto Rico, Jamaica;
+_Nyctiprogne_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Amazonia; _Eurostopodus_ (2 sp.),
+Australia and Papuan Islands; _Lyncornis_ (4 sp.), Burmah, Philippines,
+Borneo, Celebes.
+
+
+FAMILY 74.--CYPSELIDÆ. (7 Genera, 53 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Swifts can almost claim to be a cosmopolitan group, but for their
+absence from New Zealand. They are most abundant both in genera and species
+in the Neotropical and Oriental regions. The following is the distribution
+of the genera:--
+
+_Cypselus_ (1 sp.), absent only from the whole of North America and the
+Pacific; _Panyptila_ (3 sp.), Guatemala and Guiana, and extending into
+North-west America; _Collocalia_ (10 sp.), Madagascar, the whole Oriental
+region and eastward through New Guinea to the Marquesas Islands;
+_Dendrochelidon_ (5 sp.), Oriental region and eastward to New Guinea;
+_Chætura_ (15 sp.), Continental America (excluding South Temperate), West
+Africa and Madagascar, the Oriental region, North China and the Amoor,
+Celebes, Australia; _Hemiprocne_ (3 sp.), Mexico to La Plata, Jamaica and
+Hayti; _Cypseloides_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru; _Nephæcetes_ (2 sp.), Cuba,
+Jamaica, North-west America.
+
+
+{321}FAMILY 75.--TROCHILIDÆ. (118 Genera, 390 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The wonderfully varied and beautiful Humming-Birds are confined to the
+American continent, where they range from Sitka to Cape Horn, while the
+island of Juan Fernandez has two peculiar species. Only 6 species,
+belonging to 3 genera, are found in the Nearctic region, and most of these
+have extended their range from the south. They are excessively abundant in
+the forest-clad Andes from Mexico to Chili, some species extending up to
+the limits of perpetual snow; but they diminish in number and variety in
+the plains, however luxuriant the vegetation. In place of giving here the
+names and distribution of the numerous genera into which they are now
+divided (which will be found in the tables of the genera of the Neotropical
+region), it may be more useful to present a summary of their distribution
+in the sub-divisions of the American continent, as follows:--
+
+  Sub-region I.   = Patagonia & S. Andes.
+  Sub-region II.  = Tropical S. America.
+  Sub-region III. = Tropical N. America.
+  Sub-region IV.  = Antilles.
+  Nearctic region = Temperate N. America.
+
+                                 -------- Sub-regions --------    Nearctic
+                                 I.      II.     III.      IV.    Regions.
+  Genera in each Sub-region     10       90       41        8        3
+  Peculiar Genera                3       58       14        5        0
+  Species in each Sub-region    15      275      100       15        6
+
+The island of Juan Fernandez has two species, and Masafuera, an island
+beyond it, one; the three forming a peculiar genus. The island of Tres
+Marias, about 60 miles from the west coast of Mexico, possesses a peculiar
+species of humming-bird, and the Bahamas two species; but none inhabit
+either the Falkland Islands or the Galapagos.
+
+Like most groups which are very rich in species and in generic forms, the
+humming-birds are generally very local, small {322}generic groups being
+confined to limited districts; while single mountains, valleys, or small
+islands, often possess species found nowhere else. It is now well
+ascertained that the Trochilidæ are really insectivorous birds, although
+they also feed largely, but probably never exclusively, on the nectar of
+flowers. Their nearest allies are undoubtedly the Swifts; but the wide gap
+that now separates them from these, as well as the wonderful variety of
+form and of development of plumage, that is found among them, alike point
+to their origin, at a very remote period, in the forests of the once
+insular Andes. There is perhaps no more striking contrast of the like
+nature, to be found, than that between the American kingfishers--confined
+to a few closely allied forms of one Old World genus--and the American
+humming-birds with more than a hundred diversified generic forms unlike
+everything else upon the globe; and we can hardly imagine any other cause
+for this difference, than a (comparatively) very recent introduction in the
+one case, and a very high antiquity in the other.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picariæ._
+
+The very heterogeneous mass of birds forming the Order Picariæ, contains 25
+families, 307 genera and 1,604 species. This gives about 64 species to each
+family, while in the Passeres the proportion is nearly double, or 111
+species per family. There are, in fact, only two very large families in the
+Order, which happen to be the first and last in the series--Picidæ and
+Trochilidæ. Two others--Cuculidæ and Alcedinidæ--are rather large; while
+the rest are all small, seven of them consisting only of a single genus and
+from one to a dozen species. Only one of the families--Alcedinidæ--is
+absolutely cosmopolitan, but three others are nearly so, Caprimulgidæ and
+Cypselidæ being only absent from New Zealand, and Cuculidæ from the
+Canadian sub-region of North America. Eleven families inhabit the Old World
+only, while seven are confined to the New World, only one of
+these--Trochilidæ--being common to the Neotropical and Nearctic regions.
+
+The Picariæ are highly characteristic of tropical faunas, for {323}while no
+less than 15 out of the 25 families are exclusively tropical, none are
+confined to, or have their chief development in, the temperate regions.
+They are best represented in the Ethiopian region, which possesses 17
+families, 4 of which are peculiar to it; while the Oriental region has only
+14 families, none of which are peculiar. The Neotropical region has also 14
+families, but 6 of them are peculiar. The Australian region has 8, the
+Palæarctic 9 and the Nearctic 6 families, but none of these are peculiar.
+We may see a reason for the great specialization of this tropical
+assemblage of birds in the Ethiopian and Neotropical regions, in the fact
+of the large extent of land on both sides of the Equator which these two
+regions alone possess, and their extreme isolation either by sea or deserts
+from other regions,--an isolation which we know was in both cases much
+greater in early Tertiary times. It is, perhaps, for a similar reason that
+we here find hardly any trace of the connection between Australia and South
+America which other groups exhibit; for that connection has most probably
+been effected by a former communication between the temperate southern
+extremities of those two continents. The most interesting and suggestive
+fact, is that presented by the distribution of the Megalæmidæ and Trogonidæ
+over the tropics of America, Africa, and Asia. In the absence of
+palæontological evidence as to the former history of the Megalæmidæ, we are
+unable to say positively, whether it owes its present distribution to a
+former closer union between these continents in intertropical latitudes, or
+to a much greater northern range of the group at the period when a
+luxuriant sub-tropical vegetation extended far toward the Arctic regions;
+but the discovery of _Trogon_ in the Miocene deposits of the South of
+France renders it almost certain that the latter is the true explanation in
+the case of both these families.
+
+The Neotropical region, owing to its enormous family of humming-birds, is
+by far the richest in Picariæ, possessing nearly half the total number of
+species, and a still larger proportion of genera. Three families, the
+Bucerotidæ, Meropidæ and Coraciidæ are equally characteristic of the
+Oriental and {324}Ethiopian regions, a few outlying species only entering
+the Australian or the Palæarctic regions. One family (Todidæ) is confined
+to the West Indian Islands; and another (Leptosomidæ) consisting of but a
+single species, to Madagascar; parallel cases to the Drepanididæ among the
+Passeres, peculiar to the Sandwich Islands, and the Apterygidæ among the
+Struthiones, peculiar to New Zealand.
+
+
+_Order III.--PSITTACI._
+
+The Parrots have been the subject of much difference of opinion among
+ornithologists, and no satisfactory arrangement of the order into families
+and genera has yet been reached. Professor Garrod has lately examined
+certain points in the anatomy of a large number of genera, and proposes to
+revolutionize the ordinary classifications. Until, however, a general
+examination of their whole anatomy, internal and external, has been made by
+some competent authority, it will be unsafe to adopt the new system, as we
+have as yet no guide to the comparative value of the characters made use
+of. I therefore keep as much as possible to the old groups, founded on
+external characters, only using the indications furnished by Professor
+Garrod's paper, to determine the position of doubtful genera.
+
+
+FAMILY 76.--CACATUIDÆ. (5 Genera, 35 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cacatuidæ, Plyctolophidæ, or Camptolophidæ, as they have been variously
+termed, comprise all those crested parrots usually termed Cockatoos,
+together with one or two doubtful forms. They are very abundant in the
+Australian region, more especially in the Austro-Malayan portion of it, one
+species inhabiting {325}the Philippine Islands; but they do not pass
+further east than the Solomon Islands and are not found in New Zealand. The
+distribution of the genera is as follow:--
+
+_Cacatua_ (18 sp.), ranges from the Philippine Islands, Celebes and Lombok,
+to the Solomon Islands and to Tasmania; _Calopsitta_ (1 sp.), Australia;
+_Calyptorhynchus_ (8 sp.), is confined to Australia and Tasmania;
+_Microglossus_ (2 sp.), (perhaps a distinct family) to the Papuan district
+and North Australia; _Licmetis_ (3 sp.), Australia, Solomon Islands, and
+(?) New Guinea; _Nasiterna_ (3 sp.), a minute form, the smallest of the
+whole order, and perhaps not belonging to this family, is only known from
+the Papuan and Solomon Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 77.--PLATYCERCIDÆ. (11 Genera, 57 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Platycercidæ comprise a series of large-tailed Parrots, of weak
+structure and gorgeous colours, with a few ground-feeding genera of more
+sober protective tints; the whole family being confined to the Australian
+region. The genera are:--
+
+(1996 1999 2000) _Platycercus_ (14 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Norfolk
+Island; _Psephotus_ (6 sp.), Australia; _Polytelis_ (3 sp.), Australia;
+_Nymphicus_ (1 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia; (2002 2003) _Aprosmictus_
+(6 sp.), Australia, Papua, Timor, and Moluccas; _Pyrrhulopsis_ (3 sp.),
+Tonga and Fiji Islands; _Cyanoramphus_ (14 sp.), New Zealand, Norfolk
+Island, New Caledonia, and Society Islands; _Melopsittacus_ (1 sp.),
+Australia; _Euphema_ (7 sp.), Australia; _Pezoporus_ (1 sp.), Australia and
+Tasmania; _Geopsittacus_ (1 sp.), West Australia. The four last genera are
+ground-feeders, and are believed by Professor Garrod to be allied to the
+Owl-Parrot of New Zealand (_Stringops_).
+
+
+{326}FAMILY 78.--PALÆORNITHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 65 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+I class here a group of birds brought together, for the most part, by
+geographical distribution as well as by agreement in internal structure,
+but which is nevertheless of a very uncertain and provisional character.
+
+_Palæornis_ (18 sp.), the Oriental region, Mauritius, Rodriguez, and
+Seychelle Islands, and a species in Tropical Africa, apparently identical
+with the Indian _P. torquatus_, and therefore--considering the very ancient
+intercourse between the two countries, and the improbability of the
+_species_ remaining unchanged if originating by natural causes--most likely
+the progeny of domestic birds introduced from India. _Prioniturus_ (3 sp.),
+Celebes and the Philippine Islands; (2061) _Geoffroyus_ (5 sp.), Bouru to
+Timor and the Solomon Islands; _Tanygnathus_ (5 sp.), Philippines, Celebes,
+and Moluccas to New Guinea; _Eclectus_ (8 sp.), Moluccas and Papuan
+Islands; _Psittinus_ (1 sp.), Tenasserim to Sumatra and Borneo;
+_Cyclopsitta_ (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Philippines and North-east
+Australia; _Loriculus_ (17 sp.), ranges over the whole Oriental region to
+Flores, the Moluccas, and the Papuan island of Mysol; but most of the
+species are concentrated in the district including the Philippines,
+Celebes, Gilolo, and Flores, there being 1 in India, 1 in South China, 1 in
+Ceylon, 1 in Java, 1 in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, 3 in Celebes, 5 in
+the Philippines, and the rest in the Moluccas, Mysol, and Flores. This
+genus forms a transition to the next family.
+
+
+{327}FAMILY 79.--TRICHOGLOSSIDÆ. (6 Genera, 57 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Trichoglossidæ, or Brush-tongued Paroquets, including the Lories, are
+exclusively confined to the Australian region, where they extend from
+Celebes to the Marquesas Islands, and south to Tasmania. The genus
+_Nanodes_ (= _Lathamus_) has been shown by Professor Garrod to differ from
+_Trichoglossus_ in the position of the carotid arteries. I therefore make
+it a distinct genus but do not consider that it should be placed in another
+family. The genera here admitted are as follows:--
+
+_Trichoglossus_ (29 sp.), ranges over the whole Austro-Malay and Australian
+sub-regions, and to the Society Islands; (2047) _Nanodes_ (1 sp.),
+Australia and Tasmania; _Charmosyna_ (1 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X. Vol. I.
+p. 414); _Eos_ (9 sp.), Bouru and Sanguir Island north of Celebes, to the
+Solomon Islands, and in Puynipet Island to the north-east of New Ireland;
+(2039 2040) _Lorius_ (13 sp.), Bouru and the Solomon Islands; (2041 2043)
+_Coriphilus_ (4 sp.), Samoa, Tonga, Society and Marquesas Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 80.--CONURIDÆ. (7 Genera, 79 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Conuridæ, which consist of the Macaws and their allies, are wholly
+confined to America, ranging from the Straits of Magellan to South Carolina
+and Nebraska, with Cuba and Jamaica. Professor Garrod places _Pyrrhura_
+(which has generally {328}been classed as a part of the genus _Conurus_) in
+a separate family, on account of the absence of the ambiens muscle of the
+knee, but as we are quite ignorant of the classificational value of this
+character, it is better for the present to keep both as distinct genera of
+the same family. The genera are:--
+
+_Ara_ (15 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and Cuba; _Rhyncopsitta_ (1 sp.),
+Mexico; _Henicognathus_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Conurus_ (30 sp.), the range of
+the family; _Pyrrhura_ (16 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to Costa Pica;
+_Bolborhynchus_ (7 sp.), La Plata, Bolivia and West Peru, with one species
+in Mexico and Guatemala; _Brotogerys_ (9 sp.), Brazil to Mexico.
+
+
+FAMILY 81.--PSITTACIDÆ.--(12 Genera, 87 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Psittacidæ comprise a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of Parrots and
+Paroquets of the Neotropical and Ethiopian regions, which are combined here
+more for convenience than because they are believed to form a natural
+group. The genera _Chrysotis_ and _Pionus_ have no oil-gland, while
+_Psittacula_ and _Agapornis_ have lost the furcula, but neither of these
+characters are probably of more than generic value. The genera are:--
+
+_Psittacus_ (2 sp.), West Africa; _Coracopsis_ (5 sp.), Madagascar, Comoro,
+and Seychelle Islands; _Pæocephalus_ (9 sp.), all Tropical and South
+Africa; (2063-2066) _Caica_ (9 sp.), Mexico to Amazonia; _Chrysotis_ (32
+sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the West Indian Islands; _Triclaria_ (1 sp.),
+Brazil; _Deroptyus_ (1 sp.), Amazonia; _Pionus_ (9 sp.), Paraguay to
+Mexico; _Urochroma_ (7 sp.), Tropical South America; _Psittacula_ (6 sp.),
+Brazil to Mexico; _Poliopsitta_ (2 sp.), Madagascar and West Africa;
+_Agapornis_ (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.
+
+
+{329}FAMILY 82.--NESTORIDÆ. (? 2 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The present family is formed to receive the genus _Nestor_ (5 sp.),
+confined to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Its affinities are doubtful,
+but it appears to have relations with the American Conuridæ and the
+Australian Trichoglossidæ. With it is placed the rare and remarkable
+_Dasyptilus_ (1 sp.), of New Guinea, of which however very little is known.
+
+
+FAMILY 83.--STRINGOPIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family contains only the curious owl-like nocturnal Parrot of New
+Zealand, _Stringops habroptilus_ (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 455). An allied
+species is said to inhabit the Chatham Islands, if not now extinct.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittaci._
+
+Although the Parrots are now generally divided into several distinct
+families, yet they form so well marked and natural a group, and are so
+widely separated from all other birds, that we may best discuss their
+peculiarities of geographical distribution by treating them as a whole. By
+the preceding enumeration we find that there are about 386 species of known
+parrots, which are divided into 52 genera. They are pre-eminently a
+tropical group, for although a few species extend a considerable distance
+into the temperate zone, these are {330}marked exceptions to the rule which
+limits the parrot tribe to the tropical and sub-tropical regions, roughly
+defined as extending about 30° on each side of the equator. In America a
+species of _Conurus_ reaches the straits of Magellan on the south, while
+another inhabits the United States, and once extended to the great lakes,
+although now confined to the south-eastern districts. In Africa parrots do
+not reach the northern tropic, owing to the desert nature of the country;
+and in the south they barely reach the Orange River. In India they extend
+to about 35° N. in the western Himalayas; and in the Australian region, not
+only to New Zealand but to Macquarie Islands in 54° S., the farthest point
+from the equator reached by the group. But although found in all the
+tropical regions they are most unequally distributed. Africa is poorest,
+possessing only 6 genera and 25 species; the Oriental region is also very
+poor, having but 6 genera and 29 species; the Neotropical region is much
+richer, having 14 genera and 141 species; while the smallest in area and
+the least tropical in climate--the Australian region, possesses 31 genera
+and 176 species, and it also possesses exclusively 5 of the families,
+Trichoglossidæ, Platycercidæ, Cacatuidæ, Nestoridæ, and Stringopidæ. The
+portion of the earth's surface that contains the largest number of parrots
+in proportion to its area is, undoubtedly, the Austro-Malayan sub-region,
+including the islands from Celebes to the Solomon Islands. The area of
+these islands is probably not one-fifteenth of that of the four tropical
+regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-fourth of all the known
+parrots. In this area too are found many of the most remarkable forms,--all
+the crimson lories, the great black Cockatoos, the pigmy _Nasiterna_, the
+raquet-tailed _Prioniturus_, and the bareheaded _Dasyptilus_.
+
+The almost universal distribution of Parrots wherever the climate is
+sufficiently mild or uniform to furnish them with a perennial supply of
+food, no less than their varied details of organization, combined with a
+great uniformity of general type,--tell us, in unmistakable language, of a
+very remote antiquity. The only early record of extinct parrots is,
+however, in the Miocene of France, where remains apparently allied to the
+West {331}African _Psittacus_, have been found. But the origin of so
+widespread, isolated, and varied a group, must be far earlier than this,
+and not improbably dates back beyond the dawn of the Tertiary period. Some
+primeval forms may have entered the Australian region with the Marsupials,
+or not long after them; while perhaps at a somewhat later epoch they were
+introduced into South America. In these two regions they have greatly
+flourished, while in the two other tropical regions only a few types have
+been found, capable of maintaining themselves, among the higher forms of
+mammalia, and in competition with a more varied series of birds. This seems
+much more probable than the supposition that so highly organized a group
+should have originated in the Australian region, and subsequently become so
+widely spread over the globe.
+
+
+_Order IV.--COLUMBÆ._
+
+FAMILY 84.--COLUMBIDÆ. (44 Genera, 355 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Columbidæ, or Pigeons and Doves, are almost universally distributed,
+but very unequally in the different regions. Being best adapted to live in
+warm or temperate climates, they diminish rapidly northwards, reaching
+about 62° N. Latitude in North America, but considerably farther in Europe.
+Both the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions are very poor in genera and
+species of pigeons, those of the former region being mostly allied to
+Neotropical, and those of the latter to Oriental and Ethiopian types. The
+Ethiopian region is, however, itself very poor, and several of its peculiar
+forms are confined to the Madagascar sub-region. The Neotropical region is
+very rich in peculiar genera, though but moderately so in number of
+species. The Oriental {332}region closely approaches it in both respects;
+but the Australian region is by far the richest, possessing nearly double
+the genera and species of any other region, and abounding in remarkable
+forms quite unlike those of any other part of the globe. The following
+table gives the number of genera and species in each region, and enables us
+readily to determine the comparative richness and isolation of each, as
+regards this extensive family:--
+
+  Regions.      No. of Genera.    Peculiar Genera.    No. of Species.
+  Neotropical         13                  9                 75
+  Nearctic             5                  1                  7
+  Palæarctic           3                  0                  9
+  Ethiopian            6                  1                 37
+  Oriental            12                  1                 66
+  Australian          24                 14                148
+
+With the exception of _Columba_ and _Turtur_, which have a wide range,
+_Treron_, common to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, and _Carpophaga_,
+to the Oriental and Australian, most of the genera of pigeons are either
+restricted to or very characteristic of a single region.
+
+The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows:--
+
+_Treron_ (37 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to Celebes,
+Amboyna and Flores, also the whole Ethiopian region to Madagascar;
+_Ptilopus_ (52 sp.), the Australian region (excluding New Zealand) and the
+Indo-Malay sub-region; _Alectroenas_ (4 sp.), Madagascar and the Mascarene
+Islands; _Carpophaga_ (50 sp.), the whole Australian and Oriental regions,
+but much the most abundant in the former; (2274) _Ianthoenas_ (11 sp.),
+Japan, Andaman, Nicobar, and Philippine Islands, Timor and Gilolo to Samoa
+Islands; (2278) _Leucomelæna_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Lopholaimus_ (1 sp.),
+Australia; (2279 and 2283) _Alsæcomus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and
+Tenasserim; _Columba_ (46 sp.), generally distributed over all the regions
+except the Australian, one species however in the Fiji Islands;
+_Ectopistes_ (1 sp.), east of North America with British Columbia;
+_Zenaidura_ (2 sp.), Veragua to Canada and British Columbia; _Oena_ (1
+sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Geopelia_ (6 sp.), Philippine Islands and
+Java to Australia; _Macropygia_ (14 sp.), Nepal, Hainan, Nicobar, Java,
+{333}and Philippines to Australia and New Ireland; _Turacoena_ (3 sp.),
+Celebes, Timor, and Solomon Islands; _Reinwardtoenas_ (1 sp.), Celebes to
+New Guinea; _Turtur_ (24 sp.), Palæarctic, Ethiopian and Oriental regions
+with Austro-Malaya; _Chæmepelia_ (7 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Jamaica,
+California, and South-east United States; _Columbula_ (2 sp.), Brazil and
+La Plata to Chili; _Scardafella_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Guatemala; _Zenaida_
+(10 sp.), Chili and La Plata to Columbia and the Antilles, Fernando
+Noronha; _Melopelia_ (2 sp.), Chili to Mexico and California; _Peristera_
+(4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; _Metriopelia_ (2 sp.), West America from Ecuador
+to Chili; _Gymnopelia_ (1 sp.), West Peru and Bolivia; _Leptoptila_ (11
+sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the Antilles; (2317 2318 and 2820) _Geotrygon_
+(14 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the Antilles; _Aplopelia_ (5 sp.),
+Tropical and South Africa, St. Thomas and Princes Island; _Chalocopelia_ (4
+sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Starnoenas_ (1 sp.), Cuba; Ocyphaps (1
+sp.), Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441); _Petrophassa_ (1 sp.),
+North-west Australia; _Chalocophaps_ (8 sp.), the Oriental region to New
+Guinea and Australia; _Trugon_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Henicophaps_ (1 sp.),
+Waigiou and New Guinea; _Phaps_ (3 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
+_Leucosarcia_ (1 sp.), East Australia; _Phapitreron_ (2 sp.), Philippine
+Islands; _Geophaps_ (2 sp.), North and East Australia; _Lophophaps_ (3
+sp.), Australia; _Caloenas_ (1 sp.), scattered on the smaller islands from
+the Nicobars and Philippines to New Guinea; _Otidiphaps_ (1 sp.), New
+Guinea; _Phlogoenas_ (7 sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes to the
+Marquesas Islands; _Goura_ (2 sp.), New Guinea and the islands on the
+north-east (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414).
+
+
+FAMILY 84_a_.--DIDUNCULIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{334}The _Didunculus stigirostris_, a hook-billed ground-pigeon, found only
+in the Samoa Islands, is so peculiar in its structure that it is considered
+to form a distinct family.
+
+
+FAMILY 85.--DIDIDÆ.--(2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The birds which constitute this family are now all extinct; but as numerous
+drawings are in existence, taken from living birds some of which were
+exhibited in Europe, and a stuffed specimen, fragments of which still
+remain, was in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford down to 1755, they must be
+classed among recent, as opposed to geologically extinct species. The Dodo
+(_Didus ineptus_) a large, unwieldy, flightless bird, inhabited Mauritius
+down to the latter part of the 17th century; and an allied form, the
+Solitaire (_Pezophaps solitaria_), was found only in the island of
+Rodriguez, where it survived about a century later. Old voyagers mention a
+Dodo also in Bourbon, and a rude figure of it exists; but no remains of
+this bird have been found. Almost complete skeletons of the Dodo and
+Solitaire have, however, been recovered from the swamps of Mauritius and
+the caves of Rodriguez, proving that they were both extremely modified
+forms of pigeon. These large birds were formerly very abundant, and being
+excellent eating and readily captured, the early voyagers to these islands
+used them largely for food. As they could be caught by man, and very easily
+by dogs, they were soon greatly diminished in numbers; and the introduction
+of swine, which ran wild in the forests and fed on the eggs and young
+birds, completed their extermination.
+
+The existence in the Mascarene Islands of a group of such remarkable
+terrestrial birds, with aborted wings, is parallel to that of the _Apteryx_
+and _Dinornis_ in New Zealand, the Cassowaries of Austro-Malaya, and the
+short-winged Rails of New {335}Zealand, Tristan d'Acunha, and other oceanic
+islands; and the phenomenon is clearly dependent on the long-continued
+absence of enemies, which allowed of great increase of bulk and the total
+loss of the power of flight, without injury. In some few cases (the Ostrich
+for example) birds incapable of flight co-exist with large carnivorous
+mammalia; but these birds are large and powerful, as well as very swift,
+and are thus able to escape from some enemies and defend themselves against
+others. The entire absence of the smaller and more defenceless ground-birds
+from the adjacent island of Madagascar, is quite in accordance with this
+view, because that island has several small but destructive carnivorous
+animals.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Columbæ._
+
+The striking preponderance of Pigeons, both as to genera and species, in
+the Australian region, would seem to indicate that at some former period it
+possessed a more extensive land area in which this form of bird-life took
+its rise. But there are other considerations which throw doubt upon this
+view. The western half of the Malay Archipelago, belonging to the Oriental
+region, is also rich in pigeons, since it has 43 species belonging to 11
+genera, rather more than are found in all the rest of the Oriental region.
+Again, we find that the Mascarene Islands and the Antilles both possess
+more pigeons than we should expect, in proportion to those of the regions
+to which they belong, and to their total amount of bird-life. This looks as
+if islands were more favourable to pigeon-development than continents; and
+if we group together the Pacific and the Malayan Islands, the Mascarene
+group and the Antilles, we find that they contain together about 170
+species of pigeons belonging to 24 out of the 47 genera here adopted; while
+all the great continents united only produce about the same number of
+species belonging (if we omit those peculiar to Australia) to only 20
+genera. The great development of the group in the Australian region may,
+therefore, be due to its consisting mainly of islands, and not to the order
+having originated there, and thus having had a longer period in which to
+develop. I have elsewhere suggested (_Ibis_ 1865, p. 366) {336}a physical
+cause for this peculiarity of distribution. Pigeons build rude, open nests,
+and their young remain helpless for a considerable period. They are thus
+exposed to the attacks of such arboreal quadrupeds or other animals as feed
+on eggs or young birds. Monkeys are very destructive in this respect; and
+it is a noteworthy fact that over the whole Australian region, the
+Mascarene Islands and the Antilles, monkeys are unknown. In the Indo-Malay
+sub-region, where monkeys are generally plentiful, the greatest variety of
+pigeons occurs in the Philippines, where there is but a single species in
+one island; and in Java, where monkeys are far less numerous than in
+Sumatra or Borneo. If we add to this consideration the fact, that mammalia
+and rapacious birds are, as a rule, far less abundant in islands than on
+continents; and that the extreme development of pigeon-life is reached in
+the Papuan group of islands, in which mammalia (except a few marsupials,
+bats, and pigs) are wholly absent, we see further reason to adopt this
+view. It is also to be noted that in America, comparatively few pigeons are
+found in the rich forests (comparable to those of the Australian insular
+region in which they abound), but are mostly confined to the open campos,
+the high Andes, and the western coast districts, from which the
+monkey-tribe are wholly absent.
+
+This view is further supported by the great development of colour that is
+found in the pigeons of these insular regions, culminating in the
+golden-yellow fruit-dove of the Fiji Islands, the metallic green
+Nicobar-pigeon of Malaya, and the black and crimson _Alectroenas_ of
+Mauritius. Here also, alone, we meet with crested pigeons, rendering the
+possessors more conspicuous; such as the _Lopholaimus_ of Australia and the
+crowned _Goura_ of New Guinea; and here too are more peculiar forms of
+terrestrial pigeons than elsewhere, though none have completely lost the
+power of flight but the now extinct Dididæ.
+
+The curious liking of pigeons for an insular habitat is well shown in the
+genera _Ianthoenas_ and _Caloenas_. The former, containing 11 species,
+ranges over a hundred degrees of longitude, and forty-five of latitude,
+extending into three regions, yet nowhere inhabits a continent or even a
+large island. It is {337}found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; in the
+Philippines, Gilolo, and the smaller Papuan Islands, and in Japan; yet not
+in any of the large Malay Islands or in Australia. The other genus,
+_Caloenas_, consists of but a single species, yet this ranges from the
+Nicobar Islands to New Guinea. It is not, however, as far as known, found
+on any of the large islands, but seems to prefer the smaller islands which
+surround them. We here have the general preference of pigeons for islands,
+further developed in these two genera into a preference for small islands;
+and it is probable that the same cause--the greater freedom from
+danger--has produced both phenomena.
+
+Of the geological antiquity of the Columbæ we have no evidence; but their
+wide distribution, their varied forms, and their great isolation, all point
+to an origin, at least as far back as that we have assigned as probable in
+the case of the Parrots.
+
+
+_Order V.--GALLINÆ._
+
+
+FAMILY 86.--PTEROCLIDÆ. (2 Genera, 16 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pteroclidæ, or Sand-grouse, are elegantly formed birds with pointed
+tails, and plumage of beautifully varied protective tints, characteristic
+of the Ethiopian region and Central Asia, though extending into Southern
+Europe and Hindostan. Being pre-eminently desert-birds, they avoid the
+forest-districts of all these countries, but abound in the most arid
+situations and on the most open and barren plains. The distribution of the
+genera is as follows:--
+
+_Pterocles_ (14 sp.), has the same range as the family; _Syrrhaptes_ (2
+sp.), normally inhabits Tartary, Thibet, and Mongolia to the country around
+Pekin, and occasionally visits Eastern Europe. But a few years back (1863)
+great numbers suddenly appeared in {338}Europe and extended westward to the
+shores of the Atlantic, while some even reached Ireland and the Færoes.
+(Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.)
+
+
+FAMILY 87.--TETRAONIDÆ. (29 Genera, 170 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- 4.
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tetraonidæ, including the Grouse, Partridges, Quails, and allied forms,
+abound in all parts of the Eastern continents; they are less plentiful in
+North America and comparatively scarce in South America, more than half the
+Neotropical species being found north of Panama; and in the Australian
+region there are only a few of small size. The Ethiopian region probably
+contains most species; next comes the Oriental--India proper from the
+Himalayas to Ceylon having twenty; while the Australian region, with 15
+species, is the poorest. These facts render it probable that the Tetraonidæ
+are essentially denizens of the great northern continents, and that their
+entrance into South America, Australia, and even South Africa, is,
+comparatively speaking, recent. They have developed into forms equally
+suited to the tropical plains and the arctic regions, some of them being
+among the few denizens of the extreme north, as well as of the highest
+alpine snows. The genera are somewhat unsettled, and there is even some
+uncertainty as to the limits between this family and the next; but the
+following are those now generally admitted:--
+
+_Ptilopachus_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Francolinus_ (34 sp.), all Africa,
+South Europe, India to Ceylon, and South China; _Ortygornis_ (3 sp.),
+Himalayas to Ceylon, Sumatra, and Borneo; _Peliperdix_ (1 sp.), West
+Africa; _Perdix_ (3 sp.), the whole Continental Palæarctic region;
+_Margaroperdix_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Oreoperdix_ (1 sp.), Formosa;
+_Arborophila_ (8 sp.), the Oriental Continent and the Philippines;
+_Peloperdix_ (4 sp.), Tenasserim and Malaya; _Coturnix_ (21 sp.), Temperate
+Palæarctic, Ethiopian and {339}Oriental regions, and the Australian to New
+Zealand; _Rollulus_ (2 sp.), Siam to Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippines;
+_Caloperdix_ (1 sp.), Malacca and Sumatra; _Odontophorus_ (17 sp.), Brazil
+and Peru to Mexico; _Dendrortyx_ (3 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; _Cyrtonyx_
+(3 sp.), Guatemala to New Mexico; _Ortyx_ (8 sp.), Honduras and Cuba to
+Canada; _Eupsychortyx_ (6 sp.), Brazil and Ecuador to Mexico; _Callipepla_
+(3 sp.), Mexico to California; _Lophortyx_ (2 sp.), Arizona and California;
+_Oreortyx_ (1 sp.), California and Oregon (Plate XVIII., Vol. II. p. 128);
+_Lerwa_ (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas and East Thibet; _Caccabis_ (10 sp.),
+Palæarctic region to Abyssinia, Arabia and the Punjaub; _Tetraogallus_ (4
+sp.), Caucasus and Himalayas to Altai Mountains; _Tetrao_ (7 sp.), northern
+parts of Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; _Centrocercus_ (1 sp.), Rocky
+Mountains; _Pediocætes_ (2 sp.), North and North-west America (Plate XVIII.
+Vol. II. p. 128); _Cupidonia_ (1 sp.), East and North-Central United States
+and Canada; _Bonasa_ (3 sp.), north of Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;
+_Lagopus_ (6 sp.), Arctic Zone and northern parts of Nearctic and
+Palæarctic regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 88.--PHASIANIDÆ. (18 Genera, 75 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |-- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Phasianidæ, including the Pea-fowl, Pheasants, and Jungle-fowl, the
+Turkeys, and the Guinea-fowl, are very widely distributed, but are far more
+abundant than elsewhere in the Eastern parts of Asia, both tropical and
+temperate. Leaving out the African guinea-fowls and the American turkeys,
+we have 13 genera and 63 species belonging to the Oriental and Palæarctic
+regions. These are grouped by Mr. Elliot (whose arrangement we mainly
+follow) in 5 sub-families, of which 3--Pavonniæ, Euplocaminæ, and
+Gallinæ--are chiefly Oriental, while the Lophophorniæ and Phasianinæ are
+mostly Palæarctic or from the highlands on the {340}borders of the two
+regions. The genera adopted by Mr. Elliot in his _Monograph_ are the
+following:--
+
+PAVONINÆ, 4 genera.--_Pavo_ (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Siam, to
+South-west China and Java; _Argusianus_ (4 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula, and
+Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); _Polyplectron_ (5 sp.), Upper Assam to
+South-west China and Sumatra; _Crossoptilon_ (4 sp.), Thibet and North
+China. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.)
+
+LOPHOPHORINÆ, 4 genera.--_Lophophorus_ (3 sp.), High woody region of
+Himalayas from Cashmere to West China; _Tetraophasis_ (1 sp.), East Thibet;
+_Ceriornis_ (5 sp.), Highest woody Himalayas from Cashmere to Bhotan and
+Western China (Plate VII. Vol. I. p. 331); _Pucrasia_ (3 sp.), Lower and
+High woody Himalayas from the Hindoo Koosh to North-west China.
+
+PHASIANINÆ, 2 genera.--_Phasianus_ (12 sp.), Western Asia to Japan and
+Formosa, south to near Canton and Yunan, and the Western Himalayas, north
+to the Altai Mountains; _Thaumalea_ (3 sp.), North-western China and
+Mongolia. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.)
+
+EUPLOCAMINÆ, 2 genera.--_Euplocamus_ (12 sp.), Cashmere, along Southern
+Himalayas to Siam, South China and Formosa, and to Sumatra and Borneo;
+_Ithaginis_ (2 sp.), High Himalayas from Nepal to North-west China.
+
+GALLINÆ, 1 genus.--_Gallus_ (4 sp.), Cashmere to Hainan, Ceylon, Borneo,
+Java, and eastwards to Celebes and Timor. (Central India, Ceylon, and East
+Java, have each a distinct species of Jungle-fowl.)
+
+MELEAGRINÆ, 1 genus.--_Meleagris_ (3 sp.), Eastern and Central United
+States and south to Mexico, Guatemala and Yucatan.
+
+AGELASTINÆ, 2 genera.--_Phasidus_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Agelastes_ (1
+sp.), West Africa.
+
+NUMIDINÆ, 2 genera.--_Acryllium_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Numida_ (9 sp.),
+Ethiopian region, east to Madagascar, south to Natal and Great Fish River.
+
+
+{341}FAMILY 89.--TURNICIDÆ. (2 Genera, 24 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Turnicidæ are small Quail-like birds, supposed to have remote
+affinities with the American Tinamous, and with sufficient distinctive
+peculiarities to constitute a separate family. They range over the Old
+World, from Spain all through Africa and Madagascar, and over the whole
+Oriental region to Formosa, and then north again to Pekin, as well as
+south-eastward to Australia and Tasmania. The genus _Turnix_ (23 sp.), has
+the range of the family; _Ortyxelos_ (1 sp.), inhabits Senegal; but the
+latter genus may not belong to this family.
+
+
+FAMILY 90.--MEGAPODIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Megapodiidæ, or Mound-makers and Brush-turkeys, are generally
+dull-coloured birds of remarkable habits and economy, which have no near
+allies, but are supposed to have a remote affinity with the South American
+Curassows. They are highly characteristic of the Australian region,
+extending into almost every part of it except New Zealand and the remotest
+Pacific islands, and only sending two species beyond its limits,--a
+_Megapodius_ in the Philippine Islands and North-west Borneo, and another
+in the Nicobar Islands, separated by about 1,800 miles from its nearest
+ally in Lombok. The Philippine species offers little difficulty, for these
+birds are found on the smallest {342}islands and sand-banks, and can
+evidently pass over a few miles of sea with ease; but the Nicobar bird is a
+very different case, because none of the numerous intervening islands offer
+a single example of the family. Instead of being a well-marked and clearly
+differentiated form, as we should expect to find it if its remote and
+isolated habitat were due to natural causes, it so nearly resembles some of
+the closely-allied species of the Moluccas and New Guinea, that, had it
+been found with them, it would hardly have been thought specifically
+extinct. I therefore believe that it is probably an introduction by the
+Malays, and that, owing to the absence of enemies and general suitability
+of conditions, it has thriven in the islands and has become slightly
+differentiated in colour from the parent stock. The following is the
+distribution of the genera at present known:--
+
+_Talegallus_ (2 sp.), New Guinea and East Australia; _Megacephalon_ (1
+sp.), East Celebes; _Lipoa_ (1 sp.), South Australia; _Megapodius_ (16
+sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes, to Timor, North Australia, New
+Caledonia, the Marian and Samoa Islands, and probably every intervening
+island,--also a species (doubtfully indigenous) in the Nicobar Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 91.--CRACIDÆ, (12 Genera, 53 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's arrangement is here followed).
+
+The Cracidæ, or Curassows and Guans, comprise the largest and handsomest
+game-birds of the Neotropical region, where they take the place of the
+grouse and pheasants of the Old World. They are almost all forest-dwellers,
+and are a strictly Neotropical family, only one species just entering the
+Nearctic region as far as New Mexico. They extend southward to Paraguay and
+the extreme south of Brazil, but none are found in the {343}Antilles, nor
+west of the Andes south of the bay of Guayaquil. The sub-families and
+genera are as follows:--
+
+CRACINÆ, 4 genera.--_Crax_ (8 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay (Plate XV., Vol. II.
+p. 28); _Nothocrax_ (1 sp.), Guiana, Upper Rio Negro, and Upper Amazon;
+_Pauxi_ (1 sp.), Guiana to Venezuela; _Mitua_ (2 sp.), Guiana and Upper
+Amazon.
+
+PENELOPINÆ, 7 genera.--_Stegnolæma_ (1 sp.), Columbia and Ecuador;
+_Penelope_ (14 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay and to western slope of Ecuadorian
+Andes; _Penelopina_ (1 sp.), Guatemala; _Pipile_ (3 sp.), Venezuela to
+Eastern Brazil; _Aburria_ (1 sp), Columbia; _Chamæpetes_ (2 sp.), Costa
+Rica to Peru; _Ortalida_ (18 sp.), New Mexico to Paraguay, also Tobago.
+
+OREOPHASINÆ, 1 genus.--_Oreophasis_ (1 sp.), Guatemala.
+
+It thus appears that the Cracinæ are confined to South America east of the
+Andes, except one species in Central America; whereas nine Penelopinæ and
+_Oreophasis_ are found north of Panama. The species of the larger genera
+are strictly representative, each having its own distinct geographical
+area, so that two species of the same genus are rarely or never found in
+the same locality.
+
+
+FAMILY 92.--TINAMIDÆ. (9 Genera, 39 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tinamous are a very remarkable family of birds, with the general
+appearance of partridges or hemipodes, but with the tail either very small
+or entirely wanting. They differ greatly in their organization from any of
+the Old World Gallinæ, and approach, in some respects, the Struthiones or
+Ostrich tribe. They are very terrestrial in their habits, inhabiting the
+forests, open plains, and mountains of the Neotropical region, from
+Patagonia and Chili to Mexico; but, like the Cracidæ, they are absent from
+the Antilles. Their colouring is very sober and protective, as is the case
+with so many ground-birds, and they are seldom adorned {344}with crests or
+other ornamental plumes, so prevalent in the order to which they belong.
+The sub-families and genera, according to the arrangement of Messrs.
+Sclater and Salvin, are as follows:--
+
+TINAMINÆ, 7 genera.--_Tinamus_ (7 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay; _Nothocercus_
+(3 sp.), Costa Rica to Venezuela and Ecuador; _Crypturus_ (16 sp.), Mexico
+to Paraguay and Bolivia; _Rhynchotus_ (2 sp.), Bolivia and South Brazil to
+La Plata; _Nothoprocta_ (4 sp.), Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili; _Nothura_ (4
+sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Patagonia; _Taoniscus_ (1 sp.), Brazil to
+Paraguay.
+
+TINAMOTINÆ, 2 genera.-- _Calodromas_ (1 sp.), La Plata and Patagonia;
+_Tinamotis_ (1 sp.), Andes of Peru and Bolivia.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of Gallinæ._
+
+There are about 400 known species of Gallinaceous birds grouped into 76
+genera, of which no less than 65 are each restricted to a single region.
+The Tetraonidæ are the only cosmopolitan family, and even these do not
+extend into Temperate South America, and are very poorly represented in
+Australia. The Cracidæ and Tinamidæ are strictly Neotropical, the
+Megapodiidæ almost as strictly Australian. There remains the extensive
+family of the Phasianidæ, which offers some interesting facts. We have
+first the well-marked sub-families of the Numidinæ and Meleagrinæ, confined
+to the Ethiopian and Nearctic regions respectively, and we find the
+remaining five sub-families, comprising about 60 species, many of them the
+most magnificent of known birds, spread over the Oriental and the
+south-eastern portion of the Palæarctic regions. This restriction is
+remarkable, since there is no apparent cause in climate or vegetation why
+pheasants should not be found wild throughout southern Europe, as they were
+during late Tertiary and Post-Tertiary times. We have also to notice the
+remarkable absence of the Pheasant tribe from Hindostan and Ceylon, where
+the peacock and jungle-fowl are their sole representatives. These two forms
+also alone extend to Java, whereas in the adjacent islands of Borneo and
+Sumatra we have _Argusianus_, _Polyplectron_, and _Euplocamus_. The common
+jungle-fowl (the origin of our domestic poultry) is the only {345}species
+which enters the Australian region as far as Celebes and Timor, and another
+species (_Gallus æneus_) as far as Flores, and it is not improbable that
+these may have been introduced by man and become wild.
+
+We have very little knowledge of the extinct forms of Gallinæ, but what we
+have assures us of their high antiquity, since we find such distinct groups
+as the jungle-fowl, partridges, and _Pterocles_, represented in Europe in
+the Miocene period; while the Turkey, then as now, appears to have been a
+special American type.
+
+
+_Order VI.--OPISTHOCOMI._
+
+FAMILY 93.--OPISTHOCOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hoazin (_Opisthocomus cristatus_) is the sole representative of this
+family and of the order Opisthocomi. It inhabits the eastern side of
+Equatorial America in Guiana and the Lower Amazon; and at Pará is called
+"Cigana" or gipsy. It is a large, brown, long-legged, weakly-formed and
+loosely-crested bird, having such anomalies of structure that it is
+impossible to class it along with any other family. It is one of those
+survivors, which tell us of extinct groups, of whose past existence we
+should otherwise, perhaps, remain for ever ignorant.
+
+
+_Order VII.--ACCIPITRES._
+
+FAMILY 94.--VULTURIDÆ. (10 Genera, 25 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{346}Vultures range over all the great continents south of the Arctic
+Circle, being only absent from the Australian region, the Malay Islands,
+Ceylon, and Madagascar. The Old and New World forms are very distinct,
+belonging to two well-marked divisions, often ranked as families. The
+distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+Sub-family I. VULTURINÆ (6 genera, 16 species), confined to the Old
+World.--_Vultur_ (1 sp.), Spain and North Africa through Nepal to China
+north of Ningpo; _Gyps_ (5 sp.), Europe south of 59°, Africa, except the
+western sub-region, India, Siam, and Northern China; _Pseudogyps_ (2 sp.),
+North-east Africa and Senegal, India and Burmah; _Otogyps_ (2 sp.), South
+Europe, North-east and South Africa, India, and Siam; _Lophogyps_ (1 sp.),
+North-east and South Africa and Senegal; _Neophron_ (4 sp.), South Europe,
+India and the greater part of Africa.
+
+Sub-family II. SARCORHAMPHINÆ (4 genera, 9 species), confined to the New
+World.--_Sarcorhamphus_ (2 sp.), "The Condor," Andes of South America, and
+southern extremity below 41° south latitude; _Cathartes_ (1 sp.), America
+from 20° south latitude to Trinidad and Mexico; _Catharistes_ (1 sp.),
+America from 40° north to 40° south latitude, but not on Pacific coast of
+United States; _Pseudogryphis_ (5 sp.), South America and Falkland Islands,
+and to 49° north latitude in North America, also Cuba and Jamaica.
+
+
+FAMILY 95.--SERPENTARIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The singular Secretary Bird (_Serpentarius_) is found over a large part of
+Africa. Its position is uncertain, as it has affinities both with the
+Accipitres, through _Polyboroides_ (?) and with _Cariama_, which we place
+near the Bustards. (Plate IV. Vol. I. p. 261.)
+
+
+{347}FAMILY 96.--FALCONIDÆ. (69 Genera, 325 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Falconidæ, including the various groups of Hawks, Kites, Buzzards,
+Eagles, and Falcons, are absolutely cosmopolitan, ranging far into the
+arctic zone and visiting the most remote oceanic islands. They are abundant
+in all the great continents and larger islands, preferring open to woody
+regions. They are divided into several sub-families, the range of some of
+which are restricted. For this family as well as the preceding I follow the
+arrangement of Mr. Sharpe's _British Museum Catalogue_, and shall give the
+approximate distribution of each sub-family, as well as of the several
+genera.
+
+Sub-family I. POLYBORINÆ (2 genera, 10 species), the Neotropical region
+with California and Florida, Tropical and South Africa.--_Polyborus_ (2
+sp.), South America, and to California and Florida; _Ibycter_ (8 sp.),
+Tierra del Fuego to Honduras and Guatemala.
+
+_Cariama_ and _Serpentarius_, which Mr. Sharpe puts here, are so anomalous
+that I think it better to class them in separate families--Serpentariidæ
+among the Accipitres, and Cariamidæ near the Bustards.
+
+Sub-family II. ACCIPITRINÆ (10 genera, 87
+species).--Cosmopolitan.--_Polyboroides_ (2 sp.), Africa and Madagascar;
+_Circus_ (15 sp.), Old and New Worlds, widely scattered, but absent from
+Eastern Equatorial America, and the Malay Archipelago except Celebes;
+_Micrastur_ (7 sp.), and _Geranospiza_ (2 sp.), Tropical parts of
+Neotropical region; _Urotriorchis_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Erythrocnema_ (1
+sp.), Chili and La Plata to California and Texas; _Melierax_ (5 sp.),
+Africa except West African sub-region; _Astur_ (30 sp.), cosmopolitan,
+except the Temperate South American sub-region; {348}_Nisoides_ (1 sp.),
+Madagascar; _Eutriorchis_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Accipiter_ (23 sp.),
+cosmopolitan, except Eastern Oceania.
+
+Sub-family III. BUTEONINÆ (13 genera, 51 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the
+Malay and Pacific Islands.--_Urospizias_ (1 sp.), East and Central
+Australia; _Heterospizias_ (1 sp.), Tropical South America east of the
+Andes; _Tachytriorchis_ (2 sp.), Paraguay to California; _Buteo_ (18 sp.),
+cosmopolitan, except the Australian region and the Indo-Malayan sub-region;
+_Archibuteo_ (4 sp.), North America to Mexico and the cooler parts of the
+Palæarctic region; _Buteola_ (1 sp.), Veragua to the Amazon Valley;
+_Asturina_ (7 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to South-east United States;
+_Busarellus_ (1 sp.), Brazil to Guiana; _Buteogallus_ (1 sp.), Guiana and
+Columbia; _Urubutinga_ (12 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico;
+_Harpyhaliæetus_ (1 sp.), Chili and North Patagonia to Veragua; _Morphnus_
+(1 sp.), Amazonia to Panama; _Thrasaëtus_ (1 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to
+Mexico.
+
+Sub-family IV. AQUILINÆ (31 genera, 94 species), cosmopolitan.--_Gypaëtus_
+(2 sp.), south of Palæarctic region from Spain to North China, Abyssinia,
+and South Africa; _Uroaëtus_ (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; _Aquila_ (9
+sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Ethiopian regions and India; _Nisaëtus_ (4
+sp.), Africa and South Europe, India, Ceylon, and Australia;
+_Lophotriorchis_ (2 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region, and Bogotá in South
+America; _Neopus_ (1 sp.), India and Ceylon to Burmah, Java, Celebes and
+Ternate; _Spiziastur_ (1 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil; _Spizaëtus_ (10 sp.),
+Central and South America, Africa, India, and Ceylon, to Celebes and New
+Guinea, Formosa, and Japan; _Lophoaëtus_ (1 sp.), all Africa; _Asturinula_
+(1 sp.), Africa, except extreme south; _Herpetotheres_ (1 sp.), Bolivia and
+Paraguay to Southern Mexico; _Dryotriorchis_ (1 sp.), West Africa;
+_Circaëtus_ (5 sp.) Africa to Central Europe, the Indian Peninsula, Timor;
+_Spilornis_ (6 sp.), Oriental region and Celebes; _Butastur_ (4 sp.),
+Oriental region to New Guinea and North-east Africa; _Helotarsus_ (2 sp.),
+Africa south of the Sahara; _Haliæetus_ (7 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the
+Neotropical region; _Gypohierax_ (1 sp.), West Africa and Zanzibar;
+_Haliastur_ (2 sp.), Indian Peninsula to Ceylon, New {349}Caledonia, and
+Australia; _Nauclerus_ (= _Elanoides_) (1 sp.), Brazil to Southern United
+States; _Elanoides_ (= _Nauclerus_) (1 sp.), Western and North-eastern
+Africa; _Milvus_ (6 sp.), the Old World and Australia; _Lophoictinia_ (1
+sp.), Australia; _Rostrhamus_ (3 sp.), Antilles and Florida to Brazil and
+Peru; _Leptodon_ (4 sp.), Central America to South Brazil and Bolivia;
+_Gypoictinia_ (1 sp.), South and West Australia; _Elanus_ (5 sp.), Africa,
+India, and Malay Archipelago to Australia, South America to California;
+_Gampsonyx_ (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil; _Henicopernis_ (1 sp.), Papuan
+Islands; _Machærhamphus_ (2 sp.), South-west Africa, Madagascar, and
+Malacca; _Pernis_ (3 sp.), Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions.
+
+Sub-family V. FALCONINÆ (11 genera, 80 species), cosmopolitan.--_Baza_ (10
+sp.), India and Ceylon to the Moluccas and North Australia, West Coast of
+Africa, Natal, and Madagascar; _Harpagus_ (3 sp.), Central America to
+Brazil and Peru; _Ictinia_ (2 sp.), Brazil to Southern United States;
+_Hierax_ (= _Microhierax_, Sharpe), (4 sp.), Eastern Himalayas to Borneo
+and Philippines; _Poliohierax_ (2 sp.), East Africa and Burmah;
+_Spiziapteryx_ (1 sp.), La Plata; _Harpa_ (1 sp.), New Zealand and the
+Auckland Islands; _Falco_ (27 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Pacific
+Islands; _Hierofalco_ (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;
+_Hieracidea_ (2 sp.), Australia; _Cerchneis_ (22 sp.), cosmopolitan, except
+Oceania.
+
+
+FAMILY 97.--PANDIONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pandionidæ, or Fishing Hawks, are universally distributed, with the
+exception of the Southern Temperate parts of South America. The genera
+are:--
+
+_Pandion_ (1 sp.), the range of the entire family; _Polioaëtus_ (2 sp.),
+India through Malay Archipelago to Celebes and Sandwich Islands.
+
+
+{350}FAMILY 98.--STRIGIDÆ. (23 Genera, 180 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Strigidæ, or Owls, form an extensive and well-known family of nocturnal
+birds, which, although invariably placed next the Hawks, are now believed
+to be not very closely allied to the other Accipitres. They range over the
+whole globe, extending to the extreme polar regions and to the remotest
+oceanic islands. Their classification is very unsettled, and we therefore
+place the genera, for convenience, in the order in which they follow each
+other in the _Hand List of Birds_. Those adopted by most ornithologists are
+the following:--
+
+_Surnia_ (1 sp.), the Arctic regions of both hemispheres; _Nyctea_ (1 sp.),
+South Carolina to Greenland and Northern Europe; _Athene_ (40 sp.), the
+Eastern hemisphere to New Zealand and the Solomon Islands; _Ninox_ (7 sp.),
+the Oriental region, North China and Japan; _Glaucidium_ (7 sp.),
+Neotropical region, California, and Oregon, Europe to North China;
+_Micrathene_ (1 sp.), Mexico and Arizona; _Pholeoptynx_ (2 sp.),
+Neotropical region, Texas, and North-west America; _Bubo_ (16 sp.),
+universally distributed, excluding the Australian region; _Ketupa_ (3 sp.),
+the Oriental region, Palestine; _Scotopelia_ (2 sp.), West and South
+Africa; _Scops_ (30 sp.), universally distributed, excluding Australia and
+Pacific Islands; _Gymnoglaux_ (2 sp.), Antilles; _Lophostrix_ (2 sp.),
+Lower Amazon to Guatemala; _Syrnium_ (22 sp.), all regions but the
+Australian; _Ciccaba_ (10 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico; _Nyctalatinus_ (1 sp.),
+Columbia; _Pulsatrix_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Guatemala; _Asio_ (6
+sp.), all regions but the Australian, Sandwich Islands; _Nyctalops_ (1
+sp.), Cuba and Mexico to Brazil and Monte Video; _Pseudoscops_ (1 sp.),
+Jamaica; _Nyctala_ (4 sp.), the North Temperate zone; _Strix_ (18 sp.),
+universally distributed; _Phodilus_ (1 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya.
+
+{351}In Mr. Sharpe's Catalogue (published while this work was passing
+through the press) the genera of Owls are reduced to 19, arranged in two
+families--Strigidæ, containing our last two genera, and Bubonidæ,
+comprising the remainder. The species are increased to 190; but some genera
+are reduced, as _Strix_, which is said to contain only 5 species.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Accipitres._
+
+The Birds of Prey are so widely distributed over the world's surface that
+their general distribution calls for few remarks. Of the four families all
+but one are cosmopolites, Vultures alone being absent from the Australian
+region, as well as from Indo-Malaya and Madagascar. If we take the
+sub-families, we find that each region has several which are confined to
+it. The only parts of the world where there is a marked deficiency of
+Accipitres is in the islands of the Pacific; and it may be noted, as a
+rule, that these birds are more abundant in continents than in islands.
+There is not so much difference between the number of Birds of Prey in
+tropical and temperate regions, as is found in most other groups of
+land-birds. North America and Europe have about 60 species each, while
+India has about 80, and South America about 120. The total number of
+Accipitres is 550 comprised in 104 genera, and 4 (or perhaps more properly
+5) families. In this estimate I have not included the Serpentariidæ,
+containing the Secretary Bird of Africa, as there is some doubt whether it
+really belongs to the Order.
+
+
+_Order VIII.--GRALLÆ._
+
+FAMILY 99.--RALLIDÆ. (18 Genera, 153 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Rails are among the most widely distributed families of birds, many of
+the genera being cosmopolitan, and several of the {352}species ranging over
+half the globe. They are found in many remote islands; and in some of
+these--as the _Gallinula_ of Tristan d'Acunha, and the _Notornis_ of Lord
+Howe's Island and New Zealand,--they have lost the power of flight. The
+classification of the Rallidæ is not satisfactory, and the following
+enumeration of the genera must only be taken as affording a provisional
+sketch of the distribution of the group:--
+
+_Rallus_ (18 sp.), _Porzana_ (24 sp.), _Gallinula_ (17 sp.), and _Fulica_
+(10 sp.), have a world-wide range; _Ortygometra_ (1 sp.), ranges over the
+whole North Temperate zone; _Porphyrio_ (14 sp.), is more especially
+Oriental and Australian, but occurs also in South America, in Africa, and
+in South Europe; _Eulabeornis_ (15 sp.), is Ethiopian, Malayan, and
+Australian; _Himantornis_ (1 sp.), is West African only; _Aramides_ (24
+sp.), is North and South American; _Rallina_ (16 sp.), is Oriental, but
+ranges eastward to Papua; _Habroptila_ (1 sp.), is confined to the
+Moluccas; _Pareudiastes_ (1 sp.), the Samoa Islands; _Tribonyx_ (4 sp.), is
+Australian, and has recently been found also in New Zealand; _Ocydromus_ (4
+sp.); _Notornis_ (2 sp.), (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 455); and _Cabalus_ (1
+sp.), are peculiar to the New Zealand group.
+
+The sub-family, Heliornithinæ (sometimes classed as a distinct family)
+consists of 2 genera, _Heliornis_ (1 sp.), confined to the Neotropical
+region; and _Podica_ (4 sp.), the Ethiopian region excluding Madagascar,
+and with a species (perhaps forming another genus) in Borneo.
+
+_Extinct Rallidæ._--Remains of some species of this family have been found
+in the Mascarene Islands, and historical evidence shows that they have
+perhaps been extinct little more than a century. They belong to the genus
+_Fulica_, and to two extinct genera, _Aphanapteryx_ and _Erythromachus_.
+The _Aphanapteryx_ was a large bird of a reddish colour, with loose
+plumage, and perhaps allied to _Ocydromus_. _Erythromachus_ was much
+smaller, of a grey-and-white colour, and is said to have lived chiefly on
+the eggs of the land-tortoises. (See _Ibis_, 1869, p. 256; and _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._, 1875, p. 40.)
+
+
+{353}FAMILY 100.--SCOLOPACIDÆ. (21 Genera, 121 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Scolopacidæ, comprehending the Snipes, Sandpipers, Curlews, and allied
+genera, are perhaps as truly cosmopolitan as any family of birds, ranging
+to the extreme north and visiting the remotest islands. The genera of
+universal distribution are the following:--
+
+_Numenius_ (16 sp.); _Limosa_ (6 sp.); _Totanus_ (12 sp.); _Tringoides_, (6
+sp.); _Himantopus_ (6 sp.); _Tringa_ (20 sp.); and _Gallinago_ (24 sp.).
+Those which have a more or less restricted distribution are:--
+
+_Ibidorhyncha_ (1 sp.), Central Asia and the Himalayas (Plate VII. Vol. I.
+p. 331); _Helodromas_ (1 sp.), Palæarctic region and North India; _Terekia_
+(1 sp.), East Palæarctic, wandering to India and Australia; _Recurvirostra_
+(6 sp.), Nearctic region to the High Andes, South Palæarctic, East and
+South Africa, Hindostan and Australia; _Micropelama_ (1 sp.), North America
+to Chili; _Machetes_ (1 sp.), Palæarctic region and Hindostan (Plate I.
+Vol. I. p. 195); _Ereunetes_ (3 sp.), Nearctic and Neotropical;
+_Eurinorhynchus_ (1 sp.), North-east Asia and Bengal; _Calidris_ (1 sp.),
+all regions but Australian; _Macrorhamphus_ (3 sp.), Palæarctic and
+Nearctic, visits Brazil and India; _Scolopax_ (4 sp.), the whole Palæarctic
+region, to India, Java, and Australia; _Philohela_ (1 sp.), East Nearctic;
+_Rhynchæa_ (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental, Australia, and Temperate South
+America; _Phalaropus_ (3 sp.), North Temperate zone, and West Coast of
+America to Chili.
+
+
+{354}FAMILY 101.--CHIONIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Sheath-bills, _Chionis_ (2 sp.), are curious white birds, whose thick
+bill has a horny sheath at the base. Their nearest ally is _Hæmatopus_, a
+genus of Charadriidæ. These birds are confined to the Antarctic Islands,
+especially the Falkland Islands, the Crozets and Kerguelen's Land.
+
+
+FAMILY 102.--THINOCORIDÆ. (2 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Thinocoridæ, or Quail-snipes, are small birds, confined to Temperate
+South America. They have much the appearance of Quails but are more nearly
+allied to Plovers. The two genera are:--
+
+_Attagis_ (4 sp.), Falkland Islands, Straits of Magellan, Chili, Bolivia,
+and the High Andes of Peru and Ecuador; _Thinocorus_ (2 sp.), La Plata,
+Chili, and Peru. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 40.)
+
+
+FAMILY 103.--PARRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{355}The Parridæ, or Jacanas, are remarkable long-toed birds, often of
+elegant plumage, frequenting swamps and marshes, and walking on the
+floating leaves of aquatic plants. They are found in all the tropics.
+_Parra_ (10 sp.), has the distribution of the family; _Hydrophasianus_ (1
+sp.), is confined to the Oriental region.
+
+
+FAMILY 104.--GLAREOLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family, comprising the Pratincoles and Coursers, is universally
+distributed over the Old World and to Australia.
+
+_Glareola_ (9 sp.), has the distribution of the family; _Pluvianus_ (1
+sp.), is confined to North Africa; _Cursorius_ (10 sp.), ranges over
+Africa, South Europe and India.
+
+The position of the genus _Glareola_ is uncertain, for though generally
+classed here, Prof. Lilljeborg considers it to be an aberrant form of the
+Caprimulgidæ! It differs, in its insectivorous habits and in many points of
+external structure, from all its allies, and should probably form a
+distinct family.
+
+
+FAMILY 105.--CHARADIIDÆ. (19 Genera, 101 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The extensive family of the Plovers and their numerous allies, ranges over
+the whole globe. The genera now usually admitted into this family are the
+following:--
+
+_Oedicnemus_ (9 sp.), is only absent from North America; _Æsacus_ (2 sp.),
+India to Ceylon, Malay Islands and Australia; {356}_Vanellus_ (3 sp.),
+Palæarctic and Neotropical regions; _Chætusia_ (15 sp.), the whole Eastern
+Hemisphere; _Erythrogonys_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Hoplopterus_ (10 sp.),
+widely scattered, but absent from North America; _Squatarola_ (1 sp), all
+the regions; _Charadrius_ (14 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Eudromias_ (5 sp.),
+Eastern Hemisphere and South Temperate America; _Ægialitis_ (22 sp.),
+cosmopolitan; _Oreophilus_ (1 sp.), South Temperate America; _Thinornis_ (2
+sp.), New Zealand; _Anarhynchus_ (1 sp.), New Zealand (Plate XIII. Vol I.
+p. 455); _Hæmatopus_ (9 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Strepsilas_ (2 sp.) almost
+cosmopolitan; _Aphriza_ (1 sp.), West Coast of America; _Pluvianellus_ (1
+sp.), Straits of Magellan; _Dromas_ (1 sp.), India, Madagascar, and
+North-east Africa; _Pedionomus_ (1 sp.), Australia. This last genus has
+usually been placed with the Turnicidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY 106.--OTIDIDÆ. (2 Genera, 26 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Otididæ, or Bustards, occur in all parts of the Old World and Australia
+where there are open tracts, being only absent from Madagascar and the
+Malay Archipelago.
+
+_Otis_ (2 sp.), ranges over most of the Palæarctic region; while
+_Eupodotis_ (24 sp.), has the range of the family, but is most abundant in
+the Ethiopian region, which contains three-fourths of the whole number of
+species.
+
+
+FAMILY 107.--GRUIDÆ. (3 Genera, 16 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{357}The Gruidæ, or Cranes, are found in all the regions except the
+Neotropical.
+
+_Grus_ (12 sp.) inhabits the southern and western United States, the whole
+Palæarctic region, South-east Africa, India, and Australia; _Anthropoides_
+(2 sp.), Europe, North and South Africa and India; _Balearica_ (2 sp.), the
+Ethiopian region (except Madagascar).
+
+
+FAMILY 108.--CARIAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Cariama_ (2 sp.), consists of remarkable crested birds
+inhabiting the mountains and open plains of Brazil and La Plata. In the
+British Museum Catalogue of the Birds of Prey, they are classed as aberrant
+Falconidæ, but their anomalous characters seem to require them to be placed
+in a distinct family, which seems better placed among the Waders.
+
+
+FAMILY 109.--ARAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Guaraünas are birds which have somewhat the appearance of Herons, but
+which are usually classed with the Rails. They are now, however, considered
+to form a distinct family. The only genus, _Aramus_ (2 sp.), inhabits the
+Neotropical region, from Mexico and Cuba to Central Brazil.
+
+
+{358}FAMILY 110.--PSOPHIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The remarkable and beautiful birds called Trumpeters, are confined to the
+various parts of the Amazon valley; and it is an interesting fact, that the
+range of each species appears to be bounded by some of the great rivers.
+Thus, _Psophia crepitans_ inhabits the interior of Guiana as far as the
+south bank of the Rio Negro; on the opposite or north bank of the Rio Negro
+_Psophia ochroptera_ is found; beyond the next great rivers, Japura and
+Iça, _Psophia napensis_ occurs; on the south bank of the Amazon, west of
+the Madeira, we have the beautiful _Psophia leucoptera_; east of the
+Madeira this is replaced by _Psophia viridis_, while near Pará, beyond the
+Tapajoz, Xingu and Tocantins, there is another species, _Psophia obscura_.
+Other species may exist in the intervening river districts; but we have
+here, apparently, a case of a number of well-marked species of birds
+capable of flight, yet with their range in certain directions accurately
+defined by great rivers. (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28.)
+
+
+FAMILY 111.--EURYPYGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Eurypygidæ, or Sun-Bitterns, are small heron-like birds with
+beautifully-coloured wings, which frequent the muddy and wooded river-banks
+of tropical America. The only genus, _Eurypyga_ (2 sp.), ranges from
+Central America to Brazil.
+
+
+{359}FAMILY 112.--RHINOCHETIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Rhinochetus_ (1 sp.), consists of a singular bird called the
+Kagu, which inhabits New Caledonia, an island which may be placed with
+almost equal propriety in our 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Australian sub-regions. It
+is a bird of a bluish ash-colour, with a loose plumage, partaking something
+of the appearance of Rail, Plover, and Heron, but with peculiarities of
+structure which require it to be placed in a distinct family. Its anatomy
+shows that its nearest allies are the South American genera, _Eurypyga_ and
+_Psophia_.
+
+
+FAMILY 113.--ARDEIDÆ. (5 Genera, 80 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The well-known Herons and Bitterns are found in every part of the globe,
+and everywhere closely resemble each other. Omitting the minuter
+sub-divisions, the genera are as follows:--
+
+_Ardea_ (60 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Botaurus_ (6 sp.), almost cosmopolitan;
+_Tigrisoma_ (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa; _Nycticorax_ (9
+sp.), cosmopolitan; _Cancroma_ (1 sp.), Tropical America.
+
+
+{360}FAMILY 114.--PLATALEIDÆ. (6 Genera, 30 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Plataleidæ, including the Spoonbills and Ibises, have been classed
+either with the Herons or the Storks, but have most affinity with the
+latter. Though not very numerous they are found over the greater part of
+the globe, except the colder zones and the Pacific Islands. The following
+is the distribution of the genera:--
+
+_Platalea_ (6 sp.), all the warmer parts of the globe except the Moluccas
+and Pacific Islands; _Ibis_ (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Tropical
+South America; _Falcinellus_ (2 sp.), almost cosmopolitan; _Geronticus_ (19
+sp.), all Tropical countries and Temperate South America; _Scopus_ (1 sp.),
+Tropical and South Africa; _Balæniceps_ (1 sp.), the Upper Nile. This last
+genus the "Shoe-bird," or boat-billed heron, perhaps forms a distinct
+family.
+
+
+FAMILY 115.--CICONIIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Ciconiidæ, or Storks, are mostly an Old World family, only three
+species inhabiting the Neotropical, and one, the Nearctic region. They are
+also absent from the islands of the Pacific, the Antilles, and, with one
+exception, from Madagascar. The genera are as follows:--
+
+_Ciconia_ (6 sp.), ranges through the Palæarctic, Ethiopian and
+{361}Oriental regions as far as Celebes, and in South America; _Mycteria_
+(4 sp.), inhabits Africa, India, Australia and the Neotropical region;
+_Leptopiltus_ (3 sp.), the Ethiopian and Oriental regions to Java;
+_Tantalus_ (5 sp.), the Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotropical regions, and
+the South-east of North America; _Anastomus_ (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region,
+and India to Ceylon.
+
+
+FAMILY 116.--PALAMEDEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Palamedeidæ, or Screamers, are curious semi-aquatic birds of doubtful
+affinities, perhaps intermediate between Gallinæ and Anseres. They are
+peculiar to South America. The genera are:--
+
+_Palamedea_ (1 sp.), which inhabits the Amazon valley; _Chauna_ (2 sp.), La
+Plata, Brazil and Columbia,
+
+
+FAMILY 117.--PHOENICOPTERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Flamingoes (_Phoenicopterus_) seem peculiar to the Ethiopian and
+Neotropical regions, ranging from the former into India and South Europe.
+America has four species, inhabiting Chili and La Plata, the Galapagos,
+Mexico and the West Indian islands; the others range over all Africa, South
+Europe, India and Ceylon. These singular birds are placed by some authors
+near the Spoonbills and Ibises, by others with the Geese. Professor Huxley
+considers them to be "completely {362}intermediate between the Anserine
+birds on the one side and the Storks and Herons on the other." The
+pterolysis according to Nitzsch is "completely stork-like."
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Grallæ, or Wading and Running
+Birds._
+
+The Waders, as a rule, are birds of very wide distribution, the four
+largest families Rallidæ, Scolopacidæ, Charadriidæ and Ardeidæ, being quite
+cosmopolitan, as are many of the genera. But there are also a number of
+small families of very restricted distribution, and these all occur in the
+two most isolated regions, the Neotropical and the Australian. The
+Neotropical region is by far the richest in varied forms of Waders, having
+representatives of no less than 15 out of the 19 families, while 7 are
+altogether peculiar to it. The Australian region has 11 families, with 1
+peculiar. The other two tropical regions each possess 11 families, but none
+are peculiar. The Palæarctic region has 10, and the Nearctic 7 families. No
+less than three families--Chionididæ, Thinocoridæ, and Cariamidæ--are
+confined to the Temperate regions and highlands of South America; while
+four others,--Aramidæ, Psophiidæ, Eurypygidæ and Palamedeidæ,--are found in
+Tropical America only; and these present such an array of peculiar and
+interesting forms as no other part of the globe can furnish. The
+Phoenicopteridæ or Flamingoes, common to the Tropical regions of Asia,
+Africa and America, but absent from Australia, is the only other feature of
+general interest presented by the distribution of the Waders.
+
+The Order contains about 610 species, which gives about 32 species to each
+family, a smaller average than in the Gallinæ or Accipitres, and only about
+one-fourth of the average number in the Passeres. This is partly due to the
+unusual number of very small families, and partly to the wide average range
+of the species, which prevents that specialization of forms that occurs in
+the more sedentary groups of birds.
+
+
+{363}_Order IX.--ANSERES._
+
+FAMILY 118.--ANATIDÆ. (40 Genera, 180 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Anatidæ, comprehending the Ducks, Geese, and Swans with their allies,
+are of such universal distribution that there is probably no part of the
+globe where some of them are not occasionally found. They are, however,
+most abundant in temperate and cold regions; and, contrary to what occurs
+in most other families, the most beautifully-coloured species are
+extra-tropical, and some even arctic. The distribution of the genera is as
+follows:--
+
+_Anseranas_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Plectropterus_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa;
+_Sarkidiornis_ (1 sp.), South America, Africa, and India; _Chenalopex_ (1
+sp.), Amazonia; _Callochen_ (1 sp.), South Europe, North, East, and South
+Africa; _Cereopsis_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Anser_ (13 sp.), Palæarctic and
+Nearctic regions to Central America and the Antilles; _Bernicla_ (12 sp.),
+Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; _Chloephaga_ (5
+sp.), South Temperate America and Aleutian Islands; _Nettapus_ (4 sp.),
+Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India and Ceylon to Malaya and Australia;
+_Cygnus_ (10 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern
+Hemispheres; _Dendrocygna_ (10 sp.), Tropical and sub-tropical regions;
+_Tadorna_ (3 sp.), Palæarctic and Australian regions; _Casarca_ (5 sp.),
+Palæarctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, and Australian regions, to New Zealand;
+_Aix_ (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Eastern Asia; _Mareca_ (4 sp.),
+Palæarctic region, North America, Temperate South America, and Australia;
+_Dafila_ (3 sp.), all America and the Palæarctic region; _Anas_ (16 sp.),
+cosmopolitan; _Querquedula_ (17 sp.), {364}cosmopolitan; _Chaulelasmus_ (2
+sp.), Palæarctic region and North America; _Spatula_ (5 sp.), all Temperate
+regions; _Malacorhynchus_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Cairina_ (1 sp.), Tropical
+South America; _Branta_ (1 sp.), Palæarctic region and India; _Fuligula_ (5
+sp.), North Temperate regions and New Zealand; _Æthya_ (5 sp.), Palæarctic
+and Nearctic regions, India, Australia, and South Africa; _Metopiana_ (1
+sp.), South Temperate America; _Bucephala_ (4 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic
+regions; _Harelda_ (2 sp.), Northern Palæartic and Nearctic regions;
+_Hymenolaimus_ (1 sp.), New Zealand; _Camptolaimus_ (1 sp.), North-east of
+North America; _Micropterus_ (1 sp.), Temperate South America; _Somateria_
+(5 sp.), Arctic and sub-arctic regions; _Oedemia_ (5 sp.), Nearctic and
+Palæarctic regions; _Biziura_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Thalassornis_ (1 sp.),
+South Africa; _Erismatura_ (6 sp.), all America, South-east Europe and
+South Africa; _Nesonetta_ (1 sp.), Auckland Islands; _Merganetta_ (3 sp.),
+Andes of Columbia to Chili; _Mergus_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic
+regions, Brazil, and the Auckland Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 119.--LARIDÆ. (13 Genera, 132 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Laridæ, or Gulls and Terns, are true cosmopolites, inhabiting the
+shores and islands of every zone; and most of the genera have also a wide
+range. They are therefore of little use in the study of geographical
+distribution. The genera are as follows:--
+
+_Stercorarius_ (6 sp.), cosmopolitan, most abundant in cold and temperate
+zones; _Rhodostethia_ (1 sp), North America; _Larus_ (60 sp.),
+cosmopolitan; _Xema_ (1 sp.), North Temperate zone; _Creagrus_ (1 sp.),
+North Pacific; _Pagophila_ (1 sp.), Arctic seas; _Rissa_ (3 sp.), Arctic
+and Northern seas; _Sterna_ (36 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Hydrochelidon_ (12
+sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones; {365}_Gygis_ (1 sp.), Indian Ocean and
+Tropical Pacific Islands; _Anous_ (6 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones;
+_Nænia_ (1 sp.), South Temperate America; _Rhynchops_ (3 sp.), Tropical
+America, Africa, and India.
+
+
+FAMILY 120.--PROCELLARIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 96 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Procellariidæ, comprising the Shearwaters, Petrels, and Albatrosses,
+are universally distributed, but some of the genera are local.
+
+_Puffinus_ (20 sp.), _Procellaria_ (18 sp.), and _Fulmarus_ (40 sp.), are
+cosmopolitan; _Prion_ (5 sp.) and _Pelecanoides_ (3 sp.), belong to the
+South Temperate and Antarctic regions; _Diomedia_ (10 sp.), comprises the
+Albatrosses, which are tropical, occasionally wandering into temperate
+seas.
+
+
+FAMILY 121.--PELECANIDÆ. (6 Genera, 61 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pelecanidæ, comprising the Gannets, Pelicans, Darters, and
+Frigate-Birds, although universally distributed, are more abundant in
+tropical and temperate regions.
+
+_Sula_ (8 sp.) and _Phalacrocorax_ (35 sp.), are cosmopolitan; _Pelecanus_
+(9 sp.) is tropical and temperate; _Fregetta_ (2 sp.) and _Phaeton_ (3 sp.)
+are confined to Tropical seas; _Ptotus_ (4 sp.) to Tropical and warm
+Temperate zones.
+
+
+{366}FAMILY 122.--SPHENISCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 18 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and South Temperate
+regions, except two species which are found on the coast of Peru and the
+Galapagos. They are most plentiful in the southern parts of South America,
+Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Antarctic islands, and one or two
+species are found at the Cape of Good Hope. The genera as given in the
+_Hand List_ are:--
+
+_Spheniscus_ (1 sp.), South Africa and Cape Horn; _Eudyptes_ (15 sp.), with
+the range of the family; _Aptenodytes_ (2 sp.), Antarctic Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 123.--COLYMBIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Northern Divers are confined to the Arctic and North Temperate Seas.
+The only genus, _Colymbus_, has one species confined to the West Coast of
+North America, the others being common to the two northern continents.
+
+
+FAMILY 124.--PODICIPIDÆ. (2 Genera, 33 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{367}The Grebes are universally distributed. The genera are _Podiceps_ (26
+sp.), cosmopolitan; and _Podilymbus_ (2 sp.), confined to North and South
+America. Some ornithologists group these birds with the Colymbidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY 125.--ALCIDÆ. (7 Genera, 28 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --| 1 -- -- 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Alcidæ, comprising the Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins, are confined to
+the North Temperate and Arctic regions, where they represent the Penguins
+of the Antarctic lands. One of the most remarkable of these birds, the
+Great Auk, formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, is now extinct. The
+genera are as follows:--
+
+_Alca_ (2 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic seas; _Fratercula_ (4 sp.),
+Arctic and North Temperate zones; _Ceratorhina_ (2 sp.), North Pacific;
+_Simorhynchus_ (8 sp.), North Pacific; _Brachyrhamphus_ (3 sp.), North
+Pacific to Japan and Lower California; _Uria_ (8 sp.), Arctic and North
+Temperate zones; _Mergulus_ (1 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic Seas. The
+last three genera constitute the family Uriidæ, of some ornithologists.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres._
+
+The Anseres, or Swimmers, being truly aquatic birds, possess, as might be
+expected, a large number of cosmopolitan families and genera. No less than
+5 out of the 8 families have a world-wide distribution, and the others are
+characteristic either of the North or the South Temperate zones. Hence
+arises a peculiarity of distribution to be found in no other order of
+birds; the Temperate being richer than the Tropical regions. The Nearctic
+and Palæarctic regions each have seven families of Anseres, two of which,
+the Colymbidæ and Alcidæ, are peculiar to them. The Ethiopian, Australian,
+and Neotropical regions, which all {368}extend into the South Temperate
+zone, have six families, with one peculiar to them; while the Oriental
+region, which is wholly tropical, possesses the five cosmopolitan families
+only.
+
+There are about 78 genera and 552 species of Anseres, giving 69 species to
+a family, a high number compared with the Waders, and due to there being
+only one very small family, the Colymbidæ. The distribution of the Anseres,
+being more determined by temperature than by barriers, the great regions
+which are so well indicated by the genera and families of most other orders
+of birds, hardly limit these, except in the case of the genera of Anatidæ.
+
+
+_Order X.--STRUTHIONES._
+
+FAMILY 126.--STRUTHIONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Ostriches consist of two genera, sometimes formed into distinct
+families. _Struthio_ (2 sp.) inhabits the desert regions of North, East,
+and South Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria. It therefore just enters the
+Palæarctic region. _Rhea_ (3 sp.) inhabits Temperate South America, from
+Patagonia to the confines of Brazil.
+
+
+FAMILY 127.--CASUARIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cassowaries and Emeus are confined to the Australian region. The Emeus,
+_Dromæus_ (2 sp.), are found only on the {369}main-land of Australia (Plate
+XII. Vol. I. p. 441). _Casuarius_ (9 sp.) inhabits the islands from Ceram
+to New Britain, with one species in North Australia; it is most abundant in
+the Papuan Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 128.--APTERYGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The species of _Apteryx_ are entirely confined to the two larger islands of
+New Zealand. They are supposed to have some remote affinity with
+_Ocydromus_, a genus of Rails peculiar to Australia and New Zealand; but
+they undoubtedly form one of the most remarkable groups of living birds
+(Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 445).
+
+
+_Struthious Birds recently extinct._
+
+A number of sub-fossil remains of birds, mostly large and some of gigantic
+size, having affinities to the _Apteryx_ and, less closely, to the
+Cassowaries, have been discovered in New Zealand. These are all classed by
+Professor Owen in the genus _Dinornis_ and family _Dinornithidæ_; but Dr.
+Haast, from the study of the rich collections in the Canterbury (New
+Zealand) Museum, is convinced that they belong to two distinct families and
+several genera. His arrangement is as follows. (See _Ibis_, 1874, p. 209).
+
+
+FAMILY 129.--DINORNITHIDÆ. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)
+
+_Dinornis_ (5 sp.); _Meionornis_ (2 sp.).
+
+These had no hind toe, and include the largest species. Professor Newton
+thinks that they were absolutely wingless, being the only birds in which
+the fore limbs are entirely wanting.
+
+
+{370}FAMILY 130.--PALAPTERYGIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
+
+_Palapteryx_ (2 sp.); _Euryapteryx_ (2 sp.).
+
+These had a well-developed hind toe, and rudimentary wings.
+
+
+FAMILY 131.--ÆPYORNITHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+A gigantic Struthious bird (_Æpyornis_), belonging to a distinct family,
+inhabited Madagascar.
+
+It was first made known by its enormous eggs, eight times the bulk of those
+of the ostrich, which were found in a sub-fossil condition. Considerable
+portions of skeletons have since been discovered, showing that these huge
+birds formed an altogether peculiar family of the order.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones._
+
+With the exception of the Ostrich, which has spread northward into the
+Palæarctic region, the Struthious birds, living and extinct, are confined
+to the Southern hemisphere, each continent having its peculiar forms. It is
+a remarkable fact that the two most nearly allied genera, _Struthio_ and
+_Rhea_, should be found in Africa and South Temperate America respectively.
+Equally remarkable is the development of these large forms of wingless
+birds in Australia and the adjacent islands, and especially in New Zealand,
+where we have evidence which renders it probable that about 20 species
+recently coexisted. This points to the conclusion that New Zealand must,
+not long since, have formed a much more extensive land, and that the
+diminution of its area by subsidence has been one of the causes--and
+perhaps the main one--in bringing about the extinction of many of the
+larger species of these wingless birds.
+
+The wide distribution of the Struthiones may, as we have already suggested
+(Vol. I., p. 287.), be best explained, by supposing them to represent a
+very ancient type of bird, developed at a time when the more specialized
+carnivorous mammalia had {371}not come into existence, and preserved only
+in those areas which were long free from the incursions of such dangerous
+enemies. The discovery of Struthious remains in Europe in the Lower Eocene
+only, supports this view; for at this time carnivora were few and of
+generalized type, and had probably not acquired sufficient speed and
+activity to enable them to exterminate powerful and quick-running
+terrestrial birds. It is, however, at a much more remote epoch that we may
+expect to find the remains of the earlier forms of this group; while these
+Eocene birds may perhaps represent that ancestral wide-spread type which,
+when isolated in remoter continents and islands, became modified into the
+American and African ostriches, the Emeus and Cassowaries of Australia, the
+_Dinornis_ and _Æpyornis_ of New Zealand.
+
+
+
+
+{372}CHAPTER XIX.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.
+
+
+
+REPTILIA.
+
+_Order I.--OPHIDIA._
+
+FAMILY 1.--TYPHLOPIDÆ.--(4 Genera, 70 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Typhlopidæ, or Blind Burrowing Snakes, are widely scattered over the
+warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Oriental and
+Australian regions, and least so in the Neotropical. They are absent from
+the Nearctic region; and in the Palæarctic are found only in South-eastern
+Europe and Japan.
+
+The most extensive genus is _Typhlops_, comprising over 60 species, and
+having a range almost as extensive as the entire family. The other well
+characterised genera are:--
+
+_Typhlina_ (1 sp.), ranging from Penang to Java and Hong Kong; _Typhline_
+(1 sp.), the Cape of Good Hope; _Dibamus_ (1 sp.), New Guinea.
+
+
+{373}FAMILY 2.--TORTRICIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Tortricidæ, or Short-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are a small family, one
+portion of which ranges from India to Cambodja, and through the Malay
+islands as far as Celebes and Timor; these form the genus _Cylindrophis_.
+Another portion inhabits America, and consists of:--
+
+_Charina_ (1 sp.), found in California and British Columbia; and _Tortrix_
+(1 sp.), in Tropical America.
+
+We have here a case of discontinuous distribution, indicating, either very
+imperfect knowledge of the group, or that it is the remnant of a once
+extensive family, on the road to extinction.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--XENOPELTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The curious nocturnal carnivorous Snake, forming the genus _Xenopeltis_,
+and the sole representative of this family, ranges from Penang to Cambodja,
+and through the Malay Islands to Celebes.
+
+
+FAMILY 4.--UROPELTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 18 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{374}The Uropeltidæ, or Rough-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are strictly
+confined to Ceylon and the adjacent parts of Southern India, and would
+almost alone serve to mark out our second Oriental sub-region. The genera
+are:--
+
+_Rhinophis_ (7 sp.), Ceylon; _Uropeltis_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Silybura_ (8
+sp.), Anamally Hills and Neilgherries; _Plecturus_ (3 sp.), Neilgherries
+and Madras; and _Melanophidium_ (1 sp.), the Wynand.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--CALAMARIIDÆ. (32 Genera, 75 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Calamariidæ, or Dwarf Ground Snakes, are found in all warm parts of the
+globe, extending north into the United States as far as British Columbia
+and Lake Superior; but they are absent from the Palæarctic region, with the
+exception of a species found in Persia. The species are in a very confused
+state. The best characterised genera are the following:--
+
+_Calamaria_ (20 sp.), Persia, India to Java and the Philippine Islands,
+Celebes, and New Guinea; _Rhabdosoma_ (18 sp.), Mexico and South America,
+and also the Malay Islands as far east as Amboyna, Timor, and New Guinea;
+_Typhlocalamus_ (1 sp.), Borneo; _Macrocalamus_ (1 sp.), India; _Aspidura_
+(3 sp.), India and Ceylon; _Haplocerus_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Streptophorus_ (3
+sp.), Central and South America;--with a host of others of less importance
+or ill-defined.
+
+
+FAMILY 6.--OLIGODONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{375}The Oligodontidæ are a small family of Ground Snakes which have been
+separated from the Calamariidæ, and, with the exception of a few species,
+are confined to the Oriental region. The best characterised genera are:--
+
+_Oligodon_ (12 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Philippines; and, _Simotes_ (24
+sp.), India to China and Borneo. In addition to these, _Achalinus_ is
+founded on a single species from Japan; and _Teleolepis_ consists of three
+species from North and South America.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--COLUBRIDÆ. (50 Genera, 270 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Colubrine Snakes are universally distributed over the globe, and they
+reach the extreme northern limits of the order. They are, however, almost
+absent from Australia, being there represented only by a few species of
+_Tropidonotus_ and _Coronella_ in the northern and eastern districts. This
+great family consists of four divisions or sub-families: the Coronellinæ
+(20 genera, 100 species), the Colubrinæ (16 genera, 70 species), the
+Dryadinæ (7 genera, 50 species), and the Natricinæ (7 genera, 50 species).
+The more important genera of Colubridæ are the following:--
+
+_Ablabes_, _Coronella_, _Ptyas_, _Coluber_, and _Tropidonotus_--all have a
+very wide distribution, but the two last are absent from South America,
+although _Tropidonotus_ reaches Guatemala; _Tomodon_, _Xenodon_, _Liopis_,
+_Stenorhina_, _Erythrolampus_, _Elapochrus_, _Callirhinus_, _Enophrys_, and
+_Dromicus_--are confined to the Neotropical region; _Hypsirhynchus_,
+_Cryptodacus_, _Jaltris_, and _Coloragia_, are confined to the West Indian
+Islands; _Chilomeniscus_, _Conophis_, _Pituophis_, and _Ischcognathus_, to
+North America, the latter going as far south as Guatemala; _Compsosoma_,
+_Zamenis_, _Zaocys_, _Atretium_, _Xenochrophys_, and _Herpetoreas_, are
+peculiarly Oriental, but _Zamenis_ extends into South Europe;
+{376}_Lytorhynchus_, _Rhamnophis_, _Herpetethiops_ and _Grayia_, are
+Ethiopian; _Rhinechis_ is peculiar to Europe; _Megablabes_ to Celebes, and
+_Styporhynchus_ to Gilolo; _Cyclophis_, is found in the Oriental region,
+Japan, and North America; _Spilotes_, in the Nearctic and Neotropical
+regions; _Xenelaphis_ in the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Palæarctic regions;
+_Philodryas_, _Heterodon_ and _Herpetodryas_ in America and Madagascar, the
+latter genus being also found in China.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--HOMALOPSIDÆ. (24 Genera, 50 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   1 -- 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Homalopsidæ, or Fresh-water Snakes, have been separated from the
+Hydridæ by Dr. Günther, and they include some groups which have been
+usually classed with the Natricinæ. They are especially characteristic of
+the Oriental region, where considerably more than half the genera and
+species are found; next comes the Neotropical region which has 6 species;
+while none of the other regions have more than 4 or 5. It is to be observed
+that the Ethiopian species occur in West Africa only, and mostly constitute
+peculiar genera, so that in this family the separation of the Ethiopian and
+Oriental regions is very well marked. The best characterised genera of the
+family are the following:--
+
+_Cantoria_ (10 sp.), ranging from Europe to Japan, the Philippines, and
+Timor, with one species in Guinea; _Hypsirhina_ (6 sp.), Bengal, China, and
+Borneo; _Fordonia_ (3 sp.), Rangoon to Borneo and Timor; _Homalopsis_ (2
+sp.), Cambodja to Java; _Cerberus_ (2 sp.), Ceylon and Siam, the Malay
+Islands, New Guinea, and North Australia; _Herpeton_ (1 sp.), Siam;
+_Ferania_ (1 sp.), Bengal to Penang; _Pythonopsis_ (1 sp.), Borneo; _Myron_
+(2 sp.), India and North Australia; _Homalophis_ (1 sp.), Borneo;
+_Hipistes_ (1 sp.), Penang; _Xenodermus_ (1 sp.), Java; _Neusterophis_ and
+_Limnophis_, with one species each, are peculiar to West {377}Africa;
+_Helicops_ (2 sp.), North and South America; _Farancia_ and _Dimodes_, with
+one species each, are from New Orleans; and a few others imperfectly known
+from Tropical America.
+
+
+FAMILY 9.--PSAMMOPHIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Psammophidæ, or Desert Snakes, are a small group characteristic of the
+Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but more abundant in the former. The
+distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Psammophis_ (16 sp.), ranges from West Africa to Persia and Calcutta;
+_Coelopeltis_ (1 sp.), North and West Africa; _Mimophis_ (1 sp.),
+Madagascar; _Psammodynastes_ (2 sp.), Sikhim to Cochin China, Borneo and
+the Philippine Islands; and _Dromophis_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--RACHIODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Rachiodontidæ are a small and very isolated group of snakes of doubtful
+affinities. The only genus, _Dasypeltis_ (2 sp.), is confined to West and
+South Africa.
+
+
+{378}FAMILY 11.--DENDROPHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 35 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dendrophidæ, or Tree Snakes, are found in all the Tropical regions, but
+are most abundant in the Oriental. The genera are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Dendrophis_ ranges from India and Ceylon to the Pelew Islands and North
+Australia, and has one species in West Africa; _Ahætulla_ is almost equally
+divided between Tropical Africa and Tropical America; _Gonyosoma_ ranges
+from Persia to Java and the Philippines; _Chrysopelea_ is found in India,
+Borneo, the Philippines, Amboyna, and Mysol; _Hapsidrophis_ and
+_Bucephalus_ are confined to Tropical Africa; and _Ithycyphus_ (1 sp.), is
+peculiar to Madagascar.
+
+
+FAMILY 12.--DRYIOPHIDÆ. (5 Genera, 15 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dryiophidæ, or Whip Snakes, are a very well characterised family of
+slender, green-coloured, arboreal serpents, found in the three tropical
+regions but absent from Australia, although they just enter the Australian
+region in the island of Celebes. In Africa they are confined to the West
+Coast and Madagascar. The genera are:--
+
+_Dryiophis_ (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa; _Tropidococcyx_ (1
+sp.), Central India; _Tragops_ (4 sp.), Bengal to China, the Philippines,
+Java, and Celebes; _Passerita_ (2 sp.), Ceylon {379}and the Indian
+Peninsula; and _Langaha_ (2 sp.), confined to Madagascar.
+
+
+FAMILY 13.--DIPSADIDÆ. (11 Genera, 45 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dipsadidæ, or Nocturnal Tree Snakes, are distinguished from the last
+family by their dark colours and nocturnal habits. They are about equally
+abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, less so in the Ethiopian,
+while only a single species extends to North Australia. The following are
+the best known genera:--
+
+_Dipsas_, comprising all the Oriental species with one in Asia-Minor, and a
+few from the Moluccas, New Guinea, North Australia, West Africa, and
+Tropical America; _Thamnodyastes_, _Tropidodipsas_, and several others,
+from Tropical America; _Dipsadoboa_, from West Africa and Tropical America;
+_Leptodeira_, from Tropical and South Africa, South America, and Mexico;
+and _Pythonodipsas_, from Central Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 14.--SCYTALIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+It is doubtful how far the three genera which constitute this family form a
+natural assemblage. We can therefore draw no safe conclusions from the
+peculiarity of their distribution--_Scytale_ and _Oxyrhopus_ being confined
+to Tropical America; while _Hologerrhum_ inhabits the Philippine Islands.
+
+
+{380}FAMILY 15.--LYCODONTIDÆ. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Lycodontidæ, or Fanged Ground Snakes, are confined to the Ethiopian and
+Oriental regions, over the whole of which they range, except that they are
+absent from Madagascar and extend eastward to New Guinea. The genera have
+often a limited distribution:--
+
+_Lycodon_ ranges from India and Ceylon to China, the Philippines, and New
+Guinea; _Tetragonosoma_, the Malay Peninsula and Islands; _Leptorhytaon_
+and _Ophites_, India; _Cercaspis_, Ceylon; and _Cyclocorus_, the
+Philippines. The African genera are _Boædon_, _Lycophidion_,
+_Holuropholis_, _Simocephalus_, and _Lamprophis_, the latter being found
+only in South Africa. The species are nearly equally abundant in both
+regions, but no genus is common to the two.
+
+
+FAMILY 16.--AMBLYCEPHALIDÆ. (5 Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- 3? --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Amblycephalidæ, or Blunt Heads, are very singularly distributed, being
+nearly equally divided between Tropical America and the eastern half of the
+Oriental region, as will be seen by the following statement of the
+distribution of the genera:--
+
+_Amblycephalus_ (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula to Borneo and the Philippines;
+_Pareas_ (3 sp.), Assam, China, Java, and Borneo; {381}_Asthenodipsas_ (1
+sp.), Malacca; _Leptognathus_ (6 sp.), Central and South America; and
+_Anoplodipsas_ (1 sp.), supposed to come from New Caledonia, and, if so,
+furnishing a link, though a very imperfect one, between the disconnected
+halves of the family.
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--PYTHONIDÆ. (21 Genera, 46 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pythonidæ, comprising the Rock Snakes, Pythons, and Boas, are confined
+to the tropics, with the exception of one species in California. They are
+very abundant in the Neotropical region, where nearly half the known
+species occur; the Australian region comes next, while the Oriental is the
+least prolific in these large serpents. The genera which have been
+described are very numerous, but they are by no means well defined. The
+following are the most important:--
+
+_Python_ is confined to the Oriental region; _Morelia_, _Liasis_, and
+_Nardoa_ are Australian and Papuan; _Enygrus_ is found in the Moluccas, New
+Guinea and the Fiji Islands; _Hortulia_ is African; _Sanzinia_ is peculiar
+to Madagascar; _Boa_, _Epicrates_, _Corallus_, _Ungalia_, and _Eunectes_
+are Tropical American; _Chilabothrus_ is peculiar to Jamaica and Mexico;
+and _Lichanotus_ to California.
+
+An extinct species belonging to this family has been found in the
+Brown-coal formation of Germany, of Miocene age.
+
+
+FAMILY 18.--ERYCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- 2 -- -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{382}The Erycidæ, or Land Snakes, form a small but natural family, chiefly
+found in the desert zone on the confines of the Palæarctic, Oriental, and
+Ethiopian regions. They range from South Europe to West Africa and to
+Sikhim. The three genera are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Cursoria_ (1 sp.), Afghanistan; _Gongylophis_ (1 sp.), India and Sikhim;
+_Eryx_ (4 sp.), has the range of the entire family.
+
+
+FAMILY 19.--ACROCHORDIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Acrochordidæ, or Wart Snakes, form a small and isolated group, found
+only in two sub-divisions of the Oriental region--the South Indian and the
+Malayan, and in New Guinea.
+
+_Acrochordus_, inhabits Penang, Singapore, and Borneo; _Chersydrus_,
+Southern India and the Malay Peninsula, with a species recently discovered
+in New Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 20.--ELAPIDÆ. (23 Genera, 100 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Elapidæ, or Terrestrial venomous Colubrine Snakes, are an extensive
+group, spread over the tropics of the whole world, but especially abundant
+in Australia, where half the known species occur, some of them being the
+most deadly of venomous serpents. In the Oriental region they are also
+abundant, containing amongst other forms, the well-known Cobras. The
+American species are almost equally numerous, but they all belong to one
+{383}genus, and they are annulated with rings of various colours in a
+manner quite distinct from any other members of this family. The genera,
+which are all very distinct, are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Diemenia_, _Acanthophis_, _Hoplocephalus_, _Brachiurophis_, _Tropidechis_,
+_Pseudechis_, _Cacophis_, _Pseudonaje_, _Denisonia_, and _Vermicella_, are
+Australian, the first two ranging to the Moluccas and New Guinea; _Ogmodon_
+occurs in the Fiji Islands; _Naja_, _Bungarus_, _Ophiophagus_,
+_Pseudonaje_, _Xenurelaps_, _Doliophis_, _Megærophis_, and _Callophis_ are
+Oriental, one species of the latter genus being found in Japan, while an
+_Ophiophagus_ has been discovered in New Guinea; _Cyrtophis_, _Elapsoidea_,
+and _Poecilophis_ are African: _Elaps_ is American, ranging as far north as
+South Carolina, but not to the West Indian Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 21.--DENDRASPIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The single genus _Dendraspis_, constituting the family, is confined to
+Tropical Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--ATRACTASPIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This small family, consisting of the genus _Atractaspis_, is also confined
+to Africa, but has hitherto only been found in the West and South.
+
+
+{384}FAMILY 23.--HYDROPHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 50 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hydrophidæ, or Sea Snakes, are a group of small-sized marine serpents,
+abundant in the Indian and Australian seas, and extending as far west as
+Madagascar, and as far east as Panama. They are very poisonous, and it is
+probable that many species remain to be discovered. The genera are
+distributed as follows:--
+
+_Hydrophis_ (37 sp.), ranging from India to Formosa and Australia;
+_Platurus_ (2 sp.), from the Bay of Bengal to New Guinea and New Zealand;
+_Aipysurus_ (3 sp.), Java to New Guinea and Australia; _Disteira_ (1 sp.),
+unknown locality; _Acalyptus_ (1 sp.), South-west Pacific; _Enhydrina_ (1
+sp.), Bay of Bengal to New Guinea; _Pelamis_ (1 sp.), Madagascar to New
+Guinea, New Zealand, and Panama; _Emydocephalus_ (1 sp.), Australian Seas.
+
+
+FAMILY 24.--CROTALIDÆ. (11 Genera, 40 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 .3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Crotalidæ, or Pit Vipers, including the deadly Rattlesnakes, form a
+well-marked family of fanged serpents, whose distribution is very
+interesting. They abound most in the Oriental region, at least 5 of the
+genera and 20 species being found within its limits, yet they are quite
+unknown in the Ethiopian region--a parallel case to that of the Bears and
+Deer. A few species are peculiar to the eastern portion of the Palæarctic
+region, while {385}the Nearctic is actually richer than the Neotropical
+region both in genera and species. This would point to the conclusion, that
+the group originated in the Indo-Chinese sub-region and spread thence
+north-east to North America, and so onward to South America, which, having
+been the last to receive the group, has not had time to develop it largely,
+notwithstanding its extreme adaptability to Reptilian life. The genera are
+divided among the several regions as follows:--
+
+_Craspedocephalus_ (7 sp.), Tropical America and the West Indian Islands;
+_Cenchris_, _Crotalophorus_, _Uropsophorus_, and _Crotalus_, inhabiting
+North America from Canada and British Columbia to Texas, one species
+(_Crotalus horridus_) extending into South America; _Trimeresurus_ (16
+sp.), all India from Ceylon to Assam, Formosa, the Philippines and Celebes;
+_Peltopelor_ and _Hypnale_ (1 sp. each), peculiar to India; _Calloselasma_
+(1 sp.), Siam; _Atropos_ (1 sp.), Java and Borneo; _Halys_ (3 sp.),
+peculiar to Tartary, Thibet, Japan, North China, and Formosa.
+
+
+FAMILY 25.--VIPERIDÆ. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Viperidæ, or True Vipers, are especially characteristic of the
+Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions, only one species being found over a large
+part of the Oriental region, and another reaching Central India. They are
+especially abundant in Africa, and the Palæarctic confines in South-western
+Asia. The common Viper ranges across the whole Palæarctic region from
+Portugal to Saghalien Island, reaching to 67° North Latitude, in
+Scandinavia, and to 58° in Central Siberia. The genera, according to Dr.
+Strauch's synopsis, are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Vipera_ (17 sp.), which has the range of the family, extending over the
+whole of the Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions, except Madagascar, and as
+far as Ceylon, Siam, and Java, in the Oriental {386}region; _Echis_ (2
+sp.), inhabiting North Africa to Persia and to Continental India; and
+_Atheris_ (3 sp.), confined to West Africa.
+
+
+_Remarks on the General Distribution of Ophidia._
+
+The Ophidia, being preeminently a Tropical order--rapidly diminishing in
+numbers as we go north in the Temperate Zone, and wholly ceasing long
+before we reach the Arctic Circle--we cannot expect the two Northern
+regions to exhibit any great variety or peculiarity. Yet in their warmer
+portions they are tolerably rich; for, of the 25 families of snakes, 6 are
+found in the Nearctic region, 10 in the Palæarctic, 13 in the Australian,
+16 in the Neotropical, 17 in the Ethiopian, and no less than 22 in the
+Oriental, which last is thus seen to be by far the richest of the great
+regions in the variety of its forms of Ophidian life. The only regions that
+possess altogether peculiar families of this order, are the Ethiopian (3),
+and the Oriental (2); the usually rich and peculiar Neotropical region not
+possessing exclusively, any family of snakes; and what is still more
+remarkable, the Neotropical and Australian regions together, do not possess
+a family peculiar to them. Every family inhabiting these two regions is
+found also in the Oriental; and this fact, taken in connection with the
+superior richness of the latter region both in families and genera, would
+indicate that the Ophidia had their origin in the northern hemisphere of
+the Old World (the ancient Palæarctic region) whence they spread on all
+sides, in successive waves of migration, to the other regions. The
+distribution of the genera peculiar to, or highly characteristic of, the
+several regions is as follows:--
+
+The Nearctic possesses 9; four of these belong to the Colubridæ, one to the
+Pythonidæ, and four to the Crotalidæ. The Palæarctic region has only 2
+peculiar genera, belonging to the Colubridæ and Crotalidæ. The Ethiopian
+has 25, belonging to 11 families; four to Colubridæ, five to Lycodontidæ,
+and three to Elapidæ. The Oriental has no less than 50, belonging to 15
+families; five are Colubridæ, five Uropeltidæ, twelve Homalopsidæ, six
+Lycodontidæ, three Amblycephalidæ, eight Elapidæ, and four {387}Crotalidæ.
+The Australian has 16, belonging to three families only; eleven being
+Elapidæ, and four Pythonidæ. The Neotropical has about 24, belonging to
+eight families; ten are Colubridæ, six Pythonidæ, and the rest Dipsadidæ,
+Scytalidæ, Amblycephalidæ, Elapidæ, and Crotalidæ.
+
+We find then, that in the Ophidia, the regions adopted in this work are
+remarkably distinct; and that, in the case of the Oriental and Ethiopian,
+the difference is strongly marked, a very large number of the genera being
+confined to each region. It is interesting to observe, that in many cases
+the affinity seems to be rather between the West Coast of Africa and the
+Oriental region, than between the East Coast and the plains of India; thus
+the Homalopsidæ--a highly characteristic Oriental family--occur on the West
+Coast of Africa only; the Dryiophidæ, which range over the whole Oriental
+region, only occur in Madagascar and West Africa in the Ethiopian; the
+genus _Dipsas_ is found over all the Oriental region and again in West
+Africa. A cause for this peculiarity has been suggested in our sketch of
+the past history of the Ethiopian region, Vol. I. p. 288. In the
+Lycodontidæ, which are strictly confined to these two regions, the genera
+are all distinct, and the same is the case with the more widely distributed
+Elapidæ; and although a few desert forms, such as _Echis_ and the Erycidæ,
+are common to Africa and the dry plains of India, this is evidently due to
+favourable climatic conditions, and cannot neutralise the striking
+differences in the great mass of the family and generic forms which inhabit
+the two regions. The union of Madagascar with the South-western part of the
+Oriental region under the appellation Lemuria, finds no support in the
+distribution of Ophidia; which, however, strikingly accords with the views
+developed in the Third Part of this work, as to the great importance and
+high antiquity of the Euro-Asiatic continent, as the chief land-centre from
+which the higher organisms have spread over the globe.
+
+_Fossil Ophidia._--The oldest known remains of Ophidia occur in the Eocene
+formation in the Isle of Sheppey; others are found in the Miocene (Brown
+Coal) of Germany, and in some Tertiary beds in the United States. Most of
+these appear to have been {388}large species belonging to the Pythonidæ, so
+that we are evidently still very far from knowing anything of the earliest
+forms of this order. In some of the later Tertiary deposits the poison
+fangs of venomous species have been found; also a Colubrine snake from the
+Upper Miocene of the South of France.
+
+
+_Order II.--LACERTILIA._
+
+FAMILY 26.--TROGONOPHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The single species of _Trogonophis_, forming this family, is found only in
+North Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 27.--CHIROTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+_Chirotes_, the genus which constitutes this family, inhabits Mexico, and
+has also been found in Missouri, one of the Southern United States.
+
+
+FAMILY 28.--AMPHISBÆNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 13 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{389}The Amphisbænidæ, which, in the opinion of Dr. Günther, are all
+comprised in the genus _Amphisbæna_, inhabit Spain and Asia Minor, North
+and Tropical Africa, South America as far as Buenos-Ayres and the West
+Indian Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 29.--LEPIDOSTERNIDÆ. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The small family of Lepidosternidæ has nearly the same distribution as the
+last, indicating a curious relationship between the Tropical parts of
+Africa and America. _Lepidosternon_ and _Cephalopeltis_ are American
+genera, while _Monotrophis_ is African.
+
+
+FAMILY 30.--VARANIDÆ. (3 Genera, 30 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Varanidæ, or Water Lizards, are most abundant in the Oriental region,
+whence they extend into the Austro-Malay Islands as far as New Guinea, and
+into Australia. Several species are found in Africa. _Psammosaurus_ (1
+sp.), is found in North Africa and North-western India; _Monitor_ (18 sp.),
+has the range of the family; while _Hydrosaurus_ (8 sp.) ranges from Siam
+to the Philippines, New Guinea, and Australia.
+
+
+{390}FAMILY 31.--HELODERMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Heloderma_, which constitutes this family, is found in Mexico.
+
+
+FAMILY 32.--TEIDÆ. (12 Genera, 74 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Teidæ, or Teguexins--a group of Lizards allied to the European
+Lacertidæ, but with differently formed superciliary scales--are highly
+characteristic of the Neotropical region, abounding almost everywhere from
+Patagonia to the Antilles and Mexico, and extending northwards to
+California on the west and to Pennsylvania on the east. The most extensive
+genus is _Ameiva_, containing nearly 60 species and having the range of the
+entire family; _Teius_ (3 sp.), inhabits Brazil and Mendoza; _Callopistes_
+(2 sp.), Chili; _Centropyx_ (3 sp.), Paraguay to Alabama; _Dicrodon_
+(Peru); _Monoplocus_ (Western Ecuador); with _Acrantus_, _Acanthopyga_,
+_Emminia_, _Crocodilurus_, _Custa_, and _Ada_, which each consist of a
+single species, and all inhabit Tropical America.
+
+
+FAMILY 33.--LACERTIDÆ. (18 Genera, 80 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{391}The Lacertidæ, or Land Lizards, are small-sized, terrestrial,
+non-burrowing lizards, very characteristic of the Palæarctic region, which
+contains more than half the known species, and of the adjacent parts of the
+Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but extending also to South Africa, to
+Java, and even to Australia. The best-defined genera are the following:--
+
+_Lacerta_ (10 sp.), ranging over all Central and South Europe to Poland,
+and farther north in Russia and Siberia, eastward to Persia, and southward
+to North and West Africa; _Zootoca_ (8 sp.), has nearly the same range in
+Europe as the last genus, but has representatives in Madeira, South Africa,
+and Australia; _Tachydromus_ (7 sp.) is widely scattered in Chinese Asia,
+Japan, Borneo, and West Africa; _Acanthodactylus_ (10 sp.) is most abundant
+in North Africa, but has a species in South Africa, and two in Central
+India; _Eremias_ (18 sp.) is found all over Africa, and also in the Crimea,
+Persia, Tartary and China; _Psammodromus_ (2 sp.), is confined to Spain,
+France, and Italy; _Ophiops_ (6 sp.), inhabits India, Persia, and Asia
+Minor to South Russia. Less strongly marked and perhaps less natural genera
+are the following:--
+
+_Thetia_ (1 sp.), Algiers; _Teira_ (1 sp.), Madeira; _Nucras_ (4 sp.),
+Caucasus and South Africa; _Notopholis_ (4 sp.), South Europe and South
+Africa; _Algira_ (3 sp.), North and South Africa; _Scrapteira_ (1 sp.),
+Nubia; _Aspidorhinus_ (1 sp.), Caspian district; _Messalina_ (4 sp.), North
+Africa, Persia, and North-west India _Cabrita_ (1 sp.), Central India;
+_Pachyrhynchus_ (1 sp.), Benguela.
+
+
+FAMILY 34.--ZONURIDÆ. (15 Genera, 52 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Zonuridæ, or Land Lizards, characterised by a longitudinal fold of skin
+on each side of the body, have a very remarkable {392}distribution. Their
+head-quarters is the Ethiopian region, which contains more than half the
+known genera and species, most of which are found in South Africa and
+several in Madagascar. Next to Africa the largest number of genera and
+species are found in Mexico and Central America, with a few in the
+Antilles, South America, and California, and even as far north as British
+Columbia. Three of the genera form a distinct sub-group--the Glass
+Snakes,--the four species composing it being located in North Africa, North
+America, South-eastern Europe, and the Khasya Hills.
+
+The prominent fact in the distribution of this family is, that the mass of
+the genera and species form two groups, one in South Africa, the other in
+Mexico,--countries between which it would be difficult to imagine any means
+of communication. We have here, probably, an example of a once much more
+extensive group, widely distributed over the globe, and which has continued
+to maintain itself only in those districts especially adapted to its
+peculiar type of organization. This must undoubtedly have been the case
+with the genus _Pseudopus_, whose two species now inhabit South-eastern
+Europe and the Khasya Hills in Assam respectively.
+
+The genera are,--_Cordylus_, _Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_,
+_Cordylosaurus_, _Pleurostrichus_, and _Saurophis_, confined to South
+Africa; _Zonurus_, South and East Africa and Madagascar; _Gerrhosaurus_,
+ranges over the whole Ethiopian region; _Cicigna_ is confined to
+Madagascar; _Gerrhonotus_ (22 sp.), ranges from British Columbia,
+California, and Texas, to Cuba and South America, but is most abundant in
+Mexico and Central America; _Abronia_ and _Barissia_, are two genera of
+doubtful distinctness, peculiar to Mexico; _Ophisaurus_ (the Glass Snake)
+is found in the Southern United States as far as Virginia; the allied genus
+_Hyalosaurus_ in North Africa; and _Pseudopus_, as above stated, in
+South-east Europe and the Khasya Hills.
+
+
+{393}FAMILY 35.--CHALCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 8 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- ?3 --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Chalcidæ are a small group of Lizards characteristic of Tropical
+America, one species extending into the United States.
+
+The genera are _Chalcis_ (6 sp.), ranging from Central America to Chili;
+two other species, which have been placed in distinct genera, inhabit North
+America and Peru.
+
+
+FAMILY 36.--ANADIADÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The single species of _Anadia_, constituting this family, inhabits Tropical
+America.
+
+
+FAMILY 37.--CHIROCOLIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Heterodactylus_, which constitutes this family, inhabits Brazil.
+
+
+{394}FAMILY 38.--IPHISADÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The single species of _Iphisa_, has been found only at Para in Equatorial
+America.
+
+
+FAMILY 39.--CERCOSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Cercosaura_, is known only from Brazil and Ecuador.
+
+
+FAMILY 40.--CHAMÆSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family, consisting of a single species of the genus _Chamæsaura_, is
+confined to South Africa.
+
+
+{395}FAMILY 41.--GYMNOPTHALMIDÆ . (5 Genera, 14 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 --  4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Gymnopthalmidæ, or Gape-eyed Scinks, so called from their rudimentary
+eyelids, form a small group, which is widely and somewhat erratically
+distributed, as will be seen by the following account of the distribution
+of the genera:--
+
+_Lerista_ (1 sp.) and three other species for which Dr. Gray has
+established the genera--_Morethria_ (1 sp.), and _Menetia_ (2 sp.), are
+confined to Australia; _Cryptoblepharus_ (4 sp.), is found in West
+Australia, Timor, New Guinea, the Fiji Islands, and Mauritius; _Ablepharus_
+(4 sp.), inhabits Eastern and South-eastern Europe, Persia, Siberia, West
+Africa, and the Bonin Islands; and _Gymnopthalmus_ (3 sp.), is found in
+Brazil and the West Indies.
+
+
+FAMILY 42.--PYGOPODIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This small family of two-legged Lizards, comprising the genera _Pygopus_
+and _Delma_, is found only in Australia proper and Tasmania.
+
+
+{396}FAMILY 43.--APRASIADÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Aprasia_, constituting this family, is found in West and South
+Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 44.--LIALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family is also confined to Australia, the single genus, _Lialis_,
+inhabiting the Western and Northern districts.
+
+
+FAMILY 45.--SCINCIDÆ. (60 Genera, 300 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Scincidæ, or Scinks, are an extensive family of smooth-scaled lizards,
+frequenting dry and stony places, and almost universally distributed over
+the globe, being only absent from the cold northern and southern zones. The
+family itself is a very natural one, and it contains many natural genera;
+but a large number have been established which probably require careful
+revision. The following include the more important and the best established
+groups:--
+
+{397}_Scincus_ (2 sp.), North Africa and Arabia; _Hinulia_ (20 sp.), most
+of the Australian and Oriental regions; _Cyclodina_ (1 sp.), _Hombronia_ (1
+sp.), and _Lygosomella_ (1 sp.), all from New Zealand; _Keneuxia_ (1 sp.),
+Philippines, Moluccas, and Papuan Islands; _Elania_ (1 sp.) New Guinea;
+_Carlia_ (2 sp.), North Australia and New Guinea; _Mocoa_ (16 sp.),
+Australia and New Zealand, with species in Borneo, West Africa, and Central
+America; _Lipinia_ (3 sp.), Philippine Islands and New Guinea; _Lygosoma_
+(12 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, Pelew and Philippine Islands;
+_Tetradactylus_ (1 sp.), _Hemierges_ (2 sp.), _Chelomeles_ (2 sp.),
+_Omolepida_ (1 sp.), _Lissolepis_ (1 sp.), _Siaphos_ (1 sp.), _Rhodona_ (3
+sp.) _Anomalpus_ (1 sp.), _Soridia_ (2 sp.), and _Ophioscincus_ (1 sp.) all
+confined to Australia; _Cophoscincus_ (3 sp.), Philippine Islands, Celebes,
+and Queensland; _Plestiodon_ (18 sp.), China and Japan, Africa, and America
+as far north as Pennsylvania and Nebraska; _Eumeces_ (30 sp.), South
+Palæarctic, Oriental and Australian regions, to New Ireland and North
+Australia; _Mabouya_ (20 sp.), Oriental region, Austro-Malaya, North
+Australia, the Neotropical region, and to Lat. 42° 30' in North America;
+_Amphixestus_ (1 sp.), Borneo; _Hagria_ (1 sp.), and _Chiamela_ (1 sp.),
+India; _Senira_ (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; _Brachymeles_ (2 sp.),
+Philippine Islands and Australia; _Ophiodes_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Anguis_ (3
+sp.), West Palæarctic region and South Africa; _Tribolonotus_ (1 sp.), New
+Guinea; _Tropidophorus_ (2 sp.), Cochin-China and Philippine Islands;
+_Norbea_ (2 sp.), Borneo and Australia; _Trachydosaurus_ (1 sp.),
+Australia; Cyclodus (8 sp.), Australia, Aru Islands, and Ceram;
+_Silubosaurus_ (2 sp.), _Egerina_ (2 sp.), and _Tropidolepisma_ (6 sp.),
+all peculiar to Australia; _Heteropus_ (7 sp.), Australia, Austro-Malaya,
+and Bourbon; _Pygomeles_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Dasia_ (1 sp.), Malaya;
+_Euprepes_ (70 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, Austro-Malaya, South
+America (?); _Celestus_ (9 sp.), peculiar to the Antilles, except a species
+in Costa Rica; _Diploglossus_ (7 sp.), the Neotropical region;--with a
+number of other genera founded on single species from various parts of the
+world.
+
+
+{398}FAMILY 46.--OPHIOMORIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The snake-like Lizard constituting the genus _Ophiomorus_, is found in
+Southern Russia, Greece, and Algeria; while _Zygnopsis_ having four weak
+limbs, has been recently discovered by Mr. Blanford in South Persia. The
+family is therefore confined to our Mediterranean sub-region.
+
+
+FAMILY 47.--SEPIDÆ. (7 Genera, 22 species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Sepidæ, or Sand-Lizards, are a very natural group, almost confined to
+the Ethiopian region, but extending into the desert country on the borders
+of the Oriental region, and into the south of the Palæarctic region as far
+as Palestine, Madeira, Spain, Italy, and even the South of France. The
+genera are:--
+
+_Seps_ (10 sp.), South Europe, Madeira, Teneriffe, Palestine, North Africa,
+South Africa and Madagascar; _Sphenops_ (2 sp.), North Africa, Syria, West
+Africa; _Scelotes_ (3 sp.), Angola to South Africa, Madagascar; _Thyrus_ (1
+sp.), Bourbon and Mauritius; _Amphiglossus_ (1 sp.), Madagascar;
+_Sphenocephalus_ (1 sp.), Afghanistan; and _Sepsina_ (4 sp.), South-west
+Africa.
+
+
+{399}FAMILY 48.--ACONTIADÆ. (3 Genera, 7 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This small family of snake-like Lizards has a very curious distribution,
+being found in South and West Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, and Ternate in
+the Moluccas. _Acontias_ (4 sp.), is found in the four first-named
+localities; _Nessia_ (2 sp.), is confined to Ceylon; _Typhloscincus_ (1
+sp.), to Ternate.
+
+
+FAMILY 49.--GECKOTIDÆ. (50 Genera, 200 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Geckoes, or Wall-Lizards, form an extensive family, of almost universal
+distribution in the warmer parts of the globe; and they must have some
+exceptional means of dispersal, since they are found in many of the most
+remote islands of the great oceans,--as the Galapagos, the Sandwich
+Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, the Loo-Choo and the Seychelle Islands, the
+Nicobar Islands, Mauritius, Ascension, Madeira, and many others. The
+following are the larger and more important genera:--
+
+_Oëdura_ (3 sp.), Australia; _Diplodactylus_ (8 sp)., Australia, South
+Africa, and California; _Phyllodactylus_ (8 sp.), widely scattered in
+Tropical America, California, Madagascar, and Queensland; _Hemidactylus_
+(40 sp.), all tropical and warm countries; _Peropus_ (12 sp.), the Oriental
+region, Papuan Islands, Mauritius, and Brazil; _Pentadactylus_ (7 sp.),
+Oriental region and Australia; _Gecko_ (12 sp.), Oriental region to New
+Guinea and {400}North Australia; _Gehyra_ (5 sp.), Australia, New Guinea
+and Fiji Islands; _Tarentola_ (7 sp.), North Africa, North America,
+Madeira, Borneo, South Africa; _Phelsuma_ (6 sp.), Madagascar, Bourbon, and
+Andaman Islands; _Pachydactylus_ (5 sp.), South and West Africa, and
+Ascension Island; _Sphærodactylus_ (5 sp.), the Neotropical region;
+_Naultinus_, (6 sp.), New Zealand; _Goniodactylus_ (5 sp.), Australia,
+Timor, South America and Algiers; _Heteronota_ (4 sp.), Australia, Fiji
+Islands, New Guinea and Borneo; _Cubina_ (4 sp.), the Neotropical region;
+_Gymnodactylus_ (16 sp.), all warm countries except Australia; _Phyllurus_
+(3 sp.), Australia; _Stenodactylus_ (4 sp.), North and West Africa, and Rio
+Grande in North America.
+
+The remaining genera mostly consist of single species, and are pretty
+equally distributed over the various parts of the world indicated in the
+preceding list. Madagascar, the Seychelle Islands, Chili, the Sandwich
+Islands, South Africa, Tahiti, the Philippine Islands, New Caledonia, and
+Australia--all have peculiar genera, while two new ones have recently been
+described from Persia.
+
+
+FAMILY 50.--IGUANIDÆ. (56 Genera, 236 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The extensive family of the Iguanas is highly characteristic of the
+Neotropical region, in every part of which the species abound, even as far
+as nearly 50° South Latitude in Patagonia. They also extend northwards into
+the warmer parts of the Nearctic region, as far as California, British
+Columbia, and Kansas on the west, and to 43° North Latitude in the Eastern
+States. A distinct genus occurs in the Fiji Islands, and one has been
+described as from Australia, and another from Madagascar, but there is some
+doubt about these. The most extensive genera are:--
+
+_Anolius_ (84 sp.), found in most parts of Tropical America and {401}north
+to California; _Tropidolepis_ (15 sp.), which has nearly the same range;
+_Leiocephalus_ (14 sp.), Antilles, Guayaquil, and Galapagos Islands;
+_Leiolæmus_ (14 sp.), Peru to Patagonia; _Sceloporus_ (9 sp.), from Brazil
+to California and British Columbia, and on the east to Florida;
+_Proctotretus_ (6 sp.), Chili and Patagonia; _Phrynosoma_ (8 sp), New
+Mexico, California, Oregon and British Columbia, Arkansas and Florida;
+_Iguana_ (5 sp.), Antilles and South America; _Cyclusa_ (4 sp.), Antilles,
+Honduras, and Mexico.
+
+Among the host of smaller genera may be noted:--
+
+_Brachylophus_, found in the Fiji Islands; _Trachycephalus_ and
+_Oreocephalus_, peculiar to the Galapagos; _Oreodeira_, said to be from
+Australia; _Diplolæmus_ and _Phymaturus_, found only in Chili and
+Patagonia; and _Callisaurus_, _Uta_, _Euphryne_, _Uma_, and _Holbrookia_,
+from New Mexico and California. All the other genera are from various parts
+of Tropical America.
+
+
+FAMILY 51.--AGAMIDÆ. (42 Genera, 156 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The extensive family Agamidæ--the Eastern representative of the Iguanas--is
+highly characteristic of the Oriental region, which possesses about half
+the known genera and species. Of the remainder, the greater part inhabit
+the Australian region; others range over the deserts of Central and Western
+Asia and Northern Africa, as far as Greece and South Russia. One genus
+extends through Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and there are three
+peculiar genera in Madagascar, but the family is very poorly represented in
+the Ethiopian region. Many of these creatures are adorned with beautifully
+varied and vivid colours, and the little "dragons" or flying-lizards are
+among the most interesting forms in the entire order. The larger genera are
+distributed as follows:--
+
+{402}_Draco_ (18 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding Ceylon; _Otocryptis_
+(4 sp.), Ceylon, North India, Malaya; _Ceratophora_ (3 sp.), Ceylon;
+_Gonyocephalus_ (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Java, Borneo, Pelew Islands;
+_Dilophyrus_ (7 sp.), Indo-Malaya and Siam; _Japalura_ (6 sp.), Himalayas,
+Borneo, Formosa, and Loo Choo Islands; _Sitana_ (2 sp.), Central and South
+India and Ceylon; _Bronchocela_ (3 sp.), Indo-Malaya, Cambodja, and
+Celebes; _Calotes_ (12 sp.), Continental India to China, Philippine
+Islands; _Oriocalotes_ (2 sp.), Himalayas; _Acanthosaura_ (5 sp.), Malacca
+and Siam; _Tiaris_ (3 sp.), Andaman Islands, Borneo, Philippine and Papuan
+Islands; _Physignathus_ (3 sp.), Cochin-China and Australia; _Uromastix_ (5
+sp.), South Russia, North Africa, Central India; _Stellio_ (5 sp.),
+Caucasus and Greece to Arabia, High Himalayas and Central India; _Trapelus_
+(5 sp.), Tartary, Egypt, and Afghanistan; _Phrynocephalus_ (10 sp.),
+Tartary and Mongolia, Persia and Afghanistan; _Lophura_ (2 sp.), Amboyna
+and Pelew Islands; _Grammatophorus_ (14 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
+_Agama_ (14 sp.), North Africa to the Punjaub, South Africa. The remaining
+genera each consist of a single species. Eight are peculiar to Australia,
+one to the Fiji Islands, one to the Aru Islands, three to Ceylon, five to
+other parts of the Oriental region, one to Persia, and one to South Russia.
+
+
+FAMILY 52.--CHAMÆLEONIDÆ. (1 Genus, 30 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Chamæleons are an almost exclusively Ethiopian group, only one species,
+the common Chamæleon, inhabiting North Africa and Western Asia as far as
+Central India and Ceylon. They abound all over Africa, and peculiar species
+are found in Madagascar and Bourbon, as well as in the Island of Fernando
+Po.
+
+
+{403}_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Lacertilia._
+
+The distribution of the Lacertilia is, in many particulars, strikingly
+opposed to that of the Ophidia. The Oriental, instead of being the richest
+is one of the poorest regions, both in the number of families and in the
+number of peculiar genera it contains; while in both these respects the
+Neotropical is by far the richest. The distribution of the families is as
+follows:--
+
+The Nearctic region has 7 families, none of which are peculiar to it; but
+it has 3 peculiar genera--_Chirotes_, _Ophisaurus_, and _Phrynosoma_.
+
+The Palæarctic region has 12 families, with two (Ophiomoridæ and
+Trogonophidæ, each consisting of a single species) peculiar; while it has 6
+peculiar or very characteristic genera, _Trogonophis_ in North Africa,
+_Psammodromus_ in South Europe, _Hyalosaurus_ in North Africa, _Scincus_ in
+North Africa and Arabia, _Ophiomorus_ in East Europe and North Africa, and
+_Phrynocephalus_ in Siberia, Tartary, and Afghanistan. We have here a
+striking amount of diversity between the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions
+with hardly a single point of resemblance.
+
+The Ethiopian region has 13 families, only one of which (the Chamæsauridæ,
+consisting of a single species) is altogether peculiar; but it possesses 21
+peculiar or characteristic genera, 9 belonging to the Zonuridæ, 2 to the
+Sepidæ, 7 to the Geckotidæ, and 3 to the Agamidæ.
+
+The Oriental region has only 8 families, none of which are peculiar; but
+there are 28 peculiar genera, 6 belonging to the Scincidæ, 1 to the
+Acontiadæ, 5 to the Geckotidæ, and 16 to the Agamidæ. Many lizards being
+sand and desert-haunters, it is not surprising that a number of forms are
+common to the borderlands of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions; yet the
+Sepidæ, so abundant in all Africa, do not range to the peninsula of India;
+and the equally Ethiopian Zonuridæ have only one Oriental species, found,
+not in the peninsula but in the Khasya Hills. The Acontiadæ alone offer
+some analogy to the distribution of the Lemurs, being found in Africa,
+Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Moluccas.
+
+The Australian region has 11 families, 3 of which are {404}peculiar; and it
+has about 40 peculiar genera in ten families, about half of these genera
+belonging to the Scincidæ. Only 3 families of almost universal distribution
+are common to the Australian and Neotropical regions, with one species of
+the American Iguanidæ in the Fiji Islands, so that, as far as this order is
+concerned, these two regions have little resemblance.
+
+The Neotropical region has 15 families, 6 of which are peculiar to it, and
+it possesses more than 50 peculiar genera. These are distributed among 12
+families, but more than half belong to the Iguanidæ, and half the remainder
+to the Teidæ,--the two families especially characteristic of the
+Neotropical region. All the Nearctic families which are not of almost
+universal distribution are peculiarly Neotropical, showing that the
+Lacertilia of the former region have probably been derived almost
+exclusively from the latter.
+
+On the whole the distribution of the Lacertilia shows a remarkable amount
+of specialization in each of the great tropical regions, whence we may
+infer that Southern Asia, Tropical Africa, Australia, and South America,
+each obtained their original stock of this order at very remote periods,
+and that there has since been little intercommunication between them. The
+peculiar affinities indicated by such cases as the Lepidosternidæ, found
+only in the tropics of Africa and South America, and _Tachydromus_ in
+Eastern Asia and West Africa, may be the results either of once widely
+distributed families surviving only in isolated localities where the
+conditions are favourable,--or of some partial and temporary geographical
+connection, allowing of a limited degree of intermixture of faunas. The
+former appears to be the more probable and generally efficient cause, but
+the latter may have operated in exceptional cases.
+
+
+_Fossil Lacertilia._
+
+These date back to the Triassic period, and they are found in most
+succeeding formations, but it is not till the Tertiary period that forms
+allied to existing genera occur. These are at present too rare and too
+ill-defined to throw much light on the geographical distribution of the
+order.
+
+
+{405}_Order III.--RHYNCOCEPHALINA._
+
+FAMILY 53.--RHYNCOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The singular and isolated genus _Hatteria_--the "Tuatara" or fringed
+lizard--which alone constitutes this family, has peculiarities of structure
+which separate it from both lizards and crocodiles, and mark it out as an
+ancestral type, as distinct from other living reptiles as the Marsupials
+are from other Mammalia. It is confined to New Zealand, and is chiefly
+found on small islands near the north-east coast, being very rare, if not
+extinct, on the main land. A fossil reptile named _Hyperodapedon_, of
+Triassic age, has been found in Scotland and India, and is supposed by
+Professor Huxley to be more nearly allied to _Hatteria_ than to any other
+living animal.
+
+
+_Order IV.--CROCODILIA._
+
+FAMILY 54.--GAVIALIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- -- 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Gavials are long-snouted Crocodiles with large front teeth, and canines
+fitting in notches of the upper jaw. They consist of two genera, _Gavialis_
+(1 sp.), inhabiting the Ganges; _Tomistoma_ (2 sp.), found in the rivers of
+Borneo and North Australia.
+
+
+{406}FAMILY 55.--CROCODILIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The true Crocodiles, which have the canines in notches, and the large front
+teeth in pits in the upper jaw, are widely distributed over the tropical
+regions of the globe, inhabiting all the rivers of Africa, the shores and
+estuaries of India, Siam, and eastward to North Australia. Other forms
+inhabit Cuba, Yucatan, and Guatemala, to Ecuador and the Orinooko. Four
+species are Asiatic, one exclusively Australian, three African, and four
+American. These have been placed in distinct groups, but Dr. Günther
+considers them all to form one genus, _Crocodilus_.
+
+
+FAMILY 56.--ALLIGATORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Alligators, which are distinguished by having both the large front
+teeth and the canines fitting into pits of the upper jaw, are confined to
+the Neotropical, and the southern part of the Nearctic regions, from the
+lower Mississippi and Texas through all Tropical America, but they appear
+to be absent from the Antilles. They are all placed by Dr. Günther in the
+single genus, _Alligator_.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of Crocodilia._
+
+These animals, being few in number and wholly confined to the tropical and
+sub-tropical regions, are of comparatively {407}little interest as regards
+geographical distribution. America possesses both Crocodiles and
+Alligators; India, Crocodiles and Gavials; while Africa has Crocodiles
+only. Both Crocodiles and Gavials are found in the northern part of the
+Australian region, so that neither of the three families are restricted to
+a single region.
+
+
+_Fossil Crocodilia._
+
+The existing families of the order date back to the Eocene period in
+Europe, and the Cretaceous in North America. In the south of England,
+Alligators, Gavials and Crocodiles, all occur in Eocene beds, indicating
+that the present distribution of these families is the result of partial
+extinction, and a gradual restriction of their range--a most instructive
+fact, suggesting the true explanation of a large number of cases of
+discontinuous distribution which are sometimes held to prove the former
+union of lands now divided by the deepest oceans. In more ancient
+formations, a number of Crocodilian remains have been discovered which
+cannot be classed in any existing families, and which, therefore, throw no
+light on the existing distribution of the group.
+
+
+_Order V.--CHELONIA._
+
+FAMILY 57.--TESTUDINIDÆ. (14 Genera, 126 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Testudinidæ, including the land and many fresh-water tortoises, are
+very widely distributed over the Old and New worlds, but are entirely
+absent from Australia. They are especially abundant in the Nearctic region,
+as far north as Canada and British Columbia, and almost equally so in the
+{408}Neotropical and Oriental regions; in the Ethiopian there is a
+considerable diminution in the number of species, and in the Palæarctic
+they are still less numerous, being confined to the warmer parts of it,
+except one species which extends as far north as Hungary and Prussia. The
+genera are:--
+
+_Testudo_ (25 sp.), most abundant in the Ethiopian region, but also
+extending over the Oriental region, into South Europe, and the Eastern
+States of North America; _Emys_ (64 sp.), abundant in North America and
+over the whole Oriental region, less so in the Neotropical and the
+Palæarctic regions; _Cinosternon_ (13 sp.), United States and California,
+and Tropical America; _Aromochelys_ (4 sp.), confined to the Eastern States
+of North America; _Staurotypus_ (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; _Chelydra_
+(1 sp.), Canada to Louisiana; _Claudius_ (1 sp.), Mexico; _Dermatemys_ (3
+sp.), South America, Guatemala, and Yucatan; _Terrapene_ (4 sp.), Maine to
+Mexico, Sumatra to New Guinea, Shanghae and Formosa--a doubtfully natural
+group; _Cinyxis_ (3 sp.), _Pyxis_ (1 sp.), _Chersina_ (4 sp.), are all
+Ethiopian; _Dumerilia_ (1 sp.), is from Madagascar only.
+
+
+FAMILY 58.--CHELYDIDÆ. (10 Genera, 44 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Chelydidæ, or fresh-water tortoises with imperfectly retractile heads,
+have a remarkable distribution in the three great southern continents of
+Africa, Australia, and South America; the largest number of species being
+found in the latter country. The genera are:--
+
+_Peltocephalus_ (1 sp.), _Podocnemis_ (6 sp.), _Hydromedusa_ (4 sp.),
+_Chelys_ (1 sp.), and _Platemys_ (16 sp.), inhabiting South America from
+the Orinooko to the La Plata, the latter genus occurring also in Australia
+and New Guinea; _Chelodina_ (5 sp.), _Chelemys_ (1 sp.), and _Elseya_ (2
+sp.) from Australia; while _Sternotheres_ {409}(6 sp.), and _Pelomedusa_ (3
+sp.), inhabit Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar.
+
+
+FAMILY 59.--TRIONYCHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The distribution of the Trionychidæ, or Soft Tortoises, is very different
+from that of the Chelydidæ, yet is equally interesting. They abound most in
+the Oriental region, extending beyond it to Northern China and Japan. In
+the Nearctic region they are only found in the Eastern States,
+corresponding curiously to the distribution of plants, in which the
+affinity of Japan to the Eastern States is greater than to California. The
+Trionychidæ are also found over the Ethiopian region, but not in
+Madagascar.
+
+The genera are,--_Trionyx_ (17 sp.), which extends over the whole area of
+the family as above indicated; _Cycloderma_ (5 sp.), peculiar to Africa;
+_Emyda_ (3 sp.), the peninsula of India, Ceylon, and Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 60.--CHELONIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--All the warm and tropical Seas.
+
+The Marine Turtles are almost universally distributed. _Dermatochelys_ (1
+sp.), is found in the temperate seas of both the Northern and Southern
+Hemispheres; _Chelone_ (4 sp.), ranges over all the tropical seas--_C.
+viridis_, the epicureans' species, inhabiting the Atlantic, while _C.
+imbricata_ which produces the "tortoiseshell" of commerce is found in the
+Indian and Pacific oceans.
+
+
+{410}_Remarks on the Distribution of the Chelonia._
+
+The four families into which the Chelonia are classed have all of them a
+wide distribution, though none are universal. The Ethiopian region seems to
+be the richest, as it possesses 3 of the four families, while no other
+region has more than 2; and it also possesses 7 peculiar genera. Next comes
+the Neotropical region with 2 families and 6 peculiar genera; the
+Australian with 3, and the Nearctic with 2 peculiar genera; while the
+Oriental and Palæarctic regions possess none that are peculiar. There are
+about 30 genera and 200 species in the whole order.
+
+_Fossil Chelonia._--The earliest undoubted remains of this order occur in
+the Upper Oolite. These belong to the Cheloniidæ and Emydidæ, which are
+also found in the Chalk. In the Tertiary beds Chelonia are more abundant,
+and the Trionychidæ now appear. The Testudinidæ are first met with in the
+Miocene formation of Europe and the Eocene of North America, the most
+remarkable being the gigantic _Colossochelys Atlas_ of the Siwalik Hills.
+It appears, therefore, that the families of the order Chelonia were already
+specialised in the Secondary period, a fact which, together with their more
+or less aquatic habits, sufficiently accounts for their generally wide
+distribution. Species of _Testudo_, _Emys_, and _Trionyx_, are found in the
+Upper Miocene of the south of France.
+
+
+{411}AMPHIBIA.
+
+
+_Order I.--PSEUDOPHIDIA._
+
+FAMILY 1.--CÆCILIADÆ. (4 Genera, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Cæciliadæ are a curious group of worm-like Amphibia sparingly scattered
+over the three great tropical regions. The genera are,--_Cæcilia_, which
+inhabits West Africa, Malabar and South America; _Siphonopsis_, peculiar to
+Brazil and Mexico; _Ichthyopsis_, from Ceylon and the Khasya Mountains; and
+_Rhinatrema_ from Cayenne.
+
+
+_Order II.--URODELA._
+
+FAMILY 2.--SIRENIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Siren_, consisting of eel-like Batrachians with two anterior
+feet and permanent branchiæ, inhabits the South-Eastern States of North
+America from Texas to Carolina.
+
+
+{412}FAMILY 3.--PROTEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Proteidæ have four feet and persistent external branchiæ. The two
+genera are,--_Proteus_ (1 sp.), found only in caverns of Central Europe;
+and _Menobranchus_, which are like newts in form, and inhabit the Eastern
+States of North America.
+
+
+FAMILY 4.--AMPHIUMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Amphiuma_, or _Murænopsis_, consists of slender eel-like
+creatures with four rudimentary feet, and no external branchiæ. The species
+inhabit the Southern United States from New Orleans to Carolina.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--MENOPOMIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+There are large Salamanders of repulsive appearance, found only in Eastern
+Asia and the Eastern United States. The genera are,--_Sieboldia_ (2 sp.),
+Japan and north-west China; _Menopoma_ = _Protonopsis_ (2 sp.), Ohio and
+Alleghany rivers.
+
+
+{413}FAMILY 6.--SALAMANDRIDÆ. (20 Genera, 85 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Salamandridæ, of which our common Newts are characteristic examples,
+form an extensive family highly characteristic of the North Temperate
+regions, a few species only extending into the Neotropical region along the
+Andes to near Bogota, and one into the Oriental region in Western China.
+The genera, as arranged by Dr. Strauch, are as follows:--
+
+_Salamandra_ (2 sp.), Central and South Europe and North Africa;
+_Pleurodeles_ (1 sp.), Spain, Portugal, and Morocco; _Bradybates_ (1 sp.),
+Spain; _Triton_ (16 sp.), all Europe except the extreme north, Algeria,
+North China and Japan, Eastern States of North America, California and
+Oregon; _Chioglossa_ (2 sp.), Portugal and South Europe; _Salamandrina_ (1
+sp.), Italy to Dalmatia; _Ellipsoglossa_ (2 sp.), Japan; _Isodactylium_ (2
+sp.), East Siberia; _Onychodactylus_ (1 sp.), Japan; _Amblystoma_ (21 sp.),
+Nearctic region from Canada and Oregon to Mexico, most abundant in Eastern
+States; _Ranodon_ (1 sp.), Tartary and North-east China; _Dicamptodon_ (1
+sp.), California; _Plethodon_ (5 sp.), Massachusetts to Louisiana, and
+Vancouver's Island to California; _Desmognathus_ (4 sp.), Eastern United
+States south of latitude 43°; _Anaides_ (1 sp.), Oregon and Northern
+California; _Hemidactylium_ (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and
+Southern California; _Heredia_ (1 sp.), Oregon and California; _Spelerpes_
+(18 sp.), Eastern United States from Massachusetts to Mexico, Guatemala,
+Costa Rica and Andes of Bogota, with a species in South Europe;
+_Batrachoseps_ (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and California;
+_Tylotriton_ (1 sp.), Yunan in West China.
+
+
+{414}_Order III.--ANURA._
+
+FAMILY 7.--RHINOPHRYNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Rhinophrynidæ are Toads with imperfect ears and a tongue which is free
+in front. The single species of _Rhinophrynus_, is a native of Mexico.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--PHRYNISCIDÆ. (5 Genera, 13 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Phryniscidæ, or Toads with imperfect ears and tongue fixed in front,
+are widely distributed over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most
+abundant in the Neotropical region and Australia, while only single species
+occur in the Old World. The genera are:--
+
+_Phryniscus_ (7 sp.), from Costa Rica to Chili and Monte Video;
+_Brachycephalus_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Pseudophryne_ (3 sp.), Australia and
+Tasmania; _Hemisus_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Micrhyla_ (1 sp.), Java.
+
+
+FAMILY 9.--HYLAPLESIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{415}The Hylaplesidæ are Toads with perfect ears, and they seem to be
+confined to the Neotropical region. The only genus, _Hylaplesia_ (5 sp.),
+inhabits Brazil, Chili, and the Island of Hayti.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--BUFONIDÆ. (6 Genera, 64 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The rather extensive family of the Bufonidæ, which includes our common
+Toad, and is characterised by prominent neck glands and tongue fixed in
+front, is almost universally distributed, but is very rare in the
+Australian region; one species being found in Celebes and one in Australia.
+The genera are:--
+
+_Kalophrynus_ (2 sp.), Borneo; _Bufo_ (58 sp.), has the range of the entire
+family, except Australia; _Otilophus_ (1 sp.), South America; _Peltaphryne_
+(1 sp.), Porto Rico; _Pseudobufo_ (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula; _Schismaderma_
+(1 sp.), Natal; _Notaden_ (1 sp.), East Central Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 11.--XENORHINIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Xenorhinidæ may be characterised as Toads with perfect ears and tongue
+free in front. The only species of _Xenorhina_ is a native of New Guinea.
+
+
+{416}FAMILY 12.--ENGYSTOMIDÆ. (15 Genera, 31 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Engystomidæ are Toads without neck-glands and with the tongue tied in
+front. They are most abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions,
+especially in the latter, which contains about half the known species, with
+isolated species in Australia, Africa, and the Southern States of North
+America. They appear to be the remnant of a once extensive and universally
+distributed group, which has maintained itself in two remote regions, but
+is dying out everywhere else. The genera are:--
+
+_Engystoma_ (9 sp.), Carolina to La Plata, with one species in South China;
+_Diplopelma_ (3 sp.), South India to China and Java; _Cacopus_ (2 sp.),
+Central India; _Glyphoglossus_ (1 sp.), Pegu; _Callula_ (4 sp.), Sikhim,
+Ceylon, China, and Borneo; _Brachymerus_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Adenomera_
+(1 sp.), Brazil; _Pachybatrachus_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Breviceps_ (2 sp.),
+South and West Africa; _Chelydobatrachus_ (1 sp.), West Australia;
+_Hypopachus_ (1 sp.), Costa Rica; _Rhinoderma_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Atelopus_
+(1 sp.), Cayenne and Peru; _Copea_ (1 sp.), South America; _Paludicola_ (1
+sp.), New Granada.
+
+
+FAMILY 13.--BOMBINATORIDÆ. (8 Genera, 9 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Bombinatoridæ are a family of Frogs which have imperfect ears and no
+neck-glands, and they have a very peculiar and {417}interesting
+distribution, being confined to Central and South Europe, the southern part
+of South America, and New Zealand. They consist of many isolated groups
+forming five separate sub-families. The genera are:--
+
+_Bombinator_, Central Europe and Italy; _Pelobates_ and _Didocus_, Central
+Europe and Spain; _Telmatobius_ (2 sp.), Peru and Brazil; _Alsodes_, Chonos
+Archipelago; _Cacotus_, Chili; _Liopelma_, New Zealand; _Nannophryne_,
+Straits of Magellan.
+
+
+FAMILY 14.--PLECTROMANTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Plectromantidæ, which are Frogs with neck-glands, and the toes but not
+the fingers dilated, consists of a single species of the genus
+_Plectromantis_. It inhabits the region west of the Andes, and south of the
+Equator.
+
+
+FAMILY 15.--ALYTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 37 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Alytidæ are Frogs with neck-glands and undilated toes. They are most
+abundant in the Ethiopian region, with a few species in the Nearctic and
+Australian regions, and one in Europe and Brazil respectively. The genera
+are:--
+
+_Alytes_ (1 sp.), Central Europe; _Scaphiopus_ (5 sp.), California to
+Mexico and the Eastern States; _Hyperolius_ (29 sp.), all Africa, and two
+in New Guinea and North Australia; _Helioporus_ (1 sp.), in Australia;
+_Nattereria_ (1 sp.), Brazil.
+
+
+{418}FAMILY 16.--PELODRYADÆ. (3 Genera, 7 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pelodryadæ are Tree Frogs with neck-glands, and are confined to the
+Australian and Neotropical regions. The genera are:--
+
+_Phyllomedusa_ (3 sp.), South America to Paraguay; _Chirodryas_, Australia;
+and _Pelodryas_ (3 sp.), Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--HYLIDÆ. (11 Genera, 94 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hylidæ are glandless Tree Frogs with a broadened sacrum. They are most
+abundant in the Neotropical region, which contains more than two-thirds of
+the species; about twenty species are Australian; six or seven are
+Nearctic, reaching northward to Great Bear Lake; while one only is
+European, and one Oriental. The genera are:--
+
+_Hyla_ (62 sp.), having the range of the whole family; _Hylella_ (1 sp.),
+_Ololygon_ (1 sp.), _Pohlia_ (2 sp.), _Triprion_ (1 sp.), _Opisthodelphys_
+(1 sp.), and _Nototrema_ (4 sp.), are South American; while
+_Trachycephalus_ (8 sp.), is peculiar to the Antilles, except one South
+American species; _Pseudacris_ (1 sp.), ranges from Georgia, United States,
+to Great Bear Lake; _Litoria_ (7 sp.), is Australian and Papuan, except one
+species in Paraguay; _Ceratohyla_ (4 sp.), is only known from Ecuador.
+
+
+{419}FAMILY 18.--POLYPEDATIDÆ. (24 Genera, 124 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Polypedatidæ, or glandless Tree Frogs with narrowed sacrum, are almost
+equally numerous in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, more than forty
+species inhabiting each, while in the Ethiopian there are about half this
+number, and the remainder are scattered over the other three regions, as
+shown in the enumeration of the genera:--
+
+_Ixalus_ (16 sp.), Oriental, except one in Japan, and one in Western
+Polynesia; _Rhacophorus_ (7 sp.), and _Theloderma_ (1 sp.), are Oriental;
+_Hylarana_ (10 sp.), Oriental, to the Solomon Islands and Tartary, Nicobar
+Islands, West Africa, and Madagascar; _Megalixalus_ (1 sp.), Seychelle
+Islands; _Leptomantis_ (1 sp.), Philippines; _Platymantis_ (5 sp.), New
+Guinea, Philippines, and Fiji Islands; _Cornufer_ (2 sp.), Java and New
+Guinea; _Polypedates_ (19 sp.), mostly Oriental, but two species in West
+Africa, one Madagascar, two Japan, one Loo-Choo Islands, and one Hong Kong;
+_Hylambates_ (3 sp.), _Hemimantis_ (1 sp.), and _Chiromantis_ (1 sp.), are
+Ethiopian; _Rappia_ (13 sp.), is Ethiopian, and extends to Madagascar and
+the Seychelle Islands; _Acris_ (2 sp.), is North American; _Elosia_ (1
+sp.), _Epirhixis_ (1 sp.), _Phyllobates_ (9 sp.), _Hylodes_ (26 sp.),
+_Hyloxalus_ (1 sp.), _Pristimantis_ (1 sp.), _Crossodactylus_ (1 sp.),
+_Calostethus_ (1 sp.), _Strabomantis_ (1 sp.), and _Leiyla_ (1 sp.), are
+Neotropical, the last two being Central American, while species of
+_Hylodes_ and _Phyllobates_ are found in the West Indian Islands.
+
+
+{420}FAMILY 19.--RANIDÆ. (26 Genera, 150 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Ranidæ, or true Frogs, are characterised by having simple undilated
+toes, but neither neck-glands nor dilated sacrum. They are almost
+cosmopolitan, extending to the extreme north and south from the North Cape
+to Patagonia, and they are equally at home in the tropics. They are perhaps
+most abundant in South America, where a large number of the genera and
+species are found; the Ethiopian region comes next, while they are rather
+less abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions; the Nearctic region
+has much less (about 12 species), while the Palæarctic has only five, and
+these two northern regions only possess the single genus _Rana_. The genera
+are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Rana_ (60 sp.), ranges all over the world, except Australia and South
+America, although it extends into New Guinea and into Mexico and Central
+America; it is most abundant in Africa. _Pyxicephalus_ (7 sp.), extends
+over the whole Ethiopian region, Hindostan, the Himalayas, and Japan;
+_Cystignathus_ (22 sp.), is mainly Neotropical, but has three species
+Ethiopian. All the other genera are confined to single regions. The
+Neotropical genera are:--_Odontophrynus_ (1 sp.), _Pseudis_ (1 sp.),
+_Pithecopsis_ (1 sp.), _Ensophleus_ (1 sp.), _Limnocharis_ (1 sp.),
+_Hemiphractus_ (1 sp.), all Tropical South American east of Andes;
+_Ceratophrys_ (5 sp.), Panama to La Plata; _Cycloramphus_ (1 sp.), West
+Ecuador and Chili; _Pleurodema_ (6 sp.), Venezuela to Patagonia;
+_Leiuperus_ (12 sp.), Mexico and St. Domingo to Patagonia; _Hylorhina_ (1
+sp.), Chiloe. The Australian genera are:--_Myxophyes_ (1 sp.), Queensland;
+_Platyplectrum_ (2 sp.), Queensland and West Australia; _Neobatrachus_ (1
+sp.), South Australia; _Limnodynastes_ (7 sp.), and _Crinia_ (11 sp.),
+Australia and Tasmania. The {421}Oriental genera are:--_Dicroglossus_ (1
+sp.), Western Himalayas; _Oxyglossus_ (2 sp.), Siam to Java, Philippines
+and China; _Hoplobatrachus_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Phrynoglossus_ (1 sp.), Siam.
+The Ethiopian genera are:--_Phrynobatrachus_ (1 sp.), _Stenorhynchus_ (1
+sp.), both from Natal.
+
+
+FAMILY 20.--DISCOGLOSSIDÆ, (14 Genera, 18 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Discoglossidæ, or Frogs with a dilated sacrum, are remarkable for the
+number of generic forms scattered over a large part of the globe, being
+only absent from the Nearctic and the northern half of the Neotropical
+regions, and also from Hindostan and East Africa. The genera are:--
+
+_Chiroleptes_ (4 sp.), Australia; _Calyplocephalus_ (1 sp.), allied to the
+preceding, from Chili; _Cryptotis_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Asterophys_ (2
+sp.), New Guinea and Aru Islands; _Xenophrys_ (1 sp.), Eastern Himalayas;
+_Megalophrys_ (2 sp.), Ceylon and the Malay Islands; _Nannophrys_ (1 sp.),
+Ceylon; _Pelodytes_ (1 sp.), France only; _Leptobrachium_ (1 sp.), Java;
+_Discoglossus_ (1 sp.), Vienna to Algiers; _Laprissa_ (1 sp.), _Latonia_ (1
+sp.), Palæarctic region; _Arthroleptis_ (2 sp.), West Africa and the Cape;
+_Grypiscus_ (1 sp.), South Brazil.
+
+
+FAMILY 21.--PIPIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+{422}The Pipidæ are toads without a tongue or maxillary teeth, and with
+enormously dilated sacrum. The only species of _Pipa_ is a native of
+Guiana.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--DACTYLETHRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Dactylethridæ are Toads with maxillary teeth but no tongue, and with
+enormously dilated sacrum. The species of _Dactylethra_ are natives of
+West, East, and South Africa.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Amphibia._
+
+The Amphibia, as here enumerated, consist of 22 families, 152 genera, and
+nearly 700 species. Many of the families have a very limited range, only
+two (Ranidæ and Polypedatidæ) being nearly universal; five more extend each
+into five regions, while no less than thirteen of the families are confined
+to one, two, or three regions each. By far the richest region is the
+Neotropical, possessing 16 families (four of them peculiar) and about 50
+peculiar or very characteristic genera. Next comes the Australian, with 11
+families (one of which is peculiar) and 16 peculiar genera. The Nearctic
+region has no less than 9 of the families (two of them peculiar to it) and
+15 peculiar genera, 13 of which are tailed Batrachians which have here
+their metropolis. The other three regions have 9 families each; the
+Palæarctic has no peculiar family but no less than 15 peculiar genera; the
+Ethiopian 1 family and 12 genera peculiar to it; and the Oriental, 19
+genera but no family confined to it.
+
+It is evident, therefore, that each of the regions is well characterised by
+its peculiar forms of Amphibia, there being only a few genera, such as
+_Hyla_, _Rana_, and _Bufo_ which have a wide range. The connection of the
+Australian and Neotropical {423}regions is well shown in this group, by the
+Phryniscidæ, Hylidæ, and Discoglossidæ, which present allied forms in both;
+as well as by the genus _Liopelma_ of New Zealand, allied to the
+Bombinatoridæ of South America, and the absence of the otherwise
+cosmopolitan genus _Rana_ from both continents. The affinity of the
+Nearctic and Palæarctic regions is shown by the Proteidæ, which are
+confined to them, as well as by the genus _Triton_ and almost the whole of
+the extensive family of the Salamandridæ. The other regions are also well
+differentiated, and there is no sign of a special Ethiopian Amphibian fauna
+extending over the peninsula of India, or of the Oriental and Palæarctic
+regions merging into each other, except by means of genera of universal
+distribution.
+
+_Fossil Amphibia._--The extinct Labyrinthodontia form a separate order,
+which existed from the Carboniferous to the Triassic period. No other
+remains of this class are found till we reach the Tertiary formation, when
+Newts and Salamanders as well as Frogs and Toads occur, most frequently in
+the Miocene deposits. The most remarkable is the _Andrias scheuchzeri_ from
+the Miocene of Oeningen, which is allied to _Sieboldia maxima_ the great
+salamander of Japan.
+
+
+
+
+{424}CHAPTER XX.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH GENERA
+AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.
+
+
+
+SUB-CLASS I.--TELEOSTEI.
+
+_Order I.--ACANTHOPTERYGII._
+
+FAMILY 1.--GASTEROSTEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 11 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water or marine scaleless fishes, with elongate compressed bodies
+and with isolated spines before the dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Palæarctic and Nearctic regions.
+
+The species of _Gasterosteus_, commonly called Sticklebacks, are found in
+rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, as far south as Italy and Ohio. Four
+species occur in Britain.
+
+
+FAMILY 2.--BERYCIDÆ. (10 Genera, 55 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elevated compressed bodies covered with toothed
+scales, and large eyes."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and temperate seas of both hemispheres.
+
+Their northern limit is the Mediterranean and Japan. Most abundant in the
+Malayan seas.
+
+
+{425}FAMILY 3.--PERCIDÆ. (61 Genera, 476 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong bodies covered with
+toothed scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas, rivers and lakes, of all regions.
+
+The genera which inhabit fresh-waters are the following:--
+
+_Perca_ (3 sp.), inhabits the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions as far south
+as Ohio and Switzerland; one species, the common perch, is British.
+_Percichthys_ (5 sp.), Chili and Patagonia, with one species in Java;
+_Paralabrax_ (2 sp.), California; _Labrax_ (8 sp.), six species are marine,
+inhabiting the shores of Europe and North America, one being British, two
+species inhabit the rivers of the northern United States; _Lates_ (2 sp.),
+Nile and large rivers of India and China; _Acerina_ (3 sp.), Europe, from
+England to Russia and Siberia; _Percarina_ (1 sp.), River Dniester;
+_Lucioperca_ (6 sp.), North America and Europe; _Pileoma_ (2 sp.), North
+America, Texas to Lake Erie; _Boleosoma_ (3 sp.), Texas to Lake Superior;
+_Aspro_ (2 sp.), Central Europe; _Huro_ (1 sp.), Lake Huron; _Percilia_, (1
+sp.), Rio de Maypu in Chili; _Centrarchus_ (10 sp.), North America and
+Cuba; _Bryttus_ (8 sp.), South Carolina to Texas; _Pomotis_ (8 sp.), North
+America, Lake Erie to Texas.
+
+Of the exclusively marine genera a species of _Polyprion_ and one of
+_Serranus_ are British. The latter genus has nearly 150 species spread over
+the globe, but is most abundant in the Tropics. _Mesoprion_ is another
+extensive genus confined to the Tropics. _Apogon_ abounds from the Red Sea
+to the Pacific, but has one species in the Mediterranean and one in the
+coast of Brazil.
+
+
+FAMILY 4.--APHREDODERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fish, with oblong body covered with toothed scales, and wide
+cleft mouth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Atlantic States of North America.
+
+
+{426}FAMILY 5.--PRISTIPOMATIDÆ. (25 Genera, 206 Species.)
+
+"Marine carnivorous fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and without
+molar or cutting teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few only entering
+fresh water.
+
+Of the more extensive genera, nine, comprising more than half the species,
+are confined to the Indian and Australian seas, while only one large genus
+(_Hæmulon_) is found in the Atlantic on the coast of Tropical America. The
+extensive Pacific genus, _Diagramma_, has one species in the Mediterranean.
+One genus is confined to the Macquarie River in Australia. A species of
+_Dentex_ has occurred on the English coast, and this seems to be the
+extreme northern range of the family, which does not regularly extend
+beyond the coast of Portugal, and in the East to Japan. Australia seems to
+form the southern limit.
+
+
+FAMILY 6.--MULLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 34 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate slightly compressed bodies covered with large
+scales, and two dorsal fins at a distance from each other."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All tropical seas, except the West Coast of America,
+extending into temperate regions as far as the Baltic, Japan, and New
+Zealand.
+
+Two species of _Mullus_ (Mullets) are British, and these are the only
+European fish belonging to the family.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--SPARIDÆ. (22 Genera, 117 Species.)
+
+"Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with oblong compressed bodies
+covered with minutely serrated scales, and with one dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few entering
+rivers.
+
+{427}_Cantharus_, _Pagellus_, and _Chrysophrys_, have occurred on the
+English Coast. _Haplodactylus_ is confined to the West Coast of South
+America, and Australia; _Sargus_ to the temperate and warm parts of the
+Atlantic and the shores of East Africa; _Pagellus_ to the western coasts of
+Europe and Africa.
+
+The other large genera have a wider distribution.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--SQUAMIPENNES. (12 Genera, 124 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous marine fishes, with compressed and elevated bodies, and scaly
+vertical fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The seas between the tropics, most abundant in the Oriental
+and Australian regions, a few entering rivers or extending beyond the
+tropics.
+
+The extensive genus _Chætodon_ (67 sp.), ranges from the Red Sea to the
+Sandwich Islands, and from Japan to Western Australia, while two species
+are found in the West Indies. _Holacanthus_ (36 sp.), has a similar
+distribution, one species only occurring in the West Indies and on the
+coast of South America. Only one genus (_Pomacanthus_), with a single
+species, is confined to the West Atlantic.
+
+
+FAMILY 9.--CIRRHITIDÆ. (8 Genera, 34 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous marine fishes, with a compressed oblong body, covered with
+cycloid scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The tropical and south temperate waters of the Indian and
+Pacific oceans, from Eastern Africa to Western America. Absent from the
+Atlantic.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--TRIGLIDÆ. (50 Genera, 259 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous, mostly marine fishes, with oblong compressed or
+subcylindrical bodies, and wide cleft mouths. They live at the bottom of
+the water."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, some entering fresh water, and a few inhabiting
+exclusively the fresh waters of the Arctic regions.
+
+{428}They are divided by Dr. Günther into four groups. The Heterolepidina
+(comprising 4 genera and 12 species) are confined to the North Pacific. The
+Scorpænina (23 genera, 113 species) have an almost universal distribution,
+but the genera are each restricted to one or other of the great oceans.
+_Sebastes_ has occurred on the English coast. The Cottina (28 genera, 110
+species) have also a universal distribution; the numerous species of
+_Cottus_ are found either in the seas or fresh waters of Europe and North
+America; four species are British, as well as seven species of the
+wide-spread genus _Trigla_. _Ptyonotus_ (1 sp.) is confined to Lake
+Ontario. The Cataphracti (5 genera, 23 species) have also a wide range; one
+genus, _Agonus_, is found in the British seas, and also in Kamschatka and
+on the coast of Chili. _Peristethus_ is also British.
+
+
+FAMILY 11.--TRACHINIDÆ (24 Genera, 90 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies, living at the bottom,
+near the shore."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Almost or quite universal.
+
+_Trachinus_ is a British genus. A species of _Aphritis_ inhabits the fresh
+waters of Tasmania, while its two allies are found on the coasts of
+Patagonia.
+
+
+FAMILY 12. SCIÆNIDÆ. (13 Genera, 102 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed and rather elongate bodies,
+covered with toothed scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions, but absent from Australia.
+
+_Larimus_ is found in the Atlantic, and in African and American rivers.
+_Corvina_, _Sciæna_, and _Otilothus_ are also marine and fresh-water, both
+in the Atlantic and Pacific. The other genera are of small extent and more
+restricted range. _Umbrina_ and _Sciæna_ have occurred in British seas.
+
+
+{429}FAMILY 13.--POLYNEMIDÆ. (3 Genera, 23 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies and entire or
+ciliated scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas and rivers of both the great oceans, but most
+abundant in the Pacific.
+
+
+FAMILY 14.--SPHYRENIDÆ. (1 Genus, 15 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate sub-cylindrical bodies covered
+with small cycloid scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The warm and tropical seas of the globe.
+
+
+FAMILY 15.--TRICHIURIDÆ. (7 Genera, 18 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies covered with minute scales
+or naked."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All the tropical and sub-tropical seas.
+
+
+FAMILY 16.--SCOMBRIDÆ. (20 Genera, 108 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies, scaled or naked."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All the temperate and tropical oceans. Mostly inhabiting the
+open seas.
+
+_Scomber_, (the Mackerel) _Thynnus_, _Naucrates_, _Zeus_, _Centrolophus_,
+_Brama_, and _Lampris_, are genera which have occurred in the British seas.
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--CARANGIDÆ. (27 Genera, 171 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with compressed oblong or elevated bodies covered with
+small scales or naked."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas; some species occur in both
+the great oceans, ranging from New York to Australia.
+
+_Trachurus_ and _Capros_ are genera which occur in British seas.
+
+
+{430}FAMILY 18.--XIPHIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 8 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate compressed body and a produced sword-shaped
+upper jaw."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean, and open seas between or near the Tropics.
+
+_Xiphias_ (the Sword-fish) has occurred on the English coast.
+
+
+FAMILY 19.--GOBIIDÆ. (24 Genera, 294 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous fishes, with elongate low, naked, or scaly bodies, living at
+the bottom of the shallow seas or fresh waters of temperate or tropical
+regions. Individuals of the same species often differ in inhabiting
+exclusively fresh or salt water."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical regions, from Scotland and Japan
+to New Zealand. Species of _Gobius_, _Latrunculus_, and _Callionymus_ occur
+in Britain. Several genera are confined to the East Indian seas and rivers,
+but none seem peculiar to America. The genus _Periopthalmus_ consists of
+the curious, large-headed, projecting-eyed fishes, so abundant on the muddy
+shores of African and Eastern tidal rivers, and which seem to spend most of
+their time out of water, hunting after insects, &c.
+
+
+FAMILY 20.--DISCOBOLI. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous fishes, with oblong naked or tubercular bodies, living at the
+bottom of shallow seas, and attaching themselves to rocks by means of a
+ventral disc."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All northern seas, as far south as Belgium, England, and San
+Francisco.
+
+Species of both genera (_Cyclopterus_ and _Liparis_) occur in British seas.
+
+
+{431}FAMILY 21.--OXUDERCIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A marine fish, with an elongate sub-cylindrical body and no ventral fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Macao, China.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--BATRACHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with sub-cylindrical body and broad depressed head."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The coasts of nearly all tropical and south temperate
+regions, ranging from New York and Portugal to Chili and Tasmania.
+
+
+FAMILY 23.--PEDICULATI. (8 Genera, 40 Species.)
+
+"Marine carnivorous fishes, with very large heads and without scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, extending south
+to New Zealand and north to Greenland.
+
+A species of _Lophius_ (the Fishing-frog or Sea-Devil) is found in British
+seas. The genus _Antennarius_, comprising two-thirds of the species, is
+wholly tropical.
+
+
+FAMILY 24.--BLENNIDÆ. (33 Genera, 201 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous fishes, with long sub-cylindrical naked bodies, living at the
+bottom of shallow water in seas, or tidal rivers."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas from the Arctic regions to New Zealand, Chili, and
+the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+Species of _Anarrhichas_, _Blennius_, _Blenniops_, _Centronotus_ and
+_Zoarces_ occur in British seas. _Chasmodes_ (3 sp.) is confined to the
+Atlantic coasts of Temperate North America; _Petroscirtes_ (26 sp.) to the
+tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans; and _Stichæus_ (9 sp.) to
+the Arctic Seas.
+
+
+{432}FAMILY 25.--ACANTHOCLINIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A carnivorous marine fish, with long flat body and very long dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts of New Zealand.
+
+
+FAMILY 26.--COMEPHORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"An elongate, naked, large-headed fish, with two dorsal fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Lake Baikal.
+
+Dr. Günther remarks, that this fish approaches the Scombrina (Mackerel) in
+several characters. These are exclusively marine fishes, while Lake Baikal
+is fresh-water, and is situated among mountains, at an elevation of nearly
+2000 feet, and more than a thousand miles from the ocean!
+
+
+FAMILY 27.--TRACHYPTERIDÆ. (3 Genera, 16 Species.)
+
+"Deep sea fishes, with elongate, much compressed, naked bodies."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Europe, East Indies, West Coast of South America, New
+Zealand. Dr. Günther remarks, that little is known of these fishes, from
+their being so seldom thrown on shore, and then rapidly decomposing. The
+Ribbon-fish (_Regalecus banksii_) has occurred frequently on our shores.
+They have soft bones and muscles, small mouths, and weak dentition.
+
+
+FAMILY 28.--LOPHOTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A marine fish, with elongate compressed naked body, and high crested
+head."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean Sea and Japan.
+
+
+{433}FAMILY 29.--TEUTHIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 29 Species.)
+
+"Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, oblong, small-scaled bodies."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Eastern tropical seas, from Bourbon and the Red Sea to the
+Marianne and Fiji Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 30.--ACRONURIDÆ. (5 Genera, 64 Species.)
+
+"Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, minutely-scaled bodies."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All tropical seas, but most abundant in the Malay region,
+and extending to Japan and New Zealand.
+
+
+FAMILY 31.--HOPLEGNATHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with compressed elevated bodies, covered with very small
+toothed scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of Australia, China, and Japan.
+
+
+FAMILY 32.--MALACANTHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and
+with very long dorsal and anal fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Atlantic coasts of Tropical America, Mauritius, and New
+Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 33.--NANDIDÆ. (6 Genera, 14 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong, compressed, scaly
+bodies."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--From the Red Sea to the coasts of China and Australia; and
+the fresh waters of the Neotropical and Oriental regions. _Badis_,
+_Nandus_, and _Catopra_ inhabit the {434}rivers of India and the Malay
+Islands; _Acharnes_ the rivers of British Guiana.
+
+
+FAMILY 34.--POLYCENTRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with compressed elevated scaly bodies, and
+many-spined dorsal and anal fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Tropical America.
+
+
+FAMILY 35.--LABYRINTHICI. (9 Genera, 25 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and capable of living
+for some time out of water or in dried mud."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of South Africa and the East Indies from the
+Mauritius to China, the Philippines, Celebes, and Amboyna.
+
+
+FAMILY 36.--LUCIOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fish, with elongate scaled body, and a dilated branchial
+membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Borneo, Biliton, and Banca.
+
+
+FAMILY 37.--ATHERINIDÆ. (3 Genera, 39 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with subcylindrical scaled
+bodies, and feeble dentition."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas, from Scotland and New York
+to the Straits of Magellan and Tasmania.
+
+_Atherina presbyter_ occurs in British seas. Species of _Atherina_ and
+_Atherinichthis_ are found in fresh-water lakes and rivers in Europe,
+America, and Australia.
+
+
+{435}FAMILY 38.--MUGILIDÆ. (3 Genera, 78 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water and marine fishes, with oblong compressed bodies, cycloid
+scales, and small mouths, often without teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts and fresh waters of all temperate and tropical
+regions.
+
+_Mugil_ (66 sp.) is mostly marine, and is very widely distributed; several
+species (Grey Mullets) occur on the British coasts. _Agonostoma_ (9 sp.) is
+confined to the fresh waters of the West Indies, Central America, New
+Zealand, Australia, Celebes, and the Comoro Islands. _Myxus_ (3 sp.) is
+marine, and occurs both in the Atlantic and Pacific.
+
+
+FAMILY 39.--OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ. (2 Genera, 26 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with elongate subcylindrical scaled bodies; often
+leaving the water for a considerable time."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of the Oriental region:--India, Ceylon, China, Malay
+Islands to Philippines and Borneo.
+
+
+FAMILY 40.--TRICHONOTIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)
+
+"Marine carnivorous fishes, with elongate subcylindrical bodies, cycloid
+scales, and eyes directed upwards."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts of Celebes, Ceram, and New Zealand.
+
+
+FAMILY 41.--CEPOLIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with very long, compressed, band-like bodies, covered with
+small cycloid scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate seas of Western Europe and Eastern Asia, and one
+species in the Malayan Seas.
+
+_Cepola rubescens_ (the Band fish) ranges from Scotland to the
+Mediterranean. All the other species but one are from Japan.
+
+
+{436}FAMILY 42.--GOBIESOCIDÆ. (9 Genera, 21 Species.)
+
+"Carnivorous marine fishes, elongate, anteriorly depressed and scaleless,
+with dorsal fin on the tail."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas; Scandinavia to the Cape,
+California to Chili, West Indies, Red Sea, Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji
+Islands.
+
+Three species of _Lepadogaster_ have occurred in the English Channel.
+
+
+FAMILY 43.--PSYCHROLUTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A large-headed, elongate, naked marine fish, with small teeth, and dorsal
+fin on the tail."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--West Coast of North America (Vancouver's Island.)
+
+FAMILY 44.--CENTRISCIDÆ. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with compressed, oblong or elevated bodies, elongate
+tubular mouth and no teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--West Coast of Europe and Africa, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean
+to Java, Philippines, and Japan.
+
+A species of _Centriscus_ has occurred on the South Coast of England, and
+another species is found both at Madeira and Japan.
+
+
+FAMILY 45.--FISTULARIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, very elongate, with long tubular mouth and small teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas, both in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, and as
+far east as the New Hebrides.
+
+
+{437}FAMILY 46.--MASTACEMBELIDÆ. (2 Genera, 9 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with eel-like bodies and very long dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of the Oriental region, one species from Ceram (?).
+
+
+FAMILY 47.--NOTACANTHI. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and
+snout protruding beyond the mouth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Greenland, Mediterranean, and West Australia.
+
+
+_Order II.--ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHI._
+
+
+FAMILY 48.--POMACENTRIDÆ. (8 Genera, 143 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with short compressed bodies covered with toothed scales,
+and with feeble dentition."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical parts of Pacific and Indian Ocean, less numerous in
+Tropical Atlantic, a few reaching the Mediterranean, Japan, and South
+Australia. _Pomacentrus_, _Glyphidodon_, and _Heliastes_ are Atlantic
+genera.
+
+
+FAMILY 49.--LABRIDÆ. (46 Genera, 396 Species.)
+
+"Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered
+with cycloid scales, and teeth adapted for crushing the shells of
+mollusca."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions of all parts of the globe.
+
+The genera _Labrus_, _Crenilabrus_, _Ctenolabrus_, _Acantholabrus_,
+_Centrolabrus_, and _Coris_, have occurred in British seas, and all of
+{438}these, except the last, are confined to the Mediterranean and the
+Atlantic as far as Madeira. Eight other genera are characteristic of the
+Atlantic, most of them being West Indian, but one from the coasts of North
+America. Seven genera are common to all the great oceans; the remainder
+being confined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ranging from Japan to New
+Zealand, but being far more abundant between the Tropics.
+
+
+FAMILY 50.--EMBROTOCIDÆ. (2 Genera, 17 Species.)
+
+"Marine viviparous fishes, with compressed elevated bodies covered with
+cycloid scales, and with small teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Pacific Ocean from Japan and California northwards. One
+species enters the fresh waters of California.
+
+
+FAMILY 51.--GERRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with compressed oblong bodies covered with minutely
+serrated scales, and with small teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas; ranging south as far as the Cape of Good Hope
+and Australia, and north to Japan and (one species) to New Jersey, U.S.
+
+
+FAMILY 52.--CHROMIDÆ. (19 Genera, 100 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water herbivorous or carnivorous fishes, with elevated or elongate
+scaly bodies, and small teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical regions.
+
+_Eutroplus_ (2 sp.) is from the rivers of Southern India and Ceylon;
+_Chromis_ (15 sp.), _Sarotherodon_ (2 sp.), and _Hemichromis_ (4 sp.), are
+from the rivers and lakes of Africa, extending to the Sahara and Palestine.
+The remaining 15 genera are American, and several of them have a restricted
+distribution. _Acara_ (17 sp.) inhabits Tropical South America and the
+Antilies; _Theraps_ (1 sp.), Guatemala; _Heros_ (26 sp.), Texas and
+{439}Mexico to La Plata; _Mesonauta_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Petenia_ (1 sp.),
+Lake Peten, Guatemala; _Uaru_ (2 sp.), Brazil; _Hygrogonus_ (1 sp.),
+Brazil; _Cichla_ (4 sp.), Equatorial America; _Crenicichla_ (9 sp.), Brazil
+and Guiana; _Chætobranchus_ (3 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; _Mesops_ (2 sp.),
+Brazil; _Satanoperca_ (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; _Geophagus_ (1
+sp.), North Brazil and Guiana; _Symphysodon_ (1 sp.), Lower Amazon;
+_Pterophyllum_ (1 sp.), Lower Amazon.
+
+
+_Order III.--ANACANTHINI._
+
+
+FAMILY 53.--GADOPSIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fish, with rather elongate body covered with very small
+scales, the upper jaw overhanging the lower, forming an obtuse snout."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Australia and Tasmania.
+
+
+FAMILY 53_a_.--LYCODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies, and the dorsal united with the anal
+fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Arctic seas of America and Greenland, and Antarctic seas
+about the Falkland Islands and Chiloe Island.
+
+
+FAMILY 54.--GADIDÆ. (21 Genera, 58 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies covered with small smooth
+scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Cold and temperate regions of both hemispheres; in the North
+extending as far south as the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, New York and
+Japan (and one species to the Philippines and Bay of Bengal), and in the
+South to Chili and New Zealand.
+
+_Gadus_ (Cod), _Merluccius_ (Hake), _Phycis_, _Lota_, _Molva_, _Couchia_,
+_Motella_, and _Raniceps_, are British. _Lota_ inhabits fresh waters.
+
+
+{440}FAMILY 55.--OPHIDIIDÆ. (16 Genera, 43 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies, the dorsal and anal fins
+united, and the ventral fins rudimentary or absent."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Almost universal; from Greenland to New Zealand, but most
+abundant in the Tropics.
+
+_Ophidium_ and _Ammodytes_ occur in British seas; _Lucifuga_ inhabits
+subterranean fresh waters in Cuba.
+
+
+FAMILY 56.--MACROURIDÆ. (3 Genera, 21 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with the body terminating in a long, compressed tapering
+tail, and covered with spiny, keeled or striated scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--North Atlantic from Greenland to Madeira and the Canary
+Islands, Mediterranean, Japanese and Australian seas.
+
+None of these fishes have occurred in the British seas.
+
+
+FAMILY 57.--ATELEOPODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with the naked body terminating in a long compressed,
+tapering tail."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Japan.
+
+
+FAMILY 58.--PLEURONECTIDÆ. (34 Genera, 185 Species.)
+
+"Marine carnivorous fishes, with strongly compressed flat bodies, one side
+of which is colourless, and eyes unsymmetrically placed, both on the
+coloured side. They inhabit the sandy bottoms of shallow seas, and often
+ascend rivers."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Universal, on Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical coasts.
+
+{441}Seven genera occur in British seas, viz.: _Hippoglossus_,
+_Hippoglossoides_, _Rhombus_, _Phrynorhombus_, _Arnoglossus_,
+_Pleuronectes_ (Turbot), and _Solea_ (Sole). There are 13 genera in the
+Atlantic and 23 in the Pacific, 4 being common to both; and 2 found only in
+the Mediterranean. A Pacific genus, _Synaptura_, has one species in the
+Mediterranean.
+
+
+_Order IV.--PHYSOSTOMI._
+
+
+FAMILY 59.--SILURIDÆ. (114 Genera, 547 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water or marine, scaleless fishes, often with bony shields, and the
+head always furnished with barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The fresh waters of all the temperate and tropical regions,
+those which enter the salt water keeping near the coast.
+
+This extensive family is divided by Dr. Günther into eight sub-families and
+seventeen groups, the distribution of which is as follows:--
+
+Sub-family 1 (SILURIDÆ HOMALOPTERÆ) is confined to the Old World. It
+consists of three groups: Clarina (2 genera, _Clarias_ and
+_Heterobranchus_) ranges over the whole area of the Ethiopian and Oriental
+regions, to which it appears to be strictly confined; Plotosina (3 genera,
+_Plotosus_, _Copidoglanis_, and _Cnidoglanis_) ranges from the eastern
+coasts of Africa to Japan, Polynesia, and Australia, in seas and rivers;
+Chacina (1 genus, _Chaca_) ranges from India to Borneo.
+
+Sub-family 2 (SILURIDÆ HETEROPTERÆ) is also confined to the Old World; it
+consists of one group,--Silurina, containing 19 genera,
+viz.:--_Saccobranchus_ (4 sp.), India to Cochin China and Ceylon; _Silurus_
+(5 sp.), Palæarctic region from Central Europe to Japan, China, and
+Afghanistan, and a species in Cochin China; _Silurichthys_ (3 sp.),
+Cashmere, Java, and Borneo; _Wallago_ (2 sp.), Hindostan, Sumatra, and
+Borneo; _Belodontichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Eutropiichthys_ (1
+sp.), Bengal; _Cryptopterus_ {442}(15 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, with
+a species in the Ganges, in Siam, and (?) in Amboyna; _Callichrous_ (10
+sp.), Afghanistan to Borneo and Java; _Schilbe_ (5 sp.), Tropical Africa;
+_Eutropius_ (6 sp.), Tropical Africa and Central India; _Hemisilurus_ (2
+sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Siluranodon_ (1 sp.), Nile; _Ailia_ (2 sp.),
+Bengal; _Schilbichthys_ (1 sp.), Bengal; _Laïs_ (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra,
+Borneo; _Pseudeutropius_ (6 sp.), India and Sumatra; _Pangasius_ (7 sp.),
+Ganges, Sumatra, Java, Borneo; _Helicophagus_ (2 sp.), Sumatra; _Silondia_
+(1 sp.), Ganges.
+
+Sub-family 3 (SILURIDÆ ANOMALOPTERÆ) is confined to Equatorial America; it
+consists of the group Hypopthalmina, containing 2 genera: _Helogenes_ (1
+sp.), _Hypopthalmus_ (4 sp.), from the country north of the Amazon,
+Surinam, and the Rio Negro.
+
+Sub-family 4 (SILURIDÆ PROTEROPTERÆ) ranges over all the tropical and most
+of the temperate parts of the globe, except Europe and Australia. It
+consists of four groups: Bagrina (16 genera), ranging over most of the Old
+World and North America; Pimelodina (15 genera), confined to Tropical
+America, except one genus which is African; Ariina (10 genera), all
+Tropical regions; and Bagarina (3 genera), Oriental region. The
+distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Bagrus_ (2 sp.), Nile; _Chrysichthys_ (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Clarotes_
+(1 sp.), Upper Nile; _Macrones_ (19 sp.), India, Ceylon to Borneo, and one
+species in Asia Minor; _Pseudobagrus_ (4 sp.), Japan, China, and Cochin
+China; _Liocassis_ (5 sp.), Japan, China, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo;
+_Bagroides_ (3 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Bagrichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra and
+Borneo; _Rita_ (5 sp.), Continental India and Manilla; _Acrochordonichthys_
+(6 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Akysis_ (3 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Olyra_ (1
+sp.), Khasya; _Branchiosteus_ (1 sp.), Khasya; _Amiurus_ (13 sp.), Nearctic
+region to Guatemala and China; _Hopladelus_ (1 sp.), North America;
+_Noturus_ (4 sp.), North America; _Sorubim_ (1 sp.), Amazon; _Platystoma_
+(11 sp.), Tropical South America; _Hemisorubim_ (1 sp.) Rio Negro, Brazil;
+_Platistomatichthys_ (1 sp.), Rio Branco, Brazil; _Phractocephalus_ (1
+sp.), Amazon; _Piramutana_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Platynematichthys_
+{443}(1 sp.), northern and southern tributaries of Amazon; _Piratinga_ (3
+sp.), Amazon Valley; _Sciades_ (2 sp.), Amazon; _Pimelodus_ (42 sp.),
+Mexico to La Plata, single aberrant species from West Africa, Java and the
+Sandwich Islands; _Pirinampus_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Conorhynchus_ (1 sp.),
+Brazil; _Notoglanis_ (1 sp.), Madeira, Amazon Valley; _Callophysus_ (3
+sp.), Tropical South America; _Auchenaspis_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa;
+_Arius_ (68 sp.), all Tropical regions; _Galeichthys_ (1 sp.), Cape of Good
+Hope; _Genidens_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Hemipimelodus_ (3 sp.), India, Sumatra,
+and Borneo; _Ketingus_ (1 sp.), Sunda Islands; _Ælurichthys_ (4 sp.),
+Eastern United States to Guiana; _Paradiplomystax_ (1 sp.), Brazil;
+_Diplomystax_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Osteogeniosus_ (3 sp.), India to Java;
+_Batrachocephalus_ (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Bagarius_ (1 sp.), India to
+Java; _Euclyptosternum_ (1 sp.), India; _Glyptosternum_ (8 sp.), Himalayas,
+Central India, Java, and Sumatra; _Hara_ (3 sp.), Continental India;
+_Amblyceps_ (3 sp.), Continental India.
+
+Sub-family 5 (SILURIDÆ STENOBRANCHIÆ) is confined to South America and
+Africa, with one genus and species in the Ganges. It consists of three
+groups: Doradina (12 genera), South America and Africa; Rhinoglanina (3
+genera), Central Africa and the Ganges; Malapterurina (1 genus), Tropical
+Africa. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Ageniosus_ (4 sp.), Surinam to La Plata; _Tetranematichthys_ (1 sp.),
+Central Brazil, Rio Guaporé; _Euanemus_ (1 sp.), Surinam and Brazil;
+_Auchenipterus_ (9 sp.), Equatorial America; _Centromochlus_ (2 sp.),
+Equatorial America; _Trachelyopterus_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America;
+_Cetopsis_ (3 sp.), Brazil; _Asterophysus_ (1 sp.), Rio Negro, North
+Brazil; _Doras_ (13 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; _Oxydoras_
+(7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; _Rhinodoras_ (3 sp.), Tropical South
+America east of Andes; _Synodontis_ (12 sp.), Tropical Africa;
+_Rhinoglanis_ (1 sp.), Upper Nile; _Mochocus_ (1 sp.), Nile; _Callomystax_
+(1 sp.), Nile; _Malapterurus_ (3 sp.), Tropical Africa.
+
+Sub-family 6 (SILURIDÆ PROTEROPODES) inhabits Tropical America and Northern
+India as far as Tenasserim. It consists of two groups: the Hypostomatina
+(17 genera), with the same distribution as the sub-family, and the
+Aspredinina (3 genera), {444}confined to Equatorial America. The
+distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Arges_ (2 sp.), Andes of Peru and Ecuador; _Stygogenes_ (2 sp.), Andes;
+_Brontes_ (1 sp.), Andes; _Astroblepus_ (1 sp.), Popayan; _Callichthys_ (11
+sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad; _Plecostomus_ (15
+sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad; _Liposarcus_ (3
+sp.), Surinam and Brazil; _Chætostomus_ (25 sp.), Tropical America,
+Trinidad, and Porto Rico; _Pterygoplichthys_ (4 sp.), Brazil; _Rhinelepis_
+(1 sp.), Brazil; _Acanthicus_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Loricaria_ (17
+sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; _Acestra_ (4 sp.), Brazil and
+Guiana; _Sisor_ (1 sp.), Northern Bengal; _Erethistes_ (1 sp.), Assam;
+_Pseudecheneis_ (1 sp.), Khasya Hills; _Exostoma_ (2 sp.), Assam and
+Tenasserim; _Bunocephalus_ (2 sp.), Guiana; _Bunocephalichthys_ (1 sp.),
+Rio Branco, North Brazil; _Aspredo_ (6 sp.), Guiana.
+
+Sub-family 7 (SILURIDÆ OPISTHOPTERÆ) consists of two groups: Nematogenyina
+(2 genera), and Trichomycterina (3 genera), and is confined to South
+America. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Heptapterus_ (2 sp.), South America; _Nematogenys_ (1 sp.), Chili;
+_Trichomycterus_ (7 sp.), South America to 15,000 feet elevation;
+_Eremophilus_ (1 sp.), Andes of Bogota; _Pariodon_ (1 sp.), Amazon.
+
+Sub-family 8 (SILURIDÆ BRANCHICOLÆ) is confined to Tropical South America.
+It consists of one group, Stegophilina, and 2 genera: _Stegophilus_ (1
+sp.), Brazil; and _Vandellia_ (2 sp.), Amazon Valley.
+
+
+FAMILY 60. CHARACINIDÆ. (47 Genera, 230 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and without barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Neotropical and Ethiopian regions.
+
+This extensive family is divided by Dr. Günther into 10 groups, viz.:
+Erythrinina (5 genera), South America; Curumatina {445}(6 genera), South
+America; Citharinina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Anostomatina (3 genera),
+South America; Tetragonopterina (16 genera), South America and Tropical
+Africa; Hydrocyonina (9 genera), Tropical America and Tropical Africa;
+Distichodontina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Icthyborina (1 genus), Africa;
+Crenuchina (1 genus), Equatorial America; Serrasalmonina (4 genera), South
+America.
+
+The following is the distribution of the genera:--
+
+_Macrodon_ (4 sp.), Tropical America; _Erythrinus_ (5 sp.), Brazil and
+Guiana; _Lebiasina_ (1 sp.), West Equatorial America; _Pyrrhulina_ (1 sp.),
+Guiana; _Corynopoma_ (4 sp.), Trinidad only; _Curimatus_ (15 sp.), Tropical
+South America and Trinidad; _Prochilodus_ (12 sp.), South America to the La
+Plata; _Cæntropus_ (2 sp.), East Equatorial America; _Hemiodus_ (8 sp.),
+Equatorial America east of Andes; _Saccodon_ (1 sp.), Ecuador; _Parodon_ (1
+sp.), Brazil; _Citharinus_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Anostomus_ (8 sp.),
+Tropical America; _Rhytiodus_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Leporinus_ (14
+sp.), South America East of Andes; _Piabucina_ (2 sp.), Guiana; _Alestes_
+(4 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Brachyalestes_ (5 sp.), Tropical Africa;
+_Tetragonopterus_ (32 sp.), Tropical America; _Scissor_ (1 sp.), South
+America; _Pseudochalceus_ (1 sp.), West Ecuador; _Chirodon_ (2 sp.), Chili;
+_Chalceus_ (1 sp.), Guiana; _Brycon_ (10 sp.), South America east of Andes;
+_Chalcinopsis_ (4 sp.), Central America and Ecuador; _Bryconops_ (2 sp.),
+Tropical America; _Creagrutus_ (1 sp.), Western Ecuador; _Chalcinus_ (4
+sp.), Tropical South America; _Gastropelecus_ (8 sp.), Tropical South
+America; _Piabuca_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Agoniates_ (1 sp.),
+Guiana; _Anacyrtus_ (7 sp.), Central and South America; _Hystricodon_ (1
+sp.), Equatorial America; _Salminus_ (3 sp.), South America; _Hydrocyon_ (3
+sp.), Tropical Africa; _Sarcodaces_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Oligosarcus_ (1
+sp.), Brazil; _Xiphoramphus_ (7 sp.), South America east of Andes;
+_Xiphostoma_ (5 sp.), Equatorial America east of Andes; _Cynodon_ (3 sp.),
+Tropical America East of Andes; _Distichodus_ (7 sp.), Tropical Africa;
+_Icthyborus_ (3 sp.), Nile; _Crenuchus_ (1 sp.), Guiana; _Mylesinus_ (1
+sp.), Equatorial America; _Serrasalmo_ (13 sp.), Tropical South America
+east of Andes; _Myletes_ (18 sp.), {446}Tropical South America east of
+Andes; _Catoprion_ (1. sp.), Brazil and Guiana.
+
+
+FAMILY 61.--HAPLOCHITONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with naked or scaly bodies and without barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate South America and South Australia.
+
+The genera are, _Haplochiton_ (2 sp.), Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland
+Islands; _Prototroctes_ (2 sp.), Southern Australia and New Zealand.
+
+
+FAMILY 62.--STERNOPTYCHIDÆ. (6 Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with very thin deciduous scales or none, and with a row of
+phosphorescent spots or organs on the under surface of the body."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean and Atlantic.
+
+These are deep-sea fishes found in the Mediterranean sea, and in the deep
+Atlantic from the coasts of Norway to the Azores and the Tropics.
+
+
+FAMILY 63.--SCOPELIDÆ. (11 Genera, 47 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, somewhat resembling the fresh-water Siluridæ."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Almost universal, but most abundant in warm and tropical
+seas.
+
+These are deep-sea fishes, abounding in the Mediterranean and the great
+oceans, a few extending north to near Greenland and south to Tasmania.
+
+
+{447}FAMILY 64.--STOMIATIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)
+
+"Small marine fishes, naked or with very fine scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Mediterranean and Atlantic.
+
+These are deep-sea fishes, ranging from Greenland to beyond the Equator.
+
+
+FAMILY 65.--SALMONIDÆ (15 Genera, 157 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, many species periodically descending to the sea and a
+few altogether marine:--Salmon and Trout."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Palæarctic and Nearctic Regions, and one genus and
+species in New Zealand. A considerable number of species are confined to
+single lakes or rivers, others have a wide distribution.
+
+The genera are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Salmo_ (83 sp.), rivers and lakes of the Palæarctic and Nearctic Regions,
+as far south as Algeria, Asia Minor, the Hindoo-Koosh and Kamschatka, and
+to about 38° North Latitude in North America, many of the species
+migratory; _Onchorhynchus_ (8 sp.), American and Asiatic rivers entering
+the Pacific, as far south as San Francisco and the Amur; _Brachymystax_ (1
+sp.), Siberian rivers, from Lake Baikal and the Atlai Mountains northwards;
+_Luciotrutta_ (2 sp.), Caspian Sea and Volga; _Plecoglossus_ (1 sp.), Japan
+and Formosa; _Osmerus_ (3 sp.), rivers of temperate Europe and North
+America entering the Atlantic, and one species in California;
+_Thaleichthys_ (1 sp.), Columbia River, Vancouver's Island; _Hypomesus_ (1
+sp.), coasts of California, Vancouver's Island, and North-eastern Asia;
+_Mallotus_ (1 sp.), coasts of Arctic America from Greenland to Kamschatka;
+_Retropinna_ (1 sp.), fresh waters of New Zealand; _Coregonus_ (41 sp.),
+fresh waters of northern parts of temperate Europe, Asia and North America,
+many of the species migratory: _Thymallus_ (6 sp.), fresh waters of
+temperate parts of {448}Europe, Asia, and North America; _Argentina_ (4
+sp.), Mediterranean and deep seas of Western Europe; _Microstoma_ (2 sp.),
+Mediterranean, and seas of Greenland; _Salarix_ (2 sp.), China and Japan,
+in seas and rivers. _Salmo_, _Osmerus_, _Coregonus_, and _Thymallus_, are
+British genera.
+
+
+FAMILY 66.--PERCOPSIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A fresh-water fish covered with toothed scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Lake Superior, North America.
+
+
+FAMILY 67.--GALAXIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with neither scales nor barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The temperate zone of the Southern Hemisphere.
+
+The only genus, _Galaxias_, is found in New Zealand, Tasmania, and Tierra
+del Fuego, ranging north as far as Queensland and Chili; and one of the
+species is absolutely identical in the two regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 68.--MORMYRIDÆ. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with scales on the body and tail but not on the head,
+and no barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Ethiopian Region.
+
+Most abundant in the Nile, a few from the Gambia, the Congo, and Rovuma.
+The genera are:--
+
+_Mormyrus_ (1 sp.), Nile, Gambia, West Africa, Mozambique, Rovuma;
+_Hyperopsius_ (2 sp.), Nile and West Africa; _Mormyrops_ (4 sp.), Nile,
+West Africa and Mozambique.
+
+
+{449}FAMILY 69.--GYMNARCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, resembling the Mormyridæ, but with tapering finless
+tail, and neither anal nor ventral fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Ethiopian region.
+
+The only genus, _Gymnarchus_, inhabits the Nile and the rivers of West
+Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 70.--ESOCIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies, no barbels, and dorsal fins
+situated towards the tail."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions.
+
+One species, the Pike (_Esox lucius_) ranges from Lapland to Turkey, and in
+America from the Arctic regions to the Albany river; the remainder are
+American species extending South as far as New Orleans.
+
+
+FAMILY 71.--UMBRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+"Small fresh-water scaly fishes, without barbels or adipose fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Central Europe and Temperate North America.
+
+
+FAMILY 72.--SCOMBRESOCIDÆ. (5 Genera, 136 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and a series of keeled
+scales along each side of the belly."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions.
+
+All the genera have a wide distribution. A species of _Belone_ and one of
+_Scombresox_ are found on the British coast. The Flying-fishes (_Exocetus_,
+44 sp.), belong to this family. They abound in all tropical seas and extend
+as far as the Mediterranean and Australia. None of the genera are
+exclusively fresh-water, {450}but a few species of _Belone_, and
+_Hemiramphus_ are found in rivers in various parts of the world.
+
+
+FAMILY 73.--CYPRINODONTIDÆ. (20 Genera, 106 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, covered with scales, the sexes frequently differing,
+mostly viviparous."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and North America, but most
+abundant in Tropical America.
+
+The distribution of the genera is as follows:--
+
+_Cyprinodon_ (11 sp.), Italy, North Africa and Western Asia to Persia, also
+North America from Texas to New York; _Fitzroya_ (1 sp.), Montevideo;
+_Characodon_ (1 sp.), Central America; _Tellia_ (1 sp.), Alpine pools of
+the Atlas: _Limnurgus_ (1 sp.), Mexican plateau; _Lucania_ (1 sp.), Texas;
+_Haplochilus_ (18 sp.), India, Java, Japan, Tropical Africa, Madagascar,
+and the Seychelle Islands, Carolina to Brazil, Jamaica; _Fundulus_ (17
+sp.), North and Central America and Ecuador, Spain and East Africa;
+_Rivulus_ (3 sp.), Tropical America, Cuba and Trinidad; _Orestias_ (6 sp.),
+Lake Titacaca, Andes; _Jenynsia_ (1 sp.), Rio Plata; _Pseudoxiphophorus_ (2
+sp.), Central America; _Belonesox_ (1 sp.), Central America; _Gambusia_ (8
+sp.), Antilles, Central America and Texas; _Anableps_ (3 sp.), Central and
+Equatorial America; _Poecilia_ (16 sp.), Antilles, Central and South
+America; _Mollienesia_ (4 sp.), Louisiana to Mexico; _Platypoecilus_ (1
+sp.), Mexico; _Girardinus_ (10 sp.), Antilles and South Carolina to
+Uruguay; _Lepistes_ (1 sp.), Barbadoes.
+
+
+FAMILY 74.--HETEROPYGII. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with posterior dorsal fin, and very small scales."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of the United States.
+
+_Amblyopsis_ (1 sp.) is a blind fish found in the caverns of Kentucky;
+while _Chologastes_ (1 sp.), which only differs from it in having perfect
+eyes, is found in ditches in South Carolina.
+
+
+{451}FAMILY 75.--CYPRINIDÆ. (109 Genera, 790 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, generally scaly, with no adipose fin, and pharyngeal
+teeth only, the mouth being toothless."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of the Old World and North America, but absent
+from Australia and South America.
+
+This enormous family is divided by Dr. Günther into fourteen groups, the
+distribution of which is as follows:--
+
+Catostomina (4 genera), North America and North-east Asia; Cyprinina (39
+genera), same range as the family; Rohteichthyina (1 genus), Malay
+Archipelago; Leptobarbina (1 genus), Malay Archipelago; Rasborina (5
+genera), East Africa to China and Borneo; Semiplotina (2 genera), Western
+Asia; Xenocypridina (3 genera), Eastern Asia; Leuciscina (10 genera),
+Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; Rhodeina (3 genera), Palæarctic region;
+Danionina (9 genera), India to China and Japan; Hypophthalmichthyina (1
+genus), China; Abramidina (16 genera), same range as the family;
+Homalopterina (2 genera), India to Java; Cobitidina (10 genera), Palæarctic
+and Oriental regions.
+
+The following is the distribution of the genera:--
+
+_Catostomus_ (16 sp.), Nearctic region and Eastern Siberia; _Moxostoma_ (2
+sp.), Eastern United States; _Sclerognathus_ (5 sp.), Temperate North
+America to Guatemala, also Northern China; _Carpiodes_ (1 sp.), United
+States; _Cyprinus_ (2 sp.), Temperate parts of Palæarctic region (1 sp.
+British); _Carassius_ (3 sp.), Temperate Palæarctic region (1 sp. British);
+_Catla_ (1 sp.), Continental India; _Cirrhina_ (5 sp.), Continental India
+to China; _Dangila_ (6 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo; _Osteochilus_ (14 sp.),
+Siam to Java and Sumatra; _Labeo_ (27 sp.), Tropical Africa and Oriental
+region; _Tylognathus_ (10 sp.), Syria, India to Java; _Abrostomus_ (2 sp.),
+South Africa; _Discognathus_ (4 sp.), Syria to India and Java, mostly in
+mountain streams; _Crossochilus_ (9 sp.), India to Sumatra and Java;
+_Gymnostomus_ (7 sp.), Continental India; _Epalzeorhynchus_ (1 sp.),
+Sumatra and Borneo; _Capoeta_ (13 sp.), Western Asia; _Barbus_ (163 sp.),
+Temperate or Tropical {452}parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa (1 sp.
+British); _Thynnichthys_ (2 sp.), Pegu, Borneo, and Sumatra; _Barbichthys_
+(1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; _Amblyrhynchichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra
+and Borneo; _Albulichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Oreinus_ (3 sp.),
+Himalayan region; _Schizothorax_ (13 sp.), Himalayan region and west to
+Afghanistan and Persia; _Ptychobarbus_ (1 sp.), Thibet; _Gymnocypris_ (1
+sp.), loc. unknown; _Schizopygopsis_ (1 sp.), Thibet; _Diptychus_ (1 sp.),
+Himalayas and Thibet; _Aulopyge_ (1 sp.), Western Asia; _Gobio_ (2 sp.),
+Temperate Europe (1 sp. British); _Pseudogobio_ (4 sp.), China, Japan, and
+Formosa; _Ceratichthys_ (9 sp.), Temperate North America; _Bungia_ (1 sp.),
+Western Asia, Herat; _Pimephales_ (2 sp.), Eastern United States;
+_Hyborhynchus_ (3 sp.), Eastern United States; _Ericymba_ (1 sp.), United
+States; _Pseudorasbora_ (1 sp.), Japan, China; _Cochlognathus_ (1 sp.),
+Texas; _Exoglossum_ (2 sp.), United States; _Rhinichthys_ (6 sp.), Eastern
+United States; _Rohteichthys_ (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra; _Leptobarbina_
+(1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Rasbora_ (12 sp.), East Coast of Africa,
+India, to Java and Borneo; _Luciosma_ (3 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo;
+_Nuria_ (2 sp.), India, Tenasserim, and Ceylon; _Aphyocypris_ (1 sp.),
+North China; _Amblypharyngodon_ (3 sp.), India to Tenasserim; _Cyprinion_
+(3 sp.), Syria and Persia; _Semiplotus_ (1 sp.), Assam; _Xenocypris_ (1
+sp.), China; _Paracanthobrama_ (1 sp.), China; _Mystacoleucus_ (1 sp.),
+Sumatra; _Leuciscus_ (84 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions (5 sp. are
+British); _Ctenopharyngodon_ (1 sp.), China; _Mylopharodon_ (1 sp.),
+California; _Paraphoxinus_ (2 sp.), South-eastern Europe; _Meda_ (1 sp.),
+River Gila; _Tinca_ (1 sp.), Europe (Britain to Constantinople);
+_Leucosomus_ (8 sp.), Nearctic region; _Chondrostoma_ (7 sp.), Europe and
+Western Asia; _Orthodon_ (1 sp.), California; _Acrochilus_ (1 sp.),
+Columbia River; _Achilognathus_ (6 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa;
+_Rhodeus_ (3 sp.), Central Europe and China; _Pseudoperilampus_ (1 sp.),
+Japan; _Danio_ (8 sp.), India and Ceylon; _Pterosarion_ (2 sp.), Central
+India and Assam; _Aspidoparia_ (3 sp.), Continental India; _Barilius_ (15
+sp.), East Africa and Continental India; _Bola_ (1 sp.), Ganges to
+Bramahputra; _Schacra_ (1 sp.), Bengal; _Opsariichthys_ (5 sp.), Japan and
+Formosa; _Squaliobarbus_ (1 sp.), China; _Ochetobius_ (1 sp.), North China;
+{453}_Hypophthalmichthys_ (2 sp.), China; _Abramis_ (16 sp.), North
+America, Central Europe, and Western Asia (1 sp. is British); _Aspius_ (3
+sp.), East Europe, Western Asia, China; _Alburnus_ (15 sp.), Europe and
+Western Asia (1 British sp.); _Rasborichthys_ (1 sp.), Borneo;
+_Elopichthys_ (1 sp.), China; _Pelotrophus_ (2 sp.), East Africa;
+_Acanthobrama_ (3 sp.), Western Asia; _Osteobrama_ (5 sp.), Continental
+India; _Chanodichthys_ (6 sp.), China and Formosa; _Smiliogaster_ (1 sp.),
+Bengal; _Culter_ (2 sp.), China; _Pelecus_ (1 sp.), Eastern Europe;
+_Eustira_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Chela_ (16 sp.), India to Siam, Java and
+Borneo; _Pseudolabuca_ (1 sp.), China; _Cachius_ (1 sp.), Continental
+India; _Homaloptera_ (8 sp.), India to Cochin China, Java, and Sumatra;
+_Psilorhynchus_ (2 sp.), North-eastern India; _Misgurnus_ (5 sp.), Europe
+to India, China, and Japan; _Nemachilus_ (37 sp.), Europe and Asia;
+_Cobitis_ (3 sp.), Europe, India, Japan; _Lepidocepalichthys_ (3 sp.),
+India, Ceylon, and Java; _Acanthopsis_ (2 sp.), Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java,
+and Borneo; _Botia_ (7 sp.), India to Japan and Sunda Isles; _Oreonectes_
+(1 sp.), China; _Lepidocephalus_ (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra;
+_Acanthopthalmus_ (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Apua_ (1 sp.), Tenasserim;
+_Kneria_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 76.--GONORHYNCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A marine fish with spiny scales, mouth with barbels, and with short dorsal
+fin opposite the ventrals."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate parts of Southern Oceans, and Japan.
+
+
+FAMILY 77.--HYODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A fresh-water fish with cycloid scales and posterior dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of North America.
+
+
+{454}FAMILY 78.--OSTEOGLOSSIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with large hard scales, and dorsal fin opposite and
+equal to the anal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical rivers.
+
+The genera are:--_Osteoglossum_ (3 sp.), Eastern South America, Sunda
+Islands, and Queensland; _Arapaima_ (1 sp.), Eastern South America--the
+"Pirarucú" of the Amazon; _Heterotis_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 79.--CLUPEIDÆ. (18 Genera, 161 Species.)
+
+"Marine scaly fishes, without barbels, and with the abdomen often
+compressed and serrated."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the whole globe, many species entering rivers. They
+are most abundant in the Indian seas, less so in America, scarce in Africa,
+while they are almost absent from Australia. The Herring, Sprat, Shad, and
+Pilchard, are British species of _Clupea_, a genus which contains 61
+species and ranges all over the world.
+
+
+FAMILY 80.--CHIROCENTRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A marine fish, with thin deciduous scales, no barbels, and posterior
+dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Eastern seas from Africa to China.
+
+
+FAMILY 81.--ALEPOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A marine fish, covered with thin cycloid scales, no barbels, and posterior
+dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Deep waters of the Mediterranean.
+
+
+{455}FAMILY 82.--NOTOPTERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, without barbels, head and body scaly, long tapering
+tail, and short posterior dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of India, Siam, the Sunda Islands, and West Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 83.--HALOSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Marine fishes, with cycloid scales, a short median dorsal fin, and no
+barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Deep waters of the Atlantic, Madeira.
+
+
+FAMILY 84.--GYMNOTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with elongate bodies, pointed tail, and no dorsal
+fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical America from Trinidad to the River Parana.
+
+The genera are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Sternarchus_ (8 sp.), Guiana and Brazil; _Rhamphichthys_ (6 sp.), Guiana
+and Brazil; _Sternophygus_ (4 sp.), Tropical America; _Carapus_ (1 sp.),
+Trinidad to Brazil; _Gymnotus_, (1 sp.--the Electric eel), Tropical South
+America.
+
+
+FAMILY 85.--SYMBRANCHIDÆ. (4 Genera, 6 Species.)
+
+"Marine and fresh-water fishes, having elongate bodies without fins, and
+very minute scales or none."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters and coasts of Western Australia and Tasmania.
+
+The genera are:--
+
+_Amphipnous_ (1 sp.), Bengal; _Monopterus_ (1 sp.), Siam to Northern China
+and Sunda Islands; _Symbranchus_ (3 sp.), Tropical {456}America, and India
+to Australia; _Chilobranchus_ (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania.
+
+
+FAMILY 86.--MURÆNIDÆ. (26 Genera, 230 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with cylindrical or band-like bodies and no
+ventral fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The seas and fresh waters of temperate and tropical regions.
+This family is divided by Dr. Günther into two sub-families and nine
+sections. The genus _Anguilla_, comprising our common Eel and a number of
+species from all parts of the world, is the only one which is found in
+fresh water, though even here most of the species are marine. _Anguilla_
+and _Conger_ are the only British genera.
+
+
+FAMILY 87.--PEGASIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+"Small marine fishes, covered with bony plates, and short opposite dorsal
+and anal fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Indian Ocean and seas of China and Australia.
+
+
+_Order V.--LOPHOBRANCHII._
+
+"Fish with a segmented bony covering, long snout, and small toothless
+mouth."
+
+
+FAMILY 88.--SOLENOSTOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+"Marine Lophobranchii, with wide gill openings and two dorsal fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Indian Ocean, from Zanzibar to China and the Moluccas.
+
+
+{457}FAMILY 89.--SYNGNATHIDÆ. (15 Genera, 112 Species.)
+
+"Marine Lophobranchii, with very small gill opening and one soft dorsal
+fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All the tropical and temperate seas. Some species of
+_Syngnathus_, _Doryichthys_, and _Coelonotus_ enter fresh water, and a few
+live in it exclusively. _Siphonostoma_, _Syngnathus_, _Nerophis_, and
+_Hippocampus_ are British genera. The _Hippocampina_ (5 genera, 25 sp.), or
+Sea-horses, are peculiar to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, except three or
+four species of _Hippocampus_ in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.
+
+
+_Order VI.--PLECTOGNATHI._
+
+"Fishes covered with rough scales or shields, having a narrow mouth, and
+soft posterior dorsal fin."
+
+
+FAMILY 90.--SCLERODERMI. (7 Genera, 95 Species.)
+
+"Marine Plectognathi, with toothed jaws."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Tropical seas, but much more abundant in the
+Tropics.
+
+
+FAMILY 91.--GYMNODONTES. (10 Genera, 82 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water Plectognathi, with jaws modified into a beak."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions.
+
+Some species of _Tetrodon_ are found in the rivers of Tropical America,
+Africa, and Asia. Species of _Tetrodon_ and _Orthagoriscus_ have been found
+on the British coasts.
+
+
+{458}SUB-CLASS II.--DIPNOI.
+
+
+FAMILY 92.--SIRENOIDEI. (3 Genera, 3 Species.)
+
+"Eel-shaped fresh-water fishes, covered with cycloid scales; the vertical
+fins forming a continuous border to the compressed tapering tail."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Tropical Africa, South America, and Australia.
+
+The genera are:--_Protopterus_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Lepidosiren_ (1
+sp.), Amazon Valley; _Ceratodus_ (1 sp.), Queensland.
+
+
+SUB-CLASS III.--GANOIDEI.
+
+
+_Order I.--HOLOSTEI._
+
+"Body covered with scales."
+
+
+FAMILY 93.--AMIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A fresh-water fish, with cycloid scales and a long soft dorsal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--United States.
+
+
+FAMILY 94.--POLYPTERIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales and dorsal spines."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Central and Western Africa.
+
+The genera are:--
+
+_Polypterus_ (1 sp.), the Nile and rivers of West Africa; _Calamoichthys_
+(1 sp.), Old Calabar.
+
+
+{459}FAMILY 95.--LEPIDOSTEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales, and dorsal and anal fins composed
+of articulated rays."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The genus Lepidosteus, the Garfishes or Bony Pikes, inhabits
+North America to Mexico and Cuba.
+
+
+_Order II.--CHONDROSTEI._
+
+"Sub-cartilaginous scaleless fishes with heterocercal tail, the skin with
+osseous bucklers or naked."
+
+
+FAMILY 96.--ACCIPENSERIDÆ. (2 Genera, 20 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water fishes with osseous bucklers and inferior mouth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere.
+ACCIPENSER (19 sp.), comprising the Sturgeons, has the distribution of the
+family; most of the species are marine, but some are confined to the
+Caspian and Black Seas and the great American lakes with the rivers flowing
+into them, while the Danube, Mississippi, and Columbia River have peculiar
+species. The other genus, SCAPHIRHYNCHUS (1 sp.), is confined to the
+Mississippi and its tributaries.
+
+
+FAMILY 97.--POLYDONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
+
+"Fresh-water fishes, with wide lateral mouth and naked skin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Mississippi and Yang-tse-kiang rivers.
+
+
+{460}SUB CLASS IV.--CHONDROPTERYGII. (SHARKS AND RAYS.)
+
+
+_Order I.--HOLOCEPHALA. (Chimæras.)_
+
+
+FAMILY 98.--CHIMÆRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
+
+"Shark-like marine fishes, snout of the male with a prehensile organ."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Northern and Southern temperate seas. _Chimæra_ is British.
+
+
+_Order II.--PLAGIOSTOMATA._
+
+Sub-order.--SELACHOIDEA. (Sharks.)
+
+
+FAMILY 99.--CARCHARIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 59 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with two dorsals and a nictitating membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the Arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. Species
+of _Galeus_ and _Mustelus_ have occurred on our coasts.
+
+
+FAMILY 100.--LAMNIDÆ. (5 Genera, 7 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with two dorsals and no nictitating membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas. Species of _Lamna_,
+_Alopecias_, and _Selache_ have occurred in British seas.
+
+
+{461}FAMILY 101.--RHINODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with two dorsal fins, the second small, and no nictitating
+membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--South and East Africa.
+
+
+FAMILY 102.--NOTIDANIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas, from the North Atlantic to the
+Cape of Good Hope and California. One species has occurred on our southern
+coasts.
+
+
+FAMILY 103.--SCYLLIIDÆ. (7 Genera, 25 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas. Species of _Scyllium_ and
+_Pristiurus_ are British.
+
+
+FAMILY 104.--CESTRACIONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Pacific Ocean from Japan to New Zealand, Moluccan Sea.
+
+
+FAMILY 105.--SPINACIDÆ. (10 Genera, 21 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane, no anal fin."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Species of
+_Acanthias_, _Læmargus_, and _Echinorhinus_ have occurred on our coasts.
+
+
+{462}FAMILY 106.--RHINIDÆ (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with depressed flat body and large expanded pectoral fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas, from Britain to California and
+Australia.
+
+
+FAMILY 107.--PRISTIOPHORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
+
+"Sharks with produced flat snout, armed with teeth on each edge."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of Japan and Australia.
+
+
+Sub-order BATOIDEI. (Rays.)
+
+
+FAMILY 108.--PRISTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
+
+"Rays with produced snout and lateral saw-like teeth."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of tropical and sub-tropical regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 109.--RHINOBATIDÆ. (3 Genera, 15 Species.)
+
+"Rays with long and strong tail, having a caudal and two dorsal fins."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and sub-tropical seas.
+
+
+FAMILY 110.--TORPEDINIDÆ. (6 Genera, 15 Species.)
+
+"Rays with broad smooth disc, and an electric organ."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and temperate seas, from Britain to Tasmania.
+
+
+FAMILY 111.--RAIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 29 Species.)
+
+"Rays with broad rhombic disc and no serrated caudal spine."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas. Several species of _Raia_
+are found on our coasts.
+
+
+{463}FAMILY 112.--TRYGONIDÆ (6 Genera, 43 Species.)
+
+"Rays with the pectoral fins extending to end of snout."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, and rivers of
+Tropical America. A species of _Trygon_ has occurred on our Southern coast.
+_Ellipesurus_ and _Tæniura_ are found in the fresh waters of the interior
+of South America, while the latter genus occurs also in the Indian seas,
+but not in the Atlantic.
+
+
+FAMILY 113.--MYLOBATIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)
+
+"Rays with very broad pectoral fins not extending to end of snout."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas. A species of MYLIOBATIS is
+British, but most of the species and genera are confined to tropical seas.
+_Dicerobatis_ and _Ceratoptera_ are very large Rays, commonly called
+Sea-devils.
+
+
+SUB-CLASS V.--CYCLOSTOMATA.
+
+"Cartilaginous fishes, with suctorial mouths and without lateral fins."
+
+
+FAMILY 114.--PETROMYZONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 12 Species.)
+
+"Marine or fresh-water eel-like fishes, with suctorial mouths and without
+barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts and fresh waters of temperate regions of both
+hemispheres. Three species of _Petromyzon_ (Lampreys), are British.
+
+
+{464}FAMILY 115.--MYXINIDÆ. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)
+
+"Marine eel-like fishes, with four pairs of barbels."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the temperate regions of both hemispheres.
+
+
+SUB-CLASS VI.--LEPTOCARDII.
+
+
+FAMILY 116.--CIRRHOSTOMI. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
+
+"A small marine fish with no jaws or fins, and with rudimentary eyes."
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The only species, the Lancelet (_Amphioxus_), is the lowest
+form of living vertebrate. It is found in the temperate regions of both
+hemispheres, and has occurred on our southern coast.
+
+
+_Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes._
+
+_Marine Fish._--There are about 80 families of marine fishes, and of these
+no less than 50 are universally, or almost universally, distributed over
+the seas and oceans of the globe. Of the remainder many are widely
+distributed, some species even ranging from the North Atlantic to
+Australia. Six families are confined to the Northern Seas, but four of
+these consist of single species only, the other two being the Discoboli (2
+genera, 11 sp.), and the Accipenseridæ (2 genera and 20 sp.). Only one
+family (Acanthoclinidæ) is confined to the Southern oceans, and that
+consists of but a single species. Four families (Sternoptychidæ,
+Stomiatidæ, Alepocephalidæ and Halosauridæ) are confined to the Atlantic
+Ocean, while 13 are found only in the Pacific; and of the remainder several
+are more abundant in the Pacific than the Atlantic. Two families (Lycodidæ
+and Gadidæ) are found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas only, though the
+{465}latter family has a single species in the Indian seas. Among the
+curiosities of distribution are,--the extensive genus _Diagramma_, confined
+to the Pacific with the exception of one species in the Mediterranean; the
+single species constituting the family Lophotidæ, found only in the
+Mediterranean and Japan; the small family of Notacanthi, confined to
+Greenland, the Mediterranean, and West Australia; and the four families,
+Sternoptychidæ, Stomiatidæ, Alepocephalidæ, and Halosauridæ, which are
+believed to inhabit exclusively the depths of the ocean, and are therefore
+very rarely obtained.
+
+_Fresh-water Fish._--There are 36 families of fishes which inhabit fresh
+water exclusively, and 5 others, which are both marine and fresh-water.
+These present many interesting peculiarities of distribution. The
+Neotropical region is the richest in families, and probably also in genera
+and species. No less than 22 families inhabit it, and of these 6 are
+altogether peculiar. The Ethiopian and Nearctic regions each have 18
+families, the former with 3, and the latter with 5 peculiar. Several
+isolated forms, requiring to be placed in distinct families, inhabit the
+great American lakes; and, no doubt, when the African lakes are equally
+well known, they will be found also to possess many peculiar forms. The
+Oriental region comes next, with 17 families, of which 3 are peculiar. The
+Palæarctic has 12, and the Australian 11 families, each with only 1
+altogether peculiar to it.
+
+If we take those regions which are sometimes supposed to be so nearly
+related that they should be combined, we shall find the fresh-water fishes
+in most cases markedly distinct. The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, for
+example, together contain 20 families, but only 11 of these occur in both,
+and only 5 are exclusive inhabitants of these two regions. This shows an
+amount of diversity that would not, perhaps, be exhibited by any other
+class of animals. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions together possess 24
+families, only 11 of which are found in both, and only 1 exclusively
+characteristic of the two. The Australian and Neotropical regions possess
+together 27 families, of which 7 are found in both, and 3 are exclusively
+characteristic of the two. This last fact is very interesting: the marine
+family of {466}Trachinidæ possesses a fresh-water genus, _Aphritis_, one
+species of which inhabits Tasmania, and two others Patagonia; the
+Haplochitonidæ (2 genera, 3 sp.) are found only in Tierra del Fuego, the
+Falkland Islands, and South Australia; and the Galaxidæ (1 genus, 12 sp.)
+inhabit the same regions, but extend to Chili, to New Zealand and to
+Queensland. We have here an illustration of that connection between South
+America and Australia which is so strongly manifested in plants, but of
+which there are only scattered indications in most classes of animals. The
+dividing line across the Malay Archipelago, separating the Oriental from
+the Australian regions, and which is so strikingly marked in mammalia and
+birds, is equally so in fresh-water fishes. No less than six families have
+their eastern limits in Java and Borneo; while the extensive family of
+Cyprinidæ has no less than 23 genera in Java and Borneo, but not a single
+species has been found in Celebes or the Moluccas.
+
+The distribution of fresh-water fishes lends no support to the view that
+the peninsula of India belongs to the Ethiopian region. A large proportion
+of the Oriental families are common to the whole region; while there is
+hardly a single example, of a characteristic Ethiopian family or genus
+extending into the peninsula of India and no further.
+
+Among the special peculiarities of distribution, is the curious fish,
+forming the family Comephoridæ, which is confined to Lake Baikal, among the
+mountains of Central Asia, 2,000 feet above the sea, and a thousand miles
+distant from the ocean; yet having its nearest allies in the exclusively
+oceanic family of the mackerels (Scomberidæ). The Characinidæ are confined
+to Africa and South America, distinct genera inhabiting each region. The
+Salmonidæ are confined to the two northern regions, except a single species
+of a peculiar genus in New Zealand. The genus _Osteoglossum_ has a species
+in South America, another in the Sunda Islands, and a third in Queensland;
+while the curious Sirenoidei are represented by single species of peculiar
+genera in Tropical America, Tropical Africa, and Tropical Australia.
+
+_Fossil Fishes._--Fishes have existed from a very remote era, and it is
+remarkable that the first whose remains have been {467}discovered belong to
+the Ganoidei, a highly developed group which has continued to exist down to
+our times, and of which the sturgeon is the best known example. We may
+therefore be sure that the Upper Silurian rocks in which these are found,
+although so very far back in geological history, do not by any means lead
+us to the time when the primitive fish-type appeared upon the earth. In the
+Carboniferous and Permian formations numerous remains of fishes are found,
+allied to the _Lepidosteus_ or Gar-pike of North America. The next group in
+order of appearance, are the Plagiostomata, containing the existing Sharks
+and Rays. Traces of these are found in the highest Silurian beds, and
+become plentiful in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations and in all
+succeeding ages, being especially abundant in Cretaceous and Eocene strata.
+The Holocephali appear first in the Oolitic period, and are represented by
+the living Chimæridæ. The Dipnoi, to which belong the _Lepidosiren_ and
+_Ceratodus_, are believed to have existed in the Triassic period, from the
+evidence of teeth almost identical with those of the existing Australian
+fish. All the ancient fossil fishes belong to the above-mentioned groups,
+and many of them have little resemblance to existing forms. The Teleostean
+fishes, which form the great bulk of those now living, cannot be traced
+back further than the Cretaceous period, while by far the larger number
+first appear in the Tertiary beds. The Salmonidæ, Scopelidæ, Percidæ,
+Clupeidæ, Scombresocidæ, Mugilidæ, and Siluridæ, or forms closely allied to
+them, are found in the Cretaceous formation. In the Eocene beds we first
+meet with Squammipennes, Cyprinidæ, Pleuronectidæ, Characinidæ, Murænidæ,
+Gadidæ, Pediculati, Syngnathidæ, and Hippocampidæ.
+
+Most of these fossils represent marine fishes, those of fresh-water origin
+being rare, and of little importance as an aid in determining the causes of
+the distribution of living forms. To understand this we must look to the
+various changes of the land surface which have led to the existing
+distribution of all the higher vertebrates, and to those special means of
+dispersal which Mr. Darwin has shown to be possessed by all fresh-water
+productions.
+
+
+
+{468}CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF
+INSECTS.
+
+
+Although insects are, for the most part, truly terrestrial animals, and
+illustrate in a very striking manner the characteristic phenomena of
+distribution, it is impossible here to treat of them in much detail. This
+arises chiefly from their excessive numbers, but also from the minuteness
+and obscurity of many of the groups, and our imperfect knowledge of all but
+the European species. The number of described species of insects is
+uncertain, as no complete enumeration of them has ever been made; but it
+probably exceeds 100,000, and these may belong to somewhere about 10,000
+genera--many times more than all vertebrate animals together. Of the eight
+Orders into which Insects are usually divided, only two--the Coleoptera and
+Lepidoptera--have been so thoroughly collected in all parts of the globe
+that they can be used, with any safety, to compare their distribution with
+that of vertebrate animals; and even of these it is only certain favourite
+groups which have been so collected. Among Lepidoptera, for example,
+although the extensive group of Butterflies may be said, in a general
+sense, to be thoroughly well known--every spot visited by civilized man
+having furnished its quota to our collections--yet the minute Tineidæ, or
+even the larger but obscure Noctuidæ, have scarcely been collected at all
+in tropical countries, and any attempt to study their geographical
+distribution would certainly lead to erroneous results. The same thing
+occurs, though perhaps in a less degree, among the Coleoptera. While the
+Carabidæ, Buprestidæ, and {469}Longicorns of the Tropics, are almost as
+well known as those of the Temperate Zones, the Staphylinidæ, the smaller
+Elateridæ, and many other obscure and minute groups, are very imperfectly
+represented from extra-European countries. I therefore propose to examine
+with some care the distribution of the Butterflies, and the Sphingina among
+Lepidoptera, and the following large and well-known families of
+Coleoptera:--Cicindelidæ, Carabidæ, Lucanidæ, Cetoniidæ, Buprestidæ, and
+the three families of Longicorns. These families together contain over
+30,000 species, classed in nearly 3,000 genera, and comprise a large
+proportion of the best known and most carefully studied groups. We may
+therefore consider, that a detailed examination of their distribution will
+lead us to results which cannot be invalidated by any number of isolated
+facts drawn from the less known members of the class.
+
+
+
+_Range of Insects in Time._--In considering how much weight is to be given
+to facts in insect distribution, and what interpretation is to be put upon
+the anomalies or exceptional cases that may be met with, it is important to
+have some idea of the antiquity of the existing groups, and of the rate at
+which the forms of insect life have undergone modification. The geological
+record, if imperfect in the case of the higher animals, is fragmentary in
+the extreme as regards indications of former insect life; yet the positive
+facts that it does disclose are of great interest, and have an important
+bearing on our subject. These facts and the conclusions they lead to have
+been discussed in our first volume (p. 166), and they must be carefully
+weighed in all cases of apparent conflict or incongruity between the
+distribution of insects and that of the higher animals.
+
+
+{470}_Order--LEPIDOPTERA._
+
+Sub-order--_Lepidoptera_ RHOPALOCERA, or BUTTERFLIES.
+
+FAMILY 1.--DANAIDÆ. (24 Genera, 530 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Danaidæ are now held to comprehend, not only the whole of the group so
+named by Doubleday, but a large portion of the Heliconidæ of that author.
+Their range is thus extended over the whole of the tropical regions. A few
+species spread northwards into the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, but
+these are only stragglers, and hardly diminish the exclusively tropical
+character of the group. The more remarkable genera are,--_Hestia_ (10 sp.),
+and _Ideopsis_ (6 sp.), confined to the Malayan and Moluccan districts;
+_Danais_ (50 sp.), which has the range of the whole family; _Euploea_ (140
+sp.), confined to the Oriental and Australian regions, but especially
+abundant in the Malayan and Moluccan districts; _Hamadryas_ (4 sp.),
+Australian region only. The remaining genera constitute the Danaioid
+Heliconidæ, and are strictly confined to Tropical America, except a few
+species which extend into the southern parts of the Nearctic region. The
+chief of these genera are:--
+
+_Ithomia_ (160 sp.), _Melinæa_ (18 sp.), _Napeogenes_ (20 sp.),
+_Mechanitis_ (4 sp.), _Ceratina_ (32 sp.), _Dircenna_ (10 sp.), and
+_Lycorea_ (4 sp.). Florida, Louisiana, and Southern California, mark the
+northern extent of these insects.
+
+
+{471}FAMILY 2.--SATYRIDÆ. (60 Genera, 835 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This family has an absolutely universal distribution, extending even into
+the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Many of the genera are, however,
+restricted in their range.
+
+_Hætera_, _Lymanopoda_, _Calisto_, _Corades_, _Taygetis_, _Pronophila_,
+_Euptychia_, and some allied forms (25 genera in all) are Neotropical, the
+last named extending north to Canada; _Debis_, _Melanitis_, _Mycalesis_ and
+_Ypthima_, are mostly Oriental, but extending also into the Australian and
+the Ethiopian regions; _Gnaphodes_, _Leptoneura_, and a few other small
+genera, are exclusively Ethiopian; _Xenica_, _Hypocista_, and
+_Heteronympha_, are Australian; _Erebia_, _Satyrus_, _Hipparchia_,
+_Coenonympha_, and allies, are mostly Palæarctic, but some species are
+Ethiopian, and others Nearctic; _Chionabas_, is characteristic of the whole
+Arctic regions, but is also found in Chili and the Western Himalayas. The
+peculiar genera in each region are,--Neotropical, 25; Australian, 7;
+Oriental, 11; Ethiopian, 5; Palæarctic, 3; Nearctic, 0.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--ELYMNIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Elymnias_, which constitutes this family, is characteristic of
+the Malayan and Moluccan districts, with some species in Northern India and
+one in Ashanti. It thus agrees with several groups of Vertebrata, in
+showing the resemblance {472}of Malaya with West Africa independently of
+the Peninsula of India.
+
+
+FAMILY 4. MORPHIDÆ. (10 Genera, 106 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Morphidæ are a group of generally large-sized butterflies, especially
+characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, and of Tropical
+America; with a few species extending to the Himalayas on the west, and to
+Polynesia on the east. The genera are:--
+
+_Amathusia_ (6 sp.), Northern India to Java; _Zeuxidia_ (9 sp.), the Malay
+district; _Discophora_ (7 sp.), Northern India to Philippines, Java and
+Timor; _Enispe_ (3 sp.), Northern India; _Hyades_ (15 sp.), Moluccan and
+Polynesian districts, except one species in Java; _Clerome_ (11 sp.),
+Northern India to Philippines and Celebes; _Æmona_ (1 sp.), Sikhim;
+_Hyantis_ (1 sp.), Waigiou; _Thaumantis_ (10 sp.), Indo-Chinese and Malayan
+districts; _Morpho_ (40 sp.), Neotropical region, Brazilian and Central
+American sub-regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 5. BRASSOLIDÆ. (7 Genera, 62 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Brassolidæ have the same distribution as the genus _Morpho_. The genera
+are:--
+
+_Brassolis_ (5 sp.); _Opsiphanes_ (17 sp.); _Dynastor_ (2 sp.); _Penetes_
+(1 sp.); _Caligo_ (21 sp.); _Narope_ (5 sp.); and _Dasyopthalma_ (3 sp.)
+
+
+{473}FAMILY 6.--ACRÆIDÆ. (1 Genus, 90 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Acræa_ is especially abundant in the Ethiopian region, which
+contains two-thirds of all the known species; 3 or 4 species only, range
+over the whole Oriental, and most of the Australian regions; while all the
+rest inhabit the same districts of the Neotropical region as the
+Brassolidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--HELICONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 114 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The true Heliconidæ are very characteristic of the Neotropical region; one
+species only extending into the Southern States of North America as far as
+Florida. The genus _Heliconius_ (83 sp.), has the range of the family;
+while _Eueides_ (19 sp.), is confined to the Brazilian and Central American
+sub-regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--NYMPHALIDÆ. (113 Genera, 1490 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This is the largest and most universally distributed family of butterflies,
+and is well illustrated by our common Fritillaries, {474}Tortoise-shell,
+Peacock, Painted Lady, and Purple Emperor butterflies. They are found
+wherever butterfly-life can exist, and some single species--like the
+Painted Lady (_Pyrameis cardui_)--range almost over the globe. A few of the
+more extensive and remarkable genera only, can be here noticed:--
+
+_Colænis_, _Agraulis_, _Eresia_, _Synchloe_, _Epicalia_, _Eunica_,
+_Eubagis_, _Catagramma_, _Callithea_, _Ageronia_, _Timetes_, _Heterochroa_,
+_Prepona_, _Hypna_, _Paphia_, and _Siderone_, are wholly Neotropical, as
+well as many others which have a smaller number of species. _Euryphene_,
+_Romaleosoma_, _Aterica_, and _Harma_, are exclusively Ethiopian.
+_Terinos_, _Athyma_, _Adolias_, and _Tanæcia_, are Oriental, but they
+mostly extend into the Moluccan region; the last however is strictly
+Malayan, and _Adolias_ only reaches Celebes. _Mynes_ alone, is exclusively
+Australian, but _Prothoe_ is almost so, having only one outlying species in
+Java. _Eurytela_ and _Ergolis_ are confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian
+regions, but the latter reaches the Moluccas. _Cethosia_, _Cirrhochroa_,
+_Messaras_, and _Symphædra_, are both Oriental and Australian; while
+_Junonia_, _Cyrestis_, _Diadema_, _Neptis_, and _Nymphalis_, are common to
+the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, the latter extending
+into the Mediterranean district, while _Junonia_ occurs also in South
+America and the Southern United States.
+
+The most cosmopolitan genus is _Pyrameis_, which has representatives in
+every region and every district. _Apatura_ is found in all but the
+Ethiopian and the Australian, although it just enters the confines of the
+latter region in Celebes; _Limenitis_ is abundant in the Oriental region,
+but extends eastward to Celebes and westward into Europe, North America,
+and even into South America. _Argynnis_, _Melitæa_, and _Vanessa_, are
+almost confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; the former however
+occurs in the Himalayas and in the mountains of Java, and also in Chili and
+in Jamaica. Two genera--_Dicrorrhagia_ and _Helcyra_--have both one species
+in North India and another in the island of Ceram. The number of genera
+peculiar to each region is as follows:--Neotropical, 50; Australian, 2;
+Oriental 15; Ethiopian, 14; Palæarctic, 1; Nearctic, 0.
+
+
+{475}FAMILY 9.--LIBYTHEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   -- 2 -- 4 | -- 2.3 -- |1. 2 -- -- | -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The genus _Libythea_, which constitutes this family, appears to have its
+head-quarters in the Oriental region, but extends on all sides in an
+erratic manner, into various remote and disconnected portions of the globe,
+as indicated above.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--NEMEOBIIDÆ. (12 Genera, 145 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|1 -- -- -- | -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This group has been separated from the Erycinidæ of the older authors, and
+contains all the non-American genera and species. Half the genera and
+nearly four-fifths of the species of this group are, however, Neotropical;
+one is European; two or three African; and twenty-six Oriental and
+Australian. The genera are:--
+
+_Nemeobius_ (1 sp.), Europe; _Dodona_ (6 sp.), North India; _Zemeros_ (2
+sp.), North India and Malaya; _Abisara_ (11 sp.), North India, Malayan and
+Moluccan districts, Madagascar and West Africa; _Taxila_ (8 sp.), North
+India and Malaya; _Dicallaneura_ (2 sp.), Moluccan district; _Alesa_ (6
+sp.), _Eunogyra_ (2 sp.), _Cremna_ (7 sp.), _Bæotis_ (3 sp.), are all from
+the Brazilian sub-region; _Eurybia_ (10 sp.), _Mesosemia_ (80 sp.), inhabit
+both the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions.
+
+
+{476}FAMILY 11.--EURYGONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 78 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- --- -- |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This small family, separated from the true Erycinidæ by Mr. Bates, is
+confined to the tropical forest-districts of continental America. The
+genera are:--
+
+_Eurygona_ (71 sp.); _Methonella_ (1 sp.); the latter found in Equatorial
+South America.
+
+
+FAMILY 12.--ERYCINIDÆ. (59 Genera, 560 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This extensive family of small, but exquisitely beautiful butterflies, is
+especially characteristic of the virgin forests of the Neotropical region,
+only a few species of three genera extending into the Nearctic region. The
+more important genera, and those which have an exceptional distribution,
+can alone be here noticed. _Charis_ extends from Brazil to New York;
+_Apodemia_ from Brazil to California, Utah, and Oregon; _Amarynthis_
+inhabits the Brazilian and Antillean sub-regions; _Lepricornis_ and
+_Metapheles_ are small genera found only in the Mexican sub-region;
+_Lymnas_, _Necyria_, _Ancyluris_, _Diorhina_, _Esthemopsis_, _Anteros_,
+_Emesis_, _Symmachia_, _Cricosoma_, _Calydna_, _Lemonias_, _Nymphidium_,
+_Theope_, and _Aricoris_ are common to the Brazilian and Mexican
+sub-regions. All the other genera (40 in number) are only known from the
+Brazilian sub-region, and of these a considerable proportion are confined
+to the damp equatorial forests of the Amazon Valley.
+
+
+{477}FAMILY 13.--LYCÆNIDÆ. (39 Genera, 1,220 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Lycænidæ--of the variety and beauty of which in tropical regions our
+own "Blues" and "Coppers" give but a faint idea--are a group of universal
+distribution. We shall therefore indicate those genera which are restricted
+to one or more regions, or are nearly cosmopolitan. The large genus
+_Polyommatus_ (containing 325 species) has the same universal distribution
+as the entire family. Our common "Blues" well represent this genus.
+_Lycæna_ (comprising the "Coppers") is more especially characteristic of
+the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, but straggling species occur also in
+North India, South Africa, Chili, and New Zealand. _Thecla_ is especially
+characteristic of the Neotropical region, where there are about 370
+species; in the Nearctic region, 36; in the Palæarctic 13; and in the
+Ethiopian 3. _Miletus_, _Lucia_, _Hypolycæna_, _Myrina_, and _Deudorix_ are
+common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere--the
+Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian. _Aphneus_ and _Iolaus_ are common to
+the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the latter extending to Celebes.
+_Ialmenus_, _Pseudodipsas_, _Curetis_, and _Amblypodia_ are common to the
+Oriental and Australian regions, but the first-named is found also in
+Madagascar. _Zephyrus_ is found only in the Nearctic and Palæarctic,
+_Eumæus_ in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The Nearctic region has
+one peculiar genus (_Feniseca_); the Palæarctic has two--_Thestor_ and
+_Læosopis_; the Ethiopian has nine--_Pentila_, _Liptana_, _D'Urbania_,
+_Axiocerces_, _Capys_, _Phytala_, _Epitola_, _Hewitsonia_, and _Deloneura_;
+the Oriental has five--_Allotinus_, _Ilerda_, _Poritia_, _Camena_, and
+_Liphyra_; the Australian has three--_Hypochrysops_, _Utica_, and _Ogyris_;
+and the Neotropical also three--_Lamprospilus_, _Theorema_, and
+_Trichonis_.
+
+
+{478}FAMILY 14.--PIERIDÆ. (35 Genera, 817 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Pieridæ are distributed almost, if not quite, as widely over the globe
+as the last family, and we shall group the genera in the same manner.
+_Pieris_ (130 sp.) is cosmopolitan; _Terias_ and _Callidryas_ are found in
+all the four tropical regions, and as far north as Pennsylvania in the
+Nearctic region; _Pontia_, _Tachyris_, _Eronia_, and _Thestias_ are common
+to the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, the last-named,
+however, only extending as far as Timor; _Colias_ is pre-eminently
+Palæarctic and Nearctic, with a few Ethiopian species, one Indian, two in
+Chili, and one in the Sandwich Islands; _Anthocharis_ is wholly Palæarctic
+and Nearctic; _Midea_ has two species Nearctic, and one in Japan;
+_Gonepteryx_ is Palæarctic and Neotropical, extending into Texas; _Idmais_
+and _Callosune_ are Ethiopian and Oriental; _Thyca_ and _Iphias_ are
+Oriental and Australian; _Meganostoma_ is Nearctic and Neotropical;
+_Nathalis_ and _Kricogonia_ are Neotropical, ranging into Florida, Texas,
+and Colorado.
+
+The peculiar genera are pretty equally distributed. The Neotropical region
+has ten, two being confined to Chili; _Euterpe_ and _Leptalis_ are the most
+remarkable, the latter containing a number of forms mimicking the
+Heliconidæ and Danaidæ. The Oriental region has two, _Prioneris_ and
+_Dercas_, the Australian one, _Elodina_; the Ethiopian two, _Teracolus_ and
+_Pseudopontia_; the Palæarctic two, _Leucophasia_ and _Zegris_; the
+Nearctic one, _Neophasia_.
+
+
+{479}FAMILY 15.--PAPILIONIDÆ. (13 Genera, 455 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Papilionidæ, comprising many of the noblest and richest-coloured
+butterflies, and long placed at the head of the group, are almost as
+universally distributed as the Pieridæ, but they do not extend to so many
+remote islands nor so far into the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
+Nine-tenths of the species belong to the genus _Papilio_, and these are
+especially abundant in tropical regions, although species occur in every
+region and every sub-region. Well-marked sub-divisions of this large genus
+are characteristic of each great region--as the "Æneas" group in the
+Neotropical, the "Paris" group in the Oriental, the "Ægeus" group in the
+Australian, the "Zenobius" group in the Ethiopian, and many others. The few
+species of the Palæarctic region belong, on the other hand, to a group of
+universal distribution, and the Nearctic has a good number of species
+allied to Neotropical forms.
+
+The other genera have mostly a very restricted range. _Parnassius_ is an
+Alpine genus, confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The
+Palæarctic region further possesses 5 peculiar genera--_Mesapia_,
+_Hypermnestra_, _Doritis_, _Sericinus_, and _Thais_; the Oriental has 4,
+_Calinaga_, _Teinopalpus_, _Bhutanitis_, and _Leptocircus_, the latter
+going as far as Celebes; the Australian has 1, _Eurycus_; and the
+Neotropical 1, _Euryades_, confined to the Chilian sub-region. The
+Ethiopian and the Nearctic regions have no peculiar genera.
+
+
+{480}FAMILY 16.--HESPERIDÆ. (52 Genera (?), 1,200 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Hesperidæ, or Skippers, are an immense group of mostly small obscurely
+coloured butterflies, universally distributed, and of which hosts of
+species still remain to be discovered and described. As the grouping of
+these into genera is not yet satisfactorily accomplished, only the more
+extensive and best known groups will be here noticed. _Pamphila_ and
+_Hesperia_ are universally distributed; _Nisoniades_ seems to be only
+absent from the Australian region. The Neotropical region is pre-eminently
+rich in Hesperidæ, 33 genera being found there, of which 20 are peculiar to
+it; the Australian region has 12 genera, only 1 (_Euschemon_) being
+peculiar; the Oriental has 18, with 3 peculiar; the Ethiopian, 13, with 3
+peculiar; the Palæarctic 6, with 1 (_Erynnis_) almost peculiar, a species
+occurring in Mexico; the Nearctic 9, with none peculiar, 4 being found also
+in the Neotropical region, 2 in the Palæarctic, and the rest being of wide
+distribution. Many new genera have, however, been recently described in the
+United States, but it is impossible yet to determine how many, if any, of
+these are peculiar. More than 100 species of the family are included in Mr.
+Edwards' "Synopsis of North American Butterflies,"--a very large number
+considering that Europe possesses only about 30.
+
+
+{481}Sub-order--LEPIDOPTERA HETEROCERA, or MOTHS.
+
+The Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths, are of such immense extent, and are,
+besides, so imperfectly known compared with the Butterflies, that it would
+serve no purpose to go into the details of their distribution; especially
+as most of the families and a considerable number of the genera are
+cosmopolitan. We propose therefore to notice only the Sphingina, which,
+being generally of large size and finely marked or coloured, and many of
+them day-fliers, have been extensively collected; and whose numbers are
+more manageable than the succeeding groups.
+
+
+_Group I.--SPHINGINA._
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--ZYGÆNIDÆ (46 Genera, about 530 Species).
+
+The Zygænidæ are universally distributed, but many of the genera are
+restricted in their range. _Zygæna_ (85 sp.) is mainly Palæarctic, but 2
+species are South African, and 1 North American; _Procris_ (22 sp.) has a
+scattered distribution, from the Palæarctic region to South America, South
+Africa and North India; _Heterogynis_ (3 sp.) and _Dysauxis_ (3 sp.) are
+European; _Pollanisus_ (3 sp.) is Australian; _Glaucopis_ (120 sp.) is
+mainly Neotropical, with a few Oriental; _Syntomis_ (94 sp.) is found in
+all the Old-World regions; and _Euchromia_ (150 sp.) is found in all warm
+countries, though especially abundant in South America.
+
+
+FAMILY 18.--CASTNIIDÆ (7 Genera, 63 Species).
+
+The Castniidæ have an interesting distribution, being mainly Neotropical,
+with four genera in Australia and New Guinea. _Castnia_, _Coronis_, and
+_Gazera_, with 51 species, are Neotropical; _Synemon_, _Euschemon_,
+_Damias_ and _Cocytia_, with 12 species, are Australian, the latter being
+found only in the Papuan Islands.
+
+
+{482}FAMILY 19.--AGARISTIDÆ (13 Genera, 76 Species).
+
+The Agaristidæ are beautiful diurnal moths, allied to the Castniidæ, but
+almost confined to the Australian and Oriental regions, with a few in the
+Ethiopian. The most important genera are,--_Agarista_ (21 sp.), Australia
+and New Guinea; _Eusemia_ (31 sp.), _Ægocera_ (7 sp.), Oriental and
+Ethiopian regions; the other genera being confined to the islands from Java
+to New Guinea.
+
+
+FAMILY 20.--URANIIDÆ (2 Genera, 12 Species).
+
+These magnificent insects have a singular distribution. The gold-spangled
+_Urania_ (6 sp.) is characteristic of Tropical America, but a single
+species of great magnificence occurs in Madagascar. The large but
+sober-tinted _Nyctalemon_ (6 sp.) is found in the Neotropical, Oriental,
+and Australian regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 21.--STYGIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)
+
+These insects are confined to the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, 2
+genera in the former, 1 in the latter.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--ÆGERIIDÆ. (24 Genera, 215 Species.)
+
+This family is found in all parts of the world except Australia. _Ægeria_
+is most abundant in Europe, but is found also in North and South America.
+
+
+FAMILY 23.--SPHINGIDÆ. (40 Genera, 345 Species.)
+
+The Sphinx Moths are cosmopolitan. The most important genera
+are,--_Macroglossa_ (26 sp.), _Chærocampa_ (46 sp.), and _Macrosila_ (21
+sp.), all cosmopolitan; _Sesia_ (12 sp.), Europe, Asia, and North America;
+_Deilephila_ (19 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, Nearctic region,
+and Chili; _Sphinx_ (21 sp.), Europe, {483}North and South America;
+_Smerinthus_ (29 sp.), all regions except Australia. Our Death's Head Moth
+(_Acherontia atropos_) ranges to Sierra Leone and the Philippine Islands.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepidoptera and
+Sphingidea._
+
+The Diurnal Lepidoptera or Butterflies, comprehend 431 genera and 7,740
+species, arranged in 16 families, according to Mr. Kirby's Catalogue
+published in 1871. The Sphingidea consist of 135 genera and 1,255 species,
+arranged in 7 families, according to the British Museum Catalogue dated
+1864; and as this includes all Mr. Bates' collections in America and my own
+in the East, it is probable that no very large additions have since been
+made.
+
+The distribution of the families and genera of Butterflies corresponds
+generally with that of Birds--and more especially with that of the
+Passerine birds--in showing a primary division of the earth into Eastern
+and Western, rather than into Northern and Southern lands. The Neotropical
+region is by far the richest and most peculiar. It possesses 15 families of
+butterflies, whereas the other regions have only from 8, in the Palæarctic,
+to 12 in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; and as none of the Old World
+regions possess any peculiar families, the New World has a very clear
+superiority. In genera the preponderance is still greater, since the
+Neotropical region possesses about 200 altogether peculiar to it, out of a
+total of 431 genera, many of which are cosmopolitan. Comparing, now, the
+Eastern regions with the Western, we have two peculiar families in the
+former to 4 in the latter; while the Southern regions (Australian and
+Neotropical) possess not a single peculiar family in common.
+
+In the Sphingidea the same general features recur in a less marked degree,
+the Neotropical being the richest region; but here we have one family
+(Castniidæ) which appears to be confined to the two southern regions,--the
+Australian and Neotropical.
+
+The distribution of the genera affords us some facts of special interest,
+which must be briefly noticed. There are several {484}genera typically
+characteristic of the North Temperate regions which have a few species
+widely scattered on mountains, or in the temperate parts of the Southern
+Hemisphere. Chili possesses representatives of four of these
+genera--_Argynnis_, _Lycæna_, _Colias_, and _Deilephila_; and this has been
+thought by some naturalists to be of such importance as to outweigh the
+purely Neotropical character of a large portion of the Chilian fauna, and
+to render it advisable to join it on, as an outlying portion of a great
+North Temperate zoological region. But when we remember that _Argynnis_
+occurs also in Java, and _Lycæna_ in New Zealand, while _Colias_ ranges to
+Southern Africa, Malabar, and the Sandwich Islands, we can hardly admit the
+argument to be a sound one. For a fuller discussion of this question see
+Vol. II., pp. 43-47. The remarkable fact of the existence of the otherwise
+purely Neotropical genus, _Urania_, in Madagascar is even more striking,
+supported as it is by the Antillean, _Solenedon_, belonging to a family of
+Mammalia otherwise confined to Madagascar, and by one or two Coleopterous
+genera, to be noticed farther on as common to the two countries. Our view
+as to the true explanation of this and analogous phenomena will be found at
+Vol. I., p. 284.
+
+The division of the Castniidæ (a family almost confined to the Tropics),
+between the Neotropical and Australian regions, is also a very curious and
+important phenomenon, because it seems to point to a more remote connection
+between the two countries than that indicated by the resemblance between
+the productions of South Temperate America with those of Australia and New
+Zealand; but we have already shown that the facts may be explained in
+another way. (See Vol. I., pp. 398 and 404).
+
+The division of the Malay Archipelago between the Oriental and Australian
+regions is clearly marked in the Lepidoptera, and it is very curious that
+it should be so, for in this, if in any group of animals, we should expect
+an almost complete fusion to have been effected. Lepidoptera fly readily
+across wide tracts of sea, and there is absolutely no climatal difference
+to interfere with their free migration from island to island. Yet we find
+no less than 10 genera abundant in the Indo-Malayan {485}sub-region which
+never cross the narrow seas to the east of them; 6 others which only pass
+to Celebes; and 2 more which have extended from Java along the closely
+connected line of islands eastwards to Timor. On the other side, we find 5
+strictly Austro-Malayan genera, and 2 others which have a single
+representative in Java. The following is a list of these genera:--
+
+INDO-MALAYAN GENERA:--_Amathusia_, _Thaumantis_, _Tanæcia_, _Eurytela_,
+_Ilerda_, _Zemeros_, _Taxila_, _Aphneus_, _Prioneris_, _Dercas_, _Clerome_,
+_Adolias_, _Apatura_, _Limenitis_, _Iolaus_, _Leptocircus_, (the last six
+reach Celebes); _Discophora_, _Thestias_; (the last two reach Timor.)
+
+AUSTRO-MALAYAN GENERA:--_Hamadryas_, _Hypocista_, _Mynes_, _Dicallaneura_,
+_Elodina_, _Hyades_, _Prothoë_ (the last two reach Java).
+
+The most characteristic groups, which range over the whole Archipelago and
+give it a homogeneous character, are the various genera of Danaidæ, the
+genus _Elymnias_, and _Amblypodia_ with a few other Lycænidæ. These are all
+abundant and conspicuous groups, but they are nevertheless exceptions to
+the general rule of limitation to one or other of the regions. The cause of
+this phenomenon is probably to be found in the limitation of the larvæ of
+many Lepidoptera to definite species, genera, and families of plants; and
+we shall perhaps find, when the subject is carefully investigated, that the
+groups which range over the whole Archipelago feed on genera of plants
+which have an equally wide range, while those which are limited to one
+region or the other, have food-plants belonging to genera which are
+similarly limited. It is known that the vegetation of the two regions
+differs largely in a botanical sense, although its general aspect is almost
+identical; and this may be the reason why the proportion of wide-ranging
+genera is greater among such insects as feed upon dead wood, than among
+those which derive their support from the juices of the living foliage.
+This subject will be again discussed under the various families of
+Coleoptera, and it will be well to bear in mind the striking facts of
+generic limitation which have been here brought forward.
+
+{486}Fossil Butterflies, apparently of existing genera, occur in the
+Miocene and Eocene formations, and an extinct form in the Lower Oolite; but
+these cannot be held to give any adequate idea of the antiquity of so
+highly specialised a group, which, in all probability, dates back to
+Palæozoic times, since one of the Bombycidæ,--a group almost as
+highly-organised--has been discovered in the coal formation of Belgium.
+(See Vol. I. p. 168.)
+
+
+_Order--COLEOPTERA._
+
+GEODEPHAGA, or CARNIVOROUS GROUND BEETLES.
+
+The Geodephaga consist of two families, Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ, differing
+in their form and habits no less than in their numbers and distribution.
+The former, comprising about 800 species, are far more abundant and varied
+in Tropical regions; the latter, more than ten times as numerous, are
+highly characteristic of the North Temperate zone, where fully half of all
+the known species occur.
+
+
+CICINDELIDÆ. (35 Genera, 803 Species.)
+
+The Cicindelidæ, or Tiger Beetles, are a moderately extensive group, spread
+over the whole globe, but much more abundant in tropical than in temperate
+or cold countries. More than half of the species (418) belong to the single
+genus _Cicindela_, the only one which is cosmopolitan. The other large
+genera are,--_Collyris_ (81 sp.), wholly Oriental; _Odontochila_ (57 sp.),
+South American, with species in Java and Celebes; _Tetracha_ (46 sp.),
+mostly South American, but with species in South Europe, North America, and
+Australia; _Tricondyla_ (31 sp.), characteristic of the Oriental region,
+but extending eastward to New Guinea; _Ctenostoma_ (26 sp.), wholly
+Neotropical; _Dromica_ (24 sp.), wholly African, south of Lake Ngami and
+Mozambique; _Therates_ (18 sp.), wholly Malayan, from Singapore to New
+Guinea.
+
+The genera are distributed in the several regions as follows:--the Nearctic
+region has 5 genera, 3 of which are peculiar to it; the {487}Palæarctic has
+2, but none peculiar; the Ethiopian 13, with 11 peculiar; the Oriental 8,
+with 3 peculiar; the Australian 9, with 2 peculiar; and the Neotropical 15,
+with 10 peculiar. The connection between South America and Australia is
+shown by the latter country possessing 9 species of the characteristic
+South American genus _Tetracha_, as well as one of _Megacephala_. The small
+number of peculiar genera in the Oriental and Australian regions is partly
+owing to the circumstance that two otherwise peculiar Oriental genera have
+spread eastward to the Moluccas and New Guinea, a fact to be easily
+explained by the great facilities such creatures have for passing narrow
+straits, and by the almost identical physical conditions in the Malayan
+portion of the two regions. The insects of Indo-Malaya were better adapted
+to live in the Austro-Malay Islands than those of Australia itself, and the
+latter group of islands have thus acquired an Oriental aspect in their
+entomology, though not without indications of the presence of an aboriginal
+insect-fauna of a strictly Australian type. The relation of the Australian
+and Neotropical regions is exhibited by this family in an unusually
+distinct manner. _Tetracha_, a genus which ranges from Mexico to La Plata,
+has 9 species in Australia; while _Megacephala_ has 2 American and 1
+Australian species. Another curious, and more obscure relation, is that
+between the faunas of Tropical America and Tropical Africa. This is also
+illustrated by the genus _Megacephala_, which has 4 African species as well
+as 2 South American; and we have also the genus _Peridexia_, which has 2
+species in South America and 2 in Madagascar.
+
+Several of the sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera;
+as _Amblychila_ and _Omus_ confined to California and the Rocky Mountains;
+_Manticora_, _Ophryodera_, _Platychile_ and _Dromica_, characteristic of
+South Africa; _Megalomma_ and _Pogonostoma_ peculiar to the Mascarene
+Islands; and _Caledonica_ to the islands east of New Guinea. The extensive
+and elegant genus _Collyris_ is highly characteristic of the Oriental
+region, over the whole of which it extends, only just passing the limits
+into Celebes and Timor.
+
+The Cicindelidæ, therefore, fully conform to those divisions of {488}the
+earth which have been found best to represent the facts of distribution in
+the higher animals.
+
+
+CARABIDÆ. (620 Genera, 8500 Species.)
+
+The enormous extent of this family, necessitates a somewhat general
+treatment. It has been very extensively collected, while its classification
+has been most carefully worked out, and a detailed exposition of its
+geographical distribution by a competent entomologist would be of the
+greatest interest. A careful study of Gemminger and Harold's Catalogue,
+however, enables me to sketch out the main features of its distribution,
+and to detail many of its peculiarities with considerable accuracy.
+
+The Carabidæ are remarkable among insects, and perhaps among all
+terrestrial animals, as being a wonderfully numerous, varied, conspicuous,
+and beautiful group, which is pre-eminently characteristic of the
+Palæarctic region. So strikingly and unmistakably is this the case, that it
+must be held completely to justify the keeping that region distinct from
+those to which it has at various times been proposed to join it. Although
+the Carabidæ are thoroughly well represented by hosts of peculiar genera
+and abundant species in every part of the world without exception, yet the
+Palæarctic region alone contains fully one-third, or perhaps nearer
+two-fifths, of the whole. It may also be said, that the group is a
+temperate as compared with a tropical one; so that probably half the
+species are to be found in the temperate and cold regions of the globe,
+leaving about an equal number in the much more extensive tropical and warm
+regions. But, among the cold regions, the Palæarctic is pre-eminent. North
+America is also rich, but it contains, by far, fewer genera and fewer
+species.
+
+The magnificent genus _Carabus_, with its allies _Procerus_ and
+_Procrustes_, containing about 300 species, all of large size, is almost
+wholly confined to the Palæarctic region, only 10 species inhabiting North
+America, and 11 Temperate South America, with one on the African mountain
+of Kilimandjaro. Twelve large genera, containing together more than 2000
+species, are truly cosmopolitan, inhabiting both temperate and tropical
+{489}countries all over the globe; but many of these are more abundant in
+the Palæarctic region than elsewhere. Such are _Scarites_, _Calosoma_,
+_Brachinus_, _Cymindis_, _Lebia_, _Chlænius_, _Platynus_, _Harpalus_,
+_Bembecidium_, _Pæcilus_, and _Argutor_. Of tropical cosmopolites, or
+genera found in all the tropical regions, but not in the temperate zones,
+there seem to be only four,--_Catascopus_, _Coptodera_, _Colopodes_, and
+_Caasnonia_. _Pheropsophus_ is confined to the tropics of the Old World;
+while _Drimostoma_, though widely scattered, is characteristic of the
+Southern Hemisphere.
+
+The Palæarctic region has about 50 genera of Carabidæ which are strictly
+confined to it, the most important being,--_Leistus_ (30 sp.), _Procerus_
+(5 sp.), _Procrustes_, (17 sp.), _Zabrus_ (60 sp.), _Pristonychus_ (42
+sp.), and _Ophonus_ (60 sp.); but it possesses a large number in common
+with the Nearctic region. The more remarkable of these are,--_Carabus_,
+_Nebria_, _Amara_, _Cyrtonotus_, _Bradycellus_, _Anopthalmus_, _Celia_,
+_Cychrus_, _Patrobus_, _Elaphrus_, _Notiophilus_, _Bradytus_,
+_Callisthenus_, _Blethisa_, and several others. Many too, though not
+strictly confined to the North Temperate regions, are very abundant there,
+with a few species isolated in remote countries, or widely scattered, often
+in an eccentric manner. Among these may be mentioned, _Trechus_ (120 sp.),
+all North Temperate but 8, which are scattered in Java, New Caledonia and
+South America; _Dyschirus_ (127 sp.), North Temperate, with 3 or 4 species
+in Australia, China and La Plata; _Omaseus_, (88 sp.), _Steropus_ (90 sp.),
+_Platysoma_ (114 sp.), and _Pterostichus_ (138 sp.), are mostly North
+Temperate, but each has a few species in the South Temperate zone, New
+Zealand, Australia, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. _Dromius_ (54 sp.),
+is about two-thirds Palæarctic, the rest of the species being scattered
+over the world, in Chili, North and South America, South Africa, Burmah,
+Ceylon, and New Zealand. The North Temperate genera _Calathus_ and
+_Olisthopus_, have each one species in New Zealand; _Percus_ has most of
+its species in South Europe, but 3 in Australia; _Abax_ is confined to the
+north temperate zone, but with one species in Madagascar; while
+_Læmosthenes_ is said to have a species identically the same in South
+Europe and Chili. Some of these apparent anomalies may be due to wrong
+{490}determination of the genera, but there can be little doubt that most
+of them represent important facts in distribution.
+
+The Nearctic region is comparatively poor in Carabidæ. Its more important
+peculiar genera are,--_Dicælus_ (22 sp.), _Pasimachus_ (17 sp.),
+_Eurytrichus_ (9 sp.), _Sphæroderus_ (7 sp.), _Pinacodera_ (6 sp.), and
+others of smaller extent, about 30 in all. It also possesses
+representatives of a considerable number of Palæarctic genera, as already
+indicated; and a few of South American genera, of which _Helluomorpha_ and
+_Galerita_ are the most important.
+
+The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar forms of Carabidæ, as in
+almost all other great groups. It possesses more than 100 peculiar genera,
+but about 30 of these are confined to the South Temperate sub-region. The
+more important peculiar genera of Tropical America are,--_Agra_ (144 sp.),
+_Ardistomus_ (44 sp.), _Schizogenius_ (25 sp.), _Pelecium_, (24 sp.),
+_Calophena_ (22 sp.), _Ctenodactyla_ (7 sp.). Among the Chilian and South
+Temperate peculiar forms are,--_Antarctia_ (29 sp.), _Scelodontis_ (10
+sp.), _Tropidopterus_ (4 sp.). Among the Neotropical genera with outlying
+species are,--_Pachyteles_ (50 sp.), one of which is West African;
+_Selenophorus_ (70 sp.), with 4 African, 4 Oriental, and 1 from New
+Caledonia; _Ega_ (11 sp), with one in the East Indies, and one in New
+Caledonia; _Galerita_, with 36 American species, 8 African, and 3 Indian;
+_Callida_ and _Tetragonoderus_, mostly American, but with a few African,
+Oriental and Australian species; and _Pseudomorpha_, common to America and
+Oceania.
+
+The Australian region is almost equally rich, possessing about 95 peculiar
+genera of Carabidæ, no less than 20 of which are confined to New Zealand.
+The most important are, _Carenum_, _Promecoderus_, _Scaraphites_,
+_Notonomus_, _Ænigma_, _Sphallomorpha_, _Silphomorpha_, and _Adelotopus_.
+The gigantic _Catadromus_ has 4 Australian species and 1 in Java;
+_Homalosoma_ has 31 species in Australia and New Zealand, and 1 in
+Madagascar. Celebes and New Guinea have each peculiar genera, and one is
+common to Australia and the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+The Oriental region possesses 80 peculiar genera, 10 of which are confined
+to Ceylon. The more important are,--_Pericallus_, _Planetes_, and
+_Mormolyce_. _Distrigus_ is also characteristic of this {491}region, with
+one species in Madagascar; while it has _Orthogonius_, _Hexagonia_,
+_Macrochilus_, and _Thyreopterus_ in common with the Ethiopian region, and
+is rich in the fine tropical genus, _Catascopus_.
+
+The Ethiopian region has 75 peculiar genera, 8 of which are confined to
+Madagascar. The more important are,--_Polyhirma_, _Graphipterus_, and
+_Piezia_. _Anthia_ is chiefly African, with a few species in India;
+_Abacetus_ is wholly African, except a species in Java, and another in
+South Europe; and _Hypolithus_ is typically African, but with 7 species in
+South America and 1 in Java.
+
+The facts of distribution presented by this important family, looked at
+broadly, do not support any other division of the earth into primary
+regions than that deduced from a study of the higher animals. The amount of
+speciality in each of these regions is so great, that no two of them can be
+properly united; and in this respect the Carabidæ accord wonderfully with
+the Vertebrates. In the details of distribution there occur many singular
+anomalies; but these are not to be wondered at, if we take into
+consideration the immense antiquity of Coleopterous insects--which existed
+under specialised forms so far back as the Carboniferous epoch,--the ease
+with which they may be dispersed as compared with larger animals, and the
+facilities afforded by their small size, habits of concealment, and often
+nocturnal habits, for adaptation to the most varied conditions, and for
+surviving great changes of surface and of the surrounding organic forms.
+The wonder rather is, not that there are so many, but so few cases of
+exceptional and anomalous distribution; and the fact that these creatures,
+so widely different from Vertebrates in organisation and mode of life, are
+yet on the whole subject to the same limitations of range as were found to
+occur among the higher animals, affords a satisfactory proof that the
+principles on which our six primary regions are founded, are sound; and
+that they are well adapted to exhibit the most interesting facts of
+geographical distribution, among all classes of animals.
+
+Much stress has been laid on the fact of a few species of such typical
+European genera as _Carabus_, _Dromius_, and others, being {492}found in
+Chili and Temperate South America; and it has been thought, that in a
+system of Entomological regions this part of the world must be united to
+the Northern Hemisphere. But these writers omit to take into account,
+either the large numbers of isolated and peculiar forms characteristic of
+South Temperate America, or the indications of affinity with Tropical
+America and Australia, both of which are really more important than the
+connection with Europe. The three important Chilian genera, _Cascelius_,
+_Barypus_, and _Cardiopthalmus_, are closely allied to the Australian
+Promecoderus; others, as _Omostenus_ and _Plagiotelium_, are quite
+isolated; while _Antarctia_ and _Metius_, according to Lacordaire, form a
+distinct division of the family. Chili, too, has many species of
+_Pachyteles_, _Coptodera_, and other South American genera; and this
+affinity is far stronger in many other families than in the Carabidæ. The
+existence of representatives of typical northern forms in Chili, is a fact
+of great interest, and may be accounted for in a variety of ways; (see Vol.
+II. p. 44) but it is not of such a magnitude as to be of primary importance
+in geographical distribution, and it can only be estimated at its fair
+value, by taking into account the affinities of all the groups inhabiting
+that part of the world.
+
+
+LUCANIDÆ. (45 Genera, 529 Species.)
+
+Passing over a number of obscure families, we come to the remarkable group
+of the Lucanidæ, or Stag-beetles, which, being almost all of large size,
+and many of them of the most striking forms, have been very thoroughly
+collected and assiduously studied.
+
+The most curious feature of their general distribution, is their scarcity
+in Tropical South America, and their complete absence from Tropical North
+America and the West Indian Islands, though they appear again in Temperate
+North America. In the New World they may, in fact, be looked upon as a
+temperate group characteristic of the extra-tropical regions and the
+highlands; while in the Old World, where they are far more abundant, they
+are distinctly tropical, being especially numerous {493}in the Oriental and
+Australian regions. No genus has the range of the whole family, _Dorcus_
+and _Lucanus_ being absent from Africa, while _Cladognathus_ is unknown in
+the New World and on the continent of Australia. The Oriental region is the
+richest in peculiar forms, possessing 16 genera, 7 of which are wholly
+confined to it, while 3 others only just range beyond it to North China on
+the one side, or to the Austro-Malayan islands on the other. The Australian
+region comes next, with 15 genera, of which 7 are wholly peculiar. South
+America has 12 genera, 10 of which are peculiar. The Ethiopian region has
+10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, and 2 of these are confined to the
+island of Bourbon. The Palæarctic region has 8 genera, and the Nearctic 5;
+one genus being peculiar to Europe, and two confined to Europe and North
+America. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions have 3 genera in common and
+peculiar to them; the Oriental and Australian 3; while the Australian and
+Neotropical have 1 in common, to which may be added _Streptocerus_, which
+represents in Chili the Australian _Lamprima_.
+
+Among the special features presented by the distribution of the Lucanidæ,
+may be mentioned--the remarkable group of genera, _Pholidotus_,
+_Chiasognathus_, and _Sphenognathus_, confined to Temperate South America,
+the Andes, and mountains of Brazil; _Lucanus_ (19 sp.), almost confined to
+the Oriental and Palæarctic regions, three species only inhabiting North
+America; _Odontolabris_ (29 sp.), wholly Oriental, with 2 sp. in Celebes;
+_Nigidius_ (11 sp.), Ethiopian, but with species in Formosa, the
+Philippines, and Malacca; _Syndesus_ (11 sp.), common to Australia, New
+Caledonia, and South America; _Figulus_ (20 sp.), divided between Africa
+and Madagascar on the one hand, and Australia, with the Malay and Pacific
+Islands, on the other.
+
+The facts of distribution here sketched out are in perfect accordance with
+those of many groups of Vertebrates. The regions are sharply contrasted by
+their peculiar and characteristic genera; the several relations of those
+regions are truly indicated; while there is a comparatively small
+proportion of cases of anomalous or eccentric distribution.
+
+
+{494}CETONIIDÆ. (120 Genera, 970 Species.)
+
+As representative of the enormous group of the Lamellicorns, which,
+according to continental entomologists, forms a single family numbering
+nearly 7,000 species, we take the Cetoniidæ or Rose-Chafers. These comprise
+a number of the most brilliant and beautifully-coloured insects, including
+the gigantic _Goliathi_, which are among the largest of known beetles. They
+have been assiduously collected in every part of the world, and their
+classification has been elaborated by many of our most eminent
+entomologists.
+
+The Cetoniidæ are especially abundant in tropical and warm countries, yet
+far more so in the Old World than in the New; and in the Old World, the
+Ethiopian region exhibits a marvellous richness in this family, no less
+than 76 genera being found there, while 64, or more than half the total
+number, are peculiar to it. Next in richness, though still very far behind,
+comes the Oriental region, with 29 genera, 17 of which are peculiar. The
+Neotropical has only 14 genera, but all except two are peculiar to it, and
+one of these is not found out of the New World. The Australian region has
+11 genera, three only being peculiar. The Palæarctic region has 13, with 4
+peculiar; the Nearctic 7, with 2 peculiar. The affinities of the regions
+for each other, as indicated by the genera confined to two adjacent
+regions, are in this family somewhat peculiar. The Ethiopian and Oriental
+show the most resemblance, 6 genera being common and peculiar to the two;
+the Oriental and the Australian are unusually well contrasted, having only
+one genus exclusively in common, while 8 genera are found in the Indo-Malay
+Islands which do not cross the boundary to the Austro-Malayan division, and
+several others only pass to the nearest adjacent islands; on the other
+hand, the only large Australian genus, _Schizorhina_, is found in many
+parts of the Moluccas, but not further west. The Australian and Neotropical
+regions exhibit no direct affinity, the nearest ally to the South American
+Gymnetidæ being _Clinteria_, an African and Asiatic genus; while not a
+single genus is common {495}to Australia and South America. The Nearctic
+and Palæarctic regions have 3 genera in common, which are found in no other
+part of the world.
+
+Among the special features of interest connected with the distribution of
+this family, we must first notice the exceptional richness of Madagascar,
+which alone possesses 21 peculiar genera. South Africa is also very rich,
+having 8 peculiar genera. _Stethodesma_ is very peculiar, being divided
+between South America and Mexico on the one hand, and West and South Africa
+on the other. _Stalagmosoma_ is a desert genus, ranging from Persia to
+Dongola. No genus is cosmopolitan, or even makes any approach to being so,
+except _Valgus_, which occurs in all the regions except the Neotropical;
+and even the family seems to be not universally distributed, since no
+species are recorded either from New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, or the
+Antilles.
+
+The facts here brought forward, lead us to the conclusion that the
+Cetoniidæ are an Old-World tropical family, which had been well developed
+in Africa and Asia before it spread to Australia and America; and that it
+is only capable of being freely dispersed in the warmer regions of the
+earth. This view will explain the absence of affinity between the
+Australian and Neotropical regions, the only closer connection between
+which, has almost certainly occurred in the colder portions of the
+Temperate zone.
+
+
+BUPRESTIDÆ. (109 Genera, 2,686 Species.)
+
+The next family suited to our purpose is that of the Buprestidæ, consisting
+as it does of many large and some gigantic species, generally adorned with
+brilliant metallic colours, and attracting attention in all warm countries.
+Although these insects attain their full development of size and beauty
+only in the Tropics, they are not much less abundant in the warmer parts of
+the Temperate zone. In the Catalogue of the Coleoptera of Europe and the
+Mediterranean Basin, by M. de Marseul (1863), we find 317 species of
+Buprestidæ enumerated, although {496}the district in question only forms a
+part of the Palæarctic region, which would thus seem to possess its full
+proportion of the species of this family. Confining ourselves to the
+generic forms, we find far less difference than usual between the numbers
+possessed by the tropical and the temperate regions; the richest being the
+Australian, with 47 genera, 20 of which are peculiar; and the poorest the
+Nearctic, with 24 genera, of which 7 are peculiar. The Oriental has 41
+genera, 14 of which are peculiar; the Neotropical 39, of which the large
+proportion of 18 are peculiar; the Ethiopian 27, of which 6 are peculiar;
+and the Palæarctic also 27, but with 9 peculiar.
+
+A most interesting feature in the distribution of this family, is the
+strong affinity shown to exist between the Australian and Neotropical
+regions, which have 4 genera common to both and found nowhere else; but
+besides this, the extensive and highly characteristic Australian genus,
+_Stigmodera_, is closely related to a number of peculiar South American
+genera, such as _Conognatha_, _Hyperantha_, _Dactylozodes_,--the last
+altogether confined to Chili and Temperate South America. Here we have a
+striking contrast to the Cetoniidæ, and we can hardly help concluding,
+that, as the latter is typically a tropical group, so the present family,
+although now so largely tropical, had an early and perhaps original
+development in the temperate regions of Australia, spreading thence to
+Temperate South America as well as to the tropical regions of Asia and
+Africa. The Australian and Oriental regions have 4 genera exclusively in
+common, but they also each possess a number of peculiar or characteristic
+genera, such as the Indo-Malayan _Catoxantha_ (which has only a single
+species in the Moluccas) and nine others of less importance; and the
+exclusively Austro-Malayan genus, _Sambus_, with five smaller groups, and
+_Cyphogastra_, with only 2 Indo-Malay species. The Oriental and Ethiopian
+regions are very distinct, only possessing the single genus, _Sternocera_,
+exclusively in common. The Nearctic and Palæarctic are also distinct, only
+one genus, _Dicerca_, being confined to America (North and South) and
+Europe, a fact which again points to a southern origin for this family, and
+its comparatively recent extension into the {497}North Temperate zone. It
+must be remembered, however, that in view of the immense geological
+antiquity of the existing families of Beetles, dating back certainly to the
+Secondary and probably to the Palæozoic epoch, "comparatively recent" may
+still be of considerable antiquity.
+
+It is somewhat singular that North and South America have no genera
+exclusively in common. The connection between South America and Africa
+seems to be shown,--by the genus _Psiloptera_, the mass of the species
+being divided between these regions, with a few widely scattered over the
+globe; and the American genus _Actenodes_, which has one species in West
+Africa. Somewhat allied, is the extensive genus _Polybothris_, strictly
+confined to Madagascar. The genus _Agrilus_ is perhaps cosmopolitan,
+although no species of the family is recorded from New Zealand. Among the
+peculiarities of distribution we may notice,--the genus _Sponsor_, with 8
+species in the island of Mauritius, 1 in Celebes, and 1 in New Guinea;
+_Ptosima_, scattered between the United States, Mendoza in South Temperate
+America, South Europe, the Philippine Islands, and North China;
+_Polycesta_, which besides inhabiting South America, North America, and
+Europe, has a single species in Madagascar; and _Belionota_, which has 8
+species African, 8 Indo-Malayan, 2 Austro-Malayan, and 1 in California. The
+extensive genus _Acmæodera_, is most abundant in the warm and dry portions
+of the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions, with some in the Andes
+and South Temperate America, a few in Brazil and the West Indies, and 1
+said to be from the Philippines. About one-third of the genera (containing
+more than half the species) have a tolerably extensive range, while the
+genera confined to single regions contain only about one-fourth of the
+total number of species.
+
+It will, I think, be admitted, after a careful study of the preceding
+facts, that the regions and sub-regions here adopted, serve to exhibit,
+with great clearness, the chief phenomena of distribution presented by this
+interesting family.
+
+
+{498}LONGICORNIA. (1,488 Genera, 7,576 Species).
+
+The elegant and admired group of the Longicorn Beetles, is treated by
+continental authors as a single family, consisting of three
+sub-divisions--the Prionidæ, Cerambycidæ, and Lamiidæ of English
+entomologists. These are so closely related, and are so similar in form,
+habits, and general distribution, that it will be best to consider the
+whole as one group, noticing whatever peculiarities occur in the separate
+divisions. The endless structural differences among these insects, have led
+to their being classed in an unusual number of genera, which average little
+more than 5 species each; a number far below that in any of the other
+families we have been considering, and probably below that which obtains in
+any of the more extensive groups of animals or plants. This excessive
+subdivision of the genera, a large number of which consist of only one or
+two species, renders it difficult to determine with precision the relations
+of the several regions, since the affinities of these genera for each other
+are in many cases undetermined. A group of such enormous extent as this,
+can only be properly understood after years of laborious study; we must
+therefore content ourselves with such results as may be obtained from a
+general survey of the group, and from a comparison of the range of the
+several genera, by means of a careful tabulation of the mass of details
+given in the recent Catalogue of Messrs. Gemminger and Harold and the noble
+work of Lacordaire.
+
+The proportionate extent of the three families of Longicorns is very
+unequal; the Prionidæ comprising about 7 per cent., the Cerambycidæ 44 per
+cent., and the Lamiidæ 49 per cent. of the total number of species; and the
+genera are nearly in the same proportions, being almost exactly 10, 40, and
+50 per cent. of the whole, respectively; or, 135 Prionidæ, 609 Cerambycidæ,
+and 746 Lamiidæ. The several regions, however, present marked differences
+in their proportions of these families. In the two North Temperate regions,
+the Cerambycidæ are considerably more numerous than the Lamiidæ, in the
+proportion of about 12 to {499}9; and in this respect the Neotropical
+region agrees with them, though the superiority in the proportion of
+Cerambycidæ is somewhat less. In the Old World tropical regions, however,
+and in Australia, the Lamiidæ greatly preponderate--being nearly double in
+the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (or as 11 to 6), while in the Australian
+it is as 6 to 5. The Prionidæ show a similar difference, though in a less
+degree; being proportionately more numerous in the North Temperate and
+Neotropical regions. Now, as regards the North Temperate regions, this
+difference can be, to some extent explained, by a difference in the habits
+of the insects. The Lamiidæ, which both in the larva and perfect state have
+exceedingly powerful jaws, exclusively frequent timber trees, and almost
+always such as are dead; while the Cerambycidæ, are generally more delicate
+and have weaker mandibles, and many of the species live on shrubs, dead
+twigs, foliage, and even on flowers. The immense superiority of the Tropics
+in the number and variety of their timber trees, and the extent of their
+forests, sufficiently accounts for their superiority to the Temperate
+regions in the development of Lamiidæ; but the great excess of Cerambycidæ
+in South America as compared with the rest of the Tropics, is not to be so
+readily explained.
+
+Bearing in mind the different proportions of the families, as above noted,
+we may now consider the distribution of the Longicorns as a whole. In
+number of generic forms, the Neotropical region, as in so many other
+groups, has a marked superiority. It possesses 516 genera, 489 of which (or
+about 19/20 of the whole) are peculiar to it. The Australian and Oriental
+regions come next, and are exactly equal, both possessing 360 genera, and
+having almost exactly the same proportion (in each case a little less than
+¾) peculiar. The Ethiopian region has 262 genera, with about 5/6 peculiar;
+the Palæarctic 196, with 51 (rather more than ¼) peculiar; and the Nearctic
+111, with 59 (a little more than half) peculiar. The more isolated of the
+sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera. Thus, Chili
+with Temperate South America possesses 37, a large proportion being
+Cerambycidæ; the Malagasi group 26, {500}with a preponderance of Lamiidæ;
+and New Zealand 12, of which the Cerambycidæ are only slightly in excess.
+
+The relations between the Longicorn fauna of the several regions, are such
+as are in accordance with the dependence of the group on a warm climate and
+abundant vegetation; and indicate the efficiency of deserts and oceans as
+barriers to their migration. The Neotropical and Australian regions have
+only 4 genera in common, but these are sufficient to show, that there must
+probably once have been some means of communication between the two
+regions, better adapted to these insects than any they now possess. The
+Nearctic and Neotropical regions have 5, and the Nearctic and Palæarctic 13
+genera in common and peculiar to them, the latter fact being the most
+remarkable, because no means of inter-communication now exists, except in
+high latitudes where the species of the Longicorns are very few. The
+Oriental and Australian regions, on the other hand, are closely connected,
+by having no less than 52 genera of Longicorns in common and peculiar to
+them. Most of these are specially characteristic of the Malay Archipelago,
+often extending over all the islands from Sumatra to New Guinea. This large
+number of wide-spread genera of course gives a character of uniformity to
+the entire area over which they extend; and, with analogous facts occurring
+in other families, has led many entomologists to reject that division of
+the Archipelago between the Australian and Oriental regions, which has been
+so overwhelmingly demonstrated to be the natural one in the case of the
+higher animals. The general considerations already advanced in Chapter II.
+enable us, however, to explain such anomalies as this, by the great
+facilities that exist for the transfer from island to island of such small
+animals, so closely connected with woody vegetation in every stage of their
+existence. That this is the true and sufficient explanation, is rendered
+clear by certain additional facts, which those who object to the sharp
+division of the Indo-Malay and Austro-Malay sub-regions have overlooked.
+
+An analysis of all the Malay Longicorns proves, that besides the 52 genera
+characteristic of the Archipelago as a whole, there are 100 genera which
+are confined to one or other of its component {501}sub-regions. Many of
+these, it is true, consist of single species confined to a single island,
+and we will not lay any stress on these; but there are also several
+important groups, which extend over the Indo-Malay or the Austro-Malay
+islands only, stopping abruptly at the dividing-line between them. For
+example, on the Indo-Malay side we have _Euryarthrum_, _Leprodera_,
+_Aristobia_, _Coelosterna_, and _Entelopes_, and what is perhaps even more
+satisfactory, the large genera _Agelasta_ and _Astathes_, abundant in all
+the Indo-Malay islands, but having only one or two species just passing the
+boundary into Celebes. On the other side we have _Tethionea_,
+_Sphingnotus_, _Arrhenotus_, _Tmesisternus_ (the last three genera
+abounding from New Guinea to Celebes, but totally unknown further west),
+_Hestima_, _Trigonoptera_, _Amblymora_, _Stesilea_, _Enes_, and the large
+genus _Micracantha_, with but a single species beyond the boundary,--30
+Austro-Malayan genera in all, each found in more than one island, but none
+of them extending west of Celebes. Here we have clear proof that the
+boundary line between the two great regions exists for Longicorns, as well
+as for all other animals; but in this case an unusually large number have
+been able to get across it. This, however, does not abolish the barrier,
+but only proves that it is not absolutely effectual in all cases. Those who
+maintain that the Malay Archipelago forms a single Coleopterous region,
+must disprove or explain the instances of limited range here adduced.
+
+Out of nearly 1500 known genera of these insects, only one genus, _Clytus_,
+appears to be cosmopolitan. _Saperda_ and _Callichroma_ are the only others
+that perhaps occur in every region; but these are both wanting over wide
+tracts of the earth's surface, _Saperda_ being absent from Tropical Africa
+and the Malay Archipelago; and _Callichroma_ from the Australian region,
+except one species in Polynesia. Many of the genera of Longicorns have a
+somewhat wide and scattered distribution, indicative of decadence or great
+antiquity. _Mallodon_ and _Parandra_ are mostly South American, but have
+species in Australia and Africa; _Oeme_ is found in Brazil and the United
+States, with one species in West Africa; _Ceratophorus_ has 2 species in
+West Africa and 1 in New Zealand. _Xystrocera_ is mostly African, but has
+single species in {502}Borneo, Java, Amboyna and South Australia; _Phyton_
+has one species in North America and the other in Ceylon; _Philagetes_ has
+2 in South Africa, and 1 in Malacca; _Toxotus_ abounds in North America and
+Europe, with one species away in Madagascar. _Leptura_ is also North
+Temperate, but has a species at the Cape, one at Singapore and a third in
+Celebes. _Necydalis_ has species in North and South America, Europe and
+Australia. _Hylotrupes_ has 1 species in North America and Europe, and 1 in
+Australia; _Leptocera_ prefers islands, being found only in Ceylon,
+Madagascar, Bourbon, Batchian, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and North
+Australia; _Hathliodes_ is Australian, with 1 species in Ceylon;
+_Schoenionta_ has 3 Malayan species, and 1 in Natal. Many other cases
+equally curious could be quoted, but these are sufficient. They cannot be
+held to indicate any close relation between the distant countries in which
+species of the same genus are now found, but perhaps serve to remind us
+that groups of great antiquity, and probably of great extent, have dwindled
+away, leaving a few surviving relics scattered far and wide, the sole
+proofs of their former predominance.
+
+
+_General Observations on the Distribution of Coleoptera._
+
+We have now passed in review six of the most important and best known
+groups of the Coleoptera or Beetles, comprising about 2,400 genera, and
+more than 21,000 species. Although presenting certain peculiarities and
+anomalies, we have found that, on the whole, their distribution is in very
+close accordance with that of the higher animals. We have seen reason to
+believe that these great and well-marked groups have a high geological
+antiquity, and by constantly bearing this fact in mind, we can account for
+many of the eccentricities of their distribution. They have probably
+survived changes of physical geography which have altogether extinguished
+many of the more highly organised animals, and we may perhaps gain some
+insight into the bearing of those changes, by considering the cross
+relations between the several regions indicated by them. On carefully
+tabulating the indications given by each of the groups here discussed, I
+arrive at the following approximate result. The {503}best marked affinities
+between the regions are those between the Nearctic and Palæarctic,--the
+Oriental and Australian,--the Australian and Neotropical,--which appear to
+be about equal in each case. Next comes that between the Ethiopian and
+Oriental on the one side, and the Ethiopian and Neotropical on the other,
+which also appear about equal. Then follows that between the Nearctic and
+Neotropical regions; and lastly, and far the least marked, that between the
+North Temperate and South Temperate regions. That the relation between the
+Ethiopian and Neotropical region should be so comparatively well marked, is
+unexpected; but we must consider that in such a comparison as the present,
+we probably get the result, not of any recent changes or intermigrations,
+but of all the long series of changes and opportunities of migration that
+have occurred during many geological epochs,--probably during the whole of
+the Tertiary period, perhaps extending far back into the Secondary age.
+
+It appears evident that Insects exhibit in a very marked degree in their
+actual distribution, the influence both of very ancient and very modern
+conditions of the earth's surface. The effects of the ancient geographical
+features of the earth, are to be traced, in the large number of cases of
+discontinuous and widely scattered groups which we meet with in almost
+every family, and which, to some extent, obscure the broader features of
+distribution due to the period during which the barriers which divide the
+several primary regions have continued to exist. And this, which we may
+consider as the normal distribution, is still further obscured in those
+cases where the barriers between existing regions are of such a nature as
+to admit of the free passage of insects or their larva in a variety of
+ways, and (what is perhaps of more importance) in which the physical
+features on both sides of the barrier are so nearly identical, as to admit
+of the ready establishment of such immigrants as may occasionally arrive.
+These conditions concur, for some families of insects, in the case of the
+Oriental and Australian portions of the Malay Archipelago; and it is there
+that the normal distribution has been sometimes greatly obscured, but
+never, as we have sufficiently shown, by any means obliterated.
+
+
+
+
+{504}CHAPTER XXII.
+
+AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.
+
+
+The Mollusca being for the most part marine, it does not enter into the
+plan of this work to go into much detail as to their distribution. The
+orders and families will, however, be passed briefly in review, and all
+terrestrial and fresh-water groups discussed in somewhat more detail; with
+the object of showing how far their distribution accords with that of the
+higher animals, and to what extent the anomalies they present can be
+explained by peculiarities of organisation and habits. If the views
+advocated in our fifth chapter are correct, the regions there marked out
+must apply to all classes of animals; and it will be the task of the
+students of each group, to work out in detail the causes which have led to
+any special features of distribution. All I can hope to do here, is to
+show, generally and tentatively, that such a mode of treatment is possible;
+and that it is not necessary, as it is certainly not convenient or
+instructive, to have a distinct set of "Regions" established for each class
+or order in the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.
+
+For all the Marine groups I have merely summarised the information
+contained in Mr. Woodward's _Manual of the Mollusca_, but in the case of
+the Land Shells I have consulted the most recent general works, and
+endeavoured to give an accurate, though doubtless a very incomplete,
+account of the most interesting facts in their distribution. As their
+classification is very unsettled, I have followed that of the two latest
+great works, by Martens and Pfeiffer.
+
+
+{505}CLASS.--CEPHALOPODA.
+
+
+_Order I.--DIBRANCHIATA._
+
+
+FAMILY 1.--ARGONAUTIDÆ. "Paper Nautilus." (1 Genus, 4 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Open seas of all warm regions. Two species fossil in
+Tertiary deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 2.--OCTOPODIDÆ. "Polypi." (7 Genera, 60 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Norway to New Zealand, all tropical and temperate seas and
+coasts.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--TEUTHIDÆ. "Squids or Sea-pens." (16 Genera, 102 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Universal, to Greenland; 2 other genera are fossil, in the
+Lias and Oolite.
+
+
+FAMILY 4.--SEPIADÆ. "Cuttle Fish." (1 Genus, 30 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas: 4 other genera are fossil, in Eocene and Miocene
+deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--SPIRULIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All the warmer seas.
+
+
+{506}FAMILY 6.--BELEMNITIDÆ. Fossil. (6 Genera, 100 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Lias to Chalk in Europe, India and North America.
+
+
+_Order II.--TETRABRANCHIATA._
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--NAUTILIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species, Living; 4 Genera, 300 Species,
+Fossil).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the fossil species from the
+Silurian Period to the Tertiary, in all parts of the world.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--ORTHOCERATIDÆ. Fossil. (8 Genera, 400 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Lower Silurian to Lias.
+
+
+FAMILY 9.--AMMONITIDÆ. Fossil. (14 Genera, 1100 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Upper Silurian to Chalk. Found at 16,000 feet elevation in
+the Himalayas.
+
+
+{507}Class.--GASTEROPODA.
+
+_Order I.--PROSOBRANCHIATA._
+
+
+FAMILY 1.--STROMBIDÆ. (4 Genera, 86 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Strombidæ, or Wing-shells, inhabit tropical and warm
+seas from the Mediterranean to New Zealand; most abundant in the Indian and
+Pacific Oceans. There are nearly 200 fossil species, from the Lias to
+Miocene and recent deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 2.--MURICIDÆ. (12 Genera, 1000 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, most abundant in the Tropics. _Trichotropis_ is
+confined to Northern seas; _Murex_ and _Fusus_ are cosmopolitan. There are
+about 700 fossil species, ranging from the Oolite to the Miocene and recent
+formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--BUCCINIDÆ. (24 Genera, 1100 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Buccinidæ, or "Whelks," range over the whole world, but
+some of the genera are restricted. _Buccinum_ inhabits the north and south
+temperate seas; _Monoceros_ the West Coast of America; _Cassidaria_ the
+Mediterranean; _Phos_, _Harpa_, _Eburna_, and _Ricinula_, are confined to
+the Pacific; _Dolium_ inhabits the Mediterranean as well as the Pacific.
+There are about 350 fossil species, mostly from the Eocene and Miocene
+beds.
+
+
+{508}FAMILY 4.--CONIDÆ. (3 Genera, 850 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Cones are universally distributed, but this applies only
+to the genus _Pleurotoma_. _Conus_ is tropical and sub-tropical, and
+_Cithara_ is confined to the Philippine Islands. There are about 460 fossil
+species, from the Chalk formation to the most recent deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--VOLUTIDÆ, (5 Genera, 670 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Volutes are mostly tropical; but a small species of
+_Mitra_ is found at Greenland, and a _Marginella_ in the Mediterranean.
+_Cymba_ is confined to the West Coast of Africa and Portugal. _Voluta_
+extends south to Cape Horn. There are about 200 fossil species, from the
+Chalk and Eocene to recent formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 6.--CYPRÆIDÆ. (3 Genera, 200 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The well-known Cowries are found all over the world, but
+they are much more abundant in warm regions. One small species extends to
+Greenland. There are nearly 100 fossil species, from the Chalk to the
+Miocene and recent formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--NATICIDÆ. (5 Genera, 270 species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Naticidæ, or Sea-snails, though most abundant in the
+Tropics, are found also in temperate seas, and far into the Arctic regions.
+Two other genera are fossil; and there are about 300 extinct species,
+ranging from the Devonian to the Pliocene formations.
+
+
+{509}FAMILY 8.--PYRAMIDELLIDÆ. (10 Genera, 220 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--These turreted shells are very widely distributed both in
+temperate and tropical seas; and most of the genera have also a wide range.
+There are about 400 extinct species, from so far back as the Lower Silurian
+to the Pliocene formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 9.--CERITHIADÆ. (5 Genera, 190 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--These are marine, estuary, or fresh-water shells, of an
+elongated spiral form; they have a world-wide distribution, but are most
+abundant in the Tropics. _Potamides_ (41 sp.), is the only fresh-water
+genus, and is found in the rivers of Africa, India and China, to North
+Australia and California. Another genus is exclusively fossil, and there
+are about 800 extinct species, ranging from the Trias to the Eocene and
+recent formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--MELANIADÆ. (3 Genera, 410 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh-water only: lakes and rivers in warm countries, widely
+scattered. South Palæarctic and Australian regions, from Spain to New
+Zealand; South Africa, West Africa, and Madagascar; United States. There
+are about 50 fossil species, from the Wealden and Eocene to recent
+formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 11.--TURRITELLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 230 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. _Cæcum_ is found in north temperate seas only.
+The other genera are mostly tropical, but some species reach Iceland and
+Greenland. There are near 300 species fossil, ranging from the Neocomian to
+the Pliocene formations.
+
+
+{510}FAMILY 12.--LITTORINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 310 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Littorinidæ are mostly found on the coasts in shallow
+water; as the common Periwinkle (_Littorina littorea_). They are of
+world-wide distribution; but _Solarium_ and _Phorus_ are tropical; while
+_Lacuna_, _Skenea_, and most species of _Rissoa_ are Northern. About 180
+species are fossil, ranging from the Permian to the Pliocene formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 13.--PALUDINIDÆ. (4 Genera, 217 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Paludinidæ, or River-snails, are all fresh-water, and
+range over the whole world. _Paludina_ (60 sp.), is confined to the
+Northern Hemisphere; _Ampullaria_ (136 sp.), is tropical; _Amphibola_ (3
+sp.), inhabits New Zealand and the Pacific Islands; _Valvata_ (18 sp.),
+North America and Britain. There are 72 fossil species of _Paludina_ and
+_Valvata_, in the Wealden formation and more recent fresh-water deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 14.--NERITIDÆ. (10 Genera, 320 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All warm seas, ranging north to Norway and the Caspian Sea.
+_Neritina_ and _Navicella_ inhabit fresh or brackish waters, the latter
+confined to the countries bordering the Indian Ocean and the islands of the
+Pacific. There are 80 fossil species, from the Trias, Lias, and Eocene
+formations down to recent deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 15.--TURBINIDÆ. (10 Genera, 425 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The genus TROCHUS (200 sp.) has a world-wide range, but the
+other genera are mostly tropical, and are most abundant in the Indian and
+Pacific Oceans. There are more than 900 fossil species, found in all parts
+of the world, from the Lower Silurian to the Tertiary formations.
+
+
+{511}FAMILY 16.--HALIOTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 106 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Ear-shells are most abundant in the Indian and Pacific
+Oceans; some are found on the east coasts of the Atlantic, but there are
+very few in the West Indies. _Ianthina_ (10 sp.) consists of floating
+oceanic snails found in the warm parts of the Atlantic. Three other genera
+are fossil, and there are near 500 fossil species of this family ranging
+from the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--FISSURELLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 200 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. _Puncturella_ (6 sp.) is confined to Northern and
+Antarctic seas; _Rimula_ to the Philippines; and _Parmophorus_ (15 sp.)
+from the Cape of Good Hope to the Philippines and New Zealand. There are
+about 80 fossil species, ranging from the Carboniferous formation to the
+deposits of the Glacial epoch.
+
+
+FAMILY 18.--CALYPTRÆIDÆ. (4 Genera, 125 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Calptræidæ, or Bonnet-Limpets, are found on the coasts
+of all seas from Norway to Chili and Australia; but are most abundant
+within the Tropics. The genera are all widely scattered. There are 75
+fossil species, ranging from the Devonian to recent formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 19.--PATELLIDÆ. (4 Genera, 254 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Patellidæ, or Limpets, are universally distributed, and
+are as abundant in the temperate as in tropical seas. There are about 100
+fossil species, ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary formations.
+
+
+{512}FAMILY 20.--DENTALIADÆ. (1 Genus, 50 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The genus _Dentalium_ is found in the North Atlantic,
+Mediterranean, West Indies and India. There are 125 fossil species, found
+in various formations as far back as the Devonian in Europe and in Chili.
+
+
+FAMILY 21.--CHITONIDÆ. (1 Genus, 250 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--On rocky shores in all parts of the world. There are 37
+fossil species ranging back to the Silurian period.
+
+
+_Order II.--PULMONIFERA. ("Terrestrial Molluscs.")_
+
+The Land and Fresh-water snails are so important and extensive a group, and
+their classification has been so carefully studied, that their geographical
+distribution is a subject of much interest. The range of the genera will
+therefore be given in some detail. For the Helicidæ I follow the classical
+work of Albers--_Die Helicien_, Von Martens' Edition (1860); and for the
+Operculate families, Pfeiffer's _Monographia Pneumonopomorum Viventium_,
+2nd Supplement, 1865. The number of species is, of course, very
+considerably increased since these works were published (and the probable
+amount of the increase I have in most cases indicated), but this does not
+materially affect the great features of their geographical distribution.
+
+
+FAMILY 22.--HELICIDÆ. (33 Genera, 3,332 Species) (1860).
+
+GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Universal.
+
+The Helicidæ, or Snails, are a group of immense extent and absolutely
+cosmopolitan in their range, being found in the most barren deserts and on
+the smallest islands, all over the globe. They reach to near the line of
+perpetual snow on mountains, and {513}to the limit of trees or even
+considerably beyond it, in the Arctic regions; but they are comparatively
+very scarce in all cold countries. The Antilles, the Philippine Islands,
+Equatorial America, and the Mediterranean sub-region are especially rich in
+this family. Comparatively few of the genera, and those generally small
+ones, are restricted to single regions; but on the other hand very few are
+generally distributed, only two--_Helix_ and _Pupa_--occurring in all the
+six regions, while _Helix_ alone is truly cosmopolitan, occurring in every
+sub-region, in every country, and perhaps in every island on the globe.
+
+The Neotropical region is, on the whole, the richest in this family, the
+continental Equatorial districts producing an abundance of large and
+handsome species, while the Antilles are pre-eminent for the number of
+their peculiar forms. This region possesses 22 of the genera, and 6 of them
+are peculiar.
+
+The Palæarctic region seems to come next in productiveness, but this may be
+partly owing to its having been so thoroughly explored. It possesses 16 of
+the genera, and 3 of them are confined to it. The great mass of the species
+are found in the warm and fertile countries surrounding the Mediterranean
+Sea.
+
+The Ethiopian region has 13 genera, only one of which is peculiar.
+
+The Australian region has 14 genera, 2 of which are confined to the Pacific
+Islands.
+
+The Oriental has 15 genera and the Nearctic 12, but in neither case are
+there any peculiar generic types.
+
+The following is the distribution of the several genera taken in the order
+of their magnitude:--
+
+_Helix_ (1,115 sp.), cosmopolitan. This genus is divided into 88
+sub-genera, a number of which have a limited distribution. An immense
+quantity of species have been recently described, so that the number now
+exceeds 2,000.
+
+_Nanina_ (290 sp.) is characteristic of the Oriental and Australian
+regions, over the whole of which it extends, just entering the Palæarctic
+region as far as North China and Japan. Isolated from this area is a small
+group of 4 species occurring {514}in West Africa. The number of species in
+this genus have now been increased to about 400.
+
+_Clausilia_ (272 sp.) is most abundant in Europe, with a few species widely
+scattered in India, Malaya, China, Japan, Equatorial America, and one in
+Porto Rico. The described species have been increased to nearly 500.
+
+_Bulimulus_ (210 sp.) is American, and almost exclusively Neotropical,
+ranging from Montevideo and Chili, to the West Indian Islands, California
+and Texas; with two sub-genera confined to the Galapagos Islands. About 100
+new species have been described since the issue of the second edition of
+Dr. Woodward's Manual.
+
+_Pupa_ (210 sp.) abounds most in Europe and the Arctic regions, but has a
+very wide range, being scattered throughout Africa, continental India,
+Australia, the Pacific Islands, North America to Greenland, and the
+Antilles; but it is absent from South America, the Himalayan and Malayan
+sub-regions, China and Japan. An extinct species has occurred abundantly in
+the carboniferous strata of North America. About 160 additional species
+have been described.
+
+_Bulimus_ (172 sp.) abounds most in Tropical South America; it is also
+found from Burmah eastward through Malaya to the Solomon and Fiji Islands;
+there are also scattered species in Patagonia, St. Vincents, Texas, St.
+Helena, and New Zealand. More than 100 additional species have been
+described.
+
+_Buliminus_ (132 sp.) ranges from Central and South Europe over the whole
+Ethiopian and Oriental regions to North China, and through the Australian
+to New Zealand; there is also a single outlying species in the Galapagos
+Islands. About 50 more species have been described.
+
+_Cochlostyla_ (127 sp.) is almost peculiar to the Philippine Islands,
+beyond which, are a species in Borneo, one in Java, and two in Australia.
+Very few new species have been added to this genus.
+
+_Achatinella_ (95 sp.) is absolutely confined to the Sandwich Island group.
+Recent researches have more than tripled the number of described species.
+
+{515}_Achatina_ (87 sp.) is most abundant and finest in the Ethiopian
+region, over the whole of which it ranges; but there are also species in
+Florida, the Antilles, the Sandwich Islands, Ceylon and India. The
+described species are now more than doubled.
+
+_Hyalina_ (84 sp.) inhabits all Tropical America and the Antilles, North
+America to Greenland, and Europe to the Arctic regions. Comparatively few
+new species have been described.
+
+_Cylindrella_ (83 sp.) inhabits the West Indian islands and Guatemala to
+Texas, with a sub-genus in the Philippine Islands. Species since described
+have more than trebled the number in this genus.
+
+_Cionella_ (67 sp.) is widely scattered; in India from Ceylon to the Khasia
+Mountains, Brazil, New Granada, the West Indian islands, Palæarctic, and
+northern part of Nearctic regions, Pacific Islands, New Zealand, and Juan
+Fernandez. About 20 new species have since been described.
+
+_Glandina_ (66 sp.), Peru to South Carolina and the Antilles, with three
+species in Central Africa and one in South Europe. About 40 species have
+been added to this genus.
+
+_Stenogyra_ (49 sp.), widely distributed: Tropical America and West Indies
+to Florida, South and West Africa, the Mediterranean region, India and the
+Philippines. About a dozen new species have been described.
+
+_Succinea_ (41 sp.), widely scattered in all the regions, and in St.
+Helena, Juan Fernandez, Tahiti, Chiloe, Greenland, West Africa, Himalayas
+and Australia. The described species are now more than 100.
+
+_Partula_ (39 sp.), Solomon Islands to Tahiti and Sandwich Islands. This
+genus has also been increased to near 100 species.
+
+_Streptaxis_ (34 sp.), most abundant in Tropical South America, but occurs
+in West Africa, the Seychelles and Rodriguez Islands, Ceylon and Burmah. It
+now contains over 100 described species.
+
+_Spiraxis_ (33 sp.), Yucatan to Mexico, and less abundant in the West
+Indian Islands. About 20 species have been added.
+
+{516}_Macroceramus_ (27 sp.), Antilles, Florida, and Peru. The species have
+been more than doubled.
+
+_Vitrina_ (26 sp.), widely scattered through North and Central Europe,
+North-west America and Greenland, Abyssinia, Madagascar and South Africa,
+Himalayas to Burmah and Australia. Species since described have more than
+doubled the number in this genus.
+
+_Orthalicus_ (23 sp.), Bolivia to Mexico and Antilles. This genus has been
+increased to about 40 species.
+
+_Sagda_ (19 sp.), Antilles only. Very few new species, if any, have been
+described.
+
+_Zonites_ (12 sp.), South Europe, with one species of a distinct type in
+Guatemala. The number of species in this genus has been since about
+tripled.
+
+_Leucochroa_ (11 sp.), Mediterranean region to Syria and Arabia Petrea.
+
+_Simpulopsis_ (7 sp.), Bahia, Antilles, and far away in the Solomon
+Islands. Two or three have been added.
+
+_Balea_ (6 sp.), Middle and North Europe, Brazil, and the Island of Tristan
+d'Acunha.
+
+_Daudebardia_ (6 sp.), Central and South Europe; and a species has since
+been discovered in New Zealand.
+
+_Macrocycles_ (4 sp.), Chili, California, Oregon and Central North America.
+
+_Columna_ (3 sp.), West Africa, Princes Islands and Madagascar.
+
+_Stenopus_ (2 sp.), Island of St. Vincent (West Indies.)
+
+_Pfeifferia_ (2 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas.
+
+_Testacella_ (2 sp.), West Europe and Teneriffe. About 8 species have been
+since described, including one from New Zealand.
+
+Fossil species of _Helix_, _Bulimus_, _Achatina_, _Balea_, and _Clausilia_,
+are found in all the Tertiary formations; while a species of _Pupa_ (as
+already stated) occurs in the carboniferous formation. For interesting
+details of the distribution of the sub-genera and species of _Achatinella_
+in the Sandwich Islands, see a paper by Rev. J. T. Gulick in the _Journal
+of the Linnean Society_. (Zoology, vol. xi. p. 496.)
+
+
+{517}FAMILY 23.--LIMACIDÆ.--(12 Genera, 116 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Limacidæ, or Slugs, are widely distributed, but they are absent from
+South America, where they are represented by the next family. They also
+seem to be absent from the greater part of Africa. The genera are
+distributed as follows:--
+
+_Limax_ (51 sp.), Palæarctic region, Australia and the Sandwich Islands;
+_Anadenus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas; _Philomychus_ (9 sp.), North America, China
+and Java; _Arion_ (25 sp.), Norway to Spain and South Africa; _Parmacella_
+(7 sp.), South Europe, Canary Islands and North India; _Janella_ (1 sp.),
+New Zealand; _Aneitea_ (1 sp.), New Hebrides and New Caledonia; _Parmarion_
+(4 sp.), India; _Triboniophorus_ (3 sp.), Australia; _Testacella_ (3 sp.),
+South Europe, Canary Islands, and New Zealand; _Hyalimax_ (2 sp.), Bourbon
+and Mauritius; _Krynickia_ (8 sp.), Eastern Europe and North America. A few
+species of _Limax_, _Arion_, and _Testacella_ have been found fossil in
+Tertiary deposits.
+
+
+FAMILY 24.--ONCIDIADÆ. (2 Genera, 36 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | -- 2 -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Oncidiadæ, or Slugs with a coriaceous mantle, inhabit the Oriental
+region, Mauritius, Australia, the Pacific Islands, South America and South
+Europe. The genera are:--
+
+{518}_Oncidium_ (16 sp.), South Europe (1 sp. British), Mauritius,
+Australia and Pacific Islands; Vaginulus (20 sp.), Neotropical and Oriental
+regions.
+
+
+FAMILY 25.--LIMNÆIDÆ. (7 Genera, 332 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Limnæidæ, or Fresh-water Snails, inhabit ponds and rivers in most parts
+of the world, but appear to be absent from the Australian region. The
+genera are distributed as follows:--
+
+_Limnæa_ (95 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Oriental regions;
+_Choanomphalos_ (2 sp.), Lake Baikal; _Pompholyx_ (2 sp.), Western America;
+_Chilinia_ (18 sp.), South America; _Physa_ (20 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic,
+Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and extends to above 73° North Latitude in
+Siberia, being the most Arctic of land or fresh-water shells; _Ancylus_ (49
+sp.), Nearctic and Neotropical regions, Europe and New Zealand; _Planorbis_
+(145 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic and Oriental regions. Several genera are
+found fossil, chiefly in the Wealden, Eocene, and Miocene formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 26.--AURICULIDÆ. (3 Genera, 210 Species.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+   1 -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Auriculidæ are chiefly found near the sea in hot countries, and are
+most abundant in the Eastern tropics. They are absent {519}from the East
+coast of South America. The genera have a somewhat restricted distribution
+as follows:--
+
+_Auricula_ (128 sp.), India, Pacific Islands, Peru and West Indies;
+_Melampus_ (56 sp.), West Indies and Europe; _Carychium_ (9 sp.), Europe
+and North America; _Plectrotrema_ (14 sp.), Australia, Malay Islands,
+China, Cuba; _Blauneria_ (2 sp.), West Indian and Sandwich Islands. There
+are many fossil species ranging back to the Eocene formation.
+
+
+FAMILY 27.--ACICULIDÆ. (4 Genera, 65 Species.) (1865.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- | 1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- 4 | -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Aciculidæ are small cylindrical shells chiefly found in the West Indian
+Islands, but with representatives widely scattered over the globe.
+
+_Acicula_ (5 sp.) is European only; _Geomelania_ (21 sp.), and _Chittya_ (1
+sp.), are confined to the Island of Jamaica; _Truncatella_ (38 sp.), is
+most abundant in the Antilles, but is also found in some part of each of
+the six regions, as indicated by the diagram of the family. But few new
+species have been added to this group.
+
+
+FAMILY 28.--DIPLOMMATINIDÆ. (3 Genera, 23 Species.) (1865.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3. 4 | 1. 2. 3. 4
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Diplommatinidæ are minute shells of the Oriental and Australian
+regions.
+
+{520}_Diplommatina_ (18 sp.) inhabits India to Burmah, and the greater part
+of the Australian region; the number of species has now been doubled, and
+one has been discovered in the island of Trinidad; _Clostophis_ (1 sp.),
+Moulmein; _Paxillus_ (3 sp.), Borneo, Hong Kong, and Loo Choo Islands.
+
+
+FAMILY 29.--CYCLOSTOMIDÆ. (41 Genera, 1009 Species.) (1865.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+This extensive group, comprising the largest of the operculated
+land-shells, is especially characteristic of the Oriental region, which
+possesses 25 genera, no less than 12 of them being wholly confined to it.
+The Neotropical region comes next, with 15 genera, 9 of which are peculiar;
+but a large number of these are confined to the West Indian Islands, South
+America itself being very poor in this group. The Palæarctic region has 3
+peculiar genera; the Ethiopian and Australian 1 each. The Nearctic region
+has but a single West Indian species in Florida. The distribution of the
+genera is as follows:--
+
+Peculiar to or characteristic of the Oriental region are, _Opisthoporus_
+(11 sp.), _Rhiostoma_ (6 sp.), _Alycaeus_ (39 sp.), _Opisthostoma_ (1 sp.),
+_Hybocistis_ (3 sp.), _Pterocyclos_ (19 sp.), extending to the Moluccas;
+_Aulopoma_ (4 sp.), _Dermatocera_ (4 sp.), _Leptopoma_ (54 sp.), extending
+west to the Seychelles and east to the Moluccas and New Guinea;
+_Cyclophorus_ (163 sp.), most abundant in the Oriental region, but ranges
+to Japan, to Chili, and all Tropical America, over the whole Australian
+region, and to Natal and Madagascar; _Cataulus_ (15 sp.), confined to
+Ceylon, the Neilgherries and Nicobar Islands; _Rhaphaulus_ (4 sp.), Penang
+to Ceram; _Streptaulus_ (1 sp.), _Arinia_ (3 sp.), _Pupinella_ (2 sp.),
+_Pupina_ (24 sp.), half in North India to Philippines and {521}Japan, the
+other half in Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia; _Cyclotopsis_ (2 sp.),
+India and Malaya; _Registoma_ (9 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas, New
+Caledonia and Pacific.
+
+Characteristic of the Neotropical region are:--_Cyclotus_ (111 sp.), half
+in the Antilles and Tropical America, the rest in the Moluccas, China,
+Malaya, India, Natal, and the Seychelle Islands; _Megalomastoma_ (27 sp.),
+abundant in Cuba, West Indies and South America, others in India, Malaya,
+and Mauritius; _Jamaicia_ (2 sp.), Jamaica; _Licina_ (5 sp.), Antilles;
+_Choanopoma_ (49 sp.), Antilles; _Ctenopoma_ (25 sp.), Antilles;
+_Diplopoma_ (1 sp.), Cuba; _Adamsiella_ (15 sp.), Jamaica, Cuba, Guatemala;
+_Cyclostomus_ (113 sp.), abundant in Antilles, also occurs in Madagascar,
+Arabia, Syria, Hungary and New Zealand; _Tudora_ (34 sp.), Antilles, and
+one species in Algeria; _Cistula_ (40 sp.), _Chondropoma_ (94 sp.),
+_Bourcieria_ (2 sp.), Tropical America.
+
+Peculiar to or characteristic of the Palæarctic region are:--_Craspedopoma_
+(5 sp.), confined to Madeira, the Azores and Canaries; _Leonia_ (1 sp.),
+Spain and Algeria; _Pomatias_ (22 sp.), Europe and Canaries with a species
+in the Himalayas; _Cecina_ (1 sp.), Manchuria.
+
+The Ethiopian region has the peculiar genus _Lithodion_ (5 sp.),
+Madagascar, Socotra and Arabia; and _Otopoma_ (19 sp.), Mascarene Islands
+and Socotra, with a species in Western India and another in New Ireland.
+
+The Australian region is characterised by _Callia_ (3 sp.), in Ceram,
+Australia, and the Philippines respectively; _Realia_ (7 sp.), New Zealand
+and the Marquesas Islands; _Omphalotropis_ (38 sp.), the Australian region,
+with some species in India, Malaya, and the Mauritius.
+
+The remaining genus, _Hydrocena_ (27 sp.), has a very widely scattered
+distribution, being found in South Europe, Japan, the Cape, China, Malaya,
+New Zealand, the Pacific Islands and Chili. From 10 to 20 per cent. of new
+species have been since described in most of the genera of this family.
+
+
+{522}FAMILY 30.--HELICINIDÆ. (7 Genera, 433 Species.) (1868.)
+
+                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
+   __________________________________/\__________________________________
+  /                                                                      \
+  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
+  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
+             |           |           |           |           |
+  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
+             |           |           |           |           |
+
+The Helicinidæ are very characteristic of the Antilles, comparatively few
+being found in any other part of the world except the Islands of the
+Pacific. The genera are:--
+
+_Trochatella_ (33 sp.), Antilles with a species in Venezuela, and another
+in Cambodja; _Lucidella_ (5 sp.), Antilles; _Helicina_ (274 sp.), Antilles,
+Pacific Islands, Tropical America, Southern United States, Moluccas,
+Australia, Philippines, Java, Andaman Islands and North China;
+_Schasicheila_ (5 sp.), Mexico, Guatemala and Bahamas; _Alcadia_ (28 sp.),
+Antilles; _Georissa_ (5 sp.) Moulmein to Burmah. About 10 per cent. of new
+species appear to have been since described in the larger genera of this
+family.
+
+
+_General Observations on the Distribution of the Land Mollusca._
+
+A consideration of the distribution of the families and genera of
+land-shells shows us, that although they possess some special features, yet
+they agree in many respects with the higher animals in their limitation by
+great natural barriers, such as oceans, deserts, mountain ranges, and
+climatal zones. A remarkable point in the distribution of these animals, is
+the number of genera which have a very limited range, and also the
+prevalence of genera having species scattered, as it were at random, all
+over the earth. No less than 14 genera (or about one-sixth of the whole
+number) are confined to the Antilles, while the greater part of the
+sub-genera of modern authors are restricted to limited areas.
+
+If we first compare the New World with the Old, we find the difference as
+regards genera quite as great as in most of the {523}vertebrates. In the
+Helicidæ, 10 genera are confined to the New, and 7 to the Old World, 16
+being common to both. In the Operculata the number of genera of restricted
+range is greater,--the New World having 15, the Old World 32 genera, only 8
+being common to both. Of the New World genera 12 out of the 15 do not occur
+at all in South America; and of those of the Old World, 22 out of the 32
+occur in a single region only. If we take the northern and southern
+division proposed by Professor Huxley (the latter comprising the Australian
+and Neotropical regions), we find a much less well-marked diversity. Among
+the Helicidæ only 4 are exclusively northern, 8 southern; while among the
+Operculata 22 are northern, 16 southern. The best way to compare these two
+kinds of primary division will be to leave out all those genera confined to
+a single region each, and to take account only of those characteristic of
+two or more of the combined regions; which will evidently show which
+division is the most natural one for this group. The result is as
+follows:--
+
+GENERA COMMON TO TWO OR MORE REGIONS IN, AND CONFINED TO, EACH PRIMARY
+DIVISION OF THE EARTH.
+
+               Helicidæ    Operculata.    Totals.
+  { Northern      0             0            0 }
+  { Southern      0             0            0 }
+
+  { Old World     1            12           13 }
+  { New World     4             0            4 }
+
+We find then that the northern and southern division of the globe is not at
+all supported by the distribution of the terrestrial molluscs. It is indeed
+very remarkable, that the connection so apparent in many groups between
+Australia and South America is so scantily indicated here. The only facts
+supporting it seem to be, the occurrence of _Geotrochus_ (a sub-genus of
+Helix) in Brazil, as well as in the Austro-Malayan and West Pacific Islands
+and North Australia; and of _Bulimus_ in the same two parts of the globe,
+but peculiar sub-genera in each. But in neither case is there any affinity
+shown between the temperate portions of the two regions, so that we must
+probably trace this resemblance to some more ancient diffusion of types
+than that which led to the similarity of plants and insects. Still more
+curious is the entire {524}absence of genera confined to, and
+characteristic of Africa and India. One small sub-genus of _Helix_,
+(_Rachis_), and one of _Achatina_, (_Homorus_), appear to have this
+distribution,--a fact of but little significance when we find another
+sub-genus of _Helix_, (_Hapalus_), common and confined to Guinea and the
+Philippine Islands; and when we consider the many other cases of scattered
+distribution which cannot be held to indicate any real connection between
+the countries implicated. No genus is confined to the Palæarctic and
+Nearctic regions as a whole. A large number of sub-genera, many of them of
+considerable extent, are peculiar to one or other of these regions, but
+only 3 sub-genera of _Helix_ and 2 of _Pupa_ are common and peculiar to the
+two combined, and these are always such as have an Arctic range and whose
+distribution therefore offers no difficulty.
+
+We find, then, that each of our six regions and almost all of our
+sub-regions are distinctly confirmed by the distribution of the terrestrial
+mollusca; while the different combinations of them which have at various
+times been suggested, receive little or no support whatever. Even those
+remarkably isolated sub-regions, New Zealand and Madagascar, have no
+strictly peculiar genera of land-shells, although they both possess several
+peculiar sub-genera; being thus inferior in isolation to some single West
+Indian Islands, to the Sandwich Islands, and even to the North Atlantic
+Islands (Canaries, Madeira, and Azores), each of which have peculiar
+genera. This of course, only indicates that the means by which land
+mollusca have been dispersed are somewhat special and peculiar. To
+determine in what this speciality consists we must consider some of the
+features of the specific distribution of this group.
+
+The range of genera, and even of sub-genera is, as we have seen, often wide
+and erratic, but as a general rule the species have a very restricted area.
+
+Hardly a small island on the globe but has some land-shells peculiar to it.
+Juan Fernandez has 20 species, all peculiar. Madeira and Porto Santo have
+109 peculiar species out of a total of 134. Every little valley, plain, or
+hill-top, in the Sandwich Islands, though only a few square miles in
+extent, has its {525}peculiar species of _Achatinella_. Another striking
+feature of the distribution of land molluscs, is the richness of islands as
+compared with continents. The Philippines contain more species than all
+India; and those of the Antilles according to Mr. Bland almost exactly
+equal the numbers found in the entire American continent from Greenland to
+Patagonia. Taking the whole world, it appears that many more species of
+land-shells are found in the islands than on the continents of the globe, a
+peculiarity that obtains in no other extensive group of animals.
+
+Looking at these facts it seems probable, that the air-breathing molluscs
+have been chiefly distributed by air- or water-carriage, rather than by
+voluntary dispersal on the land. Even seas and oceans have not formed
+impassable barriers to their diffusion; whereas they only spread on dry
+land with excessive slowness and difficulty. The exact mode in which their
+diffusion is effected is not known, and it may depend on rare and
+exceptional circumstances; but it seems likely to occur in two ways. Snails
+frequently conceal themselves in crevices of trees or under bark, or attach
+themselves to stems or foliage, and either by their operculum or mucous
+diaphragm, are able to protect themselves from the injurious effects of
+salt water for long periods. They might therefore, under favourable
+conditions, be drifted across arms of the sea or from island to island;
+while wherever there are large rivers and occasional floods, they would by
+similar means be widely scattered over land areas. Another possible mode of
+distribution is by means of storms and hurricanes, which would carry the
+smaller species for long distances, and might occasionally transport the
+eggs of the larger forms. Aquatic birds might occasionally get both shells
+and eggs attached to their feet or their plumage, and convey them across a
+wide extent of sea. But whether these, or some other unknown agency has
+acted, the facts of distribution clearly imply that some means of transport
+over water is, and has been, the chief agent in the distribution of these
+animals; but that its action is very rare or intermittent, so that its
+effects are hardly perceptible in the distribution of single species.
+
+Another important factor in enabling us to account for the
+{526}distribution of these animals is the geological antiquity of the
+group, and the amount of change exhibited in time, by species and genera.
+Now we find that most of the genera of land-shells range back to the Eocene
+period, while those inhabiting fresh water are found almost unchanged in
+the Wealden. In North America a species of _Pupa_ and one of _Zonites_,
+have been discovered in the coal measures, along with Labyrinthodonts; and
+this fact seems to imply, that many more terrestrial molluscs would be
+discovered, if fresh-water deposits, made under favourable conditions, were
+more frequently met with in the older rocks. If then the existing groups of
+land-molluscs are of such vast antiquity, and possess some means, however
+rarely occurring, of crossing seas and oceans, we need not wonder at the
+wide and erratic distribution now presented by so many of the groups; and
+we must not expect them to conform very closely to those regions which
+limit the range of animals of higher organization and less antiquity.
+
+The total number of species of pulmoniferous mollusca is about 7,000,
+according to the estimate of Mr. Woodward, brought down to 1868 by Mr.
+Tate. But this number would be largely increased if the estimates of
+specialists were taken. Mr. Woodward for example, gives 760 as the number
+of species in the West Indian Islands; whereas Mr. Thomas Bland, who has
+made the shells of these islands a special study, considers that there were
+1,340 species in 1866. So, the land-shells of the Sandwich Islands are
+given at 267; but Mr. Gulick has added 120 species of Achatinellidæ,
+bringing the numbers up to nearly 400,--but no doubt several of these are
+so closely related that many conchologists would class them as varieties.
+The land-shell fauna of the Antilles is undoubtedly the most remarkable in
+the world, and it has been made the subject of much interesting discussion
+by Mr. Bland and others. This fauna differs from that of all other parts of
+the globe in the proportions of the operculate to the inoperculate shells.
+The Operculata of the globe are about one-seventh, the Inoperculata about
+six-sevenths of the whole; and some general approximation to this
+proportion (or a much smaller one) exists in almost all the continents,
+islands, and {527}archipelagoes. In the Philippines, for example, the
+proportion of the Operculata is a little more than one-seventh; in the
+Mauritius, between one-third and one-fourth; in Madeira, one-fourteenth; in
+the whole American continent about one-eighth; but when we come to the
+Antilles we find them to amount to nearly five-sixths, about half the
+Operculata of the globe being found there!
+
+Mr. Bland endeavours to ascertain the source of some of the chief genera
+found in the West Indian Islands, on the principle that "each genus has had
+its origin where the greatest number of species is found;" and then
+proceeds to determine that some have had an African, some an Asiatic, and
+some an American origin, while others are truly indigenous. But we fear
+there is no such simple way of arriving at so important a result; and in
+the case of groups of extreme antiquity like the genera of mollusca, it
+would seem quite as possible that the origin of a genus is generally _not_
+where the greatest number of species are now found. For during the repeated
+changes of physical conditions that have everywhere occurred since the
+Eocene period (to go no further back) every genus must have made extensive
+migrations, and have often become largely developed in some other district
+than that in which it first appeared. As a proof of this, we not
+unfrequently find fossil shells where the species and even the genus now no
+longer exists; as _Auricula_, found fossil in Europe, but only living in
+the Malay and Pacific Islands; _Anastoma_ and _Megaspira_, now peculiar to
+Brazil, but fossil in the Eocene of France; and _Proserpina_ of the West
+Indies, found in the Eocene formation of the Isle of Wight. The only means
+by which the origin of a genus can satisfactorily be arrived at, is by
+tracing back its fossil remains step by step to an earlier form; and this
+we have at present no means of doing in the case of the land-shells. Taking
+existing species as our guide we should certainly have imagined that the
+genus _Equus_ originated in Africa or Central Asia; but recent discoveries
+of numerous extinct species and of less specialized forms of the same type,
+seem to indicate that it originated in North America, and that the whole
+tribe of "horses" may be, for anything we yet know {528}to the contrary,
+recent immigrants into the Old World! This example alone must convince us,
+that it is impossible to form any conclusion as to the origin of a genus,
+from the distribution of existing species only.
+
+The general conclusion we arrive at, therefore, is, that the causes that
+have led to the existing distribution of the genera and higher groups of
+the terrestrial mollusca are so complex, and have acted through such long
+periods, that most of the barriers which limit the range of other
+terrestrial animals do not apply to them, although the species are, in most
+cases, strictly limited by them. Some means of diffusion--which, though
+probably acting very slowly and at long intervals, and more powerfully on
+continents than between islands, is yet highly efficient when we consider
+the long duration of genera--has, to a considerable extent, dispersed them
+across continents, seas, and oceans. On the other hand, those mountain
+barriers which separate many groups of the higher vertebrates, are
+generally less ancient than the genera of land-shells, which are thus often
+distributed independently of them. In order to compare the distribution of
+the terrestrial mollusca on equal terms with those of land animals
+generally, we must take genera of the former as equivalent to family groups
+of the latter; and we shall, I believe, then find that the distribution of
+the sub-genera and smaller groups of species do accord mainly with those
+divisions of the earth into regions and sub-regions which we have here
+indicated. Mr. Harper Pease, in a communication on Polynesian Land Shells
+in the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1871 (p. 449), marks out
+the limits of the Polynesian sub-region, so as exactly to agree with that
+arrived at here from a consideration of the distribution of vertebrata; and
+he says that this sub-region, (or region, as he terms it) is distinctly
+characterised by its land-shells from all the surrounding regions. The
+genera (or sub-genera) _Partula_, _Pitys_, _Achatinella_, _Palaina_,
+_Omphalotropis_, and many others, are either wholly confined to this
+sub-region or highly characteristic of it. Mr. Binney, in his _Catalogue of
+the Air-breathing Molluscs of North America_, marks out our Nearctic region
+(with almost identical limits) as most clearly {529}characterised. He also
+arrives at a series of sub-divisions, which generally (though not exactly)
+agree with the sub-regions which I have here adopted. The Palæarctic, the
+Ethiopian, and the Oriental regions, are also generally admitted to be well
+characterised by their terrestrial molluscs. There only remain the
+Australian and the Neotropical regions, in which some want of homogeneity
+is apparent, owing to the vast development and specialisation of certain
+groups in the islands which belong to these regions. The Antilles, on the
+one hand, and the Polynesian Islands, on the other, are so rich in
+land-shells and possess so many peculiar forms, that, judged by these
+alone, they must form primary instead of secondary divisions. We have,
+however, already pointed out the inconvenience of any such partial systems
+of zoological geography, and the causes have been sufficiently indicated
+which have, in the case of land-shells as of insects, produced certain
+special features of distribution.
+
+We therefore venture to hope, that conchologists will give us the advantage
+of their more full and accurate knowledge both of the classification and
+distribution of this interesting group of animals, not to map out new sets
+of regions for themselves, but to show what kind of barriers have been most
+efficient in limiting the range of species, and how their distribution is
+actually effected, so as to be able to explain whatever discrepancies exist
+between the actual distribution of land-shells and that of the higher
+animals.
+
+
+_Order III.--OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA._
+
+There are ten families in this order, all of which, as far as known, are
+widely or universally distributed. Some of them are found fossil, ranging
+back to the Carboniferous epoch. They are commonly termed Sea-slugs, and
+have either a thin small shell or none. We shall therefore simply enumerate
+the families, with the number of genera and species as given by Mr.
+Woodward.
+
+{530}FAMILY 31.--TORNATELLIDÆ. (7 Genera, 62 Species living, 166 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 32.--BULLIDÆ. (12 Genera, 168 Species living, 88 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 33.--APHYSIADÆ. (8 Genera, 84 Species living, 4 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 34.--PLEUROBRANCHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 28 Species living, 5 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 35.--PHYLLIDIADÆ. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 36.--DORIDÆ. (23 Genera, 160 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 37.--TRITONIADÆ. (9 Genera, 38 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 38.--ÆOLIDÆ. (14 Genera, 101 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 39.--PHYLLYRHOIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 40.--ELYSIADÆ. (5 Genera, 13 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+
+{531}_Order IV.--NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA._
+
+These are oceanic, swimming molluscs, of a delicate texture. They are found
+in all warm seas, and range back to the Lower Silurian epoch. There are
+only two families.
+
+FAMILY 41.--FIROLIDÆ. (2 Genera, 33 Species living, 1 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 42.--ATLANTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species living, 159 fossil.)
+
+
+CLASS.--PTEROPODA.
+
+These are swimming, oceanic mollusca, inhabiting both Arctic, Temperate,
+and Tropical seas. The three families have each a wide distribution in all
+the great oceans. They range back to the Silurian period.
+
+FAMILY 1.--HYALEIDÆ. (9 Genera, 52 Species living, 95 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 2.--LIMACINIDÆ. (4 Genera, 19 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 3.--CLIONIDÆ. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0 fossil.)
+
+
+{532}CLASS.--BRACHIOPODA.
+
+These are sedentary, bivalve, marine mollusca, having laterally symmetrical
+shells, but with unequal valves. Both in space and time they are the most
+widely distributed molluscs. They are found in all seas, and at all depths;
+and when any of the families or genera have a restricted range, it seems to
+be due to our imperfect knowledge, rather than to any real geographical
+limitations. In time they range back to the Cambrian formation, and seem to
+have had their maximum development in the Silurian period. It is not,
+therefore, necessary for our purpose, to do more than give the names of the
+families with the numbers of the genera and species, as before.
+
+FAMILY 1.--TEREBRATULIDÆ. (5 Genera, 67 Species living, 340 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 2.--SPIRIFERIDÆ. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 380 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 3.--RHYNCHONELLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 4 Species living, 422 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 4.--ORTHIDÆ. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 328 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 5.--PRODUCTIDÆ. (3 Genera, 0 Species living, 146 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 6.--CRANIADÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species living, 37 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 7.--DISCINIDÆ. (2 Genera, 10 Species living, 90 fossil.)
+
+FAMILY 8.--LINGULIDÆ. (2 Genera, 16 Species living, 99 fossil.)
+
+
+{533}CLASS.--CONCHIFERA.
+
+The Conchifera, or ordinary Bivalve Molluscs, may be distinguished from the
+Brachiopoda by having their shells laterally unsymmetrical, while the
+valves are generally (but not always) equal. They are mostly marine, but a
+few inhabit fresh water. As the distribution of some of the families
+presents points of interest, we shall treat them in the same manner as the
+marine Gasteropoda.
+
+
+FAMILY 1.--OSTREIDÆ. (5 Genera, 426 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Ostreidæ, including the Oysters and Scallops, are found
+in all seas, Arctic as well as Tropical. There are nearly 1,400 species
+fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous period.
+
+
+FAMILY 2.--AVICULIDÆ. (3 Genera, 94 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Aviculidæ, or Wing-shells and Pearl Oysters, are
+characteristic of Tropical and warm seas, a few only ranging into temperate
+regions. Nearly 700 fossil species are known from various formations
+ranging back to the Devonian, and Lower Silurian.
+
+
+FAMILY 3.--MYTILIDÆ. (3 Genera, 217 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Mytilidæ, or Mussels, have a world-wide distribution.
+There is one fresh-water species, which inhabits the Volga. There are about
+350 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch.
+
+
+{534}FAMILY 4.--ARCADÆ. (6 Genera, 360 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Arcadæ are universally distributed, and are most
+abundant in warm seas. The genus _Leda_ is, however, abundant in Arctic and
+Temperate regions, and _Solenella_ is confined to the South Temperate zone.
+There are near 1,200 fossil species, found in all strata as low as the
+Lower Silurian.
+
+
+FAMILY 5.--TRIGONIADÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The living _Trigoniæ_ are confined to Australia, but there
+are 5 other genera fossil, containing about 150 species, and found in
+various formations from the Chalk to the Lower Silurian.
+
+
+FAMILY 6.--UNIONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 549 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Unionidæ, or Fresh-water Mussels, are found in all the
+fresh waters of the globe, but some of the genera are restricted.
+_Castalia_, _Mycetopus_ and _Mulleria_ are confined to the rivers of South
+America; _Anodon_, to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; _Iridina_, and
+_Etheria_, to the rivers of Africa; _Unio_ has a universal distribution,
+but is especially abundant in North America. About 60 fossil species are
+found in the Tertiary and Wealden formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 7.--CHAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 50 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Chamidæ, or Giant Clams, are confined to Tropical seas,
+chiefly among coral reefs. There are two other genera and 62 species
+fossil, ranging from the Chalk to the Oolite formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 8.--HIPPURITIDÆ. (5 Genera, 103 Species.)
+
+Fossils of doubtful affinity, from the Chalk formation.
+
+
+{535}FAMILY 9.--TRIDACNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Tridacnidæ, or Clam-shells, are of very large size, and
+are confined to the Tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A
+few species have been found fossil in the Miocene formation.
+
+
+FAMILY 10.--CARDIADÆ. (1 Genus, 200 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Cardiadæ, or Cockles, are of world-wide distribution.
+Another genus is fossil, and nearly 400 fossil species are known, ranging
+back to the Upper Silurian formation.
+
+
+FAMILY 11.--LUCINIDÆ (8 Genera, 178 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Lucinidæ inhabit the Tropical and Temperate seas of all
+parts of the world; but the genus _Corbis_ is confined to the Indian and
+Pacific Oceans, _Montacuta_ and _Lepton_, to the Atlantic. There are nearly
+500 extinct species, ranging from the Tertiary back to the Silurian
+formation.
+
+
+FAMILY 12.--CYCLADIDÆ. (3 Genera, 176 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--The Cycladidæ are small fresh- or brackish-water shells
+found all over the globe. The genus _Cyclas_ is most abundant in the North
+Temperate zone, while _Cyrena_ inhabits the warmer shores of the Atlantic
+and Pacific, but is absent from the West Coast of America. There are about
+150 species fossil, ranging back from the Pliocene to the Wealden
+formations.
+
+
+FAMILY 13.--CYPRINIDÆ. (10 Genera, 176 Species).
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. _Cyprina_ and _Astarte_ are Arctic and North
+Temperate; _Cardita_ is Tropical and South Temperate. There are several
+extinct genera and about 1,000 species found in all formations as far back
+as the Lower Silurian.
+
+
+{536}FAMILY 14.--VENERIDÆ. (10 Genera, 600 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. _Lucinopsis_ is confined to the North Atlantic;
+_Glauconeza_ to the months of rivers in the Oriental region; _Meroe_ and
+_Trigona_ to warm seas. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to
+the Oolitic period.
+
+
+FAMILY 15.--MACTRIDÆ. (5 Genera, 147 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, but more abundant in the Tropics. _Gnathodon_ is
+found in the Gulf of Mexico; _Anatinella_ in the Oriental region. There are
+about 60 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous period.
+
+
+FAMILY 16.--TELLINIDÆ. (11 Genera, 560 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas; most abundant in the Tropics. _Galatea_ is
+confined to African rivers. There are about 60 fossil species, mostly
+Tertiary, but ranging back to the Carboniferous period.
+
+
+FAMILY 17.--SOLENIDÆ. (3 Genera, 63 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All Temperate and Tropical seas. There are 80 fossil species
+which range back to the Carboniferous epoch.
+
+
+FAMILY 18.--MYACIDÆ. (6 Genera, 121 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. _Panopæa_ inhabits both North and South Temperate
+seas; _Glycimeris_, Arctic seas. There are near 350 fossil species, ranging
+back to the Lower Oolite formation.
+
+
+FAMILY 19.--ANATINIDÆ. (8 Genera, 246 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. _Pholadomya_ is from Tropical Africa; _Myadora_
+from the Western Pacific; _Myochama_ and _Chamostræa_ are Australian. There
+are about 400 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Silurian formation.
+
+
+{537}FAMILY 20.--GASTROCHÆNIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and warm seas. _Aspergillum_ ranges from the Red
+Sea to New Zealand. There are 35 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower
+Oolite.
+
+
+FAMILY 21.--PHOLADIDÆ (4 Genera, 81 Species.)
+
+DISTRIBUTION.--These burrowing molluscs inhabit all Temperate and warm seas
+from Norway to New Zealand. There are about 50 fossil species, ranging back
+to the epoch of the Lias.
+
+
+_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Marine Mollusca._
+
+The marine Mollusca are remarkable for their usually wide distribution.
+About 48 of the families are cosmopolitan, ranging over both hemispheres,
+and in cold as well as warm seas. About 15 are restricted to the warmer
+seas of the globe; but several of these extend from Norway to New Zealand,
+a distribution which may be called universal, and only 2 or 3 are
+absolutely confined to Tropical seas. Two small families only, are confined
+to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Marine fishes, on the other hand, have a
+much less cosmopolitan character, no less than 30 families having a limited
+distribution, while 50 are universal. Some of these 30 families are
+confined to the Northern seas, some to the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and
+a considerable number to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. Many of
+these families, it is true, are much smaller than those of the Mollusca,
+which seem to possess very few of those small isolated families of two or
+three species only, which abound in all the Vertebrate classes. These
+differences are no doubt connected with the higher organisation of fishes,
+which renders them more susceptible to changed conditions of life; and this
+is indicated by the much less antiquity of existing families of fishes, the
+greater part of which do not date back beyond the Cretaceous epoch, and
+many of them only to the Eocene. In striking contrast we have the vast
+antiquity of most of the families of {538}Mollusca, as shown in the
+following table of their range taken from Mr. Woodward's work, but
+re-arranged, and somewhat modified.
+
+  1 = Lower Silurian.        6 = Trias.                 11 = Eocene.
+  2 = Upper Silurian.        7 = Lower Oolite.          12 = Miocene.
+  3 = Devonian.              8 = Upper Oolite.          13 = Pliocene.
+  4 = Carboniferous.         9 = Lower Cretaceous.      14 = Recent.
+  5 = Permian.              10 = Upper Cretaceous.
+
+  +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
+  |    Range of Families of     |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  |  Mollusca in Time; arranged |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  | in their order of appearance|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  |      and disappearance.     | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9|10|11|12|13|14|
+  +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
+  | Productidæ                  |--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  | Orthoceratidæ               |--|--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  | Spiriferidæ, Orthidæ        |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  | Atlantidæ, Hyaleidæ         |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Pyramidellidæ, Turbinidæ    |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Ianthidæ, Chitonidæ         |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Lingulidæ                   |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Aviculidæ, Mytilidæ         |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Arcadæ, Trigoniadæ          |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Cyprinidæ, Anatinidæ        |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Nautilidæ                   |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Rhynchonellidæ, Craniadæ, } |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  |   Discinidæ               } |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Cardiadæ, Lucinidæ          |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Ammonitidæ                  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |
+  | Naticidæ, Calyptræidæ       |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Dentalidæ, Terebratulidæ    |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Helicidæ                    |  |  |  |--|  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|
+  | Fissurellidæ, Tornatellidæ  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Pectinidæ, Solenidæ         |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Cerithiadæ, Littorinidæ, }  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  |   Astartidæ              }  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Belemnitidæ                 |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |
+  | Teuthidæ, Sepiadæ           |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Neritidæ, Patellidæ, }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  |   Bullidæ            }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Gastrochænidæ, Pholadidæ    |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Limnæidæ, Melaniadæ         |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Chamidæ, Myadæ              |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Cycladidæ, Veneridæ, }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
+  |   Tellinidæ          }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Hippuritidæ                 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|  |  |  |  |
+  | Unionidæ                    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Strombidæ, Buccinidæ        |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Conidæ, Volutidæ            |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Auriculidæ, Cyclostomidæ    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Mactridæ                    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
+  | Limacidæ                    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|
+  | Argonautidæ                 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|
+  | Tridacnidæ                  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|
+  +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
+
+Nor is this enormous antiquity confined to family types alone. Many genera
+are equally ancient. The genus _Lingula_ has {539}existed from the earliest
+Palæozoic times down to the present day; while _Terebratula_,
+_Rhynchonella_, _Discina_, _Nautilus_, _Natica_, _Pleurotomaria_,
+_Patella_, _Dentalium_, _Mytilus_ and many other living forms, range back
+to the Palæozoic epoch. That groups of such immense antiquity, and having
+power to resist such vast changes of external conditions as they must have
+been subject to, should now be widely distributed, is no more than might
+reasonably be expected. It is only in the case of sub-genera and species,
+that we can expect the influence of recent geological or climatal changes
+to be manifest; and it must be left to special students to work out the
+details of their distribution, with reference to the general principles
+found to obtain among the more highly organised animals.
+
+
+
+
+{540}CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION, AND LINES OF MIGRATION, OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES
+OF ANIMALS.
+
+Having already given summaries of the distribution of the several orders,
+and of some of the classes of land animals, we propose here to make a few
+general remarks on the special phenomena presented by the more important
+groups, and to indicate where possible, the general lines of migration by
+which they have become dispersed over wide areas.
+
+
+MAMMALIA.
+
+This class is very important, and its past history is much better known
+than that of most others. We shall therefore briefly summarise the results
+we have arrived at from our examination of the distribution of extinct and
+living forms of each order.
+
+_Primates._--This order, being pre-eminently a tropical one, became
+separated into two portions, inhabiting the Eastern and Western Hemispheres
+respectively, at a very early epoch. In consequence of this separation it
+has diverged more radically than most other orders, so that the two
+American families, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, are widely differentiated from the
+Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs of the Old World. The Lemurs were probably still
+more ancient, but being much lower in organisation, they became extinct in
+most of the areas where the higher forms of Primates became developed.
+Remains found in the Eocene formation indicate, that the North American and
+European {541}Primates had, even at that early epoch, diverged into
+distinct series, so that we must probably look back to the secondary period
+for the ancestral form from which the entire order was developed.
+
+_Chiroptera._--These are also undoubtedly very ancient. The most
+generalised forms--the Vespertilionidæ and Noctilionidæ--are the most
+widely distributed; while special types have arisen in America, and in the
+Eastern Hemisphere. Remains found in the Upper Eocene formation of Europe
+differ little from species still living in the same countries; so that we
+can form no conjecture as to the origin or migration, of the group. Their
+power of flight would, however, enable them rapidly to spread over all the
+great continents of the globe.
+
+_Insectivora._--This very ancient group, now probably verging towards
+extinction, appears to have originated in the Northern continent, and never
+to have reached Australia or South America. It may, however, have become
+extinct in the latter country owing to the competition of the numerous
+Edentata. The Insectivora now often maintain themselves amidst more highly
+developed forms, by means of some special protection. Some burrow in the
+earth,--like the moles; others have a spiny covering,--as the hedgehog's
+and several of the Centetidæ; others are aquatic,---as the _Potamogale_ and
+the desman; others have a nauseous odour,--as the shrews; while there are
+several which seem to be preserved by their resemblance to higher
+forms,--as the elephant-shrews to jerboas, and the tupaias to squirrels.
+The same need of protection is shown by the numerous Insectivora inhabiting
+Madagascar, where the competing forms are few; and by one lingering in the
+Antilles, where there are hardly any other mammalia.
+
+_Carnivora._--Although perhaps less ancient than the preceding, this form
+of mammal is far more highly organised, and from its earliest appearance
+appears to have become dominant in the world. It would therefore soon
+spread widely, and diverge into the various specialised types represented
+by existing families. Most of these appear to have originated in the
+Eastern Hemisphere, the only Carnivora occurring in North {542}American
+Miocene deposits being ancestral forms of Canidæ and Felidæ. It seems
+probable, therefore, that the order had attained a considerable development
+before it reached the Western Hemisphere. The Procyonidæ, now confined to
+America, are not very ancient; and the occurrence of a few allied forms in
+the Himalayas (_Ælurus_ and _Æluropus_) render it probable that their
+common ancestors entered North America from the Palæarctic region during
+the Miocene period, but being a rather low type they have succumbed under
+the competition of higher forms in most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.
+Bears and Weasels are probably still more recent emigrants to America. The
+aquatic carnivora (Seals, &c.) are, as might be expected, more widely and
+uniformly distributed, but there is little evidence to show at what period
+the type was first developed.
+
+_Ungulata._--These are the dominant vegetable-feeders of the great
+continents, and they have steadily increased in numbers and in
+specialisation from the oldest Tertiary times to the present day. Being
+generally of larger size and less active than the Carnivora, they have
+somewhat more restricted powers of dispersal. We have good evidence that
+their wide range over the globe is a comparatively recent phenomenon.
+Tapirs and Llamas have probably not long inhabited South America, while
+Rhinoceroses and Antelopes were once, perhaps, unknown in Africa, although
+abounding in Europe and Asia. Swine are one of the most ancient types in
+both hemispheres; and their great hardiness, their omnivorous diet, and
+their powers of swimming, have led to their wide distribution. The sheep
+and goats, on the other hand, are perhaps the most recent development of
+the Ungulata, and they seem to have arisen in the Palæarctic region at a
+time when its climate already approximated to that which now prevails.
+Hence they are pre-eminently a Temperate group, never found within the
+Tropics except upon a few mountain ranges.
+
+_Proboscidea._--These huge animals (the Elephants and Mastodons) appear to
+have originated in the warmer parts of the Palæarctic region, but they soon
+spread over all the great {543}continents, even reaching the southern
+extremity of America. Their extinction has probably depended more on
+physical than on organic changes, and we can clearly trace their almost
+total disappearance to the effects of the Glacial epoch.
+
+_Rodentia._--Rodents are a very dominant group, and a very ancient one.
+Owing to their small size and rapid powers of increase, they soon spread
+over almost every part of the globe, whence has resulted a great
+specialisation of family types in the South American continent which
+remained so long isolated. They are capable of living wherever there is any
+kind of vegetable food, hence their range will be determined rather by
+organic than by physical conditions; and the occupation of a country by
+enemies or by competing forms, is probably the chief cause which has
+prevented many of the families from acquiring a wide range. The occurrence
+of isolated species of the South American families, Octodontidæ and
+Echimyidæ in the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, is an indication that
+the range of many of the families has recently become less extensive.
+
+_Edentata._--These singular and lowly-organised animals appear to have
+become almost restricted to the two great Southern lands--South Africa and
+South America--at an early period; and, being there free from the
+competition of higher forms, developed a number of remarkable types often
+of huge size, of which the Megatherium is one of the best known. The
+incursion of the highly-organised Ungulates and Carnivora into Africa
+during the Miocene epoch, probably exterminated most of them in that
+continent; but in America they continued in full force down to the
+Post-Pliocene period; and even now, the comparatively diminutive Sloths,
+Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, form a large and important portion of the
+fauna.
+
+_Marsupialia and Monotremata._--These are probably the representatives of
+the most ancient and lowly-organised types of mammal. They once existed in
+the northern continents, whence they spread into Australia; and being
+isolated, and preserved from the competition of the higher forms which soon
+arose in other parts of the world, they have developed into a variety of
+types, which, however, still preserve a general {544}uniformity of
+organisation. One family, which continued to exist in Europe till the
+latter part of the Miocene period, reached America, and has there been
+preserved to our day.
+
+_Lines of Migration of the Mammalia._--The whole series of phenomena
+presented by the distribution of the Mammalia, looked at broadly, are in
+harmony with the view that the great continents and oceans of our own epoch
+have been in existence, with comparatively small changes, during all
+Tertiary times. Each one of them has, no doubt, undergone considerable
+modifications in its area, its altitude, and in its connection with other
+lands. Yet some considerable portion of each continent has, probably, long
+existed in its present position, while the great oceans seem to have
+occupied the same depressions of the earth's crust (varied, perhaps, by
+local elevations and subsidences) during all this vast period of time.
+Hence, allowing for the changes of which we have more or less satisfactory
+evidence, the migrations of the chief mammalian types can be pretty clearly
+traced. Some, owing to their small size and great vitality, have spread to
+almost all the chief land masses; but the majority of the orders have a
+more restricted range. All the evidence at our command points to the
+Northern Hemisphere as the birth-place of the class, and probably of all
+the orders. At a very early period the land communication with Australia
+was cut off, and has never been renewed; so that we have here preserved for
+us a sample of one or more of the most ancient forms of mammal. Somewhat
+later the union with South America and South Africa was severed; and in
+both these countries we have samples of a somewhat more advanced stage of
+mammalian development. Later still, the union by a northern route between
+the Eastern and Western Hemispheres appears to have been broken, partly by
+a physical separation, but almost as effectually by a lowering of
+temperature. About the same period the separation of the Palæarctic region
+from the Oriental was effected, by the rise of the Himalayas and the
+increasing contrast of climate; while the formation of the great
+desert-belts of the Sahara, Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia, helped to
+complete the separation of {545}the Temperate and Tropical zones, and to
+render further intermigration almost impossible.
+
+In a few cases--of which the Rodents in Australia and the pigs in
+Austro-Malaya are perhaps the most striking examples--the distribution of
+land-mammals has been effected by a sea-passage either by swimming or on
+floating vegetation; but, as a rule, we may be sure that the migrations of
+mammalia have taken place over the land; and their presence on islands is,
+therefore, a clear indication that these have been once connected with a
+continent. The present class of animals thus affords the best evidence of
+the past history of the land surface of our globe; and we have chiefly
+relied upon it in sketching out (in Part III.) the probable changes which
+each of our great regions has undergone.
+
+
+_Birds._
+
+Although birds are, of all land-vertebrates, the best able to cross seas
+and oceans, it is remarkable how closely the main features of their
+distribution correspond with those of the Mammalia. South America possesses
+the low Formicaroid type of Passeres,--which, compared with the more highly
+developed forms of the Eastern Hemisphere, is analogous to the Cebidæ and
+Hapalidæ as compared with the Old World Apes and Monkeys; while its Cracidæ
+as compared with the Pheasants and Grouse, may be considered parallel to
+the Edentata as compared with the Ungulates of the Old World. The
+Marsupials of America and Australia, are paralleled among birds, in the
+Struthionidæ and Megapodiidæ; the Lemurs and Insectivora preserved in
+Madagascar are represented by the Mascarene Dididæ; the absence of Deer and
+Bears from Africa is analogous to the absence of Wrens, Creepers, and
+Pheasants; while the African Hyracidæ and Chrysochloridæ among mammals, may
+well be compared with the equally peculiar Coliidæ and Musophagidæ among
+birds.
+
+From these and many other similarities of distribution, it is clear that
+birds have, as a rule, followed the same great lines of migration as
+mammalia; and that oceans, seas, and deserts, have {546}always to a great
+extent limited their range. Yet these barriers have not been absolute; and
+in the course of ages birds have been able to reach almost every habitable
+land upon the globe. Hence have arisen some of the most curious and
+interesting phenomena of distribution; and many islands, which are entirely
+destitute of mammalia, or possess a very few species, abound in birds,
+often of peculiar types and remarkable for some unusual character or habit.
+Striking examples of such interesting bird-faunas are those of New Zealand,
+the Sandwich Islands, the Galapagos, the Mascarene Islands, the Moluccas,
+and the Antilles; while even small and remote islets,--such as Juan
+Fernandez and Norfolk Island, have more light thrown upon their past
+history by means of their birds, than by any other portion of their scanty
+fauna.
+
+Another peculiar feature in the distribution of this class is the
+extraordinary manner in which certain groups and certain external
+characteristics, have become developed in islands, where the smaller and
+less powerful birds have been protected from the incursions of mammalian
+enemies, and where rapacious birds--which seem to some degree dependent on
+the abundance of mammalia--are also scarce. Thus, we have the Pigeons and
+the Parrots most wonderfully developed in the Australian region, which is
+pre-eminently insular; and both these groups here acquire conspicuous
+colours very unusual, or altogether absent, elsewhere. Similar colours
+(black and red) appear, in the same two groups, in the distant Mascarene
+islands; while in the Antilles the parrots have often white heads, a
+character not found in the allied species on the South American continent.
+Crests, too, are largely developed, in both these groups, in the Australian
+region only; and a crested parrot formerly lived in Mauritius,--a
+coincidence too much like that of the colours as above noted, to be
+considered accidental.
+
+Again, birds exhibit to us a remarkable contrast as regards the oceanic
+islands of tropical and temperate latitudes; for while most of the former
+present hardly any cases of specific identity with the birds of adjacent
+continents, the latter often show hardly any differences. The Galapagos and
+Madagascar {547}are examples of the first-named peculiarity; the Azores and
+the Bermudas of the last; and the difference can be clearly traced to the
+frequency and violence of storms in the one case and to the calms or steady
+breezes in the other.
+
+It appears then, that although birds do not afford us the same convincing
+proof of the former union of now disjoined lands as we obtain from mammals,
+yet they give us much curious and suggestive information as to the various
+and complex modes in which the existing peculiarities of the distribution
+of animals have been brought about. They also throw much light on the
+relation between distribution and the external characters of animals; and,
+as they are often found where mammalia are quite absent, we must rank them
+as of equal value for the purposes of our present study.
+
+
+_Reptiles._
+
+These hold a somewhat intermediate place, as regards their distribution,
+between mammals and birds, having on the whole rather a wider range than
+the former, and a more restricted one than the latter.
+
+Snakes appear to have hardly more facilities for crossing the ocean than
+mammals; hence they are generally absent from oceanic islands. They are
+more especially a tropical group, and have thus never been able to pass
+from one continent to another by those high northern and southern routes,
+which we have seen reason to believe were very effectual in the case of
+mammalia and some other animals. Hence we find no resemblance between the
+Australian and Neotropical regions, or between the Palæarctic and Nearctic;
+while the Western Hemisphere is comparatively poor as regards variety of
+types, although rich in genera and species. Deserts and high mountains are
+also very effectual barriers for this group, and their lines of migration
+have probably been along river valleys, and occasionally across narrow seas
+by means of floating vegetation.
+
+Lizards, being somewhat less tropical than snakes, may have passed by the
+northern route during warm epochs. They are also more suited to traverse
+deserts, and they possess some unknown {548}means of crossing the ocean, as
+they are not unfrequently found in remote oceanic islands. These various
+causes have modified their distribution. The Western Hemisphere is much
+richer in lizards than it is in snakes; and it is also very distinct from
+the Eastern Hemisphere. The lines of migration of lizards appear to have
+been along the mountains and deserts of tropical countries, and, under
+special conditions, across tropical seas from island to island.
+
+Crocodiles are a declining group. They were once more generally
+distributed, all the three families being found in British Eocene deposits.
+Being aquatic and capable of living in the sea, they can readily pass along
+all the coasts and islands of the warmer parts of the globe. Tortoises are
+equally ancient, and the restriction of certain groups to definite areas
+seems to be also a recent phenomenon.
+
+
+_Amphibia._
+
+The Amphibia differ widely from Reptiles in their power of enduring cold;
+one of their chief divisions, the Urodela or Tailed-Batrachia, being
+confined to the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. To this class
+of animals the northern and southern routes of migration were open; and we
+accordingly find a considerable amount of resemblance between South America
+and Australia, and a still stronger affinity between North America and the
+Palæarctic continent. The other tropical regions are more distinct from
+each other; clearly indicating that, in this group, it is tropical deserts
+and tropical oceans which are the barriers to migration. The class however
+is very fragmentary, and probably very ancient; so that descendants of once
+widespread types are now found isolated in various parts of the globe,
+between which we may feel sure there has been no direct transmission of
+Batrachia. Remembering that their chief lines of migration have been by
+northern and southern land-routes, by floating ice, by fresh-water
+channels, and perhaps at rare intervals by ova being carried by aquatic
+birds or by violent storms,--we shall be able to comprehend most of the
+features of their actual distribution.
+
+
+{549}_Fresh-water Fishes._
+
+Although it would appear, at first sight, that the means of dispersal of
+these animals are very limited, yet they share to some extent the wide
+range of other fresh-water organisms. They are found in all climates; but
+the tropical regions are by far the most productive, and of these South
+America is perhaps the richest and most peculiar. There is a certain amount
+of identity between the two northern continents, and also between those of
+the South Temperate zone; yet all are radically distinct, even North
+America and Europe having but a small proportion of their forms in common.
+The occurrence of allied fresh-water species in remote lands--as the
+_Aphritis_ of Tasmania and Patagonia, and the _Comephorus_ of Lake Baikal,
+distantly allied to the mackerels of Northern seas--would imply that marine
+fishes are often modified for a life in fresh waters; while other facts no
+less plainly show that permanent fresh-water species are sometimes
+dispersed in various ways across the oceans, more especially by the
+northern and southern routes.
+
+The families of fresh-water fishes are often of restricted range, although
+cases of very wide and scattered distribution also occur. The great
+zoological regions are, on the whole, very well characterized; showing that
+the same barriers are effectual here, as with most other vertebrates. We
+conclude, therefore, that the chief lines of migration of fresh-water
+fishes have been across the Arctic and Antarctic seas, probably by means of
+floating ice as well as by the help of the vast flocks of migratory aquatic
+birds that frequent those regions. On continents they are, usually, widely
+dispersed; but tropical seas, even when of small extent, appear to have
+offered an effectual barrier to their dispersal. The cases of affinity
+between Tropical America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, must therefore be
+imputed either to the survival of once widespread groups, or to analogous
+adaptation to a fresh-water life of wide-spread marine types; and these
+cases cannot be taken as evidence of any former land connection between
+such remote continents.
+
+
+{550}_Insects._
+
+It has already been shown (Vol. I. pp. 209-213 and Vol. II. pp. 44-48) that
+the peculiarities of distribution of the various groups of insects depend
+very much on their habits and general economy. Their antiquity is so vast,
+and their more important modifications of structure have probably occurred
+so slowly, that modes of dispersal depending on such a combination of
+favourable conditions as to be of excessive rarity, may yet have had time
+to produce large cumulative effects. Their small specific gravity and their
+habits of flight render them liable to dispersal by winds to an extent
+unknown in other classes of animals; and thus, what are usually very
+effectual barriers have been overstepped, and sometimes almost obliterated,
+in the case of insects. A careful examination will, however, almost always
+show traces of an ancient fauna, agreeing in character with other classes
+of animals, intermixed with the more prominent and often more numerous
+forms whose presence is due to this unusual facility of dispersal.
+
+The effectual migration of insects is, perhaps more than in any other class
+of animals, limited by organic and physical conditions. The vegetation, the
+soil, the temperature, and the supply of moisture, must all be suited to
+their habits and economy; while they require an immunity from enemies of
+various kinds, which immigrants to a new country seldom obtain. Few
+organisms have, in so many complex ways, become adapted to their special
+environment, as have insects. They are in each country more or less adapted
+to the plants which belong to it; while their colours, their habits, and
+the very nature of the juices of their system, are all modified so as to
+protect them from the special dangers which surround them in their native
+land. It follows, that while no animals are so well adapted to show us the
+various modes by which dispersal may be effected, none can so effectually
+teach us the true nature and vast influence of the organic barrier in
+limiting dispersal.
+
+It is probable that insects have at one time or another taken advantage of
+every line of migration by which any terrestrial {551}organisms have spread
+over the earth, but owing to their small size and rapid multiplication,
+they have made use of some which are exclusively their own. Such are the
+passage along mountain ranges from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and
+the dispersal of certain types over all temperate lands. It will perhaps be
+found that insects have spread over the land surface in directions
+dependent on our surface zones--forests, pastures, and deserts;--and a
+study of these, with a due consideration of the fact that narrow seas are
+scarcely a barrier to most of the groups, may assist us to understand many
+of the details of insect-distribution.
+
+
+_Terrestrial Mollusca._
+
+The distribution of land-shells agrees, in some features, with that of
+insects, while in others the two are strongly contrasted. In both we see
+the effects of great antiquity, with some special means of dispersal; but
+while in insects the general powers of motion, both voluntary and
+involuntary, are at a maximum, in land-molluscs they are almost at a
+minimum. Although to some extent dependent on vegetation and climate, the
+latter are more dependent on inorganic conditions, and also to a large
+extent on the general organic environment. The result of these various
+causes, acting through countless ages, has been to spread the main types of
+structure with considerable uniformity over the globe; while generic and
+sub-generic forms are often wonderfully localized.
+
+Land-shells, even more than insects, seem, at first sight, to require
+regions of their own; but we have already pointed out the disadvantages of
+such a method of study. It will be far more instructive to refer them to
+those regions and sub-regions which are found to accord best with the
+distribution of the higher animals, and to consider the various anomalies
+they present as so many problems, to be solved by a careful study of their
+habits and economy, and especially by a search after the hidden causes
+which have enabled them to spread so widely over land and ocean.
+
+The lines of migration which land-shells have followed, can {552}hardly be
+determined with any definiteness. On continents they seem to spread
+steadily, but slowly, in every direction, checked probably by organic and
+physical conditions rather than by the barriers which limit the higher
+groups. Over the ocean they are also slowly dispersed, by some means which
+act perhaps at very long intervals, but which, within the period of the
+duration of genera and families, are tolerably effective. It thus happens
+that, although the powers of dispersal of land-shells and insects are so
+very unequal, the resulting geographical distribution is almost the
+opposite of what might have been expected,--the former being, on the whole,
+less distinctly localized than the latter.
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+The preceding remarks are all I now venture to offer, on the distinguishing
+features of the various groups of land-animals as regards their
+distribution and migrations. They are at best but indications of the
+various lines of research opened up to us by the study of animals from the
+geographical point of view, and by looking upon their range in space and
+time as an important portion of the earth's history. Much work has yet to
+be done before the materials will exist for a complete treatment of the
+subject in all its branches; and it is the author's hope that his volumes
+may lead to a more systematic collection and arrangement of the necessary
+facts. At present all public museums and private collections are arranged
+zoologically. All treatises, monographs, and catalogues, also follow, more
+or less completely, the zoological arrangement; and the greatest difficulty
+the student of geographical distribution has to contend against, is the
+total absence of geographical collections, and the almost total want of
+complete and comparable local catalogues. Till every well-marked
+district,--every archipelago, and every important island, has all its known
+species of the more important groups of animals catalogued on a uniform
+plan, and with a uniform nomenclature, a thoroughly satisfactory account of
+the Geographical Distribution of Animals will not be possible. But more
+than this is wanted. Many of the most curious relations between animal
+{553}forms and their habitats, are entirely unnoticed, owing to the
+productions of the same locality _never_ being associated in our museums
+and collections. A few such relations have been brought to light by modern
+scientific travellers, but many more remain to be discovered; and there is
+probably no fresher and more productive field still unexplored in Natural
+History. Most of these curious and suggestive relations are to be found in
+the productions of islands, as compared with each other, or with the
+continents of which they form appendages; but these can never be properly
+studied, or even discovered, unless they are visibly grouped together. When
+the birds, the more conspicuous families of insects, and the land-shells of
+islands, are kept together so as to be readily compared with similar
+associations from the adjacent continents or other islands, it is believed
+that in almost every case there will be found to be peculiarities of form
+or colour running through widely different groups, and strictly indicative
+of local or geographical influences. Some of these coincident variations
+have been alluded to in various parts of this work, but they have never
+been systematically investigated. They constitute an unworked mine of
+wealth for the enterprising explorer; and they may not improbably lead to
+the discovery of some of the hidden laws (supplementary to Natural
+Selection), which seem to be required, in order to account for many of the
+external characteristics of animals.
+
+In concluding his task, the author ventures to suggest, that naturalists
+who are disposed to turn aside from the beaten track of research, may find
+in the line of study here suggested a new and interesting pursuit, not
+inferior in attractions to the lofty heights of transcendental anatomy, or
+the bewildering mazes of modern classification. And it is a study which
+will surely lead them to an increased appreciation of the beauty and the
+harmony of nature, and to a fuller comprehension of the complex relations
+and mutual interdependence, which link together every animal and vegetable
+form, with the ever-changing earth which supports them, into one grand
+organic whole.
+
+
+{557}GENERAL INDEX.
+
+
+All names in Italics refer, either to the genera and other groups of
+Extinct Animals in Part II. of the First Volume;--or to the genera whose
+distribution is given under Geographical Zoology (Part IV.) in the Second
+Volume; the Families and higher groups being in small capitals. All other
+references are in ordinary type.
+
+The various matters discussed under Zoological Geography (Part III.), are
+indexed as much as possible by subjects and localities. None of the genera
+mentioned in this Part are indexed, as this would have more than doubled
+the extent of the Index, and would have served no useful purpose, because
+the general distribution of each genus is given in Part IV., and the
+separate details can always be found by referring to the region,
+sub-region, and class.
+
+
+  A.
+
+  Aard-vark of East Africa, figure of, i. 261
+
+  Aard-vark, ii. 246
+
+  Aard-wolf, ii. 196
+
+  _Abacetus_, ii. 491
+
+  _Abax_, ii. 489
+
+  _Abisara_, ii. 475
+
+  _Ablabes_, ii. 375
+
+  _Ablepharus_, ii. 395
+
+  _Abramis_, ii. 453
+
+  _Abronia_, ii. 392
+
+  _Abrornis_, ii. 258
+
+  _Abrostomus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Aburria_, ii. 343
+
+  _Acalyptus_, ii. 384
+
+  _Acanthias_, ii. 401
+
+  _Acanthicus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Acanthion_, ii. 240
+
+  _Acanthis_, ii. 283
+
+  _Acanthisitta_, ii. 265
+
+  _Acanthiza_, ii. 258
+
+  _Acanthobrama_, ii. 453
+
+  ACANTHOCLINIDÆ, ii. 432
+
+  _Acanthodactylus_, ii. 391
+
+  _Acanthodelphis_, ii. 209
+
+  _Acantholabrus_, ii. 437
+
+  _Acanthomys_, ii. 229
+
+  _Acanthophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Acanthopsis_, ii. 453
+
+  ACANTHOPTERYGII, ii. 424
+
+  ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCOGNATHI, ii. 437
+
+  _Acanthopthalmus_, ii. 453
+
+  _Acanthoptila_, ii. 261
+
+  _Acanthopyga_, ii. 390
+
+  _Acanthorhynchus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Acanthosaura_, ii. 402
+
+  _Acara_, ii. 438
+
+  Accentor, ii. 260
+
+  Accentorinæ, ii. 257
+
+  _Accipenser_, ii. 459
+
+  ACCIPENSERIDÆ, ii. 459
+
+  _Accipiter_, ii. 348
+
+  _Accipitres_, European Eocene, i. 163
+
+  Accipitres, classification of, i. 97
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 312
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 385
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 484
+
+  ACCIPITRES, ii. 345
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 351
+
+  ACCIPITRINÆ, ii. 347
+
+  _Acerina_, ii. 425
+
+  _Aceros_, ii. 317
+
+  _Acerotherium_, ii. 214
+
+  _Acerotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Acestra_, ii. 444
+
+  _Acestura_, ii. 108
+
+  _Achalinus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Acharnes_, ii. 434
+
+  _Achatina_, ii. 515
+
+  _Achatinella_, ii. 514
+
+  _Acherontia_, ii. 483
+
+  _Achilognathus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Achænodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Acicula_, ii. 519
+
+  ACICULIDÆ, ii. 519
+
+  _Acmæodera_, ii. 497
+
+  _Acodon_, ii. 230
+
+  ACONTIADÆ, ii. 399
+
+  _Acontias_, ii. 399
+
+  _Acotherium_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Acotherium_, ii. 215
+
+  _Acræa_, ii. 473
+
+  ACRÆIDÆ, ii. 473
+
+  _Acrantus_, ii. 390
+
+  _Acredula_, ii. 266
+
+  _Acridotheres_, ii. 287
+
+  _Acris_, ii. 419
+
+  _Acrobata_, ii. 252
+
+  _Acrocephalus_, ii. 258
+
+  _Acrochilus_, ii. 452
+
+  ACROCHORDIDÆ, ii. 382
+
+  _Acrochordonichthys_, ii. 442
+
+  _Acrochordus_, ii. 382
+
+  ACRONURIDÆ, ii. 433
+
+  _Acropternis_, ii. 297
+
+  _Acryllium_, ii. 340
+
+  _Actenodes_, ii. 497
+
+  _Actinodura_, ii. 261
+
+  _Ada_, ii. 390
+
+  _Adamsiella_, ii. 521
+
+  _Adapis_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Addax_, ii. 223
+
+  _Adelomia_, ii. 108
+
+  _Adelotopus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Adenomera_, ii. 416
+
+  _Adolias_, ii. 474
+
+  _Aedon_, ii. 259
+
+  _Ægeria_, ii. 482
+
+  ÆGERIIDÆ, ii. 482
+
+  _Ægialitis_, ii. 356
+
+  _Ægithaliscus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Ægithalus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Ægocera_, ii. 482
+
+  _Ægotheles_, ii. 318
+
+  _Æluredus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Ælurichthys_, ii. 443
+
+  ÆLURIDÆ, ii. 201
+
+  _Ælurogale_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Æluropus_, ii. 201
+
+  _Ælurus_, ii. 201
+
+  _Æmona_, ii. 472
+
+  _Ænigma_, ii. 490
+
+  _Æolidæ_, ii. 530
+
+  _Æpyceros_, ii. 223
+
+  _Æpyornis_, of Madagascar, i. 164
+
+  _Æpyornis_, ii. 370
+
+  ÆPYORNITHIDÆ, ii. 370
+
+  _Æsacus_, ii. 355
+
+  _Æshna_, from the Lias, i. 167
+
+  _Æthopyga_, ii. 276
+
+  _Æthya_, ii. 364
+
+  _Agama_, ii. 402
+
+  AGAMIDÆ, ii. 401
+
+  _Agapornis_, ii. 328
+
+  _Agarista_, ii. 482
+
+  _Agaristidæ_, ii. 482
+
+  _Agelasta_, ii. 501
+
+  AGELASTINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Agelæus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Ageniosus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Ageronia_, ii. 474
+
+  _Aglæactis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Agnopterus_, European Eocene, i. 163
+
+  _Agoniates_, ii. 445
+
+  _Agonostoma_, ii. 435
+
+  _Agonus_, ii. 428
+
+  Agouti, ii. 241
+
+  _Agra_, ii. 490
+
+  _Agraulis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Agrilus_, ii. 497
+
+  _Agriochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Agrion_, from the Lias, i. 167
+
+  _Agriornis_, ii. 100
+
+  _Ahætulla_, ii. 379
+
+  _Ailia_, ii. 442
+
+  _Aipysurus_, ii. 384
+
+  _Aithurus_, ii. 107
+
+  _Aix_, ii. 363
+
+  _Akysis_, ii. 442
+
+  _Alæmon_, ii. 289
+
+  Alaska, birds of, ii. 136
+
+  _Alauda_, ii. 289
+
+  ALAUDIDÆ, ii. 289
+
+  Albatrosses, ii. 365
+
+  _Albulichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  _Alburnus_, ii. 453
+
+  _Alca_, ii. 367
+
+  _Alcadia_, ii. 522
+
+  ALCEDINIDÆ, ii. 315
+
+  _Alcedo_, ii. 316
+
+  ALCEPHALINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Alcephalus_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+
+  _Alcephalus_, ii. 224
+
+  _Alces_, ii. 219
+
+  ALCIDÆ, ii. 367
+
+  _Alcippe_, ii. 261
+
+  _Alcurus_, ii. 267
+
+  _Alcyone_, ii. 316
+
+  Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, i. 289
+
+  _Alectorurus_, ii. 100
+
+  _Alectroenas_, ii. 332
+
+  ALEPOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 454
+
+  _Alesa_, ii. 475
+
+  _Alestes_, ii. 445
+
+  _Alethe_, ii. 262
+
+  _Aletornis_, N. American Eocene, i. 163
+
+  Aleutian Islands, birds of, ii. 137
+
+  Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, i. 111
+
+  _Algira_, ii. 391
+
+  Alleghany sub-region, ii. 130
+    mammalia of, ii. 132
+    birds of, ii. 132
+    reptiles of, ii. 133
+    amphibia of, ii. 134
+    fishes of, ii. 134
+    islands of, ii. 134
+
+  Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, i. 61
+    objections to his system of circumpolar zones, i. 67
+    objections to his zoo-geographical nomenclature, i. 68
+    on birds of N. America, ii. 133, 136
+
+  _Alligator_, ii. 406
+
+  ALLIGATORIDÆ, ii. 406
+
+  Alligators, ii. 406
+
+  _Allotinus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Alopecias_, ii. 460
+
+  _Alsæcomus_, ii. 332
+
+  _Alsecus_, ii. 259
+
+  _Alseonax_, ii. 270
+
+  _Alsodes_, ii. 417
+
+  Altai mountains, fossils in caves, i. 111
+
+  _Alytes_, ii. 417
+
+  ALYTIDÆ, ii. 417
+
+  _Amadina_, ii. 287
+
+  _Amara_, ii. 489
+
+  _Amarynthis_, ii. 476
+
+  _Amathusia_, ii. 472
+
+  _Amauresthes_, ii. 287
+
+  _Amaurospiza_, ii. 285
+
+  _Amazilia_, ii. 109
+
+  _Amblyrhiza_, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
+
+  AMBLYCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 380
+
+  _Amblycephalus_, ii. 380
+
+  _Amblyceps_, ii. 443
+
+  _Amblychila_, ii. 487
+
+  _Amblymora_, ii. 501
+
+  _Amblyopsis_, ii. 450
+
+  _Amblyornis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Amblypharyngodon_, ii. 452
+
+  _Amblypodia_, ii. 477
+
+  _Amblyrhamphus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Amblyrhiza_, ii. 237
+
+  _Amblyrhynchichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  _Amblystoma_, ii. 413
+
+  _Ameiva_, ii. 390
+
+  America, recent separation of North and South, i. 40
+    extinct mammalia of, i. 129
+    N., Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 129
+
+  American Creepers, ii. 295
+
+  AMIIDÆ, ii. 458
+
+  _Amiurus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Ammodromus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Ammodytes_, ii. 440
+
+  _Ammomanes_, ii. 289
+
+  AMMONITIDÆ, ii. 506
+
+  _Amomys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Ampeliceps_, ii. 287
+
+  AMPELIDÆ, ii. 280
+
+  _Ampelio_, ii. 102
+
+  _Ampelis_, ii. 280
+
+  _Amphechinus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 188
+
+  Amphibia, means of dispersal of, i. 28
+    classification of, i. 100
+    peculiar to Palæarctic region, i. 186
+    of Central Europe, i. 196
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
+    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
+    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 226
+    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 237
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
+    of West Africa, i. 264
+    S. African, i. 268
+    of Madagascar, i. 280
+    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298
+    of the Oriental region, i. 317
+    of the Indian sub-region, i. 326
+    of Ceylon, i. 327
+    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331
+    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340
+    table of Oriental families of, i. 369
+    of the Australian region, i. 397
+    resemblances of Australian and South-American, i. 400
+    of New Guinea, i. 416
+    of New Zealand, i. 457
+    Neotropical, ii. 11
+    of South Temperate America, ii. 41
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
+    of the Antilles, ii. 72
+    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 120
+    of California, ii. 128
+    of Central North America, ii. 131
+    of Eastern United States, ii. 134
+    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143
+
+  AMPHIBIA, ii. 411
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 422
+    fossil, ii. 423
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 548
+    lines of migration of, ii. 548
+
+  _Amphibola_, ii. 510
+
+  _Amphibos_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    ii. 225
+
+  _Amphicyon_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+    ii. 198
+    ii. 202
+
+  _Amphiglossus_, ii 398
+
+  _Amphimericidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  _Amphimoschus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 220
+
+  _Amphioxus_, ii. 464
+
+  _Amphipnous_, ii. 455
+
+  _Amphisbæna_, ii. 389
+
+  AMPHISBÆNIDÆ, ii. 388
+
+  _Amphisorex_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 191
+
+  _Amphitragulus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 218
+
+  _Amphiuma_, ii. 412
+
+  AMPHIUMIDÆ, ii. 412
+
+  _Amphixestus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Ampullaria_, ii. 510
+
+  _Amydrus_, ii. 288
+
+  _Amytis_, ii. 258
+
+  _Anabatoides_, ii. 103
+
+  _Anabazenops_, ii. 103
+
+  _Anableps_, ii. 450
+
+  ANACANTHINI, ii. 439
+
+  _Anacyrtus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Anadenus_, ii. 517
+
+  _Anadia_, ii. 393
+
+  ANADIADÆ, ii. 393
+
+  _Anæretes_, ii. 101, 291
+
+  _Anaides_, ii. 413
+
+  _Analcipus_, ii. 268
+
+  _Anarhynchus_, ii. 356
+
+  _Anarrhichas_, ii. 431
+
+  _Anas_, ii. 363
+
+  _Anastoma_, European Tertiary, i. 169
+    ii. 527
+
+  _Anastomus_, ii. 361
+
+  ANATIDÆ, ii. 363
+
+  ANATINIDÆ, ii. 536
+
+  _Anatinella_, ii. 536
+
+  _Anausorex_, ii. 191
+
+  _Anchilophus_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Anchippodus_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Anchippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Anchitheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    ii. 212
+
+  _Anchitherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  Ancient fauna of New Zealand, i. 459
+
+  _Ancistrops_, ii. 103
+
+  _Ancylotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 121
+
+  _Ancylotherium_, ii. 246
+
+  _Ancyluris_, ii. 476
+
+  _Ancylus_, ii. 518
+
+  Andaman Islands, zoology of, i. 333
+    probable past history of, i. 334
+
+  _Andigena_, ii. 307
+
+  _Andrias_, European Miocene, i. 165
+
+  _Androdon_, ii. 107
+
+  _Andropadus_, ii. 267
+
+  _Aneitea_, ii. 517
+
+  _Anguilla_, ii. 456
+
+  _Anguis_, ii. 397
+
+  Angwantibo, ii. 176
+
+  Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, i. 85
+
+  Animals, development of, affecting distribution, i. 7
+    dispersal and migration of, i. 10
+    rapid multiplication of, i. 10
+
+  _Anisacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428
+
+  _Anoa_, ii. 222
+
+  _Anodon_, ii. 534
+
+  _Anolius_, ii. 400
+
+  _Anomalurus_, ii. 235
+
+  _Anomalpus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Anoplodipsas_, ii. 381
+
+  _Anoplotheriidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  _Anoplotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    S. American Eocene, i. 1
+
+  _Anopthalmus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Anostomus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Anous_, ii. 365
+
+  _Anser_, ii. 363
+
+  _Anseranas_, ii. 363
+
+  Anseres, arrangement of, i. 98
+    peculiar Palæarctic genera of, i. 250
+    peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 313
+    peculiar Australian genera of, i. 485
+
+  ANSERES, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 367
+
+  _Antarctia_, ii. 490
+    ii. 492
+
+  Ant-eaters, ii. 247
+
+  _Antechinomys_, ii. 249
+
+  _Antechinus_, ii. 249
+
+  Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, i. 122
+    birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
+    Palæarctic, i. 182
+    ii. 221
+
+  _Antelotherium_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+
+  _Antennarius_, ii. 431
+
+  _Anteros_, ii. 476
+
+  _Anthia_, ii. 491
+
+  _Anthipes_, ii. 270
+
+  _Anthocharis_, ii. 478
+
+  _Anthochæra_, ii. 275
+
+  _Anthornis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Anthracotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  _Anthracotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Anthreptes_, ii. 276
+
+  Anthropoid apes, ii. 170
+
+  _Anthropoides_, ii. 357
+
+  _Anthus_, ii. 290
+
+  _Antiacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  Antillean sub-region, ii. 61
+    mammalia of, ii. 62
+    birds of, ii. 64
+    illustration of zoology of, ii. 67
+    table of distribution of resident land-birds of, ii. 68
+    reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 72
+    fresh-water fish of, ii. 73
+    insects of, ii. 73
+    land-shells of, ii. 75
+    past history of, ii. 78
+
+  Antilles, Pliocene Mammalia of, i. 148
+    land-shells of, ii. 526
+
+  _Antilocapra_, ii. 223
+
+  ANTILOCAPRINÆ, ii. 223
+
+  _Antilope_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 223
+    ii. 226
+
+  Antiquity of the genera of insects, i. 166
+    of the genera of land and fresh-water shells, i. 168
+
+  _Antrostomus_, ii. 319
+
+  Ant-thrushes, ii. 297
+
+  _Anumbius_, ii. 103
+
+  ANURA, ii. 414
+
+  _Anurosorex_, ii. 190
+
+  _Aonyx_, ii. 199
+
+  _Apalis_, ii. 258
+
+  _Apaloderma_, ii. 314
+
+  _Apatura_, ii. 474
+
+  _Aphanapteryx_ of Mauritius, i. 164
+    ii. 352
+
+  _Aphantocera_, ii. 107
+
+  _Aphelotherium_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Aphneus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Aphobus_, ii. 283
+
+  APHREDODERIDÆ, ii. 425
+
+  _Aphritis_, ii. 428
+    ii. 549
+
+  _Aphriza_, ii. 356
+
+  _Aphysiadæ_, ii. 530
+
+  _Aphyocypris_, ii. 452
+
+  _Aplocerus_, ii. 224
+
+  _Aplodontia_, ii. 236
+
+  _Aplonis_, ii. 288
+
+  _Aplopelia_, ii. 383
+
+  _Apodemia_, ii. 476
+
+  _Apogon_, ii. 425
+
+  _Aprasia_, ii. 396
+
+  APRASIADÆ, ii. 396
+
+  _Aprosmictus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Aptenodytes_, ii. 366
+
+  APTERYGIDÆ, ii. 369
+
+  _Apteryx_, ii. 369
+
+  _Apua_, ii. 453
+
+  _Aquila_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 348
+
+  AQUILINÆ, ii. 348
+
+  _Ara_, ii. 328
+
+  _Arachnechthra_, ii. 276
+
+  _Arachnothera_, ii. 277
+
+  ARAMIDÆ, ii. 357
+
+  _Aramides_, ii. 352
+
+  _Aramus_, ii. 357
+
+  _Arapaima_, ii. 454
+
+  _Arborophila_, ii. 338
+
+  ARCADÆ, ii. 534
+
+  _Archæomys_, ii. 238
+
+  _Archæopteryx_, Bavarian Oolite, i. 163
+
+  _Archibuteo_, ii. 348
+
+  Arctic shells, ii. 518
+    zone not a separate region, i. 68
+
+  _Arctitis_, ii. 195
+
+  _Arctocebus_, ii. 176
+
+  _Arctocephalus_, ii. 202
+
+  _Arctocyon_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    ii. 206
+
+  _Arctodus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 202
+
+  _Arctogale_, ii. 195
+
+  _Arctomys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    ii. 235, 236
+
+  _Arctonyx_, ii. 199
+
+  _Arctopithecus_, ii. 244
+
+  _Arctotherium_ in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  _Ardea_, ii. 359
+
+  ARDEIDÆ, ii. 359
+
+  _Ardistomus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Argentina_, ii. 488
+
+  _Arges_, ii. 444
+
+  ARGONAUTIDÆ. ii. 505
+
+  _Argus pheasant_, figure of, i. 339
+    peculiarity in display of plumage, and confirmation of Mr. Darwin's
+      views, i. 340
+
+  _Argusianus_, ii. 340
+
+  _Argutor_, ii. 489
+
+  _Argynnis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Aricoris_, ii. 476
+
+  _Ariella_, ii. 195
+
+  _Arinia_, ii. 520
+
+  _Arion_, ii. 517
+
+  _Aristobia_, ii. 501
+
+  _Arius_, ii. 443
+
+  Armadillos, ii. 245
+
+  _Arnoglossus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Aromochelys_, ii. 408
+
+  _Arremon_, ii. 99
+
+  _Arrhenotus_, ii. 501
+
+  _Artamia_, ii. 268
+    ii. 271
+    ii. 288
+
+  ARTAMIDÆ, ii. 288
+
+  _Artamides_, ii. 269
+
+  _Artamus_, ii. 288
+
+  _Arthroleptis_, ii. 421
+
+  _Artiodactyla_, European Eocene, i. 126
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  _Artomyias_, ii. 270
+
+  _Arundinicola_, ii. 100
+
+  _Arvicola_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    S. American Eocene, i. 148
+
+  _Arvicola_, ii. 230, 231
+
+  _Asio_, ii. 350
+
+  _Aspergillum_, ii. 537
+
+  _Aspidoparia_, ii. 452
+
+  _Aspidorhinus_, ii. 391
+
+  _Aspidura_, ii. 374
+
+  _Aspius_, ii. 453
+
+  _Aspredo_, ii. 444
+
+  _Aspro_, ii. 425
+
+  _Astarte_, ii. 535
+
+  _Astathes_, ii. 501
+
+  _Asterophys_, ii. 421
+
+  _Asterophysus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Asthenodipsas_, ii. 381
+
+  _Astrapia_, ii. 274
+
+  _Astroblepus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Astur_, ii. 348
+
+  _Asturina_, ii. 348
+
+  _Asturinula_, ii. 348
+
+  ATELEOPODIDÆ, ii. 440
+
+  _Ateles_, ii. 174
+
+  _Atelopus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Atelornis_, ii. 312
+
+  _Aterica_, ii. 474
+
+  _Athene_, ii. 350
+
+  _Atherina_, ii. 434
+
+  _Atherinichthys_, ii. 434
+
+  ATHERINIDÆ, ii. 434
+
+  _Atheris_, ii. 386
+
+  _Atherura_, ii. 240
+
+  _Athylax_, ii. 195
+
+  _Athyma_, ii. 474
+
+  ATLANTIDÆ, ii. 531
+
+  _Atlapetes_, ii. 284
+
+  ATRACTASPIDIDÆ, ii. 383
+
+  _Atractaspis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Atretium_, ii. 375
+
+  _Atrichia_, ii. 299
+
+  ATRICHIIDÆ, ii. 299
+
+  _Atropos_, ii. 385
+
+  _Attagis_, ii. 354
+
+  ATTALINÆ, ii. 293
+
+  _Atthis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Atticora_, ii. 281
+
+  _Attila_, ii. 102
+
+  _Auchenaspis_, ii. 443
+
+  _Auchenia_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Auchenipterus_, ii. 443
+
+  Auckland Islands, birds of, i. 455
+
+  _Augastes_, ii. 108
+
+  _Auks_, ii. 367
+
+  _Aulia_, ii. 102
+
+  _Aulacodes_, ii. 239
+
+  _Aulacodon_, ii. 239
+
+  _Aulacorhamphus_, ii. 307
+
+  _Aulopoma_, ii. 520
+
+  _Aulopyge_, ii. 452
+
+  _Auricula_, ii. 519, 527
+
+  AURICULIDÆ, ii. 518
+
+  _Auriparus_, ii. 266
+
+  Australia, physical features of, i. 387
+
+  Australia and S. America, supposed land connection between, i. 398
+
+  Australian region, description of, i. 387
+    zoological characteristics of, i. 390
+    mammalia of, i. 390
+    birds of, i. 391
+    reptiles of, i. 396
+    amphibia of, i. 397
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 397
+    summary of vertebrata of, i. 397
+    supposed land-connection of with S. America, i. 398
+    insects of, i. 403
+    lepidoptera of, i. 404
+    coleoptera of, i. 405
+    land-shells of, i. 407
+    sub-regions of, i. 408
+    early history of, i. 465
+
+  Australian sub-region, mammalia of, i. 438
+    illustration of mammalia of, i. 439
+    birds of, i. 440
+    illustration of fauna of, i. 441
+
+  Australian hedgehog, ii. 254
+
+  Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features of, i. 388
+    zoology of, i. 409
+
+  _Automolus_, ii. 103
+
+  AVICULIDÆ, ii. 533
+
+  _Avocettula_, ii. 107
+
+  _Avocettinus_, ii. 108
+
+  Aye-aye, figure of, i. 278
+    ii. 177
+
+  _Axiocerces_, ii. 477
+
+  Azores, visited by European birds, i. 17
+    birds of, i. 207
+    butterflies of, i. 207
+    beetles of, i. 207, 209
+    peculiarly modified birds of, i. 207
+    stragglers to, i. 208
+    how stocked with animal life, i. 208
+
+  B.
+
+  Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428
+
+  _Babirusa_, ii. 215
+
+  Badger, figure of, i. 195
+
+  _Badis_, ii. 433
+
+  _Bæotis_, ii. 475
+
+  _Bagarius_, ii. 443
+
+  _Bagrichthys_, ii. 442
+
+  _Bagroides_, ii. 442
+
+  _Bagrus_, ii. 442
+
+  Baird, Professor, on fauna of Cape St. Lucas ii. 130
+    on representative birds of United States, ii. 180
+
+  _Balæna_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    ii. 207
+
+  _Balæniceps_, ii. 360
+
+  BALÆNIDÆ, ii. 207
+
+  _Balænodon_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+
+  _Balænoptera_, ii. 207
+
+  _Balænopteridæ_, ii. 207
+
+  _Balea_, ii. 516
+
+  _Balearica_, ii. 357
+
+  Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, i. 230
+
+  Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a problem in distribution, i.
+      356
+
+  Band-fish, ii. 435
+
+  Bandicoots, ii. 250
+
+  _Barangia_, ii. 199
+
+  _Barbatula_, ii. 306
+
+  Barbets, ii. 305
+
+  _Barbichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  _Barbus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Barilius_, ii. 452
+
+  _Barissia_, ii. 392
+
+  Barriers, as affecting distribution, i. 6
+    permanence of, as affecting distribution, i. 7
+    to the dispersal of birds, i. 17
+
+  _Baryphthengus_, ii. 313
+
+  _Barypus_, ii. 492
+
+  _Basileuterus_, ii. 279
+
+  _Basilornis_, ii. 287
+
+  _Bassaris_, ii. 200
+
+  _Batara_, ii. 104
+
+  Bates, Mr., on Carabidæ of Japan, i. 228
+    on Longicorns of Japan, i. 230
+
+  _Bathmodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Bathrodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Bathyerges_, ii. 231
+
+  BATOIDEI, ii. 462
+
+  BATRACHIDÆ, ii. 431
+
+  _Batrachocephalus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Batrachoseps_, ii. 413
+
+  _Batrachostomus_, ii. 318
+
+  Bats, powers of flight of, i. 15
+    classification of, i. 87
+    of New Zealand, i. 450
+
+  _Baucis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Baza_, ii. 349
+
+  _Bdeogale_, ii. 195
+
+  Bearded Reedling, ii. 262
+
+  Bears, probable cause of absence of, from tropical Africa, i. 291
+    ii. 201
+
+  Beaver, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+
+  Beavers, ii. 234
+
+  Bee-eaters, ii. 312
+
+  Beetles, families selected for study, i. 103
+    from the Lias, i. 167
+    of Azores, i. 207
+    of Japan, i. 228
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 44
+
+  BELEMNITIDÆ, ii. 506
+
+  _Belemnoziphius_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+
+  _Belideus_, ii. 252
+
+  _Belionota_, ii. 497
+
+  _Belodontichthys_, ii. 441
+
+  _Belone_, ii. 450
+
+  _Belonesox_, ii. 450
+
+  Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake during the glacial epoch,
+      i. 218; ii. 206
+    on change of climate caused by diminution of obliquity of ecliptic, i.
+      466
+
+  _Beluga_, ii. 209
+
+  _Bembecidium_, ii. 489
+
+  _Berardius_, ii. 208
+
+  _Berenicornis_, ii. 317
+
+  Bermudas, zoology of, ii. 134
+
+  _Bernicla_, ii. 363
+
+  _Bernieria_, ii. 258
+
+  BERYCIDÆ, ii. 424
+
+  _Bessonornis_, ii. 256
+
+  _Bettongia_, ii. 251
+
+  _Bhringa_, ii. 269
+
+  _Bhutanitis_, ii. 479
+
+  _Bias_, ii. 270
+
+  _Biatas_, ii. 104
+
+  _Bibos_, ii. 222
+
+  _Bison_, ii. 222, 225
+
+  Binney, Mr., on Air-breathing Molluscs of N. America, ii. 528
+
+  Birds, means of dispersal of, i. 15
+    dispersal of by winds, i. 16
+    American, found in Europe, i. 16
+    reaching the Azores, i. 17
+    barriers to dispersal of, i. 17
+    limited by forests, i. 17
+    classification of, i. 93
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    extinct, i. 160
+    fossil of Palæarctic region, i. 161
+    European of Miocene period, i. 161
+    Eocene of Europe, i. 162
+    relations of, i. 162
+    extinct of North America, i. 163
+    recently extinct in New Zealand, i. 164
+    Cretaceous of N. America, i. 164
+    remains of in Brazilian caves, i. 164
+    recently extinct in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 164
+    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
+    numerous Palæarctic genera, i. 183
+    of the European sub-region, i. 193
+    northern range of in Europe, i. 193
+    of the zone of pine forests, i. 194
+    of Iceland, i. 198
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 203
+    of Malta, i. 206 (_note_)
+    of the Azores, i. 207
+    of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
+    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 219
+    Oriental found in Siberia, i. 219
+    extreme northern Asiatic, i. 219
+    of northern Asiatic forests, i. 220
+    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 223
+    Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian
+    sub-region, i. 224
+    Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian
+    sub-region, i. 224
+    characteristic of N.W. China and Mongolia, i. 226
+    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 235
+    of West Africa, i. 243
+    list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 243
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 253
+    of the East African sub-region, i. 260
+    S. African, i. 267
+    genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, i. 275
+    common to Madagascar and Oriental or Ethiopian regions, i. 276
+    species common to Madagascar and Africa or Asia, i. 277
+    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 295
+    table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306
+    of the Oriental region, i. 316
+    of the Indian sub-region, i. 323
+    Oriental genera of in Central India, i. 324
+    Palæarctic and Ethiopian genera in Central India, i. 325
+    of Ceylon, i. 327
+    of the Indo-Chinese sub region, i. 330
+    of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 337
+    illustration of peculiar Malayan, i. 339
+    of the Philippine Islands, i. 346
+    table of Oriental families of, i. 366
+    table of Oriental genera of, i. 375
+    of Australian region, i. 391
+    specially organized Australian families of, i. 392
+    of the Papuan Islands, i. 410
+    peculiarities of, i. 413
+    brilliant colours of, i. 413
+    remarkable forms of, i. 414
+    of the Moluccas, i. 418
+    peculiarities of, i. 421
+    of the Timor group, i. 423
+    of Celebes, i. 428
+    of Australia, i. 440
+    of New Zealand, i. 451
+    peculiar to New Zealand, i. 452
+    of Norfolk Island, i. 453
+    of Lord Howe's Island, i. 453
+    of the Chatham Islands, i. 454
+    of the Auckland Islands, i. 455
+    table of families of Australian, i. 471
+    table of genera of Australian, i. 478
+    of the Neotropical region, ii. 6
+    distinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 7
+    of the Mexican sub region, ii. 52
+    of the Antilles, ii. 64
+    table of distribution of, ii. 68
+    table of families of Neotropical, ii. 86
+    table of genera of Neotropical, ii. 86
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 116
+    list of typical genera of, ii. 118
+    of California, ii. 127
+    of Central N. America, ii. 130
+    of Eastern United States, ii. 132
+    of Canada, ii. 136
+    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 141
+    table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 148
+    and Mammals, parallelism of distribution of, ii. 545
+    lines of migration of, ii. 545
+    peculiar development of, in islands, ii. 546
+    contrast of distribution in tropical and
+    temperate oceanic islands, ii. 546
+
+  _Biziura_ , ii. 364
+
+  _Blacicus_, ii. 102
+
+  Black ape of Celebes, i. 427
+
+  Bland, Mr. Thomas, on Antillean land-shells, ii. 19
+    ii. 526
+
+  Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the "Indian" region, i. 60
+    on relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, i. 321
+
+  _Blapsidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167
+
+  _Blarina_, ii. 191
+
+  _Blauneria_, ii. 519
+
+  BLENNIDÆ, ii. 431
+
+  _Blenniops_, ii. 431
+
+  _Blennius_, ii. 431
+
+  _Blethisa_, ii. 489
+
+  Blind burrowing snakes, ii. 372
+
+  Blunt-heads, ii. 380
+
+  Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 60
+    on the relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, i. 321
+
+  _Boa_, ii. 381
+
+  _Boædon_, ii. 380
+
+  Boas, ii. 381
+
+  _Bola_, ii. 452
+
+  _Bolborhynchus_, ii. 328
+
+  _Boleosoma_, ii. 425
+
+  BOMBINATORIDÆ, ii. 416
+
+  _Bombinator_, ii. 417
+
+  _Bonasa_, ii. 339
+
+  Bonnet-limpets, ii. 511
+
+  Bony Pikes, ii. 459
+
+  _Bootherium_, ii. 225
+
+  Borneo, probable recent changes in, i. 357
+
+  _Bos_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    ii. 222, 225
+
+  _Botaurus_, ii. 359
+
+  _Bothriodon_, ii. 215
+
+  _Botia_, ii. 453
+
+  Bourbon, zoology of, i. 280
+    reptiles of, i. 281
+
+  _Bourcieria_, ii. 108
+    ii. 521
+
+  _Bovidæ_, European Miocene, i. 120
+
+  BOVIDÆ, ii. 221
+
+  BOVINÆ, ii. 222
+
+  _Brachinus_, ii. 489
+
+  BRACHIOPODA, ii. 532
+
+  _Brachiurophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Brachiurus_, ii. 175
+
+  _Brachyalestes_, ii. 445
+
+  _Brachycephalus_, ii. 414
+
+  _Brachygalba_, ii. 311
+
+  _Brachylophus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Brachymeles_, ii. 397
+
+  _Brachymerus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Brachymys_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 232
+    ii. 236
+
+  _Brachymystax_, ii. 447
+
+  _Brachypteryx_, ii. 256
+
+  _Brachypternus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Brachytarsomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Brachypteracias_, ii. 312
+
+  _Brachyrhamphus_, ii. 367
+
+  _Bradybates_, ii. 413
+
+  _Bradycellus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Bradyornis_, ii. 271
+
+  BRADYPODIDÆ, ii. 244
+
+  _Bradyptetus_, ii. 258
+
+  _Bradypus_, ii. 244
+
+  _Bradytus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Brama_, ii. 429
+
+  _Bramatherium_, Miocene of Perim Island, i. 122
+    ii. 226
+
+  _Branchiosteus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Branta_, ii. 364
+
+  BRASSOLIDÆ, ii. 472
+
+  _Brassolis_, ii. 472
+
+  Brazilian cave-fauna, i. 143
+    remarks on, i. 145
+
+  Brazilian sub-region, description of, ii. 21
+    mammalia of, ii. 23
+    birds of, ii. 24
+    illustration of mammalia of, ii. 23
+    illustration of birds of, ii. 28
+    islands of, ii. 29
+
+  _Breviceps_, ii. 416
+
+  _Breyeria borinensis_, Carboniferous insect, i. 168
+
+  Britain, peculiar species in, i. 197
+
+  British Isles, zoology of, i. 197
+
+  Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, i. 340
+
+  Broad-bills, ii. 294
+
+  _Bronchocela_, ii. 402
+
+  _Brontes_, ii. 444
+
+  _Brontotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  _Brontotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  _Brotogerys_, ii. 328
+
+  Brush-turkeys, ii. 341
+
+  _Brycon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Bryconops_, ii. 445
+
+  _Bryttus_, ii. 425
+
+  _Buarremon_, ii. 99
+
+  _Bubalus_, ii. 222
+
+  _Bubo_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 350
+
+  BUCCINIDÆ, ii. 507
+
+  _Buccinum_, ii. 507
+
+  _Bucco_, ii. 310
+
+  BUCCONIIDÆ, ii. 310
+
+  _Bucephala_, ii. 364
+
+  _Bucephalus_, ii. 379
+
+  _Buceros_, ii. 317
+
+  BUCEROTIDÆ, ii. 316
+
+  _Bucorvus_, ii. 317
+
+  _Budorcas_, ii. 224
+
+  BUDORCINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Budytes_, ii. 290
+
+  Buffaloes, ii. 221
+
+  _Bufo_, ii. 415
+
+  BUFONIDÆ, ii. 415
+
+  _Bulbuls_, ii. 267
+
+  BULLIDÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Buliminus_, ii. 514
+
+  _Bulimulus_, ii. 514
+
+  _Bulimus_, Eocene, i. 169
+    ii. 514, 523
+
+  _Bunælurus_, N American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Bungarus_, ii. 383
+
+  _Bungia_, ii. 452
+
+  _Bunocephalichthys_, ii. 444
+
+  _Bunocephalus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Buphaga_, ii. 288
+
+  BUPRESTIDÆ, ii. 495
+
+  _Buprestidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167
+
+  _Busarellus_, ii. 348
+
+  Bush-shrikes, ii. 297
+
+  Bustards, ii. 356
+
+  _Butalis_, ii. 270
+
+  _Butastur_, ii. 348
+
+  _Buteo_, ii. 348
+
+  _Buteogallus_, ii. 348
+
+  BUTEONINÆ, ii. 348
+
+  _Buteola_, ii. 348
+
+  _Buthraupis_, ii. 98
+
+  Butterflies, arrangement of, i. 103
+    Palæarctic, i. 187
+    of Central Europe, i. 196
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
+    of Azores, i. 207
+    peculiar to Siberian sub-region, i. 220
+    of Japan and North China, i. 227
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
+    number of Ethiopian species, i. 256
+    of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342
+    of the Australian region, i. 404
+    of the Austro-Malay sub-region, i. 404
+    of the Moluccas, i. 419
+    of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 434
+    of New Zealand, i. 457
+    ii. 470
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 483
+    fossil, ii. 486
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 43
+
+  _Bycanistes_, ii. 317
+
+  C.
+
+  _Cabalus_, ii. 352
+
+  _Cabrita_, ii. 391
+
+  _Cacatua_, ii. 325
+
+  CACATUIDÆ, ii. 324
+
+  _Caccabis_, ii. 339
+
+  _Cachius_, ii. 453
+
+  _Cacomantis_, ii. 309
+
+  _Cacophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Cacopitta_, ii. 261
+
+  _Cacopus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Cacotus_, ii. 417
+
+  _Cactornis_, ii. 284
+
+  _Cadurcotherium_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Cæcilia_, ii. 411
+
+  CÆCILIADÆ, ii. 411
+
+  _Cæcum_, ii. 509
+
+  _Cælodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+
+  _Cælogenys_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 241
+
+  _Cænopithecus_, European Eocene, i. 124
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Cæntropus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Cainotherium_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Cairina_, ii. 364
+
+  _Caica_, ii. 328
+
+  _Calamanthus_, ii. 258
+
+  _Calamaria_, ii. 374
+
+  CALAMARIIDÆ, ii. 374
+
+  _Calamodon_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Calamodus_, ii. 258
+
+  CALAMOHERPINÆ, ii. 287
+
+  _Calamoichthys_, ii. 458
+
+  _Calamospiza_, ii. 285
+
+  _Calandrella_, ii. 289
+
+  _Calao_, ii. 317
+
+  _Calathus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Caledonica_, ii. 487
+
+  _Calendula_, ii. 289
+
+  _Calicalicus_, ii. 271
+
+  _Calictis_, ii. 195
+
+  _Calidris_, ii. 353
+
+  _Caliecthrus_, ii. 309
+
+  California, illustration of zoology of, ii. 128
+
+  Californian sub-region, ii. 127
+    mammalia of, ii. 127
+    birds of, ii. 127
+    reptiles of, ii. 128
+    amphibia of, ii. 128
+    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 128
+
+  _Caligo_, ii. 472
+
+  _Calinaga_, ii. 479
+
+  _Calisto_, ii. 471
+
+  _Callæas_, ii. 287
+
+  _Callia_, ii. 521
+
+  _Callichroma_, ii. 501
+
+  _Callichrous_, ii. 442
+
+  _Callichthys_, ii. 444
+
+  _Callida_, ii. 490
+
+  _Callidryas_, ii. 478
+
+  _Callionymus_, ii. 430
+
+  _Calliope_, ii. 259
+
+  _Callipepla_, ii. 339
+
+  _Calliperidia_, ii. 108
+
+  _Calliphlox_, ii. 198
+
+  _Callirhynus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Callisaurus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Calliste_, ii. 98
+
+  _Callisthenus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Callithea_, ii. 474
+
+  _Callithrix_, in Brazilian caves, i. 184
+    ii. 175
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Callocephalus_, ii. 204
+
+  _Callochen_, ii. 363
+
+  _Callomystax_, ii. 443
+
+  _Callophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Callophysus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Callopistes_, ii. 390
+
+  _Callorhinus_, ii. 202
+
+  _Calloselasma_, ii. 385
+
+  _Callosune_, ii. 478
+
+  _Callula_, ii. 416
+
+  _Calobates_, ii. 290
+
+  _Calocitta_, ii. 273
+
+  _Calodromas_, ii. 344
+
+  _Caloenas_, ii. 333
+
+  _Caloperdix_, ii. 339
+
+  _Calophena_, ii. 490
+
+  _Calopsitta_, ii. 325
+
+  _Caloragia_, ii. 375
+
+  _Calorhamphus_, ii. 306
+
+  _Calornis_, ii. 288
+
+  _Calosoma_, ii. 489
+
+  _Calostethus_, ii. 419
+
+  _Calotes_, ii. 402
+
+  _Calothorax_, ii. 108
+
+  _Calydna_, ii. 476
+
+  _Calypte_, ii. 108
+
+  _Calyptocephalus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Calyptomena_, ii. 295
+
+  _Calyptorhynchus_, ii. 325
+
+  CALYPTRÆIDÆ, ii. 511
+
+  _Calyptura_, ii. 102
+
+  _Camarhynchus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Camaroptera_, ii. 258
+
+  Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
+    Palæarctic, i. 182
+
+  _Camelidæ_, essentially extra-tropical, i. 112
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  CAMELIDÆ, ii. 216
+
+  CAMELOPARDALIDÆ, ii. 221
+
+  _Camelopardalis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    ii. 221
+
+  _Camelotherium_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 217
+
+  Camels, ii. 216
+
+  _Camelus_, ii. 216
+
+  _Camena_, ii. 477
+
+  _Campephaga_, ii. 269
+
+  CAMPEPHAGIDÆ, ii. 268
+
+  _Campephilus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Campsiempis_, ii. 101
+
+  _Camptolaimus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Campylopterus_, ii. 107
+
+  _Campylorhynchus_, ii. 264
+
+  Canadian sub-region, mammalia of, ii. 135
+    birds of, ii. 136
+    reptiles and fishes of, ii. 137
+    insects of, ii. 137
+
+  Canaries, birds of, i. 208
+    beetles of, i. 209
+
+  _Cancroma_, ii. 359
+
+  _Canidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+    remarkable S. African, i. 267
+
+  CANIDÆ, ii. 197
+
+  _Canis_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 134, 135
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+    ii. 197
+
+  _Cantharus_, ii. 427
+
+  _Cantoria_, ii. 376
+
+  Cape Ant-eater, ii. 246
+
+  Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and fauna of, i. 266
+
+  Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, i. 214
+
+  Cape-hare, S. African, i. 267
+
+  _Capito_, ii. 306
+
+  CAPITONINÆ, ii. 306
+
+  _Capoeta_, ii. 451
+
+  _Capra_, ii. 224, 225
+
+  _Capreolus_, ii. 219
+
+  CAPRIMULGIDÆ, ii. 319
+
+  _Caprimulgus_, ii. 319
+
+  CAPRINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Capromys_, ii. 238
+
+  _Capys_, ii. 477
+
+  CARABIDÆ, ii. 488
+
+  _Carabus_, ii. 488
+    ii. 489
+
+  CARANGIDÆ, ii. 429
+
+  _Carassius_, ii. 451
+
+  CARCHARIIDÆ, ii. 460
+
+  _Carcineutes_, ii. 316
+
+  _Cardellina_, ii. 279
+
+  CARDIADÆ, ii. 535
+
+  _Cardinalis_, ii. 285
+
+  _Cardiodus_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Cardiopthalmus_, ii. 492
+
+  _Cardita_, ii. 535
+
+  _Carenum_, ii. 490
+
+  _Cariama_, Brazilian caves, i. 164
+    ii. 357
+
+  CARIAMIDÆ, ii. 357
+
+  _Caridonax_, ii. 316
+
+  _Carlia_, ii. 397
+
+  _Carnivora_ of European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  Carnivora, classification of, i. 88
+    antiquity of, i. 153
+    of the Palæarctic region, i. 182
+    list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 240
+    list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 302
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 373
+    list of Australian genera of, i. 476
+
+  CARNIVORA, ii. 192
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 204
+    range of, in time, ii. 206
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 541
+
+  Caroline Islands, birds of, i. 444
+
+  Carpenter, Dr. Philip, on Panama shells, ii. 20
+
+  _Carpiodes_, ii. 451
+
+  _Carpococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Carpodacus_, ii. 285
+
+  _Carpodectes_, ii. 102, 294
+
+  _Carpophaga_, ii. 332
+
+  _Carterodon_ in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 239
+
+  Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of animals, i. 85
+    Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, i. 88
+
+  _Carychium_, ii. 519
+
+  _Casarca_, ii. 363
+
+  _Cascelius_, ii. 492
+
+  _Casiornis_, ii. 102, 293
+
+  _Casoryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 225
+
+  _Casnonia_, ii. 489
+
+  _Cassiculus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Cassicus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Cassidaria_, ii. 507
+
+  _Cassidix_, ii. 283
+
+  _Cassinia_, ii. 270
+
+  Cassowaries, ii. 368
+
+  _Castalia_, ii. 534
+
+  _Castnia_, ii. 481
+
+  CASTNIIDÆ, ii. 481
+
+  _Castor_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 234
+
+  CASTORIDÆ, ii. 234
+
+  _Castoroides_, ii. 234
+
+  _Casuarius_, ii. 369
+
+  CASUARIIDÆ, ii. 368
+
+  _Catadromus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Catagramma_, ii. 474
+
+  _Catamblyrhynchus_, ii. 285
+
+  _Catamenia_, ii. 285
+
+  _Catascopus_, ii. 489
+    ii. 491
+
+  _Cataulus_, ii. 520
+
+  _Catharistes_, ii. 346
+
+  _Cathartes_, Brazilian caves, i. 124
+    ii. 346
+
+  _Catharus_, ii. 256
+
+  _Catherpes_, ii. 264
+
+  _Catla_, ii. 451
+
+  _Catoblepas_, ii. 224
+
+  _Catodon_, ii. 208
+
+  _Catodontidæ_, ii. 207
+
+  _Catopra_, ii. 433
+
+  _Catoprion_, ii. 446
+
+  _Catostomus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Catoxantha_, ii. 496
+
+  _Catriscus_, ii. 258
+
+  Cats, ii. 192
+
+  Cave-fauna of Brazil, i. 143
+
+  _Cavia_, European Miocene, i. 121
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 241
+
+  Cavies, ii. 241
+
+  CAVIIDÆ, ii. 241
+
+  CEBIDÆ, ii. 174
+
+  _Cebochoerus_, European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Cebus_ in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 174
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Cecina_, ii. 521
+
+  Celebes, physical features of, i. 389
+    mammalia of, i. 426
+    birds of, i. 428
+    insects of, i. 434
+    origin of fauna of, i. 436
+
+  _Celestus_, ii. 327
+
+  _Celeus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Celia_, ii. 489
+
+  _Cenchris_, ii. 385
+
+  _Centetes_, ii. 188
+
+  _Centetidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  CENTETIDÆ, ii. 188
+
+  _Centrarchus_, ii. 425
+
+  CENTRISCIDÆ, ii. 436
+
+  _Centriscus_, ii. 436
+
+  _Centrites_, ii. 101, 291
+
+  _Centrocercus_, ii. 339
+
+  _Centrolabrus_, ii. 437
+
+  _Centrolophus_, ii. 429
+
+  _Centromochlus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Centronotus_, ii. 431
+
+  _Centropus_, ii. 309
+
+  _Centronyx_, ii. 286
+
+  _Centropyx_, ii. 390
+
+  _Centurus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Cephalepis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Cephalopeltis_, ii. 389
+
+  CEPHALOPHINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Cephalophus_, ii. 224
+
+  CEPHALOPODA, ii. 505
+
+  _Cephalopterus_, ii. 103, 294
+
+  _Cephalopyrus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Cepola_, ii. 435
+
+  CEPOLIDÆ, ii. 435
+
+  CERAMBYCIDÆ, ii. 493
+
+  _Ceratichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  _Ceratina_, ii. 470
+
+  Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, i. 397
+
+  _Ceratodus_, ii. 458
+
+  _Ceratohyla_, ii. 418
+
+  _Ceratophora_, ii. 402
+
+  _Ceratophorus_, ii. 501
+
+  _Ceratophrys_, ii. 420
+
+  _Ceratoptera_, ii. 463
+
+  _Ceratorhina_, ii. 367
+
+  _Ceratorhinus_, ii. 213
+
+  _Ceratotherium_, ii. 213
+
+  _Cerberus_, ii. 376
+
+  _Cercaspis_, ii. 380
+
+  _Cerchneis_, ii. 349
+
+  _Cercocebus_, ii. 173
+
+  _Cercolabes_ in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 240
+
+  CERCOLABIDÆ, ii. 239
+
+  _Cercoleptes_, ii. 200
+
+  _Cercomacra_, ii. 104
+
+  _Cercomela_, ii. 260
+
+  _Cercomys_, ii. 239
+
+  _Cercopithecus_ in European Pliocene, i. 112
+    ii. 173
+
+  _Cercosaura_, ii. 394
+
+  CERCOSAURIDÆ, ii. 394
+
+  _Cereopsis_, ii. 363
+
+  _Ceriornis_, ii. 340
+
+  CERITHIADÆ, ii. 509
+
+  _Certhia_, ii. 264
+
+  _Certhidea_, ii. 278
+
+  CERTHIADÆ, ii. 264
+
+  _Certhilauda_, ii. 289
+
+  _Certhiola_, ii. 278
+
+  _Certhiparus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Cervicapra_, ii. 224
+
+  CERVICAPRINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Cervidæ_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
+
+  CERVIDÆ, ii. 218
+
+  _Cervulus_, ii. 219
+
+  _Cervus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Indian Pliocene and Miocene, i. 122
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 219
+
+  _Ceryle_, ii. 316
+
+  CESTRACIONTIDÆ, ii. 461
+
+  _Cetacea_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Miocene, i. 119
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+
+  Cetacea, classification of, i. 89
+    range of Oriental genus, i. 374
+
+  CETACEA, ii. 207
+
+  _Cethosia_, ii. 474
+
+  CETONIIDÆ, ii. 494
+
+  _Cetopsis_, ii. 443
+
+  _Cettia_, ii. 258
+
+  _Ceuthmochares_, ii. 309
+
+  _Ceycopsis_, ii. 316
+
+  Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, i. 327
+
+  Ceylonese sub-region, i. 326
+    mammalia of, i. 327
+    birds of, i. 327
+    reptiles of, i. 327
+    amphibia of, i. 327
+    insects of, i. 327
+    past history of, as indicated by its fauna. i. 328
+
+  _Ceyx_, ii. 316
+
+  _Chaca_, ii. 441
+
+  _Chæmarrhornis_, ii. 259
+
+  _Chæmepelia_, ii. 333
+
+  _Chærocampa_, ii. 482
+
+  _Chætobranchus_, ii. 439
+
+  _Chætocercus_, ii. 108
+    ii. 249
+
+  _Chætodon_, ii. 427
+
+  _Chætomys_, ii. 240
+
+  _Chætops_, ii. 256
+
+  _Chætoptila_, ii. 276
+
+  _Chætorhynchus_, ii. 269
+
+  _Chætostomus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Chætura_, ii. 320
+
+  _Chætusia_, ii. 356
+
+  _Chalceus_, ii. 445
+
+  CHALCIDÆ, ii. 393
+
+  _Chalcinopsis_, ii. 445
+
+  _Chalcinus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Chalcis_, ii. 393
+
+  _Chalcochloris_, ii. 189
+
+  _Chalcopelia_, ii. 333
+
+  _Chalcophaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Chalcostetha_, ii. 276
+
+  _Chalicomys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+
+  _Chalicotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    fossil in N. China, i. 123
+
+  _Chamæleo_, N. American Eocene, i. 165
+
+  _Chalybura_, ii. 107
+
+  _Chamæa_, ii. 264
+
+  CHAMÆIDÆ, ii. 264
+
+  CHAMÆLEONIDÆ, ii. 402
+
+  Chamæleons, ii. 402
+
+  _Chamæpetes_, ii. 343
+
+  _Chamæospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Chamæsaura_, ii. 394
+
+  CHAMÆSAURIDÆ, ii. 394
+
+  _Chamæza_, ii. 104
+
+  CHAMIDÆ, ii. 534
+
+  Chamois, figure of, i. 195
+    ii. 224
+
+  _Chamostrea_, ii. 536
+
+  _Chanodichthys_, ii. 453
+
+  CHARACINIDÆ, ii. 444
+
+  _Characodon_, ii. 450
+
+  CHARADRIIDÆ, ii. 355
+
+  _Charadrius_, ii. 356
+
+  _Charina_, ii. 373
+
+  _Charis_, ii. 476
+
+  _Charitornis_, ii. 274
+
+  _Charmosyna_, ii. 327
+
+  _Chasiempis_, ii. 271
+
+  _Chasmodes_, ii. 431
+
+  _Chasmorhynchus_, ii. 103, 294
+
+  _Chatarrhæa_, ii. 261
+
+  Chatham Islands, birds of, i. 454
+
+  Chatterers, ii. 293
+
+  _Chaulelasmus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Chauna_, ii. 361
+
+  _Chaunonotus_, ii. 272
+
+  _Chaunoproctus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Chela_, ii. 453
+
+  _Chelemys_, ii. 408
+
+  _Chelidon_, ii. 281
+
+  _Chelidoptera_, ii. 311
+
+  _Chelidorynx_, ii. 271
+
+  _Chelodina_, ii. 408
+
+  _Chelomeles_ ii. 397
+
+  _Chelone_, ii. 409
+
+  Chelonia, classification of, i. 100
+
+  CHELONIA, ii. 407
+    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 410
+    fossil, ii. 410
+
+  CHELONIIDÆ, ii. 409
+
+  CHELYDIDÆ, ii. 408
+
+  _Chelydobatrachus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Chelydra_, European Pliocene, i. 165
+    ii. 408
+
+  _Chelys_, ii. 408
+
+  _Chenalopex_, ii. 363
+
+  _Chera_, ii. 286
+
+  _Chersina_, ii. 408
+
+  _Chersydrus_, ii. 382
+
+  Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, i. 336
+
+  Chevrotains, ii. 218
+
+  _Chiamela_, ii. 397
+
+  _Chiasognathus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Chibia_, ii. 269
+
+  _Chilabothrus_, ii. 381
+
+  Chili should not be placed in the Palæarctic or Nearctic regions, i. 63
+
+  Chili and Temperate S. America, distribution of Carabidæ in, ii. 492
+
+  Chilian Andes, illustration of zoology of, ii. 40
+
+  Chilian sub-region, ii. 36
+    mammalia of, ii. 36
+    birds of, ii. 37
+    illustration of zoology of, ii. 40
+    reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 40
+    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 42
+    insects of, ii. 42
+    origin and migrations of insects of, ii. 47
+
+  Chili, islands of, ii. 49
+
+  _Chilinia_, ii. 518
+
+  _Chilobranchus_, ii. 456
+
+  _Chilomeniscus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Chimæra_, ii. 460
+
+  CHIMÆRIDÆ, ii. 460
+
+  China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of Indian and European
+      Miocene, i. 362
+    North, mammalia of, i. 222
+
+  _Chinchilla_, ii. 237
+
+  _Chinchillidæ_ in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
+
+  CHINCHILLIDÆ, ii. 237
+
+  _Chioglossa_, ii. 413
+
+  _Chionabas_, ii. 471
+
+  CHIONIDIDÆ, ii. 354
+
+  _Chionis_, ii. 354
+
+  CHIROCENTRIDÆ, ii. 454
+
+  CHIROCOLIDÆ, ii. 393
+
+  _Chirodon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Chirodryas_, ii. 418
+
+  _Chirogaleus_, ii. 176
+
+  _Chiroleptes_, ii. 421
+
+  _Chiromachæris_, ii. 102, 292
+
+  _Chiromantis_, ii. 419
+
+  CHIROMYIDÆ, ii. 177
+
+  _Chironectes_, ii. 248
+
+  Chiroptera, classification of, i. 87
+    list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
+    list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
+    list of Australian genera of, i. 475
+
+  _Chiroptera_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  CHIROPTERA, ii. 181
+    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 185
+    fossil, ii. 185
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 441
+
+  _Chirotes_, ii. 388
+
+  CHIROTIDÆ, ii. 388
+
+  _Chiroxiphia_, ii. 102, 292
+
+  CHITONIDÆ, ii. 512
+
+  _Chittya_, ii. 519
+
+  _Chlænius_, ii. 489
+
+  _Chlamydodera_, ii. 275
+
+  _Chlamydophorus_, ii. 246
+
+  _Chlamydotherium_, ii. 246
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+
+  _Chlenasicus_, ii. 262
+
+  _Chloëphaga_, ii. 363
+
+  _Chlorochrysa_, ii. 98
+    ii. 99
+
+  _Chloronerpes_, ii. 303
+
+  _Chlorophanes_, ii. 278
+
+  _Chlorophonia_, ii. 98
+    ii. 99
+
+  _Chloropipo_, ii. 102
+
+  _Chlorospiza_, ii. 283
+
+  _Chlorospingus_, ii. 99
+    ii. 100
+
+  _Chlorostilbon_, ii. 109
+
+  _Choanomphalus_, ii. 518
+
+  _Choanopoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Choeromorus_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  _Choeropotamus_, European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Choeropus_, ii. 250
+
+  _Choerotherium_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+
+  _Cholæpus_, ii. 244
+
+  _Chologastes_, ii. 450
+
+  _Cholornis_, ii. 262
+
+  _Chondestes_, ii. 285
+
+  _Chondropoma_, ii. 521
+
+  CHONDROPTERYGII, ii. 46
+
+  CHONDROSTEI, ii. 459
+
+  _Chondrostoma_, ii. 452
+
+  _Choneziphius_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+
+  _Chordeiles_, ii. 320
+
+  Chough, Alpine, figure of, i. 195
+
+  Choughs, ii. 274
+
+  CHROMIDÆ, ii. 438
+
+  _Chromis_, ii. 438
+
+  _Chrysichthys_, ii. 442
+
+  _Chrysobronchus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Chrysococcyx_, ii. 310
+
+  CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ, ii. 189
+
+  _Chrysochloris_, ii. 189
+
+  _Chrysocolaptes_, ii. 303
+
+  _Chrysocyon_, ii. 197
+
+  _Chrysolampis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Chrysomitris_, ii. 283
+
+  _Chrysopelea_, ii. 379
+
+  _Chrysophrys_, ii. 427
+
+  _Chrysoptilus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Chrysothrix_, ii. 175
+
+  _Chrysotis_, ii. 328
+
+  _Chrysuronia_, ii. 109
+
+  _Chthonicola_, ii. 258
+
+  _Ciccaba_, ii. 350
+
+  _Cichla_, ii. 439
+
+  _Cichladusa_, ii. 261
+
+  _Cichlopsis_, ii. 260
+
+  _Cicigna_, ii. 392
+
+  _Cicindela_, ii. 486
+
+  CICINDELIDÆ, ii. 486
+
+  _Cicinnurus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Ciconia_, ii. 360
+
+  _Ciconiidæ_, ii. 360
+
+  CINCLIDÆ, ii. 262
+
+  _Cinclocerthia_, ii. 256
+
+  _Cinclodes_, ii. 103
+
+  _Cinclorhamphus_, ii. 260
+
+  _Cinclosoma,_ ii. 261
+
+  _Cinclus_, ii. 263
+
+  _Cinnicerthia_, ii. 264
+
+  _Cinnyricinclus_, ii. 276
+    ii. 288
+
+  _Cinosternon_, ii. 408
+
+  _Cinyxis_, ii. 408
+
+  _Cionella_, ii. 515
+
+  _Circaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Circe_, ii. 109
+
+  Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, i. 67
+
+  _Circus_, ii. 347
+
+  _Cirrhina_, ii. 451
+
+  CIRRHITIDÆ, ii. 427
+
+  _Cirrhochroa_, ii. 474
+
+  CIRRHOSTOMI, ii. 464
+
+  _Cissa_, ii. 273
+
+  _Cissopis_, ii. 99
+
+  _Cisticola_, ii. 257
+
+  _Cistothorus_, ii. 263
+
+  _Cistula_, ii. 521
+
+  _Cithara_, ii. 508
+
+  _Citharinus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Cittura_, ii. 316
+
+  _Cladognathus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Clais_, ii. 108
+
+  Clam-shells, ii. 535
+
+  _Clarias_, ii. 441
+
+  _Clarotes_, ii. 442
+
+  Classification as affecting the study of distribution, i. 83
+
+  _Claudius_, ii. 408
+
+  _Clausilia_, Eocene, i. 169
+    ii. 514
+
+  _Clerome_, ii. 472
+
+  _Clibanornis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Climacteris_, ii. 265
+
+  Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia, i. 11
+    gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, i. 41
+
+  _Clinteria_, ii. 494
+
+  CLIONIDÆ, ii. 531
+
+  _Clostophis_, ii. 520
+
+  _Clupea_, ii. 454
+
+  CLUPEIDÆ, ii. 454
+
+  _Clymenia_, ii. 209
+
+  _Clypeicterus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Clytoctantes_, ii. 104
+
+  _Clytolæna_, ii. 108
+
+  _Clytus_, ii. 501
+
+  _Cnidoglanis_, ii. 441
+
+  _Cnipodectes_, ii. 101
+
+  _Cnipolegus_, ii. 101, 291
+
+  _Cobitis_, ii. 453
+
+  Cobras, ii. 382
+
+  _Coccothraustes_, ii. 284
+
+  _Coccygus_, ii. 309
+
+  _Coccystes_, ii. 310
+
+  _Cochlognathus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Cochlostyla_, ii. 514
+
+  _Cochlothraustes_, ii. 309
+
+  _Cochoa_, ii. 269
+
+  Cockatoos, ii. 324
+
+  Cockles, ii. 535
+
+  Cocos Islands, bird of, ii. 60
+
+  _Cocytia_, ii. 481
+
+  _Coeligena_, ii. 107
+
+  _Coelodon_, ii. 245
+
+  _Coelonotus_, ii. 457
+
+  _Coelopeltis_, ii. 377
+
+  _Coelosterna_, ii. 501
+
+  _Coenonympha_, ii. 471
+
+  _Coereba_, ii. 278
+
+  COEREBIDÆ, ii. 278
+
+  _Cogia_, ii. 208
+
+  _Colaptes_, ii. 304
+
+  Coleoptera, families selected for study, i. 103
+    Palæarctic, i. 188
+    number of Palæarctic species, i. 189
+    of Central Europe, i. 196
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
+    of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 256
+    S. African, i. 268
+    of Madagascar, i. 282, 283
+    of the Oriental region, i. 319
+    of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342
+    of the Australian region, i. 405
+    affinity of Australian and South American, i. 406, 407
+    of Celebes, i. 435
+    of New Zealand, i. 457
+    of the Neotropical region, ii. 15
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 44
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 56
+    of the Antilles, ii. 74
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 123
+
+  COLEOPTERA, ii. 486
+    general observations on the distribution of, ii. 502 (_see also_
+      Beetles)
+
+  _Colias_, ii. 478
+
+  Colies, ii. 307
+
+  COLIIDÆ, ii. 307
+
+  _Colius_, ii. 307
+
+  _Coliuspasser_, ii. 286
+
+  _Collocalia_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 320
+
+  _Colluricincla_, ii. 272
+
+  _Collyris_, ii. 486, 487
+
+  _Colobus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 172
+
+  _Colænis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Colonoceras_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Colopterus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Colossochelys_ of Indian Miocene, i. 123, 165
+
+  _Colpodes_, ii. 489
+
+  _Coluber_, ii. 375
+
+  COLUBRIDÆ, ii. 375
+
+  COLUBRINÆ, ii. 375
+
+  Columbæ, classification of, i. 96
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 384
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 485
+
+  _Columba_, ii. 332
+
+  COLUMBÆ, ii. 331
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 335
+
+  COLUMBIDÆ, ii. 331
+
+  _Columbula_, ii. 333
+
+  _Columna_, ii. 516
+
+  COLYMBIDÆ, ii. 366
+
+  _Colymbus_, ii. 366
+
+  COMEPHORIDÆ, ii. 432
+
+  _Comephorus_, ii. 549
+
+  Comoro islands, zoology of, i. 281
+
+  _Compsosoma_, ii. 98, 375
+
+  CONCHIFERA, ii. 533
+
+  _Condylura_, ii. 190
+
+  Cones, ii. 508
+
+  _Conger_, ii. 456
+
+  CONIDÆ, ii. 508
+
+  _Conirostrum_, ii. 278
+
+  _Conognatha_, ii. 496
+
+  _Conophaga_, ii. 100
+
+  CONOPHAGINÆ, ii. 291
+
+  _Conophis_, ii. 375
+
+  _Conopias_, ii. 101
+
+  _Conorhynchus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Conostoma_, ii. 262
+
+  Continents, distribution of, i. 37
+    recent changes of, i. 38
+
+  Continental extension in Mesozoic times, i. 156
+
+  _Contopus_, ii. 102, 291
+
+  CONURIDÆ, ii. 327
+
+  _Conurus_, ii. 328
+
+  _Conus_, ii. 508
+
+  _Copea_, ii. 416
+
+  _Cophoscincus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Copidoglanis_, ii. 441
+
+  _Coptodera_, ii. 489, 492
+
+  _Copurus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Copsychus_, ii. 259
+
+  _Coracias_, ii. 311
+
+  CORACIIDÆ, ii. 311
+
+  _Coracopsis_, ii. 328
+
+  _Corades_, ii. 471
+
+  _Corallus_, ii. 381
+
+  _Corbis_, ii. 535
+
+  _Cordylosaurus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Cordylus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Coregonus_, ii. 447
+
+  _Coriphilus_, ii. 327
+
+  _Coris_, ii. 437
+
+  _Coronella_, ii. 375
+
+  CORONELLINÆ, ii. 375
+
+  _Coronis_, ii. 481
+
+  _Cornufer_, ii. 419
+
+  CORVIDÆ, ii. 272
+
+  _Corvina_, ii. 428
+
+  _Corvinella_, ii. 272
+
+  _Corvultur_, ii. 274
+
+  _Corvus_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 274
+
+  _Corydalla_, ii. 290
+
+  _Corydon_, ii. 295
+
+  _Corynopoma_, ii. 445
+
+  _Coryphistera_, ii. 103
+
+  _Coryphodon_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Coryphospingus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Corythaix_, ii. 307
+
+  _Corythopis_, ii. 100
+
+  _Corythornis_, ii. 316
+
+  _Cosmeteira_, ii. 277
+
+  _Cosmetornis_, ii. 320
+
+  Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, i. 175
+
+  _Cossypha_, ii. 256
+
+  _Cotinga_, ii. 102, 294
+
+  COTINGIDÆ, ii. 293
+
+  _Cottus_, ii. 428
+
+  _Coturniculus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Coturnix_, ii. 338
+
+  _Cotyle_, ii. 281
+
+  _Coua_, ii. 309
+
+  _Couchia_, ii. 439
+
+  Coues, Dr., on the blue crow of the Rocky Mountains, ii. 128
+
+  Coursers, ii. 355
+
+  Cowries, ii. 508
+
+  Coypu, ii. 238
+
+  CRACIDÆ, ii. 342
+
+  CRACINÆ, ii. 343
+
+  _Cracticus_, ii. 273
+
+  Cranes, ii. 357
+
+  CRANIADÆ, ii. 532
+
+  _Cranorrhinus_, ii. 317
+
+  _Craspedocephalus_, ii. 385
+
+  _Craspedopoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Crateropus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Crax_, ii. 343
+
+  _Creadion_, ii. 287
+
+  _Creagrus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Creagrutus_, ii. 445
+
+  Creepers, ii. 264
+
+  _Cremna_, ii. 475
+
+  _Crenicichla_, ii. 439
+
+  _Crenilabrus_, ii. 437
+
+  _Crenuchus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Creurgops_, ii. 99
+
+  _Cricetodon_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 230
+
+  _Cricetomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Cricetulus_, ii. 230
+
+  _Cricetus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    ii. 230
+
+  _Cricosoma_, ii. 476
+
+  _Crinia_, ii. 420
+
+  _Criniger_, ii. 267
+
+  _Crithagra_, ii. 285
+
+  _Crocidura_, ii. 191
+
+  Crocodiles, Eocene, i. 165
+    ii. 406
+    lines of migration of, ii. 548
+
+  Crocodilia, classification of, i. 100
+
+  CROCODILIA, ii. 405
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 406
+    fossil, ii. 407
+
+  CROCODILIDÆ, ii. 406
+
+  _Crocodilurus_ ii. 390
+
+  _Crocodilus_, ii. 406
+
+  Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, i. 456
+
+  _Crossarchus_, ii. 195
+
+  _Crossochilus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Crossodactylus_, ii. 419
+
+  _Crossoptilon_, ii. 340
+
+  _Crossopus_, ii. 191
+
+  CROTALIDÆ, ii. 384
+
+  _Crotalophorus_, ii. 385
+
+  _Crotalus_, ii. 385
+
+  Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, i. 209
+
+  _Crotophaga_, ii. 309
+
+  Crowned-pigeon, figure of, i. 415
+
+  Crows, ii. 273
+
+  _Crypsirhina_, ii. 273
+
+  _Cryptoblepharus_, ii. 395
+
+  _Cryptodacus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Cryptoprocta_, ii. 194
+
+  CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ, ii. 194
+
+  _Cryptopterus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Cryptornis_, European Eocene, i. 163
+
+  _Cryptotis_, ii. 421
+
+  _Crypturus_, ii. 344
+
+  _Ctenodactyla_, ii. 490
+
+  _Ctenodactylus_, ii. 238
+
+  _Ctenolabrus_, ii. 437
+
+  _Ctenomys_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 238
+
+  _Ctenopharyngodon_, ii. 452
+
+  _Ctenopoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Ctenostoma_, ii. 486
+
+  Cuba, extinct mammalia of, i. 148
+
+  _Curculionidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167
+
+  _Cubina_, ii. 400
+
+  CUCULIDÆ, ii. 308
+
+  _Cuculus_, ii. 309
+
+  Cuckoo-shrikes, ii. 268
+
+  Cuckoos, ii. 308
+
+  _Culter_, ii. 453
+
+  Cunningham, Professor, lizard discovered by, in Tierra-del-Fuego, ii. 41
+
+  _Cuniculus_, ii. 230
+
+  _Cuphopterus_, ii. 272
+
+  _Cupidonia_, ii. 339
+
+  Curassows, ii. 342
+
+  _Curæus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Curetis_, ii. 477
+
+  _Curimatus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Curruca_, ii. 259
+
+  _Cursoria_, ii. 382
+
+  _Cursorius_, ii. 355
+
+  _Cuscus_, ii. 252
+
+  _Custa_, ii. 390
+
+  _Cutia_, ii. 266
+
+  Cuttle fish, ii. 505
+
+  _Cyanecula_, ii. 259
+
+  _Cyanocorax_, ii. 273
+
+  _Cyanomyia_, ii. 109
+
+  _Cyanopica_, ii. 273
+
+  _Cyanoptila_, ii. 270
+
+  _Cyanorhamphus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Cyanospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Cyanotis_, ii. 101
+
+  _Cyanurus_, ii. 273
+
+  _Cybernetes_, ii. 101
+
+  _Cychloris_, ii. 280
+
+  _Cychrus_, ii. 489
+
+  CYCLADIDÆ, ii. 535
+
+  _Cyclas_, ii. 535
+
+  _Cyclocorus_, ii. 380
+
+  _Cycloderma_, ii. 409
+
+  _Cyclodina_, ii. 397
+
+  _Cyclodus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Cyclophis_, ii. 376
+
+  _Cyclophorus_, ii. 520
+
+  _Cyclopterus_, ii. 430
+
+  _Cyclopsitta_, ii. 326
+
+  _Cyclorhamphus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Cyclostoma_, Eocene, i. 169
+
+  CYCLOSTOMATA, ii. 463
+
+  CYCLOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 520
+
+  _Cyclostomus_, ii. 521
+
+  _Cyclothorus_, ii. 247
+
+  _Cyclotopsis_, ii. 521
+
+  _Cyclotus_, ii. 521
+
+  _Cyclusa_, ii. 401
+
+  _Cygnus_, ii. 363
+
+  _Cylindrella_, ii. 515
+
+  _Cylindrophis_, ii. 373
+
+  _Cyllo sepulta_, European Cretaceous, i. 167
+
+  _Cymba_, ii. 508
+
+  _Cymbilanius_, ii. 104
+
+  _Cymbirhynchus_, ii. 295
+
+  _Cymindis_, ii. 489
+
+  _Cynælurus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 193
+
+  _Cynanthus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Cynictis_, ii. 195
+
+  _Cynocephalus_, ii. 173
+
+  _Cynodictis_, ii. 198
+
+  _Cynodon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Cynogale_, ii. 195
+
+  CYNOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 172
+
+  Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, i. 427
+
+  _Cynopithecus_, ii. 173
+
+  _Cynomys_, ii. 235
+
+  _Cyornis_, ii. 270
+
+  _Cyotherium_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Cyphogastra_, ii. 496
+
+  _Cyphorhinus_, ii. 264
+
+  CYPRÆIDÆ, ii. 508
+
+  _Cyprina_, ii. 535
+
+  CYPRINIDÆ, ii. 451
+    ii. 535
+
+  _Cyprinus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Cyprinion_, ii. 452
+
+  _Cyprinodon_, ii. 450
+
+  CYPRINODONTIDÆ, ii. 450
+
+  CYPSELIDÆ, ii. 320
+
+  _Cypseloides_, ii. 320
+
+  _Cypselus_, ii. 320
+
+  _Cypsnagra_, ii. 99
+
+  _Cyrena_, ii. 535
+
+  _Cyrestis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Cyrtonotus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Cyrtonyx_, ii. 339
+
+  _Cyrtophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Cystignathus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Cystophora_, ii. 204
+
+  D.
+
+  _Dacelo_, ii. 316
+
+  _Dacnis_, ii. 278
+
+  _Dactylethra_, ii. 422
+
+  DACTYLETHRIDÆ, ii. 422
+
+  _Dactylomys_, ii. 239
+
+  _Dactylopsila_, ii. 249
+
+  _Dactylozodes_, ii. 496
+
+  _Dafila_, ii. 363
+
+  _Dama_, ii. 219
+
+  _Damias_, ii. 481
+
+  _Damophila_, ii. 109
+
+  DANAIDÆ, ii. 470
+
+  _Danais_, ii. 470
+
+  _Dangila_, ii. 451
+
+  _Danio_, ii. 452
+
+  _Daptophilus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  Darters, ii. 365
+
+  Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of the abundance of apterous
+      insects in Madeira, i. 211
+    on the relation of flowers and insects, i. 463
+    amphibia collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 41
+    mice collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 37
+    on physical geography of the Galapagos, ii. 33
+
+  _Dasia_, ii. 397
+
+  _Dasylophus_, ii. 309
+
+  _Dasyopthalma_, ii. 472
+
+  _Dasypeltis_, ii. 377
+
+  DASYPODIDÆ, ii. 245
+
+  _Dasyprocta_, European Miocene, i. 121
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 241
+
+  _Dasyptilus_, ii. 329
+
+  _Dasypus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 246
+
+  DASYURIDÆ, ii. 249
+
+  _Dasyurus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 249
+
+  _Daudebardia_, ii. 516
+
+  David, Père, his researches in China and Thibet, i. 221, 222
+    on birds of N. China, i. 226
+
+  _Debis_, ii. 471
+
+  Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary formations, i. 138
+    Palæarctic, i. 182
+    probable cause of absence from tropical Africa, i. 291
+    ii. 218
+
+  _Deilephila_, ii. 482
+
+  _Deltatria_, ii. 107
+
+  _Delma_, ii. 395
+
+  _Deloneura_, ii. 477
+
+  _Delphinapterus_, ii. 209
+
+  DELPHINIDÆ, ii. 208
+
+  _Delphinus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    ii. 209
+
+  DENDRASPIDIDÆ, ii. 383
+
+  _Dendraspis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Dendrexetastes_, ii. 104
+
+  _Dendrochelidon_, ii. 320
+
+  _Dendrocitta_, ii. 273
+
+  _Dendrocolaptes_, ii. 103
+
+  DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ, ii. 295
+
+  DENDROCOLAPTINÆ, ii. 295
+
+  _Dendrocincla_, ii. 103
+
+  _Dendrocygna_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 363
+
+  _Dendroeca_, ii. 279
+
+  _Dendrohyrax_, ii. 229
+
+  _Dendrolagus_, ii. 251
+
+  _Dendromus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Dendromys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Dendrophila_, ii. 265
+
+  DENDROPHIDÆ, ii. 378
+
+  _Dendrophis_, ii. 378
+
+  _Dendropicus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Dendroplex_, ii. 103
+
+  _Dendrornis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Dendrortyx_, ii. 339
+
+  _Denisonia_, ii. 383
+
+  DENTALIADÆ, ii. 512
+
+  _Dentalium_, ii. 512
+    ii. 539
+
+  _Dentex_, ii. 426
+
+  _Dercas_, ii. 478
+
+  _Dermatemys_, ii. 408
+
+  _Dermatocera_, ii. 520
+
+  _Dermatochelys_, ii. 409
+
+  _Deroptyus_, ii. 328
+
+  _Dermognathus_, ii. 413
+
+  Desert-snakes, ii. 377
+
+  Desman of S. Russia, figure of, i. 219
+
+  _Desmodus_, ii. 182
+
+  _Deudorix_, ii. 477
+
+  _Diadema_, ii. 474
+
+  _Diagramma_, ii. 426
+
+  _Dibamus_, ii. 372
+
+  DIBRANCHIATA, ii. 505
+
+  DICÆIDÆ, ii. 277
+
+  _Dicælus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Dicæum_, ii. 277
+
+  _Dicallaneura_, ii. 475
+
+  _Dicamptodon_, ii. 413
+
+  _Diceratherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  _Dicerca_, ii. 496
+
+  _Dicerobatis_, ii. 463
+
+  _Dichobune_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Dicotyles_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+    birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Dicotylinæ_, ii. 214
+
+  _Dicrocerus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 220
+
+  _Dicrodon_, ii. 390
+
+  _Dicroglossus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Dicrorrhagia_, ii. 474
+
+  DICRURIDÆ, ii. 269
+
+  _Dicrurus_, ii. 269
+
+  DIDELPHYIDÆ, ii. 248
+
+  _Didelphys_, European Eocene, i. 126
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 248
+
+  _Dididæ_, i. 164
+
+  DIDIDÆ, ii. 334
+
+  _Didocus_, ii. 417
+
+  DIDUNCULIDÆ, ii. 333
+
+  _Didunculus_, ii. 334
+
+  _Didus_, ii. 334
+
+  _Dieba_, ii. 197
+
+  _Diemenia_, ii. 383
+
+  _Diglossa_, ii. 278
+
+  _Diglossopis_, ii. 278
+
+  _Dilophus_, ii. 287
+
+  _Dilophyrus_, ii. 402
+
+  _Dimodes_, ii. 377
+
+  _Dimylus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Dinictis_, ii. 194
+
+  _Dinoceras_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Dinocerata_, N. American Tertiary, i. 139
+
+  _Dinornis_, allied form in European Eocene, i. 163
+    of New Zealand and Australia, i. 164
+    ii. 369
+
+  _Dinornithidæ_ of New Zealand, i. 164
+
+  DINORNITHIDÆ, ii. 269
+
+  _Dinotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    Miocene of Perim Island, i. 123
+
+  _Dinyctis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Dinylus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+
+  _Diomedia_, ii. 365
+
+  _Dioplodon_, ii. 208
+
+  _Diorhina_, ii. 476
+
+  _Diphlogæna_, ii. 108
+
+  _Diphylla_, ii. 182
+
+  _Diphyllodes_, ii. 274
+
+  _Diplacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Diplodactylus_, ii. 399
+
+  _Diploglossus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Diplolæmus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Diplomesodon_, ii. 191
+
+  DIPLOMMATINIDÆ, ii. 519
+
+  _Diplommatina_, ii. 520
+
+  _Diplomystax_, ii. 443
+
+  _Diplopelma_, ii. 416
+
+  _Diplopoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Diplopterus_, ii. 309
+
+  DIPNOI, ii. 458
+
+  DIPODIDÆ, ii. 231
+
+  _Dipodomys_, ii. 233
+
+  Dippers, ii. 263
+
+  _Diprotodon_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 251
+
+  DIPSADIDÆ, ii. 379
+
+  _Dipsadoboa_, ii. 379
+
+  _Dipsas_, ii. 379
+
+  _Diptychus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Dipus_, ii. 232
+
+  _Dircenna_, ii. 470
+
+  _Discina_, ii. 539
+
+  DISCINIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  _Discoboli_, ii. 430
+
+  DISCOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 421
+
+  _Discoglossus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Discognathus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Discophora_, ii. 472
+
+  _Discura_, ii. 107
+
+  Dispersal of animals, i. 10
+    of mammalia, i. 10
+    of reptiles and amphibia, i. 28
+
+  _Disteira_, ii. 384
+
+  _Distichodus_, ii. 445
+
+  Distribution, affected by climate, i. 5
+    affected by physical features, i. 5
+    contrasts of, in similar climates, i. 5
+    similarities of, in diverse climates, i. 6
+    barriers as affecting, i. 6
+    study of, dependent on a good classification, i. 83
+    of animals an adjunct to geology, i. 8
+    of animals requires certain preliminary studies, i. 8
+    of animals dependent on physical geography, i. 35
+    of animals, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 40
+    of animals, as affected by changes of vegetation, i. 43
+    of animals, as affected by organic changes, i. 44
+    of animals, hypothetical illustration of, i. 46
+    of animals, complexity of the causes affecting the, i. 49
+    of animals, problems in, i. 51
+    of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 42
+
+  _Distrigus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Diuca_, ii. 284
+
+  _Diucopis_, ii. 99
+
+  _Diva_, ii. 98
+
+  Divers, ii. 366
+
+  _Docimastes_, ii. 108
+
+  Dodo of Mauritius, i. 282
+    ii. 334
+
+  _Dodona_, ii. 475
+
+  _Dolerisca_, ii. 107
+
+  _Dolichodon_, ii. 208
+
+  _Dolichonyx_, ii. 282
+
+  _Dolichopterus_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Dolichotis_, ii. 241
+
+  _Doliophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Dolium_, ii. 507
+
+  _Dommina_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Donacobius_, ii. 264
+
+  _Donacola_, ii. 287
+
+  _Donacospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Doras_, ii. 443
+
+  _Dorcatherium_, European Miocene, i. 120
+
+  _Dorcopsis_, ii. 251
+
+  _Dorcus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Doricha_, ii. 108
+
+  DORIDÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Doritis_, ii. 479
+
+  Dormice, ii. 232
+
+  _Doryichthys_, ii. 457
+
+  _Doryphora_, ii. 107
+
+  Douroucoulis, ii. 175
+
+  _Draco_, ii. 402
+
+  _Dremotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 218
+
+  DREPANIDIDÆ, ii. 277
+
+  _Drepanis_, ii. 277
+
+  _Drepanornis_, ii. 275
+    ii. 276
+
+  Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of European birds, i. 193
+
+  _Drimostoma_, ii. 489
+
+  _Dromæus_, ii. 368
+
+  _Dromas_, ii. 356
+
+  _Dromatherium_, N. American Triassic, i. 134
+    oldest American mammal, i. 160
+
+  _Dromica_, ii. 486, 487
+
+  _Dromicia_, ii. 252
+
+  _Dromicus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Dromius_, ii. 489
+
+  _Dromococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Dromolæa_, ii. 260
+
+  _Dromophis_, ii. 377
+
+  Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, i. 340
+    ii. 269
+
+  DRYADINÆ, ii. 375
+
+  DRYIOPHIDÆ, ii. 379
+
+  _Dryiophis_, ii. 379
+
+  _Drymocataphus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Drymodes_, ii. 259
+
+  _Drymoeca_, ii. 257
+
+  DRYMOECINÆ, ii. 257
+
+  _Drymomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Drymornis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Dryocopus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Dryopithecus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Dryospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Dryotriorchis_, ii. 348
+
+  _Dubusia_, ii. 98
+
+  Ducks, ii. 363
+
+  _Dulus_, ii. 280
+
+  _Dumerilia_, ii. 408
+
+  _Dumetia_, ii. 261
+
+  _Dumeticola_, ii. 258
+
+  Duncan, Dr., on fossil corals of the Antilles, ii. 21
+
+  _D'Urbania_, ii. 477
+
+  Dwarf-ground snakes, ii. 374
+
+  _Dynastor_, ii. 472
+
+  _Dyschirus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Dysauxis_, ii. 481
+
+  _Dysithamnus_, ii. 104
+
+  _Dysopes_, ii. 184
+
+  E.
+
+  Eagles, ii. 347
+
+  Eared Seals, ii. 202
+
+  Ear-shells, ii. 511
+
+  East Africa, geographical features of, i. 258
+    wide range of genera and species over, i. 259
+    few special types in, i. 260
+
+  East African sub-region, description of, i. 258
+    genera and species ranging over the whole of, i. 259
+    mammalia of, i. 260
+    birds of, i. 260
+    reptiles of, i. 260
+    amphibia and fishes of, i. 260
+    insects of, i. 260
+    few peculiar types in, i. 260
+    illustration of zoology of, i. 261
+
+  East Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 440
+
+  East Thibet, mammalia of, i. 222
+
+  Eaton, Rev., A. E., on insects of Kerguelen Island, i. 211
+
+  _Eburna_, ii. 507
+
+  _Echidna_, ii. 254
+
+  ECHIDNIDÆ, ii. 254
+
+  _Echimyidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+
+  ECHIMYIDÆ, ii. 238
+
+  _Echimys_, ii. 239
+
+  _Echinogale_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  _Echinops_, ii. 188, 189
+
+  _Echinorhinus_, ii. 461
+
+  _Echiothrix_, ii. 230
+
+  _Echis_, ii. 386
+
+  _Eclectus_, ii. 326
+
+  _Ectognathus_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Ectopistes_, ii. 332
+
+  _Edentata_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 121
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Pliocene, i. 140
+    of Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  Edentata, classification of, i. 90
+    probable birthplace of, i. 155
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 305
+    range of Oriental genus of, i. 375
+
+  EDENTATA, ii. 244
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 247
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 543
+
+  _Ega_, ii. 490
+
+  _Egerina_, ii. 397
+
+  _Elainea_, ii. 101, 291
+
+  ELAINEINÆ, ii. 291
+
+  _Elania_, ii. 397
+
+  _Elanoides_, ii. 349
+
+  _Elanus_, ii. 349
+
+  _Elaphodus_, ii. 220
+
+  _Elaphrus_, ii. 489
+
+  ELAPIDÆ, ii. 382
+
+  _Elapochrus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Elaps_, ii. 383
+
+  _Elapsoidea_, ii. 383
+
+  _Elasmognathus_, ii. 212
+
+  _Electra_, ii. 209
+
+  ELEPHANTIDÆ, ii. 227
+
+  Elephants, fossil, of Indian Miocene, i. 123
+    fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene formations, i. 130
+    birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
+    ii. 227
+
+  Elephant shrews, S. African, i. 267
+    ii. 186
+
+  _Elephas_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    fossil in N. China, i. 123
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 227
+
+  _Eliomys_, ii. 232
+
+  Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of paradise, i. 415
+    on classification of the birds of paradise, ii. 274
+
+  _Ellipesurus_, ii. 463
+
+  _Ellipsoglossa_, ii. 413
+
+  _Ellisia_, ii. 258
+
+  _Ellobius_, ii. 231
+
+  _Elminia_, ii. 271
+
+  _Elodina_, ii. 478
+
+  _Elopichthys_, ii. 453
+
+  _Elornis_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Elosia_, ii. 419
+
+  _Elotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137, 139
+    ii. 215, 216
+
+  _Elseya_, ii. 408
+
+  Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, i. 204
+    on true relations of the birds of Central India, i. 323
+
+  _Elymnias_, ii. 471
+
+  ELYMNIIDÆ, ii. 471
+
+  ELSIADÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Embasis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Emberiza_, ii. 285
+
+  EMBERIZINÆ, ii. 285
+
+  _Emberizoides_, ii. 284
+
+  _Emblema_, ii. 287
+
+  _Embernagra_, ii. 284
+
+  EMBROTOCIDÆ, ii. 438
+
+  _Emesis_, ii. 476
+
+  Emeu, figure of, i. 441
+
+  Emeus, ii. 368
+
+  _Emminia_, ii. 390
+
+  _Empidagra_, ii. 101
+
+  _Empidias_, ii. 102, 291
+
+  _Empidochanes_, ii. 102
+
+  _Empidonax_, ii. 102, 291
+
+  _Empidonomus_, ii. 102
+
+  _Emyda_, ii. 409
+
+  _Emydida_, Indian Miocene, i. 123
+
+  _Emydocephalus_, ii. 384
+
+  _Emys_, Indian Miocene, i. 123
+    Miocene and Eocene, i. 165
+    ii. 408
+
+  _Enes_, ii. 501
+
+  _Engystoma_, ii. 416
+
+  ENGYSTOMIDÆ, ii. 416
+
+  _Enhydrina_, ii. 384
+
+  _Enhydrion_, Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 200
+
+  _Enhydris_, ii. 199
+
+  _Enicurus_, ii. 263
+
+  _Enispe_, ii. 472
+
+  _Enodes_, ii. 288
+
+  _Enophrys_, ii. 375
+
+  _Ensophleus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Entelopes_, ii. 501
+
+  _Entomiza_, ii. 276
+
+  _Entomophila_, ii. 275
+
+  _Enygrus_, ii. 381
+
+  _Eobasileus_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  Eocene period, i. 124
+    fauna of S. America, i. 148
+
+  _Eophona_, ii. 284
+
+  _Eopsaltria_, ii. 271
+
+  _Eos_, ii. 327
+
+  _Epalzeorhynchus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Ephemera_, from the Lias, i. 167
+
+  _Ephthianura_, ii. 260
+
+  _Epicalia_, ii. 474
+
+  _Epicrates_, ii. 381
+
+  EPIMACHINÆ, ii. 275
+
+  _Epimachus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Epiodon_, ii. 208
+
+  _Epirhixis_, ii. 419
+
+  _Epitola_, ii. 477
+
+  _Eporeodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  EQUIDÆ, ii. 211
+
+  _Equidæ_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Equus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+    ii. 211
+
+  _Erebia_, ii. 471
+
+  _Eremias_, ii. 391
+
+  _Eremomela_, ii. 258
+
+  _Eremophilus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Ereptodon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+
+  _Eresia_, ii. 474
+
+  _Erethistes_, ii. 444
+
+  _Erethizon_, ii. 239
+
+  _Ereunetes_, ii. 353
+
+  _Ergaticus_, ii. 279
+
+  _Ergolis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Ericulus_, ii. 188
+
+  _Ericymba_, ii. 452
+
+  ERINACEIDÆ, ii. 187
+
+  _Erinaceus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 187
+
+  _Eriocnemis_, ii. 109
+
+  _Eriodes_, ii. 174
+
+  _Erismatura_, ii. 364
+
+  _Erithacus_, ii. 259
+
+  _Eroessa_, ii. 258
+
+  _Eronia_, ii. 478
+
+  _Erpornis_, ii. 267
+
+  ERYCIDÆ, ii. 381
+
+  ERYCINIDÆ, ii. 476
+
+  _Erynnis_, ii. 480
+
+  _Erythrinus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Erythrocercus_, ii. 270
+
+  _Erythrocnema_, ii. 347
+
+  _Erythrogonys_, ii. 356
+
+  _Erythrolampus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Erythromachus_ of Rodriguez, i. 164
+    ii. 352
+
+  _Erythrospiza_, ii. 285
+
+  _Erythrosterna_, ii. 270
+
+  _Erythrura_, ii. 387
+
+  _Eryx_, ii. 382
+
+  ESOCIDÆ, ii. 449
+
+  _Esox_, ii. 449
+
+  _Esthemopsis_, ii. 476
+
+  _Esthonyx_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Estrilda_, ii. 286
+
+  _Etheria_, ii. 534
+
+  Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, i. 63
+    defined, i. 73
+    subdivisions of, i. 73
+    general features of, i. 251
+    zoological characteristics of, i. 252
+    mammalia of, i. 253
+    great speciality of, i. 253
+    birds of, i. 253
+    reptiles of, i. 254
+    amphibia of, i. 255
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 255
+    summary of vertebrates of, i. 255
+    insects of, i. 255
+    coleoptera of, i. 256
+    terrestrial mollusca of, i. 257
+    sub-regions of, i. 258
+    Atlantic islands of, i. 269
+    the probable past history of, i. 285
+    tables of distribution of animals of, i. 293
+
+  _Euanemus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Eubagis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Eucephala_, ii. 109
+
+  _Euchætes_, ii. 98
+
+  _Eucometis_, ii. 99
+
+  _Euchromia_, ii. 481
+
+  _Eucichla_, ii. 298
+
+  _Euclyptosternum_, ii. 443
+
+  _Eudromias_, ii. 356
+
+  _Eudynamis_, ii. 310
+
+  _Eudyptes_, ii. 366
+
+  _Eueides_, ii. 473
+
+  _Eugenes_, ii. 107
+
+  _Eugenia_, ii. 107
+
+  _Euhyrax_, ii. 229
+
+  _Eulabeornis_, ii. 352
+
+  _Eulabes_, ii. 287
+
+  _Eulampis_, ii. 107
+
+  _Eumæus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Eumeces_, ii. 397
+
+  _Eumetopias_, ii. 203
+
+  _Eumomota_, ii. 313
+
+  _Eumys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+    ii. 231
+
+  _Eumyias_, ii. 270
+
+  _Eunectes_, ii. 381
+
+  _Eunica_, ii. 474
+
+  _Eunogyra_, ii. 475
+
+  _Eupetes_, ii. 263
+
+  _Eupetomena_, ii. 107
+
+  _Euphema_, ii. 325
+
+  _Eupherusa_, ii. 109
+
+  _Euphonia_, ii. 98
+
+  _Euphractus_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Euphryne_, ii. 401
+
+  _Euphysetes_, ii. 208
+
+  _Eupleres_, ii. 195
+
+  _Euploea_, ii. 470
+
+  EUPLOCAMINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Euplocamus_, ii. 340
+
+  _Eupodotis_, ii. 356
+
+  _Euprepes_, ii. 397
+
+  _Eupsychortyx_, ii. 339
+
+  _Euptilotis_, ii. 314
+
+  _Euptychia_, ii. 471
+
+  _Eurinorhynchus_, ii. 353
+
+  _Eurocephalus_, ii. 272
+
+  Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, i. 39
+    Miocene fauna of Central, i. 117
+    Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa,
+      i. 124
+
+  European sub-region, description of, i. 191
+    forests of, i. 192
+    mammalia of, i. 192
+    birds of, i. 193
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 195
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 196
+    insects of, i. 196
+    islands of, i. 197
+
+  _Eurostopodus_, ii. 320
+
+  _Euryades_, ii. 479
+
+  _Euryapteryx_, ii. 370
+
+  _Euryarthrium_, ii. 501
+
+  _Eurybia_, ii. 475
+
+  Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278
+
+  _Euryceros_, ii. 288
+
+  _Eurycus_, ii. 479
+
+  _Eurygona_, ii. 476
+
+  EURYGONIDÆ, ii. 476
+
+  EURYLÆMIDÆ, ii. 294
+
+  _Eurylæmus_, ii. 295
+
+  _Euryodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 246
+
+  _Euryphene_, ii. 474
+
+  _Eurypyga_, ii. 358
+
+  EURYPYGIDÆ, ii. 358
+
+  _Eurystomus_, ii. 312
+
+  _Eurytela_, ii. 474
+
+  _Eurytherium_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Eurytrichus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Euscarthmus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Euschemon_, ii. 480
+    ii. 481
+
+  _Eusemia_, ii. 482
+
+  _Euspiza_, ii. 285
+
+  _Eustephanus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Eustira_, ii. 453
+
+  _Eutatus_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 246
+
+  _Eutelodon_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Eutemnodus_, S. American Eocene, i. 148
+
+  _Euterpe_, ii. 285
+
+  _Euthyrhynchus_, ii. 276
+
+  _Eutoxeres_, ii. 107
+
+  _Eutriorchis_, ii. 348
+
+  _Eutropia_, ii. 209
+
+  _Eutropiichthys_, ii. 441
+
+  _Eutropius_, ii. 442
+
+  _Eutroplus_, ii. 438
+
+  _Exocetus_, ii. 449
+
+  _Exoglossum_, ii. 452
+
+  _Exostoma_, ii. 444
+
+  Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, i. 126
+    mammalia of N. America and Europe, comparison of, i. 140
+    mammalia of the Antilles, i. 148
+    mammalia of the Old and New Worlds, general remarks on, i. 148
+    fauna of New Zealand, i. 459
+    Amphibia, ii. 423
+    Ant-eaters, ii. 247
+    Armadillos, ii. 246
+    Bovidæ, ii. 225
+    Bradypodidæ, ii. 245
+    Camelidæ, ii. 217
+    Camelopardalidæ, ii. 221
+    Canidæ, ii. 197
+    Castoridæ, ii. 234
+    Caviidæ, ii. 241
+    Centetidæ, ii. 189
+    Cercolabidæ, ii. 240
+    Cetacea, ii. 209
+    Chinchillidæ, ii. 237
+    Chiroptera, ii. 185
+    Crocodiles, ii. 407
+    Deer, ii. 220
+    Didelphyidæ, ii. 249
+    Dipodidæ, ii. 232
+    Echidnidæ, ii. 254
+    Echimyidæ, ii. 239
+    Elephants, ii. 227
+    Equidæ, ii. 211
+    Erinaceidæ, ii. 188
+    Felidæ, ii. 193
+    Hippopotami, ii. 214
+    Hyænas, ii. 196
+    Hystricidæ, ii. 240
+    Insectivora, ii. 192
+    Lacertilia, ii. 404
+    Lagomyidæ, ii. 242
+    Leporidæ, ii. 243
+    Macropodidæ, ii. 251
+    Muridæ, ii. 230
+    Mustelidæ, ii. 199
+    Myoxidæ, ii. 232
+    Octodontidæ, ii. 238
+    Ophidia, ii. 387
+    Orycteropodidæ, ii. 246
+    Otariidæ, ii. 203
+    Procyonidæ, ii. 201
+    Quadrumana, ii. 178
+    Rallidæ, ii. 252
+    Rhinocerotidæ, ii. 213
+    Sciuridæ, ii. 236
+    Seals, ii. 204
+    Sirenia, ii. 210
+    Struthionidæ, ii. 369
+    Suidæ, ii. 215
+    Talpidæ, ii. 190
+    Tapirs, ii. 212
+    Tortoises, ii. 410
+    Tragulidæ, ii. 218
+    Tupaiidæ, ii. 186
+    Ursidæ, ii. 202
+    Viverridæ, ii. 195
+
+  Extinction of large animals, causes of, i. 158
+
+  F.
+
+  _Falcinellus_, ii. 360
+
+  _Falco_, ii. 349
+
+  FALCONIDÆ, ii. 347
+
+  FALCONINÆ, ii. 349
+
+  Falcons, ii. 347
+
+  _Falculia_, ii. 228
+
+  Falkland Islands, zoology of, ii. 49
+
+  Fanged ground-snakes, ii. 380
+
+  _Farancia_, ii. 377
+
+  Fauna of Japan, general character and affinities of, i. 230
+    of Palæarctic region, general conclusions as to, i. 231
+    extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, i. 282
+    Malayan, probable origin of, i. 359
+    Moluccan, peculiarities of, i. 419
+    Timorese, origin of, i. 422
+    of Celebes, origin of, i. 436
+    of New Zealand, origin of, i. 460
+    of Galapagos, origin of, ii. 33
+    of Central America, origin of, ii. 57
+    of Antilles, origin of, ii. 78
+    of Neotropical region, origin of, ii. 80
+
+  FELIDÆ, ii. 192
+
+  _Felis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 193
+
+  _Felis spelæa_, i. 110
+
+  _Feniseca_, ii. 477
+
+  _Fennecus_, ii. 197
+
+  _Ferania_, ii. 376
+
+  Fernando Po, zoological features of, i. 265
+
+  _Feroculus_, ii. 191
+
+  _Fiber_, ii. 230
+
+  _Figulus_, ii. 493
+
+  Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443
+
+  Finches, ii. 283
+
+  FIROLIDÆ, ii. 531
+
+  Fishes, means of dispersal of, i. 29
+    classification of, i. 101
+    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
+    of the Palæarctic region, i. 186
+    of the European sub-region, i. 196
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
+    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
+    fresh-water, table of Palæarctic families of, i. 227
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
+    of South Africa, i. 268
+    fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298
+    fresh-water, of the Oriental region, i. 318
+    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341
+    fresh-water, table of Oriental families of i. 369
+    fresh-water, of the Australian region, i. 397
+    fresh-water, resemblance of Australian and S. American, i. 400
+    how the transmission may have taken place, i. 401
+    fresh-water, of New Zealand, i. 457
+    fresh-water, table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89
+    of Central N. America, ii. 131
+    of Eastern United States, ii. 134
+    of Canada, ii. 137
+    fresh-water, table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143
+    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 464
+    fossil, ii. 466
+
+  Fishing-hawks, ii. 349
+
+  FISSURELLIDÆ, ii. 511
+
+  FISTULARIDÆ, ii. 436
+
+  _Fitzroya_, ii. 450
+
+  Flamingoes, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 361
+
+  Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, i. 462
+    fossil of Australia, i. 467
+
+  Floras, cretaceous and tertiary, of North America, ii. 155
+
+  _Florisuga_, ii. 107
+
+  Flower-peckers, ii. 277
+
+  Flower, Professor, on classification of mammalia, i. 85
+    classification of carnivora, i. 87
+
+  _Fluvicola_, ii. 100
+
+  Flycatchers, ii. 270
+
+  Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, i. 337
+    ii. 186
+
+  Flying Lizards, ii. 401
+
+  Flying Opossum, figure of, i. 442
+
+  _Fordonia_, ii. 376
+
+  Forests, essential to existence of many European animals, i. 192
+    Siberian, greatest extent of, i. 216
+
+  FORMICARIIDÆ, ii. 297
+
+  FORMICARIINÆ, ii. 298
+
+  _Formicarius_, ii. 104
+
+  _Formicivora_, ii. 104
+
+  FORMICIVORINÆ, ii. 297
+
+  Formosa, zoology of, i. 332
+
+  _Fossa_, ii. 195
+
+  _Foudia_, ii. 286
+
+  _Francolinus_, ii. 338
+
+  _Fraseria_, ii. 272
+
+  _Fratercula_, ii. 367
+
+  _Fregetta_, ii. 365
+
+  _Fregilupus_, ii. 288
+
+  _Fregilus_, ii. 274
+
+  Fresh-water fishes, Neotropical, ii. 12
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 42
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
+    of the Antilles, ii. 73
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 120
+    of California, ii. 128
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 549
+
+  Fresh-water mussels, ii. 534
+    shell, the most Arctic, ii. 518
+    snakes, ii. 376
+    snails, ii. 518
+
+  _Fringilla_, ii. 283
+
+  _Fringillaria_, ii. 285
+
+  _Fringillauda_, ii. 282
+
+  FRINGILLIDÆ, ii. 284
+
+  Frog-mouths, ii. 318
+
+  Frogs, ii. 420
+
+  _Fulica_, ii. 352
+
+  _Fuligula_, ii. 364
+
+  _Fulmarus_, ii. 365
+
+  _Fundulus_, ii. 450
+
+  FURNARIINÆ, ii. 295
+
+  _Furnarius_, ii. 103
+
+  _Fusus_, ii. 507
+
+  G.
+
+  GADIDÆ, ii. 439
+
+  GADOPSIDÆ, ii. 439
+
+  _Gadus_, ii. 439
+
+  _Galago_, ii. 177
+
+  Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, i. 463
+
+  Galapagos islands, ii. 29
+    mammalia of, ii. 29
+    birds of, ii. 30
+    reptiles of, ii. 32
+    insects of, ii. 33
+    land-shells of, ii. 33
+    conclusions as to the origin of their fauna, ii. 33
+
+  _Galatea_, ii. 536
+
+  _Galaxias_, ii. 448
+
+  GALAXIDÆ, ii. 448
+
+  _Galbalcyrhynchus_, ii. 311
+
+  _Galbula_, ii. 311
+
+  GALBULIDÆ, ii. 311
+
+  _Galecynus_, in European Pliocene, i. 112
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Galeichthys_, ii. 443
+
+  GALEOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 186
+
+  _Galeoscoptes_, ii. 256
+
+  _Galeospalax_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 190
+
+  _Galeotherium_, Post-Pliocene, i. 111
+
+  _Galera_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+
+  _Galerella_, ii. 195
+
+  _Galerita_, ii. 289
+    ii. 490
+
+  _Galerix_, ii. 188
+
+  _Galethylax_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Galeus_, ii. 460
+
+  _Galictis_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 199
+
+  _Galidia_, ii. 195
+
+  _Galidictis_, ii. 195
+
+  Gallinæ, classification of, i. 96
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 384
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 485
+
+  GALLINÆ, ii. 337
+    ii. 340
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 344
+
+  _Gallinago_, ii. 353
+
+  _Gallinula_, ii. 352
+
+  _Gallus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    ii. 340
+
+  _Gallus bravardi_, European Pliocene, i. 161
+
+  _Galogale_, ii. 195
+
+  _Gambusia_, ii. 450
+
+  _Gampsonyx_, ii. 349
+
+  _Gampsorhynchus_, ii. 261
+
+  Gannets, ii. 365
+
+  GANOIDEI, ii. 458
+
+  Gape-eyed Scinks, ii. 395
+
+  Gar-fish, ii. 459
+
+  Garrod, Professor, on the Classification of Parrots, ii. 324
+
+  _Garrulax_, ii. 261
+
+  _Garrulus_, ii. 273
+
+  GASTEROPODA, ii. 507
+
+  GASTEROSTEIDÆ, ii. 424
+
+  _Gasterosteus_, ii. 424
+
+  _Gastornis_, European Eocene, i. 163
+
+  GASTROCHÆNIDÆ, ii. 537
+
+  _Gastropelecus_, ii. 445
+
+  GAVIALIDÆ, ii. 405
+
+  _Gavialis_, ii. 405
+
+  Gavials, ii. 405
+
+  _Gazella_, ii. 223
+
+  GAZELLINÆ, ii. 223
+
+  _Gazera_, ii. 481
+
+  _Gecinulus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Gecinus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Gecko_, ii. 399
+
+  GECKOTIDÆ, ii. 399
+
+  Geese, ii. 363
+
+  _Gehyra_, ii. 400
+
+  Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, i. 132
+
+  _Genetta_, ii. 195
+
+  _Genidens_, ii. 443
+
+  _Geobates_, ii. 103
+
+  _Geobiastes_, ii. 312
+
+  _Geocichla_, ii. 256
+
+  _Geococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Geocolaptes_, ii. 304
+
+  GEODEPHAGA, ii. 486
+
+  _Geoffroyus_, ii. 326
+
+  Geographical zoology, introduction, ii. 167
+    materials for, ii. 168
+
+  Geological history of Oriental region, i. 362
+
+  Geology and Physical Geography of the Antilles, ii. 62, 79
+
+  _Geomelania_, ii. 519
+
+  _Geomys_, ii. 233
+
+  _Geopelia_, ii. 332
+
+  _Geophaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Geophagus_, ii. 439
+
+  _Geopsittacus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Georissa_, ii. 522
+
+  _Georychus_, ii. 231
+
+  _Geositta_, ii. 103
+
+  _Geospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Geothlypis_, ii. 279
+
+  _Geotrochus_, ii. 523
+
+  _Geotryon_, ii. 333
+
+  _Geotrypus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Geranospiza_, ii. 347
+
+  _Gerbillus_, ii. 230
+    ii. 232
+
+  _Geronticus_, ii. 360
+
+  _Gerrhonotus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Gerrhosaurus_, ii. 392
+
+  GERRIDÆ, ii. 438
+
+  _Gervasia_, ii. 260
+
+  _Gerygone_, ii. 258
+
+  Giant-Clams, ii. 534
+
+  Gibbon, ii. 171
+
+  Gibraltar, cave fauna of, i. 114
+
+  Giraffes, ii. 221
+
+  _Girardinus_, ii. 450
+
+  Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, i. 40
+    as a cause of the great change in the  fauna of the temperate zones,
+      since Pliocene times, i. 151
+    probably simultaneous in both hemispheres, i. 151
+    causing a general subsidence of the ocean, i. 152
+
+  _Glandina_, Eocene, i. 169
+    ii. 515
+
+  _Glareola_, ii. 355
+
+  GLAREOLIDÆ, ii. 355
+
+  _Glaucis_, ii. 107
+
+  _Glaucidium_, ii. 350
+
+  _Glauconeza_, ii. 536
+
+  _Glaucopis_, ii. 481
+
+  _Gliciphila_, ii. 275
+
+  _Glis_, ii. 232
+
+  _Globiocephalus_, ii. 209
+
+  _Glossoptila_, ii. 278
+
+  _Glossotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 247
+
+  _Glycimeris_, ii. 536
+
+  _Glyphidodon_, ii. 437
+
+  _Glyphoglossus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Glyphorhynchus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Glyptodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Glyptosternum_, ii. 443
+
+  _Gnaphodes_, ii. 471
+
+  _Gnathodon_, ii. 536
+
+  _Gnathopsis_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  Goats, Palæarctic, i. 182
+    ii. 221
+
+  Goat-suckers, ii. 519
+
+  GOBIESOCIDÆ, ii. 436
+
+  GOBIIDÆ, ii. 430
+
+  _Gobio_, ii. 452
+
+  _Gobius_, ii. 430
+
+  Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, i. 207
+
+  Golden Moles, S. African, i. 267
+
+  _Goliathi_, ii. 494
+
+  _Gonepteryx_, ii. 478
+
+  _Goniodactylus_, ii. 400
+
+  _Gongylophis_, ii. 382
+
+  _Gonorhynchidæ_, ii. 453
+
+  _Gonyocephalus_, ii. 402
+
+  _Gonyosoma_, ii. 379
+
+  _Gouldia_, ii. 107
+
+  _Goura_, ii. 333
+
+  _Graculavus_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
+
+  Grallæ, arrangement of, i. 97
+    peculiar or characteristic Palæarctic genera, i. 249
+    peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 31
+    peculiar Oriental genera of, i. 386
+    peculiar Australian genera of, i. 484
+
+  GRALLÆ, ii. 351
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 362
+
+  _Grallaria_, ii. 104
+
+  _Grallaricula_, ii. 104
+
+  _Grallina_, ii. 273
+
+  _Grammatophorus_, ii. 402
+
+  _Grammatoptila_, ii. 261
+
+  _Grampus_, ii. 209
+
+  _Granatellus_, ii. 279
+
+  _Grandala_, ii. 259
+
+  _Graphidurus_, ii. 232
+
+  _Graphipterus_, ii. 491
+
+  _Graucalus_, ii. 268
+
+  Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, i. 88
+
+  _Grayia_, ii. 376
+
+  Grayson, Col, on birds of Tres Marias, ii. 59
+
+  Grebes, ii. 367
+
+  Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, i. 115
+    summary of Miocene fauna of, i. 116
+
+  Green Bulbuls, ii. 267
+
+  Greenland, zoology of, ii. 138
+
+  Greenlets, ii. 280
+
+  Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, ii. 184
+
+  Grouse, ii. 328
+
+  GRUIDÆ, ii. 356
+
+  _Grus_, ii. 357
+
+  _Grypsicus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Grypus_, ii. 107
+
+  Guacharo, ii. 107
+
+  Guans, ii. 342
+
+  Guaraunas, ii. 357
+
+  _Gubernatrix_, ii. 285
+
+  _Guillemots_, ii. 267
+
+  _Guira_, ii. 309
+
+  _Guiraca_, ii. 285
+
+  Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidæ of the Sandwich Islands, i. 446
+
+  Gulls, ii. 364
+
+  _Gulo_, ii. 199
+
+  Günther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, i. 98
+    his classification of fishes, i. 101
+    on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, i. 289
+    on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, i. 329
+    on identical Atlantiic and Pacific fishes, ii. 21
+    on fresh-water fishes of Central America, ii. 54
+
+  _Gygis_, ii. 365
+
+  GYMNARCHIDÆ, ii. 449
+
+  _Gymnarchus_, ii. 449
+
+  GYMNETINÆ, ii. 494
+
+  _Gymnobucco_, ii. 306
+
+  _Gymnocephalus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Gymnocichla_, ii. 104
+
+  _Gymnocorvus_, ii. 274
+
+  _Gymnocypris_, ii. 452
+
+  _Gymnodactylus_, ii. 400
+
+  GYMNODERINÆ, ii. 293
+
+  _Gymnoderus_, ii. 103
+
+  GYMNODONTES, ii. 457
+
+  _Gymnoglaux_, ii. 350
+
+  _Gymnokitta_, ii. 273
+
+  _Gymnomystax_, ii. 282
+
+  _Gymnopelia_, ii. 333
+
+  _Gymnops_, ii. 287
+
+  GYMNOPHTHALMIDÆ, ii. 395
+
+  _Gymnophthalmus_, ii. 395
+
+  _Gymnopus_, ii. 199
+
+  _Gymnorhina_, ii. 273
+
+  _Gymnostomus_, ii. 451
+
+  GYMNOTIDÆ, ii. 455
+
+  _Gymnotus_, ii. 455
+
+  _Gymnura_, ii. 188
+
+  _Gypaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Gypohierax_, ii. 348
+
+  _Gypoictinia_, ii. 349
+
+  _Gyps_, ii. 346
+
+  H.
+
+  Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, i. 460
+
+  Habitat, definition of, i. 4
+
+  _Habrocomus_, ii. 238
+
+  _Habroptila_, ii. 352
+
+  _Habrura_, ii. 101
+
+  _Hadrostomus_, ii. 102, 293
+
+  _Hæmatoderus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Hæmatopus_, ii. 356
+
+  _Hæmatospiza_, ii. 285
+
+  _Hæmophila_, ii. 284
+
+  _Hæmulon_, ii. 426
+
+  _Hætera_, ii. 471
+
+  _Hagria_, ii. 397
+
+  Hainan, zoology of, i. 334
+
+  _Halcyon_, ii. 316
+
+  _Halcyornis_, European Eocene, i. 103
+
+  _Halicyon_, ii. 204
+
+  _Haliæetus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Haliastur_, ii. 348
+
+  _Halichærus_, ii. 204
+
+  _Halicore_, ii. 210
+
+  HALIOTIDÆ, ii. 511
+
+  _Halitherium_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Miocene, i. 119
+    ii. 211
+
+  _Halmaturus_, ii. 251
+
+  HALOSAURIDÆ, ii. 455
+
+  _Halys_, ii. 385
+
+  _Hamadryas_, ii. 470
+
+  Hang-nests, ii. 281
+
+  _Hapale_, ii. 176
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Hapalemur_, ii. 176
+
+  HAPALIDÆ, ii. 175
+
+  _Hapalotis_, ii. 230
+
+  _Hapalus_, ii. 524
+
+  _Haplocerus_, ii. 374
+
+  _Haplochilus_, ii. 450
+
+  _Haplochiton_, ii. 446
+
+  HAPLOCHITONIDÆ, ii. 446
+
+  _Haplodactylus_, ii. 427
+
+  _Haploodon_, ii. 236
+
+  HAPLOODONTIDÆ, ii. 236
+
+  _Haplospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Hapsidrophis_, ii. 379
+
+  _Harelda_, ii. 364
+
+  Hares, ii. 242
+
+  _Harma_, ii. 474
+
+  _Harpa_, ii. 349
+    ii. 507
+
+  _Harpactes_, ii. 314
+
+  _Harpagus_, ii. 349
+
+  _Harpalus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Harporhynchus_, ii. 256
+
+  _Harpyhaliæetus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Hartlaubius_, ii. 288
+
+  _Hathliodes_, ii. 502
+
+  Hatteria of New Zealand, i. 456
+
+  _Hatteria_, ii. 405
+
+  Hawks, ii. 347
+
+  Hedgehogs, ii. 187
+
+  _Hedymeles_, ii. 285
+
+  _Helarctos_, ii. 202
+
+  _Helcyra_, ii. 474
+
+  _Heleothreptus_, ii. 320
+
+  _Heliactin_, ii. 108
+
+  _Heliangelus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Helianthea_, ii. 108
+
+  _Heliastes_, ii. 437
+
+  HELICIDÆ, ii. 512
+
+  _Helicina_, ii. 522
+
+  HELICONIDÆ, ii. 473
+    ii. 522
+
+  _Heliconius_, ii. 473
+
+  _Helicophagus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Helicops_, ii. 377
+
+  Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331
+
+  _Helictis_, ii. 199
+
+  _Heliobletus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Heliochæra_, ii. 102
+
+  _Heliodoxa_, ii. 107
+
+  _Heliomastes_, ii. 108
+
+  _Heliopædica_, ii. 107
+
+  _Heliophobus_, ii. 231
+
+  _Helioporus_, ii. 417
+
+  _Heliornis_, ii. 352
+
+  _Heliothrix_, ii. 108
+
+  _Heliotrypha_, ii. 108
+
+  _Helix_, Eocene, i. 169
+    ii. 513
+
+  _Helladotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 221
+
+  _Helluomorpha_, ii. 490
+
+  _Helmintherus_, ii. 279
+
+  _Helminthophaga_, ii. 279
+
+  _Heloderma_, ii. 390
+
+  HELODERMIDÆ, ii. 390
+
+  _Helodromas_, ii. 353
+
+  _Helogale_, ii. 195
+
+  _Helogenes_, ii. 442
+
+  HELORNITHINÆ, ii. 352
+
+  _Helotarsus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Hemibos_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    ii. 225
+
+  _Hemicentetes_, ii. 188
+
+  _Hemicercus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Hemichelidon_, ii. 290
+
+  _Hemichromis_, ii. 438
+
+  _Hemicyon_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Hemidacnis_, ii. 278
+
+  _Hemidactylium_, ii. 413
+
+  _Hemidactylus_, ii. 399
+
+  _Hemierges_, ii. 397
+
+  _Hemigalea_, ii. 195
+
+  _Hemignathus_, ii. 277
+
+  _Hemimantis_, ii. 419
+
+  _Hemiodus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Hemiphractus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Hemipimelodus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Hemiprocne_, ii. 320
+
+  _Hemipus_, ii. 270
+
+  _Hemirhamphus_, ii. 450
+
+  _Hemisilurus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Hemisorubim_, ii. 442
+
+  _Hemistilbon_, ii. 109
+
+  _Hemisus_, ii. 414
+
+  _Hemitriccus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Hemixus_, ii. 267
+
+  _Henicognathus_, ii. 328
+
+  _Henicopernis_, ii. 349
+
+  _Henicophaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Henicorhina_, ii. 264
+
+  _Henicornis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Heptapterus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Heredia_, ii. 413
+
+  Herons, ii. 359
+
+  _Heros_, ii. 438
+
+  _Herpestes_, ii. 195
+
+  _Herpetethiops_, ii. 376
+
+  _Herpetodryas_, ii. 376
+
+  _Herpeton_, ii. 376
+
+  _Herpetoreas_, ii. 375
+
+  _Herpetotheres_, ii. 348
+
+  _Herpetotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Herpsilochmus_, ii. 104
+
+  Herring, ii. 454
+
+  _Hesperia_, ii. 480
+
+  HESPERIDÆ, ii. 480
+
+  _Hesperomys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 230, 231
+
+  _Hesperornis_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
+
+  _Hestia_, ii. 470
+
+  _Hestima_, ii. 501
+
+  _Heterobranchus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Heterocephalus_, ii. 231
+
+  _Heterocercus_, ii. 102
+
+  _Heterochroa_, ii. 474
+
+  _Heterocnemis_, ii. 104
+
+  _Heterocorys_, ii. 289
+
+  _Heterodactylus_, ii. 393
+
+  _Heterodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 246
+    ii. 376
+
+  _Heterogynis_, ii. 481
+
+  _Heterolocha_, ii. 287
+
+  _Heteromorpha_, ii. 262
+
+  _Heteromys_, ii. 233
+
+  _Heteronota_, ii. 400
+
+  _Heteronympha_, ii. 471
+
+  _Heteropelma_, ii. 102, 292
+
+  _Heteropus_, ii. 397
+
+  HETEROPYGII, ii. 450
+
+  _Heterospizias_, ii. 348
+
+  _Heterotis_, ii. 454
+
+  _Heterura_, ii. 290
+
+  _Hewitsonia_, ii. 477
+
+  _Hexagonia_, ii. 491
+
+  _Hexaprotodon_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+
+  Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinction of large animals, i. 158
+
+  _Hieracidea_, ii. 349
+
+  _Hierax_, ii. 349
+
+  _Hierococcyx_, ii. 310
+
+  _Hierofalco_, ii. 349
+
+  Hill-Tits, ii. 266
+
+  Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, i. 329, 333
+
+  _Himantornis_, ii. 352
+
+  _Himantopus_, ii. 353
+
+  _Hinulia_, ii. 397
+
+  _Hipistes_, ii. 376
+
+  _Hipparchia_, ii. 471
+
+  _Hipparion_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 119
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    ii. 211
+
+  _Hippocampus_, ii. 457
+
+  _Hippoglossoides_, ii. 441
+
+  _Hippoglossus_, ii. 441
+
+  HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ, ii. 214
+
+  _Hippopotamus_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Indian Pliocene, i. 122
+    ii. 214
+
+  _Hipposyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Hippotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+
+  HIPPOTRAGINÆ, ii. 223
+
+  _Hippotragus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 223
+
+  HIPPURITIDÆ, ii. 534
+
+  _Hirundinea_, ii. 101
+
+  HIRUNDINIDÆ, ii. 280
+
+  _Hirundo_, ii. 281
+
+  _Hoazin_, ii. 345
+
+  _Holocanthus_, ii. 427
+
+  _Holbrookia_, ii. 401
+
+  _Holochilus_, ii. 230
+
+  _Hologerrhum_, ii. 379
+
+  HOLOSTEI, ii. 458
+
+  _Holurophis_, ii. 380
+
+  _Homalodontotherium_, S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  _Homalophis_, ii. 376
+
+  _Homalophus_, European Miocene, i. 161
+
+  HOMALOPSIDÆ, ii. 376
+
+  _Homalopsis_, ii. 376
+
+  _Homaloptera_, ii. 453
+
+  _Homalosoma_, ii. 490
+
+  _Hombronia_, ii. 397
+
+  _Homocamelus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Homorus_, ii. 103
+    ii. 524
+
+  Honey-guides, ii. 304
+
+  Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 392
+    ii. 275
+
+  Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, i. 464
+
+  Hoopoes, ii. 317
+
+  _Hopladelus_, ii. 442
+
+  HOPLEGNATHIDÆ, ii. 433
+
+  _Hoplobatrachus_, ii. 421
+
+  HOPLOCEPHALA, ii. 460
+
+  _Hoplocephalus_, ii. 383
+
+  _Hoplocetus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+
+  _Hoplophoneus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Hoplophorus_, ii. 246
+
+  _Hoplopterus_, ii. 356
+
+  _Horites_, ii. 258
+
+  Hornbills, ii. 316
+
+  Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, i. 136
+    probable birthplace of, i. 154
+    ii. 211
+
+  Horse-shoe bats, ii. 182
+
+  _Hortulia_, ii. 381
+
+  Howling monkeys, ii. 175
+
+  Hudson, Mr., on land-birds of Patagonia, ii. 39
+
+  Humming-birds, ii. 321
+
+  _Huro_, ii. 425
+
+  Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand fauna, i. 461
+
+  Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, i. 59
+    division of animal kingdom by, i. 85
+
+  _Hyades_, ii. 472
+
+  _Hyæna_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    fossil in N. China, i. 123
+    ii. 196
+
+  _Hyænarctos_ in European Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  _Hyænictis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 196
+
+  _Hyænidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  HYÆNIDÆ, ii. 196
+
+  _Hyænodon_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Hyænodontidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  HYALEIDÆ, ii. 531
+
+  _Hyalimax_, ii. 517
+
+  _Hyalina_, ii. 515
+
+  _Hyalosaurus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Hyantis_, ii. 472
+
+  _Hybocystis_, ii. 520
+
+  _Hyborhynchus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Hydrocena_, ii. 521
+
+  _Hydrochelidon_, ii. 364
+
+  _Hydrochoerus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+
+  _Hydrochoerus_, ii. 241
+
+  _Hydrocissa_, ii. 317
+
+  _Hydrocyon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Hydrogale_, ii. 199
+
+  _Hydromedusa_, ii. 408
+
+  _Hydromys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Hydrophasianus_, ii. 355
+
+  HYDROPHIDÆ, ii. 384
+
+  _Hydrophis_, ii. 384
+
+  _Hydropotes_, ii. 219
+
+  _Hydropsalis_, ii. 319
+
+  _Hydrornis_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 298
+
+  _Hydrosaurus_, ii. 389
+
+  _Hyetornis_, ii. 309
+
+  _Hygrogonus_, ii. 439
+
+  _Hyla_, ii. 418
+
+  _Hylactes_, ii. 297
+
+  _Hylambates_, ii. 419
+
+  _Hylaplesia_, ii. 415
+
+  HYLAPLESIDÆ, ii. 414
+
+  _Hylarana_, ii. 419
+
+  _Hylatomus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Hylella_, ii. 418
+
+  HYLIDÆ, ii. 418
+
+  _Hyliota_, ii. 270
+
+  _Hylobates_, ii. 171
+
+  _Hylocharis_, ii. 109
+    ii. 271
+
+  _Hylodes_, ii. 419
+
+  _Hylomanes_, ii. 313
+
+  _Hylomys_, ii. 186
+
+  _Hylophilus_, ii. 280
+
+  _Hylorhina_, ii. 420
+
+  _Hylotrupes_, ii. 502
+
+  _Hyloxalus_, ii. 419
+
+  _Hymenolaimus_, ii. 364
+
+  HYODONTIDÆ, ii. 453
+
+  _Hyohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Hyomoschus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 218
+
+  _Hyopicus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Hyopotamus_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    ii. 216
+
+  _Hyopsodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Hyotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Hypargos_, ii. 287
+
+  _Hyperantha_, ii. 496
+
+  _Hypergerus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Hypermnestra_, ii. 479
+
+  _Hyperodapedon_, ii. 405
+
+  _Hyperolius_, ii. 417
+
+  _Hyperoodon_, ii. 208
+
+  HYPEROODONTIDÆ, ii. 208
+
+  _Hyperopsius_, ii. 448
+
+  _Hypertragulus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Hyphantornis_, ii. 286
+
+  _Hypherpes_, ii. 265
+
+  _Hypisodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Hypna_, ii. 474
+
+  _Hypnale_, ii. 385
+
+  _Hypochera_, ii. 287
+
+  _Hypochrysops_, ii. 477
+
+  _Hypocista_, ii. 471
+
+  _Hypocnemis_, ii. 104
+
+  _Hypocolius_, ii. 272
+
+  _Hypodes_, ii. 272
+
+  _Hypogeomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Hypolais_, ii. 258
+
+  _Hypolithus_, ii. 491
+
+  _Hypolycæna_, ii. 477
+
+  _Hypomesus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Hypopachus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Hypophthalmichthys_, ii. 453
+
+  _Hypophthalmus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Hypopyrrhus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Hyporissus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Hypothymis_, ii. 271
+
+  _Hypoxanthus_, ii. 304
+
+  _Hypsipetes_, ii. 267
+
+  _Hypsiprymnus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 251
+
+  _Hypsirhina_, ii. 376
+
+  _Hypsirhynchus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Hyrachyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  HYRACIDÆ, ii. 228
+
+  _Hyracodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+    ii. 214
+    ii. 248
+
+  _Hyracoidea_, classification of, i. 90
+    Palæarctic, i. 242
+    Ethiopian, i. 304
+
+  HYRACOIDEA, ii. 228
+
+  _Hyracotherium_, supposed, in European Eocene, i. 125
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 216
+    ii. 229
+
+  _Hyrax_, ii. 228
+
+  HYSTRICIDÆ, ii. 240
+
+  _Hystricodon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Hystrix_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+    ii. 240
+
+  I.
+
+  _Ialmenus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Ianthoenas_, ii. 332
+
+  _Ianthina_, ii. 511
+
+  _Ibidipodia_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Ibidorhynchus_, ii. 353
+
+  Ibidorhynchus, figure of, i. 331
+
+  _Ibis_, ii. 360
+
+  Ibises, ii. 360
+
+  _Ibycter_, ii. 347
+
+  Iceland, zoology of, i. 198
+
+  _Ichneumia_, ii. 195
+
+  _Ichthyoborus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Ichthyopsis_, ii. 411
+
+  _Icteria_, ii. 279
+
+  ICTERIDÆ, ii. 281
+
+  _Icterus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Icthyornis_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
+
+  _Icticyon_ in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 197
+
+  _Ictinia_, ii. 349
+
+  _Ictitherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 195
+    ii. 197
+
+  _Ictonyx_, ii. 199
+
+  _Ictops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Ideopsis_, ii. 470
+
+  _Idmais_, ii. 478
+
+  _Iguana_, ii. 401
+
+  Iguanas, ii. 400
+
+  IGUANIDÆ, ii. 400
+
+  _Ilerda_, ii. 477
+
+  _Ilicura_, ii. 102
+
+  India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, i. 123
+    geological features of, i. 328
+
+  Indian sub-region, description of, i. 321
+    supposed relation to Ethiopian region, i. 321
+    mammalia of, i. 322
+    birds of, i. 323
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 326
+
+  _Indicator_, ii. 304
+
+  INDICATORIDÆ, ii. 304
+
+  Indo-Chinese sub-region, description of, i. 329
+    zoological characteristics of, i. 330
+    illustration of, i. 331
+    reptiles of, i. 331
+    amphibia of, i. 331
+    insects of, i. 332
+    islands belonging to, i. 333
+
+  Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, i. 334
+    mammalia of, i. 336
+    illustrations of, i. 336, 339
+    birds of, i. 337
+    remote geographical relations of, i. 339
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 340
+    fishes of, i. 341
+    insects of, i. 341
+    coleoptera of, i. 342
+    terrestrial mollusca of, i. 343
+    zoological relations of islands of, i. 345
+    recent geographical changes in, i. 357
+    probable origin of fauna of, i. 359
+
+  _Inia_, ii. 209
+
+  _Insectivora_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  Insectivora, classification of, i. 87
+    of the Palæarctic region, i. 181
+    of N. China and E. Thibet, i. 222
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
+    of Madagascar, i. 273
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 301
+    of the Oriental region, i. 315
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 372
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 476
+
+  INSECTIVORA, ii. 186
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 191
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 541
+
+  Insects, means of dispersal of, i. 32
+    tenacity of life of, i. 33
+    adapted to special conditions, i. 33
+    groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, i.
+      102
+    antiquity of the genera of, i. 166
+    fossil of European Miocene, i. 166
+    European Cretaceous, i. 167
+    European Wealden, i. 167
+    Palæozoic, i. 168
+    Palæarctic, i. 187
+    of Central Europe, i. 196
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
+    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
+    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
+    of the E. African sub-region, i. 260
+    of W. African, i. 265
+    S. African, i. 268
+    of Madagascar, i. 282
+    general remarks on, i. 284
+    of tropical Africa and America, probable cause of similarities in, i.
+      291
+    of Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 332
+    of the Oriental region, i. 318
+    of Ceylon, i. 327
+    of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341
+    statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay
+      Archipelago, i. 343
+    of the Australian region, i. 403
+    of New Guinea, i. 417
+    of the Moluccas, i. 420
+    of the Timor group, i. 426
+    of Celebes, i. 454
+    of New Zealand, i. 458
+    scarcity of, in New Zealand, i. 462
+    influence of, on the flora, i. 463
+    of the Neotropical region, ii. 13
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 42
+    of S. Temperate America, Palæarctic affinity of, ii. 45
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 55
+    of the Antilles, ii. 73
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 122
+    of Canada, ii. 137
+    distribution of, ii. 468
+    range of, in time, ii. 469
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 550
+    lines of migration of, ii. 551
+
+  _Iodopleura_, ii. 102
+
+  _Iolæma_, ii. 107
+
+  _Iolaus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Iole_, ii. 267
+
+  _Iora_, ii. 267
+
+  _Iphias_, ii. 478
+    ii. 394
+
+  IPHISADÆ, ii. 394
+
+  _Irena_, ii. 269
+
+  _Iridina_, ii. 534
+
+  _Iridornis_, ii. 98
+
+  _Irrisor_, ii. 318
+
+  IRRISORIDÆ, ii. 318
+
+  _Isacis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Ischcognathus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Ischyromys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+    ii. 236
+
+  Islands, N. European, zoology of, i. 197
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 206
+    of the W. African sub-region, i. 265
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 269
+    Mascarene, i. 280
+    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 333
+    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 345
+    Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, i. 443
+    Society and Marquesas, i. 444
+    New Caledonia and New Hebrides, i. 445
+    Sandwich, i. 446
+    of New Zealand sub-region, i. 453
+    Norfolk, i. 453
+    Lord Howe's, i. 454
+    Chatham, i. 454
+    Auckland, i. 455
+    of Tropical S. America, ii. 29
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 59
+    of Eastern United States, ii. 134
+    peculiar colours of pigeons in, ii. 336
+    abundance of land-shells in, ii. 525
+
+  _Isodactylium_, ii. 413
+
+  _Ispidina_, ii. 316
+
+  _Issiodromys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    ii. 232
+
+  _Ithaginis_, ii. 340
+
+  _Ithomia_, ii. 470
+
+  _Ithycyphus_, ii. 379
+
+  _Ixalus_, ii. 419
+
+  _Ixonotus_, ii. 267
+
+  _Ixulus_, ii. 266
+
+  J.
+
+  _Jacamaralcyon_, ii. 311
+
+  Jacamars, ii. 311
+
+  _Jacamerops_, ii. 311
+
+  Jacanas, ii. 255
+
+  _Jacchus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  _Jaculus_, ii. 232
+
+  _Jaltris_, ii. 375
+
+  _Jamaicia_, ii. 521
+
+  _Janella_, ii. 517
+
+  _Janthocincla_, ii. 261
+
+  _Japalura_, ii. 402
+
+  Japan and North China, physical features of, i. 221
+    southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, i. 226
+
+  Japan, general character of the fauna of, i. 230
+    former land-connexions of, i. 231
+
+  Java, mammalia of, i. 349
+    productions of, well known, i. 350
+    birds of, i. 351
+    representative species of birds in, i. 352
+    origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, i. 352
+    Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological
+      peculiarities explained, i. 357
+
+  Jays, ii. 273
+
+  _Jenynsia_, ii. 450
+
+  Jerboas, ii. 231
+
+  Juan Fernandez, Carabidæ of, ii. 44
+    birds of, ii. 49
+    beetles and land-shells of, ii. 51
+
+  _Juida_, ii. 288
+
+  _Juliamyia_, ii. 109
+
+  _Junco_, ii. 284
+
+  _Junonia_, European Miocene, i. 167
+    ii. 474
+
+  K.
+
+  Kagu, ii. 359
+
+  Kakapoe, of New Zealand, i. 455
+
+  _Kalophrynus_, ii. 415
+
+  Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, i. 157
+    ii. 251
+
+  _Keneuxia_, ii. 397
+
+  Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, i. 211 (_note_)
+
+  _Kerodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 241
+
+  _Ketingus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Ketupa_, ii. 350
+
+  King-fisher, racquet-tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, i. 415
+
+  King-fishers, ii. 315
+
+  _Kittacincla_, ii. 259
+
+  Kiwi of New Zealand, i. 455
+
+  _Kneria_, ii. 453
+
+  _Kobus_, ii. 224
+
+  Koodoo antelope, figure of, i. 261
+
+  _Kricogonia_, ii. 478
+
+  _Krynickia_, ii. 517
+
+  L.
+
+  _Labeo_, ii. 451
+
+  _Labrax_, ii. 425
+
+  LABRIDÆ, ii. 437
+
+  _Labrus_, ii. 437
+
+  LABYRINTHICI, ii. 434
+
+  _Lacerta_, ii. 391
+
+  LACERTIDÆ, ii. 390
+
+  Lacertilia, classification of, i. 99
+
+  LACERTILIA, ii. 388
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 403
+    fossil, ii. 404
+
+  _Lacuna_, ii. 510
+
+  Ladrone Islands, birds of, i. 444
+
+  _Læmargus_, ii. 461
+
+  _Læmosthenes_, ii. 489
+
+  _Læosopis_, ii. 477
+
+  _Lafresnaya_, ii. 107
+
+  _Lagenocetus_, ii. 208
+
+  _Lagenorhynchus_, ii. 209
+
+  _Lagidium_, ii. 237
+
+  LAGOMYIDÆ, ii. 242
+
+  _Lagomys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 242
+
+  _Lagopus_, ii. 339
+
+  _Lagorchestes_, ii. 251
+
+  _Lagostomus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 237
+
+  _Lagothrix_, ii. 174
+
+  _Lais_, ii. 442
+
+  Lake Baikal, seals of, i. 218
+    ii. 206
+
+  _Lalage_, ii. 269
+
+  _Laletes_, ii. 280
+
+  LAMIIDÆ, ii. 498
+
+  _Lamna_, ii. 460
+
+  LAMNIDÆ, ii. 460
+
+  _Lampornis_, ii. 107
+
+  Lampreys, ii. 463
+
+  _Lamprima_, ii. 493
+
+  _Lampris_, ii. 429
+
+  _Lamprocolius_, ii. 288
+
+  _Lamprolæma_, ii. 107
+
+  _Lamrophis_, ii. 380
+
+  _Lampropsar_, ii. 282
+
+  _Lampropygia_, ii. 108
+
+  _Lamprospilus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Lamprospiza_, ii. 99
+
+  _Lamprotes_, ii. 98
+
+  Lancelet, ii. 464
+
+  Land-lizards, ii. 391
+
+  Land and water, proportions of, i. 35
+
+  Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, i. 168
+
+  Land-shells, Palæozoic, i. 169
+    Palæarctic, i. 190
+    of Madeira, i. 209
+    of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 257
+    of W. Africa, i. 265
+    of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 285
+    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 344
+    of the Australian region, i. 407
+    of the Sandwich Islands, i. 466
+    of New Zealand, i. 459
+    of the Neotropical region, ii. 19
+    of the Antilles, ii. 75
+    conditions favouring development of, ii. 75
+    of N. America, ii. 124
+    general observations on the distribution of, ii. 522
+    richness of islands in, ii. 525
+    their mode of diffusion, ii. 525, 528
+    comparative distribution of Operculate and In-operculate, ii. 526
+    estimated numbers of, ii. 526
+
+  Land-snakes, ii. 382
+
+  _Langaha_, ii. 379
+
+  _Laniarius_, ii. 272
+
+  _Lanicterus_, ii. 268
+
+  _Laniellus_, ii. 272
+
+  LANIIDÆ, ii. 272
+
+  _Lanio_, ii. 99
+
+  _Lanius_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 272
+
+  _Laopithecus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Laornis_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
+
+  _Laprissa_, ii. 421
+
+  LARIDÆ, ii. 364
+
+  _Larimus_, ii. 428
+
+  Larks, ii. 289
+
+  _Larus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Larvivora_, ii. 259
+
+  _Lasiomys_, ii. 229
+
+  _Lasiuromys_, ii. 239
+
+  _Latax_, ii. 199
+
+  _Lates_, ii. 425
+
+  _Lathria_, ii. 102
+
+  _Latonia_, ii. 421
+
+  _Latrunculus_, ii. 430
+
+  _Layardia_, ii. 261
+
+  Lea, Dr. Isaac, on N. American Unionidæ, ii. 125
+
+  _Lebia_, ii. 489
+
+  _Lebiasina_, ii. 445
+
+  _Legatus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Leiocephalus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Leiolæmus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Leistes_, ii. 282
+
+  _Leistus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Leiuperus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Leiyla_, ii. 419
+
+  _Lemonias_, ii. 476
+
+  _Lemur_, ii. 176
+
+  Lemur, fossil, ii. 178
+
+  _Lemuravidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Lemuravus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  Lemuria, a hypothetical land, i. 76
+
+  _Lemuridæ_, European Eocene, i. 124
+
+  LEMURIDÆ, ii. 176
+
+  Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
+
+  LEMUROIDEA, ii. 176
+
+  Lemurs, ii. 176
+
+  _Leonia_, ii. 521
+
+  _Lepadogaster_, ii. 436
+
+  _Lepictis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Lepidocepalichthys_, ii. 453
+
+  _Lepidocephalus_, ii. 453
+
+  _Lepidogrammas_, ii. 309
+
+  _Lepidolarynx_, ii. 108
+
+  Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, i. 177
+    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 238
+    S. African, i. 268
+    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 299
+    of the Oriental region, i. 318
+    table of Oriental families of, i. 369
+    of the Australian region, i. 404
+    table of Australian families of, i. 472
+    of the Neotropical region, ii. 13
+    of the Antilles, ii. 73
+    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 90
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 122
+    Nearctic families of, ii. 143
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA, ii. 470
+
+  _Lepidosiren_, ii. 458
+
+  LEPIDOSTEIDÆ, ii. 459
+
+  _Lepidosteus_, ii. 459
+
+  LEPIDOSTERNIDÆ, ii. 389
+
+  _Lepidosternon_, ii. 389
+
+  _Lepilemur_, ii. 176
+
+  _Lepistes_, ii. 450
+
+  LEPORIDÆ, ii. 242
+
+  _Leporinus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Lepricornis_, ii. 476
+
+  _Leprodera_, ii. 501
+
+  _Leptalis_, ii. 478
+
+  _Leptarchus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    ii. 202
+
+  _Leptasthenura_, ii. 103
+
+  _Leptauchenia_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Leptobarbina_, ii. 452
+
+  _Leptobrachium_, ii. 421
+
+  LEPTOCARDII, ii. 464
+
+  _Leptocera_, ii. 502
+
+  _Leptochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Leptocircus_, ii. 479
+
+  _Leptodeira_, ii. 379
+
+  _Leptodon_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    ii. 214
+    ii. 349
+
+  _Leptognathus_, ii. 381
+
+  _Leptomantis_, ii. 419
+
+  _Leptomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 220
+
+  _Lepton_, ii. 535
+
+  _Leptoneura_, ii. 471
+
+  _Leptonyx_, ii. 204
+
+  _Leptopogon_, ii. 101
+
+  _Leptoma_, ii. 520
+
+  _Leptoptila_, ii. 333
+
+  _Leptoptilus_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 361
+
+  _Leptorhytaon_, ii. 380
+
+  _Leptornis_, ii. 276
+
+  LEPTOSOMIDÆ, ii. 310
+
+  _Leptosomus_, allied form in European Eocene,
+    i. 168
+    ii. 310
+
+  Leptosomus of Madagascar, i. 278
+    figure of, i. 279
+
+  _Leptotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 226
+
+  _Leptotriccus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Leptura_, ii. 502
+
+  _Lepus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Lerista_, ii. 395
+
+  _Lerwa_, ii. 339
+
+  _Lesbia_, ii. 108
+
+  _Lestodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Leucippus_, ii. 109
+
+  _Leuciscus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Leucochroa_, ii. 516
+
+  _Leucocyon_, ii. 197
+
+  _Leucomelæna_, ii. 332
+
+  _Leuconerpes_, ii. 304
+
+  _Leucophantes_, ii. 270
+
+  _Leucophasia_, ii. 478
+
+  _Leucopleurus_, ii. 209
+
+  _Leucosarcia_, ii. 333
+
+  _Leucosomus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Leucosticte_, ii. 285
+
+  Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, i. 228
+
+  LIALIDÆ, ii. 396
+
+  _Lialis_, ii. 396
+
+  _Liasis_, ii. 381
+
+  _Libellula_, from the Lias, i. 167
+
+  _Libythea_, ii. 475
+
+  LIBYTHEIDÆ, ii. 475
+
+  _Lichanotus_, ii. 381
+
+  _Lichenops_, ii. 101
+
+  _Licina_, ii. 521
+
+  _Licmetis_, ii. 325
+
+  Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, i. 90
+
+  LIMACIDÆ, ii. 517
+
+  LIMACINIDÆ, ii. 531
+
+  _Limax_, ii. 517
+
+  _Limenitis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Limnæa_, Eocene, i. 169
+    European Secondary, i. 169
+    ii. 518
+
+  LIMNÆIDÆ, ii. 518
+
+  _Limnatornis_, European Miocene, i. 161
+
+  _Limnocharis_, ii. 420
+
+  _Limnocyon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Limnodynastes_, ii. 420
+
+  _Limnohyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Limnophis_, ii. 376
+
+  _Limnornis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Limnotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Limnotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Limnurgus_, ii. 450
+
+  _Limosa_, ii. 353
+
+  Limpets, ii. 511
+
+  _Lingula_, ii. 538
+
+  LINGULIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  _Linota_, ii. 285
+
+  _Linsang_, ii. 195
+
+  _Liocassis_, ii. 442
+
+  _Liopelma_, ii. 417
+
+  _Liopis_, ii. 375
+
+  _Lioptilus_, ii. 267
+
+  _Lioscelis_, ii. 297
+
+  LIOTRICHIDÆ, ii. 266
+
+  _Liothrix_, ii. 266
+
+  _Lipaugus_, ii. 102
+
+  _Liparis_, ii. 430
+
+  _Liphyra_, ii. 477
+
+  _Lipinia_, ii. 397
+
+  _Lipoa_, ii. 342
+
+  _Liposarcus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Liptala_, ii. 477
+
+  _Lissolepis_, ii. 397
+
+  _Listriodon_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  _Lithiodon_, ii. 521
+
+  _Lithomys_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 236
+
+  _Lithornis_, European Eocene, i. 163
+
+  _Litoria_, ii. 418
+
+  _Littorina_, ii. 510
+
+  LITTORINIDÆ, ii. 510
+
+  Lizards, classification of, i. 90
+    Tertiary, i. 165
+    wide range of a species in Polynesia, i. 448
+    distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547
+
+  _Lobodon_, ii. 204
+
+  _Lochmias_, ii. 103
+
+  _Locustella_, ii. 258
+
+  _Loddigesia_, ii. 108
+
+  _Loncheres_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 239
+
+  _Lonchophorus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 239
+
+  LONGICORNIA, ii. 498
+
+  Longicornia, Palæarctic, i. 188
+    Ethiopian, i. 257
+    Oriental, i. 320
+    Australian, i. 407
+    Neotropical, ii. 17
+    of Chili, ii. 46
+    Nearctic, ii. 123
+
+  _Lontra_, ii. 199
+
+  _Lophiodon_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+    ii. 212
+
+  _Lophiomeryx_, ii. 218
+
+  _Lophiotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Lophius_, ii. 431
+
+  _Lophoaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  LOPHOBRANCHII, ii. 456
+
+  _Lophocitta_, ii. 273
+
+  _Lophogyps_, ii. 346
+
+  _Lophoictinia_, ii. 349
+
+  _Lopholaimus_, ii. 362
+
+  _Lophiomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Lophophaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Lophophanes_, ii. 266
+
+  LOPHOPHORINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Lophophorus_, ii. 340
+
+  _Lophorhina_, ii. 274
+
+  _Lophornis_, ii. 107
+
+  _Lophortix_, ii. 339
+
+  _Lophostrix_, ii. 350
+
+  LOPHOTIDÆ, ii. 432
+
+  Lophotragus, ii. 220
+
+  _Lophotriorchis_, ii. 348
+
+  _Lophura_, ii. 402
+
+  Lord Howe's Island, birds of, i. 453
+
+  _Loricaria_, ii. 444
+
+  _Loriculus_, ii. 326
+
+  _Loris_, ii. 176
+
+  _Lorius_, ii. 327
+
+  _Lota_, ii. 439
+
+  _Loxia_, ii. 285
+
+  _Loxigilla_, ii. 285
+
+  _Loxomylus_, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
+    ii. 237
+
+  _Loxops_, ii. 277
+
+  _Lucania_, ii. 450
+
+  LUCANIDÆ, ii. 492
+
+  _Lucanus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Lucia_, ii. 477
+
+  _Lucidella_, ii. 522
+
+  _Lucifuga_, ii. 440
+
+  LUCINIDÆ, ii. 535
+
+  _Lucinopsis_, ii. 536
+
+  LUCIOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 434
+
+  _Lucioperca_, ii. 425
+
+  _Luciotrutta_, ii. 447
+
+  _Lucisoma_, ii. 452
+
+  Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, i. 143
+
+  _Lupus_, ii. 197
+
+  _Lurocalis_, ii. 320
+
+  _Luscinia_, ii. 259
+
+  _Lusciniola_, ii. 258
+
+  _Lutra_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 199
+
+  _Lutronectes_, ii. 199
+
+  _Lycæna_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    ii. 196
+
+  LYCÆNIDÆ, ii. 477
+
+  _Lycalopex_, i. 197
+
+  LYCODIDÆ, ii. 439
+
+  _Lycodon_, ii. 380
+
+  LYCODONTIDÆ, ii. 380
+
+  _Lycophidion_, ii. 380
+
+  _Lycorea_, ii. 470
+
+  _Lygosoma_, ii. 397
+
+  _Lygosomella_, ii. 397
+
+  _Lymanopoda_, ii. 471
+
+  _Lymnas_, ii. 476
+
+  _Lyncornis_, ii. 320
+
+  _Lyncus_, ii. 193
+
+  _Lytorhynchus_, ii. 376
+
+  Lyre-bird, figure of, i. 441
+    ii. 298
+
+  M.
+
+  _Mabouya_, ii. 397
+
+  _Macacus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    supposed in European Eocene, i. 125
+    ii. 173
+    ii. 178
+
+  Macaws, ii. 327
+
+  _Machairodus_, i. 110, 111
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+    ii. 193
+
+  _Machetornis_, ii. 101
+
+  _Machærhamphus_, ii. 349
+
+  _Machærirhynchus_, ii. 271
+
+  _Machæropterus_, ii. 102
+
+  _Machetes_, ii. 353
+
+  _Macrauchenia_, S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  _Macrocalamus_, ii. 374
+
+  _Macroceramus_, ii. 516
+
+  _Macrochilus_, ii. 491
+
+  _Macrocyclis_, ii. 516
+
+  _Macrodipteryx_, ii. 320
+
+  _Macrodon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Macroglossa_, ii. 482
+
+  _Macrones_, ii. 442
+
+  _Macronus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Macronyx_, ii. 290
+
+  MACROPODIDÆ, ii. 250
+
+  _Macropus_, ii. 251
+
+  _Macropygia_, ii. 332
+
+  _Macrorhamphus_, ii. 353
+
+  MACROSCELIDIDÆ, ii. 186
+
+  _Macroscelides_, ii. 186
+
+  _Macrosila_, ii. 482
+
+  _Macrotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 246
+
+  _Macrotus californicus_, ii. 182
+
+  MACROURIDÆ, ii. 440
+
+  MACTRIDÆ, ii. 443
+
+  Madagascar, extinct birds of, i. 164
+    description of, i. 272
+    mammalia of, i. 272
+    birds of, i. 274
+    reptiles of, i. 279
+    amphibia of, i. 280
+    extinct fauna of, i. 282
+    general remarks on insect fauna of, i. 284
+
+  Madeira, birds of, i. 208
+    land-shells of, i. 208
+    beetles of, i. 210
+    wingless insects numerous in, i. 211
+    how stocked with animals, i. 213
+
+  MALACANTHIDÆ, ii. 433
+
+  Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological unity of, i. 353
+    comparison of mammalia, i. 354
+    of birds, i. 355
+
+  _Malacocircus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Malacopteron_, ii. 261
+
+  _Malacoptila_, ii. 310
+
+  _Malacorhynchus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Malacothrix_, ii. 230
+
+  Malagasy sub-region, description of, i. 272
+    mammalia of, i. 272
+    birds of, i. 274
+    illustration of zoology of, i. 278
+    reptiles of, i. 279
+    amphibia of, i. 280
+    extinct fauna of, i. 282, 289
+    insects of, i. 282
+    early history of, i. 286
+
+  _Malapterurus_, ii. 443
+
+  Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, i. 345 (_note_)
+
+  Malaya, meaning of term, ii. 261
+
+  Malay Archipelago, distribution of butterflies in, ii. 484
+    distribution of Cicindelidæ in, ii. 487
+    distribution of Longicorns in, ii. 500
+
+  Malayan forms of life reappearing in West Africa, i. 263
+    fauna, probable origin of, i. 359
+    resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, i. 361
+
+  _Malimbus_, ii. 286
+
+  _Mallodon_, ii. 501
+
+  _Mallotus_, ii. 447
+
+  Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 114
+    formerly joined to Africa, i. 201
+    fossil elephants of, i. 201
+    birds of, i. 206 (_note_)
+
+  _Malurus_, ii. 258
+
+  Mammal, the most ancient American, i. 134
+
+  Mammalia, means of dispersal of, i. 10
+    as limited by climate, i. 11
+    as limited by rivers, i. 12
+    how far limited by the sea, i. 13
+    dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, i. 14
+    means of dispersal of aquatic, i. 15
+    of most importance in determining zoological regions, i. 57
+    classification of, i. 85
+    birthplace and migrations of some families of, i. 142, 153
+    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
+    of the Palæarctic region, i. 181
+    of the European sub-region, i. 192
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 202
+    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 217
+    characteristic of Western Tartary, i. 218
+    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222
+    Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222
+    Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, i. 223
+    peculiar to Japan, i. 223
+    characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, i. 226
+    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 234
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 253
+    absence of certain important groups, i. 253
+    of the E. African sub-region, i. 260
+    of W. Africa, i. 262
+    of S. Africa, i. 267
+    of Madagascar, i. 272
+    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 294
+    table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
+    of the Oriental region, i. 315
+    range of the genera inhabiting the Indian sub-region, i. 322
+    of Ceylon, i. 327
+    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 330
+    of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 336
+    illustration of characteristic Malayan, i. 336
+    of the Philippine Islands, i. 345
+    table of Oriental families of, i. 365
+    table of Oriental genera of, i. 371
+    of Australian region, i. 390
+    of the Papuan Islands, i. 410
+    of the Moluccas, i. 417
+    of the Timor group, i. 422
+    of Celebes, i. 427
+    of Australia, i. 439
+    illustration of, i. 439
+    of New Zealand, i. 450
+    table of families of Australian, i. 470
+    table of genera of Australian, i. 475
+    destinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 6
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 36
+    of Straits of Magellan, ii. 37
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52
+    of the Antilles, ii. 62
+    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 85
+    table of Neotropical genera of, ii. 91
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 115
+    of California, ii. 127
+    of N. American central plains, ii. 129
+    of E. United States, ii. 132
+    of Canada, ii. 135
+    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 140
+    table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 145
+
+  _Mammalia_, extinct, of Old World, i. 107
+    extinct, of historic period, i. 110
+    extinct, comparative age of in Europe, i. 127
+    extinct, of the New World, i. 129
+    extinct, of N. America and Europe, compared, i. 141
+    original birthplace of some families and genera, i. 142, 153
+    of the secondary period, i. 160
+
+  MAMMALIA, summary and conclusion, ii. 540
+    lines of migration of, ii. 544
+
+  Manakins, ii. 102
+
+  MANATIDÆ, ii. 210
+
+  _Manatus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 210
+
+  Manchurian sub-region, description of, i. 220
+    mammalia of, i. 222
+    birds of, i. 223
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 227
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 227
+    insects of, i. 227
+    coleoptera of, i. 228
+
+  MANIDIDÆ, ii. 245
+
+  _Manis_, ii. 245
+
+  _Manorhina_, ii. 276
+
+  _Manticora_, ii. 487
+
+  _Manucodia_, ii. 274
+
+  _Mareca_, ii. 363
+
+  _Margaroperdix_, ii. 338
+
+  _Margarops_, ii. 256
+
+  _Margarornis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Marginella_, ii. 508
+
+  Marine Mollusca, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 537
+
+  Marine shells of the Neotropical region, ii. 20
+
+  Marmosets, ii. 175
+
+  Marquesas Islands, birds of, i. 443
+
+  Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and African deserts, i. 200
+    on camels and goats as destructive to vegetation, i. 200
+
+  MARSUPIALIA, ii. 248
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 253
+
+  Marsupials, classification of, i. 91
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    European Miocene, i. 121
+    first migration to America, i. 155
+    diversified forms of, i. 391
+    of America prove no connection with Australia, i. 399
+    list of Australian genera of, i. 476
+
+  MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA, summary and conclusion, ii. 543
+
+  _Martes_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    ii. 198
+
+  Mascarene Islands, zoology of, i. 280
+    extinct fauna of, i. 282
+    gigantic land-tortoises of, i. 289
+
+  _Masius_, ii. 102
+
+  MASTACEMBELIDÆ, ii. 437
+
+  _Mastodon_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    Indian Miocene, i. 123
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 227, 228
+
+  Mauritius, zoology of, i. 280
+    reptiles of, i. 281
+
+  McCoy, Professor, on Palæontology of Victoria, i. 466
+
+  _Mechanitis_, ii. 470
+
+  _Meda_, ii. 452
+
+  Mediterranean, recent changes in, i. 39
+    sub-region, description of, i. 199
+    mammalia of, i. 202
+    birds of, i. 203
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 204
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 205
+    insects of, i. 205
+    islands of, i. 206
+    sea not separating distinct faunas, i. 201
+
+  _Megabias_, ii. 270
+
+  _Megablabes_, ii. 376
+
+  _Magacephala_, ii. 478
+
+  _Megacephalon_, ii. 342
+
+  _Megacerops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  _Megaderma_, ii. 182
+
+  _Megærophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Megalæma_, ii. 306
+
+  MEGALÆMIDÆ, ii. 305
+
+  MEGALÆMINÆ, ii. 306
+
+  _Megalixalus_, ii. 419
+
+  _Megalocnus_, fossil in Cuba, i. 148
+
+  _Megalomastoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Megalomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Megalomma_, ii. 487
+
+  _Megalonyx_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Megalophrys_, ii. 421
+
+  _Megalostoma_, Eocene, i. 169
+
+  _Megalurus_, ii. 258
+
+  _Megalophonus_, ii. 289
+
+  _Megamys_, S. American Eocene, i. 148
+    ii. 238
+
+  _Meganostoma_, ii. 478
+
+  MEGAPODIIDÆ, ii. 341
+
+  _Megapodius_, ii. 342
+
+  _Megaptera_, ii. 207
+
+  _Megarhynchus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Megaspira_, European Tertiary, i. 169
+    ii. 527
+
+  _Megatheridæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+
+  _Megatherium_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 245
+
+  _Meiornis_, ii. 369
+
+  _Melampitta_, ii. 298
+
+  _Melampus_, ii. 519
+
+  _Melanerpes_, ii. 303
+
+  _Melania_, European Secondary, i. 169
+
+  MELANIADÆ, ii. 509
+
+  _Melanitis_, ii. 471
+
+  _Melanochlora_, ii. 266
+
+  _Melanocorypha_, ii. 289
+
+  _Melanophidium_, ii. 374
+
+  _Melanoptila_, ii. 256
+
+  _Melanotis_, ii. 256
+
+  MELEAGRINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Meleagris_, N. American Miocene, i. 163
+    ii. 340
+
+  _Meles_, ii. 199
+
+  _Melidectes_, ii. 276
+
+  _Melidora_, ii. 316
+
+  _Melierax_, ii. 348
+
+  _Melinæa_, ii. 470
+
+  _Meliornis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Meliphaga_, ii. 275
+
+  MELIPHAGIDÆ, ii. 275
+
+  _Melipotes_, ii. 276
+
+  _Melirrhophetes_, ii. 276
+
+  _Melitæa_, ii. 474
+
+  _Melithreptus_, ii. 276
+
+  _Melittophagus_, ii. 312
+
+  _Melizophilus_, ii. 259
+
+  _Mellisuga_, ii. 108
+
+  _Mellivora_, Indian Miocene, i. 121
+   ii. 199
+
+  _Melolonthidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167
+
+  _Melopelia_, ii. 333
+
+  _Melopsittacus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Melopyrrha_, ii. 285
+
+  _Melospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  _Melursus_, ii. 202
+
+  _Menetia_, ii. 395
+
+  _Meniceros_, ii. 317
+
+  _Meniscotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Menobranchus_, ii. 412
+
+  _Menopoma_, ii. 412
+
+  MENOPOMIDÆ, ii. 412
+
+  _Menotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Menura_, ii. 298
+
+  MENURIDÆ, ii. 298
+
+  _Mephitis_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 199
+
+  _Merganetta_, ii. 364
+
+  _Mergulus_, ii. 367
+
+  _Mergus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Meriones_, ii. 232
+    ii. 230
+
+  _Meristes_, ii. 272
+
+  _Merluccius_, ii. 439
+
+  _Meroe_, ii. 536
+
+  MEROPIDÆ, ii. 312
+
+  _Meropiscus_, ii. 312
+
+  _Meropogon_, ii. 312
+
+  _Merops_, ii. 312
+
+  _Merulaxis_, ii. 297
+
+  _Merychus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Merychippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Merychochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Merycodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 220
+
+  _Merycopotamus_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    ii. 214
+
+  _Merycotherium_, of Siberian drift, i. 112
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Mesacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Mesapia_, ii. 479
+
+  _Mesites_, ii. 263
+
+  _Mesohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Mesomys_, ii. 239
+
+  _Mesonauta_, ii. 438
+
+  _Mesonyx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Mesopithecus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Mesoprion_, ii. 425
+
+  _Mesops_, ii. 439
+
+  _Mesosemia_, ii. 475
+
+  _Messalina_, ii. 391
+
+  _Messaras_, ii. 474
+
+  _Metallura_, ii. 108
+
+  _Metapheles_, ii. 476
+
+  _Methonella_, ii. 476
+
+  _Metius_, ii. 492
+
+  _Metopia_, ii. 102
+
+  _Metopiana_, ii. 364
+
+  _Metoponia_, ii. 283
+
+  _Metopothrix_, ii. 102
+
+  _Metriopelia_, ii. 333
+
+  Mexican sub-region, ii. 51
+    mammalia of, ii. 52
+    birds of, ii. 52
+    reptiles of, ii. 54
+    amphibia of, ii. 54
+    fresh-water fish of, ii. 54
+    insects of, ii. 55
+    land-shells of, ii. 57
+    its relations to the N. and S. American continents, ii. 57
+    islands of, ii. 59
+
+  Meyer, Dr. A.B., on reptiles and amphibia of New Guinea, i. 415¨
+
+  _Micræca_, ii. 270
+
+  _Micracantha_, ii. 501
+
+  _Micrastur_, ii. 347
+
+  _Micrathene_, ii. 350
+
+  _Micrhyla_, ii. 414
+
+  _Microbates_, ii. 104
+
+  _Microcebus_, ii. 176
+
+  _Microcerculus_, ii. 264
+
+  _Microchæra_, ii. 107
+
+  _Microglossus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Microhierax_, ii. 349
+
+  _Microlestes_, oldest European mammal, i. 160
+
+  _Micromeryx_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 220
+
+  _Micropelama_, ii. 353
+
+  _Micropternus_, ii. 304
+
+  _Micropterus_, ii. 364
+
+  _Microscelis_, ii. 267
+
+  _Microstoma_, ii. 448
+
+  _Microsyops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Microtherium_, European Miocene, i. 120
+
+  _Midas_, ii. 176
+
+  Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, i. 219
+
+  _Midea_, ii. 478
+
+  _Miglyptes_, ii. 304
+
+  Migrating birds, in which region to be placed, i. 185
+
+  Migration of animals, i. 10
+    general phenomena of, i. 18
+    of birds, i. 19
+    of birds in Europe, i. 19
+    probable origin of, i. 22
+    of birds in India and China, i. 23
+    of birds in N. America, i. 23
+    changes in extent of, i. 24
+    of birds in S. Temperate America, i. 25
+    general remarks on, i. 25
+
+  _Miletus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Milvulus_, ii. 102, 291
+
+  _Milvus_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 349
+
+  _Mimeta_, ii. 268
+
+  _Mimetes_, ii. 170
+
+  _Mimocichla_, ii. 256
+
+  _Mimus_, ii. 256
+
+  _Minla_, ii. 266
+
+  Miocene fauna of the Old World, i. 114
+    fauna of Geece, i. 115
+    fauna of Greece, summary of, i. 116
+    fauna of Central Europe, i. 117
+    deposits of Siwalik Hills, i. 121
+    faunas of Europe and Asia, general observations on, i. 123
+
+  _Miohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Mionectes_, ii. 101
+
+  _Mirafra_, ii. 289
+
+  _Miro_, ii. 260
+
+  _Misgurnus_, ii. 453
+
+  _Mitra_, ii. 508
+
+  _Mitrephorus_, ii. 102
+
+  _Mitua_, ii. 343
+
+  Mivart, Professor, on classification of primates, i. 86
+    on classification of insectivora, i. 87
+    on classification of amphibia, i. 101
+    of classification of lemurs, ii. 176
+
+  _Mixornis_, ii. 261
+
+  _Mniotilta_, ii. 279
+
+  MNIOTILTIDÆ, ii. 278
+
+  _Mochocus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Mocoa_, ii. 397
+
+  _Moho_, ii. 276
+
+  Mole-rat of W. Tartary, i. 218
+
+  Mole-rats, ii. 231
+
+  Moles, almost wholly Palæarctic, i. 181
+    ii. 190
+
+  _Mollienesia_, ii. 450
+
+  Mollusca, means of dispersal of, i. 30
+    classification of, i. 104
+    groups selected for study, i. 104
+
+  MOLLUSCA, distribution of, ii. 504
+    range of families of, in time, ii. 538
+
+  Moluccas, zoology of, i. 417
+    birds of, i. 419
+    reptiles of, i. 420
+    insects of, i. 420
+    peculiarities of fauna of, i. 421
+
+  _Molossus_, ii. 184
+
+  _Molothrus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Molva_, ii. 439
+
+  MOMOTIDÆ, ii. 313
+
+  _Momotus_, ii. 313
+
+  _Monachalcyon_, ii. 316
+
+  _Monarcha_, ii. 270
+
+  _Monasa_, ii. 311
+
+  _Monitor_, ii. 389
+
+  Monkeys on the high Himalayas, i. 12
+    fossil in N. American Miocene, i. 133
+    in E. Thibet, i. 222
+    abundance of in the Oriental region, i. 315
+
+  _Monoceros_, ii. 507
+
+  _Monodon_, ii. 208
+
+  MONODONTIDÆ, ii. 208
+
+  _Monoplocus_, ii. 390
+
+  _Monopterus_, ii. 455
+
+  Monotremata, classification of, i. 91
+    list of Australian genera of, i. 477
+
+  MONOTREMATA, ii. 253
+    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 254
+
+  _Monotrophis_, ii. 289
+
+  _Montacuta_, ii. 535
+
+  _Monticola_, ii. 256
+
+  _Montifringilla_, ii. 284
+
+  Mörch, Dr., on Panama shells, ii. 20
+
+  _Morelia_, ii. 381
+
+  "More-pork" of Australia, figure of, i. 442
+
+  _Morethria_, ii. 395
+
+  _Mormolyce_, ii. 490
+
+  MORMYRIDÆ, ii. 448
+
+  _Mormyrops_, ii. 448
+
+  _Mormyrus_, ii. 488
+
+  _Morococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Morotherium_, N. American Pliocene, i. 140
+
+  MORPHIDÆ, ii. 472
+
+  _Morphnus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Morpho_, ii. 472
+
+  _Morunga_, ii. 204
+
+  _Moschus_, ii. 219
+
+  _Motacilla_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 290
+
+  MOTACILLIDÆ, ii. 290
+
+  _Motella_, ii. 439
+
+  Moths, ii. 481
+
+  Motmots, ii. 313
+
+  Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, i. 393
+
+  Moupin, position and zoology of, i. 221
+
+  Mouse-deer, ii. 218
+
+  _Moxostoma_, ii. 451
+
+  _Mugil_, ii. 435
+
+  MUGILLIDÆ, ii. 435
+
+  _Mulleria_, ii. 534
+
+  _Mulleripicus_, ii. 303
+
+  MULLIDÆ, ii. 426
+
+  _Mullus_, ii. 426
+
+  _Mungos_, ii. 195
+
+  _Munia_, ii. 287
+
+  MURÆNIDÆ, ii. 456
+
+  _Murænopsis_, ii. 412
+
+  _Murex_, ii. 507
+
+  MURICIDÆ, ii. 507
+
+  _Muridæ_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  MURIDÆ, ii. 229
+
+  Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region, i. 60
+
+  _Mus_, ii. 229
+
+  _Muscardinus_, ii. 232
+
+  _Muscicapa_, ii. 270
+
+  MUSCICAPIDÆ, ii. 270
+
+  _Muscicapula_, ii. 270
+
+  _Muscigralla_, ii. 101
+
+  _Muscipipra_, ii. 101
+
+  _Muscisaxicola_, ii. 101, 291
+
+  _Muscitodus_, ii. 271
+
+  _Muscivora_, ii. 101
+
+  _Musophaga_, ii. 307
+
+  MUSOPHAGIDÆ, ii. 307
+
+  Mussels, ii. 533
+
+  _Mustela_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Mustelidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  MUSTELIDÆ, ii. 198
+
+  _Mustelus_, ii. 460
+
+  MYACIDÆ, ii. 536
+
+  _Myadora_, ii. 536
+
+  _Mycalesis_, ii. 471
+
+  _Mycerobas_, ii. 284
+
+  _Mycetes_, ii. 175
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Mycetopus_, ii. 534
+
+  _Mydaus_, ii. 199
+
+  _Myiadestes_, ii. 260
+
+  _Myiagra_, ii. 271
+
+  _Myialestes_, ii. 271
+
+  _Myiarchus_, ii. 102, 291
+
+  _Myiobius_, ii. 101
+
+  _Myioceyx_, ii. 316
+
+  _Myiochanes_, ii. 102
+
+  _Myiodioctes_, ii. 279
+
+  _Myiodynastes_, ii. 101
+
+  _Myiophonus_, ii. 263
+
+  _Myiopithecus_, ii. 173
+
+  _Myiotheretes_, ii. 100
+
+  _Myiozetetes_, ii. 101
+
+  _Mylesinus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Myletes_, ii. 445
+
+  MYLIOBATIDÆ, ii. 463
+
+  _Myliobatis_, ii. 463
+
+  _Mylodon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Mylopharadon_, ii. 452
+
+  _Mynes_, ii. 474
+
+  _Myochama_, ii. 536
+
+  _Myodes_, ii. 230
+
+  _Myogale_, European Miocene, i. 118
+   ii. 190, 191
+
+  _Myoictis_, ii. 249
+
+  _Myomorphus_, fossil in Cuba, i. 148
+
+  _Myopotamus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 239
+
+  _Myospalax_, ii. 230
+
+  MYOXIDÆ, ii. 232
+
+  _Myoxus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 232
+
+  _Myxomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Myrina_, ii. 477
+
+  _Myrmeciza_, ii. 104
+
+  MYRMECOBIIDÆ, ii. 250
+
+  _Myrmecobius_, ii. 250
+
+  _Myrmecophaga_, ii. 247
+
+  MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ, ii. 247
+
+  _Myrmotherula_, ii. 104
+
+  _Myron_, ii. 376
+
+  _Myrtis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Mysarachne_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  _Mysops_, N. American Eocene, i. 140
+    ii. 231
+
+  _Mystacina tuberculata_, ii. 184
+
+  _Mystacoleucus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Mystacornis_, ii. 258
+
+  _Mystromys_, ii. 230
+
+  MYTILIDÆ, ii. 533
+
+  _Mytilus_, ii. 539
+
+  MYXINIDÆ, ii. 464
+
+  _Myxophagus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+
+  _Myxophyes_, ii. 420
+
+  _Myxus_, ii. 435
+
+  _Myzomela_, ii. 275
+
+  _Myzornis_, ii. 266
+
+  N.
+
+  _Nænia_, ii. 365
+
+  _Naja_, ii. 383
+
+  NANDIDÆ, ii. 433
+
+  _Nandinia_, ii. 195
+
+  _Nandus_, ii. 433
+
+  _Nanina_, ii. 513
+
+  _Nannophryne_, ii. 417
+
+  _Nannophrys_, ii. 421
+
+  _Nanodes_, ii. 327
+
+  _Nanohyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Nanotragus_, ii. 224
+
+  _Napeogenes_, ii. 470
+
+  _Napothera_, ii. 261
+
+  _Nardoa_, ii. 381
+
+  Narwhal, ii. 208
+
+  _Narope_, ii. 472
+
+  _Nasica_, ii. 103
+
+  _Nasiterna_, ii. 325
+
+  _Nasua_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 200
+
+  _Nathalis_, ii. 478
+
+  _Natica_, ii. 539
+
+  NATICIDÆ, ii. 508
+
+  _Nautilus_, ii. 539
+
+  NATRICINÆ, ii. 375
+
+  _Nattereria_, ii. 417
+
+  _Nauclerus_, ii. 349
+
+  _Naucrates_, ii. 429
+
+  _Naultinus_ ii. 400
+
+  NAUTILIDÆ, ii. 506
+
+  _Navicella_, ii. 510
+
+  Nearctic region, defined, i. 79
+    subdivisions of, i. 80
+    distinct from Palæarctic, i. 79
+    ii. 114
+    zoological characteristics of, ii. 115
+    mammalia of, ii. 115
+    birds of, ii. 116
+    reptiles of, ii. 119
+    amphibia of, ii. 120
+    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 120
+    summary of vertebrata of, ii. 120
+    insects of, ii. 122
+    land and fresh-water shells of, ii. 124
+    sub-regions of, ii. 125
+    concluding remarks on, ii. 138
+    tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 139
+
+  Nearctic and Neotropical regions, no decided boundary between, ii. 117
+
+  _Nebria_, ii. 489
+
+  _Necrornis_, European Miocene, i. 161
+
+  NECTARINIIDÆ, ii. 276
+
+  _Nectarinia_, ii. 276
+
+  _Nectarophila_, ii. 276
+
+  _Nectogale_, ii. 190
+
+  _Necydalis_, ii. 502
+
+  _Necyria_, ii. 476
+
+  _Nelicurvius_, ii. 286
+
+  _Nemachilus_, ii. 453
+
+  _Nematogenys_, ii. 444
+
+  NEMEOBIIDÆ, ii. 475
+
+  _Nemeobius_, ii. 475
+
+  NEMORHEDINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Nemorhedus_, ii. 224
+
+  _Nemoricola_, ii. 290
+
+  _Nemosia_, ii. 99
+
+  _Neobatrachus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Neochloe_, ii. 280
+
+  _Neocorys_, ii. 290
+
+  _Neoctantes_, ii. 104
+
+  _Neomeris_, ii. 209
+
+  _Neomorphus_, ii. 309
+
+  _Neophasia_, ii. 478
+
+  _Neophron_, ii. 346
+
+  _Neopipo_, ii. 102
+
+  _Neopus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Neorhynchus_, ii. 285
+
+  _Neosorex_, ii. 191
+
+  _Neotoma_, ii. 230
+
+  _Neotomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Neotragus_, ii. 224
+
+  Neotropical region, defined, i. 78
+    subdivisions of, i. 78
+    relations of W. African sub-region with, i. 265
+    description of, ii. 1
+    zoological features of, ii. 5
+    birds of, ii. 6, 7
+    distinctive features of mammalia of, ii. 6
+    reptiles of, ii. 9
+    amphibia of, ii. 11
+    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 12
+    summary of vertebrates of, ii. 13
+    insects of, ii. 13
+    land-shells of, ii. 19
+    marine shells of, ii. 20
+    summary of past history of, ii. 80
+    tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 84
+
+  Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 21
+
+  _Neoziphius_, ii. 208
+
+  _Nephæcetes_, ii. 320
+
+  _Neptis_, ii. 474
+
+  NERITIDÆ, ii. 510
+
+  _Neritina_, ii. 510
+
+  _Nerophis_, ii. 457
+
+  _Nesoceleus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Nesocichla_, ii. 256
+
+  _Nesodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Nesomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Nesonetta_, ii. 364
+
+  _Nesopsar_, ii. 282
+
+  _Nessia_, ii. 399
+
+  _Nestor_, ii. 329
+
+  NESTORIDÆ, ii. 329
+
+  _Nettapus_, ii. 363
+
+  _Neusterophis_, ii. 376
+
+  Newberry, Dr., on Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of N. America, ii. 155
+
+  Newton, Professor, on position of _Menuridæ_ and _Atrichiidæ_, i. 95
+    on birds of Iceland, i. 198
+    on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25
+    on genus _Camptolæmus_, ii. 39
+    on peculiar genera of Nearctic and Neotropical birds, ii. 118
+    on family _Panuridæ_, ii. 262
+
+  _Newtonia_, ii. 270
+
+  Newts, ii. 413
+
+  New Caledonia, birds of, i. 444
+
+  New Guinea, zoology of, i. 409
+    mammalia of, i. 410
+    birds of, i. 411
+    peculiarities of its ornithology, i. 413
+    illustration of ornithology of, i. 414
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 415
+    insects of, i. 416
+
+  New Zealand, objections to making a primary zoological region, i. 62
+    extinct birds of, i. 164
+    sub region, description of, i. 449
+    compared with British Isles, i. 449
+    mammalia of, i. 451
+    islets of, i. 453
+    illustration of ornithology of, i. 455
+    reptiles of, i. 456
+    amphibia of, i. 457
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 457
+    insects of, i. 458
+    Longicorns of, i. 458
+    Myriapoda of, i. 458
+    land-shells of, i. 459
+    ancient fauna of, i. 460
+    origin of fauna of, i. 460
+    poverty of insects in, i. 462
+    relations of insect-fauna and flora of, i. 472
+
+  _Nicator_, ii. 272
+
+  Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, i. 332
+
+  Nightingale, migration of the, i. 21
+
+  Night-jars, ii. 319
+
+  _Nigidius_, ii. 493
+
+  _Nigrita_, ii. 286
+
+  _Nilaus_, ii. 272
+
+  _Niltava_, ii. 270
+
+  _Ninox_, ii. 350
+
+  _Nisaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Nisoides_, ii. 348
+
+  _Nisoniades_, ii. 480
+
+  NOCTILIONIDÆ, ii. 184
+
+  Nocturnal tree-snakes, ii. 379
+
+  _Nonnula_, ii. 311
+
+  _Norbea_, ii. 397
+
+  Norfolk Island, birds of, i. 453
+
+  North Africa, zoological relations of, i. 202
+
+  North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene, fauna of, i. 130
+    Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from S. America, i. 131
+    extinct birds of, i. 163
+
+  Northern Hemisphere, zoological importance of, ii. 155
+
+  NOTACANTHI, ii. 437
+
+  _Notaden_, ii. 415
+
+  _Notharctos_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Nothocerus_, ii. 344
+
+  _Nothocrax_, ii. 343
+
+  _Nothoprocta_, ii. 344
+
+  _Nothura_, ii. 344
+
+  NOTIDANIDÆ, ii. 461
+
+  _Notiophilus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Notodela_, ii. 259
+
+  _Notoglanis_, ii. 443
+
+  _Notonomus_, ii. 490
+
+  NOTOPTERIDÆ, ii. 455
+
+  _Notopholis_, ii. 391
+
+  Notornis of New Zealand, i. 455
+
+  _Notornis_, ii. 352
+
+  _Nototherium_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 251
+
+  _Nototrema_, ii. 418
+
+  _Noturus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Nucifraga_, ii. 273
+
+  NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA. ii. 531
+
+  _Nucras_, ii. 391
+
+  _Numenius_, ii. 353
+
+  NUMIDINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Numida_, ii. 340
+
+  _Nuria_, ii. 452
+
+  Nuthatches, ii. 265
+
+  _Nutria_, ii. 199
+
+  _Nyctala_, ii. 350
+
+  _Nyctalatinus_, ii. 350
+
+  _Nyctalemon_, ii. 482
+
+  _Nyctalops_, ii. 350
+
+  _Nyctea_, ii. 350
+
+  _Nyctereutes_, ii. 197
+
+  _Nycteris_, ii. 182
+
+  _Nyctibius_, ii. 319
+
+  _Nycticorax_, ii. 359
+
+  _Nyctidromius_, ii. 320
+
+  _Nyctiornis_, ii. 312
+
+  _Nyctipithecus_, ii. 175
+
+  _Nyctiprogne_, ii. 320
+
+  _Nymphalis_, ii. 474
+
+  NYMPHALIDÆ, ii. 473
+
+  _Nymphicus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Nymphidium_, ii. 476
+
+  O.
+
+  _Ochetobius_, ii. 452
+
+  _Ochotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 245
+
+  _Ochthæca_, ii. 100
+
+  _Ochthodiæta_, ii. 100
+
+  _Octodontidæ_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  OCTODONTIDÆ, ii. 237
+
+  _Octodon_, ii. 238
+
+  OCTOPODIDÆ, ii. 505
+
+  _Ocyalus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Ocydromus_, ii. 352
+
+  _Ocyphaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Odontochila_, ii. 486
+
+  _Odontolabris_, ii. 493
+
+  _Odontophorus_, ii. 339
+
+  _Odontophrynus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Oedemia_, ii. 364
+
+  _Oedicnemis_, ii. 355
+
+  _Oëdura_, ii. 399
+
+  _Oena_, ii. 332
+
+  _Ogmodon_, ii. 383
+
+  _Ogyris_, ii. 477
+
+  _Oligdon_, ii. 375
+
+  OLIGODONTIDÆ, ii. 374
+
+  _Oligosarcus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Olisthopus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Olylogon_, ii. 418
+
+  _Olyra_, ii. 442
+
+  _Omaseus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Ommatophoca_, ii. 204
+
+  _Omolepida_, ii. 397
+
+  _Omostenus_, ii. 492
+
+  _Omphalotropis_, ii. 521
+
+  _Omus_, ii. 487
+
+  ONCIDIADÆ, ii. 517
+
+  _Oncidium_, ii. 518
+
+  _Onychodactylus_, ii. 413
+
+  _Onychogale_, ii. 195
+
+  _Onychogalea_, ii. 251
+
+  _Onychognathus_, ii. 288
+
+  _Onchorhynchus_, ii. 447
+
+  _Oncostoma_, ii. 101
+
+  Ophidia, classification of, i. 99
+
+  OPHIDIA, ii. 372
+    remarks on the general distribution of, ii. 386
+    fossil, ii. 387
+
+  OPHIDIIDÆ, ii. 440
+
+  _Ophidium_, ii. 440
+
+  OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 435
+
+  _Ophiodes_, ii. 397
+
+  OPHIOMORIDÆ, ii. 398
+
+  _Ophiomorus_, ii. 398
+
+  _Ophiophagus_, ii. 383
+
+  _Ophiops_, ii. 391
+
+  _Ophioscincus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Ophisaurus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Ophites_, ii. 380
+
+  _Ophonus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Ophryodera_, ii. 487
+
+  _Ophysia_, ii. 209
+
+  OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA, ii. 529
+
+  OPISTHOCOMI, ii. 345
+
+  _Opisthocomus_, Brazilian caves, i. 164
+    ii. 345
+
+  _Opisthodelphys_, ii. 418
+
+  _Opisthostoma_, ii. 520
+
+  _Opisthoporus_, ii. 520
+
+  _Oporornis_, ii. 279
+
+  _Opossum_, extinct in European Miocene, i. 121
+
+  Opossums, ii. 248
+
+  _Opsariichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  _Opsiphanes_, ii. 472
+
+  Orang-utan, ii. 171
+
+  _Orca_, ii. 209
+
+  _Orcaella_, ii. 209
+
+  _Orchesticus_, ii. 99
+
+  _Orchilus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Oreas_, ii. 223
+
+  _Oreicola_, ii. 260
+
+  _Oreinus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Oreocephalus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Oreocincla_, ii. 256
+
+  _Oreodeira_, ii. 401
+
+  _Oreodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Oreodontidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Oreoeca_, ii. 271
+
+  _Oreomanes_, ii. 278
+
+  _Oreonectes_, ii. 453
+
+  _Oreonympha_, ii. 108
+
+  _Oreoperdix_, ii. 338
+
+  OREOPHASINÆ, ii. 343
+
+  _Oreophasis_, ii. 343
+
+  _Oreophilus_, ii. 356
+
+  _Oreopyra_, ii. 107
+
+  _Oreortyx_, ii. 339
+
+  _Oreoscoptes_, ii. 256
+
+  _Oreothraupis_, ii. 99
+
+  _Oreotrochilus_, ii. 107
+
+  _Orestias_, ii. 450
+
+  Oriental region, defined, i. 75
+    subdivisions of, i. 75
+    description of, i. 314
+    zoological features of, i. 315
+    mammalia of, i. 315
+    birds of, i. 316
+    reptiles of, i. 317
+    amphibia of, i. 317
+    fresh-water fishes of, i. 318
+    summary of vertebrata of, i. 318
+    insects of, i. 318
+    sub-regions of, i. 321
+    concluding remarks on, i. 362
+    tables of distribution of animals of, i. 364
+
+  Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, i. 265
+
+  Oriental and Palæarctic faunas once identical, i. 362
+
+  Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their resemblances, i. 363
+
+  _Origma_, ii. 260
+
+  _Oriocalotes_, ii. 402
+
+  Orioles, ii. 268
+
+  ORIOLIDÆ, ii. 268
+
+  _Oriolus_, ii. 268
+
+  _Orites_, ii. 266
+
+  _Ornithion_, ii. 101
+
+  ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ, ii. 253
+
+  _Ornithorhynchus_, ii. 253
+
+  _Orocætes_, ii. 256
+
+  _Orohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Ortalida_, ii. 343
+
+  _Orthagoriscus_, ii. 457
+
+  _Orthalicus_, ii. 516
+
+  ORTHIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  ORTHOCERATIDÆ, ii. 506
+
+  _Orthodon_, ii. 452
+
+  _Orthogonius_, ii. 491
+
+  _Orthogonys_, ii. 98
+
+  _Orthonyx_, ii. 260
+
+  _Orthorhynchus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Orthotomus_, ii. 257
+
+  _Ortygometra_, ii. 352
+
+  _Ortygornis_, ii. 338
+
+  _Ortyx_, ii. 339
+
+  _Ortyxelos_, ii. 341
+
+  ORYCTEROPODIDÆ, ii. 246
+
+  _Orycteropus_, ii. 246
+
+  _Orycterus_, ii. 231
+
+  ORYGINÆ, ii. 223
+
+  _Oryx_, ii. 223
+
+  _Oryzoborus_, ii. 285
+
+  _Oryzorictes_, ii. 188
+
+  _Osmerus_, ii. 447
+
+  _Osphranter_, ii. 251
+
+  _Osteobrama_, ii. 453
+
+  _Osteochilus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Osteogeniosus_, ii. 443
+
+  OSTEOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 454
+
+  _Osteoglossum_, ii. 454
+
+  _Ostinops_, ii. 282
+
+  OSTREIDÆ, ii. 533
+
+  _Ostrich_, Miocene of N. India, i. 162
+
+  Ostriches, ii. 368
+
+  _Otaria_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 202
+
+  OTARIIDÆ, ii. 202
+
+  OTIDIDÆ, ii. 356
+
+  _Otidiphaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Otilophus_, ii. 415, 428
+
+  _Otis_, ii. 356
+
+  _Otocorys_, ii. 289
+
+  _Otocryptis_, ii. 402
+
+  _Otogyps_, ii. 346
+
+  _Otomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Otopoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Ovibos_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 224, 225
+
+  Owl-parrot, ii. 329
+
+  Owls, ii. 350
+
+  Oxen, birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
+    Palæarctic, i. 182
+    ii. 221
+
+  OXUDERCIDÆ, ii. 431
+
+  _Oxyæna_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Oxydoras_, ii. 443
+
+  _Oxyglossus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Oxygomphus_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 186
+
+  _Oxylabes_, ii. 262
+
+  _Oxymycterus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 230, 231
+
+  _Oxynotus_, ii. 269
+
+  _Oxypogon_, ii. 108
+
+  OXYRHAMPHIDÆ, ii. 292
+
+  _Oxyrhamphus_, ii. 292
+
+  _Oxyrhopus_, ii. 379
+
+  _Oxyurus_, ii. 103
+
+  Oysters, ii. 533
+
+  P.
+
+  _Pachybatrachus_, ii. 416
+
+  _Pachycephala_, ii. 271
+
+  PACHYCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 271
+
+  _Pachydactylus_, ii. 400
+
+  _Pachyæna_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Pachyglossa_, ii. 277
+
+  _Pachynolophus_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Pachyrhamphus_, ii. 102
+
+  _Pachyrhynchus_, ii. 391
+
+  _Pachyteles_, ii. 490, 492
+
+  _Pachytherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 246
+
+  _Pachyura_, ii. 191
+
+  _Pæocephalus_, ii. 328
+
+  _Pæcilus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Pagellus_, ii. 427
+
+  _Pagomys_, ii. 204
+
+  _Pagophila_, ii. 364
+
+  _Pagophilus_, ii. 204
+
+  _Paguma_, ii. 195
+
+  PAICTIDÆ, ii. 298
+
+  Palæarctic region, ancient limits of, ii. 157
+    defined, i. 171
+    subdivisions of, i. 71
+    general features of. i. 180
+    zoological charcteristics of, i. 181
+    has few peculiar families, i. 181
+    mammalia of, i. 181
+    birds of, i. 182
+    high degree of speciality of, i. 184
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 186
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 186
+    summary of vertebrata of, i. 186
+    insects of, i. 186
+    coleoptera of, i. 187
+    number of coleoptera of, i. 189
+    land-shells of, i. 190
+    sub-regions of, i. 190
+    general conclusions on the fauna of, i. 231
+    tables of distribution of animals of, i. 233
+
+  _Palæacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Palæetus_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Palægithalus_, European Eocene, i. 162
+
+  _Palælodus_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Palæocastor_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+    ii. 234
+
+  _Palæocercus_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Palæochoerus_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Palæocyon_, ii. 198
+
+  _Palæohierax_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Palæolagus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+
+  _Palæolama_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Palæomephitis_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 200
+
+  _Palæomeryx_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 220
+
+  _Palæomys_, European Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 238
+
+  _Palæontina oolitica_, Oolitic insect, i. 167
+
+  Palæontology, i. 107
+    how best studied in its bearing on geographical distribution, i. 168
+    as an introduction to the study of geographical distribution,
+      concluding remarks on, i. 169
+
+  _Palæonyctis_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Palæoperdix_, European Miocene, i. 161
+
+  _Palæophrynus_, European Miocene, i. 166
+
+  _Palæoreas_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+
+  _Palæornis_, ii. 326
+
+  PALÆORNITHIDÆ, ii. 326
+
+  _Palæonyctis_, ii. 196, 206
+
+  _Palæortyx_, European Miocene, i. 161
+
+  _Palæoryx_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+
+  _Palæospalax_, i. 111
+    European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 190
+
+  _Palæosyops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Palæotheridæ_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Palæotherium_, Enropean Eocene, i. 125
+    S. American Eocene, i. 148
+
+  _Palæotragus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+
+  _Palæotringa_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
+
+  _Palamedea_, ii. 361
+
+  PALAMEDEIDÆ, ii. 361
+
+  _Palapterygidæ_ of New Zealand, i. 164
+
+  PALAPTERYGIDÆ, ii. 370
+
+  _Palapteryx_, ii. 370
+
+  Palestine, birds of, i. 203
+
+  _Pallasia_, ii. 289
+
+  _Paloplotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  _Paludicola_, ii. 416
+
+  _Paludina_, Eocene, i. 169
+    European Secondary, i. 169
+    ii. 510
+
+  PALUDINIDÆ, ii. 510
+
+  Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, i. 146
+
+  _Pamphila_, ii. 480
+
+  Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, i. 222
+    Himalayan, figure of, i. 331
+    ii. 201
+
+  _Pandion_, ii. 349
+
+  PANDIONIDÆ, ii. 349
+
+  _Pangasius_, ii. 442
+
+  _Pangolin_, ii. 245
+
+  _Panolax_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+
+  _Panopoea_, ii. 536
+
+  _Panoplites_, ii. 107
+
+  _Panterpe_, ii. 109
+
+  _Panthalops_, ii. 223
+
+  PANURIDÆ, ii. 262
+
+  _Panurus_, ii. 262
+
+  _Panychlora_, ii. 109
+
+  _Panyptila_, ii. 320
+
+  Paper-Nautilus, ii. 505
+
+  _Paphia_, ii. 474
+
+  _Papilio_, ii. 479
+
+  PAPILIONIDÆ, ii. 479
+
+  Papuan Islands, zoology of, i. 409
+
+  _Paracanthobrama_, ii. 452
+
+  _Paradigalla_, ii. 275
+
+  _Paradiplomystax_, ii. 443
+
+  _Paradisea_, ii. 274
+
+  Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, i. 414
+
+  Paradise-birds, ii. 274
+
+  PARADISEIDÆ, ii. 274
+
+  PARADISEINÆ, ii. 274
+
+  _Paradoxornis_, ii. 262
+
+  _Paradoxurus_, ii. 195
+
+  _Parahippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  _Paralabraz_, ii. 425
+
+  _Paramys_, N. American Eocene, i. 140
+    ii. 236
+
+  _Parandra_, ii. 501
+
+  _Paraphoxinus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Pardalotus_, ii. 277
+
+  _Pareas_, ii. 380
+
+  _Parodon_, ii. 445
+
+  _Pareudiastes_, ii. 352
+
+  PARIDÆ, ii. 265
+
+  _Pariodon_, ii. 444
+
+  _Parisoma_, ii. 266
+
+  _Parmacella_, ii. 517
+
+  _Parmarion_, ii. 517
+
+  _Parmophorus_, ii. 511
+
+  _Parnassius_, ii. 479
+
+  _Paroaria_, ii. 284
+
+  _Parotia_, ii. 274
+
+  _Parra_, ii. 355
+
+  PARRIDÆ, ii. 354
+
+  Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, i. 415
+
+  Parrots, classification of, i. 96
+    ii. 324, 329
+
+  Partridges, ii. 338
+
+  _Partula_, ii. 515
+
+  _Parula_, ii. 279
+
+  _Parus_, ii. 265
+
+  _Pasimachus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Passerculus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Passerella_, ii. 284
+
+  Passeres, arrangement of, i. 94
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 243
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 375
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 478
+
+  PASSERES, ii. 255
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 299
+
+  _Passerita_, ii. 379
+
+  _Pastor_, ii. 287
+
+  _Patagona_, ii. 108
+
+  _Patella_, ii. 539
+
+  PATELLIDÆ, ii. 511
+
+  _Patriofelis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Patrobus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Pauxi_, ii. 343
+
+  _Pavo_, ii. 340
+
+  PAVONINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Paxillus_, ii. 520
+
+  Pearl-oysters, ii. 533
+
+  Pease, Mr. Harper, on Polynesian region of Land-shells, ii. 528
+
+  Peccaries, ii. 215
+
+  _Pectinator_, ii. 238
+
+  Peculiar groups, geographically, how defined, ii. 184
+
+  _Pedetes_, ii. 232
+
+  PEDICULATI, ii. 431
+
+  _Pediocætes_, ii. 339
+
+  _Pedionomus_, ii. 356
+
+  PEGASIDÆ, ii. 456
+
+  _Pelagius_, ii. 204
+
+  _Pelagornis_, European Miocene, i. 162
+
+  _Pelamis_, ii. 384
+
+  _Pelargopsis_, ii. 316
+
+  _Pelea_, ii. 224
+
+  PELECANIDÆ, ii. 365
+
+  _Pelecanoides_, ii. 365
+
+  _Pelecanus_, ii. 365
+
+  _Pelecium_, ii. 490
+
+  _Pelecus_, ii. 453
+
+  Pelicans, ii. 365
+
+  _Peliperdix_, ii. 338
+
+  _Pellorneum_, ii. 261
+
+  _Pelobates_, ii. 417
+
+  PELODRYADÆ, ii. 418
+
+  _Pelodryas_, ii. 418
+
+  _Pelodytes_, ii. 421
+
+  _Pelomedusa_, ii. 409
+
+  _Pelomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Pelonax_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Peloperdix_, ii. 338
+
+  _Pelotrophus_, ii. 453
+
+  _Peltaphryne_, ii. 415
+
+  _Peltocephalus_, ii. 408
+
+  _Peltopelor_, ii. 385
+
+  _Peltops_, ii. 270
+
+  _Penelope_, ii. 343
+
+  _Penelopides_, ii. 317
+
+  _Penelopina_, ii. 343
+
+  PENELOPINÆ, ii. 343
+
+  _Penetes_, ii. 472
+
+  Penguins, ii. 366
+
+  _Pentadactylus_, ii. 399
+
+  _Pentila_, ii. 477
+
+  _Peragalea_, ii. 250
+
+  _Perameles_, ii. 250
+
+  PERAMELIDÆ, ii. 250
+
+  _Peratherium_, European Miocene, i. 121
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 249
+
+  _Perca_, ii. 425
+
+  _Percarina_, i. 425
+
+  _Perchoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Percilia_, ii. 425
+
+  _Percichthys_, ii. 425
+
+  PERCIDÆ, ii. 425
+
+  _Percnostola_, ii. 104
+
+  PERCOPSIDÆ, ii. 448
+
+  _Percus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Perdix_, ii. 338
+
+  _Pericallus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Pericrocotus_, ii. 268
+
+  _Peridexia_, ii. 487
+
+  Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, i. 122
+    probable southern limit of old Palæarctic land, i. 362
+    character of fossils of, ii. 157
+
+  _Periopthalmus_, ii. 430
+
+  _Perisoreus_, ii. 273
+
+  _Perissodactyla_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Perissoglossa_, ii. 279
+
+  _Peristera_, ii. 333
+
+  _Peristethus_, ii. 428
+
+  Periwinkle, ii. 510
+
+  _Pernis_, ii. 349
+
+  _Perodicticus_, ii. 176
+
+  _Perognathus_, ii. 233
+
+  _Peropus_, ii. 399
+
+  Persia, birds of, i. 204
+
+  _Petasophora_, ii. 108
+
+  _Petaurista_, ii. 252
+
+  _Petenia_, ii. 438
+
+  _Petrochelidon_, ii. 281
+
+  _Petrodromus_, ii. 186
+
+  Petrels, ii. 365
+
+  _Petroeca_, ii. 260
+
+  _Petrogale_, ii. 251
+
+  _Petromys_, ii. 239
+
+  _Petrophassa_, ii. 333
+
+  _Petrorhynchus_, ii. 208
+
+  _Petroscirtes_, ii. 431
+
+  _Peucæa_, ii. 284
+
+  _Pezophaps_, ii. 334
+
+  _Pezoporus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Pfeifferia_, ii. 516
+
+  _Phacellodomus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Phacochoerus_, ii. 215
+
+  _Phænicophaës_, ii. 309
+
+  _Phænicophilus_, ii. 99
+
+  _Phænicothraupis_, ii. 98
+
+  _Phænopepla_, ii. 280
+
+  _Phæochroa_, ii. 107
+
+  _Phæolæma_, ii. 107
+
+  _Phæoptila_, ii. 109
+
+  _Phaëthornis_, ii. 107
+
+  _Phaeton_, ii. 365
+
+  _Phalacrocorax_, ii. 365
+
+  Phalangers, ii. 251
+
+  _Phalangista_, ii. 252
+
+  Phalangistidæ, ii. 251
+
+  _Phalaropus_, ii. 353
+
+  _Phapitreron_, ii. 333
+
+  _Phaps_, ii. 333
+
+  _Pharomacrus_, ii. 314
+
+  _Phascogale_, ii. 249
+
+  _Phascolarctos_, ii. 252
+
+  PHASCOLOMYIDÆ, ii. 252
+
+  _Phascolomys_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+
+  PHASIANIDÆ, ii. 339
+
+  PHASIANINÆ, ii. 340
+
+  _Phasianus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Post-Pliocene, i. 161
+    ii. 340
+
+  _Phasidus_, ii. 340
+
+  _Phatagin_, ii. 245
+
+  Pheasants, in European Miocene, i. 161
+    golden, of N. China, i. 226
+    eared, of Mongolia, i. 226
+    ii. 339
+
+  _Phedina_, ii. 281
+
+  _Phelsuma_, ii. 400
+
+  _Phenacodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+
+  _Pheropsophus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Pheucticus_, ii. 285
+
+  _Phibalura_, ii. 102
+
+  _Philagetes_, ii. 502
+
+  _Philemon_, ii. 276
+
+  _Philentoma_, ii. 271
+
+  _Philepitta_, ii. 298
+
+  _Philetærus_, ii. 286
+
+  _Philodryas_, ii. 376
+
+  Philippine Islands, mammals of, i. 345
+    birds of, i. 346
+    origin of peculiar fauna of, i. 448
+
+  _Philohela_, ii. 353
+
+  _Philomycus_, ii. 517
+
+  _Philydor_, ii. 103
+
+  PHILYDORINÆ, ii. 295
+
+  _Phlæomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Phlæocryptes_, ii. 103
+
+  _Phlogoenas_, ii. 333
+
+  _Phlogophilus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Phlogopsis_, ii. 104
+
+  _Phlogothraupis_, ii. 98, 283
+
+  _Phoca_, ii. 204
+
+  _Phocæna_, ii. 209
+
+  _Phocidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+
+  PHOCIDÆ, ii. 203
+
+  _Phodilus_, ii. 350
+
+  _Phoenicocercus_, ii. 102, 293
+
+  _Phoenicophaës_, ii. 309
+
+  PHOENICOPTERIDÆ, ii. 361
+
+  _Phoenicopterus_, ii. 361
+
+  PHOLADIDÆ, ii. 537
+
+  _Pholadomya_, ii. 536
+
+  _Pholeoptynx_, ii. 350
+
+  _Pholidotus_, ii. 245
+
+  _Pholidotus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Phonipara_, ii. 284
+
+  _Phorus_, ii. 510
+
+  _Phos_, ii. 507
+
+  _Phractocephalus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Phrygilus_, ii. 284
+
+  PHRYNISCIDÆ, ii. 414
+
+  _Phryniscus_, ii. 414
+
+  _Phrynobatrachus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Phrynocephalus_, ii. 402
+
+  _Phrynoglossus_, ii. 421
+
+  _Phrynorhombus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Phrynosoma_, ii. 401
+
+  _Phycis_, ii. 439
+
+  _Phyllastrephus_, ii. 267
+
+  PHYLLIDIADÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Phyllobates_, ii. 419
+
+  _Phyllodactylus_, ii. 399
+
+  _Phyllomedusa_, ii. 418
+
+  _Phyllomyias_, ii. 101
+
+  _Phyllomys_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 239
+
+  _Phyllornis_, ii. 267
+
+  PHYLLORNITHIDÆ, ii. 267
+
+  _Phylloscartes_, ii. 101
+
+  PHYLLOSCOPINÆ, ii. 257
+
+  _Phylloscopus_, ii. 258
+
+  _Phyllostomidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 181
+
+  _Phyllurus_, ii. 400
+
+  PHYLLYRHOIDÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Phymaturus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Physa_, ii. 518
+
+  _Physalus_, ii. 207
+
+  _Physeter_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    ii. 208
+
+  Physical changes affecting distribution, i. 7
+
+  _Physignathus_, ii. 402
+
+  PHYSOSTOMI, ii. 441
+
+  _Phytala_, ii. 477
+
+  _Phytotoma_, ii. 294
+
+  PHYTOTOMIDÆ, ii. 294
+
+  _Phyton_, ii. 502
+
+  _Piabuca_, ii. 445
+
+  _Piabucina_, ii. 445
+
+  _Piaya_, ii. 309
+
+  _Pica_, ii. 273
+
+  Picariæ, arrangement of, i. 95
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 247
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 309
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 381
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 482
+
+  PICARIÆ, ii. 302
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 322
+
+  _Picathartes_, ii. 274
+
+  _Picicorvus_, ii. 273
+
+  PICIDÆ, ii. 302
+
+  _Picoides_, ii. 303
+
+  _Picolaptes_, ii. 103
+
+  _Picumnus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Picus_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 303
+
+  PIERIDÆ, ii. 478
+
+  _Pieris_, ii. 478
+
+  _Piezia_, ii. 491
+
+  Pigeons, classification of, i. 96
+    remarkable development of, in the Australian region, i. 395
+    crested, of Australia, figure of, i. 441
+    ii. 331
+    abundant in islands, ii. 335
+
+  Pigs, power of swimming, i. 13
+
+  Pikas, ii. 242
+
+  Pike, ii. 449
+
+  Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, i. 115
+
+  Pilchard, ii. 454
+
+  _Pileoma_, ii. 425
+
+  _Pimelodus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Pimephales_, ii. 452
+
+  _Pinacodera_, ii. 490
+
+  _Pinicola_, ii. 285
+
+  _Pinulia_, ii. 191
+
+  _Pionus_, ii. 328
+
+  _Pipa_, ii. 422
+
+  PIPIDÆ, ii. 421
+
+  _Pipile_, i. 343
+
+  _Pipilo_, ii. 284
+
+  Piping crows, ii. 273
+
+  _Pipra_, ii. 102, 292
+
+  _Pipreola_, ii. 102
+
+  PIPRIDÆ, ii. 102
+
+  _Pipridea_, ii. 98
+
+  _Piprisoma_, ii. 277
+
+  _Piprites_, ii. 102, 292
+
+  _Piramutana_, ii. 442
+
+  _Piratinga_, ii. 443
+
+  _Pirinampus_, ii. 443
+
+  _Pitangus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Pithecia_, ii. 175
+
+  _Pithecopsis_, ii. 420
+
+  _Pithys_, ii. 104
+
+  _Pitta_, ii. 298
+
+  Pittas, ii. 297
+
+  _Pittasoma_, ii. 104
+
+  Pittidæ, abundant in Borneo, i. 355
+
+  PITTIDÆ, ii. 297
+
+  _Pituophis_, ii. 375
+
+  Pit-vipers, ii. 384
+
+  _Pitylus_, ii. 99
+
+  _Pityriasis_, ii. 273
+
+  _Plagiodontia_, ii. 238
+
+  _Plagiolophus_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Plagiotelium_, ii. 492
+
+  PLAGIOSTOMATA, ii. 460
+
+  _Planetes_, ii. 490
+
+  _Planorbis_, European Secondary, i. 169
+    Eocene, i. 169
+    ii. 518
+
+  Plantain-eaters, ii. 307
+
+  Plant-cutters, ii. 294
+
+  Plants, distribution of, probably the same fundamentally as that of
+      animals, ii. 162
+
+  _Platacanthomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Platalea_, ii. 360
+
+  PLATALEIDÆ, ii. 360
+
+  _Platanista_, ii. 209
+
+  _Platemys_, ii. 408
+
+  _Platurus_, ii. 384
+
+  _Platycercidæ_, gorgeously-coloured Australian parrots, i. 394
+
+  PLATYCERCIDÆ, ii. 325
+
+  _Platycercus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Platychile_, ii. 487
+
+  _Platygonus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Platylophus_, ii. 273
+
+  _Platymantis_, ii. 419
+
+  _Platynematichthys_, ii. 442
+
+  _Platynus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Platypoecilus_, ii. 450
+
+  PLATYRHYNCHINÆ, ii. 291
+
+  _Platyrhynchus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Platysaurus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Platysoma_, ii. 489
+
+  _Platystira_, ii. 271
+
+  _Platystoma_, ii. 442
+
+  _Platystomatichthys_, ii. 442
+
+  _Plecoglossus_, ii. 447
+
+  _Plecostomus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Plecotus_, ii. 183
+
+  PLECTOGNATHI, ii. 457
+
+  PLECTROMANTIDÆ, ii. 417
+
+  _Plectromantis_, ii. 417
+
+  _Plectrophanes_, ii. 286
+
+  _Plectropterus_, ii. 363
+
+  _Plectrotrema_, ii. 519
+
+  _Plecturus_, ii. 374
+
+  _Plesiarctomys_, European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 236
+
+  _Plesiomeryx_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Plesiosorex_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  _Plestiodon_, ii. 397
+
+  _Plethodon_, ii. 413
+
+  PLEUROBRANCHIDÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Pleurodeles_, ii. 413
+
+  _Pleurodema_, ii. 420
+
+  _Pleuronectes_, ii. 441
+
+  PLEURONECTIDÆ, ii. 440
+
+  _Pleurostrichus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Pleurotoma_, ii. 508
+
+  _Pleurotomaria_, ii. 539
+
+  Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, i. 112
+
+  Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas of Europe, general conclusions from, i.
+      113
+    of N. America, i. 132
+    of S. America, i. 146
+    of Australia, i. 157
+
+  _Pliohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Pliolophus_, European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 216
+
+  _Pliopithecus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 178
+
+  PLOCEIDÆ, ii. 286
+
+  _Plocepasser_, ii. 286
+
+  _Ploceus_, ii. 286
+
+  _Plotosus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Plotus_, ii. 365
+
+  Plovers, ii. 355
+
+  _Pluvianellus_, ii. 356
+
+  _Pluvianus_, ii. 355
+
+  PLYCTOLOPHIDÆ, ii. 324
+
+  _Pnoepyga_, ii. 263
+
+  _Podabrus_, ii. 249
+
+  _Podager_, ii. 320
+
+  PODARGIDÆ, ii. 318
+
+  _Podargus_, ii. 318
+
+  _Podica_, ii. 352
+
+  _Podiceps_, ii. 367
+
+  PODICIPIDÆ, ii. 366
+
+  _Podilymbus_, ii. 367
+
+  _Podocnemis_, ii. 408
+
+  _Poebrotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Poecilia_, ii. 450
+
+  _Poecilophis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Poecilothraupis_, ii. 98
+
+  _Poephagus_, ii. 222
+
+  _Poephila_, ii. 287
+
+  _Pogonocichla_, ii. 271
+
+  POGONORHYNCHINÆ, ii. 306
+
+  _Pogonorhynchus_, ii. 306
+
+  _Pogonornis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Pogonostoma_, ii. 487
+
+  _Pogonotriccus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Pohlia_, ii. 418
+
+  _Poiana_, ii. 195
+
+  _Polemistria_, ii. 107
+
+  _Polioaëtus_, ii. 349
+
+  _Poliococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Poliohierax_, ii. 349
+
+  _Poliopsitta_, ii. 328
+
+  _Polioptila_, ii. 258
+
+  _Pollanisus_, ii. 481
+
+  POLYBORINÆ, ii. 347
+
+  _Polyboroides_, ii. 347
+
+  _Polyborus_, ii. 347
+
+  _Polybothris_, ii. 497
+
+  POLYCENTRIDÆ, ii. 434
+
+  _Polycesta_, ii. 479
+
+  POLYDONTIDÆ, ii. 459
+
+  _Polyhirma_, ii. 491
+
+  POLYNEMIDÆ, ii. 429
+
+  _Polyommatus_, ii. 477
+
+  Polynesian sub-region, description of, i. 442
+    birds of, i. 443
+    reptiles of, i. 447
+
+  _Polypedates_, ii. 419
+
+  POLYPEDATIDÆ, ii. 419
+
+  _Polypi_, ii. 505
+
+  _Polyplectron_, ii. 340
+
+  _Polyprion_, ii. 425
+
+  POLYPTERIDÆ, ii. 458
+
+  _Polypterus_, ii. 458
+
+  _Polytelis_, ii. 325
+
+  _Pomacanthus_, ii. 427
+
+  POMACENTRIDÆ, ii. 437
+
+  _Pomacentrus_, ii. 437
+
+  _Pomatias_, ii. 521
+
+  _Pomatorhinus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Pomotis_, ii. 425
+
+  _Pompholyx_, ii. 518
+
+  _Pontia_, ii. 478
+
+  _Pontoporia_, ii. 209
+
+  _Pooecetes_, ii. 284
+
+  _Poodytes_, ii. 258
+
+  _Poospiza_, ii. 284
+
+  Porcupines, ii. 240
+
+  _Poritia_, ii. 477
+
+  _Porphyrio_, ii. 352
+
+  Porpoises, ii. 208
+
+  _Portax_, ii. 223
+
+  _Porzana_, ii. 352
+
+  Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, i. 110
+    remains imply changes of physical geography in Europe, i. 111
+    fauna of N. America, i. 129
+    fauna of N. America, remarks on, i. 130
+
+  _Potamides_, ii. 509
+
+  _Potamochoerus_, ii. 215
+
+  _Potamodus_, ii. 258
+
+  Potamogale of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
+
+  _Potamogale_, ii. 189
+
+  POTAMOGALIDÆ, ii. 189
+
+  _Potamotherium_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 200
+
+  Potto of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
+    ii. 176
+
+  Pouched Rats, ii. 233
+
+  _Praotherium_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+
+  _Pratincola_, ii. 260
+
+  Pratincoles, ii. 355
+
+  _Presbytes_, ii. 171
+
+  _Prepona_, ii. 474
+
+  Primates, classification of, i. 86
+    probable birthplace of, i. 153
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 475
+
+  _Primates_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 117
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    European Eocene, i. 124
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 132
+    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  PRIMATES, distribution of, ii. 170-180
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 179
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 540
+
+  Prince's Island, birds of, i. 206
+
+  _Prinia_, ii. 257
+
+  _Prion_, ii. 365
+
+  _Prioneris_, ii. 478
+
+  PRIONIDÆ, ii. 498
+
+  _Prionidium_, Oolitic insects, i. 167
+
+  _Prionirhynchus_, ii. 313
+
+  _Prioniturus_, ii. 326
+
+  _Prionochilus_, ii. 277
+
+  _Prionodontes_, ii. 246
+
+  _Prionops_, ii. 272
+
+  _Prionoteles_, ii. 314
+
+  PRISTIDÆ, ii. 462
+
+  _Pristimantis_, ii. 419
+
+  PRISTIOPHORIDÆ, ii. 462
+
+  _Pristiphoca_, in European Pliocene, i. 112
+    ii. 204
+
+  PRISTIPOMATIDÆ, ii. 426
+
+  _Pristiurus_, ii. 461
+
+  _Pristonychus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Proboscidea_, classification of, i. 90
+    range of Ethiopian genus, i. 303
+    range of Oriental genus, i. 374
+
+  _Proboscidea_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary i. 138
+    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  PROBOSCIDEA, ii. 227
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 542
+
+  _Procamelus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Procapra_, ii. 223
+
+  _Procarduelis_, ii. 283
+
+  _Procellaria_, ii. 365
+
+  PROCELLARIIDÆ, ii. 365
+
+  _Procerus_, ii. 488
+    ii. 489
+
+  _Prochilodus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Prochilus_, ii. 202
+
+  _Procnias_, ii. 98
+
+  _Procris_, ii. 481
+
+  _Procrustes_, ii. 488
+    ii. 489
+
+  _Proctotretus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Procyon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 200
+
+  _Procyonidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  PROCYONIDÆ, ii. 200
+
+  PRODUCTIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  _Progne_, ii. 281
+
+  _Promecoderus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Promephitis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 200
+
+  Promerops of East Africa, figure of, i. 261
+
+  _Promerops_, ii. 276
+
+  _Pronophilia_, ii. 471
+
+  _Propalæotherium_, European Eocene, i. 126
+
+  _Proparus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Propyrrhula_, ii. 285
+
+  _Prorastomus_, ii. 211
+
+  _Proserpina_, ii. 527
+
+  PROSOBRANCHIATA, ii. 507
+
+  _Prosthemadera_, ii. 275
+
+  PROTEIDÆ, ii. 412
+
+  _Proteles_, ii. 196
+
+  PROTELIDÆ, ii. 196
+
+  _Protemnodon_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 251
+
+  _Proteus_, ii. 412
+
+  _Prothoe_, ii. 474
+
+  _Protohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Protomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
+    ii. 217
+
+  _Protonopsis_, ii. 412
+
+  _Protonotaria_, ii. 279
+
+  _Protopithecus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    ii. 178
+
+  _Protopterus_, ii. 458
+
+  _Protornis_, European Eocene, i. 162
+
+  _Prototomus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Prototroctes_, ii. 446
+
+  _Psalidoprogne_, ii. 281
+
+  _Psaltria_, ii. 266
+
+  _Psaltriparus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Psammodromus_, ii. 391
+
+  _Psammodynastes_, ii. 377
+
+  _Psammomys_, ii. 230
+
+  PSAMMOPHIDÆ, ii. 377
+
+  _Psammophis_, ii. 377
+
+  _Psammosaurus_, ii. 389
+
+  _Psarisomus_, ii. 295
+
+  _Psephotus_, ii. 325
+
+  _Pseudacris_, ii. 418
+
+  _Pseudælurus_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 194
+
+  _Pseudalopex_, ii. 197
+
+  _Pseudecheneis_, ii. 444
+
+  _Pseudechis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Pseudeutropius_, ii. 442
+
+  _Pseudis_, ii. 420
+
+  _Pseudobagrus_, ii. 442
+
+  _Pseudobias_, ii. 270
+
+  _Pseudobufo_, ii. 415
+
+  _Pseudochalceus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Pseudochelidon_, ii. 312
+
+  _Pseudocolaptes_, ii. 103
+
+  _Pseudocordylus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Pseudocyon_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Pseudodipsas_, ii. 477
+
+  _Pseudogobio_, ii. 452
+
+  _Pseudogryphis_, ii. 346
+
+  _Pseudogyps_, ii. 346
+
+  _Pseudohage_, ii. 383
+
+  _Pseudolabuca_, ii. 453
+
+  _Pseudoleistes_, ii. 282
+
+  _Pseudomorpha_, ii. 490
+
+  _Pseudomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Pseudonaje_, ii. 383
+
+  _Pseudoperilampus_, ii. 452
+
+  PSEUDOPHIDIA, ii. 411
+
+  _Pseudophryne_, ii. 414
+
+  _Pseudopontia_, ii. 478
+
+  _Pseudopus_, ii. 392
+
+  _Pseudorasbora_, ii. 452
+
+  _Pseudorca_, ii. 209
+
+  _Pseudoscops_, ii. 350
+
+  _Pseudoxiphophorus_, ii. 450
+
+  _Psilopogon_, ii. 306
+
+  _Psiloptera_, ii. 497
+
+  _Psilorhamphus_, ii. 104
+
+  _Psilorhinus_, ii. 273
+
+  _Psilorhynchus_, ii. 453
+
+  Psittaci, classification of, i. 96
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 383
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 484
+
+  PSITTACI, ii. 324
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 329
+
+  PSITTACIDÆ, ii. 328
+
+  _Psittacula_, ii. 328
+
+  _Psittacus_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 328
+
+  _Psittinus_, ii. 326
+
+  _Psittirostra_, ii. 277
+
+  _Psittospiza_, ii. 99
+
+  _Psophia_, ii. 358
+
+  PSOPHIIDÆ, ii. 358
+
+  _Psophodes_, ii. 262
+
+  PSYCHROLUTIDÆ, ii. 436
+
+  _Pterocles_, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 337
+
+  PTEROCLIDÆ, ii. 337
+
+  _Pterocyclos_, ii. 520
+
+  _Pterodon_, European Miocene, i. 125
+
+  _Pteroglossus_, ii. 307
+
+  _Pteromys_, ii. 235
+
+  _Pteromyzon_, ii. 463
+
+  PTEROMYZONTIDÆ, ii. 463
+
+  _Pteronura_, ii. 199
+
+  _Pterophanes_, ii. 108
+
+  _Pterophyllum_, ii. 439
+
+  PTEROPIDÆ, ii. 181
+
+  PTEROPODA, ii. 531
+
+  _Pteropodocys_, ii. 269
+
+  PTEROPTOCHIDÆ, ii. 297
+
+  _Pteroptochus_, ii. 297
+
+  _Pterorhinus_, ii. 261
+
+  _Pterosarion_, ii. 452
+
+  _Pterostichus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Pteruthius_, ii. 266
+
+  _Pterygophlichthys_, ii. 444
+
+  _Ptilocerus_, ii. 186
+
+  _Ptilochloris_, ii. 102, 293
+
+  _Ptilogonys_, ii. 280
+
+  _Ptilonorhynchus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Ptilopachus_, ii. 338
+
+  _Ptilopus_, ii. 332
+
+  _Ptilorhis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Ptilostomus_, ii. 273
+
+  _Ptilotis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Ptosima_, ii. 497
+
+  _Ptyas_, ii. 375
+
+  _Ptychobarbus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Ptyonotus_, ii. 428
+
+  _Pucrasia_, ii. 340
+
+  Puff-birds, ii. 310
+
+  Puffins, ii. 367
+
+  _Puffinus_, ii. 365
+
+  PULMONIFERA, ii. 512
+
+  _Pulsatrix_, ii. 350
+
+  _Puncturella_, ii. 511
+
+  _Pupa_, Eocene, i. 169
+
+  _Pupa vetusta_, Palæozoic, i. 169
+
+  _Pupa_, ii. 514
+
+  _Pupina_, ii. 520
+
+  _Pupinella_, ii. 520
+
+  _Putorius_, ii. 198
+
+  PYCNONOTIDÆ, ii. 267
+
+  _Pycnonotus_, ii. 267
+
+  _Pycnophrys_, ii. 270
+
+  _Pyctorhis_, ii. 261
+
+  _Pygarrhicus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Pygmornis_, ii. 107
+
+  _Pygomeles_, ii. 397
+
+  PYGOPODIDÆ, ii. 395
+
+  _Pygoptila_, ii. 104
+
+  _Pygopus_, ii. 395
+
+  PYRAMIDELLIDÆ, ii. 509
+
+  _Pyrameis_, ii. 474
+
+  _Pyranga_, ii. 98
+
+  _Pyrenestes_, ii. 286
+
+  _Pyrgisoma_, ii. 284
+
+  _Pyrgita_, ii. 284
+
+  _Pyriglena_, ii. 104
+
+  _Pyrocephalus_, ii. 101, 291
+
+  _Pyroderus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Pyromelana_, ii. 286
+
+  _Pyrophthalma_, ii. 259
+
+  _Pyrrhocoma_, ii. 99
+
+  _Pyrrhospiza_, ii. 285
+
+  _Pyrrhula_, ii. 285
+
+  _Pyrrhulauda_, ii. 289
+
+  _Pyrrhulina_, ii. 445
+
+  _Pyrrhulopsis_, ii. 325
+
+  _Pyrrhuloxia_, ii. 285
+
+  _Pyrrhura_, ii. 328
+
+  _Pytelia_, ii. 287
+
+  _Python_, ii. 381
+
+  _Pythonidæ_, European Miocene, i. 165
+
+  PYTHONIDÆ, ii. 381
+
+  _Pythonodipsas_, ii. 379
+
+  _Pythonopsis_, ii. 376
+
+  Pythons, ii. 381
+
+  _Pyxicephalus_, ii. 420
+
+  _Pyxis_, ii. 408
+
+  Q.
+
+  Quadrumana, fossil, ii. 178
+
+  Quail-snipes, ii. 354
+
+  _Querquedula_, ii. 363
+
+  _Querula_, ii. 102
+
+  _Quiscalus_, ii. 282
+
+  R.
+
+  _Rachis_, ii. 524
+
+  Racoon-dog of N. China, i. 226
+
+  Racoons, ii. 200
+
+  _Raia_, ii. 462
+
+  RAIIDÆ, ii. 462
+
+  Rails, ii. 351
+
+  RALLIDÆ, ii. 351
+
+  _Rallina_, ii. 352
+
+  _Rallus_, ii. 352
+
+  _Rana_, European Miocene, i. 166
+    ii. 420
+
+  _Raniceps_, ii. 439
+
+  RANIDÆ, ii. 420
+
+  _Ranodon_, ii. 413
+
+  _Rappia_, ii. 419
+
+  _Rasbora_, ii. 452
+
+  _Rasborichthys_, ii. 453
+
+  Rattle-snakes, ii. 384
+
+  Rays, ii. 462
+
+  _Realia_, ii. 521
+
+  _Rectes_, ii. 272
+
+  _Recurvirostra_, ii. 353
+
+  _Regalecus_, ii. 432
+
+  Region, the best term for the primary zoological divisions, i. 68
+    Arctic, why not adopted, i. 69
+    Palæarctic, defined, i. 71
+    Palæarctic, subdivisions of, i. 71
+    Ethiopian, defined, i. 73
+    Ethiopian, subdivisions of, i. 73
+    Oriental, defined, i. 75
+    Oriental, subdivisions of, i. 75
+    Australian, defined, i. 77
+    Australian, subdivisions of, i. 77
+    Neotropical, defined, i. 78
+    Neotropical, subdivisions of, i. 78
+    Nearctic, defined, i. 79
+    Nearctic, distinct from Palæarctic, i. 79
+    Nearctic, subdivisions of, i. 80
+
+  Regions, zoological, i. 50
+    zoological, how they should be formed, i. 53
+    zoological, may be defined by negative or positive characters, i. 54
+    zoological, by what class of animals best determined, i. 56
+    for each class of animals, not advisable, i. 58
+    zoological, proposed since 1857, i. 58
+    zoological, Mr. Sclater's, i. 59
+    zoological, discussion of those proposed by various authors, i. 61
+    zoological, proportionate richness of, i. 64
+    temperate and tropical, well marked in northern hemisphere, i. 65
+    and zones, table of, i. 66
+    comparative richness of, i. 81
+    and sub-regions, table of, i. 81
+    order of succession of the, i. 173
+
+  _Registoma_, ii. 521
+
+  _Reguloides_, ii. 258
+
+  _Regulus_, ii. 258
+
+  _Reinwardtænas_, ii. 333
+
+  _Reinwardtipicus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Reithrodon_, ii. 230
+
+  Representative species, i. 4
+
+  Reptiles, means of dispersal of, i. 28
+    classification of, i. 98
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    of Indian Miocene deposits, i. 123
+    extinct Tertiary, i. 165
+    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
+    peculiar to Palæarctic region, i. 186
+    of Central Europe, i. 195
+    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 204
+    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
+    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
+    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 236
+    of the Ethiopian region, i. 254
+    of the E. African sub-region, i. 260
+    of W. Africa, i. 264
+    S. African, i. 268
+    of Madagascar, i. 279
+    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 297
+    of the Oriental region, i. 317
+    of the Indian sub-region, i. 326
+    of Ceylon, i. 327
+    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331
+    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340
+    table of Oriental families of, i. 368
+    of the Australian region, i. 396
+    of New Guinea, i. 415
+    of the Moluccas, i. 420
+    of the Polynesian sub-region, i. 447
+    of New Zealand, i. 456
+    table of Australian families of, i. 472
+    Neotropical, ii. 9
+    of S. Temperate America, ii. 40
+    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
+    of the Antilles, ii. 72
+    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 88
+    of the Nearctic region, ii. 119
+    of California, ii. 128
+    of Central N. America, ii. 131
+    of Eastern United States, ii. 133
+    of Canada, ii. 137
+    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 142
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 547
+
+  REPTILIA, ii. 372
+
+  _Retropinna_, ii. 447
+
+  Revillagigedo Islands, zoology of, ii. 60
+
+  _Rhabdornis_, ii. 265
+
+  _Rhabdosoma_, ii. 374
+
+  RACHIODONTIDÆ, ii. 377
+
+  _Rhacophorus_, ii. 419
+
+  _Rhamnophis_, ii. 376
+
+  RHAMPHASTIDÆ, ii. 306
+
+  _Rhamphastos_, ii. 307
+
+  _Rhamphichthys_, ii. 455
+
+  _Rhamphocænus_, ii. 104
+
+  _Rhamphococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Rhamphocinclus_, ii. 256
+
+  _Rhamphocoelus_, ii. 98
+
+  _Rhamphomicron_, ii. 108
+
+  _Rhaphaulus_, ii. 520
+
+  _Rhea_, in Brazilian caves, i. 164
+    ii. 368
+
+  _Rhinaster_, ii. 213
+
+  _Rhinatrema_, ii. 411
+
+  _Rhinechis_, ii. 376
+
+  _Rhinelepis_, ii. 444
+
+  _Rhinichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  RHINIDÆ, ii. 462
+
+  RHINOBATIDÆ, ii. 462
+
+  _Rhinoceros_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation in Thibet, i. 122
+    fossil in N. China, i. 123
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+    ii. 213
+
+  Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, i. 339
+
+  _Rhinocerotidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
+
+  RHINOCEROTIDÆ, ii. 213
+
+  RHINOCHETIDÆ, ii. 359
+
+  _Rhinochetus_, ii. 359
+
+  _Rhinococcyx_, ii. 309
+
+  _Rhinocrypta_, ii. 297
+
+  _Rhinoderma_, ii. 416
+
+  RHINODONTIDÆ, ii. 461
+
+  _Rhinodoras_, ii. 443
+
+  _Rhinogale_, ii. 195
+
+  _Rhinoglanis_, ii. 443
+
+  RHINOLOPHIDÆ, ii. 182
+
+  _Rhinolophus_, ii. 183
+
+  _Rhinophis_, ii. 374
+
+  RHINOPHRYNIDÆ, ii. 414
+
+  _Rhinophrynus_, ii. 414
+
+  _Rhinoplax_, ii. 317
+
+  _Rhinopoma_, ii. 183
+
+  _Rhinortha_, ii. 309
+
+  _Rhipidura_, ii. 271
+
+  _Rhizomys_, ii. 231
+
+  _Rhodeus_, ii. 452
+
+  _Rhodinocincla_, ii. 256
+
+  _Rhodona_, ii. 397
+
+  _Rhodopis_, ii. 108
+
+  _Rhodosttehia_, ii. 364
+
+  _Rhombomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Rhombus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Rhopodytes_, ii. 309
+
+  _Rhopoterpe_, ii. 104
+
+  _Rhynchæa_, ii. 353
+
+  RHYNCHOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 405
+
+  RHYNCHOCEPHALINA, ii. 405
+
+  _Rhynchocyon_, ii. 186
+
+  _Rhynchocyclus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Rhynchonella_, ii. 539
+
+  RHYNCHONELLIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  _Rhynchops_, ii. 365
+
+  _Rhynchopsitta_, ii. 328
+
+  _Rhynchotus_, ii. 344
+
+  _Rhytina_, ii. 210, 211
+
+  _Rhytiodus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Ricinula_, ii. 507
+
+  _Rimator_, ii. 263
+
+  _Rimula_, ii. 511
+
+  _Rissa_, ii. 364
+
+  _Rissoa_, ii. 510
+
+  _Rita_, ii. 442
+
+  River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, i. 264
+    of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278
+
+  Rivers, limiting the range of mammalia, i. 12
+    limiting the range of birds, i. 17
+
+  River-scene in West Africa, i. 264
+
+  River-snails, ii. 510
+
+  _Rivulus_, ii. 450
+
+  Rock-snakes, ii. 381
+
+  Rocky mountain sub-region, ii. 129
+    mammalia of, ii. 129
+    birds of, ii. 130
+    reptiles, amphibia, and fishes of, ii. 130
+
+  Rodentia, classification of, i. 90
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 242
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 304
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 374
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 476
+
+  _Rodentia_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 139
+    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    of S. American Eocene, i. 148
+
+  RODENTIA, ii. 229
+
+  Rodentia, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 243
+
+  _Rodentia_, summary and conclusion, ii. 543
+
+  _Rohteichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  Rollers, ii. 311
+
+  _Rollulus_, ii. 339
+
+  _Romaleosoma_, ii. 474
+
+  Rose-chafers, ii. 494
+
+  _Rostrhamus_, ii. 349
+
+  Rough-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 374
+
+  Ruff, figure of, i. 195
+
+  _Rupicapra_, ii. 224, 225
+
+  RUPICAPRINÆ, ii. 224
+
+  _Rupicola_, ii. 102, 293
+
+  RUPICOLINÆ, ii. 293
+
+  _Ruticilla_, ii. 259
+
+  RUTICILLINÆ, ii. 257
+
+  S.
+
+  _Saccobranchus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Saccodon_, ii. 445
+
+  SACCOMYIDÆ, ii. 233
+
+  _Saccomys_, ii. 233
+
+  _Saccostomus_, ii. 230
+
+  _Sagda_, ii. 516
+
+  Sahara, a debatable land, i. 251
+
+  Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, i. 218
+
+  _Saiga_, ii. 223
+
+  _Saimiris_, ii. 175
+
+  Sakis, ii. 175
+
+  _Salamandra_, ii. 413
+
+  SALAMANDRIDÆ, ii. 413
+
+  _Salamandrina_, ii. 413
+
+  _Salarix_, ii. 448
+
+  _Salminus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Salmo_, ii. 447
+
+  SALMONIDÆ, ii. 447
+
+  _Salpinctes_, ii. 264
+
+  _Salpornis_, ii. 264
+
+  _Saltator_, ii. 99
+
+  Salvin, Mr., on birds of Galapagos, ii. 30
+
+  _Sambus_, ii. 496
+
+  Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443
+
+  Sand-grouse, Pallas', of Mongolia, i. 226
+    ii. 337
+
+  Sand-lizards, ii. 398
+
+  Sandpipers, ii. 353
+
+  Sandwich Islands, birds of, i. 445
+    probable past history of, i. 446
+    mountain plants of, i. 446
+    depth of ocean around, i. 447
+
+  _Sanzinia_, ii. 381
+
+  _Saperda_, ii. 501
+
+  _Sapphironia_, ii. 109
+
+  _Sarcodaces_, ii. 445
+
+  _Sarcophilus_, ii. 249
+
+  SARCORHAMPHINÆ, ii. 346
+
+  _Sarcorhamphus_, ii. 346
+
+  _Sargus_, ii. 427
+
+  _Sarkidiornis_, ii. 363
+
+  _Saroglossa_, ii. 288
+
+  _Sarotherodon_, ii. 438
+
+  _Sasia_, ii. 303
+
+  _Satanoperca_, ii. 439
+
+  SATYRIDÆ, ii. 471
+
+  _Satyrites Reynesii_, European Cretaceous insect, i. 167
+
+  _Satyrus_, ii. 471
+
+  _Saucerottia_, ii. 109
+
+  Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidæ of Japan, i. 229
+
+  _Saurocetes_, ii. 210
+
+  _Saurophis_, ii. 392
+
+  _Saurothera_, ii. 309
+
+  _Saxicola_, ii. 260
+
+  _Saxicolinæ_, ii. 257
+
+  _Sayornis_, ii. 100, 291
+
+  Scallops, ii. 533
+
+  _Scalops_, ii. 190
+
+  _Scapanus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Scaphiopus_, ii. 417
+
+  _Scaphirhynchus_, ii. 459
+
+  _Scaptochirus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Scaptonyx_, ii. 190
+
+  _Scaraphites_, ii. 490
+
+  _Scardafella_, ii. 333
+
+  _Scarites_, ii. 489
+
+  _Scelidotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+    ii. 245
+
+  _Scelodontis_, ii. 490
+
+  _Sceloporus_, ii. 401
+
+  _Scelotes_, ii. 398
+
+  _Schacra_, ii. 452
+
+  _Schasicheila_, ii. 522
+
+  _Schiffornis_, ii. 102
+
+  _Schilbe_, ii. 442
+
+  _Schilbichthys_, ii. 442
+
+  _Schismaderma_, ii. 415
+
+  _Schistes_, ii. 108
+
+  _Schistopleurum_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Schizodon_, ii. 238
+
+  _Schizogenius_, ii. 490
+
+  _Schizopygopsis_, ii. 452
+
+  _Schizorhina_, ii. 494
+
+  _Schizorhis_, ii. 307
+
+  _Schizothorax_, ii. 452
+
+  _Schoenionta_, ii. 502
+
+  Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Central Africa, i. 252
+    on limits of W. African sub-region, i. 262 (_note_)
+
+  _Sciades_, ii. 443
+
+  _Sciæna_, ii. 428
+
+  SCIÆNIDÆ, ii. 428
+
+  SCINCIDÆ, ii. 396
+
+  _Scincus_, ii. 397
+
+  Scinks, ii. 396
+
+  _Scissirostrum_, ii. 288
+
+  _Scissor_, ii. 445
+
+  _Sciuravus_, N. American Eocene, i. 140
+
+  _Sciuravus_, ii. 236
+
+  SCIURIDÆ, ii. 234
+
+  _Sciuropterus_, ii. 235
+
+  _Sciurus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    ii. 235, 236
+
+  Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 59
+    why his six regions are adopted, i. 63
+    on birds of Sandwich Islands, i. 445
+    on systematic position of _Certhidea_, ii. 31
+
+  Sclater and Salvin, Messrs., on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25
+
+  SCLERODERMI, ii. 457
+
+  _Sclerognathus_, ii. 451
+
+  SCLERURINÆ, ii. 295
+
+  _Sclerurus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Scolecophagus_, ii. 282
+
+  SCOLOPACIDÆ, ii. 353
+
+  _Scolopax_, ii. 353
+
+  _Scomber_, ii. 429
+
+  SCOMBRESOCIDÆ, ii. 449
+
+  _Scombresox_, ii. 449
+
+  SCOMBRIDÆ, ii. 429
+
+  SCOPELIDÆ, ii. 446
+
+  _Scops_, ii. 350
+
+  _Scopus_, ii. 360
+
+  _Scortornis_, ii. 320
+
+  _Scotopelia_, ii. 350
+
+  _Scotophilus_, ii. 183
+
+  _Scrapteira_, ii. 391
+
+  Screamers, ii. 361
+
+  Scrub-birds, ii. 299
+
+  SCYLLIDÆ, ii. 461
+
+  _Scyllium_, ii. 461
+
+  _Scytale_, ii. 379
+
+  SCYTALIDÆ, ii. 379
+
+  _Scytalopus_, ii. 297
+
+  _Scythrops_, ii. 310
+
+  Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, i. 13
+
+  Sea-devils, ii. 463
+
+  Seals, fossil in European Miocene, i. 118
+    of Lake Baikal, i. 218
+    ii. 203
+
+  Sea-pens, ii. 505
+
+  Sea-snails, ii. 508
+
+  Sea-snakes, ii. 384
+
+  _Sebastes_, ii. 428
+
+  Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, i. 169
+
+  Secretary bird, of Africa, figure of, i. 261
+    ii. 346
+
+  Seemann, Dr., on protective resemblance of sloths, ii. 24
+
+  _Seisura_, ii. 270
+
+  _Selache_, ii. 460
+
+  _Selasphorus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Selenidera_, ii. 307
+
+  _Selenophorus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Seleucides_, ii. 275
+
+  _Semioptera_, ii. 275
+
+  _Semiplotus_, ii. 452
+
+  SEMNOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 171
+
+  _Semnopithecus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 117
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 171
+    ii. 178
+
+  Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, i. 345
+
+  _Senira_, ii. 397
+
+  SEPIADÆ, ii. 505
+
+  SEPIDÆ, ii. 398
+
+  _Seps_, ii. 398
+
+  _Sepsina_, ii. 398
+
+  _Sericinus_, ii. 479
+
+  _Sericornis_, ii. 258
+
+  _Sericulus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Serilophus_, ii. 295
+
+  SERPENTARIIDÆ, ii. 346
+
+  _Serpentarius_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 346
+
+  _Serphophaga_, ii. 101
+
+  _Serranus_, ii. 425
+
+  _Serrasalmo_, ii. 445
+
+  _Sesia_, ii. 482
+
+  _Setophaga_, ii. 279
+
+  _Setornis_, ii. 267
+
+  Seychelle Islands, zoology of, i. 281
+    amphibia of, i. 281
+
+  Shad, ii. 454
+
+  Sharks, ii. 460
+
+  Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, i. 229
+
+  Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Accipitres, i. 97
+    on birds of Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
+    on classification of Cuckoos, ii. 309
+
+  Sheath-bills, ii. 354
+
+  Sheep, Palæarctic, i. 182
+    ii. 221
+
+  Short-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 373
+
+  Shrikes, ii. 272
+
+  _Sialia_, ii. 260
+
+  _Siamanga_, ii. 171
+
+  _Siaphos_, ii. 397
+
+  Siberia, climate of, i. 217
+
+  Siberian sub-region, description of, i. 216
+    mammalia of, i. 217
+    birds of, i. 219
+    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 220
+    insects of, i. 220
+
+  _Sibia_, ii. 262
+
+  _Siderone_, ii. 474
+
+  _Sieboldia_, ii. 412
+
+  _Sigmodon_, ii. 230
+
+  _Silondia_, ii. 442
+
+  _Silphomorpha_, ii. 490
+
+  _Silubosaurus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Siluranodon_, ii. 442
+
+  _Silurichthys_, ii. 441
+
+  SILURIDÆ, ii. 441
+
+  _Silurus_, ii. 441
+
+  _Silybura_, ii. 374
+
+  _Simenia_, ii. 197
+
+  _Simia_, ii. 171
+
+  SIMIIDÆ, ii. 170
+
+  _Simocephalus_, ii. 380
+
+  _Simocyon_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    ii. 198
+
+  _Simorhynchus_, ii. 367
+
+  _Simotes_, ii. 375
+
+  _Simpulopsis_, ii. 516
+
+  _Sinopa_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Siphia_, ii. 270
+
+  _Siphneus_, ii. 230
+
+  _Siphonopsis_, ii. 411
+
+  _Siphonorhis_, ii. 320
+
+  _Siphonostoma_, ii. 457
+
+  _Siren_, ii. 411
+
+  Sirenia, classification of, i. 89
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303
+    range of Oriental genus, i. 374
+    range of Australian genus of, i. 476
+
+  _Sirenia_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  SIRENIA, ii. 210
+
+  SIRENIDÆ, ii. 411
+
+  SIRENOIDEI, ii. 458
+
+  _Sirystes_, ii. 101
+
+  _Sisor_, ii. 444
+
+  _Sitana_, ii. 402
+
+  _Sitta_, ii. 265
+
+  _Sittasomus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Sittella_, ii. 265
+
+  SITTIDÆ, ii. 265
+
+  _Siurus_, ii. 279
+
+  _Siva_, ii. 266
+
+  _Sivatherium_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
+       ii. 226
+
+  Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, i. 121
+
+  _Skenea_, ii. 510
+
+  Sloths, ii. 244
+
+  Slugs, ii. 517
+
+  _Smaragdochrysis_, ii. 109
+
+  _Smerinthus_, ii. 483
+
+  _Smiliogaster_, ii. 453
+
+  _Sminthus_, ii. 230
+
+  Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of Japan, i. 230
+
+  _Smithornis_, ii. 270
+
+  _Smutsia_, ii. 245
+
+  Snails, ii. 512
+
+  Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, i. 220
+
+  Snakes, classification of, i. 99
+    Eocene, i. 165
+    large proportion of venomous species in Australia, i. 396
+    of New Zealand, i. 457
+    distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547
+
+  Snipes, ii. 353
+
+  Society Islands, birds of, i. 443
+
+  Socorro, zoology of, ii. 60
+
+  Soft-tortoises, ii. 409
+
+  _Solarium_, ii. 510
+
+  _Solea_, ii. 441
+
+  SOLENIDÆ, ii. 536
+
+  _Solenodon_, ii. 188
+
+  SOLENOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 456
+
+  Solitaire, ii. 334
+
+  _Somateria_, ii. 364
+
+  _Soricictis_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 196
+
+  _Soricidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  SORICIDÆ, ii. 191
+
+  _Soridia_, ii. 397
+
+  _Sorubim_, ii. 442
+
+  _Sotalia_, ii. 209
+
+  South African sub-region, description of, i. 266
+    mammalia of, i. 267
+    birds of, i. 267
+    reptiles of, i. 268
+    amphibia of, i. 268
+    fresh-water fish of, i. 268
+    butterflies of, i. 268
+    coleoptera of, i. 268
+    summary of its zoology, i. 269
+
+  South America, fossil fauna of, i. 143
+    Pliocene deposits of, i. 146
+    supposed land connection with Australia, i. 398
+
+  South America and Africa, parallelism of their past zoological history,
+      ii. 83
+
+  South Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441
+
+  SPALACIDÆ, ii. 231
+
+  _Spalacomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Spalacopus_, ii. 238
+
+  _Spalax_, ii. 231
+
+  _Sparganura_, ii. 108
+
+  SPARIDÆ, ii. 426
+
+  _Spatula_, ii. 364
+
+  Species, representative, i. 4
+
+  _Spelerpes_, ii. 413
+
+  _Speothos_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+
+  _Spermestes_, ii. 287
+
+  _Spermophila_, ii. 285
+
+  _Spermophilus_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 235, 236
+
+  _Spermospiza_, ii. 286
+
+  Sperm Whales, ii. 207
+
+  _Sphærocephalus_, ii. 209
+
+  _Sphærodactylus_, ii. 400
+
+  _Sphæroderus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Sphallomorpha_, ii. 490
+
+  _Sphecotheres_, ii. 268
+
+  _Sphenæacus_, ii. 258
+
+  SPHENISCIDÆ, ii. 366
+
+  _Spheniscus_, ii. 366
+
+  _Sphenocephalus_, ii. 398
+
+  _Sphenodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 115
+    ii. 245
+
+  _Sphenognathus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Sphenoproctus_, ii. 107
+
+  _Sphenops_, ii. 398
+
+  _Sphenostoma_, ii. 266
+
+  _Sphenura_, ii. 258
+
+  SPHINGIDÆ, ii. 482
+
+  Sphingidea, distribution of, ii. 483
+
+  SPHINGINA, ii. 481
+
+  _Sphingnotus_, ii. 501
+
+  _Sphinx_, in European Oolite, i. 167
+    ii. 482
+
+  Sphinx Moths, ii. 482
+
+  _Sphyrapicus_, ii. 303
+
+  SPHYRENIDÆ, ii. 429
+
+  Spider monkeys, ii. 174
+
+  _Spilornis_, ii. 348
+
+  _Spilotes_, ii. 376
+
+  SPINACIDÆ, ii. 461
+
+  _Spindalis_, ii. 98, 284
+
+  _Spiraxis_, ii. 515
+
+  SPIRIFERIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  SPIRULIDÆ, ii. 505
+
+  _Spizaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Spizella_, ii. 284
+
+  _Spiziapteryx_, ii. 349
+
+  _Spiziastur_, ii. 348
+
+  _Spodiornis_, ii. 285
+
+  _Sponsor_, ii. 497
+
+  Spoonbills, ii. 360
+
+  _Sporadinus_, ii. 109
+
+  _Sporopipes_, ii. 286
+
+  Sprat, ii. 454
+
+  _Spreo_, ii. 288
+
+  _Squalodon_, ii. 210
+
+  _Squaliobarbus_, ii. 452
+
+  SQUAMIPENNES, ii. 427
+
+  _Squatarola_, ii. 356
+
+  Squirrel monkeys, ii. 175
+
+  Squirrels, ii. 234
+
+  St. Helena, zoological features of, i. 269
+    coleoptera of, i. 270
+    landshells of, i. 271
+
+  St. Thomas's Island, birds of, i. 266
+
+  _Stachyris_, ii. 261
+
+  _Stactolæma_, ii. 306
+
+  Stag-beetles, ii. 492
+
+  _Stalagmosoma_, ii. 495
+
+  Starlings, ii. 287
+
+  _Starnoenas_, ii. 33
+
+  Stations, definition of, i. 4
+
+  _Staurotypus_, ii. 408
+
+  _Steatomys_, ii. 230
+
+  _Steatornis_, ii. 319
+
+  STEATORNITHIDÆ, ii. 319
+
+  _Steganura_, ii. 108
+
+  _Stegnolæma_, ii. 343
+
+  _Stegophilus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Stelgidopteryx_, ii. 281
+
+  _Stellio_, ii. 402
+
+  _Stellula_, ii. 108
+
+  _Steneofiber_, European Miocene, i. 120
+    ii. 234
+
+  _Steno_, ii. 209
+
+  _Stenodactylus_, ii. 400
+
+  _Stenogyra_, ii. 515
+
+  _Stenopsis_, ii. 320
+
+  _Stenopus_, ii. 516
+
+  _Stenorhina_, ii. 375
+
+  _Stenorhynchus_, ii. 204
+    ii. 421
+
+  _Stephanophorus_, ii. 98
+
+  _Stercorarius_, ii. 304
+
+  _Sterna_, ii. 364
+
+  _Sternarchus_, ii. 455
+
+  _Sternocera_, ii. 496
+
+  _Sternoclyta_, ii. 107
+
+  STERNOPTYCHIDÆ, ii. 446
+
+  _Sternopygus_, ii. 455
+
+  _Sternotheres_, ii. 408
+
+  _Steropus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Stesilea_, ii. 501
+
+  _Stethodesma_, ii. 495
+
+  _Sthenurus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 251
+
+  _Stichæus_, ii. 431
+
+  Sticklebacks, ii. 424
+
+  _Stigmatura_, ii. 101
+
+  _Stigmodera_, ii. 496
+
+  STOMIATIDÆ, ii. 447
+
+  Storks, ii. 360
+
+  _Stabomantis_, ii. 419
+
+  Straits of Magellan, mammalia of, ii. 37
+    birds of, ii. 39
+
+  _Strepera_, ii. 273
+
+  _Strepsilas_, ii. 356
+
+  _Streptaulus_, ii. 520
+
+  _Streptaxis_, ii. 515
+
+  _Streptocerus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Streptocitta_, ii. 274
+
+  _Streptophorus_, ii. 374
+
+  STRIGIDÆ, ii. 350
+
+  _Stringops_, ii. 329
+
+  STRINGOPIDÆ, ii. 329
+
+  _Strix_, European Miocene, i. 162
+    ii. 350
+
+  STROMBIDÆ, ii. 507
+
+  _Struthio_, ii. 368
+
+  Struthiones, arrangement of, i. 98
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 313
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 485
+
+  STRUTHIONES, ii. 368
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 370
+
+  STRUTHIONIDÆ, ii. 368
+
+  Struthious birds, probable origin of, i. 287
+
+  Sturgeons, ii. 459
+
+  _Sturnella_, ii. 282
+
+  _Sturnia_, ii. 287
+
+  STURNIDÆ, ii. 287
+
+  _Sturnopastor_, ii. 287
+
+  _Sturnus_, ii. 287
+
+  STYGIIDÆ, ii. 482
+
+  _Stygogenes_, ii. 444
+
+  _Stylinodontia_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Stylinodontidæ_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Styporhynchus_, ii. 376
+
+  _Sublegatus_, ii. 101
+
+  Sub-regions, on what principle formed, i. 180
+    Palæarctic, i. 191
+    Ethiopian, i. 258
+    Oriental, i. 321
+    Australian, i. 408
+    Neotropical, ii. 21
+    Nearctic, ii. 125
+
+  _Succinea_, ii. 515
+
+  Sugar-birds, ii. 278
+
+  _Suidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  SUIDÆ, ii. 214
+
+  Sula Islands, fauna of, i. 433
+
+  _Sula_, ii. 365
+
+  Summary of relations of regions, ii. 155
+
+  Sun-birds, ii. 276
+
+  Sun-bitterns, ii. 358
+
+  _Suricata_, ii. 195
+
+  _Surnia_, ii. 350
+
+  _Surniculus_, ii. 310
+
+  _Sus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 119
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Suthora_, ii. 262
+
+  _Suya_, ii. 258
+
+  Swallows, ii. 281
+
+  Swallow-shrikes, ii. 288
+
+  Swifts, ii. 320
+
+  Swine, ii. 214
+
+  Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, i. 332
+
+  _Sycalis_, ii. 284
+
+  _Sylvia_, ii. 259
+
+  _Sylvietta_, ii. 264
+
+  SYLVIIDÆ, ii. 256
+
+  SYLVIINÆ, ii. 257
+
+  _Sylviorthorhynchus_, ii. 103
+
+  _Sylviparus_, ii. 266
+
+  _Syma_, ii. 316
+
+  _Symborodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  SYMBRANCHIDÆ, ii. 455
+
+  _Symbranchus_, ii. 455
+
+  _Symmachia_, ii. 476
+
+  _Symmorphus_, ii. 269
+
+  _Symphædra_, ii. 474
+
+  _Symphysodon_, ii. 439
+
+  _Symplectes_, ii. 286
+
+  SYNALLAXINÆ, ii. 295
+
+  _Synallaxis_, ii. 103
+
+  _Synaphodus_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  _Synaptura_, ii. 441
+
+  _Synchloe_, ii. 474
+
+  _Syndesus_, ii. 493
+
+  _Synemon_, ii. 481
+
+  _Syngnathus_, ii. 457
+
+  SYNGNATHIDÆ, ii. 457
+
+  _Synodontis_, ii. 443
+
+  _Synoplotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Syntomis_, ii. 481
+
+  _Syrnium_, ii. 350
+
+  _Syrrhaptes_, ii. 337
+
+  _Sysopygis_, ii. 101
+
+  T.
+
+  Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, i. 177
+
+  _Taccocoua_, ii. 309
+
+  _Tachydromus_, ii. 391
+
+  _Tachyphonus_, ii. 99
+
+  _Tachyris_, ii. 478
+
+  _Tachytriorchis_, ii. 348
+
+  _Tadorna_, ii. 363
+
+  _Tæniogale_, ii. 195
+
+  _Tænioptera_, ii. 100, 291
+
+  TÆNIOPTERINÆ, ii. 291
+
+  _Tæniura_, ii. 463
+
+  _Talegallus_, ii. 342
+
+  _Talpa_, European Miocene, i. 117
+    ii. 190
+
+  TALPIDÆ, ii. 190
+
+  _Tamandua_, ii. 247
+
+  _Tamias_, ii. 235, 236
+
+  _Tanæcia_, ii. 474
+
+  Tanagers, ii. 283
+
+  _Tanagra_, ii. 98
+
+  _Tanagrella_, ii. 98
+
+  TANAGRIDÆ, ii. 283
+
+  _Tantalus_, ii. 361
+
+  _Tanygnathus_, ii. 326
+
+  _Tanysiptera_, ii. 316
+
+  _Taoniscus_, ii. 344
+
+  _Taphozous_, ii. 183
+
+  _Tapir_, fossil in N. China, i. 123
+
+  Tapir, Malayan figure of, i. 337
+
+  _Tapiridæ_, European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  TAPIRIDÆ, ii. 212
+
+  Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, i. 154
+    ii. 212
+
+  _Tapirus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
+    Indian Miocene, i. 122
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  _Tarandus_, ii. 219
+
+  _Tarentola_, ii. 400
+
+  Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, i. 337
+
+  _Tarsiger_, ii. 259
+
+  TARSIIDÆ, ii. 177
+
+  _Tarsipes_, ii. 252
+
+  _Tarsius_, ii. 177
+
+  Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, i. 441
+
+  _Tatare_, ii. 258
+
+  _Tatusia_, ii. 246
+
+  _Taxidea_, ii. 199
+
+  _Taxila_, ii. 475
+
+  _Taxodon_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 200
+
+  _Taygetis_, ii. 471
+
+  _Tchitrea_, ii. 271
+
+  TECTONARCHINÆ, ii. 275
+
+  Teguexius, ii. 390
+
+  TEIDÆ, ii. 390
+
+  _Teinopalpus_, ii. 479
+
+  _Teira_, ii. 391
+
+  _Teius_, ii. 390
+
+  _Teleopis_, ii. 375
+
+  TELEOSTEI, ii. 424
+
+  _Telephonus_, ii. 272
+
+  _Tellia_, ii. 450
+
+  TELLINIDÆ, ii. 506
+
+  _Telmatobius_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
+    ii. 417
+
+  _Telmatolestes_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Temnotrogon_, ii. 314
+
+  _Temnurus_, ii. 273
+
+  _Tephrocorys_, ii. 289
+
+  _Tephrodornis_, ii. 272
+
+  _Teracolus_, ii. 478
+
+  _Terebratula_, ii. 539
+
+  TEREBRATULIDÆ, ii. 532
+
+  _Terekia_, ii. 353
+
+  _Terenura_, ii. 104
+
+  _Teretristis_, ii. 279
+
+  _Terias_, ii. 478
+
+  _Terinos_, ii. 474
+
+  Terns, ii. 364
+
+  _Terrapene_, ii. 408
+
+  Terrestrial Molluscs, ii. 512
+
+  Terrestrial Mollusca, summary and conclusion, ii. 551
+    lines of migration of, ii. 552
+
+  _Tesia_, ii. 263
+
+  _Testacella_, ii. 516
+    ii. 517
+
+  TESTUDINIDÆ, ii. 407
+
+  _Testudo_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    Indian Miocene, i. 123
+    great antiquity of the genus, i. 289
+
+  _Testudo_, ii. 408
+
+  _Tethionea_, ii. 501
+
+  TETRABRANCHIATA, ii. 506
+
+  _Tetracha_, ii. 486, 487
+
+  _Tetrachus_, European Miocene, i. 117
+
+  _Tetraceros_, ii. 224
+
+  _Tetracus_, ii. 188
+
+  _Tetradactylus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Tetragonoderus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Tetragonops_, ii. 306
+
+  _Tetragonopterus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Tetragonosoma, ii. 380_
+
+  _Tetranematichthys_, ii. 443
+
+  _Tetrao albus_, in Italian caverns, i. 161
+
+  _Tetrao_, ii. 339
+
+  _Tetraogallus_, ii. 339
+
+  TETRAONIDÆ, ii. 338
+
+  _Tetraophasis_, ii. 340
+
+  _Tetrodon_, ii. 457
+
+  TEUTHIDÆ, ii. 505
+
+  TEUTHIDIDÆ, ii. 433
+
+  _Textor_, ii. 286
+
+  _Thais_, ii. 479
+
+  _Thalassarctos_, ii. 201
+
+  _Thalassictis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 195
+    ii. 197
+
+  _Thalassornis_, ii. 364
+
+  _Thaleichthys_, ii. 447
+
+  _Thalurania_, ii. 107
+
+  _Thamnistes_, ii. 104
+
+  _Thamnobia_, ii. 260
+
+  _Thamnodyastes_, ii. 379
+
+  _Thamnomanes_, ii. 104
+
+  THAMNOPHILINÆ, ii. 297
+
+  _Thamnophilus_, ii. 104
+
+  _Thaumalea_, ii. 340
+
+  _Thaumantis_, ii. 472
+
+  _Thaumastura_, ii. 108
+
+  _Thaumatias_, ii. 109
+
+  _Thecla_, ii. 477
+
+  _Theloderma_, ii. 419
+
+  _Theope_, ii. 476
+
+  _Theorema_, ii. 477
+
+  _Theraps_, ii. 438
+
+  _Therates_, ii. 486
+
+  _Theridomys_, European Miocene, i. 126
+    European Eocene, i. 126
+    S. American Eocene, i. 148
+    ii. 239
+
+  _Theropithecus_, ii. 173
+
+  _Thestias_, ii. 478
+
+  _Thestor_, ii. 477
+
+  _Thetia_, ii. 391
+
+  THINOCORIDÆ, ii. 354
+
+  _Thinocorus_, ii. 354
+
+  _Thinohyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+    ii. 215
+
+  _Thinolestes_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
+
+  _Thinornis_, ii. 356
+
+  _Thomomys_, ii. 233
+
+  _Thous_, ii. 197
+
+  _Thrasaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Threnetes_, ii. 107
+
+  _Thripadectes_, ii. 103
+
+  _Thripophaga_, ii. 103
+
+  _Thryophilus_, ii. 263
+
+  _Thryothorus_, ii. 263
+
+  Thrushes, ii. 255
+
+  _Thyca_, ii. 471
+
+  _Thylacinus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 249
+
+  _Thylacoleo_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
+    ii. 252
+
+  _Thymallus_, ii. 447
+
+  _Thynnichthys_, ii. 452
+
+  _Thynnus_, ii. 429
+
+  _Thyreopterus_, ii. 491
+
+  _Thyrus_, ii. 398
+
+  _Tiaris_, ii. 284
+    ii. 402
+
+  _Tichodroma_, ii. 264
+
+  _Tiga_, ii. 303
+
+  Tiger-beetles, ii. 486
+
+  _Tigrisoma_, ii. 359
+
+  _Tijuca_, ii. 102
+
+  _Tillodontia_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Tillotheridæ_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Tillotherium_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Tilmatura_, ii. 108
+
+  _Timalia_, ii. 261
+
+  TIMALIIDÆ, ii. 260
+
+  _Timetes_, ii. 474
+
+  Timor, physical features of, i. 389
+    group, mammalia of, i. 422
+    birds of, i. 422
+    origin of fauna of, i. 424
+    insects of, i. 426
+
+  TINAMIDÆ, ii. 343
+
+  TINAMINÆ, ii. 344
+
+  Tinamous, ii. 343
+
+  TINAMOTINÆ, ii. 344
+
+  _Tinamotis_, ii. 344
+
+  _Tinamus_, ii. 344
+
+  _Tinca_, ii. 452
+
+  _Tinoceras_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Titanomys_, European Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 242
+
+  _Titanotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
+
+  Tits, ii. 265
+
+  _Tityra_, ii. 102
+
+  TITYRINÆ, ii. 293
+
+  _Tmesisternus_, ii. 501
+
+  Toads, ii. 415
+
+  _Tockus_, ii. 317
+
+  TODIDÆ, ii. 313
+
+  Todies, ii. 313
+
+  _Todirhamphus_, ii. 316
+
+  _Todirostrum_, ii. 101
+
+  _Todopsis_, ii. 271
+
+  _Todus_, ii. 313
+
+  _Tolypeutes_, ii. 246
+
+  _Tomarctos_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+
+  _Tomistoma_, ii. 405
+
+  _Tomodon_, ii. 175
+
+  Tonga Islands, birds of, i. 443
+
+  _Topaza_, ii. 107
+
+  TORNATELLIDÆ, ii. 530
+
+  TORPEDINIDÆ, ii. 462
+
+  Tortoises, classification of, i. 100
+    of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, i. 289
+    ii. 407
+
+  TORTRICIDÆ, ii. 373
+
+  _Tortrix_, ii. 373
+
+  _Totanus_, ii. 353
+
+  Toucans, ii. 306
+
+  Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
+
+  _Toxodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 137
+
+  _Toxodontidæ_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  _Toxotus_, ii. 502
+
+  _Trachelyopterus_, ii. 443
+
+  TRACHINIDÆ, ii. 428
+
+  _Trachinus_, ii. 428
+
+  _Trachurus_, ii. 429
+
+  _Trachycephalus_, ii. 401
+    ii. 418
+
+  _Trachydosaurus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Trachyphonus_, ii. 306
+
+  TRACHYPTERIDÆ, ii. 432
+
+  _Trachytherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  TRAGELAPHINÆ, ii. 223
+
+  _Tragelaphus_, ii. 223
+
+  _Tragocerus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    European Miocene, i. 120
+
+  Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331
+
+  _Tragops_, ii. 379
+
+  TRAGULIDÆ, ii. 218
+
+  _Tragulus_, ii. 218
+
+  _Trapelus_, ii. 402
+
+  _Trechus_, ii. 489
+
+  Tree-crows, ii. 273
+
+  Tree-kangaroo, figure of, i. 415
+
+  Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, i. 337
+
+  Tree-snakes, ii. 378
+
+  _Tremarctos_, ii. 202
+
+  _Treron_, ii. 332
+
+  Tres Marias, zoology of, ii. 59
+
+  _Tribolonotus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Triboniophorus_, ii. 517
+
+  _Tribonyx_, ii. 352
+
+  _Trichastoma_, ii. 261
+
+  TRICHECHIDÆ, ii. 203
+
+  _Trichechus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    ii. 203
+
+  TRICHIURIDÆ, ii. 429
+
+  _Trichixos_, ii. 262
+
+  TRICHOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 327
+
+  Trichoglossidæ, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 393
+
+  _Trichoglossus_, ii. 327
+
+  _Tricholæma_, ii. 306
+
+  _Trichomycterus_, ii. 444
+
+  _Trycondyla_, ii. 486
+
+  _Trichonis_, ii. 477
+
+  TRICHONOTIDÆ, ii. 435
+
+  _Trichothraupis_, ii. 99
+
+  _Trichotropis_, ii. 507
+
+  _Triclaria_, ii. 328
+
+  TRIDACNIDÆ, ii. 535
+
+  _Trigla_, ii. 428
+
+  TRIGLIDÆ, ii. 427
+
+  _Trigona_, ii. 536
+
+  TRIGONIADÆ, ii. 534
+
+  _Trigonoptera_, ii. 501
+
+  _Trimeresurus_, ii. 385
+
+  _Tringa_, ii. 353
+
+  _Tringoides_, ii. 353
+
+  TRIONYCHIDÆ, ii. 409
+
+  _Trionyx_, Indian Miocene, i. 123
+    Miocene and Eocene, i. 165
+    ii. 409
+
+  _Triprion_, ii. 418
+
+  _Triptorhinus_, ii. 297
+
+  Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, i. 271
+
+  Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, i. 203
+    on the arrangement of the Sylviidæ, ii. 257
+
+  _Triton_, ii. 413
+
+  TRITONIADÆ, ii. 530
+
+  _Trochalopteron_, ii. 261
+
+  _Trochatella_, ii. 522
+
+  TROCHILIDÆ, ii. 321
+
+  _Trochilus_, ii. 108
+
+  _Trochus_, ii. 510
+
+  _Troglodytes_, ii. 170
+    ii. 263
+
+  TROGLODYTIDÆ, ii. 263
+
+  Trogon, European Miocene, i. 161
+    ii. 314
+
+  _Trogon_, ii. 314
+
+  TROGONIDÆ, ii. 314
+
+  TROGONOPHIDÆ, ii. 388
+
+  Trogonophis, ii. 388
+
+  _Trogontherium_, Post-Pliocene of Europe, i. 111
+    ii. 234
+
+  _Tropidechis_, ii. 383
+
+  _Tropidococcyx_, ii. 379
+
+  _Tropidodipsas_, ii. 379
+
+  _Tropidolepis_, ii. 401
+
+  _Tropidolepisma_, ii. 397
+
+  _Tropidonotus_, ii. 375
+
+  _Tropidophorus_, ii. 397
+
+  _Tropidopterus_, ii. 490
+
+  _Tropidorhynchus_, ii. 276
+
+  _Trucifelis_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
+
+  _Trugon_, ii. 333
+
+  Trumpeters, ii. 358
+
+  _Truncatella_, ii. 519
+
+  _Trgyon_, ii. 463
+
+  TRYGONIDÆ, ii. 463
+
+  Tuatara, ii. 405
+
+  _Tudora_, ii. 521
+
+  Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, i. 216
+
+  _Tupaia_, ii. 186
+
+  TUPAIIDÆ, ii. 186
+
+  _Tupaiidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+
+  _Turacoena_, ii. 333
+
+  Turacos, ii. 307
+
+  _Turacus_, ii. 307
+
+  TURBINIDÆ, ii. 510
+
+  TURDIDÆ, ii. 255
+
+  _Turdinus_, ii. 262
+
+  _Turdus_, ii. 256
+
+  _Turnagra_, ii. 262
+
+  Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, i. 90
+
+  TURNICIDÆ, ii. 341
+
+  _Turnix_, ii. 341
+
+  TURRITELLIDÆ, ii. 509
+
+  _Tursio_, ii. 209
+
+  Turtles, ii. 409
+
+  _Turtur_, ii. 333
+
+  _Tylas_, ii. 267
+
+  _Tylodon_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    ii. 196
+
+  _Tylognathus_, ii. 451
+
+  _Tylotriton_, ii. 413
+
+  _Typhlina_, ii. 372
+
+  _Typhline_, ii. 372
+
+  _Typhlocalamus_, ii. 374
+
+  TYPHLOPIDÆ, ii. 372
+
+  _Typhlops_, ii. 372
+
+  _Typhloscincus_, ii. 399
+
+  _Typotherium_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
+
+  TYRANNIDÆ, ii. 290
+
+  TYRANNINÆ, ii. 291
+
+  _Tyranniscus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Tyrannulus_, ii. 101
+
+  _Tyrannus_, ii. 102, 291
+
+  Tyrant-Shrikes, ii. 290
+
+  U.
+
+  _Uaru_, ii. 439
+
+  _Uintacyon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  _Uintatherium_, N. American Eocene, i. 139
+
+  _Uintornis_, N. American Eocene, i. 163
+
+  _Uma_, ii. 401
+
+  UMBRIDÆ, ii. 449
+
+  _Umbrina_, ii. 428
+
+  _Ungalia_, ii. 381
+
+  Ungulata, classification of, i. 89
+    antiquity of, i. 154
+    of the Palæarctic region, i. 182
+    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 241
+    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303
+    range of Oriental genera of, i. 374
+    range of Australian genera of, i. 476
+
+  _Ungulata_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
+    European Miocene, i. 119
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
+    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
+    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
+
+  UNGULATA, ii. 211
+    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 226
+    summary and conclusion, ii. 542
+
+  _Unio_, European Secondary, i. 169
+    ii. 534
+
+  UNIONIDÆ, ii. 534
+
+  _Upucerthia_, ii. 103
+
+  UPUPIDÆ, ii. 317
+
+  _Uragus_, ii. 285
+
+  Urania of Madagascar, i. 282
+
+  _Urania_, ii. 482
+
+  URANIIDÆ, ii. 482
+
+  _Uria_, ii. 367
+
+  _Uroaëtus_, ii. 348
+
+  _Urocissa_, ii. 273
+
+  _Urochroa_, ii. 107
+
+  _Urochroma_, ii. 328
+
+  _Urocyon_, ii. 197
+
+  URODELA, ii. 411
+
+  _Urogalba_, ii. 311
+
+  _Urolestes_, ii. 272
+
+  _Uromastix_, ii. 402
+
+  UROPELTIDÆ, ii. 373
+
+  _Uuropeltis_, ii. 374
+
+  _Uropsila_, ii. 264
+
+  _Uropsilus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Uropsophorus_, ii. 385
+
+  _Urospatha_, ii. 313
+
+  _Urospizias_, ii. 348
+
+  _Urosticte_, ii. 108
+
+  _Urotrichus_, ii. 190
+
+  _Urotriorchis_, ii. 347
+
+  _Ursidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
+    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
+
+  URSIDÆ, ii. 201
+
+  _Ursitaxus_, Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 200
+
+  _Ursus_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
+    Indian Miocene, i. 121
+    ii. 201
+
+  _Urubutinga_, ii. 348
+
+  _Urva_, ii. 195
+
+  _Uta_, ii. 401
+
+  _Utica_, ii. 477
+
+  V.
+
+  _Vaginulus_, ii. 518
+
+  _Valgus_, ii. 495
+
+  _Valvata_, ii. 510
+
+  Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278
+
+  _Vanga_, ii. 272
+
+  _Vandellia_, ii. 444
+
+  _Vanellus_, ii. 356
+
+  _Vanessa_, ii. 474
+
+  VARANIDÆ, ii. 389
+
+  _Varanus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
+    Indian Miocene, i. 123
+
+  VENERIDÆ, ii. 536
+
+  _Venilia_, ii. 303
+
+  _Vermicella_, ii. 383
+
+  _Verreauxia_, ii. 303
+
+  Vertebrata, summary of Palæarctic, i. 186
+    summary of Ethiopian, i. 255
+    summary of Oriental, i. 318
+    summary of Australian, i. 397
+    summary of Neotropical, ii. 13
+    summary of Nearctic, ii. 120
+
+  _Vespertilio_, European Eocene, i. 125
+    ii. 183
+
+  VESPERTILIONIDÆ, ii. 183
+
+  _Vidua_, ii. 286
+
+  _Vipera_, ii. 385
+
+  VIPERIDÆ, ii. 385
+
+  _Viperus_, European Miocene, i. 165
+
+  Vipers, ii. 385
+
+  _Vireo_, ii. 280
+
+  VIREONIDÆ, ii. 279
+
+  _Vireolanius_, ii. 280
+
+  _Vireosylvia_, ii. 280
+
+  Viscacha, ii. 237
+
+  _Vitrina_, ii. 516
+
+  _Viverra_, European Pliocene, i. 112
+    European Miocene, i. 118
+    ii. 195
+
+  _Viverricula_, ii. 195
+
+  _Viverridæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
+    European Eocene, i. 125
+
+  VIVERRIDÆ, ii. 194
+
+  _Vivia_, ii. 303
+
+  _Volatinia_, ii. 284
+
+  _Voluta_, ii. 508
+
+  Volutes, ii. 508
+
+  VOLUTIDÆ, ii. 508
+
+  _Volvocivora_, ii. 269
+
+  _Vulpes_, ii. 197
+
+  _Vultur_, ii. 346
+
+  VULTURIDÆ, ii. 345
+
+  VULTURINÆ, ii. 346
+
+  W.
+
+  Wagtails, ii. 290
+
+  Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine islands, i. 346
+    on birds of Celebes, i. 428
+    on arrangement of the Timaliidæ, ii. 261
+
+  _Wallago_, ii. 441
+
+  Wall-lizards, ii. 399
+
+  Walrus, ii. 203
+
+  Wart-snakes, ii. 382
+
+  _Washakius_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
+
+  Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, i. 90
+    on classification of marsupials, i. 91
+
+  Water-lizards, ii. 389
+
+  Weaver-finches, ii. 286
+
+  West African sub-region, description of, i. 262
+    mammalia of, i. 262
+    birds of, i. 262
+    Oriental or Malayan element in, i. 263
+    river scene with characteristic animals, i. 264
+    reptiles of, i. 264
+    amphibia of, i. 264
+    Oriental and Neotropical relations of, i. 265
+    insects of, i. 265
+    land-shells of, i. 265
+    islands of, i. 265
+
+  West Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441
+
+  Whelks, ii. 507
+
+  Whip-snakes, ii. 379
+
+  Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
+
+  Wing-shells, ii. 507
+    ii. 533
+
+  Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the Coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, i. 209
+    on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, i. 211
+    on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, i. 214
+    on the Coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
+    on the beetles of St. Helena, i. 270
+
+  Wombats, ii. 253
+
+  Woodpeckers, ii. 302
+
+  Wood-warblers, ii. 278
+
+  Woolly monkeys, ii. 174
+
+  Wrens, ii. 263
+
+  Wrynecks, ii. 304
+
+  X.
+
+  _Xanthocephalus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Xantholæma_, ii. 306
+
+  _Xanthomelus_, ii. 275
+
+  _Xanthopygia_, ii. 270
+
+  _Xanthosomus_, ii. 282
+
+  _Xanthotis_, ii. 275
+
+  _Xema_, ii. 364
+
+  _Xenelaphis_, ii. 376
+
+  _Xenica_, ii. 471
+
+  _Xenicus_, ii. 265
+
+  _Xenochrophys_, ii. 375
+
+  _Xenocypris_, ii. 452
+
+  _Xenodermus_, ii. 376
+
+  _Xenodon_, ii. 375
+
+  XENOPELTIDÆ, ii. 373
+
+  _Xenopeltis_, ii. 373
+
+  _Xenophrys_, ii. 421
+
+  _Xenopipo_, ii. 102
+
+  _Xenops_, ii. 103
+
+  _Xenorhina_, ii. 415
+
+  XENORHINIDÆ, ii. 415
+
+  _Xenospingus_, ii. 284
+
+  _Xenurelaps_, ii. 383
+
+  _Xenurus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
+    ii. 246
+
+  _Xiphias_, ii. 430
+
+  _Xiphidiopicus_, ii. 303
+
+  XIPHIIDÆ, ii. 430
+
+  _Xiphius_, ii. 208
+
+  _Xiphocolaptes_, ii. 103
+
+  _Xiphodontidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119
+
+  _Xipholena_, ii. 102
+
+  _Xiphorhampus_, ii. 445
+
+  _Xiphorhynchus_, ii.  103
+
+  _Xiphostoma_, ii. 445
+
+  _Xystrocera_, ii. 501
+
+  Y.
+
+  _Ypthima_, ii. 471
+
+  _Yuhina_, ii. 266
+
+  YUNGIDÆ, ii. 304
+
+  _Yungipicus_, ii. 303
+
+  _Yunx_, ii. 304
+
+  Z.
+
+  _Zabrus_, ii. 489
+
+  _Zalophus_, ii. 203
+
+  _Zamenis_, ii. 375
+
+  _Zanclostomus_, ii. 309
+
+  _Zaocys_, ii. 375
+
+  Zebras, ii. 211
+
+  _Zegris_, ii. 478
+
+  _Zemeros_, ii. 475
+
+  _Zenaida_, ii. 333
+
+  _Zenaidura_, ii. 332
+
+  _Zephyrus_, ii. 477
+
+  _Zeuglodon_, ii. 210
+
+  _Zeuglodontidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
+    ii. 210
+
+  _Zeus_, ii. 429
+
+  _Zeuxidia_, ii. 472
+
+  _Zoarces_, ii. 431
+
+  _Zonites_, ii. 516
+
+  _Zonites priscus_, Palæozoic, i. 169
+
+  _Zonotrichia_, ii. 284
+
+  ZONURIDÆ, ii. 391
+
+  _Zonurus_, ii. 392
+
+  Zoological characteristics of Palæarctic region, i. 181
+    Ethiopian region, i. 252
+    Oriental region, i. 315
+    Australian region, i. 390
+    of Neotropical region, ii. 5
+    of Nearctic region, ii. 115
+
+  Zoological regions, discussion on, i. 50
+    their origin and relations, ii. 155-161
+
+  _Zoothera_, ii. 256
+
+  _Zootoca_, ii. 391
+
+  _Zosterops_, ii. 277
+
+  _Zygæna_, ii. 481
+
+  ZYGÆNIDÆ, ii. 481
+
+  _Zygnopsis_, ii. 398
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.
+
+
+
+Notes
+
+[1] Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, and Professor Newton, divide the
+    Neotropical Region into six sub-regions, of which our "Brazilian
+    sub-region" comprises three--the "Brazilian," the "Amazonian," and the
+    "Columbian;" but, after due consideration, it does not seem advisable
+    to adopt this subdivision in a general work which treats of all the
+    classes of terrestrial animals. (See p. 27.)
+
+[2] Mr. Salvin, who has critically examined the ornithological fauna of
+    these islands, has kindly corrected my MS. List of the Birds, his
+    valuable paper in the _Transactions of the Zoological Society_ not
+    having been published in time for me to make use of it.
+
+[3] This name will be used for the whole island of St. Domingo, as being
+    both shorter and more euphonious, and avoiding all confusion with
+    Dominica, one of the Lesser Antilles. It is also better known than
+    "Hispaniola," which is perhaps the most correct name.
+
+[4] Myospalax has hitherto formed part of the next family, Spalacidæ; but a
+    recent examination of its anatomy by M. Milne-Edwards shows that it
+    belongs to the Muridæ, and comes near Arvicola.
+
+[5] The species of the genera _Phylloscopus_ and _Hypolais_ are so mixed up
+    in the _Hand List_, that Mr. Tristram has furnished me with the
+    following enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong
+    to them, by the numbers in that work:--
+
+      _Phylloscopus._
+      3032
+      3033
+      3048 = 3038
+      3039
+      3063 = 3047 = 3054 = 3061
+      3048
+      3049
+      3050
+      3051
+      3052
+      3053
+      3056 = 3081
+      3057
+      3059
+      3060
+
+      _Hypolais._
+      3026
+      3028
+      3029
+      3054 = 3031 = 3036
+      3042
+      3043
+      304
+      3062 = 3047
+      3046 = 2932
+      3035
+      2976
+
+[6] The term "Malaya" is used here to include the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
+    Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are
+    confined. "Malay Archipelago" will be used to include both Indo-Malaya
+    and Austro-Malaya.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geographical Distribution of
+Animals, Volume II, by Alfred Russel Wallace
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 56507 ***