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diff --git a/56506-0.txt b/56506-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..67c46ba --- /dev/null +++ b/56506-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,23240 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 56506 *** + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's note: The Errata (after the List of Plates) have been worked +into the main text. All other apparent mistakes have been retained as +printed. Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_); page +numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to +facilitate the use of the Index.. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: Zoogeographical Regions] + + + + +THE GEOGRAPHICAL + +DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS + + +_WITH A STUDY OF THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT FAUNAS AS ELUCIDATING +THE PAST CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE._ + + +BY ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, + +AUTHOR OF "THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO," ETC. + + +WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +_IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOLUME I._ + + +London: MACMILLAN AND CO. 1876. + +[_The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved._] + + + + + LONDON: + R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, + BREAD STREET HILL. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The present work is an attempt to collect and summarize the existing +information on the Distribution of Land Animals; and to explain the more +remarkable and interesting of the facts, by means of established laws of +physical and organic change. + +The main idea, which is here worked out in some detail for the whole earth, +was stated sixteen years ago in the concluding pages of a paper on the +"Zoological Geography of the Malay Archipelago," which appeared in the +_Journal of Proceedings of the Linnean Society_ for 1860; and again, in a +paper read before the Royal Geographical Society in 1863, it was briefly +summarized in the following passage:-- + + "My object has been to show the important bearing of researches into the + natural history of every part of the world, upon the study of its past + history. An accurate knowledge of any groups of birds or of insects and + of their geographical distribution, may enable us to map out the islands + and continents of a former epoch,--the amount of difference that exists + between the animals of adjacent districts being closely related to + preceding geological changes. By the collection of such minute facts, + alone, can we hope to fill up a great gap in the past history of the + earth as revealed by geology, and obtain some indications of the + existence of those ancient lands which now lie buried beneath the ocean, + and have left us nothing but these living records of their former + existence." + +The detailed study of several groups of the birds and insects collected by +myself in the East, brought prominently before me some of the curious +problems of Geographical Distribution; but I should hardly have ventured to +treat the whole subject, had it not been for the kind encouragement of Mr. +Darwin and Professor Newton, who, about six years ago, both suggested that +I should undertake the task. I accordingly set to work; but soon became +discouraged by the great dearth of materials in many groups, the absence of +general systematic works, and the excessive confusion that pervaded the +classification. Neither was it easy to decide on any satisfactory method of +treating the subject. During the next two years, however, several important +catalogues and systematic treatises appeared, which induced me to resume my +work; and during the last three years it has occupied a large portion of my +time. + +After much consideration, and some abortive trials, an outline plan of the +book was matured; and as this is, so far as I am aware, quite novel, it +will be well to give a few of the reasons for adopting it. + +Most of the previous writings on Geographical Distribution appeared to me +to be unsatisfactory, because they drew their conclusions from a more or +less extensive _selection_ of facts; and did not clearly separate groups of +facts of unequal value, or those relating to groups of animals of unequal +rank. As an example of what is meant, I may refer to Mr. Andrew Murray's +large and valuable work on the Geographical Distribution of Mammalia, in +which an immense number of coloured maps are used to illustrate the +distribution of various groups of animals. These maps are not confined to +groups of any fixed rank, but are devoted to a selection of groups of +various grades. Some show the range of single species of a genus--as the +lion, the tiger, the puma, and a species of fox; others are devoted to +sections of genera,--as the true wolves; others to genera,--as the hyænas, +and the bears; others to portions of families,--as the flying squirrels, +and the oxen with the bisons; others to families,--as the Mustelidæ, and +the Hystricidæ; and others to groups of families or to orders,--as the +Insectivora, and the opossums with the kangaroos. But in no one grade are +all the groups treated alike. Many genera are wholly unnoticed, while +several families are only treated in combination with others, or are +represented by some of the more important genera. + +In making these observations I by no means intend to criticise Mr. Murray's +book, but merely to illustrate by an example, the method which has been +hitherto employed, and which seems to me not well adapted to enable us to +establish the foundations of the science of distribution on a secure basis. +To do this, uniformity of treatment appeared to me essential, both as a +matter of principle, and to avoid all imputation of a partial selection of +facts, which may be made to prove anything. I determined, therefore, to +take in succession every well-established family of terrestrial +vertebrates, and to give an account of the distribution of all its +component genera, as far as materials were available. Species, as such, are +systematically disregarded,--firstly, because they are so numerous as to be +unmanageable; and, secondly, because they represent the most recent +modifications of form, due to a variety of often unknown causes, and are +therefore not so clearly connected with geographical changes as are the +natural groups of species termed genera; which may be considered to +represent the average and more permanent distribution of an organic type, +and to be more clearly influenced by the various known or inferred changes +in the organic and physical environment. + +This systematic review of the distribution of families and genera, now +forms the last part of my book--Geographical Zoology; but it was nearly the +first written, and the copious materials collected for it enabled me to +determine the zoo-geographical divisions of the earth (regions and +sub-regions) to be adopted. I next drew up tables of the families and +genera found in each region and sub-region; and this afforded a basis for +the geographical treatment of the subject--Zoological Geography--the most +novel, and perhaps the most useful and generally interesting part of my +work. While this was in progress I found it necessary to make a careful +summary of the distribution of extinct Mammalia. This was a difficult task, +owing to the great uncertainty that prevails as to the affinities of many +of the fossils, and my want of practical acquaintance with Palæontology; +but having carefully examined and combined the works of the best authors, I +have given what I believe is the first connected sketch of the relation of +extinct Mammalia to the distribution of living groups, and have arrived at +some very interesting and suggestive results. + +It will be observed that man is altogether omitted from the series of the +animal kingdom as here given, and some explanation of this omission may +perhaps be required. If the genus _Homo_ had been here treated like all +other genera, nothing more than the bare statement--"universally +distributed"--could have been given;--and this would inevitably have +provoked the criticism that it conveyed no information. If, on the other +hand, I had given an outline of the distribution of the _varieties_ or +_races_ of man, I should have departed from the plan of my work for no +sufficient reason. Anthropology is a science by itself; and it seems better +to omit it altogether from a zoological work, than to treat it in a +necessarily superficial manner. + +The best method of illustrating a work of this kind was a matter requiring +much consideration. To have had a separate coloured or shaded map for each +family would have made the work too costly, as the terrestrial vertebrates +alone would have required more than three hundred maps. I had also doubts +about the value of this mode of illustration, as it seemed rather to +attract attention to details than to favour the development of general +views. I determined therefore to adopt a plan, suggested in conversation by +Professor Newton; and to have one general map, showing the regions and +sub-regions, which could be referred to by means of a series of numbers. +These references I give in the form of diagrammatic headings to each +family; and, when the map has become familiar, these will, I believe, +convey at a glance a body of important information. + +Taking advantage of the recent extension of our knowledge of the depths of +the great oceans, I determined to give upon this map a summary of our +knowledge of the contours of the ocean bed, by means of tints of colour +increasing in intensity with the depth. Such a map, when it can be made +generally accurate, will be of the greatest service in forming an estimate +of the more probable changes of sea and land during the Tertiary period; +and it is on the effects of such changes that any satisfactory explanation +of the facts of distribution must to a great extent depend. + +Other important factors in determining the actual distribution of animals +are, the zones of altitude above the sea level, and the strongly contrasted +character of the surface as regards vegetation--a primary condition for the +support of animal life. I therefore designed a series of six maps of the +regions, drawn on a uniform scale, on which the belts of altitude are shown +by contour-shading, while the forests, pastures, deserts, and perennial +snows, are exhibited by means of appropriate tints of colour. + +These maps will, I trust, facilitate the study of geographical distribution +as a science, by showing, in some cases, an adequate cause in the nature of +the terrestrial surface for the actual distribution of certain groups of +animals. As it is hoped they will be constantly referred to, double folding +has been avoided, and they are consequently rather small; but Mr. Stanford, +and his able assistant in the map department, Mr. Bolton, have taken great +care in working out the details from the latest observations; and this, +combined with the clearness and the beauty of their execution, will I trust +render them both interesting and instructive. + +In order to make the book more intelligible to those readers who have no +special knowledge of systematic zoology, and to whom most of the names with +which its pages are often crowded must necessarily be unmeaning, I give a +series of twenty plates, each one illustrating at once the physical aspect +and the special zoological character of some well-marked division of a +region. Great care has been taken to associate in the pictures, such +species only as do actually occur together in nature; so that each plate +represents a scene which is, at all events, not an impossible one. The +species figured all belong to groups which are either peculiar to, or very +characteristic of, the region whose zoology they illustrate; and it is +hoped that these pictures will of themselves serve to convey a notion of +the varied types of the higher animals in their true geographical +relations. The artist, Mr. J. B. Zwecker, to whose talent as a zoological +draughtsman and great knowledge both of animal and vegetable forms we are +indebted for this set of drawings, died a few weeks after he had put the +final touches to the proofs. He is known to many readers by his vigorous +illustrations of the works of Sir Samuel Baker, Livingstone, and many other +travellers,--but these, his last series of plates, were, at my special +request, executed with a care, delicacy, and artistic finish, which his +other designs seldom exhibit. It must, however, be remembered, that the +figures of animals here given are not intended to show specific or generic +characters for the information of the scientific zoologist, but merely to +give as accurate an idea as possible, of some of the more remarkable and +more restricted types of beast and bird, amid the characteristic scenery of +their native country;--and in carrying out this object there are probably +few artists who would have succeeded better than Mr. Zwecker has done. + + + +The general arrangement of the separate parts of which the work is +composed, has been, to some extent, determined by the illustrations and +maps, which all more immediately belong to Part III. It was at first +intended to place this part last, but as this arrangement would have +brought all the illustrations into the second volume, its place was +changed,--perhaps in other respects for the better, as it naturally follows +Part II. Yet for persons not well acquainted with zoology, it will perhaps +be advisable to read the more important articles of Part IV. (and +especially the observations at the end of each order) after Part II., thus +making Part III. the conclusion of the work. + +Part IV. is, in fact, a book of reference, in which the distribution of all +the families and most of the genera of the higher animals, is given in +systematic order. Part III. is treated somewhat more popularly; and, +although it is necessarily crowded with scientific names (without which the +inferences and conclusions would have nothing solid to rest on), these may +be omitted by the non-scientific reader, or merely noted as a certain +number or proportion of peculiar generic types. Many English equivalents to +family and generic names are, however, given; and, assisted by these, it is +believed that any reader capable of understanding Lyell's "Principles," or +Darwin's "Origin," will have no difficulty in following the main arguments +and appreciating the chief conclusions arrived at in the present work. + +To those who are more interested in facts than in theories, the book will +serve as a kind of dictionary of the geography and affinities of animals. +By means of the copious Index, the native country, the systematic position, +and the numerical extent of every important and well established genus of +land-animal may be at once discovered;--information now scattered through +hundreds of volumes. + +In the difficult matters of synonymy, and the orthography of generic names, +I have been guided rather by general utility than by any fixed rules. When +I have taken a whole family group from a modern author of repute, I have +generally followed his nomenclature throughout. In other cases, I use the +names which are to be found in a majority of modern authors, rather than +follow the strict rule of priority in adopting some newly discovered +appellation of early date. In orthography I have adopted all such modern +emendations as seem coming into general use, and which do not lead to +inconvenience; but where the alteration is such as to completely change the +pronunciation and appearance of a well-known word, I have not adopted it. I +have also thought it best to preserve the initial letter of well-known and +old-established names, for convenience of reference to the Indices of +established works. As an example I may refer to _Enicurus_,--a name which +has been in use nearly half a century, and which is to be found under the +letter _E_, in Jerdon's Birds of India, Blyth's Catalogue, Bonaparte's +Conspectus, and the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London down to +1865. Classicists now write _Henicurus_ as the correct form; but this seems +to me one of those cases in which orthographical accuracy should give way +to priority, and still more to convenience. + +In combining and arranging so much detail from such varied sources, many +errors and omissions must doubtless have occurred. Owing to my residence at +a distance from the scientific libraries of the metropolis, I was placed at +a great disadvantage; and I could hardly have completed the work at all, +had I not been permitted to have a large number of volumes at once, from +the library of the Zoological Society of London, and to keep them for +months together;--a privilege for which I return my best thanks to Mr. +Sclater the Secretary, and to the Council. + +Should my book meet with the approval of working naturalists, I venture to +appeal to them, to assist me in rendering any future editions more +complete, by sending me (to the care of my publishers) notes of any +important omissions, or corrections of any misstatements of fact; as well +as copies of any of their papers or essays, and especially of any lists, +catalogues, and monographs, containing information on the classification or +distribution of living or extinct animals. + + + +To the many friends who have given me information or assistance I beg to +tender my sincere thanks. Especially am I indebted to Professor Newton, who +not only read through much of my rough MSS., but was so good as to make +numerous corrections and critical notes. These were of great value to me, +as they often contained or suggested important additional matter, or +pointed out systematic and orthographical inaccuracies. + +Professor Flower was so good as to read over my chapters on extinct +animals, and to point out several errors into which I had fallen. + +Dr. Günther gave me much valuable information on the classification of +reptiles, marking on my lists the best established and most natural genera, +and referring me to reliable sources of information. + +I am also greatly indebted to the following gentlemen for detailed +information on special subjects:-- + +To Sir Victor Brooke, for a MS. arrangement of the genera of Bovidæ, with +the details of their distribution: + +To Mr. Dresser, for lists of the characteristic birds of Northern and +Arctic Europe: + +To Dr. Hooker, for information on the colours and odours of New Zealand +plants: + +To Mr. Kirby, for a list of the butterflies of Chili: + +To Professor Mivart, for a classification of the Batrachia, and an early +proof of his article on "Apes" in the Encyclopedia Britannica: + +To Mr. Salvin, for correcting my list of the birds of the Galapagos, and +for other assistance: + +To Mr. Sharpe, for MS. lists of the birds of Madagascar and the Cape Verd +Islands: + +To Canon Tristram, for a detailed arrangement of the difficult family of +the warblers,--Sylviidæ: + +To Viscount Walden, for notes on the systematic arrangement of the +Pycnonotidæ and Timaliidæ, and for an early proof of his list of the birds +of the Philippine Islands. + +I also have to thank many naturalists, both in this country and abroad, who +have sent me copies of their papers; and I trust they will continue to +favour me in the same manner. + +An author may easily be mistaken in estimating his own work. I am well +aware that this first outline of a great subject is, in parts, very meagre +and sketchy; and, though perhaps overburthened with some kinds of detail, +yet leaves many points most inadequately treated. It is therefore with some +hesitation that I venture to express the hope that I have made some +approach to the standard of excellence I have aimed at;--which was, that my +book should bear a similar relation to the eleventh and twelfth chapters of +the "Origin of Species," as Mr. Darwin's "Animals and Plants under +Domestication" does to the first chapter of that work. Should it be judged +worthy of such a rank, my long, and often wearisome labours, will be well +repaid. + + MARCH, 1876. + + + + + CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. + + PART I. + + THE PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL PHENOMENA OF DISTRIBUTION. + + CHAPTER I. + + INTRODUCTORY. + + CHAPTER II. + + THE MEANS OF DISPERSAL AND THE MIGRATIONS OF ANIMALS. + + Means of Dispersal of Mammalia (p. 10)--Climate as a Limit to the Range + of Mammals (p. 11)--Valleys and Rivers as Barriers to Mammals (p. 12)-- + Arms of the Sea as Barriers to Mammals (p. 13)--Ice-floes and drift-wood + as aiding the Dispersal of Mammals (p. 14)--Means of Dispersal of Birds + (p. 15)--Dispersal of Birds by Winds (p. 16)--Barriers to the Dispersal + of Birds (p. 17)--The Phenomena of Migration (p. 18)--Migrations of Birds + (p. 19)--General remarks on Migration (p. 25)--Means of Dispersal of + Reptiles and Amphibia (p. 28)--Means of Dispersal of Fishes (p. 29)-- + Means of Dispersal of Mollusca (p. 30)--Means of Dispersal of Insects and + the Barriers which limit their Range (p. 32) 10-34 + + CHAPTER III. + + DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY THE CONDITIONS AND CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S + SURFACE. + + Land and Water (p. 35)--Continental Areas (p. 36)--Recent Changes in the + Continental Areas (p. 38)--The Glacial Epoch as affecting the + Distribution of Animals (p. 40)--Changes of Vegetation as affecting the + Distribution of Animals (p. 43)--Organic Changes as affecting + Distribution (p. 44) 35-49 + + CHAPTER IV. + + ON ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. + + Principles upon which Zoological Regions should be formed (p. 53)--Which + class of Animals is of most importance in determining Zoological Regions + (p. 56)--Various Zoological Regions proposed since 1857 (p. 58)-- + Discussion of proposed Regions (p. 61)--Reasons for adopting the Six + Regions first proposed by Mr. Sclater (p. 63)--Objections to the system + of Circumpolar Zones (p. 67)--Does the Arctic Fauna characterise an + independent Region (p. 68)--Palæarctic Region (p. 71)--Ethiopian Region + (p. 73)--Oriental Region (p. 75)--Australian Region (p. 77)--Neotropical + Region (p. 78)--Nearctic Region (p. 79)--Observations on the series of + Sub-regions (p. 80) 50-82 + + CHAPTER V. + + CLASSIFICATION AS AFFECTING THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. + + Classification of the Mammalia (p. 85)--Classification of Birds (p. 92)-- + Classification of Reptiles (p. 98)--Classification of Amphibia (p. 100)-- + Classification of Fishes (p. 101)--Classification of Insects (p. 102)-- + Classification of Mollusca (p. 104) 83-104 + + PART II. + + ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. + + CHAPTER VI. + + THE EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. + + Historic and Post-pliocene Period (p. 110)--Pliocene Period (p. 112)-- + General Conclusions as to the Pliocene and Post-pliocene Faunas of Europe + (p. 113)--Miocene Period (p. 114)--Extinct Animals of Greece (p. 115)-- + Miocene Fauna of Central and Western Europe (p. 117)--Upper Miocene + Deposits of India (p. 121)--General Observations on the Miocene Faunas of + Europe and Asia (p. 123)--Eocene Period (p. 124)--General Considerations + on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Europe (p. 126) 107-128 + + CHAPTER VII. + + EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. + + North America--Post-pliocene Period (p. 129)--Remarks on the Post- + pliocene Fauna of North America (p. 130)--Tertiary Period (p. 132)-- + Primates (p. 132)--Insectivora (p. 133)--Carnivora (p. 134)--Ungulata + (p. 135)--Proboscidea (p. 138)--Tillodontia (p. 139)--Rodentia (p. 140)-- + General Relations of the Extinct Tertiary Mammalia of North America and + Europe (p. 140)--South America (p. 143)--Fauna of the Brazilian Caves + (p. 143)--Pliocene Period of Temperate South America (p. 146)--Pliocene + Mammalia of the Antilles (p. 148)--Eocene Fauna of South America (p. 148) + --General Remarks on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna of the Old and New + Worlds (p. 148)--The Birth-place and Migrations of some Mammalian + Families and Genera (p. 153) 129-156 + + CHAPTER VIII. + + VARIOUS EXTINCT ANIMALS;--AND ON THE ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF + INSECTS AND LAND-MOLLUSCA. + + Extinct Mammalia of Australia (p. 157)--Mammalian Remains of the + Secondary Formations (p. 159)--Extinct Birds (p. 160)--Palæarctic Region + and North India (p. 161)--North America (p. 163)--South America, + Madagascar, New Zealand (p. 164)--Extinct Tertiary Reptiles (p. 165)-- + Antiquity of the Genera of Insects (p. 166)--Antiquity of the Genera of + Land and Fresh-water Shells (p. 168) 157-170 + + PART III. + + ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF LIFE + IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS + THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS. + + CHAPTER IX. + + THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF THE REGIONS.--COSMOPOLITAN GROUPS OF + ANIMALS.--TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. + + Order of succession of the Regions (p. 173)--Cosmopolitan Groups (p. 175) + --Tables of Distributions of Families and Genera (p. 177) 173-179 + + CHAPTER X. + + THE PALÆARCTIC REGION. + + Zoological Characteristics of the Palæarctic Region (p. 181)--Summary of + Palæarctic Vertebrata (p. 186)--Insects (p. 187)--Land-shells (p. 190)-- + The Palæarctic Sub-regions (p. 190)--Central and Northern Europe (p. 191) + --North European Islands (p. 197)--Mediterranean Sub-region (p. 199)-- + The Mediterranean and Atlantic Islands (p. 206)--The Siberian Sub-region, + or Northern Asia (p. 216)--Japan and North China, or the Manchurian + Sub-region (p. 220)--Birds (p. 223)--Insects (p. 227)--Remarks on the + General Character of the Fauna of Japan (p. 230)--General Conclusions as + to the Fauna of the Palæarctic Region (p. 231)--Table I. Families of + Animals inhabiting the Palæarctic Region (p. 234)--Table II. List of the + Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the Palæarctic Region + (p. 239) 181-250 + + CHAPTER XI. + + THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. + + Zoological Characteristics of the Ethiopian Region (p. 252)--Summary of + Ethiopian Vertebrates (p. 255)--The Ethiopian Sub-regions (p. 258)--The + East African Sub-region, or Central and East Africa (p. 258)--The West + African Sub-region (p. 262)--Islands of the West African Sub-region + (p. 265)--South African Sub-region (p. 266)--Atlantic Islands of the + Ethiopian Region;--St. Helena (p. 269)--Tristan d'Acunha (p. 271)-- + Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, or the Malagasy Sub-region (p. 272) + --The Mascarene Islands (p. 280)--Extinct Fauna of the Mascarene Islands + and Madagascar (p. 282)--General Remarks on the Insect Fauna of + Madagascar (p. 284)--On the probable Past History of the Ethiopian Region + (p. 285)--Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Ethiopian Region + (p. 294)--Table II. List of Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of + the Ethiopian Region (p. 300) 251-313 + + CHAPTER XII. + + THE ORIENTAL REGION. + + Zoological Characteristics of the Oriental Region (p. 315)--Summary of + Oriental Vertebrata (p. 318)--The Oriental Sub-regions (p. 321)-- + Hindostan, or Indian Sub-region (p. 321)--Range of the Genera of Mammalia + which inhabit the Sub-region of Hindostan (p. 322)--Oriental, Palæarctic, + and Ethiopian Genera of Birds in Central India (p. 224)--Sub-region of + Ceylon and South India (p. 326)--The Past History of Ceylon and South + India, as indicated by its Fauna (p. 328)--Himalayan or Indo-Chinese + Sub-region (p. 329)--Islands of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region (p. 333)-- + Indo-Malaya, or the Malayan Sub-region (p. 334)--Malayan Insects (p. 341) + --The Zoological Relations of the several Islands of the Indo-Malay + Sub-region (p. 345)--Philippine Islands (p. 345)--Java (p. 349)--Malacca, + Sumatra, and Borneo (p. 353)--Probable recent Geographical Changes in the + Indo-Malay Islands (p. 357)--Probable Origin of the Malayan Fauna + (p. 359)--Concluding Remarks on the Oriental Region (p. 362)--Table I. + Families of Animals inhabiting the Oriental Region (p. 365)--Table II. + Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds in the Oriental Region (p. 371) + 314-386 + + CHAPTER XIII. + + THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. + + General Zoological Characteristics of the Australian Region (p. 390)-- + Summary of the Australian Vertebrata (p. 397)--Supposed Land-connection + between Australia and South America (p. 398)--Insects (p. 403)-- + Land-shells (p. 407)--Australian Sub-regions (p. 408)--Austro-Malayan + Sub-region (p. 409)--Papua, or the New Guinea Group (p. 409)--The + Moluccas (p. 417)--Insects--Peculiarities of the Moluccan Fauna (p. 420) + --Timor Group (p. 422)--Celebes Group (p. 426)--Origin of the Fauna of + Celebes (p. 436)--Australia and Tasmania, or the Australian Sub-region + (p. 438)--The Pacific Islands, or Polynesian Sub-region (p. 442)--Fiji, + Tonga, and Samoa Islands (p. 443)--Society and Marquesas Islands (p. 443) + --Ladrone and Caroline Islands (p. 444)--New Caledonia and the New + Hebrides (p. 444)--Sandwich Islands (p. 445)--Reptiles of the Polynesian + Sub-region (p. 448)--New Zealand Sub-region (p. 449)--Islets of the New + Zealand Sub-region (p. 453)--Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fresh-water Fishes + (p. 456)--Insects (p. 457)--The Ancient Fauna of New Zealand (p. 459)-- + The Origin of the New Zealand Fauna (p. 459)--Causes of the Poverty of + Insect-life in New Zealand: its Influence on the Character of the Flora + (p. 462)--Concluding Remarks on the Early History of the Australian + Region (p. 464)--Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Australian + Region (p. 468)--Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of + the Australian Region (p. 473) 387-485 + + Index to Vol. I 489-503 + + + + +MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. I. + + + + 1. Map of the World, showing the Zoo-Geographical Regions and the + contour of the Ocean-bed _Frontispiece_ + + _To face page_ + + 2. Map of the Palæarctic Region 181 + + 3. Plate I. The Alps of Central Europe with Characteristic + Animals 195 + + 4. Plate II. Characteristic Mammalia of Western Tartary 218 + + 5. Plate III. Characteristic Animals of North China 226 + + 6. Map of the Ethiopian Region 251 + + 7. Plate IV. Characteristic Animals of East Africa 261 + + 8. Plate V. Scene in West Africa with Characteristic Animals 264 + + 9. Plate VI. Scene in Madagascar with Characteristic Animals 278 + + 10. Map of the Oriental Region 315 + + 11. Plate VII. Scene in Nepaul with Characteristic Animals 331 + + 12. Plate VIII. A Forest in Borneo with Characteristic Mammalia 337 + + 13. Plate IX. A Malacca Forest with some of its Peculiar Birds 340 + + 14. Map of the Australian Region 387 + + 15. Plate X. Scene in New Guinea with Characteristic Animals 415 + + 16. Plate XI. The Characteristic Mammalia of Tasmania 439 + + 17. Plate XII. The Plains of New South Wales with Characteristic + Animals 442 + + 18. Plate XIII. Scene in New Zealand with some of its Remarkable + Birds 455 + + + + + + +ERRATA IN VOL. I. + + +I have detected several misprints and small errors in the final impression, +and Dr. Meyer, who has translated the work into German, has kindly +communicated all that he has noticed. It is not thought necessary to give +here all the smaller orthographical errors, most of which will be corrected +in the Index. The following seem, however, to be of sufficient importance +to justify me in asking my readers to correct them in their copies. + + Page 93, 12 lines from foot, _for_ Hocco _read_ Hoazin. + + " 97, line 2, _for_ Hocco _read_ Hoazin. + + " 147, 13 lines from foot, _for_ three-handed _read_ three-banded. + + " 177, line 6, _for_ Lycænidæ _read_ Zygænidæ. + + " 183, line 20, _for_ third _read_ fourth. + + " 238, line 18, _for_ Spirigidea _read_ Sphingidea. + + " 242, _insert_ | 92a | Tamias | 1 | All Northern Asia | N. America. + + " 245, last line, _insert in 2nd column_ (6). + + " 309, line 20, _for_ Motacilla _read_ Budytes. + + " 327, 12 lines from foot, _after_ Hindostan _read_ and. + + " 331, last line, for _Icthyopsis_ read _Icthyophis_. + + " 340, line 15, for _Edolius_ read _Bhringa_. + + " 348, line 17, _for_ Flores _read_ New Guinea. + + " 371, 11 lines from foot, _for_ and Borneo _read_ Borneo and + Philippines. + + " 391, 10 lines from foot, _after_ Celebes _add_ and the Papuan + Islands. + + " 391, 9 lines from foot, _omit_ New Guinea or. + + " 414, 6 lines from foot, for _Epimachus_ read _Seleucides_. + + " 415, line 10 _for_ ditto _read_ ditto. + + " 427, line 20, _after_ Celebes _add_ and on some of the Philippine + Islands. + + " 427, 5 lines from foot, _for_ tusks _read_ jaw. + + " 462, 15 lines from foot, _for_ p. 156 _read_ p. 166. + + " 474, 9 lines from foot, _after_ Celebes _add_ Papua. + + + + +THE + +GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION +OF ANIMALS. + + + + +PART I. + +_THE PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL PHENOMENA OF DISTRIBUTION._ + +{3}CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +It is a fact within the experience of most persons, that the various +species of animals are not uniformly dispersed over the surface of the +country. If we have a tolerable acquaintance with any district, be it a +parish, a county, or a larger extent of territory, we soon become aware +that each well-marked portion of it has some peculiarities in its animal +productions. If we want to find certain birds or certain insects, we have +not only to choose the right season but to go to the right place. If we +travel beyond our district in various directions we shall almost certainly +meet with something new to us; some species which we were accustomed to see +almost daily will disappear, others which we have never seen before will +make their appearance. If we go very far, so as to be able to measure our +journey by degrees of latitude and longitude and to perceive important +changes of climate and vegetation, the differences in the forms of animal +life will become greater; till at length we shall come to a country where +almost everything will be new, all the familiar creatures of our own +district being replaced by others more or less differing from them. + +If we have been observant during our several journeys, and have combined +and compared the facts we have collected, it will become apparent that the +change we have witnessed has been of two distinct kinds. In our own and +immediately surrounding districts, particular species appeared and +disappeared because {4}the soil, the aspect, or the vegetation, was adapted +to them or the reverse. The marshes, the heaths, the woods and forests, the +chalky downs, the rocky mountains, had each their peculiar inhabitants, +which reappeared again and again as we came to tracts of country suitable +for them. But as we got further away we began to find that localities very +similar to those we had left behind were inhabited by a somewhat different +set of species; and this difference increased with distance, +notwithstanding that almost identical external conditions might be often +met with. The first class of changes is that of _stations_; the second that +of _habitats_. The one is a _local_, the other a _geographical_ phenomenon. +The whole area over which a particular animal is found may consist of any +number of _stations_, but rarely of more than one _habitat_. Stations, +however, are often so extensive as to include the entire range of many +species. Such are the great seas and oceans, the Siberian or the Amazonian +forests, the North African deserts, the Andean or the Himalayan highlands. + +There is yet another difference in the nature of the change we have been +considering. The new animals which we meet with as we travel in any +direction from our starting point, are some of them very much like those we +have left behind us, and can be at once referred to familiar types; while +others are altogether unlike anything we have seen at home. When we reach +the Alps we find another kind of squirrel, in Southern Italy a distinct +mole, in Southern Europe fresh warblers and unfamiliar buntings. We meet +also with totally new forms; as the glutton and the snowy owl in Northern, +the genet and the hoopoe in Southern, and the saiga antelope and collared +pratincole in Eastern Europe. The first series are examples of what are +termed _representative species_, the second of distinct groups or _types_ +of animals. The one represents a comparatively recent modification, and an +origin in or near the locality where it occurs; the other is a result of +very ancient changes both organic and inorganic, and is connected with some +of the most curious and difficult of the problems we shall have to discuss. + +{5}Having thus defined our subject, let us glance at the opinions that have +generally prevailed as to the nature and causes of the phenomena presented +by the geographical distribution of animals. + +It was long thought, and is still a popular notion, that the manner in +which the various kinds of animals are dispersed over the globe is almost +wholly due to diversities of climate and of vegetation. There is indeed +much to favour this belief. The arctic regions are strongly characterised +by their white bears and foxes, their reindeer, ermine, and walruses, their +white ptarmigan, owls, and falcons; the temperate zone has its foxes and +wolves, its rabbits, sheep, beavers, and marmots, its sparrows and its song +birds; while tropical regions alone produce apes and elephants, parrots and +peacocks, and a thousand strange quadrupeds and brilliant birds which are +found nowhere in the cooler regions. So the camel, the gazelle and the +ostrich live in the desert; the bison on the prairie; the tapir, the deer, +and the jaguar in forests. Mountains and marshes, plains and rocky +precipices, have each their animal inhabitants; and it might well be +thought, in the absence of accurate inquiry, that these and other +differences would sufficiently explain why most of the regions and +countries into which the earth is popularly divided should have certain +animals peculiar to them and should want others which are elsewhere +abundant. + +A more detailed and accurate knowledge of the productions of different +portions of the earth soon showed that this explanation was quite +insufficient; for it was found that countries exceedingly similar in +climate and all physical features may yet have very distinct animal +populations. The equatorial parts of Africa and South America, for example, +are very similar in climate and are both covered with luxuriant forests, +yet their animal life is widely different; elephants, apes, leopards, +guinea-fowls and touracos in the one, are replaced by tapirs, +prehensile-tailed monkeys, jaguars, curassows and toucans in the other. +Again, parts of South Africa and Australia are wonderfully similar in their +soil and climate; yet one has lions, antelopes, zebras and giraffes; the +other only kangaroos, wombats, {6}phalangers and mice. In like manner parts +of North America and Europe are very similar in all essentials of soil +climate and vegetation, yet the former has racoons, opossums, and +humming-birds; while the latter possesses moles, hedgehogs and true +flycatchers. Equally striking are the facts presented by the distribution +of many large and important groups of animals. Marsupials (opossums, +phalangers &c.) are found from temperate Van Diemen's land to the tropical +islands of New Guinea and Celebes, and in America from Chili to Virginia. +No crows exist in South America, while they inhabit every other part of the +world, not excepting Australia. Antelopes are found only in Africa and +Asia; the sloths only in South America; the true lemurs are confined to +Madagascar, and the birds-of-paradise to New Guinea. + +If we examine more closely the distribution of animals in any extensive +region, we find that different, though closely allied species, are often +found on the opposite sides of any considerable barrier to their migration. +Thus, on the two sides of the Andes and Rocky Mountains in America, almost +all the mammalia, birds, and insects are of distinct species. To a less +extent, the Alps and Pyrenees form a similar barrier, and even great rivers +and river plains, as those of the Amazon and Ganges, separate more or less +distinct groups of animals. Arms of the sea are still more effective, if +they are permanent; a circumstance in some measure indicated by their +depth. Thus islands far away from land almost always have very peculiar +animals found nowhere else; as is strikingly the case in Madagascar and New +Zealand, and to a less degree in the West India islands. But shallow +straits, like the English Channel or the Straits of Malacca, are not found +to have the same effect, the animals being nearly or quite identical on +their opposite shores. A change of climate or a change of vegetation may +form an equally effective barrier to migration. Many tropical and polar +animals are pretty accurately limited by certain isothermal lines; and the +limits of the great forests in most parts of the world strictly determine +the ranges of many species. + +Naturalists have now arrived at the conclusion, that by some {7}slow +process of development or transmutation, all animals have been produced +from those which preceded them; and the old notion that every species was +specially created as they now exist, at a particular time and in a +particular spot, is abandoned as opposed to many striking facts, and +unsupported by any evidence. This modification of animal forms took place +very slowly, so that the historical period of three or four thousand years +has hardly produced any perceptible change in a single species. Even the +time since the last glacial epoch, which on the very lowest estimate must +be from 50,000 to 100,000 years, has only served to modify a few of the +higher animals into very slightly different species. The changes of the +forms of animals appear to have accompanied, and perhaps to have depended +on, changes of physical geography, of climate, or of vegetation; since it +is evident that an animal which is well adapted to one condition of things +will require to be slightly changed in constitution or habits, and +therefore generally in form, structure, or colour, in order to be equally +well adapted to a changed condition of surrounding circumstances. Animals +multiply so rapidly, that we may consider them as continually trying to +extend their range; and thus any new land raised above the sea by +geological causes becomes immediately peopled by a crowd of competing +inhabitants, the strongest and best adapted of which alone succeed in +maintaining their position. + +If we keep in view these facts--that the minor features of the earth's +surface are everywhere slowly changing; that the forms, and structure, and +habits of all living things are also slowly changing; while the great +features of the earth, the continents, and oceans, and loftiest mountain +ranges, only change after very long intervals and with extreme slowness; we +must see that the present distribution of animals upon the several parts of +the earth's surface is the final product of all these wonderful revolutions +in organic and inorganic nature. The greatest and most radical differences +in the productions of any part of the globe must be dependent on isolation +by the most effectual and most permanent barriers. That ocean which has +remained broadest and deepest from the most remote geological epoch {8}will +separate countries the productions of which most widely and radically +differ; while the most recently-depressed seas, or the last-formed mountain +ranges, will separate countries the productions of which are almost or +quite identical. It will be evident, therefore, that the study of the +distribution of animals and plants may add greatly to our knowledge of the +past history of our globe. It may reveal to us, in a manner which no other +evidence can, which are the oldest and most permanent features of the +earth's surface, and which the newest. It may indicate the existence of +islands or continents now sunk beneath the ocean, and which have left no +record of their existence save the animal and vegetable productions which +have migrated to adjacent lands. It thus becomes an important adjunct to +geology, which can rarely do more than determine what lands have been +raised above the waters, under what conditions and at what period; but can +seldom ascertain anything of the position or extent of those which have +sunk beneath it. Our present study may often enable us, not only to say +where lands must have recently disappeared, but also to form some judgment +as to their extent, and the time that has elapsed since their submersion. + + + +Having thus briefly sketched the nature and objects of the subject we have +to study, it will be necessary--before entering on a detailed examination +of the zoological features of the different parts of the earth, and of the +distribution of the orders, families, and genera of animals--to examine +certain preliminary facts and principles essential for our guidance. We +must first inquire what are the powers of multiplication and dispersal of +the various groups of animals, and the nature of the barriers that most +effectually limit their range. We have then to consider the effects of +changes in physical geography and in climate; to examine the nature and +extent of such changes as have been known to occur; to determine what +others are possible or probable; and to ascertain the various modes in +which such changes affect the structure, the distribution, or the very +existence of animals. + +{9}Two subjects of a different nature must next engage our attention. We +have to deal with two vast masses of facts, each involving countless +details, and requiring subdivision and grouping to be capable of +intelligible treatment. All the continents and their chief subdivisions, +and all the more important islands of the globe, have to be compared as +regards their various animal forms. To do this effectively we require a +natural division of the earth especially adapted to our purpose; and we +shall have to discuss at some length the reasons for the particular system +adopted,--a discussion which must to some extent anticipate and summarize +the conclusions of the whole work. We have also to deal with many hundreds +of families and many thousands of genera of animals, and here too a true +and natural classification is of great importance. We must therefore give a +connected view of the classification adopted in the various classes of +animals dealt with. + +And lastly, as the existing distribution of animals is the result and +outcome of all preceding changes of the earth and of its inhabitants, we +require as much knowledge as we can get of the animals of each country +during past geological epochs, in order to interpret the facts we shall +accumulate. We shall, therefore, enter upon a somewhat detailed sketch of +the various forms of extinct animals that have lived upon the earth during +the Tertiary period; discuss their migrations at various epochs, the +changes of physical geography that they imply, and the extent to which they +enable us to determine the birthplace of certain families and genera. + +The preliminary studies above enumerated will, it is believed, enable us to +see the bearing of many facts in the distribution of animals that would +otherwise be insoluble problems; and, what is hardly less valuable, will +teach us to estimate the comparative importance of the various groups of +animals, and to avoid the common error of cutting the gordian knot of each +difficulty by vast hypothetical changes in existing continents and +oceans--probably the most permanent features of our globe. + + + + +{10}CHAPTER II. + +THE MEANS OF DISPERSAL AND THE MIGRATIONS OF ANIMALS. + + +All animals are capable of multiplying so rapidly, that if a single pair +were placed in a continent with abundance of food and no enemies, they +might fully stock it in a very short time. Thus, a bird which produces ten +pairs of young during its lifetime (and this is far below the fertility of +many birds) will, if we take its life at five years, increase to a hundred +millions in about forty years, a number sufficient to stock a large +country. Many fishes and insects are capable of multiplying several +thousandfold each year, so that in a few years they would reach billions +and trillions. Even large and slow breeding mammals, which have only one at +a birth but continue to breed from eight to ten successive years, may +increase from a single pair to ten millions in less than forty years. + +But as animals rarely have an unoccupied country to breed in, and as the +food in any one district is strictly limited, their natural tendency is to +roam in every direction in search of fresh pastures, or new hunting +grounds. In doing so, however, they meet with many obstacles. Rocks and +mountains have to be climbed, rivers or marshes to be crossed, deserts or +forests to be traversed; while narrow straits or wider arms of the sea +separate islands from the main land or continents from each other. We have +now to inquire what facilities the different classes of animals have for +overcoming these obstacles, and what kind of barriers are most effectual in +checking their progress. + + +_Means of Dispersal of Mammalia._--Many of the largest mammalia are able to +roam over whole continents and are hardly {11}stopped by any physical +obstacles. The elephant is almost equally at home on plains and mountains, +and it even climbs to the highest summit of Adam's Peak in Ceylon, which is +so steep and rocky as to be very difficult of ascent for man. It traverses +rivers with great ease and forces its way through the densest jungle. There +seems therefore to be no limit to its powers of wandering, but the +necessity of procuring food and its capacity of enduring changes of +climate. The tiger is another animal with great powers of dispersal. It +crosses rivers and sometimes even swims over narrow straits of the sea, and +it can endure the severe cold of North China and Tartary as well as the +heats of the plains of Bengal. The rhinoceros, the lion, and many of the +ruminants have equal powers of dispersal; so that wherever there is land +and sufficient food, there are no limits to their possible range. Other +groups of animals are more limited in their migrations. The apes, lemurs, +and many monkeys are so strictly adapted to an arboreal life that they can +never roam far beyond the limits of the forest vegetation. The same may be +said of the squirrels, the opossums, the arboreal cats, and the sloths, +with many other groups of less importance. Deserts or open country are +equally essential to the existence of others. The camel, the hare, the +zebra, the giraffe and many of the antelopes could not exist in a forest +country any more than could the jerboas or the prairie marmots. + +There are other animals which are confined to mountains, and could not +extend their range into lowlands or forests. The goats and the sheep are +the most striking group of this kind, inhabiting many of the highest +mountains of the globe; of which the European ibex and mouflon are striking +examples. Rivers are equally necessary to the existence of others, as the +beaver, otter, water-vole and capybara; and to such animals high +mountain-ranges or deserts must form an absolutely impassable barrier. + + +_Climate as a Limit to the Range of Mammals._--Climate appears to limit the +range of many animals, though there is some reason to believe that in many +cases it is not the climate itself so much as the change of vegetation +consequent on climate which produces the effect. The quadrumana appear to +be limited by climate, {12}since they inhabit almost all the tropical +regions but do not range more than about 10° beyond the southern and 12° +beyond the northern tropic, while the great bulk of the species are found +only within an equatorial belt about 30° wide. But as these animals are +almost exclusively fruit-eaters, their distribution depends as much on +vegetation as on temperature; and this is strikingly shown by the fact that +the _Semnopithecus schistaceus_ inhabits the Himalayan mountains to a +height of 11,000 feet, where it has been seen leaping among fir-trees +loaded with snow-wreaths! Some northern animals are bounded by the +isothermal of 32°. Such are the polar bear and the walrus, which cannot +live in a state of nature far beyond the limits of the frozen ocean; but as +they live in confinement in temperate countries, their range is probably +limited by other conditions than temperature. + +We must not therefore be too hasty in concluding, that animals which we now +see confined to a very hot or a very cold climate are incapable of living +in any other. The tiger was once considered a purely tropical animal, but +it inhabits permanently the cold plains of Manchuria and the Amoor, a +country of an almost arctic winter climate. Few animals seem to us more +truly inhabitants of hot countries than the elephants and rhinoceroses; yet +in Post-tertiary times they roamed over the whole of the northern +continents to within the arctic circle; and we know that the climate was +then as cold as it is now, from their entire bodies being preserved in ice. +Some change must recently have occurred either in the climate, soil, or +vegetation of Northern Asia which led to the extinction of these +forerunners of existing tropical species; and we must always bear in mind +that similar changes may have acted upon other species which we now find +restricted within narrow limits, but which may once have roamed over a wide +and varied territory. + + +_Valleys and Rivers as Barriers to Mammals._--To animals which thrive best +in dry and hilly regions, a broad level and marshy valley must often prove +an effectual barrier. The difference of vegetation and of insect life, +together with an unhealthy atmosphere, no doubt often checks migration if +it is attempted. Thus {13}many animals are restricted to the slopes of the +Himalayas or to the mountains of Central India, the flat valley of the +Ganges forming a limit to their range. In other cases, however, it is the +river rather than the valley which is the barrier. In the great Amazonian +plains many species of monkeys, birds, and even insects are found up to the +river banks on one side but do not cross to the other. Thus in the lower +part of the Rio Negro two monkeys, the _Jacchus bicolor_ and the +_Brachiurus couxiou_, are found on the north bank of the river but never on +the south, where a red-whiskered _Pithecia_ is alone found. Higher up +_Ateles paniscus_ extends to the north bank of the river while _Lagothrix +humboldtii_ comes down to the south bank; the former being a native of +Guiana, the latter of Ecuador. The range of the birds of the genus +_Psophia_ or trumpeters, is also limited by the rivers Amazon, Madeira, Rio +Negro and some others; so that in these cases we are able to define the +limits of distribution with an unusual degree of accuracy, and there is +little doubt the same barriers also limit a large number of other species. + + +_Arms of the Sea as Barriers to Mammals._--Very few mammals can swim over +any considerable extent of sea, although many can swim well for short +distances. The jaguar traverses the widest streams in South America, and +the bear and bison cross the Mississippi; and there can be no doubt that +they could swim over equal widths of salt water, and if accidentally +carried out to sea might sometimes succeed in reaching islands many miles +distant. Contrary to the common notion pigs can swim remarkably well. Sir +Charles Lyell tells us in his "Principles of Geology" that during the +floods in Scotland in 1829, some pigs only six months old that were carried +out to sea, swam five miles and got on shore again. He also states, on the +authority of the late Edward Forbes, that a pig jumped overboard to escape +from a terrier in the Grecian Archipelago, and swam safely to shore many +miles distant. These facts render it probable that wild pigs, from their +greater strength and activity, might under favourable circumstances cross +arms of the sea twenty or thirty miles wide; and there are facts in the +distribution of this tribe of animals which seem to indicate that they have +sometimes done so. Deer {14}take boldly to the water and can swim +considerable distances, but we have no evidence to show how long they could +live at sea or how many miles they could traverse. Squirrels, rats, and +lemmings often migrate from northern countries in bands of thousands and +hundreds of thousands, and pass over rivers, lakes and even arms of the +sea, but they generally perish in the saltwater. Admitting, however, the +powers of most mammals to swim considerable distances, we have no reason to +believe that any of them could traverse without help straits of upwards of +twenty miles in width, while in most cases a channel of half that distance +would prove an effectual barrier. + + +_Ice-floes and Driftwood as Aiding the Dispersal of Mammals._--In the +arctic regions icebergs originate in glaciers which descend into the sea, +and often bear masses of gravel, earth, and even some vegetation on their +surfaces; and extensive level ice-fields break away and float southwards. +These might often carry with them such arctic quadrupeds as frequent the +ice, or even on rare occasions true land-animals, which might sometimes be +stranded on distant continents or islands. But a more effectual because a +more wide-spread agent, is to be found in the uprooted trees and rafts of +driftwood often floated down great rivers and carried out to sea. Such +rafts or islands are sometimes seen drifting a hundred miles from the mouth +of the Ganges with living trees erect upon them; and the Amazon, the +Orinoco, Mississippi, Congo, and most great rivers produce similar rafts. +Spix and Martius declare that they saw at different times on the Amazon, +monkeys, tiger-cats, and squirrels, being thus carried down the stream. On +the Parana, pumas, squirrels, and many other quadrupeds have been seen on +these rafts; and Admiral W. H. Smyth informed Sir C. Lyell that among the +Philippine islands after a hurricane, he met with floating masses of wood +with trees growing upon them, so that they were at first mistaken for +islands till it was found that they were rapidly drifting along. Here +therefore, we have ample means for carrying all the smaller and especially +the arboreal mammals out to sea; and although in most cases they would +perish there, yet in some favourable instances strong winds or {15}unusual +tidal currents might carry them safely to shores perhaps several hundred +miles from their native country. The fact of green trees so often having +been seen erect on these rafts is most important; for they would act as a +sail by which the raft might he propelled in one direction for several days +in succession, and thus at last reach a shore to which a current alone +would never have carried it. + +There are two groups of mammals which have quite exceptional means of +dispersal--the bats which fly, and the cetacea, seals, &c., which swim. The +former are capable of traversing considerable spaces of sea, since two +North American species either regularly or occasionally visit the Bermudas, +a distance of 600 miles from the mainland. The oceanic mammals (whales and +porpoises) seem to have no barrier but temperature; the polar species being +unable to cross the equator, while the tropical forms are equally unfitted +for the cold polar waters. The shore-feeding manatees, however, can only +live where they find food; and a long expanse of rocky coast would probably +be as complete a barrier to them as a few hundred miles of open ocean. The +amphibious seals and walruses seem many of them to be capable of making +long sea journeys, some of the species being found on islands a thousand +miles apart, but none of the arctic are identical with the antartic +species. + +The otters with one exception are freshwater animals, and we have no reason +to believe they could or would traverse any great distances of salt water. +In fact, they would be less liable to dispersal across arms of the sea than +purely terrestrial species, since their powers of swimming would enable +them to regain the shore if accidentally carried out to sea by a sudden +flood. + +_Means of Dispersal of Birds._--It would seem at first sight that no +barriers could limit the range of birds, and that they ought to be the most +ubiquitous of living things, and little fitted therefore to throw any light +on the laws or causes of the geographical distribution of animals. This, +however, is far from being the case; many groups of birds are almost as +strictly limited by barriers as the mammalia; and from their larger numbers +and the avidity with which they have been collected, they furnish +{16}materials of the greatest value for our present study. The different +groups of birds offer remarkable contrasts in the extent of their range, +some being the most cosmopolite of the higher animals, while others are +absolutely confined to single spots on the earth's surface. The petrels +(_Procellariidæ_) and the gulls (_Laridæ_) are among the greatest +wanderers; but most of the species are confined to one or other of the +great oceans, or to the arctic or antarctic seas, a few only being found +with scarcely any variation over almost the whole globe. The sandpipers and +plovers wander along the shores as far as do the petrels over the ocean. +Great numbers of them breed in the arctic regions and migrate as far as +India and Australia, or down to Chili and Brazil; the species of the old +and new worlds, however, being generally distinct. In striking contrast to +these wide ranges we find many of the smaller perching birds, with some of +the parrots and pigeons, confined to small islands of a few square miles in +extent, or to single valleys or mountains on the mainland. + +_Dispersal of Birds by Winds._--Those groups of birds which possess no +powers of flight, such as the ostrich, cassowary, and apteryx, are in +exactly the same position as mammalia as regards their means of dispersal, +or are perhaps even inferior to them; since, although they are able to +cross rivers by swimming, it is doubtful if they could remain so long in +the water as most land quadrupeds. A very large number of short-winged +birds, such as toucans, pittas, and wrens, are perhaps worse off; for they +can fly very few miles at a time, and on falling into the water would soon +be drowned. It is only the strong-flying species that can venture to cross +any great width of sea; and even these rarely do so unless compelled by +necessity to migrate in search of food, or to a more genial climate. Small +and weak birds are, however, often carried accidentally across great widths +of ocean by violent gales. This is well exemplified by the large numbers of +stragglers from North America, which annually reach the Bermudas. No less +than sixty-nine species of American birds have occurred in Europe, most of +them in Britain and Heligoland. They consist chiefly of migratory birds +which in autumn {17}return along the eastern coasts of the United States, +and often fly from point to point across bays and inlets. They are then +liable to be blown out to sea by storms, which are prevalent at this +season; and it is almost always at this time of year that their occurrence +has been noted on the shores of Europe. It may, however, be doubted whether +this is not an altogether modern phenomenon, dependent on the number of +vessels constantly on the Atlantic which afford resting-places to the +wanderers; as it is hardly conceivable that such birds as titlarks, +cuckoos, wrens, warblers, and rails, could remain on the wing without food +or rest, the time requisite to pass over 2,000 miles of ocean. It is +somewhat remarkable that no European birds reach the American coast but a +few which pass by way of Iceland and Greenland; whereas a considerable +number do reach the Azores, fully half way across; so that their absence +can hardly be due to the prevailing winds being westerly. The case of the +Azores is, however, an argument for the unassisted passage of birds for +that distance; since two of the finches are peculiar 'species,' but closely +allied to European forms, so that their progenitors must, probably, have +reached the islands before the Atlantic was a commercial highway. + +_Barriers to the Dispersal of Birds._--We have seen that, as a rule, wide +oceans are an almost absolute barrier to the passage of most birds from one +continent to another; but much narrower seas and straits are also very +effectual barriers where the habits of the birds are such as to preserve +them from being carried away by storms. All birds which frequent thickets +and forests, and which feed near or on the ground, are secure from such +accidents; and they are also restricted in their range by the extent of the +forests they inhabit. In South America a large number of the birds have +their ranges determined by the extent of the forest country, while others +are equally limited to the open plains. Such species are also bounded by +mountain ranges whenever these rise above the woody region. Great rivers, +such as the Amazon, also limit the range of many birds, even when there +would seem to be no difficulty in their crossing them. The supply of food, +and the kind of vegetation, soil, and climate {18}best suited to a bird's +habits, are probably the causes which mark out the exact limits of the +range of each species; to which must be added the prevalence of enemies of +either the parent birds, the eggs, or the young. In the Malay Archipelago +pigeons abound most where monkeys do not occur; and in South America the +same birds are comparatively scarce in the forest plains where monkeys are +very abundant, while they are plentiful on the open plains and campos, and +on the mountain plateaux, where these nest-hunting quadrupeds are rarely +found. Some birds are confined to swamps, others to mountains; some can +only live on rocky streams, others on deserts or grassy plains. + +_The Phenomena of Migration._--The term "migration" is often applied to the +periodical or irregular movements of all animals; but it may be questioned +whether there are any regular migrants but birds and fishes. The annual or +periodical movements of mammalia are of a different class. Monkeys ascend +the Himalayas in summer to a height of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and descend +again in winter. Wolves everywhere descend from the mountains to the +lowlands in severe weather. In dry seasons great herds of antelopes move +southwards towards the Cape of Good Hope. The well-known lemmings, in +severe winters, at long intervals, move down from the mountains of +Scandinavia in immense numbers, crossing lakes and rivers, eating their way +through haystacks, and surmounting every obstacle till they reach the sea, +whence very few return. The alpine hare, the arctic fox, and many other +animals, exhibit similar phenomena on a smaller scale; and generally it may +be said, that whenever a favourable succession of seasons has led to a +great multiplication of any species, it must on the pressure of hunger seek +food in fresh localities. For such movements as these we have no special +term. The summer and winter movements best correspond to true migration, +but they are always on a small scale, and of limited extent; the other +movements are rather temporary incursions than true migrations. + +The annual movements of many fishes are more strictly analogous to the +migration of birds, since they take place in large bodies and often to +considerable distances, and are {19}immediately connected with the process +of reproduction. Some, as the salmon, enter rivers; others, as the herring +and mackerel, approach the coast in the breeding season; but the exact +course of their migrations is unknown, and owing to our complete ignorance +of the area each species occupies in the ocean, and the absence of such +barriers and of such physical diversities as occur on the land, they are of +far less interest and less connected with our present study than the +movements of birds, to which we shall now confine ourselves. + +_Migrations of Birds._--In all the temperate parts of the globe there are a +considerable number of birds which reside only a part of the year, +regularly arriving and leaving at tolerably fixed epochs. In our own +country many northern birds visit us in winter, such as the fieldfare, +redwing, snow-bunting, turnstone, and numerous ducks and waders; with a +few, like the black redstart, and (according to Rev. C. A. Johns) some of +the woodcocks from the south. In the summer a host of birds appear--the +cuckoo, the swifts and swallows, and numerous warblers, being the most +familiar,--which stay to build their nests and rear their young, and then +leave us again. These are true migrants; but a number of other birds visit +us occasionally, like the waxwing, the oriole, and the beefeater, and can +only be classed as stragglers, which, perhaps from too rapid multiplication +one year and want of food the next, are driven to extend their ordinary +range of migration to an unusual degree. We will now endeavour to sketch +the chief phenomena of migration in different countries. + +_Europe._--It is well ascertained that most of the birds that spend their +spring and summer in the temperate parts of Europe pass the winter in North +Africa and Western Asia. The winter visitants, on the other hand, pass the +summer in the extreme north of Europe and Asia, many of them having been +found to breed in Lapland. The arrival of migratory birds from the south is +very constant as to date, seldom varying more than a week or two, without +any regard to the weather at the time; but the departure is less constant, +and more dependent on the weather. Thus the swallow always comes to us +about the middle {20}of April, however cold it may be, while its departure +may take place from the end of September to late in October, and is said by +Forster to occur on the first N. or N.E. wind after the 20th of September. + +Almost all the migratory birds of Europe go southward to the Mediterranean, +move along its coasts east or west, and cross over in three places only; +either from the south of Spain, in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, from +Sicily over Malta, or to the east by Greece and Cyprus. They are thus +always in sight of land. The passage of most small birds (and many of the +larger ones too) takes place at night; and they only cross the +Mediterranean when the wind is steady from near the east or west, and when +there is moonlight. + +It is a curious fact, but one that seems to be well authenticated, that the +males often leave before the females, and both before the young birds, +which in considerable numbers migrate later and alone. These latter, +however, seldom go so far as the old ones; and numbers of young birds do +not cross the Mediterranean, but stay in the south of Europe. The same rule +applies to the northward migration; the young birds stopping short of the +extreme arctic regions, to which the old birds migrate.[1] When old and +young go together, however, the old birds take the lead. In the south of +Europe few of the migratory birds stay to breed, but pass on to more +temperate zones; thus, in the south of France, out of 350 species only 60 +breed there. The same species is often sedentary in one part of Europe and +migratory in another; thus, the chaffinch is a constant resident in +England, Germany, and the middle of France; but a migrant in the south of +France and in Holland: the rook visits the south of France in winter only: +the _Falco tinnunculus_ is both a resident and a migrant in the south of +France, according to M. Marcel de Serres, there being two regular passages +every year, while a certain number always remain. + +{21}We see, then, that migration is governed by certain intelligible laws; +and that it varies in many of its details, even in the same species, +according to changed conditions. It may be looked upon as an exaggeration +of a habit common to all locomotive animals, of moving about in search of +food. This habit is greatly restricted in quadrupeds by their inability to +cross the sea or even to pass through the highly-cultivated valleys of such +countries as Europe; but the power of flight in birds enables them to cross +every kind of country, and even moderate widths of sea; and as they mostly +travel at night and high in the air, their movements are difficult to +observe, and are supposed to be more mysterious than they perhaps are. In +the tropics birds move about to different districts according as certain +fruits become ripe, certain insects abundant, or as flooded tracts dry up. +On the borders of the tropics and the temperate zone extends a belt of +country of a more or less arid character, and liable to be parched at the +summer solstice. In winter and early spring its northern margin is verdant, +but it soon becomes burnt up, and most of its birds necessarily migrate to +the more fertile regions to the north of them. They thus follow the spring +or summer as it advances from the south towards the pole, feeding on the +young flower buds, the abundance of juicy larvæ, and on the ripening +fruits; and as soon as these become scarce they retrace their steps +homewards to pass the winter. Others whose home is nearer the pole are +driven south by cold, hunger, and darkness, to more hospitable climes, +returning northward in the early summer. As a typical example of a +migratory bird, let us take the nightingale. During the winter this bird +inhabits almost all North Africa, Asia Minor, and the Jordan Valley. Early +in April it passes into Europe by the three routes already mentioned, and +spreads over France, Britain, Denmark, and the south of Sweden, which it +reaches by the beginning of May. It does not enter Brittany, the Channel +Islands, or the western part of England, never visiting Wales, except the +extreme south of Glamorganshire, and rarely extending farther north than +Yorkshire. It spreads over Central Europe, through Austria and Hungary to +Southern Russia and the warmer parts of Siberia, {22}but it nevertheless +breeds in the Jordan Valley, so that in some places it is only the surplus +population that migrates. In August and September, all who can return to +their winter quarters. + +Migrations of this type probably date back from at least the period when +there was continuous land along the route passed over; and it is a +suggestive fact that this land connection is known to have existed in +recent geological times. Britain was connected with the Continent during, +and probably before, the glacial epoch; and Gibraltar, as well as Sicily +and Malta, were also recently united with Africa, as is proved by the +fossil elephants and other large mammalia found in their caverns, by the +comparatively shallow water still existing in this part of the +Mediterranean while the remainder is of oceanic profundity, and by the +large amount of identity in the species of land animals still inhabiting +the opposite shores of the Mediterranean. The submersion of these two +tracts of land (which were perhaps of considerable extent) would be a slow +process, and from year to year the change might be hardly perceptible. It +is easy to see how the migration that had once taken place over continuous +land would be kept up, first over lagoons and marshes, then over a narrow +channel, and subsequently over a considerable sea, no one generation of +birds ever perceiving any difference in the route. + +There is, however, no doubt that the sea-passage is now very dangerous to +many birds. Quails cross in immense flocks, and great numbers are drowned +at sea whenever the weather is unfavourable. Some individuals always stay +through the winter in the south of Europe, and a few even in England and +Ireland; and were the sea to become a little wider the migration would +cease, and the quail, like some other birds, would remain divided between +south Europe and north Africa. Aquatic birds are observed to follow the +routes of great rivers and lakes, and the shores of the sea. One great body +reaches central Europe by way of the Danube from the shores of the Black +Sea; another ascends the Rhone Valley from the Gulf of Lyons. + +{23}_India and China._--In the peninsula of India and in China great +numbers of northern birds arrive during September and October, and leave +from March to May. Among the smaller birds are wagtails, pipits, larks, +stonechats, warblers, thrushes, buntings, shrikes, starlings, hoopoes, and +quails. Some species of cranes and storks, many ducks, and great numbers of +_Scolopacidæ_ also visit India in winter; and to prey upon these come a +band of rapacious birds--the peregrine falcon, the hobby, kestrel, common +sparrowhawk, harrier, and the short-eared owl. These birds are almost all +natives of Europe and Western Asia; they spread over all northern and +central India, mingling with the sedentary birds of the oriental fauna, and +give to the ornithology of Hindostan at this season quite a European +aspect. The peculiar species of the higher Himalayas do not as a rule +descend to the plains in winter, but merely come lower down the mountains; +and in southern India and Ceylon comparatively few of these migratory birds +appear. + +In China the migratory birds follow generally the coast line, coming +southwards in winter from eastern Siberia and northern Japan; while a few +purely tropical forms travel northwards in summer to Japan, and on the +mainland as far as the valley of the Amoor. + +_North America._--The migrations of birds in North America have been +carefully studied by resident naturalists, and present some interesting +features. The birds of the eastern parts of North America are pre-eminently +migratory, a much smaller proportion being permanent residents than in +corresponding latitudes in Europe. Thus, in Massachusetts there are only +about 30 species of birds which are resident all the year, while the +regular summer visitors are 106. Comparing with this our own country, +though considerably further north, the proportions are reversed; there +being 140 residents and 63 summer visitors. This difference is clearly due +to the much greater length and severity of the winter, and the greater heat +of summer, in America than with us. The number of permanent residents +increases pretty regularly as we go southward; but the number of birds at +any locality during the breeding season seems to increase as we go +{24}northward as far as Canada, where, according to Mr. Allen, more species +breed than in the warm Southern States. Even in the extreme north, beyond +the limit of forests, there are no less than 60 species which breed; in +Canada about 160; while in Carolina there are only 135, and in Louisiana, +130. The extent of the migration varies greatly, some species only going a +few degrees north and south, while others migrate annually from the tropics +to the extreme north of the continent; and every gradation occurs between +these extremes. Among those which migrate furthest are the species of +_Dendroeca_, and other American flycatching warblers (_Mniotiltidæ_), many +of which breed on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and spend the winter in +Mexico or the West Indian islands. + +The great migratory movement of American birds is almost wholly confined to +the east coast; the birds of the high central plains and of California +being for the most part sedentary, or only migrating for short distances. +All the species which reach South America, and most of those which winter +in Mexico and Guatemala, are exclusively eastern species; though a few +Rocky Mountain birds range southward along the plateaux of Mexico and +Guatemala, but probably not as regular annual migrants. + +In America as in Europe birds appear in spring with great regularity, while +the time of the autumnal return is less constant. More curious is the fact, +also observed in both hemispheres, that they do not all return by the same +route followed in going northwards, some species being constant visitors to +certain localities in spring but not in autumn, others in autumn but not in +spring. + +Some interesting cases have been observed in America of a gradual +alteration in the extent of the migration of certain birds. A Mexican +swallow (_Hirundo lunifrons_) first appeared in Ohio in 1815. Year by year +it increased the extent of its range till by 1845 it had reached Maine and +Canada; and it is now quoted by American writers as extending its annual +migrations to Hudson's Bay. An American wren (_Troglodytes ludovicianus_) +is another bird which has spread considerably northwards since {25}the time +of the ornithologist Wilson; and the rice-bird, or "Bob-o'-link," of the +Americans, continually widens its range as rice and wheat are more +extensively cultivated. This bird winters in Cuba and other West Indian +Islands, and probably also in Mexico. In April it enters the Southern +States and passes northward, till in June it reaches Canada and extends +west to the Saskatchewan River in 54° north latitude. + +_South Temperate America._--The migratory birds of this part of the world +have been observed by Mr. Hudson at Buenos Ayres. As in Europe and North +America, there are winter and summer visitors, from Patagonia and the +tropics respectively. Species of _Pyrocephalus_, _Milvulus_, swallows, and +a hummingbird, are among the most regular of the summer visitors. They are +all insectivorous birds. From Patagonia species of _Tænioptera_, +_Cinclodes_, and _Centrites_, come in winter, with two gulls, two geese, +and six snipes and plovers. Five species of swallows appear at Buenos Ayres +in spring, some staying to breed, others passing on to more temperate +regions farther south. As a rule the birds which come late and leave early +are the most regular. Some are very irregular in their movements, the +_Molothrus bonariensis_, for example, sometimes leaves early in autumn, +sometimes remains all the winter. Some resident birds also move in winter +to districts where they are never seen in summer. + +_General Remarks on Migration._--The preceding summary of the main facts of +migration (which might have been almost indefinitely extended, owing to the +great mass of detailed information that exists on the subject) appears to +accord with the view already suggested, that the "instinct" of migration +has arisen from the habit of wandering in search of food common to all +animals, but greatly exaggerated in the case of birds by their powers of +flight and by the necessity for procuring a large amount of soft insect +food for their unfledged young. Migration in its simple form may be best +studied in North America, where it takes place over a continuous land +surface with a considerable change of climate from south to north. We have +here (as probably in Europe and elsewhere) every grade of migration, from +species which merely shift the northern and southern {26}limits of their +range a few hundred miles, so that in the central parts of the area the +species is a permanent resident, to others which move completely over 1,000 +miles of latitude, so that in all the intervening districts they are only +known as birds of passage. Now, just as the rice-bird and the Mexican +swallow have extended their migrations, owing to favourable conditions +induced by human agency; so we may presume that large numbers of species +would extend their range where favourable conditions arose through natural +causes. If we go back only as far as the height of the glacial epoch, there +is reason to believe that all North America, as far south as about 40° +north latitude, was covered with an almost continuous and perennial +ice-sheet. At this time the migratory birds would extend up to this barrier +(which would probably terminate in the midst of luxuriant vegetation, just +as the glaciers of Switzerland now often terminate amid forests and +corn-fields), and as the cold decreased and the ice retired almost +imperceptibly year by year, would follow it up farther and farther +according as the peculiarities of vegetation and insect-food were more or +less suited to their several constitutions. It is an ascertained fact that +many individual birds return year after year to build their nests in the +same spot. This shows a strong local attachment, and is, in fact, the +faculty or feeling on which their very existence probably depends. For were +they to wander at random each year, they would almost certainly not meet +with places so well suited to them, and might even get into districts where +they or their young would inevitably perish. It is also a curious fact that +in so many cases the old birds migrate first, leaving the young ones +behind, who follow some short time later, but do not go so far as their +parents. This is very strongly opposed to the notion of an imperative +instinct. The old birds have been before, the young have not; and it is +only when the old ones have all or nearly all gone that the young go too, +probably following some of the latest stragglers. They wander, however, +almost at random, and the majority are destroyed before the next spring. +This is proved by the fact that the birds which return in spring are as a +rule not more numerous than those which came the {27}preceding spring, +whereas those which went away in autumn were two or three times as +numerous. Those young birds that do get back, however, have learnt by +experience, and the next year they take care to go with the old ones. The +most striking fact in favour of the "instinct" of migration is the +"agitation," or excitement, of confined birds at the time when their wild +companions are migrating. It seems probable, however, that this is what may +be called a social excitement, due to the anxious cries of the migrating +birds; a view supported by the fact stated by Marcel de Serres, that the +black swan of Australia, when domesticated in Europe, sometimes joins wild +swans in their northward migration. We must remember too that migration at +the proper time is in many cases absolutely essential to the existence of +the species; and it is therefore not improbable that some strong social +emotion should have been gradually developed in the race, by the +circumstance that all who for want of such emotion did not join their +fellows inevitably perished. + +The mode by which a passage originally overland has been converted into one +over the sea offers no insuperable difficulties, as has already been +pointed out. The long flights of some birds without apparently stopping on +the way is thought to be inexplicable, as well as their finding their +nesting-place of the previous year from a distance of many hundreds or even +a thousand miles. But the observant powers of animals are very great; and +birds flying high in the air may be guided by the physical features of the +country spread out beneath them in a way that would be impracticable to +purely terrestrial animals. + +It is assumed by some writers that the breeding-place of a species is to be +considered as its true home rather than that to which it retires in winter; +but this can hardly be accepted as a rule of universal application. A bird +can only breed successfully where it can find sufficient food for its +young; and the reason probably why so many of the smaller birds leave the +warm southern regions to breed in temperate or even cold latitudes, is +because caterpillars and other soft insect larvæ are there abundant at the +proper time, while in their winter home the {28}larvæ have all changed into +winged insects. But this favourable breeding district will change its +position with change of climate; and as the last great change has been one +of increased warmth in all the temperate zones, it is probable that many of +the migratory birds are comparatively recent visitors. Other changes may +however have taken place, affecting the vegetation and consequently the +insects of a district; and we have seldom the means of determining in any +particular case in what direction the last extension of range occurred. For +the purposes of the study of geographical distribution therefore, we must, +except in special cases, consider the true range of a species to comprise +all the area which it occupies regularly for any part of the year, while +all those districts which it only visits at more or less distant intervals, +apparently driven by storms or by hunger, and where it never regularly or +permanently settles, should not be included as forming part of its area of +distribution. + +_Means of Dispersal of Reptiles and Amphibia._--If we leave out of +consideration the true marine groups--the turtles and sea-snakes--reptiles +are scarcely more fitted for traversing seas and oceans than are mammalia. +We accordingly find that in those oceanic islands which possess no +indigenous mammals, land reptiles are also generally wanting. The several +groups of these animals, however, differ considerably both in their means +of dispersal and in their power of resisting adverse conditions. Snakes are +most dependent on climate, becoming very scarce in temperate and cold +climates and entirely ceasing at 62° north latitude, and they do not ascend +very lofty mountains, ceasing at 6,000 feet elevation in the Alps. Some +inhabit deserts, others swamps and marshes, while many are adapted for a +life in forests. They swim rivers easily, but apparently have no means of +passing the sea, since they are very rarely found on oceanic islands. +Lizards are also essentially tropical, but they go somewhat farther north +than snakes, and ascend higher on the mountains, reaching 10,000 feet in +the Alps. They possess too some unknown means (probably in the egg-state) +of passing over the ocean, since they are found to inhabit many islands +where there are neither mammalia nor snakes. + +{29}The amphibia are much less sensitive to cold than are true reptiles, +and they accordingly extend much farther north, frogs being found within +the arctic circle. Their semi-aquatic life also gives them facilities for +dispersal, and their eggs are no doubt sometimes carried by aquatic birds +from one pond or stream to another. Salt water is fatal to them as well as +to their eggs, and hence it arises that they are seldom found in those +oceanic islands from which mammalia are absent. Deserts and oceans would +probably form the most effectual barriers to their dispersal; whereas both +snakes and lizards abound in deserts, and have some means of occasionally +passing the ocean which frogs and salamanders do not seem to possess. + +_Means of Dispersal of Fishes._--The fact that the same species of +freshwater fish often inhabit distinct river systems, proves that they have +some means of dispersal over land. The many authentic accounts of fish +falling from the atmosphere, indicate one of the means by which they may be +transferred from one river basin to another, viz., by hurricanes and +whirlwinds, which often carry up considerable quantities of water and with +it fishes of small size. In volcanic countries, also, the fishes of +subterranean streams may sometimes be thrown up by volcanic explosions, as +Humboldt relates happened in South America. Another mode by which fishes +may be distributed is by their eggs being occasionally carried away by +aquatic birds; and it is stated by Gmelin that geese and ducks during their +migrations feed on the eggs of fish, and that some of these pass through +their bodies with their vitality unimpaired.[2] Even water-beetles flying +from one pond to another might occasionally carry with them some of the +smaller eggs of fishes. But it is probable that fresh-water fish are also +enabled to migrate by changes of level causing streams to alter their +course and carry their waters into adjacent basins. On plateaux the sources +of distinct river systems often approach each other, and the same thing +occurs with lateral tributaries on the lowlands near their mouths. Such +changes, although small in extent, and occurring only at long intervals, +would {30}act very powerfully in modifying the distribution of fresh-water +fish. + +Sea fish would seem at first sight to have almost unlimited means of +dispersal, but this is far from being the case. Temperature forms a +complete barrier to a large number of species, cold water being essential +to many, while others can only dwell in the warmth of the tropics. Deep +water is another barrier to large numbers of species which are adapted to +shores and shallows; and thus the Atlantic is quite as impassable a gulf to +most fishes as it is to birds. Many sea fishes migrate to a limited extent +for the purpose of depositing their spawn in favourable situations. The +herring, an inhabitant of the deep sea, comes in shoals to our coast in the +breeding season; while the salmon quits the northern seas and enters our +rivers, mounting upwards to the clear cold water near their sources to +deposit its eggs. Keeping in mind the essential fact that changes of +temperature and of depth are the main barriers to the dispersal of fish, we +shall find little difficulty in tracing the causes that have determined +their distribution. + +_Means of Dispersal of Mollusca._--The marine, fresh-water, and land +mollusca are three groups whose powers of dispersal and consequent +distribution are very different, and must be separately considered. The +_Pteropoda_, the _Ianthina_, and other groups of floating molluscs, drift +about in mid-ocean, and their dispersal is probably limited chiefly by +temperature, but perhaps also by the presence of enemies or the scarcity of +proper food. The univalve and bivalve mollusca, of which the whelk and the +cockle may be taken as types, move so slowly in their adult state, that we +should expect them to have an exceedingly limited distribution; but the +young of all these are free swimming embryos, and they thus have a powerful +means of dispersal, and are carried by tides and currents so as ultimately +to spread over every shore and shoal that offers conditions favourable for +their development. The fresh water molluscs, which one might at first +suppose could not range beyond their own river-basin, are yet very widely +distributed in common with almost all other fresh water productions; and +Mr. Darwin has shown that this is {31}due to the fact, that ponds and +marshes are constantly frequented by wading and swimming birds which are +pre-eminently wanderers, and which frequently carry away with them the +seeds of plants, and the eggs of molluscs and aquatic insects. Fresh water +molluscs just hatched were found to attach themselves to a duck's foot +suspended in an aquarium; and they would thus be easily carried from one +lake or river to another, and by the help of different species of aquatic +birds, might soon spread all over the globe. Even a water-beetle has been +caught with a small living shell (_Ancylus_) attached to it; and these fly +long distances and are liable to be blown out to sea, one having been +caught on board the _Beagle_ when forty-five miles from land. Although +fresh water molluscs and their eggs must frequently be carried out to sea, +yet this cannot lead to their dispersal, since salt water is almost +immediately fatal to them; and we are therefore forced to conclude that the +apparently insignificant and uncertain means of dispersal above alluded to +are really what have led to their wide distribution. The true land-shells +offer a still more difficult case, for they are exceedingly sensitive to +the influence of salt water; they are not likely to be carried by aquatic +birds, and yet they are more or less abundant all over the globe, +inhabiting the most remote oceanic islands. It has been found, however, +that land-shells have the power of lying dormant a long time. Some have +lived two years and a half shut up in pill boxes; and one Egyptian desert +snail came to life after having been glued down to a tablet in the British +Museum for four years! + +We are indebted to Mr. Darwin for experiments on the power of land shells +to resist sea water, and he found that when they had formed a membranous +diaphragm over the mouth of the shell they survived many days' immersion +(in one case fourteen days); and another experimenter, quoted by Mr. +Darwin, found that out of one hundred land shells immersed for a fortnight +in the sea, twenty-seven recovered. It is therefore quite possible for them +to be carried in the chinks of drift wood for many hundred miles across the +sea, and this is probably one of the most effectual modes of their +dispersal. Very young shells would also {32}sometimes attach themselves to +the feet of birds walking or resting on the ground, and as many of the +waders often go far inland, this may have been one of the methods of +distributing species of land shells; for it must always be remembered that +nature can afford to wait, and that if but once in a thousand years a +single bird should convey two or three minute snails to a distant island, +this is all that is required for us to find that island well stocked with a +great and varied population of land shells. + +_Means of Dispersal of Insects and the Barriers which Limit their +Range._--Winged insects, as a whole, have perhaps more varied means of +dispersal over the globe than any other highly organised animals. Many of +them can fly immense distances, and the more delicate ones are liable to be +carried by storms and hurricanes over a wide expanse of ocean. They are +often met with far out at sea. Hawk-moths frequently fly on board ships as +they approach the shores of tropical countries, and they have sometimes +been captured more than 250 miles from the nearest land. Dragon-flies came +on board the _Adventure_ frigate when fifty miles off the coast of South +America. A southerly wind brought flies in myriads to Admiral Smyth's ship +in the Mediterranean when he was 100 miles distant from the coast of +Africa. A large Indian beetle (_Chrysochroa ocellata_) was quite recently +caught alive in the Bay of Bengal by Captain Payne of the barque _William +Mansoon_, 273 miles from the nearest land. Darwin caught a locust 370 miles +from land; and in 1844 swarms of locusts several miles in extent, and as +thick as the flakes in a heavy snowstorm, visited Madeira. These must have +come with perfect safety more than 300 miles; and as they continued flying +over the island for a long time, they could evidently have travelled to a +much greater distance. Numbers of living beetles belonging to seven genera, +some aquatic and some terrestrial, were caught by Mr. Darwin in the open +sea, seventeen miles from the coast of South America, and they did not seem +injured by the salt water. Almost all the accidental causes that lead to +the dispersal of the higher animals would be still more favourable for +insects. Floating trees could carry hundreds of insects for one bird or +mammal; and so many of the larvæ, eggs, {33}and pupæ of insects have their +abode in solid timber, that they might survive being floated immense +distances. Great numbers of tropical insects have been captured in the +London docks, where they have been brought in foreign timber; and some have +emerged from furniture after remaining torpid for many years. Most insects +have the power of existing weeks or months without food, and some are very +tenacious of life. Many beetles will survive immersion for hours in strong +spirit; and water a few degrees below the boiling point will not always +kill them. We can therefore easily understand how, in the course of ages +insects may become dispersed by means which would be quite inadequate in +the case of the higher animals. The drift-wood and tropical fruits that +reach Ireland and the Orkneys; the double cocoa-nuts that cross the Indian +ocean from the Seychelle Islands to the coast of Sumatra; the winds that +carry volcanic dust and ashes for thousands of miles; the hurricanes that +travel in their revolving course over wide oceans; all indicate means by +which a few insects may, at rare intervals be carried to remote regions, +and become the progenitors of a group of allied forms. + +But the dispersal of insects requires to be looked at from another point of +view. They are, of all animals, perhaps the most wonderfully adapted for +special conditions; and are so often fitted to fill one place in nature and +one only, that the barriers against their permanent displacement are almost +as numerous and as effective as their means of dispersal. Hundreds of +species of lepidoptera, for example, can subsist in the larva state only on +one species of plant; so that even if the perfect insects were carried to a +new country, the continuance of the race would depend upon the same or a +closely allied plant being abundant there. Other insects require succulent +vegetable food all the year round, and are therefore confined to tropical +regions; some can live only in deserts, others in forests; some are +dependent on water-plants, some on mountain-vegetation. Many are so +intimately connected with other insects during some part of their existence +that they could not live without them; such are the parasitical hymenoptera +and diptera, and those mimicking species whose welfare depends upon their +being {34}mistaken for something else. Then again, insects have enemies in +every stage of their existence--the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the +perfect form; and the abundance of any one of these enemies may render +their survival impossible in a country otherwise well suited to them. Ever +bearing in mind these two opposing classes of facts, we shall not be +surprised at the enormous range of some groups of insects, and at the +extreme localization of others; and shall be able to give a rational +account of many phenomena of distribution that would otherwise seem quite +unintelligible. + + + + +{35}CHAPTER III. + +DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY THE CONDITIONS AND CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S +SURFACE. + + +The distribution of animals over the earth's surface, is evidently +dependent in great measure upon those grand and important characteristics +of our globe, the study of which is termed physical geography. The +proportion of land and water; the outlines and distribution of continents; +the depth of seas and oceans; the position of islands; the height, +direction, and continuity of mountain chains; the position and extent of +deserts, lakes, and forests; the direction and velocity of ocean currents, +as well as of prevalent winds and hurricanes; and lastly, the distribution +of heat and cold, of rain, snow, and ice, both in their means and in their +extremes, have all to be considered when we endeavour to account for the +often unequal and unsymmetrical manner in which animals are dispersed over +the globe. But even this knowledge is insufficient unless we inquire +further as to the evidence of permanence possessed by each of these +features, in order that we may give due weight to the various causes that +have led to the existing facts of animal distribution. + +_Land and Water._--The well-known fact that nearly three-fourths of the +surface of the earth is occupied by water, and but a little more than +one-fourth by land, is important as indicating the vast extent of ocean by +which many of the continents and islands are separated from each other. But +there is another fact {36}which greatly increases its importance, namely, +that the mean height of the land is very small compared with the mean depth +of the sea. It has been estimated by Humboldt that the mean height of all +the land surface does not exceed a thousand feet, owing to the comparative +narrowness of mountain ranges and the great extent of alluvial plains and +valleys; the ocean bed, on the contrary, not only descends deeper than the +tops of the highest mountains rise above its surface, but these profound +depths are broad sunken plains, while the shallows correspond to the +mountain ranges, so that its mean depth is, as nearly as can be estimated, +twelve thousand feet.[3] Hence, as the area of water is three times that of +the land, the total cubical contents of the land, above the sea level, +would be only that of the waters which are below that level. The important +result follows, that whereas it is scarcely possible that in past times the +amount of land surface should ever greatly have exceeded that which now +exists, it is just possible that all the land may have been at some time +submerged; and therefore in the highest degree probable that among the +continual changes of land and sea that have been always going on, the +amount of land surface has often been much less than it is now. For the +same reason it is probable that there have been times when large masses of +land have been more isolated from the rest than they are at present; just +as South America would be if North America were submerged, or as Australia +would become if the Malay Archipelago were to sink beneath the ocean. It is +also very important to bear in mind the fact insisted on by Sir Charles +Lyell, that the shallow parts of the ocean are almost always in the +vicinity of land; and that an amount of elevation that would make little +difference to the bed of the ocean, would raise up extensive tracts of dry +land in the vicinity of existing continents. It is almost certain, +therefore, that changes in the distribution of land and sea must have taken +place more frequently by additions to, or {37}modifications of pre-existing +land, than by the upheaval of entirely new continents in mid-ocean. These +two principles will throw light upon two constantly recurring groups of +facts in the distribution of animals,--the restriction of peculiar forms to +areas not at present isolated,--and on the other hand, the occurrence of +allied forms in lands situated on opposite shores of the great oceans. + +_Continental Areas._--Although the dry land of the earth's surface is +distributed with so much irregularity, that there is more than twice as +much north of the equator as there is south of it, and about twice as much +in the Asiatic as in the American hemisphere; and, what is still more +extraordinary, that on a hemisphere of which a point in St. George's +Channel between England and Ireland is the centre, the land is nearly equal +in extent to the water, while in the opposite hemisphere it is in the +proportion of only one-eighth,--yet the whole of the land is almost +continuous. It consists essentially of only three masses: the American, the +Asia-African, and the Australian. The two former are only separated by +thirty-six miles of shallow sea at Behring's Straits, so that it is +possible to go from Cape Horn to Singapore or the Cape of Good Hope without +ever being out of sight of land; and owing to the intervention of the +numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago the journey might be continued +under the same conditions as far as Melbourne and Hobart Town. This curious +fact, of the almost perfect continuity of all the great masses of land +notwithstanding their extremely irregular shape and distribution, is no +doubt dependent on the circumstances just alluded to; that the great depth +of the oceans and the slowness of the process of upheaval, has almost +always produced the new lands either close to, or actually connected with +pre-existing lands; and this has necessarily led to a much greater +uniformity in the distribution of organic forms, than would have prevailed +had the continents been more completely isolated from each other. + +The isthmuses which connect Africa with Asia, and North with South America, +are, however, so small and insignificant compared with the vast extent of +the countries they unite that {38}we can hardly consider them to form more +than a nominal connection. The Isthmus of Suez indeed, being itself a +desert, and connecting districts which for a great distance are more or +less desert also, does not effect any real union between the luxuriant +forest-clad regions of intertropical Asia and Africa. The Isthmus of Panama +is a more effectual line of union, since it is hilly, well watered, and +covered with luxuriant vegetation; and we accordingly find that the main +features of South American zoology are continued into Central America and +Mexico. In Asia a great transverse barrier exists, dividing that continent +into a northern and southern portion; and as the lowlands occur on the +south and the highlands on the north of the great mountain range, which is +situated not far beyond the tropic, an abrupt change of climate is +produced; so that a belt of about a hundred miles wide, is all that +intervenes between a luxuriant tropical region and an almost arctic waste. +Between the northern part of Asia, and Europe, there is no barrier of +importance; and it is impossible to separate these regions as regards the +main features of animal life. Africa, like Asia, has a great transverse +barrier, but it is a desert instead of a mountain chain; and it is found +that this desert is a more effectual barrier to the diffusion of animals +than the Mediterranean Sea; partly because it coincides with the natural +division of a tropical from a temperate climate, but also on account of +recent geological changes which we shall presently allude to. It results +then from this outline sketch of the earth's surface, that the primary +divisions of the geographer correspond approximately with those of the +zoologist. Some large portion of each of the popular divisions forms the +nucleus of a zoological region; but the boundaries are so changed that the +geographer would hardly recognise them: it has, therefore, been found +necessary to give them those distinct names which will be fully explained +in our next chapter. + +_Recent Changes in the Continental Areas._--The important fact has been now +ascertained, that a considerable portion of the Sahara south of Algeria and +Morocco was under water at a very recent epoch. Over much of this area +sea-shells, identical with those now living in the Mediterranean, are +abundantly scattered, {39}not only in depressions below the level of the +sea but up to a height of 900 feet above it. Borings for water made by the +French government have shown, that these shells occur twenty feet deep in +the sand; and the occurrence of abundance of salt, sometimes even forming +considerable hills, is an additional proof of the disappearance of a large +body of salt water. The common cockle is one of the most abundant of the +shells found; and the Rev. H. B. Tristram discovered a new fish, in a salt +lake nearly 300 miles inland, but which has since been found to inhabit the +Gulf of Guinea. Connected with this proof of recent elevation in the +Sahara, we have most interesting indications of subsidence in the area of +the Mediterranean, which were perhaps contemporaneous. Sicily and Malta are +connected with Africa by a submerged bank from 300 to 1,200 feet below the +surface; while the depth of the Mediterranean, both to the east and west, +is enormous, in some parts more than 13,000 feet; and another submerged +bank with a depth of 1,000 feet occurs at the straits of Gibraltar. In +caves in Sicily, remains of the living African elephant have been found by +Baron Anca; and in other caves Dr. Falconer discovered remains of the +_Elephas antiquus_ and of two species of _Hippopotamus_. In Malta, three +species of elephant have been discovered by Captain Spratt; a large one +closely allied to _E. antiquus_ and two smaller ones not exceeding five +feet high when adult. These facts clearly indicate, that when North Africa +was separated by a broad arm of the sea from the rest of the continent, it +was probably connected with Europe; and this explains why zoologists find +themselves obliged to place it along with Europe in the same zoological +region. + +Besides this change in the level of the Sahara and the Mediterranean basin, +Europe has undergone many fluctuations in its physical geography in very +recent times. In Wales, abundance of sea-shells of living species have been +found at an elevation of 1,300 feet; and in Sardinia there is proof of an +elevation of 300 feet since the human epoch; and these are only samples of +many such changes of level. But these changes, though very important +locally and as connected with geological problems, need not be further +noticed here; as they were not of a {40}nature to affect the larger +features of the earth's surface or to determine the boundaries of great +zoological regions. + +The only other recent change of great importance which can be adduced to +illustrate our present subject, is that which has taken place between North +and South America. The living marine shells of the opposite coasts of the +isthmus of Panama, as well as the corals and fishes, are generally of +distinct species, but some are identical and many are closely allied; the +West Indian fossil shells and corals of the Miocene period, however, are +found to be largely identical with those of the Pacific coast. The fishes +of the Atlantic and Pacific shores of America are as a rule very distinct; +but Dr. Günther has recently shown that a considerable number of species +inhabiting the seas on opposite sides of the isthmus are absolutely +identical. These facts certainly indicate, that during the Miocene epoch a +broad channel separated North and South America; and it seems probable that +a series of elevations and subsidences have taken place uniting and +separating them at different epochs; the most recent submersion having +lasted but a short time, and thus, while allowing the passage of abundance +of locomotive fishes, not admitting of much change in the comparatively +stationary mollusca. + +_The Glacial Epoch as affecting the Distribution of Animals._--The +remarkable refrigeration of climate in the northern hemisphere within the +epoch, of existing species, to which the term Glacial epoch is applied, +together with the changes of level that accompanied and perhaps assisted to +produce it, has been one of the chief agents in determining many of the +details of the existing distribution of animals in temperate zones. A +comparison of the effects produced by existing glaciers with certain +superficial phenomena in the temperate parts of Europe and North America, +renders it certain that between the Newer Pliocene and the Recent epochs, a +large portion of the northern hemisphere must have been covered with a +sheet of ice several thousand feet thick, like that which now envelopes the +interior of Greenland. Much further south the mountains were covered with +perpetual snow, and sent glaciers down every valley; and all the {41}great +valleys on the southern side of the Alps poured down streams of ice which +stretched far out into the plains of Northern Italy, and have left their +débris in the form of huge mountainous moraines, in some cases more than a +thousand feet high. In Canada and New Hampshire the marks of moving ice are +found on the tops of mountains from 3,000 to 5,000 feet high; and the whole +surface of the country around and to the north of the great lakes is scored +by glaciers. Wherever the land was submerged during a part of this cold +period, a deposit called boulder-clay, or glacial-drift has been formed. +This is a mass of sand, clay, or gravel, full of angular or rounded stones +of all sizes, up to huge blocks as large as a cottage; and especially +characterized by these stones being distributed confusedly through it, the +largest being as often near the top as near the bottom, and never sorted +into layers of different sizes as in materials carried by water. Such +deposits are known to be formed by glaciers and icebergs; when deposited on +the land by glaciers they form moraines, when carried into water and thus +spread with more regularity over a wider area they form drift. This drift +is rarely found except where there is other evidence of ice-action, and +never south of the 40th parallel of latitude, to which in the northern +hemisphere signs of ice-action extend. In the southern hemisphere, in +Patagonia and in New Zealand, exactly similar phenomena occur. + +A very interesting confirmation of the reality of this cold epoch is +derived from the study of fossil remains. Both the plants and animals of +the Miocene period indicate that the climate of Central Europe was +decidedly warmer or more equable than it is now; since the flora closely +resembled that of the Southern United States, with a likeness also to that +of Eastern Asia and Australia. Many of the shells were of tropical genera; +and there were numbers of large mammalia allied to the elephant, +rhinoceros, and tapir. At the same time, or perhaps somewhat earlier, a +temperate climate extended into the arctic regions, and allowed a +magnificent vegetation of shrubs and forest trees, some of them evergreen, +to flourish within twelve degrees of the Pole. In the Pliocene period we +find ourselves {42}among forms implying a climate very little different +from the present; and our own Crag formation furnishes evidence of a +gradual refrigeration of climate; since its three divisions, the Coralline, +Red, and Norwich Crags, show a decreasing number of southern, and an +increasing number of northern species, as we approach the Glacial epoch. +Still later than these we have the shells of the drift, almost all of which +are northern and many of them arctic species. Among the mammalia indicative +of cold, are the mammoth and the reindeer. In gravels and cave-deposits of +Post-Pliocene date we find the same two animals, which soon disappear as +the climate approached its present condition; and Professor Forbes has +given a list of fifty shells which inhabited the British seas before the +Glacial epoch and inhabit it still, but are all wanting in the glacial +deposits. The whole of these are found in the Newer Pliocene strata of +Sicily and the south of Europe, where they escaped destruction during the +glacial winter. + +There are also certain facts in the distribution of plants, which are so +well explained by the Glacial epoch that they may be said to give an +additional confirmation to it. All over the northern hemisphere within the +glaciated districts, the summits of lofty mountains produce plants +identical with those of the polar regions. In the celebrated case of the +White Mountains in New Hampshire, United States (latitude 45°), all the +plants on the summit are arctic species, none of which exist in the +lowlands for near a thousand miles further north. It has also been remarked +that the plants of each mountain are more especially related to those of +the countries directly north of it. Thus, those of the Pyrenees and of +Scotland are Scandinavian, and those of the White Mountains are all species +found in Labrador. Now, remembering that we have evidence of an exceedingly +mild and uniform climate in the arctic regions during the Miocene period +and a gradual refrigeration from that time, it is evident that with each +degree of change more and more hardy plants would be successively driven +southwards; till at last the plains of the temperate zone would be +inhabited by plants, which were once confined to alpine heights or to the +arctic regions. {43}As the icy mantle gradually melted off the face of the +earth these plants would occupy the newly exposed soil, and would thus +necessarily travel in two directions, back towards the arctic circle and up +towards the alpine peaks. The facts are thus exactly explained by a cause +which independent evidence has proved to be a real one, and every such +explanation is an additional proof of the reality of the cause. But this +explanation implies, that in cases where the Glacial epoch cannot have so +acted alpine plants should not be northern plants; and a striking proof of +this is to be found on the Peak of Teneriffe, a mountain 12,000 feet high. +In the uppermost 4,500 feet of this mountain above the limit of trees, Von +Buch found only eleven species of plants, eight of which were peculiar; but +the whole were allied to those found at lower elevations. On the Alps or +Pyrenees at this elevation, there would be a rich flora comprising hundreds +of arctic plants; and the absence of anything corresponding to them in this +case, in which their ingress was cut off by the sea, is exactly what the +theory leads us to expect. + +_Changes of Vegetation as affecting the Distribution of Animals._--As so +many animals are dependent on vegetation, its changes immediately affect +their distribution. A remarkable example of this is afforded by the +pre-historic condition of Denmark, as interpreted by means of the peat-bogs +and kitchen-middens. This country is now celebrated for its beech-trees; +oaks and pines being scarce; and it is known to have had the same +vegetation in the time of the Romans. In the peat-bogs, however, are found +deposits of oak trees; and deeper still pines alone occur. Now the +kitchen-middens tell us much of the natural history of Denmark in the early +Stone period; and a curious confirmation of the fact that Denmark like +Norway was then chiefly covered with pine forests is obtained by the +discovery, that the Capercailzie was then abundant, a bird which feeds +almost exclusively on the young shoots and seeds of pines and allied +plants. The cause of this change in the vegetation is unknown; but from the +known fact that when forests are destroyed trees, of a different kind +usually occupy the ground, we may suppose that some such change as a +temporary submergence might cause an entirely {44}different vegetation and +a considerably modified fauna to occupy the country. + +_Organic Changes as affecting Distribution._--We have now briefly touched +on some of the direct effects of changes in physical geography, climate, +and vegetation, on the distribution of animals; but the indirect effects of +such changes are probably of quite equal, if not of greater importance. +Every change becomes the centre of an ever-widening circle of effects. The +different members of the organic world are so bound together by complex +relations, that any one change generally involves numerous other changes, +often of the most unexpected kind. We know comparatively little of the way +in which one animal or plant is bound up with others, but we know enough to +assure us that groups the most apparently disconnected are often dependent +on each other. We know, for example, that the introduction of goats into +St. Helena utterly destroyed a whole flora of forest trees; and with them +all the insects, mollusca, and perhaps birds directly or indirectly +dependent on them. Swine, which ran wild in Mauritius, exterminated the +Dodo. The same animals are known to be the greatest enemies of venomous +serpents. Cattle will, in many districts, wholly prevent the growth of +trees; and with the trees the numerous insects dependent on those trees, +and the birds which fed upon the insects, must disappear, as well as the +small mammalia which feed on the fruits, seeds, leaves, or roots. Insects +again have the most wonderful influence on the range of mammalia. In +Paraguay a certain species of fly abounds which destroys new-born cattle +and horses; and thus neither of these animals have run wild in that +country, although they abound both north and south of it. This inevitably +leads to a great difference in the vegetation of Paraguay, and through that +to a difference in its insects, birds, reptiles, and wild mammalia. On what +causes the existence of the fly depends we do not know, but it is not +improbable that some comparatively slight changes in the temperature or +humidity of the air at a particular season, or the introduction of some +enemy might lead to its extinction or banishment. The whole face of the +country would then soon be changed: new species would {45}come in, while +many others would be unable to live there; and the immediate cause of this +great alteration would probably be quite imperceptible to us, even if we +could watch it in progress year by year. So, in South Africa, the +celebrated Tsetse fly inhabits certain districts having well defined +limits; and where it abounds no horses, dogs, or cattle can live. Yet +asses, zebras, and antelopes are unaffected by it. So long as this fly +continues to exist, there is a living barrier to the entrance of certain +animals, quite as effectual as a lofty mountain range or a wide arm of the +sea. The complex relations of one form of life with others is nowhere +better illustrated than in Mr. Darwin's celebrated case of the cats and +clover, as given in his _Origin of Species_, 6th ed., p. 57. He has +observed that both wild heartsease and red-clover are fertilized in this +country by humble-bees only, so that the production of seed depends on the +visits of these insects. A gentleman who has specially studied humble-bees +finds that they are largely kept down by field-mice, which destroy their +combs and nests. Field-mice in their turn are kept down by cats; and +probably also by owls; so that these carnivorous animals are really the +agents in rendering possible the continued existence of red-clover and wild +heartsease. For if they were absent, the field-mice having no enemies, +would multiply to such an extent as to destroy all the humble-bees; and +these two plants would then produce no seed and soon become extinct. + +Mr. Darwin has also shown that one species often exterminates another +closely allied to it, when the two are brought into contact. One species of +swallow and thrush are known to have increased at the expense of allied +species. Rats, carried all over the world by commerce, are continually +extirpating other species of rats. The imported hive-bee is, in Australia, +rapidly exterminating a native stingless bee. Any slight change, therefore, +of physical geography or of climate, which allows allied species hitherto +inhabiting distinct areas to come into contact, will often lead to the +extermination of one of them; and this extermination will be effected by no +external force, by no actual enemy, but merely because the one is slightly +better {46}adapted to live, to increase, and to maintain itself under +adverse circumstances, than the other. + +Now if we consider carefully the few suggestive facts here referred to (and +many others of like import are to be found in Mr. Darwin's various works), +we shall be led to conclude that the several species, genera, families, and +orders, both of animals and vegetables which inhabit any extensive region, +are bound together by a series of complex relations; so that the increase, +diminution, or extermination of any one, may set in motion a series of +actions and reactions more or less affecting a large portion of the whole, +and requiring perhaps centuries of fluctuation before the balance is +restored. The range of any species or group in such a region, will in many +cases (perhaps in most) be determined, not by physical barriers, but by the +competition of other organisms. Where barriers have existed from a remote +epoch, they will at first have kept back certain animals from coming in +contact with each other; but when the assemblage of organisms on the two +sides of the barrier have, after many ages, come to form a balanced organic +whole, the destruction of the barrier may lead to a very partial +intermingling of the peculiar forms of the two regions. Each will have +become modified in special ways adapted to the organic and physical +conditions of the country, and will form a living barrier to the entrance +of animals less perfectly adapted to those conditions. Thus while the +abolition of ancient barriers will always lead to much intermixture of +forms, much extermination and wide-spread alteration in some families of +animals; other important groups will be unable materially to alter their +range; or they may make temporary incursions into the new territory, and be +ultimately driven back to very near their ancient limits. + +In order to make this somewhat difficult subject more intelligible, it may +be well to consider the probable effects of certain hypothetical conditions +of the earth's surface:-- + +1. If the dry land of the globe had been from the first continuous, and +nowhere divided up by such boundaries as lofty mountain ranges, wide +deserts, or arms of the sea, it seems probable that none of the larger +groups (as _orders_, _tribes_, or {47}_families_,) would have a limited +range; but, as is to some extent the case in tropical America east of the +Andes, every such group would be represented over the whole area, by +countless minute modifications of form adapted to local conditions. + +2. One great physical barrier would, however, even then exist; the hot +equatorial zone would divide the faunas and floras of the colder regions of +the northern and southern hemispheres from any chance of intermixture. This +one barrier would be more effectual than it is now, since there would be no +lofty mountain ranges to serve as a bridge for the partial interchange of +northern and southern forms. + +3. If such a condition of the earth as here supposed continued for very +long periods, we may conceive that the action and reaction of the various +organisms on each other, combined with the influence of very slowly +changing physical conditions, would result in an almost perfect organic +balance, which would be manifested by a great stability in the average +numbers, the local range, and the peculiar characteristics of every +species. + +4. Under such a condition of things it is not improbable that the total +number of clearly differentiated specific forms might be much greater than +it is now, though the number of generic and family types might perhaps be +less; for dominant species would have had ample time to spread into every +locality where they could exist, and would then become everywhere modified +into forms best suited to the permanent local conditions. + +5. Now let us consider what would be the probable effect of the +introduction of a barrier, cutting off a portion of this homogeneous and +well-balanced world. Suppose, for instance, that a subsidence took place, +cutting off by a wide arm of the sea a large and tolerably varied island. +The first and most obvious result would be that the individuals of a number +of species would be divided into two portions, while others, the limits of +whose range agreed approximately with the line of subsidence, would exist +in unimpaired numbers on the new island or on the main land. But the +species whose numbers were diminished and whose original area was also +absolutely diminished by the portion now under the sea, would not be able +to hold their {48}ground against the rival forms whose numbers were intact. +Some would probably diminish and rapidly die out; others which produced +favourable varieties, might be so modified by natural selection as to +maintain their existence under a different form; and such changes would +take place in varying modes on the two sides of the new strait. + +6. But the progress of these changes would necessarily affect the other +species in contact with them. New places would be opened in the economy of +nature which many would struggle to obtain; and modification would go on in +ever-widening circles and very long periods of time might be required to +bring the whole again into a state of equilibrium. + +7. A new set of factors would in the meantime have come into play. The +sinking of land and the influx of a large body of water could hardly take +place without producing important climatal changes. The temperature, the +winds, the rains, might all be affected, and more or less changed in +duration and amount. This would lead to a quite distinct movement in the +organic world. Vegetation would certainly be considerably affected, and +through this the insect tribes. We have seen how closely the life of the +higher animals is often bound up with that of insects; and thus a set of +changes might arise that would modify the numerical proportions, and even +the forms and habits of a great number of species, would completely +exterminate some, and raise others from a subordinate to a dominant +position. And all these changes would occur differently on opposite sides +of the strait, since the insular climate could not fail to differ +considerably from that of the continent. + +8. But the two sets of changes, as above indicated, produced by different +modes of action of the same primary cause, would act and react on each +other; and thus lead to such a far-spreading disturbance of the organic +equilibrium as ultimately perhaps to affect in one way or another, every +form of life upon the earth. + +This hypothetical case is useful as enabling us better to realize how +wide-spreading might be the effects of one of the simplest changes of +physical geography, upon a compact mass of mutually {49}adapted organisms. +In the actual state of things, the physical changes that occur and have +occurred through all geological epochs are larger and more varied. Almost +every mile of land surface has been again and again depressed beneath the +ocean; most of the great mountain chains have either originated or greatly +increased in height during the Tertiary period; marvellous alterations of +climate and vegetation have taken place over half the land-surface of the +earth; and all these vast changes have influenced a globe so cut up by seas +and oceans, by deserts and snow-clad mountains, that in many of its more +isolated land-masses ancient forms of life have been preserved, which, in +the more extensive and more varied continents have long given way to higher +types. How complex then must have been the actions and reactions such a +state of things would bring about; and how impossible must it be for us to +guess, in most cases, at the exact nature of the forces that limit the +range of some species and cause others to be rare or to become extinct! All +that we can in general hope to do is, to trace out, more or less +hypothetically, some of the larger changes in physical geography that have +occurred during the ages immediately preceeding our own, and to estimate +the effect they will probably have produced on animal distribution. We may +then, by the aid of such knowledge as to past organic mutations as the +geological record supplies us with, be able to determine the probable +birthplace and subsequent migrations of the more important genera and +families; and thus obtain some conception of that grand series of +co-ordinated changes in the earth and its inhabitants, whose final result +is seen in the forms and the geographical distribution of existing animals. + + + + +{50}CHAPTER IV. + +ON ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. + + +To the older school of Naturalists the native country of an animal was of +little importance, except in as far as climates differed. Animals were +supposed to be specially adapted to live in certain zones or under certain +physical conditions, and it was hardly recognised that apart from these +conditions there was any influence in locality which could materially +affect them. It was believed that, while the animals of tropical, +temperate, and arctic climates, essentially differed; those of the tropics +were essentially alike all over the world. A group of animals was said to +inhabit the "Indies;" and important differences of structure were often +overlooked from the idea, that creatures equally adapted to live in hot +countries and with certain general resemblances, would naturally be related +to each other. Thus the Toucans and Hornbills, the Humming-Birds and +Sun-Birds, and even the Tapirs and the Elephants, came to be popularly +associated as slightly modified varieties of tropical forms of life; while +to naturalists, who were acquainted with the essential differences of +structure, it was a never-failing source of surprise, that under climates +and conditions so apparently identical, such strangely divergent forms +should be produced. + +To the modern naturalist, on the other hand, the native country (or +"habitat" as it is technically termed) of an animal {51}or a group of +animals, is a matter of the first importance; and, as regards the general +history of life upon the globe, may be considered to be one of its +essential characters. The structure, affinities, and habits of a species, +now form only a part of its natural history. We require also to know its +exact range at the present day and in prehistoric times, and to have some +knowledge of its geological age, the place of its earliest appearance on +the globe, and of the various extinct forms most nearly allied to it. To +those who accept the theory of development as worked out by Mr. Darwin, and +the views as to the general permanence and immense antiquity of the great +continents and oceans so ably developed by Sir Charles Lyell, it ceases to +be a matter of surprise that the tropics of Africa, Asia, and America +should differ in their productions, but rather that they should have +anything in common. Their similarity, not their diversity, is the fact that +most frequently puzzles us. + +The more accurate knowledge we have of late years obtained of the +productions of many remote regions, combined with the greater approaches +that have been made to a natural classification of the higher animals, has +shown, that every continent or well-marked division of a continent, every +archipelago and even every island, presents problems of more or less +complexity to the student of the geographical distribution of animals. If +we take up the subject from the zoological side, and study any family, +order, or even extensive genus, we are almost sure to meet with some +anomalies either in the present or past distribution of the various forms. +Let us adduce a few examples of these problems. + +Deer have a wonderfully wide range, over the whole of Europe, Asia, and +North and South America; yet in Africa south of the great desert there are +none. Bears range over the whole of Europe, Asia, and North America, and +true pigs of the genus Sus, over all Europe and Asia and as far as New +Guinea; yet both bears and pigs, like deer, are absent from Tropical and +South Africa. + +Again, the West Indian islands possess very few Mammalia, all of small size +and allied to those of America, except one {52}genus; and that belongs to +an Order, "Insectivora," entirely absent from South America, and to a +family, "Centetidæ," all the other species of which inhabit Madagascar +only. And as if to add force to this singular correspondence we have one +Madagascar species of a beautiful day-flying Moth, _Urania_, all the other +species of which inhabit tropical America. These insects are gorgeously +arrayed in green and gold, and are quite unlike any other Lepidoptera upon +the globe. + +The island of Ceylon generally agrees in its productions with the Southern +part of India; yet it has several birds which are allied to Malayan and not +to Indian groups, and a fine butterfly of the genus _Hestia_, as well as +several genera of beetles, which are purely Malayan. + +Various important groups of animals are distributed in a way not easy to +explain. The anthropoid apes in West Africa and Borneo; the tapirs in +Malaya and South America; the camel tribe in the deserts of Asia and the +Andes; the trogons in South America and Tropical Asia, with one species in +Africa; the marsupials in Australia and America, are examples. + +The cases here adduced (and they might be greatly multiplied) are merely to +show the kind of problems with which the naturalist now has to deal; and in +order to do so he requires some system of geographical arrangement, which +shall serve the double purpose of affording a convenient subdivision of his +subject, and at the same time of giving expression to the main results at +which he has arrived. Hence the recent discussions on "Zoological Regions," +or, what are the most natural primary divisions of the earth as regards its +forms of animal life. + +The divisions in use till quite recently were of two kinds; either those +ready made by geographers, more especially the quarters or continents of +the globe; or those determined by climate and marked out by certain +parallels of latitude or by isothermal lines. Either of these methods was +better than none at all; but from the various considerations explained in +the preceding chapters, it will be evident, that such divisions must have +often been very unnatural, and have disguised many {53}of the most +important and interesting phenomena which a study of the distribution of +animals presents to us. + +The merit of initiating a more natural system, that of determining +zoological regions, not by any arbitrary or _a priori_ consideration but by +studying the actual ranges of the more important groups of animals, is due +to Mr. Sclater, who, in 1857, established six primary zoological regions +from a detailed examination of the distribution of the chief genera and +families of Birds. Before stating what these regions are, what objections +have been made to them, what other divisions have been since proposed, and +what are those which we shall adopt in this work, it will be well to +consider the general principles which should guide us in the choice between +rival systems. + +_Principles on which Zoological Regions should be formed._--It will be +evident in the first place that nothing like a perfect zoological division +of the earth is possible. The causes that have led to the present +distribution of animal life are so varied, their action and reaction have +been so complex, that anomalies and irregularities are sure to exist which +will mar the symmetry of any rigid system. On two main points every system +yet proposed, or that probably can be proposed, is open to objection; they +are,--1stly, that the several regions are not of equal rank;--2ndly, that +they are not equally applicable to all classes of animals. As to the first +objection, it will be found impossible to form any three or more regions, +each of which differs from the rest in an equal degree or in the same +manner. One will surpass all others in the possession of peculiar families; +another will have many characteristic genera; while a third will be mainly +distinguished by negative characters. There will also be found many +intermediate districts, which possess some of the characteristics of two +well-marked regions, with a few special features of their own, or perhaps +with none; and it will be a difficult question to decide in all cases which +region should possess this doubtful territory, or whether it should be +formed into a primary region itself. Again, two regions which have now +well-marked points of difference, may be shown to have been much more alike +at a comparatively recent geological epoch; {54}and this, it may be said, +proves their fundamental unity and that they ought to form but one primary +region. To obviate some of these difficulties a binary or dichotomous +division is sometimes proposed; that portion of the earth which differs +most from the rest being cut off as a region equal in rank to all that +remains, which is subjected again and again to the same process. + +To decide these various points it seems advisable that convenience, +intelligibility, and custom, should largely guide us. The first essential +is, a broadly marked and easily remembered set of regions; which +correspond, as nearly as truth to nature will allow, with the distribution +of the most important groups of animals. What these groups are we shall +presently explain. In determining the number, extent, and boundaries of +these regions, we must be guided by a variety of indications, since the +application of fixed rules is impossible. They should evidently be of a +moderate number, corresponding as far as practicable with the great natural +divisions of the globe marked out by nature, and which have always been +recognized by geographers. There should be some approximation to equality +of size, since there is reason to believe that a tolerably extensive area +has been an essential condition for the development of most animal forms; +and it is found that, other things being equal, the numbers, variety and +importance of the forms of animal and vegetable life, do bear some +approximate relation to extent of area. Although the possession of peculiar +families or genera is the main character of a primary zoological region, +yet the negative character of the absence of certain families or genera is +of equal importance, _when this absence does not manifestly depend on +unsuitability to the support of the group_, and especially _when there is +now no physical barrier preventing their entrance_. This will become +evident when we consider that the importance of the possession of a group +by one region depends on its absence from the adjoining regions; and if +there is now no barrier to its entrance, we may be sure that there has once +been one; and that the possession of the area by a distinct and well +balanced set of organisms, which must have been slowly {55}developed and +adjusted, is the living barrier that now keeps out intruders. + +When it is ascertained that the chief differences which now obtain between +two areas did not exist in Miocene or Pliocene times, the fact is one of +great interest, and enables us to speculate with some degree of probability +as to the causes that have brought about the present state of things; but +it is not a reason for uniting these two areas into one region. Our object +is to represent as nearly as possible the main features of the distribution +of existing animals, not those of any or all past geological epochs. Should +we ever obtain sufficient information as to the geography and biology of +the earth at past epochs, we might indeed determine approximately what were +the Pliocene or Miocene or Eocene zoological regions; but any attempt to +exhibit all these in combination with those of our own period, must lead to +confusion. + +The binary or dichotomous system, although it brings out the fundamental +differences of the respective regions, is an inconvenient one in its +application, and rather increases than obviates the difficulty as to +equality or inequality of regions; for although _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, may +be areas of unequal zoological rank, _a_ being the most important, and _d_ +the least, yet this inequality will probably be still greater if we first +divide them into _a_, on one side, and _b_, _c_, and _d_, on the other, and +then, by another division, make _b_, an area of the second, and _c_, and +_d_, of the third rank only. + +Coming to the second objection, the often incompatible distribution of +different groups of animals, affords ground for opposition to any proposed +scheme of zoological regions. There is first the radical difference between +land and sea animals; the most complete barriers to the dispersal of the +one, sometimes offering the greatest facilities for the emigration of the +other, and _vice versa_. A large number of marine animals, however, +frequent shallow water only; and these, keeping near the coasts, will agree +generally in their distribution with those inhabiting the land. But among +land animals themselves there are very great differences of distribution, +due to certain specialities {56}in their organization or mode of life. +These act mainly in two ways,--1stly, by affecting the facilities with +which they can be dispersed, either voluntarily or involuntarily;--2ndly, +by the conditions which enable them to multiply and establish themselves in +certain areas and not in others. When both these means of diffusion are at +a maximum, the dispersal of a group becomes universal, and ceases to have +much interest for us. This is the case with certain groups of fungi and +lichens, as well as with some of the lower animals; and in a less degree, +as has been shown by Mr. Darwin, with many fresh-water plants and animals. +At the other extreme we may place certain arboreal vertebrata such as +sloths and lemurs, which have no means of passing such barriers as narrow +straits or moderately high mountains, and whose survival in any new country +they might reach, would be dependent on the presence of suitable forests +and the absence of dangerous enemies. Almost equally, or perhaps even more +restricted, are the means of permanent diffusion of terrestrial molluscs; +since these are without any but very rare and accidental means of being +safely transported across the sea; their individual powers of locomotion +are highly restricted; they are especially subject to the attacks of +enemies; and they often depend not only on a peculiar vegetation, but on +the geological character of the country, their abundance being almost in +direct proportion to the presence of some form of calcareous rocks. Between +these extremes we find animals possessed of an infinite gradation of powers +to disperse and to maintain themselves; and it will evidently be impossible +that the limits which best define the distribution of one group, should be +equally true for all others. + +_Which class of Animals is of most importance in determining Zoological +Regions._--To decide this question we have to consider which groups of +animals are best adapted to exhibit, by their existing distribution, the +past changes and present physical condition of the earth's surface; and at +the same time, by the abundance of their remains in the various tertiary +formations will best enable us to trace out the more recent of the series +of changes, both of the earth's surface and {57}of its inhabitants, by +which the present state of things has been brought about. For this purpose +we require a group which shall be dependent for its means of dispersal on +the distribution of land and water, and on the presence or absence of lofty +mountains, desert plains or plateaux, and great forests; since these are +the chief physical features of the earth's surface whose modifications at +successive periods we wish to discover. It is also essential that they +should not be subject to dispersal by many accidental causes; as this would +inevitably in time tend to obliterate the effect of natural barriers, and +produce a scattered distribution, the causes of which we could only guess +at. Again, it is necessary that they should be so highly organized as not +to be absolutely dependent on other groups of animals, and with so much +power of adaptation as to be able to exist in one form or another over the +whole globe. And lastly, it is highly important that the whole group should +be pretty well known, and that a fairly natural classification, especially +of its minor divisions such as families and genera, should have been +arrived at; the reason for which last proviso is explained in our next +chapter, on classification. + +Now in every one of these points the mammalia are preeminent; and they +possess the additional advantage of being the most highly developed class +of organized beings, and that to which we ourselves belong. We should +therefore construct our typical or standard Zoological Regions in the first +place, from a consideration of the distribution of mammalia, only bringing +to our aid the distribution of other groups to determine doubtful points. +Regions so established will be most closely in accordance with those +long-enduring features of physical geography, on which the distribution of +all forms of life fundamentally depend; and all discrepancies in the +distribution of other classes of animals must be capable of being +explained, either by their exceptional means of dispersion or by special +conditions affecting their perpetuation and increase in each locality. + +If these considerations are well founded, the objections of those who study +insects or molluscs, for example,--that our regions are not true for their +departments of nature--cannot be {58}maintained. For they will find, that a +careful consideration of the exceptional means of dispersal and conditions +of existence of each group, will explain most of the divergences from the +normal distribution of higher animals. + +We shall thus be led to an intelligent comprehension of the phenomena of +distribution in all groups, which would not be the case if every specialist +formed regions for his own particular study. In many cases we should find +that no satisfactory division of the earth could be made to correspond with +the distribution even of an entire class; but we should have the +coleopterist and the lepidopterist each with his own Geography. And even +this would probably not suffice, for it is very doubtful if the detailed +distribution of the Longicornes, so closely dependent on woody vegetation, +could be made to agree with that of the Staphylinidæ or the Carabidæ which +abound in many of the most barren regions, or with that of the Scarabeidæ, +largely dependent on the presence of herbivorous mammalia. And when each of +these enquirers had settled a division of the earth into "regions" which +exhibited with tolerable accuracy the phenomena of distribution of his own +group, we should have gained nothing whatever but a very complex mode of +exhibiting the bare facts of distribution. We should then have to begin to +work out the causes of the divergence of one group from another in this +respect; but as each worker would refer to his own set of regions as the +type, the whole subject would become involved in inextricable confusion. +These considerations seem to make it imperative that one set of "regions" +should be established as typical for Zoology; and it is hoped the reasons +here advanced will satisfy most naturalists that these regions can be best +determined, in the first place, by a study of the distribution of the +mammalia, supplemented in doubtful cases by that of the other vertebrates. +We will now proceed to a discussion of what these regions are. + +_Various Zoological Regions proposed since 1857._--It has already been +pointed out that a very large number of birds are limited by the same kind +of barriers as mammalia; it will therefore not be surprising that a system +of regions formed to suit the {59}one, should very nearly represent the +distribution of the other. Mr. Sclater's regions are as follows:-- + +1. The Palæarctic Region; including Europe, Temperate Asia, and N. Africa +to the Atlas mountains. + +2. The Ethiopian Region; Africa south of the Atlas, Madagascar, and the +Mascarene Islands, with Southern Arabia. + +3. The Indian Region; including India south of the Himalayas, to South +China, and to Borneo and Java. + +4. The Australian Region; including Celebes and Lombock, eastward to +Australia and the Pacific Islands. + +5. The Nearctic Region; including Greenland, and N. America, to Northern +Mexico. + +6. The Neotropical Region; including South America, the Antilles, and +Southern Mexico. + +This division of the earth received great support from Dr. Günther, who, in +the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1858, showed that the +geographical distribution of Reptiles agreed with it very closely, the +principal difference being that the reptiles of Japan have a more Indian +character than the birds, this being especially the case with the snakes. +In the volume for 1868 of the same work, Professor Huxley discusses at +considerable length the primary and secondary zoological divisions of the +earth. He gives reasons for thinking that the most radical primary +division, both as regards birds and mammals, is into a Northern and +Southern hemisphere (Arctogæa and Notogæa), the former, however, embracing +all Africa, while the latter includes only Australasia and the Neotropical +or Austro-Columbian region. Mr. Sclater had grouped his regions primarily +into Palæogæa and Neogæa, the Old and New Worlds of geographers; a division +which strikingly accords with the distribution of the passerine birds, but +not so well with that of mammalia or reptiles. Professor Huxley points out +that the Nearctic, Palæarctic, Indian, and Ethiopian regions of Mr. Sclater +have a much greater resemblance to each other than any one of them has to +Australia or to South America; and he further suggests that New Zealand +alone has peculiarities which might entitle it to rank as a primary region +{60}along with Australasia and South America; and that a Circumpolar +Province might be conveniently recognised as of equal rank with the +Palæarctic and Nearctic provinces. + +In 1866, Mr. Andrew Murray published a large and copiously illustrated +volume on the _Geographical Distribution of Mammals_, in which he maintains +that the great and primary mammalian regions are only four: 1st. The +Palæarctic region of Mr. Sclater, extended to include the Sahara and Nubia; +2nd. the Indo-African region, including the Indian and Ethiopian regions of +Mr. Sclater; 3rd. the Australian region (unaltered); 4th. the American +region, including both North and South America. These are the regions as +_described_ by Mr. Murray, but his coloured map of "Great Mammalian +Regions" shows all Arctic America to a little south of the Isothermal of +32° Fahr. as forming with Europe and North Asia one great region. + +At the meeting of the British Association at Exeter in 1869, Mr. W. T. +Blanford read a paper on the Fauna of British India, in which he maintained +that a large portion of the peninsula of India had derived its Fauna mainly +from Africa; and that the term "Indian region" of Mr. Sclater was +misleading, because India proper, if it belongs to it at all, is the least +typical portion of it. He therefore proposes to call it the "Malayan +region," because in the Malay countries it is most highly developed. Ceylon +and the mountain ranges of Southern India have marked Malay affinities. + +In 1871 Mr. E. Blyth published in _Nature_ "A suggested new Division of the +Earth into Zoological Regions," in which he indicates seven primary +divisions or regions, subdivided into twenty-six sub-regions. The seven +regions are defined as follows: 1. The Boreal region; including the whole +of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions of Mr. Sclater along with the West +Indies, Central America, the whole chain of the Andes, with Chili and +Patagonia. 2. The Columbian region; consisting of the remaining part of +South America. 3. The Ethiopian region; comprising besides that region of +Mr. Sclater, the valley of the Jordan, Arabia, and the desert country +towards India, with all the plains and table lands of India and the +northern {61}half of Ceylon. 4. The Lemurian region; consisting of +Madagascar and its adjacent islands. 5. The Austral-Asian region; which is +the Indian region of Mr. Sclater without the portion taken to be added to +the Ethiopian region. 6. The Melanesian region; which is the Australian +region of Mr. Sclater without New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, which +form 7. the Polynesian region. Mr. Blyth thinks this is "a true +classification of zoological regions as regards mammalia and birds." + +In an elaborate paper on the birds of Eastern North America, their +distribution and migrations (_Bulletin of Museum of Comparative Zoology, +Cambridge, Massachusetts_, Vol. 2), Mr. J. A. Allen proposes a division of +the earth in accordance with what he terms, "the law of circumpolar +distribution of life in zones," as follows: 1. Arctic realm. 2. North +temperate realm. 3. American tropical realm. 4. Indo-African tropical +realm. 5. South American tropical realm. 6. African temperate realm. 7. +Antarctic realm. 8. Australian realm. Some of these are subdivided into +regions; (2) consisting of the American and the Europæo-Asiatic regions; +(4) into the African and Indian regions; (8) into the tropical Australian +region, and one comprising the southern part of Australia and New Zealand. +The other realms each form a single region. + +_Discussion of proposed Regions._--Before proceeding to define the regions +adopted in this work, it may be as well to make a few remarks on some of +the preceding classifications, and to give the reasons which seem to render +it advisable to adopt very few of the suggested improvements on Mr. +Sclater's original proposal. Mr. Blyth's scheme is one of the least +natural, and also the most inconvenient. There can be little use in the +knowledge that a group of animals is found in the Boreal Region, if their +habitat might still be either Patagonia, the West Indies, or Japan; and it +is difficult to see on what principle the Madagascar group of islands is +made of equal rank with this enormous region, seeing that its forms of life +have marked African affinities. Neither does it seem advisable to adopt the +Polynesian Region, or that comprising New Zealand alone (as hinted at by +Professor Huxley and since adopted by {62}Mr. Sclater in his Lectures on +Geographical Distribution at the Zoological Gardens in May 1874), because +it is absolutely without indigenous mammalia and very poor in all forms of +life, and therefore by no means prominent or important enough to form a +primary region of the earth. + +It may be as well here to notice what appears to be a serious objection to +making New Zealand, or any similar isolated district, one of the great +zoological regions, comparable to South America, Australia, or Ethiopia; +which is, that its claim to that distinction rests on grounds which are +liable to fail. It is because New Zealand, in addition to its negative +merits, possesses three families of birds (Apterygidæ living, Dinornithidæ +and Palapterygidæ extinct), and a peculiar lizard-like reptile, _Hatteria_, +which has to be classed in a distinct order, Rhynchocephalina, that the +rank of a Region is claimed for it. But supposing, what is not at all +improbable, that other Rhynchocephalina should be discovered in the +interior of Australia or in New Guinea, and that Apterygidæ or +Palapterygidæ should be found to have inhabited Australia in Post-Pliocene +times, (as Dinornithidæ have already been proved to have done) the claims +of New Zealand would entirely fail, and it would be universally +acknowledged to be a part of the great Australian region. No such reversal +can take place in the case of the other regions; because they rest, not +upon one or two, but upon a large number of peculiarities, of such a nature +that there is no room upon the globe for discoveries that can seriously +modify them. Even if one or two peculiar types, like Apterygidæ or +_Hatteria_, should permanently remain characteristic of New Zealand alone, +we can account for these by the extreme isolation of the country, and the +absence of enemies, which have enabled these defenceless birds and reptiles +to continue their existence; just as the isolation and protection of the +caverns of Carniola have enabled the _Proteus_ to survive in Europe. But +supposing that the _Proteus_ was the sole representative of an order of +Batrachia, and that two or three other equally curious and isolated forms +occurred with it, no one would propose that these caverns or the district +containing them, should form one of the {63}primary divisions of the earth. +Neither can much stress be laid on the negative characteristics of New +Zealand, since they are found to an almost equal extent in every oceanic +island. + +Again, it is both inconvenient and misleading to pick out certain tracts +from the midst of one region or sub-region and to place them in another, on +account of certain isolated affinities which may often be accounted for by +local peculiarities. Even if the resemblance of the fauna of Chili and +Patagonia to that of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions was much greater +than it is, this mode of dealing with it would be objectionable; but it is +still more so, when we find that these countries have a strongly marked +South American character, and that the northern affinities are altogether +exceptional. The Rodentia, which comprise a large portion of the mammalia +of these countries, are wholly South American in type, and the birds are +almost all allied to forms characteristic of tropical America. + +For analogous reasons the Ethiopian must not be made to include any part of +India or Ceylon; for although the Fauna of Central India has some African +affinities, these do not preponderate; and it will not be difficult to show +that to follow Mr. Andrew Murray in uniting bodily the Ethiopian and Indian +regions of Mr. Sclater, is both unnatural and inconvenient. The +resemblances between them are of the same character as those which would +unite them both with the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; and although it +may be admitted, that, as Professor Huxley maintains, this group forms one +of the great primary divisions of the globe, it is far too extensive and +too heterogeneous to subserve the practical uses for which we require a +division of the world into zoological regions. + +_Reasons for adopting the six Regions first proposed by Mr. Sclater._--So +that we do not violate any clear affinities or produce any glaring +irregularities, it is a positive, and by no means an unimportant, advantage +to have our named regions approximately equal in size, and with easily +defined, and therefore easily remembered, boundaries. All elaborate +definitions of interpenetrating frontiers, as well as regions extending +over three-fourths of the land surface of the globe, and including places +which are {64}the antipodes of each other, would be most inconvenient, even +if there were not such difference of opinion about them. There can be +little doubt, for example, that the most radical zoological division of the +earth is made by separating the Australian region from the rest; but +although it is something useful and definite to know that a group of +animals is peculiar to Australia, it is exceedingly vague and +unsatisfactory to say of any other group merely that it is +extra-Australian. Neither can it be said that, from any point of view, +these two divisions are of equal importance. The next great natural +division that can be made is the separation of the Neotropical Region of +Mr. Sclater from the rest of the world. We thus have three primary +divisions, which Professor Huxley seems inclined to consider as of +tolerably equal zoological importance. But a consideration of all the +facts, zoological and palæontological, indicates, that the great northern +division (Arctogæa) is fully as much more important than either Australia +or South America, as its four component parts are less important; and if +so, convenience requires us to adopt the smaller rather than the larger +divisions. + +This question, of comparative importance or equivalence of value, is very +difficult to determine. It may be considered from the point of view of +speciality or isolation, or from that of richness and variety of animal +forms. In isolation and speciality, determined by what they want as well as +what they possess, the Australian and Neotropical regions are undoubtedly +each comparable with the rest of the earth (Arctogæa). But in richness and +variety of forms, they are both very much inferior, and are much more +nearly comparable with the separate regions which compose it. Taking the +families of mammalia as established by the best authors, and leaving out +the Cetacea and the Bats, which are almost universally distributed, and +about whose classification there is much uncertainty, the number of +families represented in each of Mr. Sclater's regions is as follows: + + I. Palæarctic region has 31 families of terrestrial mammalia. + II. Ethiopian " " 40 " " " + III. Indian " " 31 " " " + IV. Australian " " 14 " " " + V. Neotropical " " 26 " " " + VI. Nearctic " " 23 " " " + +{65}We see, then, that even the exceedingly rich and isolated Neotropical +region is less rich and diversified in its forms of mammalian life than the +very much smaller area of the Indian region, or the temperate Palæarctic, +and very much less so than the Ethiopian region; while even the +comparatively poor Nearctic region, is nearly equal to it in the number of +its family types. If these were united they would possess fifty-five +families, a number very disproportionate to those of the remaining two. +Another consideration is, that although the absence of certain forms of +life makes a region more isolated, it does not make it zoologically more +important; for we have only to suppose some five or six families, now +common to both, to become extinct either in the Ethiopian or the Indian +regions, and they would become as strongly differentiated from all other +regions as South America, while still remaining as rich in family types. In +birds exactly the same phenomenon recurs, the family types being less +numerous in South America than in either of the other tropical regions of +the earth, but a larger proportion of them are restricted to it. It will be +shown further on, that the Ethiopian and Indian, (or, as I propose to call +it in this work, Oriental) regions, are sufficiently differentiated by very +important groups of animals peculiar to each; and that, on strict +zoological principles they are entitled to rank as regions of equal value +with the Neotropical and Australian. It is perhaps less clear whether the +Palæarctic should be separated from the Oriental region, with which it has +undoubtedly much in common; but there are many and powerful reasons for +keeping it distinct. There is an unmistakably different facies in the +animal forms of the two regions; and although no families of mammalia or +birds, and not many genera, are wholly confined to the Palæarctic region, a +very considerable number of both have their metropolis in it, and are very +richly represented. The distinction between the characteristic forms of +life in tropical and cold countries is, on the whole, very strongly marked +in the northern hemisphere; and to refuse to recognise this in a +subdivision of the earth which is established for the very purpose of +expressing such contrasts more clearly and concisely than by ordinary +geographical terminology, would be both illogical and {66}inconvenient. The +one question then remains, whether the Nearctic region should be kept +separate, or whether it should form part of the Palæarctic or of the +Neotropical regions. Professor Huxley and Mr. Blyth advocate the former +course; Mr. Andrew Murray (for mammalia) and Professor Newton (for birds) +think the latter would be more natural. No doubt much is to be said for +both views, but both cannot be right; and it will be shown in the latter +part of this chapter that the Nearctic region is, on the whole, fully as +well defined as the Palæarctic, by positive characters which differentiate +it from both the adjacent regions. More evidence in the same direction will +be found in the Second Part of this work, in which the extinct faunas of +the several regions are discussed. + +A confirmation of the general views here set forth, as to the distinctness +and approximate equivalence of the six regions, is to be found in the fact, +that if any two or more of them are combined they themselves become +divisions of the next lower rank, or "sub-regions;"--and these will be very +much more important, both zoologically and geographically, than the +subdivisions of the remaining regions. It is admitted then that these six +regions are by no means of precisely equal rank, and that some of them are +far more isolated and better characterized than others; but it is +maintained that, looked at from every point of view, they are more equal in +rank than any others that can be formed; while in geographical equality, +compactness of area, and facility of definition, they are beyond all +comparison better than any others that have yet been proposed for the +purpose of facilitating the study of geographical distribution. They may be +arranged and grouped as follows, so as to exhibit their various relations +and affinities. + + Regions. + { NEOTROPICAL Austral zone Notogæa. + Neogæa { + { NEARCTIC } } + } Boreal zone } + { PALÆARCTIC } } + { } Arctogæa. + { ETHIOPIAN } } + Palæogæa { } Palæotropical zone } + { ORIENTAL } } + { + { AUSTRALIAN Austral zone Notogæa. + +The above table shows the regions placed in the order followed in the +Fourth Part of this work, and the reasons for which are {67}explained in +Chapter IX. As a matter of convenience, and for other reasons adduced in +the same chapter, the detailed exposition of the geographical distribution +of the animals of the several regions in Part III. commences with the +Palæarctic and terminates with the Nearctic region. + +_Objections to the system of Circumpolar Zones._--Mr. Allen's system of +"realms" founded on climatic zones (given at p. 61), having recently +appeared in an ornithological work of considerable detail and research, +calls for a few remarks. The author continually refers to the "_law of the +distribution of life in circumpolar zones_," as if it were one generally +accepted and that admits of no dispute. But this supposed "law" only +applies to the smallest details of distribution--to the range and +increasing or decreasing numbers of _species_ as we pass from north to +south, or the reverse; while it has little bearing on the great features of +zoological geography--the limitation of groups of _genera_ and _families_ +to certain areas. It is analogous to the "_law of adaptation_" in the +organisation of animals, by which members of various groups are suited for +an aerial, an aquatic, a desert, or an arboreal life; are herbivorous, +carnivorous, or insectivorous; are fitted to live underground, or in fresh +waters, or on polar ice. It was once thought that these adaptive +peculiarities were suitable foundations for a classification,--that whales +were fishes, and bats birds; and even to this day there are naturalists who +cannot recognise the essential diversity of structure in such groups as +swifts and swallows, sun-birds and humming-birds, under the superficial +disguise caused by adaptation to a similar mode of life. The application of +Mr. Allen's principle leads to equally erroneous results, as may be well +seen by considering his separation of "the southern third of Australia" to +unite it with New Zealand as one of his secondary zoological divisions. If +there is one country in the world whose fauna is strictly homogeneous, that +country is Australia; while New Guinea on the one hand, and New Zealand on +the other, are as sharply differentiated from Australia as any adjacent +parts of the same primary zoological division can possibly be. Yet the +"_law of circumpolar distribution_" leads to the division of {68}Australia +by an arbitrary east and west line, and a union of the northern two-thirds +with New Guinea, the southern third with New Zealand. Hardly less unnatural +is the supposed equivalence of South Africa (the African temperate realm) +to all tropical Africa and Asia, including Madagascar (the Indo-African +tropical realm). South Africa has, it is true, some striking peculiarities; +but they are absolutely unimportant as compared with the great and radical +differences between tropical Africa and tropical Asia. On these examples we +may fairly rest our rejection of Mr. Allen's scheme. + +We must however say a few words on the zoo-geographical nomenclature +proposed in the same paper, which seems also very objectionable. The +following terms are proposed: _realm_, _region_, _province_, _district_, +_fauna and flora_; the first being the highest, the last the lowest and +smallest sub-division. Considering that most of these terms have been used +in very different senses already, and that no means of settling their +equivalence in different parts of the globe has been even suggested, such a +complex system must lead to endless confusion. Until the whole subject is +far better known and its first principles agreed upon, the simpler and the +fewer the terms employed the better; and as "region" was employed for the +primary divisions by Mr. Sclater, eighteen years ago, and again by Mr. +Andrew Murray, in his Geographical Distribution of Mammals; nothing but +obscurity can result from each writer using some new, and doubtfully +better, term. For the sub-divisions of the regions no advantage is gained +by the use of a distinct term--"province"--which has been used (by +Swainson) for the primary divisions, and which does not itself tell you +what rank it holds; whereas the term "sub-region" speaks for itself as +being unmistakably next in subordination to region, and this clearness of +meaning gives it the preference over any independent term. As to minor +named sub-divisions, they seem at present uncalled for; and till the +greater divisions are themselves generally agreed on, it seems better to +adopt no technical names for what must, for a long time to come, be +indeterminate. + +_Does the Arctic Fauna characterize an independent {69}Region._--The +proposal to consider the Arctic regions as constituting one of the primary +zoological divisions of the globe, has been advocated by many naturalists. +Professor Huxley seems to consider it advisable, and Mr. Allen +unhesitatingly adopts it, as well as an "antarctic" region to balance it in +the southern hemisphere. The reason why an "Arctic Region" finds no place +in this work may therefore be here stated. + +No species or group of animals can properly be classed as "arctic," which +does not exclusively inhabit or greatly preponderate in arctic lands. For +the purpose of establishing the need of an "arctic" zoological region, we +should consider chiefly such groups as are circumpolar as well as arctic; +because, if they are confined to, or greatly preponderate in, either the +eastern or western hemispheres, they can be at once allocated to the +Nearctic or Palæarctic regions, and can therefore afford no justification +for establishing a new primary division of the globe. + +Thus restricted, only three genera of land mammalia are truly arctic: +_Gulo_, _Myodes_, and _Rangifer_. Two species of widely dispersed genera +are also exclusively arctic, _Ursus maritimus_ and _Vulpes lagopus_. + +Exclusively arctic birds are not much more numerous. Of land birds there +are only three genera (each consisting of but a single species), +_Pinicola_, _Nyctea_, and _Surnia_. _Lagopus_ is circumpolar, but the genus +has too wide an extension in the temperate zone to be considered arctic. +Among aquatic birds we have the genus of ducks, _Somateria_; three genera +of Uriidæ, _Uria_, _Catarractes_, and _Mergulus_; and the small family +Alcidæ, consisting of the genera _Alca_ and _Fratercula_. Our total then +is, three genera of mammalia, three of land, and six of aquatic birds, +including one peculiar family. + +In the southern hemisphere there is only the single genus _Aptenodytes_ +that can be classed as antarctic; and even that is more properly south +temperate. + +In dealing with this arctic fauna we have two courses open to us; we must +either group them with the other species and genera which are common to the +two northern regions, or we {70}must form a separate primary region for +them. As a matter of convenience the former plan seems the best; and it is +that which is in accordance with our treatment of other intermediate tracts +which contain special forms of life. The great desert zone, extending from +the Atlantic shores of the Sahara across Arabia to Central Asia, is a +connecting link between the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, +and contains a number of "desert" forms wholly or almost wholly restricted +to it; but the attempt to define it as a separate region would introduce +difficulty and confusion. Neither to the "desert" nor to the "arctic" +regions could any defined limits, either geographical or zoological, be +placed; and the attempt to determine what species or genera should be +allotted to them would prove an insoluble problem. The reason perhaps is, +that both are essentially unstable, to a much greater extent than those +great masses of land with more or less defined barriers, which constitute +our six regions. The Arctic Zone has been, within a recent geological +period, both vastly more extensive and vastly less extensive than it is at +present. At a not distant epoch it extended over half of Europe and of +North America. At an earlier date it appears to have vanished altogether; +since a luxuriant vegetation of tall deciduous trees and broad-leaved +evergreens flourished within ten degrees of the Pole! The great deserts +have not improbably been equally fluctuating; hence neither the one nor the +other can present that marked individuality in their forms of life, which +seems to have arisen only when extensive tracts of land have retained some +considerable stability both of surface and climatal conditions, during +periods sufficient for the development and co-adaptation of their several +assemblages of plants and animals. + +We must also consider that there is no geographical difficulty in dividing +the Arctic Zone between the two northern regions. The only debateable +lands, Greenland and Iceland, are generally admitted to belong respectively +to America and Europe. Neither is there any zoological difficulty; for the +land mammalia and birds are on the whole wonderfully restricted to their +respective regions even in high latitudes; and the aquatic forms {71}are, +for our present purpose, of much less importance. As a primary division the +"Arctic region" would be out of all proportion to the other six, whether as +regards its few peculiar types or the limited number of forms and species +actually inhabiting it; but it comes in well as a connecting link between +two regions, where the peculiar forms of both are specially modified; and +is in this respect quite analogous to the great desert zone above referred +to. + +I now proceed to characterize briefly the six regions adopted in the +present work, together with the sub-regions into which they may be most +conveniently and naturally divided, as shown in our general map. + +_Palæarctic Region._--This very extensive region comprises all temperate +Europe and Asia, from Iceland to Behring's Straits and from the Azores to +Japan. Its southern boundary is somewhat indefinite, but it seems advisable +to comprise in it all the extra-tropical part of the Sahara and Arabia, and +all Persia, Cabul, and Beloochistan to the Indus. It comes down to a little +below the upper limit of forests in the Himalayas, and includes the larger +northern half of China, not quite so far down the coast as Amoy. It has +been said that this region differs from the Oriental by negative characters +only; a host of tropical families and genera being absent, while there is +little or nothing but peculiar species to characterize it absolutely. This +however is not true. The Palæarctic region is well characterized by +possessing 3 families of vertebrata peculiar to it, as well as 35 peculiar +genera of mammalia, and 57 of birds, constituting about one-third of the +total number it possesses. These are amply sufficient to characterize a +region positively; but we must also consider the absence of many important +groups of the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions; and we shall then +find, that taking positive and negative characters together, and making +some allowance for the necessary poverty of a temperate as compared with +tropical regions, the Palæarctic is almost as strongly marked and well +defined as any other. + +_Sub-divisions of the Palæarctic Region._--These are by no means {72}so +clearly indicated as in some of the other regions, and they are adopted +more for convenience than because they are very natural or strongly marked. + +The first, or European sub-region, comprises Central and Northern Europe as +far South as the Pyrenees, the Maritime and Dinaric Alps, the Balkan +mountains, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus. On the east the Caspian sea and +the Ural mountains seem the most obvious limit; but it is doubtful if they +form the actual boundary, which is perhaps better marked by the valley of +the Irtish, where a pre-glacial sea almost certainly connected the Aral and +Caspian seas with the Arctic ocean, and formed an effective barrier which +must still, to some extent, influence the distribution of animals. + +The next, or Mediterranean sub-region, comprises South Europe, North Africa +with the extra-tropical portion of the Sahara, and Egypt to about the first +or second cataracts; and eastward through Asia Minor, Persia, and Cabul, to +the deserts of the Indus. + +The third, or Siberian sub-region, consists of all north and central Asia +north of Herat, as far as the eastern limits of the great desert plateau of +Mongolia, and southward to about the upper limit of trees on the Himalayas. + +The fourth, or Manchurian sub-region, consists of Japan and North China +with the lower valley of the Amoor; and it should probably be extended +westward in a narrow strip along the Himalayas, embracing about 1,000 or +2,000 feet of vertical distance below the upper limit of trees, till it +meets an eastern extension of the Mediterranean sub-region a little beyond +Simla. These extensions are necessary to avoid passing from the Oriental +region, which is essentially tropical, directly to the Siberian sub-region, +which has an extreme northern character; whereas the Mediterranean and +Manchurian sub-regions are more temperate in climate. It will be found that +between the upper limit of most of the typical Oriental groups and the +Thibetan or Siberian fauna, there is a zone in which many forms occur +common to temperate China. This is especially the case among the pheasants +and finches. + +{73}_Ethiopian Region._--The limits of this region have been indicated by +the definition of the Palæarctic region. Besides Africa south of the tropic +of Cancer, and its islands, it comprises the southern half of Arabia. + +This region has been said to be identical in the main characters of its +mammalian fauna with the Oriental region, and has therefore been united +with it by Mr. A. Murray. Most important differences have however been +overlooked, as the following summary of the peculiarities of the Ethiopian +region will, I think, show. + +It possesses 22 peculiar families of vertebrates; 90 peculiar genera of +mammalia, being two-thirds of its whole number; and 179 peculiar genera of +birds, being three-fifths of all it possesses. It is further characterized +by the absence of several families and genera which range over the whole +northern hemisphere, details of which will be found in the chapter treating +of the region. There are, it is true, many points of resemblance, not to be +wondered at between two tropical regions in the same hemisphere, and which +have evidently been at one time more nearly connected, both by intervening +lands and by a different condition of the lands that even now connect them. +But these resemblances only render the differences more remarkable; since +they show that there has been an ancient and long-continued separation of +the two regions, developing a distinct fauna in each, and establishing +marked specialities which the temporary intercommunication and immigration +has not sufficed to remove. The entire absence of such wide-spread groups +as bears and deer, from a country many parts of which are well adapted to +them, and in close proximity to regions where they abound, would alone mark +out the Ethiopian region as one of the primary divisions of the earth, even +if it possessed a less number than it actually does of peculiar family and +generic groups. + +_Sub-divisions of the Ethiopian Region._--The African continent south of +the tropic of Cancer is more homogeneous in its prominent and superficial +zoological features than most of the other regions, but there are +nevertheless important and {74}deep-seated local peculiarities. Two +portions can be marked off as possessing many peculiar forms; the luxuriant +forest district of equatorial West Africa, and the southern extremity or +Cape district. The remaining portion has no well-marked divisions, and a +large proportion of its animal forms range over it from Nubia and +Abyssinia, to Senegal on the one side and to the Zambesi on the other; this +forms our first or East-African sub-region. + +The second, or West African sub-region extends along the coast from Senegal +to Angola, and inland to the sources of the Shary and the Congo. + +The third, or South African sub-region, comprises the Cape Colony and +Natal, and is roughly limited by a line from Delagoa Bay to Walvish Bay. + +The fourth, or Malagasy sub-region, consists of Madagascar and the adjacent +islands, from Rodriguez to the Seychelles; and this differs so remarkably +from the continent that it has been proposed to form a distinct primary +region for its reception. Its productions are indeed highly interesting; +since it possesses 3 families, and 2 sub-families of mammals peculiar to +itself, while almost all its genera are peculiar. Of these a few show +Oriental or Ethiopian affinities, but the remainder are quite isolated. +Turning to other classes of animals, we find that the birds are almost as +remarkable; but, as might be expected, a larger number of genera are common +to surrounding countries. More than 30 genera are altogether peculiar, and +some of these are so isolated as to require to be classed in separate +families or sub-families. The African affinity is however here more +strongly shown by the considerable number (13) of peculiar Ethiopian genera +which in Madagascar have representative species. There can be no doubt +therefore about Madagascar being more nearly related to the Ethiopian than +to any other region; but its peculiarities are so great, that, were it not +for its small size and the limited extent of its fauna, its claim to rank +as a separate region might not seem unreasonable. It is true that it is not +poorer in mammals than Australia; but that country is far more isolated, +and cannot be so decidedly and {75}naturally associated with any other +region as Madagascar can be with the Ethiopian. It is therefore the better +and more natural course to keep it as a sub-region; the peculiarities it +exhibits being of exactly the same kind as those presented by the Antilles, +by New Zealand, and even by Celebes and Ceylon, but in a much greater +degree. + +_Oriental Region._--On account of the numerous objections that have been +made to naming a region from the least characteristic portion of it, and +not thinking "Malayan," proposed by Mr. Blanford, a good term, (as it has a +very circumscribed and definite meaning, and especially because the "Malay" +archipelago is half of it in the Australian region,) I propose to use the +word "Oriental" instead of "Indian," as being geographically applicable to +the whole of the countries included in the region and to very few beyond +it; as being euphonious, and as being free from all confusion with terms +already used in zoological geography. I trust therefore that it may meet +with general acceptance. + +This small, compact, but rich and varied region, consists of all India and +China from the limits of the Palæarctic region; all the Malay peninsula and +islands as far east as Java and Baly, Borneo and the Philippine Islands; +and Formosa. It is positively characterized by possessing 12 peculiar +families of vertebrata; by 55 genera of land mammalia, and 165 genera of +land birds, altogether confined to it; these peculiar genera forming in +each case about one half of the total number it possesses. + +_Sub-divisions of the Oriental region._--First we have the Indian +sub-region, consisting of Central India from the foot of the Himalayas in +the west, and south of the Ganges to the east, as far as a line drawn from +Goa curving south and up to the Kistna river; this is the portion which has +most affinity with Africa. + +The second, or Ceylonese sub-region, consists of the southern extremity of +India with Ceylon; this is a mountainous forest region, and possesses +several peculiar forms as well as some Malayan types not found in the first +sub-region. + +{76}Next we have the Indo-Chinese sub-region, comprising South China and +Burmah, extending westward along the Himalayan range to an altitude of +about 9,000 or 10,000 feet, and southward to Tavoy or Tenasserim. + +The last is the Indo-Malayan sub-region, comprising the Peninsula of +Malacca and the Malay Islands to Baly, Borneo, and the Philippines. + +On account of the absence from the first sub-region of many of the forms +most characteristic of the other three, and the number of families and +genera of mammalia and birds which occur in it and also in Africa, it has +been thought by some naturalists that this part of India has at least an +equal claim to be classed as a part of the Ethiopian region. This question +will be found fully discussed in Chapter XII. devoted to the Oriental +region, where it is shown that the African affinity is far less than has +been represented, and that in all its essential features Central India is +wholly Oriental in its fauna. + +Before leaving this region a few words may be said about Lemuria, a name +proposed by Mr. Sclater for the site of a supposed submerged continent +extending from Madagascar to Ceylon and Sumatra, in which the Lemuroid type +of animals was developed. This is undoubtedly a legitimate and highly +probable supposition, and it is an example of the way in which a study of +the geographical distribution of animals may enable us to reconstruct the +geography of a bygone age. But we must not, as Mr. Blyth proposed, make +this hypothetical land one of our actual Zoological regions. It represents +what was probably a primary Zoological region in some past geological +epoch; but what that epoch was and what were the limits of the region in +question, we are quite unable to say. If we are to suppose that it +comprised the whole area now inhabited by Lemuroid animals, we must make it +extend from West Africa to Burmah, South China, and Celebes; an area which +it possibly did once occupy, but which cannot be formed into a modern +Zoological region without violating much more important affinities. If, on +the other hand, we leave out all those areas which undoubtedly belong to +other regions, we reduce Lemuria to Madagascar and its adjacent +{77}islands, which, for reasons already stated, it is not advisable to +treat as a primary Zoological region. The theory of this ancient continent +and the light it may throw on existing anomalies of distribution, will be +more fully considered in the geographical part of this work. + +_Australian Region._--Mr. Sclater's original name seems preferable to +Professor Huxley's, "Austral-Asian;" the inconvenience of which alteration +is sufficiently shown by the fact that Mr. Blyth proposed to use the very +same term as an appropriate substitute for the "Indian region" of Mr. +Sclater. Australia is the great central mass of the region; it is by far +the richest in varied and highly remarkable forms of life; and it therefore +seems in every way fitted to give a name to the region of which it is the +essential element. The limits of this region in the Pacific are somewhat +obscure, but as so many of the Pacific Islands are extremely poor +zoologically, this is not of great importance. + +_Sub-divisions of the Australian Region._--The first sub-region is the +Austro-Malayan, including the islands from Celebes and Lombock on the west +to the Solomon Islands on the east. The Australian sub-region comes next, +consisting of Australia and Tasmania. The third, or Polynesian sub-region, +will consist of all the tropical Pacific Islands, and is characterized by +several peculiar genera of birds which are all allied to Australian types. +The fourth, consists of New Zealand with Auckland, Chatham, and Norfolk +Islands, and must be called the New Zealand sub-region. + +The extreme peculiarities of New Zealand, due no doubt to its great +isolation and to its being the remains of a more extensive land, have +induced several naturalists to suggest that it ought justly to form a +Zoological region by itself. But the inconveniences of such a procedure +have been already pointed out; and when we look at its birds as a whole +(they being the only class sufficiently well represented to found any +conclusion upon) we find that the majority of them belong to Australian +genera, and where the genera are peculiar they are most nearly related to +Australian types. The preservation in these islands {78}of a single +representative of a unique order of reptiles, is, as before remarked, of +the same character as the preservation of the _Proteus_ in the caverns of +Carniola; and can give the locality where it happens to have survived no +claim to form a primary Zoological region, unless supported by a tolerably +varied and distinctly characterized fauna, such as never exists in a very +restricted and insular area. + +_Neotropical Region._--Mr. Sclater's original name for this region is +preserved, because change of nomenclature is always an evil; and neither +Professor Huxley's suggested alteration "Austro-Columbia," nor Mr. +Sclater's new term "Dendrogæa," appear to be improvements. The region is +essentially a tropical one, and the extra-tropical portion of it is not +important enough to make the name inappropriate. That proposed by Professor +Huxley is not free from the same kind of criticism, since it would imply +that the region was exclusively South American, whereas a considerable +tract of North America belongs to it. This region includes South America, +the Antilles and tropical North America; and it possesses more peculiar +families of vertebrates and genera of birds and mammalia than any other +region. + +_Subdivisions of the Neotropical Region._--The great central mass of South +America, from the shores of Venezuela to Paraguay and Eastern Peru, +constitutes the chief division, and may be termed the Brazilian sub-region. +It is on the whole a forest country; its most remarkable forms are highly +developed arboreal types; and it exhibits all the characteristics of this +rich and varied continent in their highest development. + +The second, or Chilian sub-region, consists of the open plains, pampas, and +mountains of the southern extremity of the continent; and we must include +in it the west side of the Andes as far as the limits of the forest near +Payta, and the whole of the high Andean plateaus as far as 4° of south +latitude; which makes it coincide with the range of the Camelidæ and +Chinchillidæ. + +The third, or Mexican sub-region, consists of Central America and Southern +Mexico, but it has no distinguishing {79}characteristics except the absence +of some of the more highly specialized Neotropical groups. It is, however, +a convenient division as comprising the portion of the North American +continent which belongs zoologically to South America. + +The fourth, or Antillean sub-region, consists of the West India islands +(except Trinidad and Tobago, which are detached portions of the continent +and must be grouped in the first sub-region); and these reproduce, in a +much less marked degree, the phenomena presented by Madagascar. Terrestrial +mammals are almost entirely wanting, but the larger islands possess three +genera which are altogether peculiar to them. The birds are of South +American forms, but comprise many peculiar genera. Terrestrial molluscs are +more abundant and varied than in any part of the globe of equal extent; and +if these alone were considered, the Antilles would constitute an important +Zoological region. + +_Nearctic Region._--This region comprises all temperate North America and +Greenland. The arctic lands and islands beyond the limit of trees form a +transitional territory to the Palæarctic region, but even here there are +some characteristic species. The southern limit between this region and the +Neotropical is a little uncertain; but it may be drawn at about the Rio +Grande del Norte on the east coast, and a little north of Mazatlan on the +west; while on the central plateau it descends much farther south, and +should perhaps include all the open highlands of Mexico and Guatemala. This +would coincide with the range of several characteristic Nearctic genera. + +_Distinction of the Nearctic from the Palæarctic Region._--The Nearctic +region possesses twelve peculiar families of vertebrates or one-tenth of +its whole number. It has also twenty-four peculiar genera of mammalia and +fifty-two of birds, in each case nearly one-third of all it possesses. This +proportion is very nearly the same as in the Palæarctic region, while the +number of peculiar families of vertebrata is very much greater. It has been +already seen that both Mr. Blyth and Professor Huxley are disposed to unite +this region with the Palæarctic, while Professor Newton, in his article on +birds in the new edition of the {80}Encyclopædia Britannica, thinks that as +regards that class it can hardly claim to be more than a sub-region of the +Neotropical. These views are mutually destructive, but it will be shown in +the proper place, that on independent grounds the Nearctic region can very +properly be maintained. + +_Subdivisions of the Nearctic Region._--The sub-regions here depend on the +great physical features of the country, and have been in some cases +accurately defined by American naturalists. First we have the Californian +sub-region, consisting of California and Oregon--a narrow tract between the +Sierra Nevada and the Pacific, but characterized by a number of peculiar +species and by several genera found nowhere else in the region. + +The second, or Rocky Mountain sub-region, consists of this great mountain +range with its plateaus, and the central plains and prairies to about 100° +west longitude, but including New Mexico and Texas in the South. + +The third and most important sub-region, which may be termed the +Alleghanian, extends eastward to the Atlantic, including the Mississippi +Valley, the Alleghany Mountains, and the Eastern United States. This is an +old forest district, and contains most of the characteristic animal types +of the region. + +The fourth, or Canadian sub-region, comprises all the northern part of the +continent from the great lakes to the Arctic ocean; a land of pine-forests +and barren wastes, characterized by Arctic types and the absence of many of +the genera which distinguish the more southern portions of the region. + +_Observations on the series of Sub-regions._--The twenty-four sub-regions +here adopted were arrived at by a careful consideration of the distribution +of the more important genera, and of the materials, both zoological and +geographical, available for their determination; and it was not till they +were almost finally decided on, that they were found to be equal in number +throughout all the regions--four in each. As this uniformity is of great +advantage in tabular and diagrammatic presentations of the distribution of +the several families, I decided not to disturb it unless very strong +reasons should appear for adopting a greater or less number in any +particular case. Such however have not {81}arisen; and it is hoped that +these divisions will prove as satisfactory and useful to naturalists in +general as they have been to the author. Of course, in a detailed study of +any region much more minute sub-division may be required; but even in that +case it is believed that the sub-regions here adopted, will be found, with +slight modifications, permanently available for exhibiting general results. + +I give here a table showing the proportionate richness and speciality of +each region as determined by its _families_ of vertebrates and _genera_ of +mammalia and birds; and also a general table of the regions and +sub-regions, arranged in the order that seems best to show their mutual +relations. + +COMPARATIVE RICHNESS OF THE SIX REGIONS. + + +-------------+-----------------+ + | | VERTEBRATA. | + | REGIONS. |Families|Peculiar| + | | |families| + +-------------+--------+--------+ + | Palæarctic | 136 | 3 | + | Ethiopian | 174 | 22 | + | Oriental | 164 | 12 | + | Australian | 141 | 30 | + | Neotropical | 168 | 44 | + | Nearctic | 122 | 12 | + +-------------+--------+--------+ + + +-------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | MAMMALIA. | BIRDS. | + | REGIONS. |Genera|Peculiar| Per |Genera|Peculiar| Per | + | | |genera |centage| |genera |centage| + +-------------+------+--------+-------+------+--------+-------+ + | Palæarctic | 100 | 35 | 35 | 174 | 57 | 33 | + | Ethiopian | 140 | 90 | 64 | 294 | 179 | 60 | + | Oriental | 118 | 55 | 46 | 340 | 165 | 48 | + | Australian | 72 | 44 | 61 | 298 | 189 | 64 | + | Neotropical | 130 | 103 | 79 | 683 | 576 | 86 | + | Nearctic | 74 | 24 | 32 | 169 | 52 | 31 | + +-------------+------+--------+-------+------+--------+-------+ + +TABLE OF REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS. + + +--------------+-----------------------------+--------------------------+ + | Regions. | Sub-regions. | Remarks. | + +--------------+-----------------------------+--------------------------+ + |I. Palæarctic |1. North Europe. | | + | |2. Mediterranean (or S. Eu.) |Transition to Ethiopian. | + | |3. Siberia. |Transition to Nearctic. | + | |4. Manchuria (or Japan) |Transition to Oriental. | + | | | | + |II. Ethiopian |1. East Africa. |Transition to Palæarctic. | + | |2. West Africa. | | + | |3. South Africa. | | + | |4. Madagascar. | | + | | | | + |III. Oriental |1. Hindostan(or Central Ind.)|Transition to Ethiopian. | + | |2. Ceylon. | | + | |3. Indo-China (or Himalayas) |Transition to Palæarctic. | + | |4. Indo-Malaya. |Transition to Australian. | + | | | | + |IV. Australian|1. Austro-Malaya. |Transition to Oriental. | + | |2. Australia. | | + | |3. Polynesia. | | + | |4. New Zealand. |Transition to Neotropical.| + | | | | + |V. Neotropical|1. Chili (or S. Temp. Am.) |Transition to Australian. | + | |2. Brazil. | | + | |3. Mexico (or Trop. N. Am.) |Transition to Nearctic. | + | |4. Antilles. | | + | | | | + |VI. Nearctic |1. California. | | + | |2. Rocky Mountains. |Transition to Neotropical.| + | |3. Alleghanies (or East U.S.)| | + | |4. Canada. |Transition to Palæarctic. | + +--------------+-----------------------------+--------------------------+ + +{83}CHAPTER V. + +CLASSIFICATION AS AFFECTING THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. + + +A little consideration will convince us, that no inquiry into the causes +and laws which determine the geographical distribution of animals or plants +can lead to satisfactory results, unless we have a tolerably accurate +knowledge of the affinities of the several species, genera, and families to +each other; in other words, we require a natural classification to work +upon. Let us, for example, take three animals--_a_, _b_, and _c_--which +have a general external resemblance to each other, and are usually +considered to be really allied; and let us suppose that _a_ and _b_ inhabit +the same or adjacent districts, while c is found far away on the other side +of the globe, with no animals at all resembling it in any of the +intervening countries. We should here have a difficult problem to solve; +for we should have to show that the general laws by which we account for +the main features of distribution, will explain this exceptional case. But +now, suppose some comparative anatomist takes these animals in hand, and +finds that the resemblance of _c_ to _a_ and _b_ is only superficial, while +their internal structure exhibits marked and important differences; and +that _c_ really belongs to another group of animals, _d_, which inhabits +the very region in which _c_ was found--and we should no longer have +anything to explain. This is no imaginary case. Up to a very few years ago +a curious Mexican animal, _Bassaris astuta_, was almost always classed in +the civet family (Viverridæ), a group entirely {84}confined to Africa and +Asia; but it has now been conclusively shown by Professor Flower that its +real affinities are with the racoons (Procyonidæ), a group confined to +North and South America. In another case, however, an equally careful +examination shows, that an animal peculiar to the Himalayas (_Ælurus +fulgens_) has its nearest ally in the _Cercoleptes_ of South America. Here, +therefore, the geographical difficulty really exists, and any satisfactory +theory of the causes that have led to the existing distribution of living +things, must be able to account, more or less definitely, for this and +other anomalies. From these cases it will be evident, that if any class or +order of animals is very imperfectly known and its classification +altogether artificial, it is useless to attempt to account for the +anomalies its distribution may present; since those anomalies may be, to a +great extent, due to false notions as to the affinities of its component +species. + +According to the laws and causes of distribution discussed in the preceding +chapters, we should find limited and defined distribution to be the rule, +universal or indefinite distribution to be the exception, in every natural +group corresponding to what are usually regarded as families and genera; +and so much is this the case in nature, that when we find a group of this +nominal rank scattered as it were at random over the earth, we have a +strong presumption that it is not natural; but is, to a considerable +extent, a haphazard collection of species. Of course this reasoning will +only apply, in cases where there are no unusual means of dispersal, nor any +exceptional causes which might determine a scattered distribution. + +From the considerations now adduced it becomes evident, that it is of the +first importance for the success of our inquiry to secure a natural +classification of animals, especially as regards the families and genera. +The higher groups, such as classes and orders, are of less importance for +our purpose; because they are almost always widely and often universally +distributed, except those which are so small as to be evidently the nearly +extinct representatives of a once more extensive series of forms. We now +proceed to explain the classification to be adopted, as low down as the +series of families. To these, equivalent English {85}names are given +wherever they exist, in order that readers possessing no technical +knowledge, may form some conception of the meaning of the term "family" in +zoology. + +The primary divisions of the animal kingdom according to two eminent modern +authorities are as follows: + + + HUXLEY. CARUS AND GERSTAEKER. + Classification of Animals Handbuch der Zoologie + (1869). (1868). + 1. Protozoa } + } 1. Protozoa. + 2. Infusoria } + 3. Coelenterata 2. Coelenterata. + 4. Annuloida 3. Echinodermata. + { 4. Vermes. + 5. Annulosa { + { 5. Arthropoda. + 6. Molluscoida 6. Molluscoida. + 7. Mollusca 7. Mollusca. + 8. Vertebrata 8. Vertebrata. + + +For reasons already stated it is only with the fifth, seventh, and eighth +of these groups that the present work proposes to deal; and even with the +fifth and seventh only partially and in the most general way. + +The classes of the vertebrata, according to both the authors above quoted, +are: 1. Mammalia. 2. Aves. 3. Reptilia. 4. Amphibia. 5. Pisces, in which +order they will be taken here. + +The sub-classes and orders of mammalia are as follows: + + +MAMMALIA. + + HUXLEY (1869), FLOWER (1870). CARUS (1868). + { 1. Primates. + { 1. Primates { + { { 5. Prosimii. + { 2. Chiroptera 2. Chiroptera. + { 3. Insectivora 3. Insectivora. + { { 6. Carnivora. + { 4. Carnivora { + { { 7. Pinnipedia. + Monodelphia { 5. Cetacea } + { } 12. Natantia. + { 6. Sirenia } + { {10. Artiodactyla. + { 7. Ungulata { + { {11. Perissodactyla. + { 8. Proboscidea 9. Proboscidea. + { 9. Hyracoidea 8. Lamnungia. + { 10. Rodentia 4. Rodentia. + { 11. Edentata 13. Bruta. + { + Didelphia 12. Marsupialia 14. Marsupialia. + Ornithodelphia 13. Monotremata 15. Monotremata. + +{86}The above series of orders is arranged according to Professor Flower's +_Osteology of Mammalia_, and they will follow in this succession throughout +my work. Professor Huxley arranges the same orders in a different series. + +In determining the manner in which the several orders shall be subdivided +into families, I have been guided in my choice of classifications mainly by +the degree of attention the author appears to have paid to the group, and +his known ability as a systematic zoologist; and in a less degree by +considerations of convenience as regards the special purposes of +geographical distribution. In many cases it is a matter of great doubt +whether a certain group should form several distinct families or be united +into one or two; but one method may bring out the peculiarities of +distribution much better than the other, and this is, in our case, a +sufficient reason for adopting it. + +For the Primates I follow, with some modifications, the classification of +Mr. St. George Mivart given in his article "Apes" in the new edition of the +_Encyclopædia Britannica_, and in his paper in the _Proceedings of the +Zoological Society of London_, 1865, p. 547. It is as follows: + + Order--PRIMATES, divided into two Sub-orders: + I. Anthropoidea. + II. Lemuroidea. + + Sub-order--ANTHROPOIDEA. + Fam. + Hominidæ Man. + + { 1. Simiidæ Anthropoid Apes. + Simii { 2. Semnopithecidæ Old-world Monkeys. + { 3. Cynopithecidæ Baboons and Macaques. + + Cebii { 4. Cebidæ American Monkeys. + { 5. Hapalidæ Marmosets. + + Sub-order--LEMUROIDEA. + + Fam. + 6. Lemuridæ Lemurs. + 7. Tarsiidæ Tarsiers. + 8. Chiromyidæ Aye-ayes. + + +Omitting man (for reasons stated in the preface) the three first families +are considered by Professor Mivart to be sub-families of Simiidæ; but as +the geographical distribution of the Old World apes is especially +interesting, it is thought {87}better to treat them as families, a rank +which is claimed for the anthropoid apes by many naturalists. + +As no good systematic work on the genera and species of bats has been yet +published, I adopt the five families as generally used in this country, +with the genera as given in the papers of Dr. J. E. Gray and Mr. Tomes. A +monograph by Dr. Peters has long been promised, and his outline arrangement +was published in 1865, but this will perhaps be materially altered when the +work appears. + + Order--CHIROPTERA. + + Fam. + + Frugivora 9. Pteropidæ Fruit-eating Bats. + + {Istiophora { 10. Phyllostomidæ Leaf-nosed Bats. + Insectivora { { 11. Rhinolophidæ Horse-shoe Bats. + { + {Gymnorhini { 12. Vespertilionidæ True Bats. + { 13. Noctilionidæ Dog-headed Bats. + + +The genera of Chiroptera are in a state of great confusion, the names used +by different authors being often not at all comparable, so that the few +details given of the distribution of the bats are not trustworthy. We have +therefore made little use of this order in the theoretical part of the +work. + +The osteology of the Insectivora has been very carefully worked out by +Professor Mivart in the _Jounral of Anatomy and Physiology_ (Vol. ii., p. +380), and I follow his classification as given there, and in the +_Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ (1871). + + + Order--INSECTIVORA. + + Fam. + 14. Galeopithecidæ Flying Lemurs. + 15. Macroscelididæ Elephant Shrews. + 16. Tupaiidæ Squirrel Shrews. + 17. Erinaceidæ Hedgehogs. + 18. Centetidæ Tenrecs. + 19. Potamogalidæ Otter Shrew. + 20. Chrysochloridæ Golden Moles. + 21. Talpidæ Moles. + 22. Soricidæ Shrews. + + +The next order, Carnivora, has been studied in detail by Professor Flower; +and I adopt the classification given by him in the _Proceedings of the +Zoological Society_, 1869, p. 4. + + +{88}Order--CARNIVORA. + + Fam. + { 23. Felidæ Cats, Lion, &c. + { 24. Cryptoproctidæ Cryptoprocta. + { Æluroidea { 25. Viverridæ Civets. + { { 26. Protelidæ Aard-wolf. + { { 27. Hyænidæ Hyænas. + { + Fissipedia { Cynoidea 28. Canidæ Dogs, Foxes, &c. + { + { {29. Mustelidæ Weasels. + { {30. Procyonidæ Racoons. + { Arctoidea {31. Æluridæ Pandas. + {32. Ursidæ Bears. + + {33. Otariidæ Eared Seals. + Pinnipedia {34. Trichechidæ Walrus. + {35. Phocidæ Seals. + + +The Cetacea is one of those orders the classification of which is very +unsettled. The animals comprising it are so huge, and there is so much +difficulty in preserving them, that only a very few species are known with +anything like completeness. A considerable number of genera and species +have been described or indicated; but as many of these are founded on +imperfect specimens of perhaps a single individual, it is not to be +wondered at that those few naturalists who occupy themselves with the study +of these large animals, cannot agree as to the proper mode of grouping them +into natural families. They are, however, of but little importance to us, +as almost all the species inhabit the ocean, and of only a few of them can +it be said that anything is accurately known of their distribution. I +therefore consider it best to follow Professor Carus, who makes a smaller +number of families; but I give also the arrangement of Dr. Gray in his +British Museum catalogue of whales and seals, as modified subsequently in +the _Proceedings of Zoological Society_, 1870, p. 772. The Zeuglodontidæ, a +family of extinct tertiary whales, are classed by Professors Owen and Carus +between Cetacea and Sirenia, while Professor Huxley considers them to have +been carnivorous and allied to the seals. + + +{89}Order--CETACEA. + + Fam. (CARUS). Fam. (GRAY). + + Sub-order I.-- { Balænidæ 36. Balænidæ. + Mystaceti. { Balænopteridæ 37. Balænopteridæ. + + { Catodontidæ 38. Catodontidæ. + { + { { Hyperoodontidæ. + { Hyperoodontidæ 39. { Epiodontidæ. + { { Xiphiadæ. + { + Sub-order II.-- { Monodontidæ 40. (Part of Delphinidæ.) + Odontoceti { + { { Platanistidæ. + { { Iniadæ. + { { Delphinidæ. + { Delphinidæ 41. { Globiocephalidæ. + { Orcadæ. + { Belugidæ. + { Pontoporiadæ. + + Extinct family Zeuglodontidæ. + + + +Order--SIRENIA. + +The order Sirenia, comprising the sea-cows, consists of a single family: + + Family 42. Manatidæ. + +The extensive order Ungulata comprises the three orders Pachydermata, +Solidungula, and Ruminantia of the older naturalists. The following +classification is that now generally adopted, the only difference of +opinion being as to whether some of the groups should be classed as +families or sub-families, a matter of little importance for our purpose: + + +Order--UNGULATA. + + Fam. + + Perissodactyla or } 43. Equidæ Horses. + Odd-toed Ungulates } 44. Tapiridæ Tapirs. + 45. Rhinocerotidæ Rhinoceros. + + { Suina { 46. Hippopotamidæ Hippopotamus. + { { 47. Suidæ Swine. + { + Artiodactyla or { Tylopoda 48. Camelidæ Camels. + Even-toed Ungulates { + { Tragulina 49. Tragulidæ Chevrotains. + { + { { 50. Cervidæ Deer. + { Pecora { 51. Camelopardidæ Giraffes. + { 52. Bovidæ { Cattle, Sheep, + { Antelopes, &c. + +{90}The two next orders consist of but a single family each, viz.: + + + Order Fam. + + PROBOSCIDEA 53. Elephantidæ Elephants. + HYRACOIDEA 54. Hyracidæ Rock-rabbits. + + +We now come to the Rodentia, a very extensive and difficult order, in which +there is still much difference of opinion as to the details of +classification, although the main outlines are pretty well settled. The +foundations of a true classification of this order were laid by Mr. G. R. +Waterhouse more than thirty years ago, and succeeding authors have done +little more than follow his arrangement with unimportant modifications. +Professor Lilljeborg, of Upsala, has however made a special study of this +group of animals, and has given an original and detailed classification of +all the genera. (_Systematisk Öfversigt af de Gnagande Däggdjuren, Glires. +Upsala, 1866._) I follow this arrangement with a few slight modifications +suggested by other naturalists, and which make it better adapted for the +purposes of this work. + + +Order--RODENTIA. + + Fam. + + { 55. Muridæ Rats. + { 56. Spalacidæ Mole-rats. + { 57. Dipodidæ Jerboas. + { 58. Myoxidæ Dormice. + { Murina { 59. Saccomyidæ Pouched Rats. + { (Waterhouse) { 60. Castoridæ Beavers. + { { 61. Sciuridæ Squirrels. + Simplicidentati { { 62. Haploodontidæ Sewellels. + { + { { 63. Chinchillidæ Chinchillas. + { { 64. Octodontidæ Octodons. + { Hystricina { 65. Echimyidæ Spiny Rats. + (Waterhouse) { 66. Cercolabidæ Tree Porcupines + { 67. Hystricidæ Porcupines. + { 68. Caviidæ Cavies. + + Duplicidentati { Leporina { 69. Lagomyidæ Pikas. + { (Waterhouse) { 70. Leporidæ Hares. + + +The Edentata have been classified by Mr. Turner, in the _Proceedings of the +Zoological Society_ (1851, p. 205), by Dr. Gray in the British Museum +Catalogue, and by Professor Carus in his _Handbuch_. The former takes a +middle course between {91}the numerous families of Dr. Gray, seven in +number, and the two families to which Professor Carus restricts the +existing species. I therefore follow Mr. Turner. + + +Order--EDENTATA. + + Fam. + + Bradypoda 71. Bradypodidæ Sloths. + { 72. Manididæ Scaly Ant-eaters. + { 73. Dasypodidæ Armadillos. + Entomophaga { 74. Orycteropodidæ Ant-bears. + { 75. Myrmecophagidæ Ant-eaters. + + +The Marsupials have been well classified and described by Mr. Waterhouse in +the first volume of his _Natural History of Mammalia_, and his arrangement +is here followed. The suborders adopted by Professor Carus are also given. + + +Order--MARSUPIALIA. + + Fam. + + { 76. Didelphidæ Opossums. + { 77. Dasyuridæ Native Cats. + Rapacia (Wagner) { 78. Myrmecobiidæ Native Ant-eater. + { 79. Peramelidæ Bandicoots. + Poephaga (Owen) 80. Macropodidæ Kangaroos. + Carpophaga (Owen) 81. Phalangistidæ Phalangers. + Rhizophaga (Owen) 82. Phascolomyidæ Wombats. + + + +Order--MONOTREMATA. + +The last order, the Monotremata, consist of two families, which Professor +Carus combines into one, but which it seems more natural to keep separate. + + Fam. + + 83. Ornithorhynchidæ Duckbill. + 84. Echidnidæ Echidna. + + +{92}BIRDS. + +Birds are perhaps the most difficult to classify of all the divisions of +the vertebrata. The species and genera are exceedingly numerous, and there +is such a great uniformity in general structure and even in the details of +external form, that it is exceedingly difficult to find characters by which +orders and families can be characterised. For a long time the system of +Vigors and Swainson was followed; but this wholly ignored anatomical +characters and in many cases plainly violated well-marked affinities. +Characters derived from the form of the sternum, the scutellation of the +tarsi, and the arrangement of the feathers, have all assisted in +determining natural groups. More recently Professor Huxley has applied the +variations of the bony palate to the general arrangement of birds; and +still more recently Professor Garrod has studied certain leg-muscles for +the same purpose. The condition of the young as regards plumage, and even +the form, texture, and coloration of the egg, have also been applied to +solve doubtful cases of affinity; yet the problem is not settled, and it +will probably remain for another generation of ornithologists to determine +with any approach to accuracy what are the most natural divisions of the +class into orders and families. In a work like the present it is evidently +not advisable to adopt all the recent classifications; since experience has +shown that no arrangement in which one set of characters is mainly relied +on, long holds its ground. Such modifications of the old system as seem to +be well established will be adopted; but the older groups will be adhered +to in cases where the most recent classifications are open to doubt, or +seem inconvenient as separating families, which, owing to their similarity +in general structure, form and habits are best kept together for the +purposes of geographical distribution. + +The old plan of putting the birds of prey at the head of the class, is now +almost wholly given up; both because they are not {93}the most highly +organised, but only one of the most specialised forms of birds, and because +their affinities are not with the Passeres, but rather with the cormorants +and some other of the aquatic groups. The Passeres therefore are placed +first; and the series of families is begun by the thrushes, which are +certainly the most typical and generally well-organised form of birds. +Instead of the Scansores and Fissirostres of the older authors, the order +Picariæ, which includes them both, is adopted, but with some reluctance; as +the former are, generally speaking, well marked and strongly contrasted +groups, although certain families have been shown to be intermediate. In +the Picariæ are included the goat-suckers, swifts, and humming-birds, +sometimes separated as a distinct order, Macrochires. The parrots and the +pigeons form each a separate order. The old groups of Grallæ and Anseres +are preserved, as more convenient than breaking them up into widely +separated parts; for though the latter plan may in some cases more strictly +represent their affinities, its details are not yet established, nor is it +much used by ornithologists. In accordance with these views the following +is the series of orders and families of birds adopted in this work: + + +Class--AVES. + + Orders. + + 1. Passeres { Including the great mass of the smaller birds--Crows, + { Finches, Flycatchers, Creepers, Honeysuckers, &c., &c. + + 2. Picariæ { Including Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, Toucans, Kingfishers, + { Swifts, &c., &c. + + 3. Psittaci Parrots only. + 4. Columbæ Pigeons and the Dodo. + 5. Gallinæ Grouse, Pheasants, Curassows, Mound-builders, &c. + 6. Opisthocomi The Hoazin only. + 7. Accipitres Eagles, Owls, and Vultures. + 8. Grallæ Herons, Plovers, Rails, &c. + 9. Anseres Gulls, Ducks, Divers, &c. + 10. Struthiones Ostrich, Cassowary, Apteryx, &c. + + +The Passeres consist of fifty families, which may be arranged and grouped +in series as follows. It must however be remembered that the first family +in each series is not always that which is most allied to the last family +of the preceding series. All extensive natural groups consist of divergent +or branching alliances, which renders it impossible to arrange the whole in +one continuous series. + + +{94}A.--TYPICAL OR TURDOID PASSERES. + + 1. Turdidæ Thrushes. + 2. Sylviidæ Warblers. + 3. Timaliidæ Babblers. + 4. Panuridæ Reedlings. + 5. Cinclidæ Dippers. + 6. Troglodytidæ Wrens. + 7. Chamæidæ + 8. Certhiidæ Creepers. + 9. Sittidæ Nuthatches. + 10. Paridæ Tits. + 11. Liotrichidæ Hill-tits. + 12. Phyllornithidæ Green Bulbuls. + 13. Pycnonotidæ Bulbuls. + 14. Oriolidæ Orioles. + 15. Campephagidæ Caterpillar-shrikes. + 16. Dicruridæ Drougos. + 17. Muscicapidæ Flycatchers. + 18. Pachycephalidæ Thick-heads. + 19. Laniidæ Shrikes. + 20. Corvidæ Crows. + 21. Paradiseidæ Paradise-birds. + 22. Meliphagidæ Honey-suckers. + 23. Nectarineidæ Sun-birds. + + +B.--TANAGROID PASSERES. + + 24. Dicæidæ Flower-peckers. + 25. Drepanididæ + 26. Cærebidæ Sugar-birds. + 27. Mniotiltidæ Wood-warblers. + 28. Vireonidæ Greenlets. + 29. Ampelidæ Waxwings. + 30. Hirundinidæ Swallows. + 31. Icteridæ Hangnests. + 32. Tanagridæ Tanagers. + 33. Fringillidæ Finches. + + +C.--STURNOID PASSERES. + + 34. Ploceidæ Weaver-birds. + 35. Sturnidæ Starlings. + 36. Artamidæ Swallow-shrikes. + 37. Alaudidæ Larks. + 38. Motacillidæ Wagtails. + +D.--FORMICAROID PASSERES. + + 39. Tyrannidæ Tyrants. + 40. Pipridæ Manakins. + 41. Cotingidæ Chatterers. + 42. Phytotomidæ Plant-cutters. + 43. Eurylæmidæ Broad-bills. + 44. Dendrocolaptidæ American Creepers. + 45. Formicariidæ Ant-thrushes. + 46. Pteroptochidæ {95} + 47. Pittidæ Pittas. + 48. Paictidæ + + +E.--ANOMALOUS PASSERES. + + 49. Menuridæ Lyre-birds. + 50. Atrichidæ Scrub-birds. + +The preceding arrangement is a modification of that proposed by myself in +the _Ibis_ (1874, p. 406). The principal alterations are adding the +families Panuridæ and Sittidæ in series A, commencing series B with +Dicæidæ; bringing Vireonidæ next to the allied American family Mniotiltidæ; +and placing Motacillidæ in series C next to Alaudidæ. At the suggestion of +Professor Newton I place Menuridæ and Atrichidæ apart from the other +Passeres, as they both possess striking peculiarities of anatomical +structure. + +The heterogeneous families constituting the order Picariæ may be +conveniently arranged as follows: + + { 51. Picidæ Woodpeckers. + { 52. Yungidæ Wrynecks. + { 53. Indicatoridæ Honey-guides. + Sub-order-- { 54. Megalæmidæ Barbets. + Scansores. { 55. Rhamphastidæ Toucans. + { 56. Musophagidæ Plantain-eaters. + { 57. Coliidæ Colies. + { 58. Cuculidæ Cuckoos. + + Intermediate 59. Leptosomidæ The Leptosoma. + + { 60. Bucconidæ Puff-birds. + { 61. Galbulidæ Jacamars. + { 62. Coraciidæ Rollers. + { 63. Meropidæ Bee-eaters. + { 64. Todidæ Todies. + { 65. Momotidæ Motmots. + { 66. Trogonidæ Trogons. + Sub-order-- { 67. Alcedinidæ Kingfishers. + Fissirostres. { 68. Bucerotidæ Hornbills. + { 69. Upupidæ Hoopoes. + { 70. Irrisoridæ Promerops. + { 71. Podargidæ Frog-mouths. + { 72. Steatornithidæ The Guacharo. + { 73. Caprimulgidæ Goatsuckers. + { 74. Cypselidæ Swifts. + { 75. Trochilidæ Humming-birds. + +{96}The Psittaci or parrot tribe are still in a very unsettled state of +classification; that recently proposed by Professor Garrod differing widely +from the arrangement adopted in Dr. Finsch's monograph of the order. Taking +advantage of the researches of these and other authors, the following +families are adopted as the most convenient in the present state of our +knowledge: + + 76. Cacatuidæ The Cockatoos. + 77. Platycercidæ The Broad-tailed Paroquets of Australia. + 78. Palæornithidæ The Oriental Parrots and Paroquets. + 79. Trichoglossidæ The Brush-tongued Paroquets and Lories. + 80. Conuridæ The Macaws and their allies. + 81. Psittacidæ The African and South American Parrots. + 82. Nestoridæ The Nestors of New Zealand. + 83. Stringopidæ The Owl-parrots of New Zealand. + + +The Columbæ, or pigeons, are also in a very unsatisfactory state as regards +a natural classification. The families, sub-families, and genera proposed +by various authors are very numerous, and often quite irreconcilable. I +therefore adopt only two families; and generally follow Mr. G. R. Gray's +hand-list for the genera, except where trustworthy authorities exist for a +different arrangement. The families are: + + 84. Columbidæ Pigeons and Doves. + 85. Dididæ The extinct Dodo and allies. + +The Gallinæ, or game-birds, may be divided into seven families: + + Fam. Sub-fam. + + 86. Pteroclidæ Sand-grouse. + 87. Tetraonidæ Partridges and Grouse. + { Pavoninæ Peafowl. + { Lophophorinæ Tragopans, &c. + { Phasianinæ Pheasants. + 88. Phasianidæ { Euplocaminæ Fire-backed Pheasants, &c. + { Gallinæ Jungle-fowl. + { Meleagrinæ Turkeys. + { Numidinæ Guinea-fowl. + 89. Turnicidæ Hemipodes. + 90. Megapodiidæ Mound-makers. + { Cracinæ Curassows. + 91. Cracidæ { Penelopinæ Guans. + { Oreophasinæ Mountain-pheasant. + 92. Tinamidæ Tinamous. + +{97}The Opisthocomi consist of one family containing a single species, the +"Hoatzin" of Guiana. + + Family 93. Opisthocomidæ. + +The Accipitres, or birds of prey, which were long considered to be the +highest and most perfect order of birds, are now properly placed lower down +in the series, their affinities being more with the aquatic than with the +perching birds. The following is the arrangement adopted by Mr. Sharpe in +his recently published British Museum catalogue of diurnal birds of prey:-- + + Sub-orders. Fam. Sub-families. + + { Vulturinæ Vultures. + { 94. Vulturidæ { Sarcorhamphinæ Turkey-buzzards. + { + Falcones { 95. Serpentariidæ + { + { { Polyborniæ Caracaras. + { { Accipitrinæ Hawks. + { 96. Falconidæ { Buteoninæ Buzzards. + { Aquilinæ Eagles. + { Falconinæ Falcons. + + Pandiones 97. Pandionidæ Fishing-eagles. + Striges 98. Strigidæ Owls. + +The Grallæ or Grallatores are in a very unsettled state. The following +series of families is in accordance with the views of some of the best +modern ornithologists: + + 99. Rallidæ Rails, &c. + 100. Scolopacidæ Sandpipers and Snipes + 101. Chionididæ Sheath-bills. + 102. Thinocoridæ Quail-snipes. + 103. Parridæ Jacanas. + 104. Glareolidæ Pratincoles. + 105. Charadriidæ Plovers. + 106. Otididæ Bustards. + 107. Gruidæ Cranes. + 108. Cariamidæ Cariamas. + 109. Aramidæ Guaraunas. + 110. Psophiidæ Trumpeters. + 111. Eurypygidæ Sun-bitterns. + 112. Rhinochoetidæ Kagus. + 113. Ardeidæ Herons. + 114. Plataleidæ Spoonbills and Ibis. + 115. Ciconiidæ Storks. + 116. Palamedeidæ Screamers. + 117. Phænicopteridæ Flamingoes. + +{98}The Anseres or Natatores are almost equally unsettled. The flamingoes +are usually placed in this order, but their habits best assort with those +of the waders. + + Fam. + + 118. Anatidæ Duck and Geese. + 119. Laridæ Gulls. + 120. Procellariidæ Petrels. + 121. Pelecanidæ Pelicans. + 122. Spheniscidæ Penguins. + 123. Colymbidæ Divers. + 124. Podicipidæ Grebes. + 125. Alcidæ Auks. + + +The last order of birds is the Struthiones or Ratitæ, considered by many +naturalists to form a distinct sub-class. It consists of comparatively few +species, either living or recently extinct. + + Fam. + + { 126. Struthionidæ Ostriches. + Living { 127. Casuariidæ Cassowaries. + { 128. Apterygidæ Apteryx. + + { 129. Dinornithidæ Dinornis. + Extinct { 130. Palapterygidæ Palapteryx. + { 131. Æpyornithidæ Æpyornis. + + + +REPTILES. + +In reptiles I follow the classification of Dr. Günther as given in the +_Philosophical Transactions_, vol. clvii., p. 625. He divides the class +into five orders as follows:-- + + Sub-classes. Orders. + + { 1. Ophidia Serpents. + I. Squamata { 2. Lacertilia Lizards. + { 3. Rhyncocephalina The Hatteria. + + II. Loricata 4. Crocodilia Crocodiles. + + III. Cataphracta 5. Chelonia Tortoises. + + +In the arrangement of the families comprised in each of these orders I also +follow the arrangement of Dr. Günther and Dr. J. E. Gray, as given in the +British Museum Catalogue, or as modified by the former gentleman who has +kindly given me much personal information. + +{99}The Ophidia, or Snakes, form the first order and are classified as +follows:-- + + Fam. + + { 1. Typhlopidæ } + { 2. Tortricidæ } + { 3. Xenopeltidæ } Burrowing Snakes. + { 4. Uropeltidæ } + { 5. Calamaridæ Dwarf ground-snakes. + { 6. Oligodontidæ. + { 7. Colubridæ Colubrine Snakes. + { 8. Homalopsidæ Fresh-water Snakes. + { 9. Psammophidæ Desert-snakes. + Innocuous Snakes { 10. Rachiodontidæ. + { 11. Dendrophidæ Tree-snakes. + { 12. Dryiophidæ Whip-snakes. + { 13. Dipsasidæ Nocturnal tree-snakes. + { 14. Scytalidæ + { 15. Lycodontidæ Fanged ground-snakes. + { 16. Amblycephalidæ Blunt-heads. + { 17. Pythonidæ Pythons. + { 18. Erycidæ Sand-snakes. + { 19. Acrochordidæ Wart-snakes. + + { 20. Elapidæ Cobras, &c. + Venomous Colubrine { 21. Dendraspididæ. + Snakes { 22. Atractaspididæ. + { 23. Hydrophidæ Sea-snakes. + + { 24. Crotalidæ Pit-vipers. + Viperine Snakes { 25. Viperidæ True vipers. + + +The second order, Lacertilia, are arranged as follows:-- + + Fam. + + 26. Trogonophidæ } + 27. Chirotidæ } + 28. Amphisbænidæ } Amphisbænians. + 29. Lepidosternidæ } + 30. Varanidæ Water Lizards. + 31. Helodermidæ. + 32. Teidæ Teguexins. + 33. Lacertidæ } Land Lizards. + 34. Zonuridæ } + 35. Chalcidæ. + 36. Anadiadæ. + 37. Chirocolidæ. + 38. Iphisadæ. + 39. Cercosauridæ. + 40. Chamæsauridæ. + 41. Gymnopthalmidæ Gape-eyed Scinks. + 42. Pygopodidæ Two-legged Lizards. + 43. Aprasiadæ. + 44. Lialidæ. {100} + 45. Scincidæ Scinks. + 46. Ophiomoridæ Snake-lizards. + 47. Sepidæ Sand-lizards. + 48. Acontiadæ. + 49. Geckotidæ Geckoes. + 50. Iguanidæ Iguanas. + 51. Agamidæ Fringed Lizards. + 52. Chameleonidæ Chameleons. + + +The third order, Rhyncocephalina consists of a single family:-- + + 53. Rhyncocephalidæ The Hatteria of New Zealand. + +The fourth order, Crocodilia or Loricata, consists of three families:-- + + 54. Gavialidæ Gavials. + 55. Crocodilidæ Crocodiles. + 56. Alligatoridæ Alligators. + +The fifth order, Chelonia, consists of four families:-- + + 57. Testudinidæ Land and fresh-water Tortoises. + 58. Chelydidæ Fresh-water Turtles. + 59. Trionychidæ Soft Turtles. + 60. Cheloniidæ Sea Turtles. + + +AMPHIBIA. + +In the Amphibia I follow the classification of Professor Mivart, as given +for a large part of the order in the _Proceedings of the Zoological +Society_ for 1869. For the remainder I follow Dr. Strauch, Dr. Günther, and +a MSS. arrangement kindly furnished me by Professor Mivart. + +The class is first divided into three groups or orders, and then into +families as follows:-- + + +{101}Order I.--PSEUDOPHIDIA. + + Fam. + + 1. Cæciliadæ Cæcilia. + + +Order II.--BATRACHIA URODELA. + + 2. Sirenidæ Siren. + 3. Proteidæ Proteus. + 4. Amphiumidæ Amphiuma. + 5. Menopomidæ Giant Salamanders. + 6. Salamandridæ Salamanders and Newts. + + +Order III.--BATRACHIA ANOURA. + + 7. Rhinophrynidæ } + 8. Phryniscidæ } + 9. Hylaplesidæ } Toads. + 10. Bufonidæ } + 11. Xenorhinidæ } + 12. Engystomidæ } + + 13. Bombinatoridæ } + 14. Plectromantidæ } Frogs. + 15. Alytidæ } + + 16. Pelodryadæ } + 17. Hylidæ } Tree Frogs. + 18. Polypedatidæ } + + 19. Ranidæ } Frogs. + 20. Discoglossidæ } + + 21. Pipidæ } Tongueless + 22. Dactylethridæ } Toads. + + +FISHES. + +These are arranged according to the classification of Dr. Günther, whose +great work "The British Museum Catalogue of Fishes," has furnished almost +all the material for our account of the distribution of the class. + +In that work all existing fishes are arranged in six sub-classes and +thirteen orders. A study of the extraordinary _Ceratodus_ from Australia +has induced Dr. Günther to unite three of his sub-classes; but as his +catalogue will long remain a handbook for every student of fishes, it seems +better to follow the arrangement there given, indicating his later views by +bracketing together the groups he now thinks should be united. + + -----------------------------------------+---------+--------------- {102} + Sub-class. Order. |Families.| Remarks. + -----------------------------------------+---------+------------------ + { 1. Acanthopterygii | 47 | Gasterosteidæ to + { | | Notacanthi. + { 2. Do. Pharyncognathi | 5 | Pomacentridæ to + { | | Chromidæ. + Ganoidei { 3. Acanthini | 6 | Gadopsidæ to + ======== { | | Pleuronectidæ. + {Teleostei { 4. Physostomi | 29 | Siluridæ to + { { | | Pegasidæ. + { { 5. Lophobranchii | 2 | Solenostomidæ and + { { | | Syngnathidæ. + { { 6. Plectognathi | 2 | Sclerodermi and + { { | | Gymnodontes. + { | | + {Dipnoi 7. Sirenoidei | 1 | Sirenoidei. + { | | + { { 8. Holostei | 3 | Amiidæ to + { { | | Lepidosteidæ. + {Ganoidei { 9. Chondrostei | 2 | Accipenseridæ and + { | | Polydontidæ. + | | + Chondropterygii { 10. Holocephala | 1 | Chimæridæ. + { 11. Plagiostomata | 15 | Carchariidæ to + | | Myliobatidæ. + | | + Cyclostomata 12. Marsipobranchii | 2 | Petromyzontidæ and + | | Myxinidæ. + | | + Leptocardii 13. Cirrhostomi | 1 | Cirrhostomi. + +---------+ + Total 116 families. + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + +INSECTS. + +The families and genera of insects are so immensely numerous, probably +exceeding fifty-fold those of all other land animals, that for this cause +alone it would be impossible to enter fully into their distribution. It is +also quite unnecessary, because many of the groups are so liable to be +transported by accidental causes, that they afford no useful information +for our subject; while others are so obscure and uninteresting that they +have been very partially collected and studied, and are for this reason +equally ineligible. I have therefore selected a few of the largest and most +conspicuous families, which have been so assiduously collected in every +part of the globe, and so carefully studied at home, as to afford valuable +materials for comparison with the vertebrate groups, when we have made due +allowance for the dependence of many insects on peculiar forms of +vegetation, and the facility with which many of them are transported either +in the egg, larva, or perfect state, by winds, currents, and other less +known means. + +I confine myself then, almost exclusively, to the sixteen families of +Diurnal Lepidoptera or butterflies, and to six of the most extensive, +conspicuous, and popular families of Coleoptera. {103}The number of species +of Butterflies is about the same as that of Birds, while the six families +of Coleoptera selected, comprise more than twenty thousand species, far +exceeding the number of all other vertebrates. These families have all been +recently catalogued, so that we have very complete information as to their +arrangement and distribution. + + +LEPIDOPTERA DIURNA, OR BUTTERFLIES. + + Fam. + + 1. Danaidæ. + 2. Satyridæ. + 3. Elymniidæ. + 4. Morphidæ. + 5. Brassolidæ. + 6. Acræidæ. + 7. Heliconidæ. + 8. Nymphalidæ. + 9. Libythæidæ. + 10. Nemeobiidæ. + 11. Eurygonidæ. + 12. Erycinidæ. + 13. Lycænidæ. + 14. Pieridæ. + 15. Papilionidæ. + 16. Hesperidæ. + + + +COLEOPTERA, OR BEETLES. + + Fam. + + 1. Cicindelidæ Tiger-beetles. + 2. Carabidæ Ground-beetles. + 3. Lucanidæ Stag-beetles. + 4. Cetoniidæ Rose-chafers. + 5. Buprestidæ Metallic Beetles. + 6. Longicornia Long-horned Beetles. + + +The above families comprise the extensive series of ground beetles +(Carabidæ) containing about 9,000 species, and the Longicorns, which are +nearly as numerous and surpass them in variety of form and colour as well +as in beauty. The Cetoniidæ and Buprestidæ are among the largest and most +brilliant of beetles; the Lucanidæ are pre-eminent for remarkable form, and +the Cicindelidæ for elegance; and all the families are especial favourites +with entomologists, so that the whole earth has been ransacked to procure +fresh species. + +Results deduced from a study of these will, therefore, fairly represent the +phenomena of distribution of Coleoptera, and, as they are very varied in +their habits, perhaps of insects in general. + + +{104}MOLLUSCA. + +The Mollusca are usually divided into five classes as follows:-- + + Classes. + + I. Cephalopoda Cuttle-fish. + II. Gasteropoda Snails and aquatic Univalves. + III. Pteropoda Oceanic Snails. + IV. Brachiopoda Symmetrical Bivalves. + V. Conchifera Unsymmetrical Bivalves. + +The Gasteropoda and Conchifera alone contain land and freshwater forms, and +to these we shall chiefly confine our illustrations of the geographical +distribution of the Mollusca. The classification followed is that of Dr. +Pfeiffer for the Operculata and Dr. Von Martens for the Helicidæ. The +families chiefly referred to are:-- + + +Class II.--GASTEROPODA. + +Order 2.--Pulmonifera. + + Fam. + + { 1. Helicidæ. + { 2. Limacidæ. + { 3. Oncidiadæ. + In-operculata { 4. Limnæidæ. + { 5. Auriculidæ. + { 6. Aciculidæ. + { 7. Diplommatinidæ. + + Operculata { 8. Cyclostomidæ. + { 9. Helicinidæ. + + + +PART II. + +_ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS._ + +{107}CHAPTER VI. + +THE EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. + + +Although it may seem somewhat out of place to begin the systematic +treatment of our subject with extinct rather than with living animals, it +is necessary to do so in order that we may see the meaning and trace the +causes of the existing distribution of animal forms. It is true, that the +animals found fossil in a country are very generally allied to those which +still inhabit it; but this is by no means universally the case. If it were, +the attempt to elucidate our subject by Palæontology would be hopeless, +since the past would show us the same puzzling diversities of faunas and +floras that now exist. We find however very numerous exceptions to this +rule, and it is these exceptions which tell us of the past migrations of +whole groups of animals. We are thus enabled to determine what portion of +the existing races of animals in a country are descendants of its ancient +fauna, and which are comparatively modern immigrants; and combining these +movements of the forms of life with known or probable changes in the +distribution of land and sea, we shall sometimes be able to trace +approximately the long series of changes which have resulted in the actual +state of things. To gain this knowledge is our object in studying the +"Geographical Distribution of Animals," and our plan of study must be +determined, mainly, by the facilities it affords us for attaining this +object. In discussing the countless details of distribution we shall meet +with in our survey of the zoological regions, we shall often find it useful +to refer to the evidence we possess of the range of the group in question +in {108}past times; and when we attempt to generalise the phenomena on a +large scale, with the details fresh in our memory, we shall find a +reference to the extinct faunas of various epochs to be absolutely +necessary. + +The degree of our knowledge of the Palæontology of various parts of the +world is so unequal, that it will not be advisable to treat the subject +under each of our six regions. Yet some subdivision must be made, and it +seems best to consider separately the extinct animals of the Old and of the +New Worlds. Those of Europe and Asia are intimately connected, and throw +light on the past changes which have led to the establishment of the three +great continental Old World regions, with their various subdivisions. The +wonderful extinct fauna recently discovered in North America, with what was +previously known from South temperate America, not only elucidates the past +history of the whole continent, but also gives indications of the mutual +relations of the eastern and western hemispheres. + +The materials to be dealt with are enormous; and it will be necessary to +confine ourselves to a general summary, with fuller details on those points +which directly bear upon our special subject. The objects of most interest +to the pure zoologist and to the geologist--those strange forms which are +farthest removed from any now living--are of least interest to us, since we +aim at tracing the local origin or birthplace of existing genera and +families; and for this purpose animals whose affinities with living forms +are altogether doubtful, are of no value whatever. + +The great mass of the vertebrate fossils of the tertiary period consist of +mammalia, and this is precisely the class which is of most value in the +determination of zoological regions. The animals of the secondary period, +though of the highest interest to the zoologist are of little importance to +us; both because of their very uncertain affinities for any existing +groups, and also because we can form no adequate notion of the distribution +of land and sea in those remote epochs. Our great object is to trace back, +step by step, the varying distribution of the chief forms of life; and to +deduce, wherever possible, the physical changes which must have accompanied +or caused such changes. {109}The natural division of our subject therefore +is into geological periods. We first go back to the Post-Pliocene period, +which includes that of the caves and gravels of Europe containing flint +implements, and extends back to the deposit of the glacial drift in the +concluding phase of the glacial epoch. Next we have the Pliocene period, +divided into its later portion (the Newer Pliocene) which includes the +Glacial epoch of the northern hemisphere; and its earlier portion (the +Older Pliocene), represented by the red and coralline crag of England, and +deposits of similar age in the continent. During this earlier epoch the +climate was not very dissimilar from that which now prevails; but we next +get evidence of a still earlier period, the Miocene, when a warmer climate +prevailed in Europe, and the whole fauna and flora were very different. +This is perhaps the most interesting portion of the tertiary deposits, and +furnishes us with the most valuable materials for our present study. +Further back still we have the Eocene period, with apparently an almost +tropical climate in Europe; and here we find a clue to some of the most +puzzling facts in the distribution of living animals. Our knowledge of this +epoch is however very imperfect; and we wait for discoveries that will +elucidate some of the mystery that still hangs over the origin and +migrations of many important families. Beyond this there is a great chasm +in the geological record as regards land animals; and we have to go so far +back into the past, that when we again meet with mammalia, birds, and +land-reptiles, they appear under such archaic forms that they cease to have +any local or geographical significance, and we can only refer them to +wide-spread classes and orders. For the purpose of elucidating geographical +distribution, therefore, it is, in the present state of our knowledge, +unnecessary to go back beyond the tertiary period of geology. + +The remains of Mammalia being so much more numerous and important than +those of other classes, we shall at first confine ourselves almost +exclusively to these. What is known of the birds, reptiles, and fishes of +the tertiary epoch will be best indicated by a brief connected sketch of +their fossils in all parts of the globe, which we shall give in a +subsequent chapter. + +{110}_Historic Period._--In tracing back the history of the organic world +we find, even within the limits of the historical period, that some animals +have become extinct, while the distribution of others has been materially +changed. The _Rytina_ of the North Pacific, the dodo of Mauritius, and the +great auk of the North Atlantic coasts, have been exterminated almost in +our own times. The kitchen-middens of Denmark contain remains of the +capercailzie, the _Bos primigenius_, and the beaver. The first still +abounds farther north, the second is extinct, and the third is becoming so +in Europe. The great Irish elk, a huge-antlered deer, probably existed +almost down to historic times. + +_Pleistocene or Post-Pliocene Period._--We first meet with proofs of +important changes in the character of the European fauna, in studying the +remains found in the caverns of England and France, which have recently +been so well explored. These cave-remains are probably all subsequent to +the Glacial epoch, and they all come within the period of man's occupation +of the country. Yet we find clear proofs of two distinct kinds of change in +the forms of animal life. First we have a change clearly traceable to a +difference of climate. We find such arctic forms as the rein-deer, the +musk-sheep, the glutton, and the lemming, with the mammoth and the woolly +rhinoceros of the Siberian ice-cliffs, inhabiting this country and even the +south of France. This is held to be good proof that a sub-arctic climate +prevailed over all Central Europe; and this climate, together with the +continental condition of Britain, will sufficiently explain such a +southward range of what are now arctic forms. + +But together with this change we have another that seems at first sight to +be in an exactly opposite direction. We meet with numerous animals which +now only inhabit Africa, or South Europe, or the warmer parts of Asia. Such +are, large felines--some closely related to the lion (_Felis spelæa_), +others of altogether extinct type (_Machairodus_) and forming the extreme +development of the feline race;--hyænas; horses of two or more species; and +a hippopotamus. If we go a little further back, to the remains furnished by +the gravels and brick-earths, we still find the same association of forms. +The reindeer, the glutton, {111}the musk-sheep, and the woolly rhinoceros, +are associated with several other species of rhinoceros and elephant; with +numerous civets, now abundant only in warm countries; and with antelopes of +several species. We also meet here with a great extension of range of forms +now limited to small areas. The Saiga antelope of Eastern Europe occurs in +France, where wild sheep and goats and the chamois were then found, +together with several species of deer, of bear, and of hyæna. A few extinct +genera even come down to this late period, such as the great sabre-toothed +tiger, _Machairodus_; _Galeotherium_, a form of Viverridæ; _Palæospalax_, +allied to the mole; and _Trogontherium_, a gigantic form of beaver, + +We find then, that even at so early a stage of our inquiries we meet with a +problem in distribution by no means easy to solve. How are we to explain +the banishment from Europe in so short a space of time (geologically +speaking) of so many forms of life now characteristic of warmer countries, +and this too during a period when the climate of Central Europe was itself +becoming warmer? Such a change must almost certainly have been due to +changes of physical geography, which we shall be better able to understand +when we have examined the preceding Pliocene period. We may here notice, +however, that so far as we yet know, this great recent change in the +character of the fauna is confined to the western part of the Palæarctic +region. In caves in the Altai Mountains examined by Prof. Brandt, a great +collection of fossil bones was discovered. These comprised the Siberian +rhinoceros and mammoth, and the cave hyæna; but all the others, more than +thirty distinct species, are now living in or near the same regions. We may +perhaps impute this difference to the fact that the migration of Southern +types into this part of Siberia was prevented by the great mountain and +desert barrier of the Central Asiatic plateau; whereas in Europe there was +at this time a land connection with Africa. Post-pliocene deposits and +caverns in Algeria have yielded remains resembling the more southern +European types of the Post-pliocene period, but without any admixture of +Arctic forms; showing, as we might expect, that the glacial cold did not +{112}extend so far south. We have here remains of _Equus_, _Bos_, +_Antilope_, _Hippopotamus_, _Elephas_, _Rhinoceros_, _Ursus_, _Canis_, and +_Hyæna_, together with _Phacochoerus_, an African type of swine which has +not occurred in the European deposits. + +It is perhaps to the earlier portion of this period that the +_Merycotherium_ of the Siberian drift belongs. This was an animal related +to the living camel, thus supporting the view that the _Camelidæ_ are +essentially denizens of the extra-tropical zone. + + +PLIOCENE PERIOD. + +_Primates._--We here first meet with evidence of the existence of monkeys +in Central Europe. Species of _Macacus_ have left remains not only in the +Newer Pliocene of the Val d'Arno in Italy, but in beds of the same age at +Grays in Essex; while _Semnopithecus_ and _Cercopithecus_, genera now +confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions respectively, have been +found in the Pliocene deposits of the South of France and Italy. + +_Carnivora._--Most of the genera which occurred in the Post-Pliocene are +found here also, and many of the same species. Few new forms appear, except +_Hyænarctos_, a large bear with characters approaching the hyænas, and +_Pristiphoca_, a new form of seal, both from the Older Pliocene of France; +and _Galecynus_, a fox-like animal intermediate between _Canis_ and +_Viverra_, from the Pliocene of Oeninghen in Switzerland. + +_Cetacea._--Species of _Balæna_, _Physeter_, and _Delphinus_ occur in the +Older Pliocene of England and France, and with these the remains of many +extinct forms, _Balænodon_ and _Hoplocetus_ (Balænidæ); _Belemnoziphius_ +and _Choneziphius_ (Hyperoodontidæ), and _Halitherium_, an extinct form of +the next order--Sirenia, now confined to the tropics, although the recently +extinct _Rytina_ of the N. W. Pacific shows that it is also adapted for +temperate climates. + +_Ungulata._--The Pliocene deposits are not very rich in this order. The +horses (_Equidæ_) are represented by the genus _Equus_; and here we first +meet with _Hipparion_, in which small lateral toes appear. Both genera +occur in British deposits of this age. {113}A more interesting fact for us +is the occurrence of the genus _Tapirus_ in the Newer Pliocene of France +and in the older beds of both France and England, since this genus is now +isolated in the remotest parts of the eastern and western tropics. The +genera _Rhinoceros_, _Hippopotamus_, and _Sus_, occur here as in the +preceding epoch. + +We next come to the deer genus (_Cervus_), which appears to have been at +its maximum in this period, no less than eight species occurring in the +Norwich Crag, and Forest-beds. Among the Bovidæ, the antelopes, ox, and +bison, are the only forms represented here, as in the Post-Pliocene period. +Passing on to the Proboscidea, we find three species of elephants and two +of _Mastodon_ preserved in European beds of this period, all distinct from +those of Post-Pliocene times. + +_Rodentia._--In this order we find representatives of many living European +forms; as _Cricetus_ (hamster), _Arvicola_ (vole), _Castor_ (beaver), +_Arctomys_ (marmot), _Hystrix_ (porcupine), _Lepus_ (hare), and _Lagomys_ +(pika); and a few that are extinct, the most important being _Chalicomys_, +allied to the beaver; and _Issiodromys_, said to come nearest to the +remarkable _Pedetes_ of South Africa, both found in the Pliocene formations +of France. + + + +_General Conclusions as to Pliocene and Post-Pliocene Faunas of +Europe._--This completes the series of fossil forms of the Pliocene +deposits of Europe. They show us that the presence of numerous large +carnivora and ungulates (now almost wholly tropical) in the Post-Pliocene +period, was due to no exceptional or temporary cause, but was the result of +a natural succession from similar races which had inhabited the same +countries for long preceding ages. In order to understand the vast periods +of time covered by the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene formations, the works of +Sir Charles Lyell must be studied. We shall then come to see, that the +present condition of the fauna of Europe is wholly new and exceptional. For +a long succession of ages, various forms of monkeys, hyænas, lions, horses, +hipparions, tapirs, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, elephants, mastodons, deer, +and antelopes, together {114}with almost all the forms now living, produced +a rich and varied fauna such as we now see only in the open country of +tropical Africa. During all this period we have no reason to believe that +the climate or other physical conditions of Europe were more favourable to +the existence of these animals than now. We must look upon them, therefore, +as true indigenes of the country, and their comparatively recent extinction +or banishment as a remarkable phenomenon for which there must have been +some adequate cause. What this cause was we can only conjecture; but it +seems most probable that it was due to the combined action of the Glacial +period, and the subsidence of large areas of land once connecting Europe +with Africa. The existence, in the small island of Malta, of no less than +three extinct species of elephant (two of very small stature), of a +gigantic dormouse, an extinct hippopotamus, and other mammalia, together +with the occurrence of remains of hippopotamus in the caves of Gibraltar, +indicate very clearly that during the Pliocene epoch, and perhaps during a +considerable part of the Post-Pliocene, a connection existed between South +Europe and North Africa in at least these two localities. At the same time +we have every reason to believe that Britain was united to the Continent, +what is now the German Ocean constituting a great river-valley. During the +height of the Glacial epoch, these large animals would probably retire into +this Mediterranean land and into North Africa, making annual migrations +northwards during the summer. But as the connecting land sank and became +narrower and narrower, the migrating herds would diminish, and at last +cease altogether; and when the glacial cold had passed away would be +altogether prevented from returning to their former haunts. + + +MIOCENE PERIOD. + +We now come to a period which was wonderfully rich in all forms of life, +and of which the geological record is exceptionally complete. Various +lacustrine, estuarine, and other deposits in Europe, North India, and North +America, have furnished such a {115}vast number of remains of extinct +mammalia, as to solve many zoological problems, and to throw great light on +the early distribution and centres of dispersal of various groups of +animals. In order to show the bearing of these remains on our special +subject, we will first give an account of the extinct fauna of Greece, of +the Upper Miocene period; since this, being nearest to Africa and Asia, +best exhibits the relations of the old European fauna to those countries. +We shall then pass to the Miocene fauna of France and Central Europe; and +conclude with the remarkable Siwalik and other Indian extinct faunas, which +throw an additional light on the early history of the animal life of the +great old-world continents. + + +_Extinct Animals of Greece._ + +These are from the Upper Miocene deposits at Pikermi, near Athens, and were +collected by M. Gaudry a few years ago. They comprise ten living and +eighteen extinct genera of mammalia, with a few birds and reptiles. + +_Primates._--These are represented by _Mesopithecus_, a genus believed to +be intermediate between the two Indian genera of monkeys, _Semnopithecus_ +and _Macacus_. + +_Carnivora._--These were abundant. Of _Felis_ there were four species, +ranging from the size of a cat to that of a jaguar, a large _hyæna_, and a +large weasel (_Mustela_). Besides these there were the huge _Machairodus_, +larger than any existing lion or tiger, and with enormously developed +canine teeth; _Hyænictis_ and _Lycæna_, extinct forms of Hyænidæ; +_Thalassictis_=_Ictitherium_, an extinct genus of Viverridæ but with +resemblances to the hyænas, represented by three species, some of which +were larger than any existing Viverridæ; _Promephytis_, an extinct form of +Mustelidæ, having resemblances to the European marten, to the otters, and +to the S. African _Zorilla_; and lastly, _Simocyon_, an extraordinary +carnivore of the size of a small panther, but having the canines of a cat, +the molars of a dog, and the jaws shaped like those of a bear. + +_Ungulata._--These are numerous and very _interesting_. The Equidæ are +represented by the three-toed _Hipparion_, which {116}continued to exist +till the Older Pliocene period. There are three large species of +_Rhinoceros_, as well as a species of the extinct genus _Leptodon_ of +smaller size. Remains of a very large wild boar (_Sus_) were found. Very +interesting is the occurrence of a species of giraffe (_Camelopardalis_) as +tall as the African species but more slender; and also an extinct genus +_Helladotherium_, not quite so tall as the giraffe but much more robust, +and showing some approach to the Antilopidæ in its dentition. Antelopes +were abundant, ranging from the size of the gazelle to that of the largest +living species. Three or four seem referable to living genera, but the +majority are of extinct types, and are classed in the genera _Palæotragus_, +_Palæoryx_, _Tragocerus_, and _Palæoreas_; while _Dremotherium_ is an +ancient generalized form of _Cervidæ_ or deer. + +_Proboscidea._--These are represented by two species of _Mastodon_, and two +of _Dinotherium_, an extraordinary extinct form supposed to be, to some +extent, intermediate between the elephants and the aquatic manatees +(_Sirenia_.) + +_Rodentia._--This order is represented by a species of _Hystrix_, larger +than living porcupines. + +_Edentata._--This order, now almost confined to South America, was +represented in the Miocene period by several European species. +_Ancylotherium_ and _Macrotherium_, belonging to an extinct family but +remotely allied to the African ant-bear (_Orycteropus_), occur in Greece. + +_Birds._--Species of _Phasianus_ and _Gallus_ were found; the latter +especially interesting as being now confined to India. + +_Reptiles._--These are few and unimportant, consisting of a tortoise +(_Testudo_) and a large lizard allied to _Varanus_. + + + +_Summary of the Miocene Fauna of Greece._--Although we cannot consider that +the preceding enumeration gives us by any means a complete view of the +actual inhabitants of this part of Europe during the later portion of the +Miocene period, we yet obtain some important information. The resemblance +that appeared in the Pliocene fauna of Europe, to that of the open country +of tropical Africa, is now still more remarkable. We {117}not only find +great felines, surpassing in size and destructive power the lions and +leopards of Africa, with hyænas of a size and in a variety not to be +equalled now, but also huge rhinoceroses and elephants, two forms of +giraffes, and a host of antelopes, which, from the sample here obtained, +were probably quite as numerous and varied as they now are in Africa. +Joined with this abundance of antelopes we have the absence of deer, which +probably indicates that the country was open and somewhat of a desert +character, since there were deer in other parts of Europe at this epoch. +The occurrence of but a single species of monkey is also favourable to this +view, since a well-wooded country would most likely have supplied many +forms of these animals. + + +_Miocene Fauna of Central and Western Europe._ + +We have now to consider the Miocene fauna of Europe generally, of which we +have very full information from numerous deposits of this age in France, +Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and Hungary. + +_Primates._--Three distinct forms of monkeys have been found in Europe--in +the South of France, in Switzerland, and Wurtemberg; one was very like +_Colobus_ or _Semnopithecus_; the others--_Pliopithecus_ and +_Dryopithecus_--were of higher type, and belonged to the anthropomorphous +apes, being nearest to the genus _Hylobates_ or gibbons. Both have occurred +in the South of France. The _Dryopithecus_ was a very large animal (equal +to the gorilla), and M. Lartet considers that in the character of its +dentition it approached nearer to man than any of the existing anthropoid +apes. + +_Insectivora._--These small animals are represented by numerous remains +belonging to four families and a dozen genera. Of _Erinaceus_ (hedgehog) +several species are found in the Upper Miocene; and in the Lower Miocene of +Auvergne two extinct genera of the same family--_Amphechinus_ and +_Tetracus_--have been discovered. Several species of _Talpa_ (mole) occur +in the Upper Miocene of France, while the extinct _Dinylus_ is from +Germany, and _Palæospalax_ from the Lower Miocene of the Isle of +{118}Wight. The Malayan family Tupaiidæ or squirrel-shrews, is believed to +be represented by _Oxygomphus_, a fossil discovered in South Germany +(Wiesenau) by H. von Meyer. The Soricidæ or shrews, are represented by +several extinct genera--_Plesiosorex_, _Mysarachne_ and _Galeospalax_; as +well as by _Amphisorex_ and _Myogale_ still living. _Echinogale_, a genus +of Centetidæ now confined to Madagascar, is said to occur in the Lower +Miocene of Auvergne, a most interesting determination, if correct, as it +would form a transition to the _Solenodon_ of the Antilles belonging to the +same family; but I am informed by Prof. Flower that the affinities of the +animals described under this name are very doubtful. + +_Carnivora._--Besides _Felis_ and _Machairodus_, which extend back to the +Upper Miocene, there are two other genera of Felidæ, _Pseudælurus_ in the +Upper Miocene of France, and _Hyænodon_, which occurs in the Upper and +Lower Miocene of France, named from some resemblance in its teeth to the +hyænas, and considered by some Palæontologists to form a distinct family, +Hyænodontidæ. The Viverridæ, or civets, were very numerous, consisting of +the living genus _Viverra_, and three extinct +forms--_Thalassictis_=_Ictitherium_, as large as a panther, and +_Soricictis_, a smaller form, occurring both in France and Hungary. Of +_Hyænidæ_, there was the living genus _Hyæna_, and the extinct _Hyænictis_, +which has occurred in Hungary as well as in Greece. The Canidæ, or wolf and +fox family, were represented by _Pseudocyon_, near to _Canis_; _Hemicyon_, +intermediate between dogs and gluttons; and _Amphicyon_, of which several +species occur in the Upper and Lower Miocene of France, some of them larger +than a tiger. The Mustelidæ, or weasels, were represented by five genera, +the existing genera _Lutra_ (otter) and _Mustela_ (weasel); +_Potamotherium_, an extinct form of otter; _Taxodon_, allied to the badger +and otter; _Palæomephitis_ in Germany, and the _Promephytis_ (already +noticed) in Greece. The bears were represented only by _Hyænarctos_, which +has been noticed as occurring in the Pliocene, and first appears in the +Upper Miocene of France. Seals are represented by a form resembling the +Antarctic _Otaria_, remains of which occur in the Upper Miocene of France. + +{119}_Cetacea_ (whales).--These occur frequently in the Miocene deposits, +four living, and five extinct genera having been described; but these +marine forms are not of much importance for our purpose. + +_Sirenia_ (sea-cows).--These are represented by two extinct genera, +_Halitherium_ and _Trachytherium_. Several species of the former have been +discovered, but the latter has occurred in France only, and its affinities +are doubtful. + +_Ungulata._--Horses are represented by _Hipparion_ and _Anchitherium_, the +latter occurring in both Upper and Lower Miocene and Eocene; while +_Hipparion_, which is more nearly allied to living horses, first appears in +the Upper Miocene and continues in the Pliocene. + +_Hippotherium_, in the Upper Miocene of the Vienna basin, forms a +transition to _Paloplotherium_, an Eocene genus of Tapiridæ or +Palæotheridæ. Tapirs, allied to living forms, occur in both Upper and Lower +Miocene. Rhinoceroses are still found in the Upper Miocene, and here first +appear the four-toed hornless rhinoceros, _Acerotherium_. The Suidæ (swine) +are rather numerous. _Sus_ (wild boar) continued as far back as the Upper +Miocene; but now there first appear a number of extinct forms which have +been named _Hyotherium_, _Palæochoerus_, _Choeromorus_, all of a small or +moderate size; _Hyopotamus_, nearly as large as a tapir; and +_Anthracotherium_, nearly the size of a hippopotamus and, according to Dr. +Leidy, the type of a distinct family. _Listriodon_, from the Upper Miocene +of the Vienna basin, is sometimes classed with the tapirs. + +We now come to a well-marked new family of Artiodactyle or even-toed +Ungulata, the _Anoplotheriidæ_, which consisted of more slender long-tailed +animals, allied to the swine but with indications of a transition towards +the camels. The only genera that appear in the Miocene formation are, +_Chalicotherium_, nearly as large as a rhinoceros, of which three species +have been found in Germany and France; and _Synaphodus_, known only from +its teeth, which differ somewhat from those of the _Anoplotherium_ which +appears earlier in the Eocene formation. Another extinct family, +_Amphimericidæ_ or _Xiphodontidæ_, is represented by two {120}genera, +_Cainotherium_ and _Microtherium_, in the Miocene of France. They were of +very small size, and are supposed to be intermediate between the Suidæ and +Tragulidæ. + +The Camelopardalidæ, or giraffes, were represented in Europe in Miocene +times by the gigantic _Helladotherium_, which has been found in the south +of France, and in Hungary, as well as in Greece. The chevrotains +(Tragulidæ) are represented by the extinct genus _Hyomoschus_. + +The Cervidæ do not seem to have appeared in Europe before the Upper Miocene +epoch, when they were represented by _Dorcatherium_ and _Amphimoschus_, +allied to _Moschus_, and also by true _Cervus_, as well as by small allied +forms, _Dremotherium_, _Amphitragalus_ (in the Lower Miocene), +_Micromeryx_, _Palæomeryx_, and _Dicrocerus_. + +The Bovidæ, or hollow-horned ruminants, were not well represented in +Central Europe in Miocene times. There were no sheep, goats, or oxen, and +only a few antelopes of the genus _Tragocerus_, and one allied to +_Hippotragus_; and these all lived in the Upper Miocene period, as did the +more numerous forms of Greece. + +_Proboscidea._--The true elephants do not extend back to the Miocene +period, but they are represented by the Mastodons, which had less complex +teeth. These first appear in the Upper Miocene of Europe, five species +being known from France, Germany, Switzerland, and Greece. _Dinotherium_, +already noticed as occurring in Greece, extended also to Germany and +France, where remains of three species have been found. + +_Rodentia._--A considerable number of generic forms of this order have been +obtained from the Miocene strata. The principal genera are _Cricetodon_, +allied to the hamsters, numerous in both the Upper and Lower Miocene period +of France; _Myoxus_ (the dormice) in France, and an allied genus, +_Brachymys_, in Germany. The beavers were represented by the still living +genus _Castor_, and the extinct _Steneofiber_ in France. The squirrels by +the existing _Scuirus_ and _Spermophilus_; and by extinct forms, _Lithomys_ +and _Aulacodon_, in Germany, the latter resembling the African genus +_Aulacodes_. The hares, by _Lagomys_ and an {121}extinct form _Titanomys_. +Besides these, remains referred to the South American genera, _Cavia_ +(cavy) and _Dasyprocta_ (agouti), have been found, the former in the Upper +Miocene of Switzerland, the latter in the Lower Miocene of Auvergne. +_Palæomys_, allied to the West Indian _Capromys_, has been found in the +same deposits; as well as _Theridomys_, said by Gervais to be allied to +_Anomalurus_ and _Echimys_, the former now living in W. Africa, the latter +in S. America. + +_Edentata._--These are only represented by the _Macrotherium_ and +_Ancylotherium_ of the Grecian deposits, the former occurring also in +France and Germany in Upper Miocene strata. + +_Marsupials_.--These consist of numerous species related to the opossums +(_Didelphys_), but separated by Gervais under the name _Peratherium_. They +occur in both Upper and Lower Miocene beds. + + +_Upper Miocene Deposits of the Siwalik Hills and other Localities in N. W. +India._ + +These remarkable fresh-water deposits form a range of hills at the foot of +the Himalayas, a little south of Simla. They were investigated for many +years by Sir P. Cautley and Dr. Falconer, and add greatly to our knowledge +of the early fauna of the Old World continent. + +_Primates_.--Remains of the genera _Semnopithecus_ and _Macacus_ were +found, with other forms of intermediate character; and some teeth indicated +animals allied to the orang-utan of Borneo, and of similar size. + +_Carnivora_.--These consisted of species of _Felis_ and _Machairodus_ of +large size; _Hyæna_, _Canis_, _Mellivora_, and an allied genus _Ursitaxus_; +_Ursus_, in the deposits of the Nerbudda valley (of Pliocene age); +_Hyænarctos_ as large as the cave bear; _Amphicyon_ of the size of a polar +bear (in the deposits of the Indus valley, west of Cashmere); _Lutra_, and +an extinct allied genus _Enhydrion_. + +_Ungulata_.--These are very numerous, and constitute the most important +feature of this ancient fauna. Horses are represented by a species of +_Equus_ from the Siwalik Hills and the Irawaddy {122}deposits in Burmah, +and by two others from the Pliocene of the Nerbudda Valley; while +_Hippotherium_--a slender, antelope-like animal, found in the Siwalik Hills +and in Europe--is supposed to form a transition from the Equidæ to the +Tapiridæ. These latter are found in the Upper Indus deposits, where there +is a species of _Tapirus_, and one of an extinct genus _Antelotherium_. Of +_Rhinoceros_, five extinct species have been found--in the Siwalik Hills, +in Perim Island, and one at an elevation of 16,000 feet in the deserts of +Thibet. _Hippopotamus_ occurs in the Pliocene of the Nerbudda, and is +represented in the older Miocene deposits by _Hexaprotodon_, of which three +species have been found in various parts of India. Another remarkable +genus, _Merycopotamus_, connects _Hippopotamus_ with _Anthracotherium_, one +of the extinct European forms allied to the swine. These last are +represented by several large species of _Sus_, and by the extinct European +genus _Choerotherium_. + +The extinct Anoplotheridæ are represented by a species of the European +genus _Chalicotherium_, larger than a horse. + +An extinct camel, larger than the living species, was found in the Siwalik +Hills. + +Three species of deer (_Cervus_) have been found in the Siwaliks, and one +in the Nerbudda deposits. + +A large and a small species of giraffe (_Camelopardalis_) were found in the +Siwalik Hills and at Perim Island. + +The Bovidæ are represented by numerous species of _Bos_, and by the extinct +genera _Hemibos_ and _Amphibos_. There are also three species of antelopes, +one of which is allied to the African _Alcephalus_. + +We now come to an extraordinary group of extinct animals, probably forming +a new family intermediate between the antelope and the giraffe. The +_Sivatherium_ was an enormous four-horned ruminant, larger than a +rhinoceros. It had a short trunk like a tapir, the lower horns on the +forehead were simple, the upper pair palmated. The _Bramatherium_, an +allied form from Perim Island, showed somewhat more affinity for the +giraffe. + +_Proboscidea._--No less than seven species of elephants and four {123}of +mastodons ranged over India, their remains being found in all the deposits +from the Siwalik Hills to Burmah. A large _Dinotherium_ has also been found +at Perim Island. + +_Reptiles._--Many remains of birds were found, but these have not been +determined. Reptiles were numerous and interesting, the most remarkable +being the huge tortoise, _Colossochelys_, whose shell was twelve feet long +and head and neck eight feet more. Other small tortoises of the genera +_Testudo_, _Emys_, _Trionyx_ and _Emydida_ were found, the Emys being a +living species. There were three extinct and one living species of +crocodile, and one of them was larger than any now living. The only other +reptile of importance was a large lizard of the genus _Varanus_. + + + +_General Observations on the Miocene faunas of Europe and Asia._--Comparing +the three faunas of approximately the same period, and allowing for the +necessarily imperfect record of each, we find a wonderful similarity of +general type over the enormous area between France on the west and the +Irawaddy river in Burmah on the east. We may even extend our comparison to +Northern China, where remains of _Hyæna_, _Tapir_, _Rhinoceros_, +_Chalicotherium_, and _Elephas_, have been recently found, closely +resembling those from the Miocene or Pliocene deposits of Europe or India, +and showing that the Palæarctic region had then the same great extent from +west to east that it has now. Of about forty genera comprised in the Indian +Miocene fauna, no less than twenty-seven inhabited Central and Western +Europe during the same epoch. The Indian Miocene fossils are much what we +should expect as the forerunners of the existing fauna, the giraffes and +hippopotami being the only additions from the present Ethiopian fauna. The +numerous forms of the restricted bovine type, show that these probably +originated in India; while the monkeys appear to be altogether of Oriental +types. + +In Europe, however, we meet with a totally different assemblage of animals +from those that form the existing fauna. We find apes and monkeys, many +large Felidæ, numerous civets {124}and hyænas, tapirs, rhinoceros, +hippopotamus, elephants, giraffes, and antelopes, such as now characterise +the tropics of Africa and Asia. Along with these we meet with less familiar +types, showing relations with the Centetidæ of Madagascar, the Tupaiidæ of +the Malay Islands, the _Capromys_, of the West Indies, and the _Echimys_ of +South America. And besides all these living types we have a host of extinct +forms,--ten or twelve genera allied to swine; nine genera of tapir-like +animals; four of horses; nine of wolves; with many distinct forms of the +long-extinct families of Anoplotheridæ, Xiphodontidæ, and the edentate +Macrotheridæ. It is almost certain that during the Miocene period Europe +was not only far richer than it is now in the higher forms of life, but not +improbably richer than any part of the globe now is, not excepting tropical +Africa and tropical Asia. + + +EOCENE PERIOD. + +The deposits of Eocene age are less numerous, and spread over a far more +limited area, than those of the Miocene period, and only restricted +portions of them furnish any remains of land animals. Our knowledge of the +Eocene mammalian fauna is therefore very imperfect and will not occupy us +long, as most of the new types it furnishes are of more interest to the +zoologist than to the student of distribution. Some of the Eocene mammalia +of Europe are, however, of interest in comparison with those of North +America of the same age; while others show that ancestral types of groups +now confined to Australia or to South America, then inhabited Europe. + + +_Primates._--The only undoubted Eocene examples of this order, are the +_Cænopithecus lemuroides_ from the Jura, which has points of resemblance to +the South American marmosets and howlers, and also to the Lemuridæ; and a +cranium recently discovered in the Department of Lot (S.W. France), +undoubtedly belonging to the Lemuridæ, and which most resembles that of the +West African "Potto" (_Perodicticus_). This discovery has led to another, +for it is now believed that remains formerly {125}referred to the +Anoplotheridæ (_Adapis_ and _Aphelotherium_ from the Upper Eocene of Paris) +were also Lemurs. Some remains from the Lower Eocene of Suffolk were at +first supposed to be allied to _Macacus_, but were subsequently referred to +the Ungulate, _Hyracotherium_. There is still, however, some doubt as to +its true affinities. + +_Chiroptera._--In the Upper Eocene of Paris remains of bats have been +found, so closely resembling living forms as to be referred to the genus +_Vespertilio_. + +_Carnivora._--The only feline remains, are those of _Hyænodon_ in the Upper +Eocene of Hampshire, and _Pterodon_, an allied form from beds of the same +age in France; with _Ælurogale_, found in the South of France in deposits +of phosphate of lime of uncertain age, but probably belonging to this +period. Viverridæ (civets) are represented by two genera, _Tylodon_, the +size of a glutton from the Upper Eocene, and _Palæonyctis_, allied to +_Viverra_, from the Middle Eocene of France. The Canidæ (wolves and foxes) +appear to have been the most ancient of the existing types of Carnivora, +five genera being represented by Eocene remains. Of these, _Galethylax_ and +_Cyotherium_ were small, and with the existing genus _Canis_ are found in +the Upper Eocene of France. _Arctocyon_, about the size of a wolf, is a +very ancient and generalised form of carnivore which can not be placed in +any existing family. It is found in the Lower Eocene of France, and is thus +the oldest known member of the Carnivora. + +_Ungulata._--These are more numerous. Equidæ (horses) are represented by +the Miocene _Anchitherium_ in the Lower, and by a more ancient form, +_Anchilophus_, in the Middle Eocene of France. Tapiridæ and Palæotheridæ +were very numerous. _Palæotherium_ and the allied genus _Paloplotherium_, +were abundant in France and England in Upper Eocene times. They somewhat +resembled the tapir, with affinities for the horse and rhinoceros. A new +genus, _Cadurcotherium_, allied to the rhinoceros and equally large, has +been found in the same deposits of phosphate of lime as the lemur and +_Ælurogale_. In the Middle Eocene of both England and France are found +_Lophiodon_ allied to the tapir, {126}but in some of the species reaching a +larger size; _Propalæotherium_ and _Pachynolophus_ of smaller size and +having affinities for the other genera named; and _Plagiolophus_, a small, +slender animal which Professor Huxley thinks may have been a direct +ancestor of the horse. In the Lower Eocene we meet with _Coryphodon_, much +larger than the tapir, and armed with large canine teeth; _Pliolophus_, a +generalised type, allied to the tapir and horse; and _Hyracotherium_, a +small animal from the Lower Eocene of England, remotely allied to the +tapir. + +Among the Artiodactyla, or even-toed ungulates, the swine are represented +by several extinct genera, of moderate or small size--_Acotherium_, +_Choeropotamus_, _Cebochoerus_ and _Dichobune_, all from the Upper and the +last also from the Middle Eocene of France; but _Eutelodon_, from the +phosphate of lime deposits is large. The _Dichobune_ was the most +generalised type, presenting the characters of many of the other genera +combined, and was believed by Dr. Falconer to approach the musk-deer. The +_Cainotherium_ of the Miocene also occurs here, and an allied genus +_Plesiomeryx_ from the same deposits as _Euteledon_. + +The Eocene Anoplotheridæ were numerous. The _Anoplotherium_ was a two-toed, +long-tailed Pachyderm, ranging from the size of a hog to that of an ass; +the allied _Eurytherium_ was four-toed; and there are one or two others of +doubtful affinity. All are from the Upper Eocene of France and England. + +_Rodentia._--Remains referred to the genera _Myoxus_ (dormouse) and +_Sciurus_ (squirrel) have been found in the Upper Eocene of France; as well +as _Plesiarctomys_, an extinct genus between the marmots and squirrels. The +Miocene _Theridomys_ is also found here. + +_Marsupials._--The _Didelphys_ (opossum) of Cuvier, now referred to an +extinct genus _Peratherium_, is found in the Upper Eocene of France and +England. + + + +_General Considerations on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Europe._--It is a +curious fact that no family, and hardly a genus, of European mammalia +occurs in the Pliocene deposits, without extending back also into those of +Miocene age. There are, {127}however, a few groups which, seem to be late +developments or recent importations into the Palæarctic region, as they +occur only in Post-Pliocene deposits. The most important of these are the +badger, glutton, elk, reindeer, chamois, goat, and sheep, which only occur +in caves and other deposits of Post-Pliocene age. Camels only occur in the +Post-Pliocene of Siberia (_Merycotherium_), although a true _Camelus_ of +large size appears to have inhabited some part of Central Asia in the Upper +Miocene period, being found in the Siwalik beds. The only exclusively +Pliocene genera in Europe are _Ursus_, _Equus_, _Hippopotamus_, _Bos_, +_Elephas_, _Arvicola_, _Trogontherium_, _Arctomys_, _Hystrix_ and _Lepus_; +but of these _Equus_, _Hippopotamus_, _Bos_, and _Elephas_ are found in the +Miocene deposits of India. Owing, no doubt, in part to the superior +productiveness of the various Miocene beds, large numbers of groups appear +to have their origin or earliest appearance here. Such are Insectivora, +Felidæ, Hyænidæ, Mustelidæ, _Ursus_, Equidæ, _Tapirus_, Rhinocerotidæ, +Hippopotamidæ, Anthracotheridæ (extinct), _Sus_, Camelopardidæ, Tragulidæ, +Cervidæ, Bovidæ, Elephantidæ, and Edentata. + +Groups which go back to the Eocene period, are, Primates allied to South +American monkeys, as well as some of the Lemuridæ; bats of the living genus +_Vespertilio_; Hyænodontidæ, an ancestral form of Carnivore; Viverridæ; +Canidæ (to the Upper Eocene), and the ancestral Arctocyonidæ to the Lower +Eocene; _Hyænarctos_, an ancestral type of bears and hyænas; Anchitheridæ, +ancestral horses, to the Middle Eocene; Palæotheridæ, comprising numerous +generalised forms, ancestors of the rhinoceros, horse, and tapir; Suidæ, +with numerous generalised forms, to the Middle Eocene; Anoplotheridæ and +Xiphodontidæ, ancestral families of even-toed Ungulates, connecting the +ruminants with the swine; and lastly, several groups of Rodents, and a +Marsupial, in the Upper Eocene. We thus find all the great types of +Mammalia well developed in the earliest portion of the tertiary period; and +the occurrence of Quadrumana, of the highly specialized bats +(_Vespertilio_), of various forms of Carnivora, and of Ungulates, clearly +differentiated into the odd and even-toed series, associated with such +lower forms as {128}Lemurs and Marsupials--proves, that we have here hardly +made an approach towards the epoch when the mammalian type itself began to +diverge into its various modifications. Some of the Carnivora and Ungulates +do, indeed, exhibit a less specialised structure than later forms; yet so +far back as the Upper Miocene the most specialised of all carnivora, the +great sabre-toothed _Machairodus_, makes its appearance. + +The Miocene is, for our special study, the most valuable and instructive of +the Tertiary periods, both on account of its superior richness, and because +we here meet with many types now confined to separate regions. Such facts +as the occurrence in Europe during this period of hippopotami, tapirs, +giraffes, Tragulidæ, Edentata, and Marsupials--will assist us in solving +many of the problems we shall meet with in reviewing the actual +distribution of living forms of those groups. Still more light will, +however, be thrown on the subject by the fossil forms of the American +continent, which we will now proceed to examine. + + + + +{129}CHAPTER VII. + +EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. + + +The discoveries of very rich deposits of mammalian remains in various parts +of the United States have thrown great light on the relations of the faunas +of very distant regions. North America now makes a near approach to Europe +in the number and variety of its extinct mammalia, and in no part of the +world have such perfect specimens been discovered. In what are called the +"Mauvaises terres" of Nebraska (the dried-up mud of an ancient lake), +thousands of entire crania and some almost entire skeletons of ancient +animals have been found, their teeth absolutely perfect, and altogether +more resembling the preparations of the anatomist, than time-worn fossils +such as we are accustomed to see in the museums of Europe. Other deposits +have been discovered in Oregon, California, Virginia, South Carolina, +Texas, and Utah, ranging over all the Tertiary epochs, from Post-Pliocene +to Eocene, and furnishing a remarkable picture of the numerous strange +mammalia which inhabited the ancient North American continent. + + +NORTH AMERICA--POST-PLIOCENE PERIOD. + +_Insectivora._--The only indications of this order yet discovered, consists +of a single tooth of some insectivorous animal found in Illinois, but which +cannot be referred to any known group. + +_Carnivora._--These are fairly represented. Two species of _Felis_ as large +as a lion; the equally large extinct _Trucifelis_, found only in Texas; +four species of _Canis_, some of them larger {130}than wolves; two species +of _Galera_, a genus now confined to the Neotropical region; two bears, and +an extinct genus, _Arctodus_; an extinct species of racoon (_Procyon_), and +an allied extinct genus, _Myxophagus_--show, that at a very recent period +North America was better supplied with Carnivora than it is now. Remains of +the walrus (_Trichechus_) have also been found as far south as Virginia. + +_Cetacea._--Three species of dolphins belonging to existing genera, have +been found in the Eastern States; and two species of _Manatus_, or sea-cow, +in Florida and South Carolina. + +_Ungulata._--Six extinct horses (_Equus_), and one _Hipparion_; the living +South American tapir, and a larger extinct species; a _Dicotyles_, or +peccary, and an allied genus, _Platygonus_; a species of the South American +llamas (_Auchenia_), and one of a kind of camel, _Procamelus_; two extinct +bisons; a sheep, and two musk-sheep (_Ovibos_); with three living and one +extinct deer (_Cervus_), show an important increase in its Herbivora. + +_Proboscidea._--Two elephants and two mastodons, added to this remarkable +assemblage of large vegetable-feeding quadrupeds. + +_Rodentia._--These consist mainly of genera and species still living in +North America; the only important exceptions being a species of the South +American capybara (_Hydrochoerus_) in South Carolina; and _Praotherium_, an +extinct form of hare, found in a bone cave in Pennsylvania. + +_Edentata._--Here we meet with a wonderful assemblage, of six species +belonging to four extinct genera, mostly of gigantic size. A species of +_Megatherium_, three of _Megalonyx_, and one of _Mylodon_--huge terrestrial +sloths as large as the rhinoceros or even as the largest elephants--ranged +over the Southern States to Pennsylvania, the latter (_Mylodon_) going as +far as the great lakes and Oregon. Another form, _Ereptodon_, has been +found in the Mississippi Valley. + +_Marsupialia._--The living American genus of opossums, _Didelphys_, has +been found in deposits of this age in South Carolina. + + + +_Remarks on the Post-Pliocene fauna of North America._--The assemblage of +animals proved, by these remains, to have {131}inhabited North America at a +comparatively recent epoch, is most remarkable. In Europe, we found a +striking change in the fauna at the same period; but that consisted almost +wholly in the presence of animals now inhabiting countries immediately to +the north or south. Here we have the appearance of two new assemblages of +animals, the one now confined to the Old World--horses, camels, and +elephants; the other exclusively of South American type--llamas, tapirs, +capybaras, _Galera_, and gigantic Edentata. The age of the various deposits +in which these remains are found is somewhat uncertain, and probably +extends over a considerable period of time, inclusive of the Glacial epoch, +and perhaps both anterior and subsequent to it. We have here, as in Europe, +the presence and apparent co-existence in the same area, of Arctic and +Southern forms--the walrus and the manatee--the musk-sheep and the gigantic +sloths. Unfortunately, as we shall see, the immediately preceding Pliocene +deposits of North America are rather poor in organic remains; yet it can +hardly be owing to the imperfection of the record of this period, that _not +one_ of the South American types above numerated occurs there, while a +considerable number of Old World forms are represented. Neither in the +preceding wonderfully rich Miocene or Eocene periods, does any _one_ of +these forms occur; or, with the exception of _Morotherium_, from Pliocene +deposits _west_ of the Rocky Mountains, any apparent ancestor of them! We +have here unmistakable evidence of an extensive immigration from South into +North America, not very long before the beginning of the Glacial epoch. It +was an immigration of types altogether new to the country, which spread +over all the southern and central portions of it, and established +themselves sufficiently to leave abundance of remains in the few detached +localities where they have been discovered. How such large yet defenceless +animals as tapirs and great terrestrial sloths, could have made their way +into a country abounding in large felines equal in size and destructiveness +to the lion and the tiger, with numerous wolves and bears of the largest +size, is a great mystery. But it is nevertheless certain that they did so; +and the fact that no such {132}migration had occurred for countless +preceding ages, proves that some great barrier to the entrance of +terrestrial mammalia which had previously existed, must for a time have +been removed. We must defer further discussion of this subject till we have +examined the relations of the existing faunas of North and South America. + + +TERTIARY PERIOD. + +When we get to remains of the Tertiary age, especially those of the Miocene +and Eocene epochs, we meet with so many interesting and connected types, +and such curious relations with living forms in Europe, that it will be +clearer to trace the history of each order and family throughout the +Tertiary period, instead of considering each of the subdivisions of that +period separately. + +It will be well however first to note the few American Post-Pliocene or +living genera that are found in the Pliocene beds. These consist of several +species of _Canis_, from the size of a fox to that of a large wolf; a +_Felis_ as large as a tiger; an Otter (_Lutra_); several species of +_Hipparion_; a peccary (_Dicotyles_); a deer (_Cervus_); several species of +_Procamelus_; a mastodon; an elephant; and a beaver (_Castor_). It thus +appears that out of nearly forty genera found in the Post-Pliocene +deposits, only ten are found in the preceding Pliocene period. About twelve +additional genera, however, appear there, as we shall see in going over the +various orders. + +_Primates._--Among the vast number of extinct mammalia discovered in the +Tertiary deposits of North America, no example of this order had been +recognized up to 1872, when the discovery of more perfect remains showed, +that a number of small animals of obscure affinities from the Lower Eocene +of Wyoming, were really allied to the lemurs and perhaps also to the +marmosets, the lowest form of American monkeys, but having a larger number +of teeth than either. A number of other remains of small animals from the +same formation, previously supposed to be allied to the Ungulata, are now +shown to {133}belong to the Primates; so that no less than twelve genera of +these animals are recognized by Mr. Marsh, who classes them in two +families--Limnotheridæ, comprising the genera _Limnotherium_, (which had +larger canine teeth), _Thinolestes_, _Telmatolestes_, _Mesacodon_, +_Bathrodon_, and _Antiacodon_ of Marsh, with _Notharctos_, _Hipposyus_, +_Microsyops_, and _Palæacodon_ previously described by Leidy;--and +Lemuravidæ, consisting of the genera _Lemuravus_ (Marsh) and _Hyopsodus_ +(Leidy). The animals of the latter family were most allied to existing +lemurs, but were a more generalized form, _Lemuravus_ having forty-four +teeth, the greatest number known in the order. These numerous forms ranged +from the size of a small squirrel to that of a racoon. It is especially +interesting to find these peculiar lemuroid forms in America, just when a +lemur has been discovered of about the same age in Europe; and as the +American forms are said to show an affinity with the South American +marmosets, while the European animal is most allied to a West African +group, we have evidently not yet got back far enough to find the primeval +or ancestral type from which all the Primates sprang. + +About the same time, in the succeeding Miocene formation, true monkeys were +discovered. Mr. Marsh describes _Laopithecus_ as an animal nearly the size +of the largest South American monkeys, and allied both to the Cebidæ and +the Eocene Limnotheridæ. Mr. Cope has described _Menotherium_ from the +Miocene of Colorado, as a lemuroid animal, the size of a cat, and perhaps +allied to _Limnotherium_. More Miocene remains will, no doubt, be +discovered, by which we shall be enabled to trace the origin of some of the +existing forms of South American monkeys; and perhaps help to decide the +question (now in dispute among anatomists) whether the lemurs are really +Primates, or form an altogether distinct and isolated order of mammalia. + +_Insectivora._--This order is represented by comparatively few forms in the +tertiary beds, and these are all very different from existing types. In the +Upper Miocene of Dakota are found remains indicating two extinct genera, +_Lepictis_ and _Ictops_. In the Miocene of Colorado, Professor Cope has +recently discovered four new genera, _Isacis_; allied to the preceding, but +as large as a {134}_Mephitis_ or skunk; _Herpetotherium_, near the moles; +_Embasis_, more allied to the shrews; and _Dommina_, of uncertain +affinities. Two others have been found in the Eocene of Wyoming; _Amomys_, +having some resemblance to hedgehogs and to the Eastern _Tupaia_; and +_Washakius_, of doubtful affinities. + +Far back in the Triassic coal of North Carolina has been found the jaw of a +small mammal (_Dromotherium_), the teeth of which somewhat resemble those +of the Australian _Myrmecobius_, and may belong either to the Insectivora +or Marsupials; if indeed, at that early period these orders were +differentiated. + +_Carnivora._--The most ancient forms of this order are some remains found +in the Middle Eocene of Wyoming, and others recently described by Professor +Cope (1875) from the Eocene of New Mexico, of perhaps earlier date. The +former consist of three genera, _Patriofelis_, _Uintacyon_, and +_Sinopa_,--animals of large size but which cannot be classed in any +existing family; and two others, _Mesonyx_ and _Synoplotherium_, believed +by Mr. Cope to be allied to _Hyænodon_. The latter consist of four +genera,-- _Oxyæna_, consisting of several species, some as large as a +jaguar, was allied to _Hyænodon_ and _Pterodon_; _Pachyæna_, allied to the +last; _Prototomus_, allied to _Amphicyon_ and the Viverridæ; and +_Limnocyon_, a civet-like carnivore with resemblances to the Canidæ. + +In the Miocene formations we find the Feline type well developed. The +wonderful _Machairodus_, which in Europe lived down to Post-Pliocene times, +is found in the Upper Miocene of Dakota; and perfect crania have been +discovered, showing that the chin was lengthened downwards to receive and +protect the enormous canines. _Dinyctis_ was allied both to _Machairodus_ +and to the weasels. Three new genera have been lately described by +Professor Cope from the Miocene of Colorado,--_Bunælurus_, with characters +of both cats and weasels; _Daptophilus_, allied to _Dinyctis_; and +_Hoplophoneus_, more allied to _Machairodus_. The Canidæ are represented by +_Amphicyon_, which occurs in deposits of the same age in Europe; and by +_Canis_, four species of which genus are recorded by Professor Cope from +the Miocene of Colorado, and it also occurs in the Pliocene. The _Hyænodon_ +is represented by three species in the Miocene of Dakota and Colorado. It +occurs {135}also in the European Miocene and Upper Eocene formations, and +constitutes a distinct family Hyænodontidæ, allied, according to Dr. Leidy, +to wolves, cats, hyænas and weasels. The Ursidæ are represented by only one +species of an extinct genus, _Leptarchus_, from the Pliocene of Nebraska. +From the Pliocene of Colorado, Prof. Cope has recently described +_Tomarctos_, as a "short-faced type of dog;" well as species of _Canis_ and +_Martes_. + +_Ungulata._--The animals belonging to this order being usually of large +size and accustomed to feed and travel in herds, are liable to wholesale +destruction by floods, bogs, precipices, drought or hunger. It is for these +reasons, probably, that their remains are almost always more numerous than +those of other orders of mammalia. In America they are especially abundant; +and the number of new and intermediate types about whose position there is +much difference of opinion among Palæontologists, renders it very difficult +to give a connected summary of them with any approach to systematic +accuracy. + +Beginning with the Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates, we find the +Equine animals remarkably numerous and interesting. The true horses of the +genus _Equus_, so abundant in the Post-Pliocene formations, are represented +in the Pliocene by several ancestral forms. The most nearly allied to +_Equus_ is _Pliohippus_, consisting of animals about the size of an ass, +with the lateral toes not externally developed, but with some differences +of dentition. Next come _Protohippus_ and _Hipparion_, in which the lateral +toes are developed but are small and functionless. Then we have the allied +genera, _Anchippus_, _Merychippus_, and _Hyohippus_, related to the +European _Hippotherium_, which were all still smaller animals, +_Protohippus_ being only 2½ feet high. In the older deposits we come to a +series of forms, still unmistakably equine, but with three or more toes +used for locomotion and with numerous differentiations in form, +proportions, and dentition. These constitute the family Anchitheridæ. In +the Miocene we have the genera _Anchitherium_ (found also in the European +Miocene), _Miohippus_ and _Mesohippus_, all with three toes on each foot, +and about the size of a sheep or large goat. In the Eocene of {136}Utah and +Wyoming, we get a step further back, several species having been discovered +about the size of a fox with four toes in front and three behind. These +form the genus _Orohippus_, and are the oldest ancestral horse known. Prof. +Marsh points out the remarkably perfect series of forms in America, which, +beginning with this minute ancient type, is gradually modified by gaining +increased size, increased speed by concentration of the limb-bones, +elongation of the head and neck, the canine teeth decreased in size, the +molars becoming longer and being coated with cement--till we at last come +to animals hardly distinguishable, specifically, from the living horse. + +Allied to these, are a series of forms showing a transition to the tapirs, +and to the _Palæotherium_ of the European Eocene. In the Pliocene we have +_Parahippus_; in the Miocene _Lophiodon_, found in the same formation and +in the Eocene of Europe, and allied to the tapir; and in the Eocene, +_Palæosyops_, as large as a rhinoceros, which had large canines and was +allied to the tapir and _Palæotherium_; _Limnohyus_, forming the type of a +family Limnohyidæ, which included the last genus and some others mentioned +further on; and _Hyrachyus_, allied to _Lophiodon_, and to _Hyracodon_ an +extinct form of rhinoceros. Besides these we have _Lophiotherium_ (also +from the Eocene of Europe); _Diplacodon_ allied to _Limnohyus_, but with +affinities to modern Perissodactyla and nearly as large as a rhinoceros; +and _Colonoceras_, also belonging to the Limnohyidæ, an animal which was +the size of a sheep, and had divergent protuberances or horns on its nose. +A remarkable genus, _Bathmodon_, lately described by Professor Cope, and of +which five species have been found in the Eocene of New Mexico and Wyoming, +is believed to form the type of a new family, having some affinity to +_Palæosyops_ and to the extinct Brontotheridæ. It had large canine tusks +but no horns. + +The Rhinocerotidæ are represented in America by the genus _Rhinoceros_ in +the Pliocene and Miocene, and by _Aceratherium_ and _Hyracodon_ in the +Miocene. Both the latter were hornless, and _Hyracodon_ was allied to the +Eocene _Hyrachyus_, one of the Lophiodontidæ. In the Eocene and Miocene +deposits of Utah, and Oregon, several remarkable extinct rhinoceroses have +been {137}recently discovered, forming the genus _Diceratherium_. These had +a pair of nasal horns placed side by side on the snout, not behind each +other as in existing two-horned rhinoceroses, the rest of their skeleton +resembling the hornless _Aceratherium_. They were of rather small size. + +Next to these extinct rhinoceroses come the Brontotheridæ, an extraordinary +family of large mammalia, some of which exceeded in bulk the largest living +rhinoceros. They had four toes to the front and three to the hind feet, +with a pair of large divergent horns on the front of the head, in both +sexes. Professor Marsh and Dr. Leidy have described four genera, +_Brontotherium_, _Titanotheium_, _Megacerops_, and _Anisacodon_, +distinguished by peculiarities of dentition. Though most nearly allied to +the rhinoceroses, they show some affinity for the gigantic Dinocerata of +the Eocene to be noticed further on. Professor Cope has since described +another genus, _Symborodon_, from the Miocene of Colorado, with no less +than seven species, one nearly the size of an elephant. He thinks they had +a short tapir-like proboscis. The species differ greatly in the form of the +cranium and development of the horn-bearing processes. + + + +We commence the Artiodactyla, or even-toed Ungulates, with the hog tribe. +These are represented by species of peccaries, (_Dicotyles_) from the +Pliocene of Nebraska and Oregon; and by an allied form _Thinohyus_, very +like _Dicotyles_, but having an additional premolar tooth and a much +smaller brain-cavity. From the Miocene are three allied genera, _Nanohyus_, +_Leptochoerus_, and _Perchoerus_. Professor Cope, however, thinks +_Leptochoerus_ may be Lemuroid, and allied to _Menotherium_. The +Anthracotheridæ, a family which connects the Hippopotamidæ and Ruminants, +and which occurs in the Miocene of Europe and India, are represented in +America by the genus _Hyopotamus_ from the Miocene of Dakota, and +_Elotherium_ from the Miocene of Oregon and the Eocene of Wyoming; the +latter genus being sometimes classed with the preceding family, and lately +placed by Professor Marsh, in the new order, Tillodontia. Professor Cope +has since described three other genera from the Eocene of New {138}Mexico: +_Meniscotherium_, having resemblances to _Palæosyops_, _Hyopotamus_, and +the Limnotheridæ; _Phenacodus_, the size of a hog, of doubtful position, +but perhaps near _Elotherium_; and _Achænodon_, as large as a cow, but more +hog-like than the preceding. Another new genus from the Miocene of +Colorado--_Pelonax_--is said by Professor Cope to come between _Elotherium_ +and _Hippopotamus_. + +The Camelidæ are very abundant, and form one of the most striking features +of the ancient fauna of America. _Procamelus_, _Homocamelus_, and +_Megalomeryx_, are extinct genera found in the Pliocene formation; the +first very closely allied to the Old World camel, the last smaller and more +sheep-like. In the Miocene two other genera occur, _Poebrotherium_ and +_Protomeryx_, the former allied to both the camel and the llama. + +Deer are represented by a single species of _Cervus_ in the Pliocene, while +two extinct genera, _Leptomeryx_ and _Merycodus_, are found in the Miocene +deposits, the latter indicating a transition between camels and deer. Two +other genera, _Hypisodus_ and _Hypertragulus_, of very small size, are said +by Professor Cope to be allied to the Tragulidæ and to _Leptomeryx_. + +The Bovidæ, or hollow-horned ruminants, are only represented in the Newer +Pliocene by a single species of an extinct genus, _Casoryx_, said to be +intermediate between antelopes and deer. + +We now come to an exclusively American family, the _Oreodontidæ_, which +consisted of small animals termed by Dr. Leidy, "ruminating hogs," and +which had some general structural resemblances to deer and camels. They +abounded in North America during the Pliocene, and especially during the +Miocene epoch, no less than six genera and twenty species having been +discovered. _Merychus_ contains the Pliocene forms; while _Oreodon_, +_Eporeodon_, _Merychochoerus_, _Leptauchenia_, and _Agriochoerus_ are +Miocene. The last genus extends back into the Eocene period, and shows +affinity to the European Anoplotheridæ of the same epoch. + +_Proboscidea._--The Elephantidæ are only represented in America by one +species of _Mastodon_ and one of _Elephas_, in the Newer Pliocene deposits. +In the Older Pliocene, Miocene, {139}and Upper Eocene, no remains of this +order have been found; and in 1869, Dr. Leidy remarked on the small average +size of the extinct North American mammalia, which were almost all smaller +than their living analogues. Since then, however, wonderful discoveries +have been made in deposits of Middle Eocene age in Wyoming and Colorado, of +a group of huge animals not only rivalling the elephants in size, but of so +remarkable and peculiar a structure as to require the formation of a new +order of mammals--Dinocerata--for their reception. + +This order consists of animals with generalised Ungulate and Proboscidean +affinities. The lower jaw resembles that of the hippopotamus; they had five +toes on the anterior feet and four on the posterior; three pairs of horns, +the first pair on the top of the head, large and perhaps palmated, the +second pair above the eyes, while the third and smallest stood out sideways +on the snout. They had enormous upper canines, of which the roots entered +the middle horn cores, no upper incisors, and small molars. Professor Marsh +believes that they had no trunk. The remains discovered indicate four +genera, _Dinoceras_ (3 sp.), _Tinoceras_ (2 sp.), _Uintatherium_ (1 sp.), +and _Eobasileus_ (2 sp.). Many other names have been given to fragments of +these animals, and even those here given may not be all distinct. + +Another new order, Tillodontia, recently established by Professor Marsh, is +perhaps yet more remarkable in a zoological point of view, since it +combines the characters of Carnivora, Ungulata, and Rodents. These animals +have been formed into two families, Tillotheridæ and Stylinodontidæ; and +three genera, _Tillotherium_, _Anchippodus_, and _Stylinodontia_. All are +from the Eocene of Wyoming and New Jersey. Perhaps to these must be added +_Elotherium_ from the Miocene of Dakota, the other forms being all Eocene. +They were mostly animals of small size, between that of the capybara and +tapir. The skull resembled in form that of a bear; the molar teeth were of +Ungulate type, and the incisors like those of a Rodent; but the skeleton +was more that of the Ursidæ, the feet being plantigrade. Professor Cope has +since described three new genera from the Eocene of New Mexico, +_Ectoganus_, _Calamodon_, and _Esthonyx_, comprising {140}seven species +allied to _Tillotherium_ and _Anchippodus_, and having also relations, as +Professor Cope believes, with the South American Toxodontidæ. + +_Rodentia._--This order is represented in the Pliocene by a beaver, a +porcupine, and an American mouse (_Hesperomys_), all extinct species of +living genera, the _Hystrix_ being an Old World type; and Professor Cope +has recently described _Panolax_, a new genus of hares from the Pliocene of +New Mexico. The Miocene deposits have furnished an extinct genus allied to +the hares--_Palæolagus_; one of the squirrel family--_Ischyromys_; a small +extinct form of beaver--_Palæocastor_; and an extinct mouse--_Eumys_. The +Eocene strata of Wyoming have lately furnished two extinct forms of +squirrel, _Paramys_ and _Sciuravus_; and another of the Muridæ (or mouse +family), _Mysops_. + +_Cetacea._--Numerous remains of dolphins and whales, belonging to no less +than twelve genera, mostly extinct, have been found in the Miocene deposits +of the Atlantic and Gulf States, from New Jersey to South Carolina and +Louisiana; while seven genera of the extinct family, Zeuglodontidæ, have +been found in Miocene and Eocene beds of the same districts. Some remains +associated with these are doubtfully referred to the Seal family (Phocidæ) +among the Carnivora. + +_Edentata._--Till quite recently no remains of this order have occurred in +any North American deposits below the Post-Pliocene; but in 1874 Prof. +Marsh described some remains allied to _Megalonyx_ and _Mylodon_, from the +Pliocene beds of California and Idaho, and forming a new genus, +_Morotherium_. As these remains have only occurred to the west of the Rocky +Mountains, and in Pliocene deposits whose exact age is not ascertained, +they hardly affect the remarkable absence of this group from the whole of +the exceedingly rich Tertiary deposits in all other parts of North America. + + + +_General Relations of the extinct Tertiary Mammalia of North America and +Europe._--Having now given a sketch of the extinct Mammalia which inhabited +Europe and North America during the Tertiary period, we are enabled by +comparing them, {141}to ascertain their relations to each other, and to see +how far they elucidate the problem of the birth-place and subsequent +migrations of the several families and genera. We have already pointed out +the remarkable features of the Quaternary (or Post-Pliocene) fauna of North +America, and now proceed to discuss that of the various Tertiary periods, +which is closely connected with the extinct fauna of Europe. + +The Tertiary Mammalia of North America at present described belong to from +eighty to one hundred genera, while those of Europe are nearly double that +number; yet only eighteen genera are common to the two faunas, and of these +eight are living and belong chiefly to the Pliocene period. Taking first, +the genera which in America do not go back beyond the Pliocene period (ten +in number), we find that eight of them in Europe go back to the Upper +Miocene. These are _Felis_, _Pseudælurus_, _Hipparion_, _Cervus_, +_Mastodon_, _Elephas_ (in India), _Castor_ and _Hystrix_; while another, +_Canis_, goes back to the Upper Eocene and the tenth, _Equus_, confined to +the newer Pliocene or perhaps to the Post-Pliocene in America, extends back +to the older Pliocene in Europe. Of the seven European genera which are +confined to the Miocene period in America, three, _Hyænodon_, +_Anchitherium_, and _Lophiodon_ go back to the Eocene in Europe; three +others, _Machairodus_, _Rhinoceros_, and _Aceratherium_, are also of +Miocene age in Europe; _Amphicyon_ goes back to the Lower Miocene of +Europe. _Lophiotherium_ belongs to the Eocene of both countries. + +If we turn now to families instead of genera, we find that the same general +rule prevails. Mustelidæ (weasels), Ursidæ (bears), true Equidæ (horses), +and Bovidæ (oxen &c.), go no further back in America than the Pliocene, +while they all go back to the Miocene in Europe. Suidæ (swine) and +Anoplotheridæ (extinct) are found in the American Miocene and in the +European Eocene. Anchitheridæ (extinct) reach the Upper Eocene in America, +while in Europe they range through Upper, Middle, and Lower Eocene. Cervidæ +(deer) alone are Miocene in both countries. There remain two families in +which America has the preeminence. Camelidæ (camels) were wonderfully +developed in {142}the American Pliocene and Miocene periods, abounding in +genera and species; whereas in Europe the group only exists in the +Post-Pliocene or Lower Pliocene, with one Upper Miocene species of +_Camelus_ in N. India. The Anthracotheridæ (extinct), found only in the +Upper Miocene of France and India, reach even the Lower Eocene in America. + +These facts may be due, in part, to a want of strict co-ordination between +the Tertiary deposits of Europe and North America,--in part to the +imperfection of the record in the latter country. Yet it does not seem +probable that they are altogether due South America and well marked +differences to imperfect knowledge; yet we find such important families as +the Civets, Hyænas, Giraffes, and Hippopotami absent from America, with the +Weasels, and Antelopes almost so; while America possesses almost all the +Camelidæ, two peculiar orders, Dinocerata and Tillodontia, and four +remarkably peculiar families, Limnotheridæ, Lemuravidæ, Oreodontidæ and +Brontotheridæ. If then the facts at present known represent approximately +the real time-relations of the groups in question on the two continents, +they render it probable that weasels, bears, true horses, swine, oxen, +sheep and antelopes, originated on the Old World continent, and were +transmitted to America during some part of the Miocene period; while camels +originated in the New World, and somewhere about the same time passed over +to Europe. Of the extinct families common to the two hemispheres, the +Anthracotheridæ alone seem to have had an American origin. Of the genera +common to the two countries, almost all seem to have had a European origin, +the only genera of equal date being the two rhinoceroses and three +Anchitheridæ; but if the Brontotheridæ are allied to the Rhinocerotidæ, +these latter may have originated in America, although now an exclusively +Old World type. These conclusions are not improbable when we consider the +much greater size of the Old World continents, extending far into the +tropics and probably {143}always more or less united to the tropical areas; +while the evidence of the extinct mammalia themselves shows, that South +America has been for the most part isolated from the northern continent, +and did not take part in the development of its characteristic Tertiary +fauna. + +Before speculating further on this subject, it will be well to lay before +our readers a summary of South American palæontology, after which we shall +be in a better position to draw correct inferences from the whole body of +the evidence. + + +SOUTH AMERICA. + +Unfortunately, our knowledge of the interesting fossil fauna of this +continent, is almost wholly confined to the Post-Pliocene and Pliocene +periods. A few remains have been discovered in deposits believed to be of +Eocene age, but nothing whatever representing the vast intervening period, +so rich in peculiar forms of animal life both in North America and Europe. + +_Fauna of the Brazilian caves._--What we know of the Post-Pliocene period +is chiefly due to the long-continued researches of Dr. Lund in the caves of +Central Brazil, mostly situated in a district near the head waters of the +San Francisco river in the Province of Minas Geraes. The caves are formed +in limestone rocks, and are so numerous that Dr. Lund visited thousands, +but only sixty contained bones in any quantity. These caves have a floor of +reddish earth, often crowded with bones. In one experiment, half a cubic +foot of this earth contained jaws of 400 opossums, 2,000 mice, besides +remains of bats, porcupines and small birds. In another trial, the whole of +the earth in a cavern was carried out for examination, amounting to 6,552 +firkins; and, from a calculation made by measured samples, it was estimated +to contain nearly seven millions of jaw-bones of cavies, opossums, +porcupines, and mice, besides small birds, lizards, and frogs. This immense +accumulation is believed to have been formed from the bodies of animals +brought into the cavern by owls; and, as these are unsocial birds, the +quantity found implies an {144}immense lapse of time, probably some +thousands of years. More than 100 species of Mammalia, in all, were +obtained in these caves. Some were living species or closely allied to +such; but the majority were extinct, and a considerable number, about +one-fourth, belonged to extinct genera, or genera not now inhabiting South +America. Stone implements and human remains were found in several of the +caves with extinct animals. The following enumeration of these remains is +from the corrected list of M. Gervais. + +_Primates._--Extinct species of _Cebus_, _Callithrix_, and _Jacchus_--South +American genera of monkeys; with an extinct genus, _Protopithecus_--an +animal of large size but belonging to the American family Cebidæ. + +_Chiroptera._--Species belonging to the South American Phyllostomidæ, and +to two South American genera of other families. + +_Carnivora._--Five species of _Felis_, some allied to living animals, +others extinct; a species of the widespread extinct genus _Machairodus_; +and a small species referred to _Cynælurus_, the genus containing the +hunting leopard now found only in Africa and India. Canidæ are represented +by _Canis_ and _Icticyon_ (a living Brazilian species of the latter genus), +and the extinct genus _Speothos_. Mustelidæ are represented by extinct +species of the South American genera _Mephitis_ and _Galictis_. Procyonidæ, +by a species of _Nasua_. Ursidæ, by _Arctotherium_, a genus closely +resembling, if not identical with, that containing the "spectacled bear" of +Chili. + +_Ungulata._--_Equus_, _Tapirus_, _Dicotyles_, _Auchenia_, _Cervus_, +_Leptotherium_, and _Antilope_, are the cave-genera of this order. _Equus_ +and _Antelope_ are particularly interesting, as representing groups forming +no part of existing South American zoology; while the presence also of +_Leptotherium_, an extinct genus of antelopes, shows that the group was +fairly represented in South America at this comparatively recent period. + +_Proboscidea._--A species of _Mastodon_, found also in the Pliocene of La +Plata, represents this order. + +_Rodentia._--These abound. _Dasyprocta_, _Cælogenys_, _Cavia_, _Kerodon_, +all living genera of Caviidæ, are represented by {145}extinct species. +_Cercolabes_, the 'tree porcupine' (Cercolabidæ) has two species, one as +large as a peccary; _Myopotamus_, _Loncheres_, _Carterodon_, are existing +genera of spiny rats (Echimyidæ); and there are two extinct genera of the +same family, _Lonchophorus_ and _Phyllomys_. _Lagostomus_ (Chinchillidæ), +the viscacha of the Pampas, is represented by an extinct species. There is +also an extinct species of _Lepus_; several species of _Hesperomys_ and +_Oxymycterus_; and a large _Arvicola_, a genus not living in South America. + +_Edentata._--These, which constitute the great feature of the existing +South American fauna, were still more abundant and varied in the Cave +period, and it is remarkable that most of them are extinct _genera_. The +armadillos are alone represented by living forms, _Dasypus_, and _Xenurus_; +_Eurydon_ and _Heterodon_, are extinct genera of the same family, as well +as _Chlamydotherium_--huge armadillos the size of a tapir or rhinoceros, +and _Pachytherium_, which was nearly as large. The ant-eaters are +represented only by _Glossotherium_, an extinct form allied to +_Myrmecophaga_ and _Manis_. The sloths were more numerous, being +represented by the extinct genera _Cælodon_, _Sphenodon_ and _Ochotherium_, +the last of large size. The huge terrestrial sloths--Megatheridæ, also +abounded; there being species of _Megatherium_ and _Megalonyx_, as well as +the allied _Scelidotherium_, supposed to have some affinity for the African +_Orycteropus_. + +_Marsupials._--No new forms of these appear, but numerous species of +_Didelphys_, all closely allied to opossums still living in South America. + + + +The preceding sketch of the wonderful cave fauna of Central Brazil, is +sufficient to show that it represents, in the main, a period of great +antiquity. Not only are almost the whole of the species extinct, but there +are twenty extinct genera, and three others not now inhabitants of South +America. The fact that so few remains of the living animals of the country +are found in these caves, indicates that some change of physical conditions +has occurred since they were the receptacles of so many of the larger +animals; and the presence of many extinct genera of {146}large size, +especially among the Edentata and American families of Rodents, are +additional proofs of a very high antiquity. Yet many of these cave animals +are closely allied to those which are found in North America in the +Post-Pliocene deposits only, so that we have no reason to suppose the +cave-fauna to be of much earlier date. But the great amount of organic +change it implies, must give us an enlarged idea of the vast periods of +time, as measured by years, which are included in this, the most recent of +all geological epochs. + + + +_Pliocene Period of Temperate South America._--We have now to consider the +numerous remains of extinct animals found in various deposits in the +Pampas, and in Patagonia, and a few in Bolivia. The age of these is +uncertain; but as they are very similar to the cave-fauna, though +containing a somewhat larger proportion of extinct genera and some very +remarkable new forms, they cannot be _very_ much older, and are perhaps +best referred at present to the newer portion of the Pliocene formation. + +_Carnivora._--The genus _Machairodus_ or sabre-toothed tigers, represents +the Felidæ. There are several species of wolves (_Canis_); a weasel +(_Mustela_); two bears of the Brazilian cave-genus _Arctotherium_; and the +extinct European genus _Hyænarctos_. + +_Ungulata._--There are two species of _Equus_, found in the Pampas, Chili, +and Bolivia; two of _Macrauchenia_, an extraordinary extinct group allied +to the tapir and _Palæotherium_, but with the long neck, and general size +of a camel. A second species found on the highlands of Bolivia is much +smaller. + +A more recent discovery, in Patagonia, is the almost perfect series of +teeth of a large animal named _Homalodontotherium_; and which is believed +by Professor Flower, who has described it, to have been allied to +_Rhinoceros_, and still more to the Miocene _Hyracodon_ from North America; +and also to present some resemblances to _Macrauchenia_, and though much +more remotely, to the curious genus _Nesodon_ mentioned further on. + +The Artiodactyla, or even-toed Ungulates, are represented by a species of +_Dicotyles_, or peccary, found in the deposits of the {147}Pampas; by +_Auchenia_, or llama, of which three extinct species inhabited Bolivia, in +which country two allied but extinct genera, _Palæolama_ and +_Camelotherium_, have also been found. Three species of deer (_Cervus_), +from the Pampas deposits, complete the list of Pliocene Ungulates. + +_Proboscidea._--The cave species of _Mastodon_ is found also in the Pampas +deposits, and another in the Andes of Chili and Bolivia. + +_Rodents._--These are not so numerous as in the caves. There are species of +the existing genera, _Kerodon_ and _Cavia_ (Caviidæ); _Lagostomus_ +(Chinchillidæ); _Ctenomys_ (Octodontidæ); _Lepus_ (hare); _Hesperomys_ and +_Oxymycterus_ (Muridæ); _Arvicola_, a genus not living in South America; +and an extinct genus, _Cardiodus_. There is also a remarkable extinct form, +_Typotherium_, larger than the capybara, and having affinities to Edentates +and Ungulates. Three species have been found in the Pampas deposits. + +_Edentata._--These are as abundant and remarkable as in the cave deposits. +_Scelidotherium_, _Megatherium_, _Megalonyx_, _Glossotherium_ and +_Dasypus_, have already been noticed as from the Brazilian caves. We have +here, in addition, the huge _Mylodon_ allied to the _Megatherium_, and the +allied genera--_Gnathopsis_ and _Lestodon_. We then come to the huge +extinct armadillos, _Glyptodon_ and _Schistopleurum_, the former consisting +of numerous species, some of which were as large as an elephant. Another +genus, _Eutatus_, is allied to the living three-banded armadillos; and a +species of the existing genus _Euphractus_ has been found in Bolivia. + +_Toxodontidæ._--There remain a number of huge animals rivalling the +Megatherium in size, and forming the genera _Toxodon_ and _Nesodon_, but +whose position is doubtful. Several species have been found in the deposits +of the Pampas and Patagonia. They are allied at once to Ungulates, Rodents, +Edentates, and the aquatic Sirenia, in so puzzling a manner that it is +impossible to determine to what order they belong, or whether they require +a new order to be formed for their reception. Some are believed to date +back to the Miocene period, and they indicate what strange forms may still +be discovered, should any {148}productive deposits be found in South +America of middle Tertiary age. + +_Pliocene Mammalia of the Antilles._--These may be noticed here, as they +are of special interest, proving the connection of the larger West Indian +Islands with the Continent some time in the later Tertiary period. They +consist of remains of two large animals belonging to the South American +Chinchillidæ, found in cave deposits in the island of Anguilla, and forming +two new genera, _Amblyrhiza_ and _Loxomylus_; and remain allied to +_Megalonyx_ from Cuba, which have been named _Megalocnus_ and _Myomorphus_. + + + +_Eocene fauna of South America._--The few remains yet discovered in the +Tertiary deposits of the Pampas which are believed to be of Eocene age, are +exceedingly interesting, because they show us another change in the scenery +of the great drama of life; there being apparently a considerable +resemblance, at this epoch, between South America and Europe. They consist +of a large extinct feline animal, _Eutemnodus_; of _Palæotherium_ and +_Anoplotherium_, the well-known extinct Ungulates of the European +Tertiaries, and which have never been found in North America; and of three +genera of Rodents,--_Theridromys_, allied to _Echimys_, and found also in +the Eocene and Miocene of France; _Megamys_, allied to the living +_Capromys_ of the Antilles, and also to _Palæomys_, an extinct form of the +French Miocene; and a very large animal referred to _Arvicola_, a genus +found also in the Pliocene deposits of South America, and abundant in the +northern hemisphere. No Edentates have been found. + +The resemblances of this fauna to that of Europe rather than to any part of +America, are so strong, that they can hardly be accidental. We greatly +want, however, more information on this point, as well as some +corresponding evidences as to the condition of West and South Africa about +the same epoch, before we can venture to speculate on their bearing as +regards the early migrations of organic forms. + + + +_General Remarks on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna of the Old {149}and New +Worlds._--Leaving the more special applications of palæontological evidence +to be made after discussing the relations of the existing fauna of the +several regions, we propose here to indicate briefly, some of the more +general deductions from the evidence which has now been laid before our +readers. + +The first, and perhaps the most startling fact brought out by our +systematic review, is the very recent and almost universal change that has +taken place in the character of the fauna, over all the areas we have been +considering; a change which seems to be altogether unprecedented in the +past history of the same countries as revealed by the geological record. In +Europe, in North America, and in South America, we have evidence that a +very similar change occurred about the same time. In all three we find, in +the most recent deposits--cave-earths, peat-bogs, and gravels--the remains +of a whole series of large animals, which have since become wholly extinct +or only survive in far-distant lands. In Europe, the great Irish elk, the +_Machairodus_ and cave-lion, the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and +elephant;--in North America, equally large felines, horses and tapirs +larger than any now living, a llama as large as a camel, great mastodons +and elephants, and abundance of huge megatheroid animals of almost equal +size;--in South America these same megatheroids in greater variety, +numerous huge armadillos, a mastodon, large horses and tapirs, large +porcupines, two forms of antelope, numerous bears and felines, including a +_Machairodus_, and a large monkey,--have all become extinct since the +deposition of the most recent of the fossil-bearing strata. This is +certainly not a great while ago, geologically; and it is _almost_ certain +that this great organic revolution, implying physical changes of such vast +proportions that they must have been due to causes of adequate intensity +and proportionate range, has taken place since man lived on the earth. This +is proved to have been the case in Europe, and is supported by much +evidence both as regards North and South America. + +It is clear that so complete and sudden a change in the higher forms of +life, does not represent the normal state of things. Species and genera +have not, at all times, become so rapidly extinct. The time occupied by the +"Recent period," that is the {150}time _since_ these changes took place is, +geologically, minute. The time of the whole of the Post-Pliocene period, as +measured by the amount of physical and _general_ organic change known to +have taken place, is exceedingly small when compared with the duration of +the Pliocene period, and still smaller, probably, as compared with the +Miocene. Yet during these two periods we meet with no such break in the +continuity of the forms of life, no such radical change in the _character_ +of the fauna (though the number of specific and generic changes may be as +great) as we find in passing from the Post-Pliocene to recent times. For +example, in Central Europe numerous hyænas, rhinoceroses, and antelopes, +with the great _Machairodus_, continued from Miocene all through Pliocene +into Post-Pliocene times; while hippopotami and elephants continued to live +through a good part of the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene periods,--and then +all suddenly became extinct or left the country. In North America there has +been more movement of the fauna in all the periods; but we have similar +great felines, horses, mastodons, and elephants, in the Pliocene and +Post-Pliocene periods, while _Rhinoceros_ is common to the Miocene and +Pliocene, and camels range continuously from Miocene, through Pliocene, to +Post-Pliocene times;--when all alike became extinct. Even in South America +the evidence is, as far as it goes, all the same way. We find +_Machairodus_, _Equus_, _Mastodon_, _Megatherium_, _Scelidotherium_, +_Megalonyx_, and numerous gigantic armadillos, alike in the caves and in +the stratified tertiary deposits of the Pampas;--yet all have since passed +away. + +It is clear, therefore, that we are now in an altogether exceptional period +of the earth's history. We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from +which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently +disappeared; and it is, no doubt, a much better world for us now they have +gone. Yet it is surely a marvellous fact, and one that has hardly been +sufficiently dwelt upon, this sudden dying out of so many large mammalia, +not in one place only but over half the land surface of the globe. We +cannot but believe that there must have been some physical cause for this +great change; and it must have been a cause capable of acting almost +simultaneously over large {151}portions of the earth's surface, and one +which, as far as the Tertiary period at least is concerned, was of an +exceptional character. Such a cause exists in the great and recent physical +change known as "the Glacial epoch." We have proof in both Europe and North +America, that just about the time these large animals were disappearing, +all the northern parts of these continents were wrapped in a mantle of ice; +and we have every reason to believe that the presence of this large +quantity of ice (known to have been thousands of feet if not some miles in +thickness) must have acted in various ways to have produced alterations of +level of the ocean as well as vast local floods, which would have combined +with the excessive cold to destroy animal life. There is great difference +of opinion among geologists and physicists as to the extent, nature, and +duration of the Glacial epoch. Some believe it to have prevailed +alternately in the northern and southern hemispheres; others that it was +simultaneous in both. Some think there was a succession of cold periods, +each lasting many thousands of years, but with intercalated warm periods of +equal duration; others deny that there is any evidence of such changes, and +maintain that the Glacial epoch was one continuous period of arctic +conditions in the temperate zones, with some fluctuations perhaps but with +no regular alternations of warm periods. Some believe in a huge ice-cap +covering the whole northern hemisphere from the pole to near 50° north +latitude in the eastern, and 40° in the western hemisphere; while others +impute the observed effects either to glaciers from local centres, or to +floating icebergs of vast size passing over the surface during a period of +submersion. + +Without venturing to decide which of these various theories will be +ultimately proved to be correct, we may state, that there is an increasing +belief among geologists in the long duration of this ice-period, and the +vast extent and great thickness attained by the ice-sheet. One of the most +recent, and not the least able, of the writers on this question (Mr. Belt) +shows strong reasons for adopting the view that the ice-period was +simultaneous in both hemispheres; and he calculates that the vast amount of +water abstracted from the ocean and locked up {152}in mountains of ice +around the two poles, would lower the general level of the ocean about +2,000 feet. This would be equivalent to a general elevation of the land to +the same amount, and would thus tend to intensify the cold; and this +elevation may enable us to understand the recent discoveries of signs of +glacial action at moderate elevations in Central America and Brazil, far +within the tropics. At the same time, the weight of ice piled up in the +north would cause the land surface to sink there, perhaps unequally, +according to the varying nature of the interior crust of the earth; and +since the weight has been removed land would rise again, still somewhat +irregularly; and thus the phenomena of raised beds of arctic shells in +temperate latitudes, are explained. + +Now, it is evident, that the phenomena we have been considering--of the +recent changes of the mammalian fauna in Europe, North America, South +Temperate America, and the highlands of Brazil--are such as might be +explained by the most extreme views as to the extent and vastness of the +ice-sheet, and especially as to its simultaneous occurrence in the northern +and southern hemispheres; and where two such completely independent sets of +facts are found to combine harmoniously, and supplement each other on a +particular hypothesis, the evidence in favour of that hypothesis is greatly +strengthened. An objection that will occur to zoologists, may here be +noticed. If the Glacial epoch extended over so much of the temperate and +even parts of the tropical zone, and led to the extinction of so many forms +of life even within the tropics, how is it that so much of the purely +tropical fauna of South America has maintained itself, and that there are +still such a vast number of forms, both of mammalia, birds, reptiles, and +insects, that seem organized for an exclusive existence in tropical +forests? Now Mr. Belt's theory, of the subsidence of the ocean to the +extent of about 2,000 feet, supplies an answer to this objection; for we +should thus have a tract of lowland of an average width of some hundreds of +miles, added to the whole east coast of Central and South America. This +tract would, no doubt, become covered with forests as it was slowly formed, +would enjoy a perfectly {153}tropical climate, and would thus afford an +ample area for the continued existence and development of the typical South +American fauna; even had glaciers descended in places so low as what is now +the level of the sea, which, however, there is no reason to believe they +ever did. It is probable too, that this low tract, which all round the Gulf +of Mexico would be of considerable width, offered that passage for +intermigration between North and South America, which led to the sudden +appearance in the former country in Post-Pliocene times, of the huge +Megatheroids from the latter; a migration which took place in opposite +directions as we shall presently show. + +_The birth-place and migrations of some mammalian families and genera._--We +have now to consider a few of those cases in which the evidence already at +our command, is sufficiently definite and complete, to enable us to +pronounce with some confidence as to the last movements of several +important groups of mammalia. + +_Primates._--The occurrence in North America of numerous forms of +Lemuroidea, forming two extinct families, which are believed by American +palæontologists to present generalized features of both Lemuridæ and +Hapalidæ, while in Europe only Lemurine forms allied to those of Africa +have occurred in deposits of the same age (Eocene), renders it possible +that the Primates may have originated in America, and sent one branch to +South America to form the Hapalidæ and Cebidæ, and another to the Old +World, giving rise to the lemurs and true apes. But the fact that apes of a +high degree of organization occur in the European Miocene, while in the +Eocene, a monkey believed to have relations to the Lemuroids and Cebidæ has +also been discovered, make it more probable that the ancestral forms of +this order originated in the Old World at a still earlier period. The +absence of any early tertiary remains from the tropical parts of the two +hemispheres, renders it impossible to arrive at any definite conclusions as +to the origin of groups which were, no doubt, always best developed in +tropical regions. + +_Carnivora._--This is a very ancient and wide-spread group, the families +and genera of which had an extensive range in very {154}early times. The +true bears (_Ursus_) are almost the only important genus that seems to have +recently migrated. In Europe it dates back to the Older Pliocene, while in +North America it is Post-Pliocene only. Bears, therefore, seem to have +passed into America from the Palæarctic region in the latter part of the +Pliocene period. They probably came in on the north-west, and passed down +the Andes into South America, where one isolated species still exists. + +_Ungulata._--Horses are very interesting. In Europe they date back under +various forms to the Miocene period, and true _Equus_ to the Older +Pliocene. In North America they are chiefly Pliocene, true _Equus_ being +Post-Pliocene, with perhaps one or two species Newer Pliocene; but numerous +ancestral forms date back to the Miocene and Eocene, giving a more perfect +"pedigree of the horse" than the European forms, and going back to a more +primitive type--_Orohippus_. In South America, _Equus_ is the only genus, +and is Post-Pliocene or at most Newer Pliocene. While, therefore, the +ancient progenitors of the Equidæ were common to North America and Europe, +in Miocene and even Eocene times, true horses appear to have arisen in the +Palæarctic region, to have passed into North America in the latter part of +the Pliocene period, and thence to have spread over all suitable districts +in South America. They were not, however, able to maintain themselves +permanently in their new territory, and all became extinct; while in their +birth-place, the Old World, they continue to exist under several varied +forms. + +True tapirs are an Old World group. They go back to the Lower Miocene in +Europe, while in both North and South America they are exclusively +Post-Pliocene. They occur in France down to the Newer Pliocene, and must, +about that time, have entered America. The land connection by which this +and so many other animals passed between the Old and New Worlds in late +Tertiary times, was almost certainly in the North Pacific, south of +Behring's Straits, where, as will be seen by our general map, there is a +large expanse of shallow water, which a moderate elevation would convert +into dry land, in a sufficiently temperate latitude. + +{155}The peccary (_Dicotyles_), now a characteristic South American genus, +is a recent immigrant from North America, where it appears to have been +developed from ancestral forms of swine dating back to the Miocene period. + +Antelopes are an Old World type, but a few of them appear to have entered +North, and reached South America in late Pliocene times. Camels, strange to +say, are a special North American type, since they abounded in that +continent under various ancient forms in the Miocene period. Towards the +end of that period they appear to have entered eastern Asia, and developed +into the Siberian _Merycotherium_ and the North Indian _Camelus_, while in +the Pliocene age the ancestral llamas entered South America. + +_Cervidæ_ are a wide-spread northern type in their generalized form, but +true deer (_Cervus_) are Palæarctic. They abounded in Europe in Miocene +times, but only appear in North and South America in the later Pliocene and +Post-Pliocene periods. + +True oxen (_Bovinæ_) seem to be an Oriental type (Miocene), while they +appear in Europe only late in the Pliocene period, and in America are +confined to the Post-Pliocene. + +Elephants (_Elephantidæ_) are an Old World type, abounding in the Miocene +period in Europe and India, and first appearing in America in Post-Pliocene +or later Pliocene times. Ancestral forms, doubtfully Proboscidean +(_Dinocerata_), existed in North America in the Eocene period, but these +became extinct without leaving any direct descendants, unless the +_Brontotheridæ_ and rhinoceroses may be so considered. + +Marsupials are almost certainly a recent introduction into South and North +America from Asia. They existed in Europe in Eocene and Miocene times, and +presumably over a considerable part of the Old World; but no trace of them +appears in North or South America before the Post-Pliocene period. + +_Edentata._--These offer a most curious and difficult problem. In South +America they abound, and were so much more numerous and varied in the +Post-Pliocene and Pliocene, that we may be sure they lived also in the +preceding Miocene period. A few living Edentates are scattered over Africa +and Asia, and {156}they flourished in Europe during the Miocene +age--animals as large (in some species) as a rhinoceros, and most allied to +living African forms. In North America no trace of Edentata has been found +earlier than the Post-Pliocene period, or perhaps the Newer Pliocene on the +west coast. Neither is there any trace of them in South America in the +Eocene formations; but this may well be owing to our very imperfect +knowledge of the forms of that epoch. Their absence from North America is, +however, probably real; and we have to account for their presence in the +Old World and in South America. Their antiquity is no doubt very great, and +the point of divergence of the Old World and South American groups, may +take us back to early Eocene, or even to Pre-Eocene times. The distribution +of land and sea may then have been very different from what it is now; and +to those who would create a continent to account for the migrations of a +beetle, nothing would seem more probable than that a South Atlantic +continent, then united parts of what are now Africa and South America. +There is, however, so much evidence for the general permanence of what are +now the great continents and deep oceans, that Professor Huxley's +supposition of a considerable extension of land round the borders of the +North Pacific Ocean in Mesozoic times, best indicates the probable area in +which the Edentate type originated, and thence spread over much of the Old +World and South America. But while in the latter country it flourished and +increased with little check, in the other great continents it was soon +overcome by the competition of higher forms, only leaving a few small-sized +representatives in Africa and Asia. + + + +{157}CHAPTER VIII. + +VARIOUS EXTINCT ANIMALS;--AND ON THE ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF INSECTS AND +LAND MOLLUSCA. + + +EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF AUSTRALIA. + +These have all been obtained from caves and late Tertiary or Post-Tertiary +deposits, and consist of a large number of extinct forms, some of gigantic +size, but all marsupials and allied to the existing fauna. There are +numerous forms of kangaroos, some larger than any living species; and among +these are two genera, _Protemnodon_ and _Sthenurus_, which Professor Garrod +has lately shown to have been allied, not to any Australian forms, but to +the _Dendrolagi_ or tree-kangaroos of New Guinea. We have also remains of +_Thylacinus_ and _Dasyurus_, which now only exist in Tasmania; and extinct +species of _Hypsiprymnus_ and _Phascolomys_, the latter as large as a +tapir. Among the more remarkable extinct genera are _Diprotodon_, a huge +thick-limbed animal allied to the kangaroos, but nearly as large as an +elephant; _Nototherium_, having characters of _Macropus_ and +_Phascolarctos_ combined, and as large as a rhinoceros; and _Thylacoleo_, a +phalanger-like marsupial nearly as large as a lion, and supposed by +Professor Owen to have been of carnivorous habits, though this opinion is +not held by other naturalists. + +Here then we find the same phenomena as in the other countries we have +already discussed,--the very recent disappearance of a large number of +peculiar forms, many of them far surpassing in size any that continue to +exist. It hardly seems probable that in this case their disappearance can +have been due to the direct effects of the Glacial epoch, since no very +extensive {158}glaciation could have occurred in a country like Australia; +but if the ocean sank 2,000 feet, the great eastern mountain range might +have given rise to local glaciers. It is, however, almost certain that +during late Tertiary times Australia must have been much more extensive +than it is now. This is necessary to allow of the development of its +peculiar and extensive fauna, especially as we see that that fauna +comprised animals rivalling in bulk those of the great continents. It is +further indicated by the relations with New Guinea, already alluded to, and +by the general character of the various faunas which compose the Australian +region, details of which will be found in the succeeding part of this work. +The lowering of the ocean during the Glacial period would be favourable to +the still further development of the fauna of such a country; and it is to +the unfavourable conditions produced by its subsequent rising--equivalent +to a depression of the land to the amount of two thousand feet--that we +must impute the extinction of so many remarkable groups of animals. It is +not improbable, that the disappearance of the ice and the consequent +(apparent) subsidence of the land, might have been rapid as compared with +the rate at which large animals can become modified to meet new conditions. +Extensive tracts of fertile land might have been submerged, and the +consequent crowding of large numbers of species and individuals on limited +areas would have led to a struggle for existence in which the less adapted +and less easily modifiable, not the physically weaker, would succumb. + +There is, however, another cause for the extinction of large rather than +small animals whenever an important change of conditions occurs, which has +been suggested to me by a correspondent,[4] but which has not, I believe, +been adduced by Mr. Darwin or by any other writer on the subject. It is +dependent on the fact, that large animals as compared with small ones are +almost invariably slow breeders, and as they also necessarily exist in much +smaller numbers in a given area, they offer far less materials for +favourable variations than do smaller animals. In such an extreme case as +that of the rabbit and elephant, the {159}young born each year in the world +are probably as some millions to one; and it is very easily conceivable +that in a thousand years the former might, under pressure of rapidly +changing conditions, become modified into a distinct species, while the +latter, not offering enough favourable variations to effect a suitable +adaptation, would become extinct. We must also remember the extreme +specialization of many of the large animals that have become extinct--a +specialization which would necessarily render modification in any new +direction difficult, since the inherited tendency of variation would +probably be to increase the specialization in the same directions which had +heretofore been beneficial. If to these two causes we add the difficulty of +obtaining sufficient food for such large animals, and perhaps the injurious +effects of changes of climate, we shall not find it difficult to understand +how such a vast physical revolution as the Glacial epoch, with its +attendant phenomena of elevations and subsidences, icy winds, and sudden +floods by the bursting of lake barriers, might have led to the total +extinction of a vast number of the most bulky forms of mammalia, while the +less bulky were able to survive, either by greater hardiness of +constitution or by becoming more or less modified. The result is apparent +in the comparatively small or moderate size of the species constituting the +temperate fauna, in all parts of the globe. + +It is much to be regretted that no mammalian remains of earlier date have +been found in Australia, as we should then see if it is really the case +that marsupials have always formed its highest type of mammalian life. At +present its fossil fauna is chiefly interesting to the zoologist, but +throws little light on the past relations of this isolated country with +other parts of the globe. + + +MAMMALIAN REMAINS IN THE SECONDARY FORMATIONS. + +In the oldest Tertiary beds of Europe and North America, we have (even with +our present imperfect record) a rich and varied mammalian fauna. As +compared with our living or recent highly specialized forms, it may be said +to consist of generalised types; but as compared with any primeval +mammalian type, it must be pronounced highly specialised. Not only are such +diversified {160}groups as Carnivora, Perrissodactyle and Artiodactyle +Ungulates, Primates, Chiroptera, Rodents, and Marsupials already well +marked, but in many of these there is a differentiation into numerous +families and genera of diverse character. It is impossible therefore to +doubt, that many peculiar forms of mammalia must have lived long anterior +to the Eocene period; but there is unfortunately a great gap in the record +between the Eocene and Cretaceous beds, and these latter being for the most +part marine continue the gap as regards mammals over an enormous lapse of +time. Yet far beyond both these chasms in the Upper Oolitic strata, remains +of small mammalia have been found; again, in the Stonesfield slate, a +member of the Lower Oolite, other forms appear. Then comes the marine Lias +formation with another huge gap; but beyond this again in the Upper Trias, +the oldest of the secondary formations, mammalian teeth have been +discovered in both England and Germany, and these are, as nearly as can be +ascertained, of the same age as the _Dromatherium_ already noticed, from +North America. They have been named _Microlestes_, and show some +resemblance to those of the West Australian _Myrmecobius_. In the Oolitic +strata numerous small jawbones have been found, which have served to +characterise eight genera, all of which are believed to have been +Marsupials, and in some of them a resemblance can be traced to some of the +smaller living Australian species. These, however, are mere indications of +the number of mammalia that must have lived in the secondary period, so +long thought to be exclusively "the age of reptiles;" and the fact that the +few yet found are at all comparable with such specialised forms as still +exist, must convince us, that we shall have to seek far beyond even the +earliest of these remains, for the first appearance of the mammalian type +of vertebrata. + + +EXTINCT BIRDS. + +Compared with those of mammalia, the remains of birds are exceedingly +scarce in Europe and America; and from the wandering habits of so many of +this class, they are of much less value {161}as indications of past changes +in physical geography. A large proportion of the remains belong to aquatic +or wading types, and as these have now often a world-wide range, the +occurrence of extinct forms can have little bearing on our present inquiry. +There are, however, a few interesting cases of extinct land-birds belonging +to groups now quite strangers to the country in which they are found; and +others scarcely less interesting, in which groups now peculiar to certain +areas are shown to have been preceded by allied species or genera of +gigantic size. + +_Palæarctic Region and N. India._--In the caves and other Post-Pliocene +deposits of these countries, the remains of birds almost all belong to +genera now inhabiting the same districts. Almost the only exceptions are, +the great auk and the capercailzie, already mentioned as being found in the +Danish mounds; the latter bird, with _Tetrao albus_, in Italian caverns; +and a species of pheasant (_Phasianus_) said to have occurred in the +Post-Pliocene of France, considerably west of the existing range of the +genus in a wild state. + +In the preceding Pliocene deposits, but few remains have been found, and +all of existing genera but one, a gallinaceous bird (_Gallus bravardi_) +allied to the domestic fowl and peacock. + +The Miocene beds of France and Central Europe have produced many more +remains of birds, but these, too, are mostly of existing European genera, +though there are some notable exceptions. Along with forms +undistinguishable from crows (_Corvus_), shrikes (_Lanius_), wagtails +(_Motacilla_), and woodpeckers (_Picus_), are found remains allied to the +Oriental edible-nest swift (_Collocalia_) and _Trogon_; a parrot resembling +the African genus _Psittacus_; an extinct form _Necrornis_, perhaps allied +to the plantain-eaters (_Musophaga_); _Homalophus_, doubtfully allied to +woodpeckers, and _Limnatornis_ to the hoopoes. The gallinaceous birds are +represented by three species of pheasants, some very close to the +domesticated species; _Palæoperdix_ allied to the partridges; and +_Palæortyx_, small birds allied to the American genus _Ortyx_, but with +larger wings. There are also species of _Pterocles_ allied to living birds, +and a small pigeon. There are numerous living genera of Accipitres; such as +eagle (_Aquila_), {162}kite (_Milvus_), eagle-owl (_Bubo_), and screech-owl +(_Strix_); with the African secretary-bird (_Serpentarius_), and some +extinct forms, as _Palæocercus_, _Palæohierix_ and _Palæetus_. + +Aquatic and wading birds were abundant, including numerous rails, bustards, +herons, sandpipers, gulls, divers, and pelicans. There were also many +ducks, some allied to the genus _Dendrocygna_; the Oriental genus of +storks, _Leptoptilus_; _Ibidipodia_, a remarkable form allied to _Ibis_ and +_Ciconia_; _Elornis_, near _Limosa_; _Pelagornis_, a large bird allied to +gannets and pelicans; _Hydrornis_, allied to the ducks and petrels; +_Dolichopterus_, allied to plovers. Perhaps the most interesting of these +extinct birds are, however, the flamingoes, represented by forms hardly +distinguishable from living species, and by one extinct genus _Palælodus_, +which had very long toes, and probably walked on aquatic plants like the +tropical jacanas. + +The Miocene beds of North India have furnished few birds; the only one of +geographical interest being an extinct species of ostrich, not very +different from that now inhabiting Arabia. + +On the whole, the birds of Europe at this period were very like those now +living, with the addition of a few tropical forms. These latter were, +however, perhaps more numerous and important than they appear to be, as +they belong to inland and forest-haunting types, which would not be so +frequently preserved as the marsh and lake-dwelling species. Taking this +into consideration, the assemblage of Miocene birds accords well with what +we know of the mammalian fauna. We have the same indications of a luxuriant +vegetation and subtropical climate, and the same appearance of Oriental and +especially of African types. _Trogon_ is perhaps the most interesting of +all the forms yet discovered, since it furnishes us with a central point +whence the living trogons of Asia, Africa, and South America might have +diverged. + +In the Eocene we find ourselves almost wholly among extinct forms of birds. +The earliest known Passerine bird is here met with, in _Protornis_, +somewhat similar to a lark, found in the Lower Eocene of Switzerland; while +another Passerine form, _Palægithalus_, and one allied to the nuthatch +(_Sitta_), have been {163}discovered in the Upper Eocene of Paris. Picariæ +of equal antiquity are found. _Cryptornis_, from the Paris Eocene, and +_Halcyornis_ from the Lower Eocene of the Isle of Sheppey, were both allied +to kingfishers; while a form allied to _Centropus_ a genus of cuckoos, or, +as Milne-Edwards thinks, to the Madagascar _Leptosomus_, has been found in +the Upper Eocene of France. Several _Accipitres_ of somewhat doubtful +affinities have been found in the same country; while _Lithornis_, from the +Lower Eocene of the Isle of Sheppey, was a small vulturine bird supposed to +be allied to the American group, _Cathartes_. Among the waders, some +extinct forms of plovers have been found, and a genus (_Agnopterus_), +allied to the flamingoes; while there are many swimming birds, such as +pelicans, divers, and several extinct types of doubtful affinities. Most +intersting of all is a portion of a cranium discovered in the Lower Eocene +of Sheppey, and lately pronounced by Professor Owen to belong to a large +Struthious bird, allied to the New Zealand _Dinornis_ and also perhaps to +the ostrich. Another gigantic bird is the _Gastornis_, from the Lower +Eocene of Paris, which was as large as an ostrich, but which is believed to +have been a generalised type, allied to wading and swimming birds as well +as to the Struthiones. + +Beyond this epoch we have no remains of birds in European strata till we +come to the wonderful _Archæopteryx_ from the Upper Oolite of Bavaria; a +bird of a totally new type, with a bony tail, longer than the body, each +vertebra of which carried a pair of diverging feathers. + +_North America._--A number of bird-remains have lately been found in the +rich Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits of the United States; but here, too, +comparatively few are terrestrial forms. No Passerine bird has yet been +found. The Picariæ are represented by _Uintornis_, an extinct form allied +to woodpeckers, from the Eocene of Wyoming. Species of turkey (_Meleagris_) +occur in the Post-Pliocene and as far back as the Miocene strata, showing +that this interesting type is a true denizen of temperate North America. +The other birds are, _Accipitres_; waders and aquatics of existing genera; +and a number of extinct forms of the two latter orders--such as, +_Aletornis_ an Eocene wader; {164}_Palæotringa_, allied to the sandpipers, +and _Telmatobius_ to the rails, both Cretaceous; with _Graculavus_, allied +to _Graculus_; _Laornis_ allied to the swans; _Hesperornis_ a gigantic +diver; and _Icthyornis_ a very low form, with biconcave vertebra, such as +are only found in fishes and some reptiles--also from Cretaceous deposits. + +_South America._--The caverns of Brazil produced thirty-four species of +birds, most of them referable to Brazilian genera, and many to still +existing species. The most interesting were two species of American ostrich +(_Rhea_), one larger than either of the living species; a large +turkey-buzzard (_Cathartes_); a new species of the very isolated South +American genus _Opisthocomus_; and a _Cariama_, or allied new genus. + +_Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands._--We have here only evidence of +birds that have become extinct in the historical period or very little +earlier. First we have a group of birds incapable of flight, allied to +pigeons, but forming a separate family, _Dididæ_; and which, so far as we +yet know, inhabited Mauritius, Rodriguez, and probably Bourbon. +_Aphanapteryx_, an extinct genus of rails, inhabited Mauritius; and another +genus, (_Erythromachus_), Rodriguez. A large parrot, said by Prof. Milne +Edwards to be allied to _Ara_ and _Microglossus_, also inhabited Mauritius; +and another allied to _Eclectus_, the island of Rodriguez. None of these +have been found in Madagascar; but a gigantic Struthious bird, _Æpyornis_, +forming a peculiar family distinct both from the ostriches of Africa and +the _Dinornis_ of New Zealand inhabited that island; and there is reason to +believe that this may have lived less than 200 years ago. + +_New Zealand._--A number of extinct Struthious birds, forming two families, +_Dinornithidæ_ and _Palapterygidæ_, have been found in New Zealand. Some +were of gigantic size. They seem allied both to the living _Apteryx_ of New +Zealand and the emu of Australia. They are quite recent, and some of them +have probably lived within the last few centuries. Remains of _Dinornis_ +have also been found in a Post-Pliocene deposit in Queensland, N. E. +Australia[5]--a very important discovery, as it {165}gives support to the +theory of a great eastward extension of Australia in Tertiary times. + + +EXTINCT TERTIARY REPTILES. + +These will not occupy us long, as no very great number are known, and most +of them belong to a few principal forms of comparatively little +geographical interest. + +Tortoises are perhaps the most abundant of the Tertiary reptiles. They are +numerous in the Eocene and Miocene formations both in Europe and North +America. The genera _Emys_ and _Trionyx_ abound in both countries, as well +as in the Miocene of India. Land tortoises occur in the Eocene of North +America and in the Miocene of Europe and India, where the huge +_Colossochelys_, twelve feet long, has been found. In the Pliocene deposits +of Switzerland the living American genus _Chelydra_ has been met with. +These facts, together with the occurrence of a living _species_ in the +Miocene of India, show that this order of reptiles is of great antiquity, +and that most of the genera once had a wider range than now. + +Crocodiles, allied to the three forms now characteristic of India, Africa, +and America, have been found in the Eocene of our own country, and several +species of _Crocodilus_ have occurred in beds of the same age in North +America. + +Lizards are very ancient, many small terrestrial forms occurring in all the +Tertiary deposits. A species of the genus _Chamæleo_ is recorded from the +Eocene of North America, together with several extinct genera. + +Snakes were well developed in the Eocene period, where remains of several +have been found which must have been from twelve to twenty feet long. An +extinct species of true viper has occurred in the Miocene of France, and +one of the Pythonidæ in the Miocene brown coal of Germany. + +Batrachia occur but sparingly in a fossil state in the Tertiary deposits. +The most remarkable is the large Salamander (_Andreas_) from the Upper +Miocene of Switzerland, which {166}is allied to the _Menopoma_ living in +North America. Species of frog (_Rana_), and _Palæophryus_ an extinct genus +of toads, have been found in the Miocene deposits of Germany and +Switzerland. + +Fresh water fish are almost unknown in the Tertiary deposits of Europe, +although most of the families and some genera of living marine fish are +represented from the Eocene downwards. + + +ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF INSECTS. + +Fossil insects are far too rarely found, to aid us in our determination of +difficult questions of geographical distribution; but in discussing these +questions it will be important to know, whether we are to look upon the +existing generic forms of insects as of great or small antiquity, compared +with the higher vertebrates; and to decide this question the materials at +our command are ample. + +The conditions requisite for the preservation of insects in a fossil state +are no doubt very local and peculiar; the result being, that it is only at +long intervals in the geological record that we meet with remains of +insects in a recognisable condition. None appear to have been found in the +Pliocene formation; but in the Upper Miocene of Oeninghen in Switzerland, +associated with the wonderfully rich fossil flora, are found immense +quantities of insects. Prof. Heer examined more than 5,000 specimens +belonging to over 800 species, and many have been found in other localities +in Switzerland; so that more than 1,300 species of Miocene insects have now +been determined. Most of the orders are represented, but the beetles +(Coleoptera) are far the most abundant. Almost all belong to existing +genera, and the majority of these genera now inhabit Europe, only three or +four being exclusively Indian, African, or American. + +In the Lower Miocene of Croatia there is another rich deposit of insects, +somewhat more tropical in character, comprising large white-ants and +dragon-flies differently marked from any {167}now inhabiting Europe. A +butterfly is also well preserved, with all the markings of the wings; and +it seems to be a _Junonia_, a tropical genus, though it may be a _Vanessa_, +which is European, but the fossil most resembles Indian species of +_Junonia_. + +The Eocene formations seem to have produced no insect remains; but they +occur again in the Upper Cretaceous at Aix-la-Chapelle, where two +butterflies have been found, _Cyllo sepulta_ and _Satyrites Reynesii_, both +belonging to the Satyridæ, and the former to a genus now spread over +Africa, India, and Australia. + +A little earlier, in the Wealden formation of our own country, numerous +insects have been found, principally dragon flies (_Libellula_, _Æshna_); +aquatic Hemiptera (_Velia Hydrometra_); crickets, cockroaches, and cicadas, +of familiar types. + +Further back in the Upper Oolite of Bavaria--which produced the wonderful +long-tailed bird, _Archæopteryx_--insects of all orders have been found, +including a moth referred to the existing genus _Sphinx_. + +In the Lower Oolite of Oxfordshire many fossil beetles have been found +whose affinities are shown by their names:--_Buprestidium_, +_Curculionidium_, _Blapsidium_, _Melolonthidium_, and _Prionidium_; a wing +of a butterfly has also been found, allied to the Brassolidæ now confined +to tropical America, and named _Palæontina oolitica_. + +Still more remote are the insects of the Lias of Gloucestershire, yet they +too can be referred to well-known family types--Carabidæ, Melolonthidæ, +Telephoridæ, Elateridæ, and Curculionidæ, among beetles; Gryllidæ and +Blattidæ among Orthoptera; with _Libellula_, _Agrion_, _Æshna_, _Ephemera_, +and some extinct genera. When we consider that almost the only vertebrata +of this period were huge Saurian reptiles like the _Icthyosaurus_, +_Plesiosaurus_, and _Dinosaurus_, with the flying Pterodactyles; and that +the great mass of our existing genera, and even families, of fish and +reptiles had almost certainly not come into existence, we see at once that +types of insect-form are, proportionately, far more ancient. At this remote +epoch we find the chief family types (the _genera_ of the time of Linnæus) +perfectly differentiated {168}and recognisable. It is only when we go +further back still, into the Palæozoic formations, that the insect forms +begin to show that generalization of type which renders it impossible to +classify them in any existing groups. Yet even in the coal formation of +Nova Scotia and Durham, the fossil insects are said by competent +entomologists to be "allied to _Ephemera_," "near _Blatta_," "near +_Phasmidæ_;" and in deposits of the same age at Saarbrück near Trèves, a +well-preserved wing of a grasshopper or locust has been found, as well as a +beetle referred to the Scarabeidæ. More remarkable, however, is the recent +discovery in the carboniferous shales of Belgium, of the clearly-defined +wing of a large moth (_Breyeria borinensis_), closely resembling some of +the Saturniidæ; so that we have now all the chief orders of +Insects--including those supposed to be the most highly developed and the +most recent--well represented at this very remote epoch. Even the oldest +insects, from the Devonian rocks of North America, can mostly be classed as +Neuroptera or Myriapoda, but appear to form new families. + +We may consider it, therefore, as proved, that many of the larger and more +important genera of insects date back to the beginning of the Tertiary +period, or perhaps beyond it; but the family types are far older, and must +have been differentiated very early in the Secondary period, while some of +them perhaps go back to Palæozoic times. The great comparative antiquity of +the _genera_ is however the important fact for us, and we shall have +occasion often to refer to it, in endeavouring to ascertain the true +bearing of the facts of insect distribution, as elucidating or invalidating +the conclusions arrived at from a study of the distribution of the higher +animals. + + +ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS. + +The remains of land and fresh-water shells are not much more frequent than +those of insects. Like them, too, their forms are very stable, continuing +unchanged through several geological {169}periods. In the Pliocene and +Miocene formations, most of the shells are very similar to living species, +and some are quite identical. In the Eocene we meet with ordinary forms of +the genera _Helix_, _Clausilia_, _Pupa_, _Bulimus_, _Glandina_, +_Cyclostoma_, _Megalostoma_, _Planorbis_, _Paludina_ and _Limnæa_, some +resembling European species, others more like tropical forms. A British +Eocene species of _Helix_ is still living in Texas; and in the South of +France are found species of the Brazilian sub-genera _Megaspira_ and +_Anastoma_. In the secondary formation no true land shells have been found, +but fresh water shells are tolerably abundant, and almost all are still of +living forms. In the Wealden (Lower Cretaceous) and Purbeck (Upper Oolite) +are found _Unio_, _Melania_, _Paludina_, _Planorbis_, and _Limnæa_; while +the last named genus occurs even in the Lias. + +The notion that land shells were really not in existence during the +secondary period is, however, proved to be erroneous by the startling +discovery, in the Palæozoic coal measures of Nova Scotia, of two species of +Helicidæ, both of living genera--_Pupa vetusta_, and _Zonites priscus_. +They have been found in the hollow trunk of a _Sigillaria_, and in great +quantities in a bed full of Stigmarian rootlets. The most minute +examination detects no important differences of form or of microscopic +structure, between these shells and living species of the same genera! +These mollusca were the contemporaries of Labyrinthodonts and strange +Ganoid fishes, which formed almost the whole vertebrate fauna. This +unexpected discovery renders it almost certain, that numbers of other +existing genera, of which we have found no traces, lived with these two +through the whole secondary period; and we are thus obliged to assume as a +probability, that any particular genus has lived through a long succession +of geological ages. In estimating the importance of any peculiarities or +anomalies in the geographical distribution of land shells as compared with +the higher vertebrates, we shall, therefore, have to keep this possible, +and even probable high antiquity, constantly in mind. + + + +We have now concluded our sketch of Tertiary Palæontology as a preparation +for the intelligent study of the Geographical {170}Distribution of Land +Animals; and however imperfectly the task has been performed, the reader +will at all events have been convinced that some such preliminary +investigation is an essential and most important part of our work. So much +of palæontology is at present tentative and conjectural, that in combining +the information derived from numerous writers, many errors of detail must +have been made. The main conclusions have, however, been drawn from as +large a basis of facts as possible; and although fresh discoveries may show +that our views as to the past history of some of the less important genera +or families are erroneous, they can hardly invalidate our results to any +important degree, either as regards the intercommunications between +separate regions in the various geological epochs, or as to the centres +from which some of the more important groups have been dispersed. + + + +PART III. + +_ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY:_ + +_A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND +SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS._ + +{173}CHAPTER IX. + +THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF THE REGIONS.--COSMOPOLITAN GROUPS OF +ANIMALS.--TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. + + +Having discussed, in our First Part, such general and preliminary matters +as are necessary to a proper comprehension of our subject; and having made +ourselves acquainted, in our Second Part, with the most important results +of Palæontology, we now come to our more immediate subject, which we +propose to treat first under its geographical aspect. Taking each of our +six regions in succession, we shall point out in some detail the chief +zoological features they present, as influenced by climate, vegetation, and +other physical features. We shall then treat each of the sub-regions by +itself, as well as such of the islands or other sub-divisions as present +features of special interest; endeavouring to ascertain their true +relations to each other, and the more important changes of physical +geography that seem necessary to account for their present zoological +condition. + + + +_Order of Succession of the Regions._--We may here explain the reason for +taking the several regions in a different succession from that in which +they appear in the tabular or diagrammatic headings to each family, in the +Fourth, and concluding part of this work. It will have been seen, by our +examination of extinct animals (and it will be made still clearer during +our study of the several regions) that all the chief types of animal life +appear to have originated in the great north temperate or northern +continents; while the southern continents--now represented by {174}South +America, Australia, and South Africa with Madagascar--have been more or +less completely isolated, during long periods, both from the northern +continent and from each other. These latter countries have, however, been +subject to more or less immigration from the north during rare epochs of +approximation to, or partial union with it. In the northern, more +extensive, and probably more ancient land, the process of development has +been more rapid, and has resulted in more varied and higher types; while +the southern lands, for the most part, seem to have produced numerous +diverging modifications of the lower grades of organization, the original +types of which they derived either from the north, or from some of the +ancient continents in Mesozoic or Palæozoic times. Hence those curious +resemblances in the fauna of South America, Australia, and, to a less +extent, Madagascar, which have led to a somewhat general belief that these +distant countries must at one time or other have been united; a belief +which, after a careful examination of all the facts, does not seem to the +author of this work to be well founded. On the other hand, there is the +most satisfactory evidence that each southern region has been more or less +closely united (during the tertiary or later secondary epoch) with the +great northern continents, leading to numerous resemblances and affinities +in their productions. + +In endeavouring to present at a glance in the most convenient manner, the +distribution of the families in the several regions and sub-regions, it was +necessary to arrange them, so that those whose relations to each other were +closest should stand side by side; the first and last being those between +which the relations were least numerous and least important. Influenced by +the usual opinions as to the relations between Australia and South America, +the series was at first begun with the Nearctic, and terminated with the +Australian and Neotropical regions; and it was not till the whole of the +vertebrate families had been gone through, and their distribution carefully +studied, that these last two regions were seen to be really wider apart +than any others of the series. It was therefore decided to alter the +arrangement, beginning with the Neotropical, and ending with the Australian +{175}regions; and a careful inspection of the diagrams themselves, taken in +their entirety, will, it is believed, show that this is the most natural +plan, and most truly exhibits the relations of the several regions. + +In the portion of our work now commencing, we are not, however, by any +means bound to begin at either end of this series. Each region is studied +by itself, but reference will often have to be made to all the other +regions; and wherever we begin, we must occasionally refer to facts which +will be given further on. As, however, the great northern continents form +the central mass from which the southern regions, as it were, diverge, and +as the Palæarctic region is both more extensive and much better known than +any other, it undoubtedly forms the most convenient starting-point for our +proposed survey of the zoological history of the earth. We thus pass from +the better known to the less known--from Europe to Africa and tropical +Asia, and thence to Australia, completing the series of regions of the +Eastern Hemisphere. Beginning again with the Neotropical region, we pass to +the Nearctic, which has such striking relations with the preceding and with +the Palæarctic region, that it can only be properly understood by constant +reference to both. We thus keep separate the Eastern and Western +hemispheres, which form, from our point of view, the most radical and most +suggestive division of terrestrial faunas; and as we are able to make this +also the dividing point of our two volumes, reference to the work will be +thereby facilitated. + + + +_Cosmopolitan Groups._--Before proceeding to sketch the zoological features +of the several Regions it will be well to notice those family groups which +belong to the earth as a whole, and which are so widely and universally +distributed over it that it will be unnecessary, in some cases, to do more +than refer to them under the separate geographical divisions. + +The only absolutely cosmopolitan families of Mammalia are those which are +aerial or marine; and this is one of the striking proofs that their +distribution has been effected by natural causes, and that the permanence +of barriers is one of the chief {176}agencies in the limitation of their +range. Even among the aerial bats, however, only one family--the +Vespertilionidæ--is truly cosmopolitan, the others having a more or less +restricted range. Neither are the Cetacea necessarily cosmopolitan, most of +the families being restricted either to warm or to cold seas; but one +family, the dolphins (Delphinidæ), is truly so. This order however will not +require further notice, as, being exclusively marine the groups do not +enter into any of our terrestrial regions. The only other family of mammals +that may be considered to be cosmopolitan, is the Muridæ (rats and mice); +yet these are not entirely so, since none are known to be truly indigenous +in any part of the Australian region except Australia itself. + +In the class of Birds, a number of families are cosmopolites, if we reckon +as such all which are found in each region and sub-region; but several of +these are so abundant in some parts, while they are so sparingly +represented in others, that they cannot fairly be considered so. We shall +confine that term therefore, to such as, there is reason to believe, +inhabit every important sub-division of each region. Such are, among the +Passerine birds the crows (Corvidæ), and swallows (Hirundinidæ); among the +Picariæ the kingfishers (Alcedinidæ); among other Land birds the pigeons +(Columbidæ), grouse and partridges (Tetraonidæ), hawks (Falconidæ), and +owls (Strigidæ); among the Waders the rails (Rallidæ), snipes +(Scolopacidæ), plovers (Charadriadæ), and herons (Ardeidæ); and among the +Swimmers the ducks (Anatidæ), gulls (Laridæ), petrels (Procellariidæ), +pelicans (Pelecanidæ), and grebes (Podicipidæ). + +In the class of Reptiles there are few absolutely cosmopolitan families, +owing to the scarcity of members of this group in some insular sub-regions, +such as New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Those which are most nearly so +are the Colubridæ among snakes, and the Scincidæ among lizards. + +There is no cosmopolitan family of Amphibia, the true frogs (Ranidæ) being +the most widely distributed. + +Neither is any family of Freshwater Fishes cosmopolitan, the Siluridæ, +which have the widest range, being confined {177}to warm regions, and +becoming very scarce in the temperate zones. + +Among the Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera (butterflies and sphinges) +the following families are cosmopolitan:--Satyridæ, Nymphalidæ, Lycænidæ, +Pieridæ, Papilionidæ, Hesperidæ, Zygænidæ, and Sphingidæ. + +Of the Coleoptera almost all, except some of the small and obscure +families, are cosmopolitan. + +Of the terrestrial Mollusca, the Helicidæ alone are true cosmopolites. + + + +_Tables of Distribution of Families and Genera._--Having been obliged to +construct numerous tables of the distribution of the various groups for the +purposes of the descriptive part of the work, I have thought it well to +append the most important of them, in a convenient form, to the chapter on +each region; as much information will thereby be given, which can only be +obtained from existing works at the cost of great labour. All these tables +are drawn up on a uniform plan, the same generic and family names being +used in each; and all are arranged in the same systematic order, so as to +be readily comparable with each other. This, although it seems a simple and +natural thing to do, has involved a very great amount of labour, because +hardly two authors use the same names or follow the same arrangement. Hence +comparison between them is impossible, till all their work has been picked +to pieces, their synonymy unravelled, their differences accounted for, and +the materials recast; and this has to be done, not for two or three authors +only, but for the majority of those whose works have been consulted on the +zoology of any part of the globe. + +Except in the two higher orders--Mammalia and Birds--materials do not exist +for complete tables of the genera brought down to the present time. We have +given therefore, first, a complete table of all the families of Vertebrata +and Diurnal Lepidoptera found in each region, showing the sub-regions in +which they occur, and their range beyond the limits of the region. Families +which are wholly peculiar to the region, or {178}very characteristic and +almost exclusively confined to it, are in _italics_. The number prefixed to +each family corresponds to that of the series of families in the Fourth +Part of this work, so that if further information is required it can be +readily referred to without consulting the index. Names inclosed in +parentheses--( . . . ) thus--indicate families which only just enter a +region from an adjacent one, to which they properly belong. The eye is thus +directed to the more, and the less important families; and a considerable +amount of information as to the general features of the zoology of the +region, is conveyed in the easiest manner. + +The tables of genera of Mammalia and Birds, are arranged on a somewhat +different plan. Each genus is given under its Family and Order, and they +follow in the same succession in all the tables. The number of species of +each genus, inhabiting the region, is given as nearly as can be +ascertained; but in many cases this can only be a general approximation. +The distribution of the genera within the region, is then given with some +detail; and, lastly, the range of the genus beyond the region is given in +general terms, the words "Oriental," "Ethiopian," &c., being used for +brevity, to indicate that the genus occurs over a considerable part of such +regions. Genera which are restricted to the region (or which are very +characteristic of it though just transgressing its limits) are given in +_italics_; while those which only just enter the region from another to +which they really belong, are enclosed in parentheses--( . . . ) thus. The +genera are here numbered consecutively, in order that the number of genera +in each family or each order, in the region, may be readily ascertained (by +one process of subtraction), and thus comparisons made with other regions +or with any other area. As the tables of birds would be swelled to an +inconvenient length by the insertion in each region of all the genera of +Waders and Aquatics, most of which have a very wide range and would have to +be repeated in several or all the regions, these have been omitted; but a +list has been given of such of the genera as are peculiar to, or highly +characteristic of each region. + +As this is the first time that any such extensive tables of +{179}distribution have been constructed for the whole of the Mammalia and +Birds, they must necessarily contain many errors of detail; but with all +their imperfections it is believed they will prove very useful to +naturalists, to teachers, and to all who take an intelligent interest in +the wider problems of geography and natural history. + + + + +{180}CHAPTER X. + +THE PALÆARCTIC REGION. + + +This region is of immense extent, comprising all the temperate portions of +the great eastern continents. It thus extends from the Azores and Canary +Islands on the west to Japan on the east, a distance not far short of half +the circumference of the globe. Yet so great is the zoological unity of +this vast tract, that the majority of the genera of animals in countries so +far removed as Great Britain and Northern Japan are identical. Throughout +its northern half the animal productions of the Palæarctic region are very +uniform, except that the vast elevated desert-regions of Central Asia +possess some characteristic forms; but in its southern portion, we find a +warm district at each extremity with somewhat contrasted features. On the +west we have the rich and luxuriant Mediterranean sub-region, possessing +many peculiar forms of life, as well as a few which are more especially +characteristic of the Ethiopian region. On the east we have the fertile +plains of Northern China and the rich and varied islands of Japan, +possessing a very distinct set of peculiar forms, with others belonging to +the Oriental region, into which this part of the Palæarctic region merges +gradually as we approach the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the countries roughly +indicated by the names--Northern Europe, the Mediterranean district, +Central and Northern Asia, and China with Japan--have each well-marked +minor characteristics which entitle them to the rank of sub-regions. Their +boundaries are often indefinable; and those here adopted have been fixed +upon to some extent by considerations of convenience, dependent on custom +and on the more or less perfect knowledge we possess of some of the +intervening countries. + + + + +[Illustration: PALAEARCTIC REGION] + +{181}_Zoological Characteristics of the Palæarctic Region._--The Palæarctic +region has representatives of thirty-five families of mammalia, fifty-five +of birds, twenty-five of reptiles, nine of amphibia, and thirteen of +freshwater fishes. Comparing it with the only other wholly temperate +region, the Nearctic, we find a much greater variety of types of mammalia +and birds. This may be due in part to its greater area, but more, probably, +to its southern boundary being conterminous for an enormous distance with +two tropical regions, the Ethiopean and Oriental; whereas the Nearctic has +a comparatively short southern boundary conterminous with the Neotropical +region only. This is so very important a difference, that it is rather a +matter of surprise that the two north temperate regions should not be more +unequal in the number of their higher vertebrate forms, than they actually +are. + +It is also to the interblending of the Palæarctic with the two adjacent +tropical regions, that we must attribute its possession of so few peculiar +family groups. These are only three; two of reptiles, _Trogonophidæ_ and +_Ophiomoridæ_, and one of fishes, _Comephoridæ_. The number of peculiar +genera is, however, considerable, as the following enumeration will show. + +_Mammalia._--The monkey of Gibraltar and North Africa, and an allied +species found in Japan, are now considered to belong to the extensive +eastern genus _Macacus_. The former, however, is peculiar in the entire +absence of the tail, and has by many naturalists, been held to form a +distinct genus, _Inuus_, confined to the Palæarctic region. + +Of bats there are one or two genera (_Barbastellus_, _Plecotus_) which seem +to be mainly or wholly Palæarctic, but the classification of these animals +is in such an unsettled state that the distribution of the genera is of +little importance. + +In the next order, Insectivora, we have almost the entire family of the +Moles confined to the region. _Talpa_ just enters Northern India; and +_Urotrichus_ is common to Japan and {182}North-Western America, but the +remaining genera, six in number, are all exclusively Palæarctic. + +Among Carnivora we have _Nyctereutes_, the curious racoon-dog of Japan and +North-Eastern Asia; _Lutronectes_, an otter peculiar to Japan; and the +badger (_Meles_), which ranges over the whole region, and just enters the +Oriental region as far as Hongkong; _Æluropus_, a curious form of the +Himalayan panda, inhabiting the high mountains of Eastern Thibet; and +_Pelagius_, a genus of seals, ranging from the shores of Madeira to the +Black Sea. + +The Ungulata, or hoofed animals, are still more productive of forms +peculiar to this region. First we have the Camels, whose native home is the +desert region of Central and Western Asia and Northern Africa, and which, +even in their domesticated condition, are confined almost wholly within the +limits of the Palæarctic region. Of Deer we have six peculiar genera, +_Dama_ and _Capreolus_ found in Europe, with _Elaphodus_, _Lophotragus_, +_Hydropotes_, and _Moschus_, confined to Northern China and Mongolia. The +great family Bovidæ--comprising the oxen, sheep, goats and +antelopes--furnishes no less than seven peculiar Palæarctic genera. These +are _Poephagus_, the yak of Thibet; _Addax_, a well-known antelope of +Northern Africa and Syria; _Procapra_, _Pantholops_ and _Budorcas_, +antelopine genera peculiar to Thibet and Mongolia; with _Rupicapra_ (the +chamois), and the extraordinary large-nosed antelope _Saiga_, confined to +Europe and Western Asia. Besides these we have _Capra_ (the wild sheep and +goats), all the numerous species of which, except two, are exclusively +Palæarctic. + +Coming to the Rodents, we have again many peculiar forms. Of Muridæ (the +mouse and rat tribe), we have six peculiar genera, the more important being +_Cricetus_, _Rhombomys Sminthus_, and _Myospalax_. Of Spalacidæ (mole-rats) +both the Palæarctic genera, _Ellobius_ and _Spalax_, are peculiar. +_Ctenodactylus_, a genus of the South American family Octodontidæ, is found +only in North Africa. To these we may add _Myoxus_ (the dormice) and +_Lagomys_ (the pikas or tail-less hares) as essentially Palæarctic, since +but one species of each genus is found beyond the limits of the region. + +_Birds._--It appears to have been the opinion of many {183}naturalists that +the Palæarctic region could not be well characterised by its peculiar +genera of birds. In Mr. Sclater's celebrated paper already referred to, he +remarks, "It cannot be denied that the ornithology of the Palæarctic region +is more easily characterised by what it has not than by what it has," and +this has been quite recently quoted by Mr. Allen, in his essay on the +distribution of North American birds, as if it represented our present +knowledge of the subject. But, thanks to the labours of Dr. Jerdon, Mr. +Swinhoe, Père David and others, we have now learnt that a large number of +birds included in the Indian list, are either mere winter emigrants from +Central Asia, or only inhabit the higher ranges of the Himalayas, and thus +really belong to the Palæarctic region. The result is, that a host of +genera are now seen to be either exclusively or characteristically +Palæarctic, and we have no further difficulty in giving positive +ornithological characters to the region. In the tables appended to this +chapter, all these truly Palæarctic genera will be found printed in +_italics_, with an indication of their distribution, which will sometimes +be found more fully given under the respective families in the fourth part +of this work. Referring to this table for details we shall here summarise +the results. + +Of the Sylviidæ or warblers, no less than fourteen genera are either +exclusively or characteristically Palæarctic, of which _Locustella_, +_Sylvia_, _Curruca_ and _Erithacus_ are good examples. Of the oriental +family Timaliidæ, the genus _Pterorhinus_ is Palæarctic. Of Panuridæ, or +reedlings, there are four peculiar genera (comprising almost the whole +family); of Certhiidæ, or creepers, one--_Tichodroma_--which extends +southward to the Abyssinian highlands. Of Paridæ, or tits, one--_Acredula_; +of Corvidæ, or crows, four--_Pica_ (containing our magpie) being a good +example; of Fringillidæ, or finches and buntings, twelve, among which +_Acanthis_, _Pyrrhula_ and _Emberiza_ are good illustrations; of Alaudidæ, +or larks, there are two peculiar genera. Leaving the Passeres we next come +to peculiar forms among the gallinaceous birds: _Syrrhaptes_ among the +Pteroclidæ or sand grouse; four genera of Tetraonidæ or grouse and +partridges, and five of Phasianidæ or pheasants, comprising some of the +most magnificent birds in the world. Lastly {184}among the far-wandering +aquatic birds we have no less than five genera which are more especially +Palæarctic,--_Ortygometra_, the corn-crake, and _Otis_, the great bustard, +being typical examples. We may add to these, several genera almost confined +to this region, such as _Garrulus_ (jays), _Fringilla_ (true finches), +_Yunx_ (wrynecks) and some others; so that in proportion to its total +generic forms a very large number are found to be peculiar or +characteristic. + +This view, of the high degree of speciality of the Palæarctic region, will +no doubt be objected to by some naturalists, on the ground that many of the +genera reckoned as exclusively Palæarctic are not so, but extend more or +less into other regions. It is well, therefore, to consider what principles +should guide us in a matter of this kind, especially as we shall have to +apply the same rules to each of the other regions. We may remark first, +that the limits of the regions themselves are, when not formed by the +ocean, somewhat arbitrary, depending on the average distribution of a +number of characteristic forms; and that slight local peculiarities of +soil, elevation, or climate, may cause the species of one region to +penetrate more or less deeply into another. The land boundary between two +regions will be, not a defined line but a neutral territory of greater or +less width, within which the forms of both regions will intermingle; and +this neutral territory itself will merge imperceptibly into both regions. +So long therefore as a species or genus does not permanently reside +considerably beyond the possible limits of this neutral territory, we +should not claim it as an inhabitant of the adjacent region. A +consideration of perhaps more importance arises, from the varying extent of +the range of a genus, over the area occupied by the region. Some genera are +represented by single species existing only in a very limited area; others +by numerous species which occupy, entirely or very nearly, the whole extent +of the region; and there is every intermediate grade between these +extremes. Now, the small localised genera, are always reckoned as among the +best examples of types peculiar to a region; while the more wide-spread +groups are often denied that character if they extend a little beyond +{185}the supposed regional limits, or send one or two, out of a large +number of species, into adjacent regions; yet there is some reason to +believe that the latter are really more important as characterising a +zoological region than the former. In the case of a single isolated species +or genus we have a dying-out group; and we have so many cases of +discontinuous species of such groups (of which _Urotrichus_ in Japan and +British Columbia, _Eupetes_ in Sumatra and New Guinea are examples), that +it is quite as probable as not, that any such isolated species has only +become peculiar to the region by the recent extinction of an allied form or +forms in some other region. On the other hand, a genus consisting of +numerous species ranging over an entire region or the greater part of one, +is a dominant group, which has most likely been for some time extending its +range, and whose origin dates back to a remote period. The slight extension +of such a group beyond the limits of the region to which it mainly belongs, +is probably a recent phenomenon, and in that case cannot be held in any +degree to detract from its value as one of the peculiar forms of that +region. + +The most numerous examples of this class, are those birds of the temperate +regions which in winter migrate, either wholly or partially, into adjacent +warmer countries. This migration most likely began subsequent to the +Miocene period, during that gradual refrigeration of the temperate zones +which culminated in the glacial epoch, and which still continues in a +mitigated form. Most of the genera, and many even of the species of birds +which migrate southwards in winter, have therefore, most likely, always +been inhabitants of our present Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; permanent +residents during warm epochs, but only able now to maintain their existence +by migration in winter. Such groups belong truly to the temperate zones, +and the test of this is the fact of their not having any, or very few, +representatives, which are permanent residents in the adjacent tropical +regions. When there are such representative species, we do not claim them +as peculiar to the Northern regions. Bearing in mind these various +considerations, it will be found that we have been very moderate in our +estimate of the number of genera {186}that may fairly be considered as +exclusively or characteristically Palæarctic. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--The Palæarctic region possesses, in proportion to +its limited reptilian fauna, a full proportion of peculiar types. We have +for instance two genera of snakes, _Rhinechis_ and _Halys_; seven of +lizards, _Trigonophis_, _Psammodromus_, _Hyalosaurus_, _Scincus_, +_Ophiomorus_, _Megalochilus_, and _Phrynocephalus_; eight of tailed +batrachians, _Proteus_, _Salamandra_, _Seiranota_, _Chioglossa_, +_Hynobius_, _Onychodactylus_, _Geotriton_, and _Sieboldia_; and eight of +tail-less batrachians, _Bombinator_, _Pelobates_, _Didocus_, _Alytes_, +_Pelodytes_, _Discoglossus_, _Laprissa_, and _Latonia_. The distribution of +these and other Palæarctic genera will be found in our second vol. chap. +xix. + +_Freshwater Fish._--About twenty genera of freshwater fishes are wholly +confined to this region, and constitute a feature which ought not to be +overlooked in estimating its claim to the rank of a separate primary +division of the earth. They belong to the following families:--Percidæ +(three genera), _Acerina_, _Percarina_, _Aspro_; Comephoridæ (one genus), +_Comephorus_, found only in Lake Baikal; Salmonidæ (three genera), +_Brachymystax_, _Luciotrutta_, and _Plecoglossus_; Cyprinodontidæ (one +genus), _Tellia_, found only in Alpine pools on the Atlas Mountains; +Cyprinidæ (thirteen genera), _Cyprinus_, _Carassus_, _Paraphoxinus_, +_Tinca_, _Achilognathus_, _Rhodeus_, _Chondrostoma_, _Pseudoperilampus_, +_Ochetebius_, _Aspius_, _Alburnus_, _Misgurnus_, and _Nemachilus_. + +_Summary of Palæarctic Vertebrata._--Summarising these details, we find +that the Palæarctic region possesses thirty-five peculiar genera of +mammalia, fifty-seven of birds, nine of reptiles, sixteen of amphibia, and +twenty-one of freshwater fishes; or a total of 138 peculiar generic types +of vertebrata. Of these, 87 are mammalia and land-birds out of a total of +274 genera of these groups; or rather less than one-third peculiar, a +number which will serve usefully to compare with the results obtained in +other regions. + +In our chapter on Zoological Regions we have already pointed out the main +features which distinguish the Palæarctic from the Oriental and Ethiopian +regions. The details now given will {187}strengthen our view of their +radical distinctness, by showing to how considerable an extent the former +is inhabited by peculiar, and often very remarkable generic types. + +_Insects: Lepidoptera._--The Diurnal Lepidoptera, or butterflies, are not +very abundant in species, their number being probably somewhat over 500, +and these belong to not more than fifty genera. But no less than fifteen of +these genera are wholly confined to the region. Nine of the families are +represented, as follows:--1. _Danaidæ_; having only a single species in +South Europe. 2. _Satyridæ_; well represented, there being more than 100 +species in Europe, and three peculiar genera. 3. _Nymphalidæ_; rather +poorly represented, Europe having only about sixty species, but there is +one peculiar genus. 4. _Libytheidæ_; a very small family, represented by a +single species occurring in South Europe. 5. _Nemeobiidæ_; a rather small +family, also having only one species in Europe, but which constitutes a +peculiar genera. 6. _Lycænidæ_; an extensive family, fairly represented, +having about eighty European species; there are two peculiar genera in the +Palæarctic region. 7. _Pieridæ_; rather poorly represented with thirty-two +European species; two of the genera are, however, peculiar. 8. +_Papilionidæ_; very poorly represented in Europe with only twelve species, +but there are many more in Siberia and Japan. No less than five of the +small number of genera in this family are wholly confined to the region, a +fact of much importance, and which to a great extent redeems the character +of the Palæarctic region as regard this order of insects. Their names are +_Mesapia_, _Hypermnestra_, _Doritis_, _Sericinus_, and _Thais_; and besides +these we have _Parnassius_--the "Apollo" butterflies--highly +characteristic, and only found elsewhere in the mountains of the Nearctic +region. 9. _Hesperidæ_; poorly represented with about thirty European +species, and one peculiar genus. + +Four families of _Sphingina_ occur in the Palæarctic region, and there are +several peculiar genera. + +In the _Zygænidæ_ there are two exclusively European genera, and the +extensive genus _Zygæna_ is itself mainly Palæarctic. The small family +_Stygiidæ_ has two out of its three genera {188}confined to the Palæarctic +region. In the _Ægeriidæ_ the genus _Ægeria_ is mainly Palæarctic. The +_Sphingidæ_ have a wider general range, and none of the larger genera are +peculiar to any one region. + +_Coleoptera._--The Palæarctic region is the richest portion of the globe in +the great family of _Carabidæ_, or predacious ground-beetles, about 50 of +the genera being confined to it, while many others, including the +magnificent genus _Carabus_, have here their highest development. While +several of the smaller genera are confined to the eastern or western +sub-regions, most of the larger ones extend over the whole area, and give +it an unmistakable aspect; while in passing from east to west or +_vice-versâ_, allied species and genera replace each other with +considerable regularity, except in the extreme south-east, where, in China +and Japan, some Oriental forms appear, as do a few Ethiopian types in the +south-west. + +Cicindelidæ, or tiger-beetles, are but poorly represented by about 70 +species of the genus _Cicindela_, and a single _Tetracha_ in South Europe. + +Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, are also poor, there being representatives of 8 +genera. One of these, _Æsalus_ (a single species), is peculiar to South +Europe, and two others, _Cladognathus_ and _Cyclopthalmus_, are only +represented in Japan, China, and Thibet. + +Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, are represented by 13 genera, two of which are +peculiar to South Europe (_Tropinota_ and _Heterocnemis_), while +_Stalagmosoma_, ranging from Persia to Nubia, and the fine +_Dicranocephalus_ inhabiting North China, Corea, and Nipal, may also be +considered to belong to it. The genera _Trichius_, _Gnorimus_, and +_Osmoderma_ are confined to the two north temperate regions. + +Buprestidæ, or metallic beetles, are rather abundant in the warmer parts of +the region, 27 genera being represented, nine of which are peculiar. By far +the larger portion of these are confined to the Mediterranean sub-region. A +considerable number also inhabit Japan and China. + +The Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, are represented by no less than 196 +genera, 51 of which are peculiar. They are {189}much more abundant in the +southern than the northern half of the region. Several Oriental genera +extend to Japan and North China, and a few Ethiopian genera to North +Africa. Thirteen genera are confined, to the two north temperate regions. +Several large genera, such as _Dorcadion_ (154 species), _Phytæcia_ (85 +species), _Pogonochærus_ (22 species), _Agapanthia_ (22 species), and +_Vesperus_ (7 species), are altogether peculiar to the Palæarctic region; +and with a preponderance of _Leptura_, _Grammoptera_, _Stenocorus_, and +several others, strongly characterise it as distinct from the Nearctic and +Oriental regions. + +The other families which are well developed in the Palæarctic regions, are, +the Staphylinidæ or rove-beetles, Silphidæ or burying-beetles, Histeridæ or +mimic-beetles, Nitidulidæ, Aphodiidæ, Copridæ (especially in South Europe), +Geotrupidæ or dung-beetles, Melolonthidæ or chafers, Elateridæ or +click-beetles, the various families of Malacoderms and Heteromera, +especially Pimeliidæ in the Mediterranean sub-region, Curculionidæ or +weevils, the Phytophaga or leaf-eaters, and Cocinellidæ or lady-birds. + +The number of species of Coleoptera in the western part of the Palæarctic +region is about 15,000, and there are probably not more than 2,000 to add +to this number from Siberia, Japan, and North China; but were these +countries as well explored as Europe, we may expect that they would add at +least 5,000 to the number above given, raising the Palæarctic Coleopterous +fauna to 20,000 species. As the total number of species at present known to +exist in collections is estimated (and perhaps somewhat over-estimated) at +70,000 species, we may be sure that were the whole earth as thoroughly +investigated as Europe, the number would be at least doubled, since we +cannot suppose that Europe, with the Mediterranean basin, can contain more +than one-fifth of the whole of the Coleoptera of the globe. + +Of the other orders of insects we here say nothing, because in their case +much more than in that of the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, is the +disproportion enormous between our knowledge of the European fauna and that +of almost all the rest of the globe. {190}They are, therefore, at present +of comparatively little use for purposes of geographical distribution, even +were it advisable to enter into the subject in a work which will, perhaps, +be too much overburdened with details only of interest to specialists. + +_Land Shells._--These are very numerous in the warmer parts of the region, +but comparatively scarce towards the North. South Europe alone possesses +over 600 species, whereas there are only 200 in all Northern Europe and +Asia. The total number of species in the whole region is probably about +1,250, of which the great majority are Helicidæ; the Operculated families +being very poorly represented. Several small genera or sub-genera are +peculiar to the region, as _Testacella_ (West Europe and Canaries); +_Leucochroa_ (Mediterranean district); _Acicula_ (Europe); _Craspedopoma_ +(Atlantic Islands); _Leonia_ (Algeria and Spain); _Pomatias_ (Europe and +Canaries); _Cecina_ (Mongolia). The largest genera are _Helix_ and +_Clausilia_, which together comprise more than half the species; _Pupa_, +very numerous; _Bulimus_ and _Achatina_ in moderate numbers, and all the +rest small. _Helix_ is the only genus which contains large and handsome +species; _Bulimus_ and _Achatina_, so magnificent in tropical countries, +being here represented by small and obscure forms only. _Daudebardia_ is +confined to Central and South Europe and New Zealand; _Glandina_ is chiefly +South American; _Hyalina_ is only American and European; _Buliminus_ ranges +over all the world except America; and the other European genera of +Helicidæ are widely distributed. Of the Operculata, _Cyclotus_, +_Cyclophorus_, and _Pupina_ extend from the Oriental region into Japan and +North China; _Tudoria_ is found in Algeria and the West Indies; _Hydrocena_ +is widely scattered, and occurs in South Europe and Japan. The genera of +freshwater shells are all widely distributed. + + +THE PALÆARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. + +The four sub-regions which are here adopted, have been fixed upon as those +which are, in the present state of our knowledge, at once the most natural +and the only practicable ones. {191}No doubt all of them could be +advantageously again subdivided, in a detailed study of the geographical +distribution of _species_. But in a general work, which aims at treating +all parts of the world with equal fulness, and which therefore is confined +almost wholly to the distribution of families and genera, such further +subdivision would be out of place. It is even difficult, in some of the +classes of animals, to find peculiar or even characteristic genera for the +present sub-regions; but they all have well marked climatic and physical +differences, and this leads to an assemblage of species and of groups which +are sufficiently distinctive. + + +_I. Central and Northern Europe._ + +This sub-region, which may perhaps be termed the "European," is +zoologically and botanically the best known on the globe. It can be pretty +accurately defined, as bounded on the south by the Pyrenees, the Alps, the +Balkans, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus range; and by the Ural Mountains, +or perhaps more correctly the valley of the Irtish and Caspian Sea, on the +east; while Ireland and Iceland are its furthest outliers in the west. To +the north, it merges so gradually into the Arctic zone that no demarcation +is possible. The great extent to which this sub-region is interpenetrated +by the sea, and the prevalence of westerly winds bringing warmth and +moisture from an ocean influenced by the gulf-stream, give it a climate for +the most part genial, and free from extremes of heat and cold. It is thus +broadly distinguished from Siberia and Northern Asia generally, where a +more extreme and rigorous climate prevails. + +The whole of this sub-region is well watered, being penetrated by rivers in +every direction; and it consists mainly of plains and undulating country of +moderate elevation, the chief mountain ranges being those of Scandinavia in +the north-west, and the extensive alpine system of Central Europe. But +these are both of moderate height, and a very small portion of their +surface is occupied either by permanent snow-fields, or by barren uplands +inimical to vegetable and animal life. It is, in {192}fact, to these, and +the numerous lesser mountains and hills which everywhere diversify the +surface of Europe, that the variety and abundance of its animal life is +greatly due. They afford the perennial supplies to rivers, and furnish in +their valleys and ever varying slopes, stations suited to every form of +existence. A considerable area of Central Europe is occupied by uplands of +moderate elevation, a comparatively small portion being flat and marshy +plains. + +Most of the northern and much of the central portions of Europe are covered +with vast forests of coniferous trees; and these, occupying as they do +those tracts where the winter is most severe, supply food and shelter to +many animals who could not otherwise maintain their existence. It is +probable that the original condition of the greater part, if not the whole, +of temperate Europe, except the flat marshes of the river valleys and the +sandy downs of the coast, was that of woodland and forest, mostly of +deciduous trees, but with a plentiful admixture of such hardy evergreens as +holly, ivy, privet, and yew. A sufficient proportion of these primeval +woods, and of artificial plantations which have replaced them, fortunately +remain, to preserve for us most of the interesting forms of life, which +were developed before man had so greatly modified the surface of the earth, +and so nearly exterminated many of its original tenants. Almost exactly in +proportion to the amount of woodland that still remains in any part of +Europe, do we find (other things being equal) the abundance and variety of +wild animals; a pretty clear indication that the original condition of the +country was essentially that of a forest, a condition which only now exists +in the thinly inhabited regions of the north. + +Although the sub-region we are considering is, for its extent and latitude, +richly peopled with animal life, the number of genera altogether peculiar +to it is not great. There are, however, several which are very +characteristic, and many species, both of the smaller mammalia and of +birds, are wholly restricted to it. + +_Mammalia._--The genera wholly confined to this sub-region are {193}only +two. _Myogale_, the desman, is a curious long-snouted Insectivorous animal +somewhat resembling the water-rat in its habits. There are two species, one +found only on the banks of streams in the French Pyrenees, the other on the +great rivers of Southern Russia. The other peculiar genus, _Rupicapra_ (the +chamois of the Alps), is found on all the high mountains of Central Europe. +Almost peculiar are _Spalax_ (the mole-rat) found only in Eastern Europe +and Western Siberia; and _Saiga_, an extraordinary large-nosed antelope +which has a nearly similar distribution. Highly characteristic forms, which +inhabit nearly every part of the sub-region, are, _Talpa_ (the mole), +_Erinaceus_, (the hedgehog), _Sorex_ (the shrew), _Meles_ (the badger), +_Ursus_ (the bear), _Canis_ (the wolf and fox), _Mustela_ (the weasel), +_Lutra_ (the otter), _Arvicola_ (the vole), _Myoxus_ (the dormouse), and +_Lepus_ (the hare and rabbit); while _Bos_ (the wild bull) was, until +exterminated by man, no doubt equally characteristic. Other genera +inhabiting the sub-region will be found in the list given at the end of +this chapter. + +_Birds._--It is difficult to name the birds that are most characteristic of +this sub-region, because so many of the most familiar and abundant are +emigrants from the south, and belong to groups that have a different range. +There is perhaps not a single genus wholly confined to it, and very few +that have not equal claims to be placed elsewhere. Among the more +characteristic we may name _Turdus_ (the thrushes), _Sylvia_ (the +warblers), _Panurus_ (the reedling), _Parus_ (the tits), _Anthus_ (the +pipits), _Motacilla_ (the wagtails), which are perhaps more abundant here +than in any other part of the world, _Emberiza_ (the buntings), +_Plectrophanes_ (the snow buntings), _Passer_ (the house sparrows), _Loxia_ +(the crossbills), _Linota_ (the linnets), _Pica_ (the magpies), _Tetrao_ +(grouse), _Lagopus_ (ptarmigan) and many others. + +I am indebted to Mr. H. E. Dresser, who is personally acquainted with the +ornithology of much of the North of Europe, for some valuable notes on the +northern range of many European birds. Those which are characteristic of +the extreme Arctic zone, extending beyond 70° north latitude, and tolerably +abundant, are two falcons (_Falco gyrfalco_ and _F. peregrinus_); {194}the +rough-legged buzzard (_Archibuteo lagopus_); the snowy owl (_Nyctea +scandiaca_); the raven (_Corvus corax_); three buntings (_Emberiza +schæniculus_, _Plectrophanes nivalis_ and _P. calcarata_); a lark +(_Otocorys alpestris_); several pipits, the most northern being _Anthus +cervinus_; a wagtail (_Budytes cinereocapilla_); a dipper (_Cinclus +melanogaster_); a warbler (_Cyanecula suecica_); the wheatear (_Saxicola +oenanthe_); and two ptarmigans (_Lagopus albus_ and _L. salicetus_). Most +of these birds are, of course, only summer visitors to the Arctic regions, +the only species noted as a permanent resident in East Finmark (north of +latitude 70°) being the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_). + +The birds that are characteristic of the zone of pine forests, or from +about 61° to 70° north latitude, are very numerous, and it will be +sufficient to note the genera and the number of species (where more than +one) to give an idea of the ornithology of this part of Europe. The birds +of prey are, _Falco_ (three species), _Astur_ (two species), _Buteo_, +_Pandion_, _Surnia_, _Bubo_, _Syrnium_, _Asio_, _Nyctala_. The chief +Passerine birds are, _Corvus_ (two species), _Pica_, _Garrulus_ (two +species), _Nucifraga_, _Bombycilla_, _Hirundo_ (two species), _Muscicapa_ +(two species), _Lanius_, _Sturnus_, _Passer_ (two species), _Pyrrhula_, +_Carpodacus_, _Loxia_ (two species), _Pinicola_, _Fringilla_ (eight +species), _Emberiza_ (five species), _Alauda_, _Anthus_, _Turdus_ (five +species), _Ruticilla_, _Pratincola_, _Accentor_, _Sylvia_ (four species), +_Hypolais_, _Regulus_, _Phylloscopus_ (two species), _Acrocephalus_, +_Troglodytes_, and _Parus_ (six species). Woodpeckers are abundant, _Picus_ +(four species), _Gecinus_, and _Yunx_. The kingfisher (_Alcedo_), +goatsucker (_Caprimulgus_), and swift (_Cypselus_) are also common. The +wood-pigeon (_Columba_) is plentiful. The gallinaceous birds are three +grouse, _Tetrao_ (two species) and _Bonasa_, and the common quail +(_Coturnix_). + +The remaining genera and species of temperate or north-European birds, do +not usually range beyond the region of deciduous trees, roughly indicated +by the parallel of 60° north latitude. + + + + +Plate I. + +[Illustration] + +THE ALPS OF CENTRAL EUROPE, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. + +{195}_Plate I.--Illustrating the Zoology of Central Europe._--Before +considering the distribution of the other classes of vertebrata, it will be +convenient to introduce our first illustration, which represents a scene in +the Alps of Central Europe, with figures of some of the most characteristic +Mammalia and Birds of this sub-region. On the left is the badger (_Meles +Taxus_) one of the weasel family, and belonging to a genus which is +strictly Palæarctic. It abounds in Central and Northern Europe and also +extends into North Asia, but is represented by another species in Thibet +and by a third in Japan. The elegantly-formed creatures on the right are +chamois (_Rupicapra tragus_), almost the only European antelopes, and +wholly confined to the higher mountains, from the Pyrenees to the +Carpathians and the Caucasus. The chamois is the only species of the genus, +and is thus perhaps the most characteristic European mammal. The bird on +the left, above the badgers, is the Alpine chough, (_Fregilus +pyrrhocorax_). It is found in the high mountains from the Alps to the +Himalayas, and is allied to the Cornish chough, which is still found on our +south-western coasts, and which ranges to Abyssinia and North China. The +Alpine chough differs in having a shorter bill of an orange colour, and +vermilion red feet as in the other species. In the foreground are a pair of +ruffs (_Machetes pugnax_) belonging to the Scolopacidæ or snipe family, and +most nearly allied to the genus _Tringa_ or sandpiper. This bird is +remarkable for the fine collar of plumes which adorns the males in the +breeding season, when they are excessively pugnacious. It is the only +species of its genus, and ranges over all Europe and much of Northern Asia, +migrating in the winter to the plains of India, and even down the east +coast of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope; but it only breeds in the +Palæarctic region, over the greater part of which it ranges. + + + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--There are no genera of reptiles peculiar to this +sub-region. Both snakes and lizards are comparatively scarce, there being +about fourteen species of the former and twelve of the latter. Our common +snake (_Tropidonotus natrix_) extends into Sweden and North Russia, but the +viper (_Viperus berus_) goes further north, as far as Archangel (64° N.), +and in Scandinavia (67° N.), and is the most Arctic of all known +{196}snakes. Of the lizards, _Lacerta stirpium_ (the sand lizard) has the +most northerly range, extending into Poland and Northern Russia; and +_Anguis fragilis_ (the blind or slow-worm) has almost an equal range. + +Amphibia, being more adapted to a northern climate, have acquired a more +special development, and thus several forms are peculiar to the North +European sub-region. Most remarkable is _Proteus_, a singular eel-like +aquatic creature with small legs, found only in the subterranean lakes in +Carniola and Carinthia; _Alytes_, a curious toad, the male of which carries +about the eggs till they are hatched, found only in Central Europe from +France to the east of Hungary; and _Pelodytes_, a frog found only in +France. Frogs and toads are very abundant all over Europe, the common frog +(_Rana temporaria_) extending to the extreme north. The newts (_Triton_) +are also very abundant and widely spread, though not ranging so far north +as the frogs. The genera _Bombinator_ (a toad-like frog), and _Hyla_ (the +tree frog) are also common in Central Europe. + +_Freshwater Fish._--Two genera of the perch family (Percidæ) are peculiar +to this sub-region,--_Percarina_, a fish found only in the river Dniester, +and _Aspro_, confined to the rivers of Central Europe. Of the very +characteristic forms are, _Gasterosteus_ (stickle-back), which alone forms +a peculiar family--Gasterosteidæ; _Perca_, _Acerina_ and _Lucioperca_, +genera of the perch family; _Silurus_, a large fish found in the rivers of +Cenrtal Europe, of the family Siluridæ; _Esox_ (the pike), of the family +Esocidæ; _Cyprinus_ (carp), _Gobio_ (gudgeon), _Leuciscus_ (roach, chub, +dace, &c.), _Tinca_ (tench), _Abramus_ (bream), _Alburnus_ (bleak), +_Cobitis_ (loach), all genera of the family Cyprinidæ. + +_Insects--Lepidoptera._--No genera of butterflies are actually confined to +this sub-region, but many are characteristic of it. _Parnassius_, _Aporia_, +_Leucophasia_, _Colias_, _Melitæa_, _Argynnis_, _Vanessa_, _Limenitis_, and +_Chionobas_, are all very abundant and widespread, and give a feature to +the entomology of most of the countries included in it. + +_Coleoptera._--This sub-region is very rich in Carabidæ; the genera +_Elaphrus_, _Nebria_, _Carabus_, _Cychrus_, _Pterostichus_, _Amara_, +{197}_Trechus_ and _Peryphus_ being especially characteristic. Staphylinidæ +abound. Among Lamellicorns the genus _Aphodius_ is most characteristic. +Buprestidæ are scarce; Elateridæ more abundant. Among Malacoderms +_Telephorus_ and _Malachius_ are characteristic. Curculionidæ abound: +_Otiorhyuchus_, _Omias_, _Erirhinus_, _Bagous_, _Rhynchites_ and +_Ceutorhynchus_ being very characteristic genera. Of Longicorns +_Callidium_, _Dorcadion_, _Pogonochærus_, _Pachyta_ and _Leptura_ are +perhaps the best representatives. _Donacia_, _Crioceris_, _Chrysomela_, and +_Altica_, are typical Phytophaga; while _Coccinella_ is the best +representative of the Securipalpes. + +_North European Islands._--The British Islands are known to have been +recently connected with the Continent, and their animal productions are so +uniformly identical with continental species as to require no special note. +The only general fact of importance is, that the number of species in all +groups is much less than in continental districts of equal extent, and that +this number is still farther diminished in Ireland. This may be accounted +for by the smaller area and less varied surface of the latter island; and +it may also be partly due to the great extent of low land, so that a very +small depression would reduce it to the condition of a cluster of small +islands capable of supporting a very limited amount of animal life. Yet +further, if after such a submergence had destroyed much of the higher forms +of life in Great Britain and Ireland, both were elevated so as to again +form part of the Continent, a migration would commence by which they would +be stocked afresh; but this migration would be a work of time, and it is to +be expected that many species would never reach Ireland or would find its +excessively moist climate unsuited to them. + +Some few British species differ slightly from their continental allies, and +are considered by many naturalists to be distinct. This is the case with +the red grouse (_Lagopus scoticus_) among birds; and a few of the smaller +Passeres have also been found to vary somewhat from the allied forms on the +Continent, showing that the comparatively short interval since the glacial +period, and the slightly different physical conditions dependent on +{198}insularity, have sufficed to commence the work of specific +modification. There are also a few small land-shells and several insects +not yet found elsewhere than in Britain; and even one of the smaller +Mammalia--a shrew (_Sorex rusticus_). These facts are all readily explained +by the former union of these islands with the Continent, and the alternate +depressions and elevations which are proved by geological evidence to have +occurred, by which they have been more than once separated and united again +in recent times. For the evidence of this elevation and depression, the +reader may consult Sir Charles Lyell's _Antiquity of Man_. + +Iceland is the only other island of importance belonging to this +sub-region, and it contrasts strongly with Great Britain, both in its +Arctic climate and oceanic position. It is situated just south of the +Arctic circle and considerably nearer Greenland than Europe, yet its +productions are almost wholly European. The only indigenous land mammalia +are the Arctic fox (_Canis lagopus_), and the polar bear as an occasional +visitant, with a mouse (_Mus islandicus_), said to be of a peculiar +species. Four species of seals visit its shores. The birds are more +interesting. According to Professor Newton, ninety-five species have been +observed; but many of these are mere stragglers. There are twenty-three +land, and seventy-two aquatic birds and waders. Four or five are peculiar +species, though very closely related to others inhabiting Scandinavia or +Greenland. Only two or three species are more nearly related to Greenland +birds than to those of Northern Europe, so that the Palæarctic character of +the fauna is unmistakable. The following lists, compiled from a paper by +Professor Newton, may be interesting as showing more exactly the character +of Icelandic ornithology. + +1. Peculiar species.--_Troglodytes borealis_ (closely allied to the common +wren, found also in the Faroe Islands); _Falco islandicus_ (closely allied +to _F. gyrfalco_); _Lagopus islandorum_ (closely allied to _L. rupestris_ +of Greenland). + +2. European species resident in Iceland.--_Emberiza nivalis_, _Corvus +corax_, _Haliæetus albicilla_, _Rallus aquaticus_, _Hæmatopus ostralegus_, +_Cygnus ferus_, _Mergus_ (two species), _Phalacocorax_ (two {199}species), +_Sula bassana_, _Larus_ (two species), _Stercorarius catarractes_, +_Puffinus anglorum_, _Mergulus alle_, _Uria_ (three species), _Alca torda_. + +3. American species resident in Iceland.--_Clangula islandica_, +_Histrionicus torquatus_. + +4. Annual visitants from Europe.--_Turdus iliacus_, _Ruticilla tithys_, +_Saxicola ænanthe_, _Motacilla alba_, _Anthus pratensis_, _Linota linaria_, +_Chelidon urbica_, _Hirundo rustica_, _Falco æsalon_, _Surnia nyctea_, +_Otus brachyotus_, _Charadrius pluvialis_, _Ægialites hiaticula_, +_Strepsilas interpres_, _Phalaropus fulicarius_, _Totanus calidris_, +_Limosa_ (species), _Tringa_ (three species), _Calidris arenaria_, +_Gallinago media_, _Numenius phæopus_, _Ardea cinerea_, _Anser_ (two +species), _Bernicla_ (two species), _Anas_ (four species), _Fuligula +marila_, _Harelda glacialis_, _Somateria mollissima_, _Oedemia nigra_, +_Sterna macrura_, _Rissa tridactyla_, _Larus luecopterus_, _Stercorarius_ +(two species), _Fratercula artica_, _Colymbus_ (two species), _Podiceps +cornutus_. + +5. Annual visitant from Greenland.--_Falco candicans_. + +6.--Former resident, now extinct.--_Alca impennis_ (the great auk). + + +_II.--Mediterranean Sub-region._ + +This is by far the richest portion of the Palæarctic region, for although +of moderate extent much of it enjoys a climate in which the rigours of +winter are almost unknown. It includes all the countries south of the +Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, and Caucasus mountains; all the southern shores of +the Mediterranean to the Atlas range, and even beyond it to include the +extra-tropical portion of the Sahara; and in the Nile valley as far as the +second cataract. Further east it includes the northern half of Arabia and +the whole of Persia, as well as Beluchistan, and perhaps Affghanistan up to +the banks of the Indus. This extensive district is almost wholly a region +of mountains and elevated plateaus. On the west, Spain is mainly a +table-land of more than 2000 feet elevation, deeply penetrated by extensive +valleys and rising into lofty mountain chains. Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, +and Sicily, are all very {200}mountainous, and much of their surface +considerably elevated. Further east we have all European Turkey and Greece, +a mountain region with a comparatively small extent of level plain. In Asia +the whole country, from Smyrna through Armenia and Persia to the further +borders of Affghanistan, is a vast mountainous plateau, almost all above +2000, and extensive districts above 5000 feet in elevation. The only large +tract of low-land is the valley of the Euphrates. There is also some +low-land south of the Caucasus, and in Syria the valley of the Jordan. In +North Africa the valley of the Nile and the coast plains of Tripoli and +Algiers are almost the only exceptions to the more or less mountainous and +plateau-like character of the country. Much of this extensive area is now +bare and arid, and often even of a desert character; a fact no doubt due, +in great part, to the destruction of aboriginal forests. This loss is +rendered permanent by the absence of irrigation, and, it is also thought, +by the abundance of camels and goats, animals which are exceedingly +injurious to woody vegetation, and are able to keep down the natural growth +of forests. Mr. Marsh (whose valuable work _Man and Nature_ gives much +information on this subject) believes that even large portions of the +African and Asiatic deserts would become covered with woods, and the +climate thereby greatly improved, were they protected from these +destructive domestic animals, which are probably not indigenous to the +country. Spain, in proportion to its extent, is very barren; Italy and +European Turkey are more woody and luxuriant; but it is perhaps in Asia +Minor, on the range of the Taurus, along the shores of the Black Sea, and +to the south of the Caucasus range, that this sub-region attains its +maximum of luxuriance in vegetation and in animal life. From the Caspian +eastward extends a region of arid plains and barren deserts, diversified by +a few more fertile valleys, in which the characteristic flora and fauna of +this portion of the Palæarctic region abounds. Further east we come to the +forests of the Hindoo Koosh, which probably form the limit of the +sub-region. Beyond these we enter on the Siberian sub-region to the north, +and on the outlying portion of the Oriental region on the south. + +{201}In addition to the territories now indicated as forming part of the +Mediterranean sub-region, we must add the group of Canary Islands off the +west coast of Africa which seem to be an extension of the Atlas mountains, +and the oceanic groups of Madeira and the Azores; the latter about 1,000 +miles from the continent of Europe, yet still unmistakably allied to it +both in their vegetable and animal productions. The peculiarities of the +faunas of these islands will be subsequently referred to. + +It seems at first sight very extraordinary, that so large and wide a sea as +the Mediterranean should not separate distinct faunas, and this is the more +remarkable when we find how very deep the Mediterranean is, and therefore +how ancient we may well suppose it to be. Its eastern portion reaches a +depth of 2,100 fathoms or 12,600 feet, while its western basin is about +1,600 fathoms or 9,600 feet in greatest depth, and a considerable area of +both basins is more than 1,000 fathoms deep. But a further examination +shows, that a comparatively shallow sea or submerged bank incloses Malta +and Sicily, and that on the opposite coast a similar bank stretches out +from the coast of Tripoli leaving a narrow channel the greatest depth of +which is 240 fathoms. Here therefore is a broad plateau, which an elevation +of about 1,500 feet would convert into a wide extent of land connecting +Italy with Africa; while the same elevation would also connect Morocco with +Spain, leaving two extensive lakes to represent what is now the +Mediterranean Sea, and affording free communication for land animals +between Europe and North Africa. That such a state of things existed at a +comparatively recent period, is almost certain; not only because a +considerable number of identical _species_ of mammalia inhabit the opposite +shores of the Mediterranean, but also because numerous remains of three +species of elephants have been found in caves in Malta,--now a small rocky +island in which it would be impossible for such animals to live even if +they could reach it. Remains of hippopotami are also found at Gibraltar, +and many other animals of African types in Greece; all indicating means of +communication between South Europe and North Africa which no longer exist. +(See Chapter VI. pp. 113-115.) + +{202}_Mammalia._--There are a few groups of Palæarctic Mammalia that are +peculiar to this sub-region. Such are, _Dama_, the fallow deer, which is +now found only in South Europe and North Africa; _Psammomys_, a peculiar +genus of Muridæ, found only in Egypt and Palestine; while _Ctenodactylus_, +a rat-like animal classed in the South American family Octodontidæ, +inhabits Tripoli. Among characteristic genera not found in other +sub-regions, are, _Dysopes_, a bat of the family Noctilionidæ; +_Macroscelides_, the elephant shrew, in North Africa; _Genetta_, the civet, +in South Europe; _Herpestes_, the ichneumon, in North Africa and (?) Spain; +_Hyæna_, in South Europe; _Gazella_, _Oryx_, _Alcephalus_, and _Addax_, +genera of antelopes in North Africa and Palestine; _Hyrax_, in Syria; and +_Hystrix_, the porcupine, in South Europe. Besides these, the camel and the +horse were perhaps once indigenous in the eastern parts of the sub-region; +and a wild sheep (_Ovis musmon_) still inhabits Sardinia, Corsica, and the +mountains of the south-east of Spain. The presence of the large feline +animals--such as the lion, the leopard, the serval, and the hunting +leopard--in North Africa, together with several other quadrupeds not found +in Europe, have been thought by some naturalists to prove, that this +district should not form part of the Palæarctic region. No doubt several +Ethiopian groups and species have entered it from the south; but the bulk +of its Mammalia still remains Palæarctic, although several of the species +have Asiatic rather than European affinities. The _Macacus innuus_ is +allied to an Asiatic rather than an African group of monkeys, and thus +denotes an Oriental affinity. Ethiopian affinity is apparently shown by the +three genera of antelopes, by _Herpestes_, and by _Macroscelides_; but our +examination of the Miocene fauna has shown that these were probably derived +from Europe originally, and do not form any part of the truly indigenous or +ancient Ethiopian fauna. Against these, however, we have the occurrence in +North Africa of such purely Palæarctic and non-Ethiopian genera as _Ursus_, +_Meles_, _Putorius_, _Sus_, _Cervus_, _Dama_, _Capra_, _Alactaga_; together +with actual European or West Asiatic species of _Canis_, _Genetta_, +_Felis_, _Putorius_, _Lutra_, many bats, _Sorex_, _Crocidura_, _Crossopus_, +_Hystrix_, {203}_Dipus_, _Lepus_, and _Mus_. It is admitted that, as +regards every other group of animals, North Africa is Palæarctic, and the +above enumeration shows that even in Mammalia, the intermixture of what are +now true Ethiopian types is altogether insignificant. It must be +remembered, also, that the lion inhabited Greece even in historic times, +while large carnivora were contemporary with man all over Central Europe. + +_Birds._--So many of the European birds migrate over large portions of the +region, and so many others have a wide permanent range, that we cannot +expect to find more than a few genera, consisting of one or two species, +each, confined to a sub-region; and such appear to be, _Lusciniola_ and +_Pyrophthalma_, genera of Sylviidæ. But many are characteristic of this, as +compared with other Palæarctic sub-regions; such as, _Bradyptetus_, +_Aedon_, _Dromoloea_, and _Cercomela_, among Sylviidæ; _Crateropus_ and +_Malacocercus_, among Timaliidæ; _Telophonus_ among Laniidæ; _Certhilauda_ +and _Mirafra_ among larks; _Pastor_ among starlings; _Upupa_, the hoopoe; +_Halycon_ and _Ceryle_ among kingfishers; _Turnix_ and _Caccabis_ among +Gallinæ, and the pheasant as an indigenous bird; together with _Gyps_, +_Vultur_ and _Neophron_, genera of vultures. In addition to these, almost +all our summer migrants spend their winter in some part of this favoured +land, mostly in North Africa, together with many species of Central Europe +that rarely or never visit us. It follows, that a large proportion of all +the birds of Europe and Western Asia are to be found in this sub-region, as +will be seen by referring to the list of the genera of the region. +Palestine is one of the remote portions of this region which has been well +explored by Canon Tristram, and it may be interesting to give his summary +of the range of the birds. We must bear in mind that the great depression +of the Dead Sea has a tropical climate, which accounts for the presence +here only, of such a tropical form as the sun-bird (_Nectarinea osea_). + +The total number of the birds of Palestine is 322, and of these no less +than 260 are European, at once settling the question of the general +affinities of the fauna. Of the remainder eleven belong to North and East +Asia, four to the Red Sea, and {204}thirty-one to East Africa, while +twenty-seven are peculiar to Palestine. It is evident therefore that an +unusual number of East African birds have extended their range to this +congenial district, but most of these are desert species and hardly true +Ethiopians, and do not much interfere with the general Palæarctic character +of the whole assemblage. As an illustration of how wide-spread are many of +the Palæarctic forms, we may add, that seventy-nine species of land birds +and fifty-five of water birds, are common to Palestine and Britain. The +Oriental and Ethiopian genera _Pycnonotus_ and _Nectarinea_ are found here, +while _Bessornis_ and _Dromolæa_ are characteristically Ethiopian. Almost +all the other genera are Palæarctic. + +Persia is another remote region generally associated with the idea of +Oriental and almost tropical forms, but which yet undoubtedly belongs to +the Palæarctic region. Mr. Blanford's recent collections in this country, +with other interesting information, is summarised in Mr. Elwes's paper on +the "Geographical Distribution of Asiatic Birds" (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, +p. 647). No less than 127 species are found also in Europe, and +thirty-seven others belong to European genera; seven are allied to birds of +Central Asia or Siberia, and fifteen to those of North-East Africa, while +only three are purely of Indian affinities. This shows a preponderance of +nearly nine-tenths of Palæarctic forms, which is fully as much as can be +expected in any country near the limits of a great region. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--The climatal conditions being here more +favourable to these groups, and the genera being often of limited range, we +find some peculiar, and several very interesting forms. _Rhinechis_, a +genus of Colubrine snakes, is found only in South Europe; _Trogonophis_, +one of the Amphisbænians--curious snake-like lizards--is known only from +North Africa; _Psammosaurus_, belonging to the water lizards (Varanidæ) is +found in North Africa and North-West India; _Psammodromus_, a genus of +Lacertidæ, is peculiar to South Europe; _Hyalosaurus_, belonging to the +family Zonuridæ, is a lizard of especial interest, as it inhabits North +Africa while its nearest ally is the _Ophisaurus_ or "glass snake" of North +America; the family of {205}the scinks is represented by _Scincus_ found in +North Africa and Arabia. Besides these _Seps_, a genus of sand lizards +(Sepidæ) and _Agama_, a genus of Agamidæ, are abundant and characteristic. + +Of Amphibia we have _Seiranota_, a genus of salamanders found only in Italy +and Dalmatia; _Chioglossa_, in Portugal, and _Geotriton_, in Italy, +belonging to the same family, are equally peculiar to the sub-region. + +_Freshwater Fish._--One of the most interesting is _Tellia_, a genus of +Cyprinodontidæ found only in alpine pools in the Atlas mountains. +_Paraphoxinius_, found in South-East Europe, and _Chondrostoma_, in Europe +and Western Asia, genera of Cyprimidæ, seem almost peculiar to this +sub-region. + +_Insects--Lepidoptera._--Two genera of butterflies, _Thais_ and _Doritis_, +are wholly confined to this sub-region, the former ranging over all +Southern Europe, the latter confined to Eastern Europe and Asia Minor. +_Anthocharis_ and _Zegris_ are very characteristic of it, the latter only +extending into South Russia, while _Danais_, _Charaxes_, and _Libythea_ are +tropical genera unknown in other parts of Europe. + +_Coleoptera._--This sub-region is very rich in many groups of Coleoptera, +of which a few only can be noticed here. Among Carabidæ it possesses +_Procerus_ and _Procrustes_, almost exclusively, while _Brachinus_, +_Cymindis_, _Lebia_, _Graphipterus_, _Scarites_, _Chlænius_, _Calathus_, +and many others, are abundant and characteristic. Among +Lamellicorns--Copridæ, Glaphyridæ, Melolonthidæ, and Cetoniidæ abound. +Buprestidæ are plentiful, the genera _Julodis_, _Acmæodera_, _Buprestis_, +and _Sphenoptera_ being characteristic. Among Malacoderms--Cebrionidæ, +Lampyridæ, and Malachiidæ abound. The Tenebrioid Heteromera are very varied +and abundant, and give a character to the sub-region. The Mylabridæ, +Cantharidæ, and Oedemeridæ are also characteristic. Of the immense number +of Curculionidæ--_Thylacites_, _Brachycerus_, _Lixus_, and _Acalles_ may be +mentioned as among the most prominent. Of Longicorns there are few genera +especially characteristic, but perhaps _Prinobius_, _Purpuricenus_, +_Hesperophanes_, and _Parmena_ are most so. Of the remaining families, we +may mention Clythridæ, Hispidæ, and Cassididæ as being abundant. + +{206}_The Mediterranean and Atlantic Islands._--The various islands of the +Mediterranean are interesting to the student of geographical distribution +as affording a few examples of local species of very restricted range, but +as a rule they present us with exactly the same forms as those of the +adjacent mainland.[6] Their peculiarities do not, therefore, properly come +within the scope of this work. The islands of the Atlantic Ocean belonging +to this sub-region are, from their isolated position and the various +problems they suggest, of much more interest, and their natural history has +been carefully studied. We shall therefore give a short account of their +peculiar features. + +Of the three groups of Atlantic islands belonging to this sub-region, the +Canaries are nearest to the Continent, some of the islands being only about +fifty miles from the coast of Africa. They are, however, separated from the +mainland by a very deep channel (more than 5,000 feet), as shown on our +general map. The islands extend over a length of 300 miles; they are very +mountainous and wholly volcanic, and the celebrated peak of Teneriffe rises +to a height of more than 12,000 feet. The small Madeira group is about 400 +miles from the coast of Morocco and 600 from the southern extremity of +Portugal; and there is a depth of more than 12,000 feet between it and the +continent. The Azores are nearly 1,000 miles west of Lisbon. They are quite +alone in mid-Atlantic, the most westerly islands being nearer Newfoundland +than Europe, and are surrounded by ocean depths of from 12,000 to 18,000 +feet. It will be convenient to take these islands first in order. + +_Azores._--Considering the remoteness of this group from every other land, +it is surprising to find as many as fifty-three species of birds inhabiting +or visiting the Azores; and still more to {207}find that they are of +Palæarctic genera and, with one exception, all of species found either in +Europe, North Africa, Madeira, or the Canaries. The exception is a +bullfinch peculiar to the islands, but closely allied to a European +species. Of land birds there are twenty-two, belonging to twenty-one +genera, all European. These genera are _Cerchneis_, _Buteo_, _Asio_, +_Strix_, _Turdus_, _Oriolus_, _Erithacus_, _Sylvia_, _Regulus_, _Saxicola_, +_Motacilla_, _Plectrophanes_, _Fringilla_, _Pyrrhula_, _Serinus_, +_Sturnus_, _Picus_, _Upupa_, _Columba_, _Caccabis_, and _Coturnix_. Besides +the bullfinch (_Pyrrhula_) other species show slight differences from their +European allies, but not such as to render them more than varieties. The +only truly indigenous mammal is a bat of a European species. Nine +butterflies inhabit the Azores; eight of them are European species, one +North American. Of beetles 212 have been collected, of which no less than +175 are European species; of the remainder, nineteen are found in the +Canaries or Madeira, three in South America, while fourteen are peculiar to +the islands. + +Now these facts (for which we are indebted to Mr. Godman's _Natural History +of the Azores_) are both unexpected and exceedingly instructive. In most +other cases of remote Oceanic islands, a much larger proportion of the +fauna is endemic, or consists of peculiar species and often of peculiar +genera; as is well shown by the case of the Galapagos and Juan Fernandez, +both much nearer to a continent and both containing peculiar genera and +species of birds. Now we know that the cause and meaning of this difference +is, that in the one case the original immigration is very remote and has +never or very rarely been repeated, so that under the unchecked influence +of new conditions of life the species have become modified; in the other +case, either the original immigration has been recent, or if remote has +been so frequently repeated that the new comers have kept up the purity of +the stock, and have not allowed time for the new conditions to produce the +effect we are sure they would in time produce if not counteracted. For Mr. +Godman tells us that many of the birds are modified--instancing the +gold-crested wren, blackcap, and rock dove--and he adds, that the +{208}modification all tends in one direction--to produce a more sombre +plumage, a greater strength of feet and legs, and a more robust bill. We +further find, that four of the land-birds, including the oriole, +snow-bunting, and hoopoe, are not resident birds, but straggle accidentally +to the islands by stress of weather; and we are told that every year some +fresh birds are seen after violent storms. Add to this the fact, that the +number of species diminishes in the group as we go from east to west, and +that the islands are subject to fierce and frequent storms blowing from +every point of the compass,--and we have all the facts requisite to enable +us to understand how this remote archipelago has become stocked with animal +life without ever probably being much nearer to Europe than it is now. For +the islands are all volcanic, the only stratified rock that occurs being +believed to be of Miocene date. + +_Madeira and the Canaries._--Coming next to Madeira, we find the number of +genera of land birds has increased to twenty-eight, of which seventeen are +identical with those of the Azores. Some of the commonest European +birds--swallows, larks, sparrows, linnets, goldfinches, ravens, and +partridges, are among the additions. A gold-crested warbler, _Regulus +Maderensis_, and a pigeon, _Columba Trocaz_, are peculiar to Madeira. + +In the Canaries we find that the birds have again very much increased, +there being more than fifty genera of land birds; but the additions are +wholly European in character, and almost all common European species. We +find a few more peculiar species (five), while some others, including the +wild canary, are common to all the Atlantic Islands or to the Canaries and +Madeira. Here, too, the only indigenous mammalia are two European species +of bats. + +_Land Shells._--The land shells of Madeira offer us an instructive contrast +to the birds of the Atlantic Islands. About fifty-six species have been +found in Madeira, and forty-two in the small adjacent island of Porto +Santo, but only twelve are common to both, and all or almost all are +distinct from their nearest allies in Europe and North Africa. Great +numbers of fossil shells are also found in deposits of the Newer Pliocene +period; and {209}although these comprise many fresh species, the two faunas +and that of the continent still remain almost as distinct from each other +as before. It has been already stated (p. 31) that the means by which land +mollusca have been carried across arms of the sea are unknown, although +several modes may be suggested; but it is evidently a rare event, requiring +some concurrence of favourable conditions not always present. The diversity +and specialization of the forms of these animals is, therefore, easily +explained by the fact, that, once introduced they have been left to +multiply under the influence of a variety of local conditions, which +inevitably lead, in the course of ages, to the formation of new varieties +and new species. + +_Coleoptera._--The beetles of Madeira and the Canaries have been so +carefully collected and examined by Mr. T. V. Wollaston, and those of the +Azores described and compared by Mr. Crotch, and they illustrate so many +curious points in geographical distribution, that it is necessary to give +some account of them. No less than 1,480 species of beetles have been +obtained from the Canaries and Madeira, only 360 of which are European, the +remainder being peculiar to the islands. The Canaries are inhabited by a +little over 1,000 species, Madeira by about 700, while 240 are common to +both; but it is believed that many of these have been introduced by man. In +the Azores, 212 species have been obtained, of which 175 are European; +showing, as in the birds, as closer resemblance to the European fauna than +in the other islands which, although nearer to the continent, offer more +shelter and are situated in a less tempestuous zone. Of the non-European +species in the Azores, 19 are found also in the other groups of islands, 14 +are peculiar, while 3 are American. Of the European species, 132 are found +also in the other Atlantic islands, while 43 have reached the Azores only. +This is interesting as showing to how great an extent the same insects +reach all the islands, notwithstanding the difference of latitude and +position; and it becomes of great theoretical importance, when we find how +many extensive families and genera are altogether absent. + +The Madeira group has been more thoroughly explored than {210}any other, +and its comparatively remote situation, combined with its luxuriant +vegetation, have been favourable to the development and increase of the +peculiar forms which characterize all the Atlantic islands in a more or +less marked degree. A consideration of some of its peculiarities will, +therefore, best serve to show the bearing of the facts presented by the +insect fauna of the Atlantic islands, on the general laws of distribution. +The 711 species of beetles now known from the Madeira group, belong to 236 +genera; and no less than 44 of these genera are not European but are +peculiar to the Atlantic islands. Most of them are, however, closely allied +to European genera, of which they are evidently modifications. A most +curious general feature presented by the Madeiran beetles, is the total +absence of many whole families and large genera abundant in South Europe. +Such are the Cicindelidæ, or tiger beetles; the Melolonthidæ, or chafers; +the Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers; the Eumolpidæ and Galerucidæ, large +families of Phytophagous, or leaf-eating beetles; and also the extensive +groups of Elateridæ and Buprestidæ, which are each represented by but one +minute species. Of extensive genera abundant in South Europe, but wholly +absent in Madeira, are _Carabus_, _Rhizotrogus_, _Lampyris_, and other +genera of Malacoderms; _Otiorhynchus_, _Brachycerus_, and 20 other genera +of Curculionidæ, comprising more than 300 South European and North African +species; _Pimelia_, _Tentyra_, _Blaps_, and 18 other genera of Heteromera, +comprising about 550 species in South Europe and North Africa; and +_Timarcha_, containing 44 South European and North African species. + +Another most remarkable feature of the Madeiran Coleoptera is the unusual +prevalence of apterous or wingless insects. This is especially the case +with groups which are confined to the Atlantic islands, many of which +consist wholly of wingless species; but it also affects the others, no less +than twenty-two genera which are usually or sometimes winged in Europe, +having only wingless species in Madeira; and even the same species which is +winged in Europe becomes, in at least three cases, wingless in Madeira, +without any other perceptible change having taken place. But there is +another most curious fact noticed by {211}Mr. Wollaston; that those species +which possess wings in Madeira, often have them rather larger than their +allies in Europe. These two facts were connected by Mr. Darwin, who +suggested that flying insects are much more exposed to be blown out to sea +and lost, than those which do not fly (and Mr. Wollaston had himself +supposed that the "stormy atmosphere" of Madeira had something to do with +the matter); so that the most frequent fliers would be continually weeded +out, while the more sluggish individuals, who either could not or would not +fly, remained to continue the race; and this process going on from +generation to generation, would, on the well-ascertained principles of +selection and abortion by disuse, in time lead to the entire loss of wings +by those insects to whom wings were _not a necessity_. But those whose +wings were essential to their existence would be acted upon in another way. +All these must fly to obtain their food or provide for their offspring, and +those that flew best would be best able to battle with the storms, and keep +themselves safe, and thus those with the longest and most powerful wings +would be preserved. If however all the individuals of the species were too +weak on the wing to resist the storms, they would soon become extinct.[7] + +Now this explanation of the facts is not only simple and probable in +itself, but it also serves to explain in a remarkable manner some of the +peculiarities and deficiencies of the Madeiran insect fauna, in harmony +with the view (supported by the distribution of the birds and land shells, +and in particular by the immigrant birds and insects of the Azores) that +all the insects have been derived from the continent or from other islands, +by {212}immigration across the ocean, in various ways and during a long +period. These deficiencies are, on the other hand, quite inconsistent with +the theory (still held by some entomologists) that a land communication is +absolutely necessary to account for the origin of the Madeiran fauna. + +First, then, we can understand how the tiger-beetles (Cicindelidæ) are +absent; since they are insects which have a short weak flight, but yet to +whom flight is necessary. If a few had been blown over to Madeira, they +would soon have become exterminated. The same thing applies to the +Melolonthidæ, Cetoniidæ, Eumolpidæ, and Galerucidæ,--all flower and +foliage-haunting insects, yet bulky and of comparatively feeble powers of +flight. Again, all the large genera abundant in South Europe, which have +been mentioned above as absent from Madeira, are wholly apterous (or +without wings), and thus their absence is a most significant fact; for it +proves that in the case of all insects of moderate size, flight was +essential to their reaching the island, which could not have been the case +had there been a land connection. There are, however, one or two curious +exceptions to the absence of these wholly apterous European genera in +Madeira, and as in each case the reason of their being exceptions can be +pointed out, they are eminently exceptions that prove the rule. Two of the +apterous species common to Europe and Madeira are found always in ants' +nests; and as ants, when winged, fly in great swarms and are carried by the +wind to great distances, they may have conveyed the minute eggs of these +very small beetles. Two European species of _Blaps_ occur in Madeira, but +these are house beetles, and are admitted to have been introduced by man. +There are also three species of _Meloe_, of which two are European and one +peculiar. These are large, sluggish, wingless insects, but they have a most +extraordinary and exceptional metamorphosis, the larvae in the first state +being minute active insects parasitic on bees, and thus easily conveyed +across the ocean. This case is most suggestive, as it accounts for what +would be otherwise a difficult anomaly. Another case, not quite so easily +explained, is that of the genus _Acalles_, which is very abundant in all +the Atlantic {213}islands and also occurs in South Europe, but is always +apterous. It is however closely allied to another genus, _Cryptorhynchus_, +which is apterous in some species, winged in others. We may therefore well +suppose that the ancestors of _Acalles_ were once in the same condition, +and that some of the winged forms reached Madeira, the genus having since +become wholly apterous. + +We may look at this curious subject in another way. The Coleoptera of +Madeira may be divided into those which are found also in Europe or the +other islands, and those which are peculiar to it. On the theory of +introduction by accidental immigration across the sea, the latter must be +the more ancient, since they have had time to become modified; while the +former are comparatively recent, and their introduction may be supposed to +be now going on. The peculiar influence of Madeira in aborting the wings +should, therefore, have acted on the ancient and changed forms much more +powerfully than on the recent and unchanged forms. On carefully comparing +the two sets of insects (omitting those which have almost certainly been +introduced by man) we find, that out of 263 species which have a wide +range, only 14 are apterous; while the other class, consisting of 393 +species, has no less than 178 apterous; or about 5 per cent in the one +case, and 45 per cent in the other.[8] On the theory of a land connection +as the main agent in introducing the fauna, both groups must have been +introduced at or about the same time, and why one set should have lost +their wings and the other not, is quite inexplicable. + +Taking all these singular facts, in connection with the total absence of +all truly indigenous terrestrial mammalia and reptiles from these +islands--even from the extensive group of the Canaries so comparatively +near to the continent, we are forced to reject the theory of a land +connection as quite untenable; and this view becomes almost demonstrated by +the case of the Azores, which being so much further off, and surrounded by +such a vast expanse of deep ocean, could only have been {214}connected with +Europe at a far remoter epoch, and ought therefore to exhibit to us a fauna +composed almost entirely of peculiar forms both of birds and insects. Yet, +so far from this being the case, the facts are exactly the reverse. Far +more of the birds and insects are identical with those of Europe than in +the other islands, and this difference is clearly traced to the more +tempestuous atmosphere, which is shown to be even now annually bringing +fresh immigrants (both birds and insects) to its shores. We here see nature +actually at work; and if the case of Madeira rendered her mode of action +probable, that of the Azores may be said to demonstrate it. + +Mr. Wollaston has objected to this view that "storms and hurricanes" are +somewhat rare in the latitude of Madeira and the Canaries; but this little +affects the question, since the _time_ allowed for such operations is so +ample. If but one very violent storm happened in a century, and ten such +storms recurred before a single species of insect was introduced into +Madeira, that would be more than sufficient to people it, as we now find +it, with a varied fauna. But he also adds the important information that +the ordinary winds blow almost uninterruptedly from the north-east, so that +there would be always a chance of a little stronger wind than usual +bringing insect, or larva, or egg, attached to leaves or twigs. Neither Mr. +Wollaston, Mr. Crotch, Mr. A. Murray, nor any other naturalist who upholds +the land-connection theory, has attempted to account for the fact of the +absence of so many extensive groups of insects that ought to be present, as +well as of all small mammalia and reptiles. + +_Cape Verd Islands._--There is yet another group of Atlantic islands which +is very little known, and which is usually considered to be altogether +African--the Cape Verd Islands, situated between 300 and 400 miles west of +Senegal, and a little to the south of the termination of the Sahara. The +evidence that we possess as to the productions of these islands, shows +that, like the preceding groups, they are truly oceanic, and have probably +derived their fauna from the desert and the Canaries to the north-east of +them rather than from the fertile and more truly {215}Ethiopian districts +of Senegal and Gambia to the east. There is a mingling of the two faunas, +but the preponderance seems to be undoubtedly with the Palæarctic rather +than with the Ethiopian. I owe to Mr. R. B. Sharpe of the British Museum, a +MS. list of the birds of these islands, twenty-three species in all. Of +these eight are of wide distribution and may be neglected. Seven are +undoubted Palæarctic species, viz.:--_Milvus ictinus_, _Sylvia +atricapilla_, _S. conspicillata_, _Corvus corone_, _Passer salicarius_, +_Certhilauda desertorum_, _Columba livia_. Three are peculiar species, but +of Palæarctic genera and affinities, viz.:--_Calamoherpe brevipennis_, +_Ammomanes cinctura_, and _Passer jagoensis_. Against this we have to set +two West African species, _Estrilda cinerea_ and _Numida meleagris_, both +of which were probably introduced by man; and three which are of Ethiopian +genera and affinities, viz.:--_Halcyon erythrorhyncha_, closely allied to +_H. semicærulea_ of Arabia and North-east Africa, and therefore almost +Palæarctic; _Accipiter melanoleucus_; and _Pyrrhulauda nigriceps_, an +Ethiopian form; but the same species occurs in the Canaries. + +The Coleoptera of these islands have been also collected by Mr. Wollaston, +and he finds that they have generally the same European character as those +of the Canaries and Madeira, several of the peculiar Atlantic genera, such +as _Acalles_ and _Hegeter_, occurring, while others are represented by new +but closely allied genera. Out of 275 species 91 were found also in the +Canaries and 81 in the Madeiran group; a wonderful amount of similarity +when we consider the distance and isolation of these islands and their +great diversity of climate and vegetation. + +This connection of the four groups of Atlantic islands now referred to, +receives further support from the occurrence of land-shells of the subgenus +_Leptaxis_ in all the groups, as well as in Majorca; and by another +subgenus, _Hemicycla_, being common to the Canaries and Cape Verd islands. +Combining these several classes of facts, we seem justified in extending +the Mediterranean sub-region to include the Cape Verd Islands. + + +{216}_III.--The Siberian Sub-region, or Northern Asia._ + +This large and comparatively little-known subdivision of the Palæarctic +region, extends from the Caspian Sea to Kamschatka and Behring's Straits, a +distance of about 4,000 miles; and from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to +the high Himalayas of Sikhim in North Latitude 29°, on the same parallel as +Delhi. To the east of the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains is a great +extent of lowland which is continued round the northern coast, becoming +narrower as it approaches the East Cape. Beyond this, in a general E.N.E. +direction, rise hills and uplands, soon becoming lofty mountains, which +extend in an unbroken line from the Hindu Koosh, through the Thian Shan, +Altai and Yablonoi Mountains, to the Stanovoi range in the north-eastern +extremity of Asia. South of this region is a great central basin, which is +almost wholly desert; beyond which again is the vast plateau of Thibet, +with the Kuenlun, Karakorum, and Himalayan snow-capped ranges, forming the +most extensive elevated district on the globe. + +The superficial aspects of this vast territory, as determined by its +vegetable covering, are very striking and well contrasted. A broad tract on +the northern coast, varying from 150 to 300 and even 500 miles wide, is +occupied by the Tundras or barrens, where nothing grows but mosses and the +dwarfest Arctic plants, and where the ground is permanently frozen to a +great depth. This tract has its greatest southern extension between the +rivers Obi and Yenesi, where it reaches the parallel of 60° north latitude. +Next to this comes a vast extent of northern forests, mostly of conifers in +the more northern and lofty situations, while deciduous trees preponderate +in the southern portions and in the more sheltered valleys. The greatest +extension of this forest region is north of Lake Baikal, where it is more +than 1,200 miles wide. These forests extend along the mountain ranges to +join those of the Hindu Koosh. South of the forests the remainder of the +sub-region consists of open pasture-lands and vast intervening deserts, of +which the Gobi, and those of Turkestan between the Aral and Balkash lakes, +are the most {217}extensive. The former is nearly 1,000 miles long, with a +width of from 200 to 350 miles, and is almost as complete a desert as the +Sahara. + +With very few exceptions, this vast territory is exposed to an extreme +climate, inimical to animal life. All the lower parts being situated to the +north, have an excessively cold winter, so that the limit of constantly +frozen ground descends below the parallel of 60° north latitude. To the +south, the land is greatly elevated, and the climate extremely dry. In +summer the heat is excessive, while the winter is almost as severe as +further north. The whole country, too, is subject to violent storms, both +in summer and winter; and the rich vegetation that clothes the steppes in +spring, is soon parched up and replaced by dusty plains. Under these +adverse influences we cannot expect animal life to be so abundant as in +those sub-regions subject to more favourable physical conditions; yet the +country is so extensive and so varied, that it does actually, as we shall +see, possess a very considerable and interesting fauna. + +_Mammalia._--Four genera seem to be absolutely confined to this sub-region, +_Nectogale_, a peculiar form of the mole family (Talpidæ); _Poephagus_, the +yak, or hairy bison of Thibet; with _Procapra_ and _Pantholops_, Thibetan +antelopes. Some others more especially belong here, although they just +enter Europe, as _Saiga_, the Tartarian antelope; _Sminthus_, a desert +rat;, and _Ellobius_, a burrowing mole-rat; while _Myospalax_, a curious +rodent allied to the voles, is found only in the Altai mountains and North +China; and _Moschus_, the musk-deer, is almost confined to this sub-region. +Among the characteristic animals of the extreme north, are _Mustela_, and +_Martes_, including the ermine and sable; _Gulo_, the glutton; _Tarandus_, +the reindeer; _Myodes_, the lemming; with the lynx, arctic fox, and polar +bear; and here, in the Post-pliocene epoch, ranged the hairy rhinoceros and +Siberian mammoth, whose entire bodies still remain preserved in the +ice-cliffs near the mouths of the great rivers. Farther south, species of +wild cat, bear, wolf, deer, and pika (_Lagomys_) abound; while in the +mountains we find wild goats and sheep of several species, and in the +plains and deserts wild horses {218}and asses, gazelles, two species of +antelopes, flying squirrels (_Pteromys_), ground squirrels (_Tamias_), +marmots, of the genus _Spermophilus_, with camels and dromedaries, probably +natives of the south-western part of this sub-region. The most abundant and +conspicuous of the mammalia are the great herds of reindeer in the north, +the wolves of the steppes, with the wild horses, goats, sheep, and +antelopes of the plateaus and mountains. + +Among the curiosities of this sub-region we must notice the seal, found in +the inland and freshwater lake Baikal, at an elevation of about 2,000 feet +above the sea. It is a species of _Callocephalus_, closely allied to, if +not identical with, one inhabiting northern seas as well as the Caspian and +Lake Aral. This would indicate that almost all northern Asia was depressed +beneath the sea very recently; and Mr. Belt's view, of the ice during the +glacial epoch having dammed up the rivers and converted much of Siberia +into a vast freshwater or brackish lake, perhaps offers the best solution +of the difficulty.[9] + +_Plate II.--Characteristic Mammalia of Western Tartary._--Several of the +most remarkable animals of the Palæarctic region inhabit Western Tartary, +and are common to the European and Siberian sub-regions. We therefore +choose this district for one of our illustrative plates. The large animals +in the centre are the remarkable saiga antelopes (_Saiga Tartarica_), +distinguished from all others by a large and fleshy proboscis-like nose, +which gives them a singular appearance. They differ so much from all other +antelopes that they have been formed into a distinct family by some +naturalists, but are here referred to the great family Bovidæ. They inhabit +the open plains from Poland to the Irtish River. On the left is the +mole-rat, or sand-rat (_Spalax murinus_). This animal burrows under ground +like a mole, feeding on bulbous roots. It inhabits the same country as the +saiga, but extends farther south in Europe. On the right is a still more +curious animal, the desman (_Myogale Muscovitica_), a long-snouted +water-mole. This creature is fifteen inches long, including the tail; it +burrows in the banks of streams, feeding on insects, {219}worms, and +leeches; it swims well, and remains long under water, raising the tip of +the snout, where the nostrils are situated, to the surface when it wants to +breathe. It is thus well concealed; and this may be one use of the +development of the long snout, as well as serving to follow worms into +their holes in the soft earth. This species is confined to the rivers Volga +and Don in Southern Russia, and the only other species known inhabits some +of the valleys on the north side of the Pyrenees. In the distance are +wolves, a characteristic feature of these wastes. + +Plate II. + +[Illustration] + +CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA OF WESTERN TARTARY. + + + +_Birds._--But few genera of birds are absolutely restricted to this +sub-region. _Podoces_, a curious form of starling, is the most decidedly +so; _Mycerobas_ and _Pyrrhospiza_ are genera of finches confined to Thibet +and the snowy Himalayas; _Leucosticte_, another genus of finches, is +confined to the eastern half of the sub-region and North America; +_Tetraogallus_, a large kind of partridge, ranges west to the Caucasus; +_Syrrhaptes_, a form of sand-grouse, and _Lerwa_ (snow-partridge), are +almost confined here, only extending into the next sub-region; as do +_Grandala_, and _Calliope_, genera of warblers, _Uragus_, a finch allied to +the North American cardinals, and _Crossoptilon_, a remarkable group of +pheasants. + +Almost all the genera of central and northern Europe are found here, and +give quite a European character to the ornithology, though a considerable +number of the species are different. There are a few Oriental forms, such +as _Abrornis_ and _Larvivora_ (warblers); with _Ceriornis_ and _Ithaginis_, +genera of pheasants, which reach the snow-line in the Himalayas and thus +just enter this sub-region, but as they do not penetrate farther north, +they hardly serve to modify the exclusively Palæarctic character of its +ornithology. + +According to Middendorf, the extreme northern Asiatic birds are the Alpine +ptarmigan (_Lagopus mutus_); the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_); +the raven, the gyrfalcon and the snowy-owl. Those which are characteristic +of the barren "tundras," but which do not range so far north as the +preceding are,--the willow-grouse (_Lagopus albus_); the Lapland-bunting +(_Plectrophanes {220}lapponica_); the shore-lark (_Otocorys alpestris_); +the sand-martin (_Cotyle riparia_), and the sea-eagle (_Haliæetus +albicilla_). + +Those which are more characteristic of the northern forests, and which do +not pass beyond them, are--the linnet; two crossbills (_Loxia Leucoptera_ +and _L. Curvirostra_); the pine grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_); the +waxwing; the common magpie; the common swallow; the peregrine falcon; the +rough-legged buzzard; and three species of owls. + +Fully one-half of the land-birds of Siberia are identical with those of +Europe, the remainder being mostly representative species peculiar to +Northern Asia, with a few stragglers and immigrants from China and Japan or +the Himalayas. A much larger proportion of the wading and aquatic families +are European or Arctic, these groups having always a wider range than land +birds. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--From the nature of the country and climate these +are comparatively few, but in the more temperate districts snakes and +lizards seem to be not uncommon. _Halys_, a genus of Crotaline snakes, and +_Phrynocephalus_, lizards of the family Agamidæ, are characteristic of +these parts. _Simotes_, a snake of the family Oligodontidæ, reaches an +elevation of 16,000 feet in the Himalayas, and therefore enters this +sub-region. + +_Insects._--_Mesapia_ and _Hypermnestra_, genera of Papilionidæ, are +butterflies peculiar to this sub-region; and _Parnassius_ is as +characteristic as it is of our European mountains. Carabidæ are also +abundant, as will be seen by referring to the Chapter on the Distribution +of Insects in the succeeding part of this work. The insects, on the whole, +have a strictly European character, although a large proportion of the +species are peculiar, and several new genera appear. + + +_IV.--Japan and North China, or the Manchurian Sub-region._ + +This is an interesting and very productive district, corresponding in the +east to the Mediterranean sub-region in the west, or rather perhaps to all +western temperate Europe. Its limits are not very well defined, but it +probably includes all Japan; the Corea and Manchuria to the Amour river and +to the lower {221}slopes of the Khingan and Peling mountains; and China to +the Nanlin mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang. On the coast of China the +dividing line between it and the Oriental region seems to be somewhere +about Foo-chow, but as there is here no natural barrier, a great +intermingling of northern and southern forms takes place. + +Japan is volcanic and mountainous, with a fine climate and a most luxuriant +and varied vegetation. Manchuria is hilly, with a high range of mountains +on the coast, and some desert tracts in the interior, but fairly wooded in +many parts. Much of northern China is a vast alluvial plain, backed by +hills and mountains with belts of forest, above which are the dry and +barren uplands of Mongolia. We have a tolerable knowledge of China, of +Japan, and of the Amoor valley, but very little of Corea and Manchuria. The +recent researches of Père David in Moupin, in east Thibet, said to be +between 31° and 32° north latitude, show, that the fauna of the Oriental +region here advances northward along the flanks of the Yun-ling mountains +(a continuation of the Himalayas); since he found at different altitudes +representatives of the Indo-Chinese, Manchurian, and Siberian faunas. On +the higher slopes of the Himalayas, there must be a narrow strip from about +8,000 to 11,000 feet elevation intervening between the tropical fauna of +the Indo-Chinese sub-region and the almost arctic fauna of Thibet; and the +animals of this zone will for the most part belong to the fauna of +temperate China and Manchuria, except in the extreme west towards Cashmere, +where the Mediterranean fauna will in like manner intervene. On a map of +sufficiently large scale, therefore, it would be necessary to extend our +present sub-region westward along the Himalayas, in a narrow strip just +below the upper limits of forests. It is evident that the large number of +Fringillidæ, Corvidæ, Troglodytidæ, and Paridæ, often of south Palæarctic +forms, that abound in the higher Himalayas, are somewhat out of place as +members of the Oriental fauna, and are equally so in that of Thibet and +Siberia; but they form a natural portion of that of North China on the one +side, or of South Europe on the other. + +{222}_Mammalia._--This sub-region contains a number of peculiar and very +interesting forms, most of which have been recently discovered by Père +David in North and West China and East Thibet. The following are the +peculiar genera:--_Rhinopithecus_, a sub-genus of monkeys, here classed +under _Semnopithecus_; _Anurosorex_, _Scaptochirus_, _Uropsilus_ and +_Scaptonyx_, new forms of Talpidæ or moles; _Æluropus_ (Æluridæ); +_Nyctereutes_ (Canidæ); _Lutronectes_ (Mustelidæ); _Cricetulus_ (Muridæ); +_Hydropotes_, _Moschus_, and _Elaphodus_ (Cervidæ). The _Rhinopithecus_ +appears to be a permanent inhabitant of the highest forests of Moupin, in a +cold climate. It has a very thick fur, as has also a new species of +_Macacus_ found in the same district. North China and East Thibet seem to +be very rich in Insectivora. _Scaptochirus_ is like a mole; _Uropsilus_ +between the Japanese _Urotrichus_ and _Sorex_; _Scaptonyx_ between +_Urotrichus_ and _Talpa_. _Æluropus_ seems to be the most remarkable mammal +discovered by Père David. It is allied to the singular panda (_Ælurus +fulgens_) of Nepal, but is as large as a bear, the body wholly white, with +the feet, ears, and tip of the tail black. It inhabits the highest forests, +and is therefore a true Palæarctic animal, as most likely is the _Ælurus_. +_Nyctereutes_, a curious racoon-like dog, ranges from Canton to North +China, the Amoor and Japan, and therefore seems to come best in this +sub-region; _Hydropotes_ and _Lophotragus_ are small hornless deer confined +to North China; _Elaphodus_, from East Thibet, is another peculiar form of +deer; while the musk deer (_Moschus_) is confined to this sub-region and +the last. Besides the above, the following Palæarctic genera were found by +Père David in this sub-region: _Macacus_: five genera or sub-genera of bats +(_Vespertilio_, _Vesperus_, _Vesperugo_, _Rhinolophus_, and _Murina_); +_Erinaceus_, _Nectogale_, _Talpa_, _Crocidura_ and _Sorex_, among +Insectivora; _Mustela_, _Putorius_, _Martes_, _Lutra_, _Viverra_, _Meles_, +_Ælurus_, _Ursus_, _Felis_, and _Canis_, among _Carnivora_; _Hystrix_, +_Arctomys_, _Myospalax_, _Spermophilus_, _Gerbillus_, _Dipus_, _Lagomys_, +_Lepus_, _Sciurus_, _Pteromys_, _Arvicola_, and _Mus_, among Rodentia; +_Budorcas_, _Nemorhedus_, _Antilope_, _Ovis_, _Moschus_, _Cervulus_ and +_Cervus_ among Ruminants; and the wide-spread _Sus_ or wild boar. The +following Oriental genera are also {223}included in Père David's list, but +no doubt occur only in the lowlands and warm valleys, and can hardly be +considered to belong to the Palæarctic region: _Paguma_, _Helictis_, +_Arctonyx_, _Rhizomys_, _Manis_. The _Rhizomys_ from Moupin is a peculiar +species of this tropical genus, but all the others inhabit Southern China. + +A few additional forms occur in Japan: _Urotrichus_, a peculiar Mole, which +is found also in north-west America; _Enhydra_, the sea otter of +California; and the dormouse (_Myoxus_). Japan also possesses peculiar +species of _Macacus_, _Talpa_, _Meles_, _Canis_, and _Sciuropterus_. + +It will be seen that this sub-region is remarkably rich in Insectivora, of +which it possesses ten genera; and that it has also several peculiar forms +of Carnivora, Rodentia, and Ruminants. + +_Birds._--To give an accurate idea of the ornithology of this sub-region is +very difficult, both on account of its extreme richness and the +impossibility of defining the limits between it and the Oriental region. A +considerable number of genera which are well developed in the high +Himalayas, and some which are peculiar to that district, have hitherto +always been classed as Indian, and therefore Oriental groups; but they more +properly belong to this sub-region. Many of them frequent the highest +forests, or descend into the Himalayan temperate zone only in winter; and +others are so intimately connected with Palæarctic species, that they can +only be considered as stragglers into the border land of the Oriental +region. On these principles we consider the following genera to be confined +to this sub-region:-- + +_Grandala_, _Nemura_ (Sylviidæ); _Pterorhinus_ (Timaliidæ); _Cholornis_, +_Conostoma_, _Heteromorpha_ (Panuridæ); _Cyanoptila_ (Muscicapidæ); +_Eophona_ (Fringillidæ); _Dendrotreron_ (Columbidæ); _Lophophorus_, +_Tetraophasis_, _Crossoptilon_, _Pucrasia_, _Thaumalea_, and _Ithaginis_ +(Phasianidæ). This may be called the sub-region of Pheasants; for the above +six genera, comprising sixteen species of the most magnificent birds in the +world, are all confined to the temperate or cold mountainous regions of the +Himalayas, Thibet, and China; and in addition we have {224}most of the +species of tragopan (_Ceriornis_), and some of the true pheasants +(_Phasianus_). + +The most abundant and characteristic of the smaller birds are warblers, +tits, and finches, of Palæarctic types; but there are also a considerable +number of Oriental forms which penetrate far into the country, and mingling +with the northern birds give a character to the Ornithology of this +sub-region very different from that of the Mediterranean district at the +western end of the region. Leaving out a large number of wide-ranging +groups, this mixture of types may be best exhibited by giving lists of the +more striking Palæarctic and Oriental genera which are here found +intermingled. + + + PALÆARCTIC GENERA. + + SYLVIIDÆ. + Erithacus. + Ruticilla. + Locustella. + Cyanecula. + Sylvia. + Potamodus. + Reguloides. + Regulus. + Accentor. + + CINCLIDÆ. + Cinclus. + + TROGLODYTIDÆ. + Troglodytidæ. + + CERTHIIDÆ. + Certhia. + Sitta. + Tichodroma. + + PARIDÆ. + Parus. + Lophophanes. + Acredula. + + CORVIDÆ. + Fregilus. + Nucifraga. + Pica. + Cyanopica. + Garrulus. + + AMPELIDÆ. + Ampelis. + + FRINGILLIDÆ. + Fringilla. + Chrysomitris. + Chlorospiza. + Passer. + Coccothraustes. + Pyrrhula. + Carpodacus. + Uragus. + Loxia. + Linota. + Emberiza. + + STURNIDÆ. + Sturnus. + + ALAUDIDÆ. + Otocorys. + + PICIDÆ. + Picoides. + Picus. + Hyopicus. + Dryocopus. + + YUNGIDÆ. + Yunx. + + PTEROCLIDÆ. + Syrrhaptes. + + TETRAONIDÆ. + Tetrao. + Tetraogallus. + Lerwa. + Lagopus. + + VULTURIDÆ. + Gypaëtus. + Vultur. + + FALCONIDÆ. + Archibuteo. + + +ORIENTAL GENERA. + + SYLVIIDÆ. + Suya. + Calliope. + Larvivora. + Tribura. + Horites. + Abrornis. + Copsychus. + + TURDIDÆ. + Oreocincla. + + TIMALIIDÆ. + Alcippe. + Timalia. + Pterocyclus. + Garrulax. + Trochalopteron. + Pomatorhinus. {225} + Suthora. + + PANURIDÆ. + Paradoxornis. + + CINCLIDÆ. + Enicurus. + Myiophonus. + + TROGLODYTIDÆ. + Pnoepyga. + + LIOTRICHIDÆ. + Liothrix. + Yuhina. + Pteruthius. + + PYCNONOTIDÆ. + Microscelis. + Pycnonotus. + Hypsipetes. + + CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. + Pericrocotus. + + DICRURIDÆ. + Dicrurus. + Chibia. + Buchanga. + + MUSCICAPIDÆ. + Xanthopygia. + Niltava. + Tchitrea. + + CORVIDÆ. + Urocissa. + + NECTARINEIDÆ. + Æthopyga. + + MOTACILLIDÆ. + Nemoricola. + + DICÆIDÆ. + Zosterops. + + FRINGILLIDÆ. + Melophus. + Pyrgilauda. + + PLOCEIDÆ. + Munia. + + STURNIDÆ. + Acridotheres. + Sturnia. + + PITTIDÆ. + Pitta. + + PICIDÆ. + Vivia. + Yungipicus. + Gecinus. + + CORACIIDÆ. + Eurystomus. + + ALCEDINIDÆ. + Halcyon. + Ceryle. + + UPUPIDÆ. + Upupa. + + PSITTACIDÆ. + Palæornis. + + COLUMBIDÆ. + Treron. + Ianthænas. + Macropygia. + + PHASIANIDÆ. + Phasianus. + Ceriornis. + + STRIGIDÆ. + Scops. + +In the above lists there are rather more Oriental than Palæarctic genera; +but it must be remembered that most of the former are summer migrants only, +or stragglers just entering the sub-region; whereas the great majority of +the latter are permanent residents, and a large proportion of them range +over the greater part of the Manchurian district. Many of those in the +Oriental column should perhaps be omitted, as we have no exact +determination of their range, and the limits of the regions are very +uncertain. It must be remembered, too, that the Palæarctic genera of +Sylviidæ, Paridæ, and Fringillidæ, are often represented by numerous +species, whereas the corresponding Oriental genera have for the most part +only single species; and we shall then find that, except towards the +borders of the Oriental region the Palæarctic element is strongly +predominant. Four of the more especially Oriental groups are confined to +Japan, the southern {226}extremity of which should perhaps come in the +Oriental region. The great richness of this sub-region compared with that +of Siberia is well shown by the fact, that a list of all the known +land-birds of East Siberia, including Dahuria and the comparatively fertile +Amoor Valley, contains only 190 species; whereas Père David's catalogue of +the birds of Northern China with adjacent parts of East Thibet and Mongolia +(a very much smaller area) contains for the same families 366 species. Of +the Siberian birds more than 50 per cent, are European species, while those +of the Manchurian sub-region comprise about half that proportion of +land-birds which are identical with those of Europe. + +Japan is no doubt very imperfectly known, as only 134 land-birds are +recorded from it. Of these twenty-two are peculiar species, a number that +would probably be diminished were the Corea to be explored. Of the genera, +only nine are Indo-Malayan, while forty-three are Palæarctic. + +_Plate III.--Scene on the Borders of North-West China and Mongolia with +Characteristic Mammalia and Birds._--The mountainous districts of Northern +China, with the adjacent portions of Thibet and Mongolia, are the +head-quarters of the pheasant tribe, many of the most beautiful and +remarkable species being found there only. In the north-western provinces +of China and the southern parts of Mongolia may be found the species +figured. That in the foreground is the superb golden pheasant (_Thaumalea +picta_), a bird that can hardly be surpassed for splendour of plumage by +any denizen of the tropics. The large bird perched above is the eared +pheasant (_Crossoptilon auritum_), a species of comparatively sober plumage +but of remarkable and elegant form. In the middle distance is Pallas's sand +grouse (_Syrrhaptes paradoxus_), a curious bird, whose native country seems +to be the high plains of Northern Asia, but which often abounds near Pekin, +and in 1863 astonished European ornithologists by appearing in considerable +numbers in Central and Western Europe, in every part of Great Britain, and +even in Ireland. + +Plate III. + +[Illustration] + +CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF NORTH CHINA. + + + +The quadruped figured is the curious racoon dog (_Nyctereutes +procyonoides_), {227}an animal confined to North China, Japan, and the +Amoor Valley, and having no close allies in any other part of the globe. In +the distance are some deer, a group of animals very abundant and varied in +this part of the Palæarctic region. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Reptiles are scarce in North China, only four or +five species of snakes, a lizard and one of the Geckotidæ occurring in the +country round Pekin. The genus _Halys_ is the most characteristic form of +snake, while _Callophis_, an oriental genus, extends to Japan. Among +lizards, _Plestiodon_, _Maybouya_, _Tachydromus_, and _Gecko_ reach Japan, +the two latter being very characteristic of the Oriental region. + +Amphibia are more abundant and interesting; _Hynobius_, _Onychodactylus_, +and _Sieboldtia_ (Salamandridæ) being peculiar to it, while most of the +European genera are also represented. + +_Fresh-water Fish._--Of these there are a few peculiar genera; as +_Plecoglossus_ (Salmonidæ) from Japan; _Achilognathus_, _Pseudoperilampus_, +_Ochetobius_, and _Opsariichthys_ (Cyprinidæ); and there are many other +Chinese Cyprinidæ belonging to the border land of the Palæarctic and +Oriental regions. + +_Insects._--The butterflies of this sub-region exhibit the same mixture of +tropical and temperate forms as the birds. Most of the common European +genera are represented, and there are species of _Parnassius_ in Japan and +the Amoor. _Isodema_, a peculiar genus of Nymphalidæ is found near Ningpo, +just within our limits; and _Sericinus_, one of the most beautiful genera +of Papilionidæ is peculiar to North China, where four species occur, thus +balancing the _Thais_ and _Doritis_ of Europe. The genus _Zephyrus_ +(Lycænidæ) is well represented by six species in Japan and the Amoor, +against two in Europe. _Papilio paris_ and _P. bianor_, magnificent insects +of wholly tropical appearance, abound near Pekin, and allied forms inhabit +Japan and the Amoor, as well as _P. demetrius_ and _P. alcinous_ belonging +to the "Protenor" group of the Himalayas. Other tropical genera occurring +in Japan, the Amoor, or North China are, _Debis_, _Neope_, _Mycalesis_, +_Ypthimia_ (Satyridæ); _Thaumantis_ (Morphidæ), at Shanghae; _Euripus_, +_Neptis_, _Athyma_ (Nymphalidæ); _Terias_ (Pieridæ); and the +above-mentioned Papilionidæ. + +{228}_Coleoptera._--The beetles of Japan decidedly exhibit a mixture of +tropical forms with others truly Palæarctic, and it has been with some +naturalists a matter of doubt whether the southern and best known portion +of the islands should not be joined to the Oriental region. An important +addition to our knowledge of the insects of this country has recently been +made by Mr. George Lewis, and a portion of his collections have been +described by various entomologists in the _Transactions of the +Entomological Society of London_. As the question is one of considerable +interest we shall give a summary of the results fairly deducible from what +is now known of the entomology of Japan; and it must be remembered that +almost all our collections come from the southern districts, in what is +almost a sub-tropical climate; so that if we find a considerable proportion +of Palæarctic forms, we may be pretty sure that the preponderance will be +much greater a little further north. + +Of Carabidæ Mr. Bates enumerates 244 species belonging to 84 genera, and by +comparing these with the Coleoptera of a tract of about equal extent in +western Europe, he concludes that there is little similarity, and that the +cases of affinity to the forms of eastern tropical Asia preponderate. By +comparing his genera with the distributions as given in _Gemminger and +Harold's Catalogue_, a somewhat different result is arrived at. Leaving out +the generic types altogether peculiar to Japan, and also those genera of +such world-wide distribution that they afford no clear indications for our +purpose, it appears that no less than twenty-two genera, containing +seventy-four of the Japanese species, are either exclusively Palæarctic, +Palæarctic and Nearctic, or highly characteristic of the Palæarctic region; +then come thirteen genera containing eighty-seven of the species which have +a very wide distribution, but are also Palæarctic: we next have seventeen +genera containing twenty-four of the Japanese species which are decidedly +Oriental and tropical. Here then the fair comparison is between the +twenty-two genera and seventy-four species whose affinities are clearly +Palæarctic or at least north temperate, and seventeen genera with +twenty-four species which are Asiatic and tropical; and this seems to prove +that, although South {229}Japan (like North China) has a considerable +infusion of tropical forms, there is a preponderating substratum of +Palæarctic forms, which clearly indicate the true position of the islands +in zoological geography. There are also a few cases of what may be called +eccentric distribution; which show that Japan, like many other +island-groups, has served as a kind of refuge in which dying-out forms +continue to maintain themselves. These, which are worthy of notice, are as +follows: _Orthotrichus_ (1 sp.) has the only other species in Egypt; +_Trechichus_ (1 sp.) has two other species, of which one inhabits Madeira, +the other the Southern United States; _Perileptus_ (1 sp.) has two other +species, of which one inhabits Bourbon, the other West Europe; and lastly, +_Crepidogaster_ (1 sp.) has the other known species in South Africa. These +cases diminish the value of the indications afforded by some of the +Japanese forms, whose only allies are single species in various remote +parts of the Oriental region. + +The Staphylinidæ have been described by Dr. Sharp, and his list exhibits a +great preponderance of north temperate, or cosmopolitan forms, with a few +which are decidedly tropical. The Pselaphidæ and Scydmenidæ, also described +by Dr. Sharp, exhibit, according to that gentleman, "even a greater +resemblance to those of North America than to those of Europe," but he says +nothing of any tropical affinities. The water-beetles are all either +Palæarctic or of wide distribution. + +The Lucanidæ (_Gemm. and Har. Cat._, 1868) exhibit an intermingling of +Palæarctic and Oriental genera. + +The Cetoniidæ (_Gemm. and Har. Cat._, 1869) show, for North China and +Japan, three Oriental to two Palæarctic genera. + +The Buprestidæ collected by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Edward +Saunders in the _Journal of the Linnæan Society_, vol. xi. p. 509. The +collection consisted of thirty-six species belonging to fourteen genera. No +less than thirteen of these are known also from India and the Malay +Islands; nine from Europe; seven from Africa; six from America, and four +from China. In six of the genera the Japanese species are said to be allied +to those of the Oriental region; while in three they are allied to European +forms, and in two to American. Considering {230}the southern latitude and +warm climate in which these insects were mostly collected, and the +proximity to Formosa and the Malay Islands compared with the enormous +distance from Europe, this shows as much Palæarctic affinity as can be +expected. In the Palæarctic region the group is only plentiful in the +southern parts of Europe, which is cut off by the cold plateau of Thibet +from all direct communication with Japan; while in the Oriental region it +everywhere abounds and is, in fact, one of the most conspicuous and +dominant families of Coleoptera. + +The Longicorns collected by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Bates in +the _Annals of Natural History for 1873_. The number of species now known +from Japan is 107, belonging to sixty-four genera. The most important +genera are _Leptura_, _Clytanthus_, _Monohammus_, _Praonetha_, +_Exocentrus_, _Glenea_, and _Oberea_. There are twenty-one tropical genera, +and seven peculiar to Japan, leaving thirty-six either Palæarctic or of +very wide range. A number of the genera are Oriental and Malayan, and many +characteristic European genera seem to be absent; but it is certain that +not half the Japanese Longicorns are yet known, and many of these gaps will +doubtless be filled up when the more northern islands are explored. + +The Phytophaga, described by Mr. Baly, appear to have a considerable +preponderance of tropical Oriental forms. + +A considerable collection of Hymenoptera formed by Mr. Lewis have been +described by Mr. Frederick Smith; and exhibit the interesting result, that +while the bees and wasps are decidedly of tropical and Oriental forms, the +Tenthredinidæ and Ichneumonidæ are as decidedly Palæarctic, "the general +aspect of the collection being that of a European one, only a single exotic +form being found among them." + +_Remarks on the General Character of the Fauna of Japan._--From a general +view of the phenomena of distribution we feel justified in placing Japan in +the Palæarctic region; although some tropical groups, especially of +reptiles and insects, have largely occupied its southern portions; and +these same groups have in many cases spread into Northern China, beyond the +{231}usual dividing line of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The causes +of such a phenomenon are not difficult to conceive. Even now, that portion +of the Palæarctic region between Western Asia and Japan is, for the most +part, a bleak and inhospitable region, abounding in desert plateaus, and +with a rigorous climate even in its most favoured districts, and can, +therefore, support but a scanty population of snakes, and of such groups of +insects as require flowers, forests, or a considerable period of warm +summer weather; and it is precisely these which are represented in Japan +and North China by tropical forms. We must also consider, that during the +Glacial epoch this whole region would have become still less productive, +and that, as the southern limit of the ice retired northward, it would be +followed up by many tropical forms along with such as had been driven south +by its advance, and had survived to return to their northern homes. + +It is also evident that Japan has a more equable and probably moister +climate than the opposite shores of China, and has also a very different +geological character, being rocky and broken, often volcanic, and +supporting a rich, varied, and peculiar vegetation. It would thus be well +adapted to support all the more hardy denizens of the tropics which might +at various times reach it, while it might not be so well adapted for the +more boreal forms from Mongolia or Siberia. The fact that a mixture of such +forms occurs there, is then, little to be wondered at, but we may rather +marvel that they are not more predominant, and that even in the extreme +south, the most abundant forms of mammal, bird, and insect, are +modifications of familiar Palæarctic types. The fact clearly indicates that +the former land connections of Japan with the continent have been in a +northerly rather than in a southerly direction, and that the tropical +immigrants have had difficulties to contend with, and have found the land +already fairly stocked with northern aborigines in almost every class and +order of animals. + + + +_General Conclusions as to the Fauna of the Palæarctic Region._--From the +account that has now been given of the fauna {232}of the Palæarctic region, +it is evident that it owes many of its deficiencies and some of its +peculiarities to the influence of the Glacial epoch, combined with those +important changes of physical geography which accompanied or preceded it. +The elevation of the old Sarahan sea and the complete formation of the +Mediterranean, are the most important of these changes in the western +portion of the region. In the centre, a wide arm of the Arctic Ocean +extended southward from the Gulf of Obi to the Aral and the Caspian, +dividing northern Europe and Asia. At this time our European and Siberian +sub-regions were probably more distinct than they are now, their complete +fusion having been effected since the Glacial epoch. As we know that the +Himalayas have greatly increased in altitude during the Tertiary period, it +is not impossible that during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the vast +plateau of Central Asia was much less elevated and less completely cut off +from the influence of rain-bearing winds. It might then have been far more +fertile, and have supported a rich and varied animal population, a few +relics of which we see in the Thibetan antelopes, yaks, and wild horses. +The influence of yet earlier changes of physical geography, and the +relations of the Palæarctic to the tropical regions immediately south of +it, will be better understood when we have examined and discussed the +faunas of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. + + + + +{233}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. + + +In constructing these tables showing the distribution of various classes of +animals in the Palæarctic region, the following sources of information have +been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, +and catalogues used in compiling the fourth part of this work. + +_Mammalia._--Lord Clement's Mammalia and Reptiles of Europe; Siebold's +Fauna Japonica; Père David's List of Mammalia of North China and Thibet; +Swinhoe's Chinese Mammalia; Radde's List of Mammalia of South-Eastern +Siberia; Canon Tristram's Lists for Sahara and Palestine; Papers by +Professor Milne-Edwards, Mr. Blanford, Mr. Sclater, and the local lists +given by Mr. A. Murray in the Appendix to his Geographical Distribution of +Mammalia. + +_Birds._--Blasius' List of Birds of Europe; Godman, On Birds of Azores, +Madeira, and Canaries; Middendorf, for Siberia; Père David and Mr. Swinhoe, +for China and Mongolia; Homeyer, for East Siberia; Mr. Blanford, for Persia +and the high Himalayas; Mr. Elwes's paper on the Distribution of Asiatic +Birds; Canon Tristram, for the Sahara and Palestine; Professor Newton, for +Iceland and Greenland; Mr. Dresser, for Scandinavia; and numerous papers +and notes in the Ibis; Journal für Ornithologie; Annals and Mag. of Nat. +History; and Proceedings of the Zoological Society. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Schreiber's European Herpetology. + + +{234}TABLE I. + +_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE PALÆARCTIC REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show families peculiar to the region. + + Names inclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not + considered properly to belong to it. + + Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV. + + ---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- + | Sub-regions | + | 1=Europe. | + Order and Family | 2=Mediterranean. | Range beyond the Region. + | 3=Siberian. | + | 4=Japan. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | | | | | + MAMMALIA. | | | | | + PRIMATES. | | | | | + 3. Cynopithecidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | | | + 9. (Pteropidæ) | | | | -- |Tropics of E. Hemisphere + 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Warmer parts of E. Hemis. + 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 13. Noctilionidæ | | -- | | |Tropical regions + | | | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | | | + 15. Macroscelididæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian + 17. Erinaceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Africa + 21. Talpidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental + 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Australia + | | | | | and S. America + | | | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | | | + 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 25. Viverridæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental + 27. Hyænidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental + 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 31. Æluridæ | | | | -- |Oriental + 32. Ursidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Andes + 33. Otariidæ | | | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones + 34. Trichechidæ | -- | | -- | |Arctic regions + 35. Phocidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |N. and S. temperate zones + | | | | | + CETACEA. | | | | | + 36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic + | | | | | + SIRENIA. | | | | | + 42. Manatidæ | -- | | -- | |Tropics, from Brazil to + | | | | | N. Australia + | | | | | + UNGULATA. | | | | | + 43. Equidæ | | -- | -- | |Ethiopian + 47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Nearctic + | | | | | reg. and Australia + 48. Camelidæ | | -- | -- | |Andes + 50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Ethiopian and + | | | | | Australian + 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical and + | | | | | Australian + | | | | | + HYRACOIDÆ. | | | | | + 54. (Hyracidæ) | | -- | | |Ethiopian family + | | | | | + RODENTIA. | | | | | + 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 56. Spalacidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Oriental + 57. Dipodidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Nearctic + 58. Myoxidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian + 60. Castoridæ | -- | | -- | |Nearctic + 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 64. Octodontidæ | | -- | | |Abyssinia, Neotropical + 67. Hystricidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental + 69. Lagomyidæ | | | -- | |Nearctic + 70. Leporidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + | | | | | + BIRDS. | | | | | + PASSERES. | -- | -- | -- | -- | + 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 2. Sylviidæ | | -- | | -- |Cosmopolite + 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 4. Panuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental + 5. Cinclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental + 6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |American, Oriental + 8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Nearctic + 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Australian, + | | | | | Madagascar + 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Australian + | | | | | [?] + 13. Pycnonotidæ | | -- | | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian + 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 17. Muscicapidæ | | | | |Eastern Hemisphere + 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and N. + | | | | | America + 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 23. (Nectariniidæ) | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 24. (Dicæidæ) | | | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 29. Ampelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic + 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere + 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical + 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 47. (Pittidæ) | | | | -- |Oriental, Australian, Ethiopian + | | | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | | | + 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 52. Yungidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |N. W. India, N. E. Africa, + | | | | | S. Africa + 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 69. Upupidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental + 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + | | | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | | | + 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | | | + 86. Pteroclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Indian + 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental + 88. Phasianidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian, Nearctic + 89. Turnicidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + | | | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | | | + 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + GRALLÆ. | | | | | + 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian + 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere, and + | | | | | N. America + 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearly Cosmopolite + 117. Phænicopteridæ | | -- | | |Neotropical, Ethiopian, Indian + | | | | | + ANSERES. | | | | | + 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 123. Colymbidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Arctic and N. Temperate + 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 125. Alcidæ | -- | | -- | -- |N. Temperate zone + | | | | | + REPTILIA. | | | | | + OPHIDIA. | | | | | + 1. Typhlopidæ | | -- | | -- |All regions but Nearctic + 5. Calamariidæ | | -- | | |All other regions + 6. Oligodontidæ | | | | -- |Oriental and Neotropical + 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 8. Homalopsidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, and all other regions + 9. Psammophidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian and Oriental + 18. Erycidæ | | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 20. Elapidæ | | | | -- |Australian and all other + | | | | | regions + 24. Crotalidæ | | | -- | -- |Nearctic, Neotropical, Oriental + 25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | | | | + LACERTILIA. | | | | | + 26. _Trogonophidæ_ | | -- | | | + 28. Amphisbænidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical + 30. Varanidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, Australian + 33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but American + 34. Zonuridæ | | -- | | |America, Africa, N. India + 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 46. _Ophiomoridæ_ | | -- | | | + 47. Sepidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian + 49. Geckotidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 51. Agamidæ | | -- | -- | -- |All continents but America + 52. Chamæleonidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | | | | + CHELONIA. | | | | | + 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All continents but Australia + 59. Trionychidæ | | | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Nearctic + 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | |Marine + | | | | | + AMPHIBIA. | | | | | + URODELA. | | | | | + 3. Proteidæ | -- | | | |Nearctic + 5. Menopomidæ | | | | -- |Nearctic + 6. Salamandridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic to Andes of Bogota + | | | | | + ANOURA. | | | | | + 10. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia + 13. Bombinatoridæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, New Zealand + 15. Alytidæ | -- | | | |All regions but Oriental + 17. Hylidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Ethiopian + 18. Polypedatidæ | | | -- | -- |All the regions + 19. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 20. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic + | | | | | + FISHES (FRESH-WATER).| | | | | + ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | + 1. Gasterosteidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic + 3. Percidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All regions but Australian + 26. _Comephoridæ_ | | | -- | | + 37. Atherinidæ | -- | -- | | |N. America and Australia + | | | | | + PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | + 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions + 65. Salmonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, New Zealand + 70. Esocidæ | -- | -- | | |Nearctic + 71. Umbridæ | -- | | | |Nearctic + 73. Cyprinodontidæ | | -- | | |All regions but Australia + 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and + | | | | | Neotropical + | | | | | + GANOIDEI. | | | | | + 96. Accipenseridæ | -- | -- | -- | |Nearctic + 97. Polydontidæ | | | | -- |Nearctic + | | | | | + INSECTS. | | | | | + LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | + DURINI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | + 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All tropical regions + 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 9. Libytheidæ | -- | -- | | |All continents but Australia + 10. Nemeobeidæ | -- | | | |Absent from Nearctic region and + | | | | | Australia + 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | + 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 21. Stygiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical + 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent only from Australia + 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + +COLEOPTERA.--Of about 80 families into which the Coleoptera are divided, +all the more important are cosmopolite, or nearly so. It would therefore +unnecessarily occupy space to give tables of the whole for each region. + +LAND SHELLS.--The more important families being cosmopolite, and the +smaller ones being somewhat uncertain in their limits, the reader is +referred to the account of the families and genera under each region, and +to the chapter on Mollusca in the concluding part of this work, for such +information as can be given of their distribution. + +{239}TABLE II. + +_LIST OF THE GENERA OF TERRESTIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE +PALÆARCTIC REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region. + + Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but + are not considered properly to belong to it. + + Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively. + + +_MAMMALIA._ + + + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond + Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + | | | + PRIMATES. | | | + SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Semnopithecus | 1 |Eastern Thibet) |Oriental genus + | | | + CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. Macacus | 4 |Gibraltar, N. Africa, |Oriental + | | E. Thibet to Japan | + | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | + PTEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Pteropus | 2 |Egypt, Japan) |Tropics of the E. . + | | | Hemis + (Xantharpyia | 1 |N. Africa, Palestine) |Oriental, Austro- + | | | Malayan + | | | + RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 2. Rhinolphus | 9 |Temperate & Southern |Warmer parts E. + | | parts of Region | Hemisphere + (Asellia | 1 |Egypt) |Ethiopian, Java + (_Rhinopoma_ | 1 |Egypt, Palestine) |[?] India + (Nycteris | 1 |Egypt) |Nubia, Himalaya + | | | + VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 3. Vesperugo | 1 |Siberia, Amoorland |[?] + 4. _Otonycteris_ | 1 |Egypt |[?] + 5. Vespertilio | 35 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + (Kerivoula | 1 |N. China) |Oriental, S. Africa + 6. Miniopteris | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |S. Afric. Malaya, + | | Japan | Austral. + 7. Plecotus | 1 |S. Europe |Himalayas + 8. Barbastellus | 2 |Mid. and S. Europe, |Darjeeling, Timor + | | Palestine | + | | | + NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 9. Molossus | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa |Ethiop., Neotrop., + | | | Australian + | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | + ERINACEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 10. Erinaceus | 4 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental, Africa. + | | Japan | + | | | + TALPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 11. _Talpa_ | 5 |The whole region |N. India + 12. _Scaptochirus_ | 1 |N. China | + 13. _Anurosorex_ | 1 |N. China | + 14. _Scaptonyx_ | 1 |N. China | + 15. _Myogale_ | 2 |S. E. Russia, Pyrenees | + 16. _Nectogale_ | 1 |Thibet | + 17. Urotrichus | 1 |Japan |N. W. America + 18. _Uropsilus_ | 1 |E. Thibet | + | | | + SORICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 19. Sorex | 10 |The whole region |Absent from Australia + | | | & S. America + 20. Crocidura | 4 |W. Europe to N. China | [?] + | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | + FELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 21. Felis | 12 |The whole region; excl.|All regions but + | | extreme North | Austral. + 22. Lyncus | 9 |S. Europe to Arctic sea|America N. of 66° N. + | | | Lat. + | | | + VIVERRIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Viverra | 1 |N. China) |Oriental and Ethiopian + 23. Genetta | 1 |S. Europe & N. Africa, |Ethiopian + | | Palestine | + (Herpestes | 1 |N. Africa, Spain [?], |Oriental and Ethiopian + | | Palestine) | + | | | + HYÆNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 24. Hyæna | 1 |N. Africa and S. W. |Ethiopian, India + | | Asia | + | | | + CANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 25. Canis | 4 |The whole region |All reg. but Austral. + | | | [?] + 26. _Nyctereutes_ | 1 |Japan, Amoorland, N. | + | | China | + | | | + MUSTELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 27. Martes | 7 |N. Europe and Asia, E. |Oriental, Nearctic + | | Thibet | + 28. _Putorius_ | 3 |W. Europe to N. E. Asia| + 29. Mustela | 10 |The whole region |Nearctic, Ethiop., + | | | Himalayas, Peru + 30. Vison | 2 |Europe and Siberia |N. America, N. India, + | | | China + 31. Gulo | 1 |The Arctic regions |Arctic America + 32. Lutra | 2 |The whole region |Oriental + 33. _Lutronectes_ | 1 |Japan | + 34. Enhydris | 1 |N. Asia and Japan |California + 35. _Meles_ | 2 |Cen. Europe, Palestine,|China to Hongkong + | | N. China, Japan | + | | | + ÆLURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 36. Ælurus | 1 |S. E. Thibet |Nepal + 37. _Æluropus_ | 1 |E. Thibet | + | | | + URSIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 38. Thalassarctos | 1 |Arctic regions |Arctic America + 39. Ursus | 4 |The whole region |Oriental, Nearctic, + | | | Chili + | | | + OTARIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 40. Callorhinus | 1 |Kamschatka and | + | | Behring's Straits | + 41. Zalophus | 1 |Japan |California + 42. Eumetopias | 1 |Japan, Behring's |California + | | Straits | + | | | + TRICHECHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 43. Trichechus | 1 |Polar Seas |Arctic America + | | | + PHOCIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 44. Callocephalus | 3 |North Sea, Caspian, |Greenland + | | Lake Baikal | + 45. Pagomys | 2 |North Sea, Japan |N. Pacific + 46. Pagophilus | 2 |Northern Seas |N. Pacific + 47. Phoca | 2 |Northern Seas |N. Pacific + 48. Halichærus | 1 |North Sea and Baltic |Greenland + 49. _Pelagius_ | 2 |Madeira to Black Sea | + 50. Cystophora | 2 |N. Atlantic |N. Atlantic + | | | + SIRENIA. | | |Tropics & Behring's + | | | Strts. + | | | + CETACEA. | | |Oceanic + | | | + UNGULATA. | | | + EQUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 51. Equus | 4 |Cent. and W. Asia & N. |Ethiopian + | | Africa | + | | | + SUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 52. Sus | 2 |The whole region |Oriental, Austro- + | | | Malayan + | | | + CAMELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 53. _Camelus_ | 2 |Deserts of Cent. and W.| + | | Asia and N. Africa | + | | | + CERVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 54. Alces | 1 |North Europe and Asia |N. America + 55. Tarandus | 1 |Arctic Europe and Asia |Arctic America + 56. Cervus | 8 |The whole region |All regions but + | | | Austral. + 57. _Dama_ | 1 |Mediterranean district | + 58. _Elaphodus_ | 1 |N. W. China | + 59. _Lophotragus_ | 1 |N. China | + 60. _Capreolus_ | 2 |Temp. Europe and W. | + | | Asia and N. China | + 61. _Moschus_ | 1 |Amoor R., N. China, to | + | | Himalayas | + 62. _Hydropotes_ | 1 |N. China | + | | | + BOVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 63. { Bos | 1 |Europe, (not wild) |Oriental + 64. { Bison | 1 |Poland and Caucasus |Nearctic + 65. { _Poephagus_ | 1 |Thibet | + 66. _Addax_ | 1 |N. Africa to Syria | + 67. Oryx | 1 |N. Africa to Syria |Ethiopian deserts + 68. { Gazella | 12 |N. Africa to Persia, |S. Africa, India + { | | and Beloochistan | + 69. { _Procapra_ | 2 |W. Thibet and Mongolia | + 70. {_Saiga_ | 1 |E. Europe and W. Asia | + 71. {_Pantholops_ | 1 |W. Thibet | + (Alcephalus | 1 |Syria) |Ethiopian genus. + 72. _Budorcas_ | 2 |E. Himalayas to E. | + | | Thibet | + 73. _Rupicapra_ | 2 |Pyrenees to Caucasus | + 74. Nemorhedus | 7 |E. Himalayas to E. |Oriental to Sumatra, + | | China and Japan | Formosa + 75. Capra | 20 |Spain to Thibet and |Nilgherries, Rocky + | | N.E. Africa | Mtns. + | | | + HYRACOIDEA. | | | + HYRACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Hyrax | 1 |Syria) |Ethiopian genus + | | | + RODENTIA. | | | + MURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 76. Mus |?15 |The whole region |E. Hemisphere + 77. _Cricetus_ | 9 |The whole region | + 78. _Cricetulus_ | 3 |N. China | + 79. Meriones | 8 |W. and Central Asia to |Ethiopian, Indian. + | | N. China, N. Africa | + 80. _Rhombomys_ | 6 |E. Europe, Cent. Asia, | + | | N. Africa | + 81. _Psammomys_ | 3 |Egypt and Palestine | + 82. _Sminthus_ | 3 |East Europe, Siberia | + 83. Arvicola |?21 |The whole region |Himalayas, Nearctic + 84. Cuniculus | 1 |N. E. Europe, Siberia |Arctic America + 85. Myodes | 1 |North of region |Nearctic + 86. _Myospalax_ | 3 |Altai Mountains and N. | + | | China | + | | | + SPALACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 87. _Ellobius_ | 1 |S. Russia and S. W. | + | | Siberia | + 88. _Spalax_ | 1 |Hungary and Greece to | + | | W. Asia, Palestine | + | | | + DIPODIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 89. Dipus |?15 |S. E. Europe and N. |Africa, India + | | Africa to N. China | + | | | + MYOXIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 90. Myoxus | 12 |Temperate parts of |Ethiopian + | | whole region | + | | | + CASTORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 91. Castor | 1 |Temperate zone, from |N. America + | | France to Amoorland | + | | | + SCIURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 92. Sciurus | 8 |The whole region |All regions but + | | | Austral. + 92a. Tamias | 1 |All Northern Asia |N. America + 93. Sciuropterus | 4 |Finland to Siberia and |Oriental, Nearctic + | | Japan | + 94. Pteromys | 3 |Japan and W. China |Oriental + 95. Spermophilus | 10 |E. Europe to N. China |Nearctic + | | and Kamschatka | + 96. Arctomys. | 4 |Alps to E. Thibet and |Nearctic + | | Kamschatka | + | | | + OCTODONTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 97._Ctenodactylus_ | 1 |N. Africa | + | | | + HYSTRICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 98. Hystrix | 2 |S. Europe, Palestine, |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | N. China. | + | | | + LAGOMYIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 99. Lagomys | 10 |Volga to E. Thibet and |Nearctic + | | Kamschatka | + | | | + LEPORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 100. Lepus | 12 |The whole region |All regions but + | | | Austral. + + _BIRDS._ + + PASSERES. | | | + TURDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. Turdus | 18 |The whole region |Almost cosmopolite + | |(excluding Spitsbergen)| + 2. Oreocincla | 1 |N. E. Asia and Japan, |Oriental and + | | straggler to Europe | Australian + 3. Monticola | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Oriental and + | | Palestine, N. China | S. African + (Bessornis | 1 |Palestine) |Tropical and + | | | S. Africa + | | | + SYLVIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 4. Cisticola | 1 |S. W. Europe, N. |Ethiop., Orient., + | | Africa, Japan | Austral. + 5. {Acrocephalus | 10 |W. Europe to Japan |Orient., Ethiop., + { | | | Austral. + 6. {_Dumeticola_ | 4 |Nepaul, Lake Baikal, | + { | | E. Thibet high | + 7. {_Potamodus_ | 3 |W. and S. Europe, | + { | | N. Africa, E. Thibet | + 8. {_Lusciniola_ | 1 |S. Europe | + 9. {_Locustella_ | 7 |W. Europe and N. Africa|India, winter + { | | to Japan | migrants(?) + 10. {Bradyptetus | 2 |S. Europe and Palestine|E. and S. Africa + 11. {_Calamodus_ | ?3 |Europe, N. Africa, | + | | Palestine | + 12. {Phylloscopus | 6 |The whole region |Oriental + { | | (excluding western | + { | | islands) | + 13. {Hypolais | 9 |Europe, N. Africa, |China, Moluccas, + { | | Palestine, China | India, Africa + 14. {Abrornis | 2 |Cashmere, E. Thibet |Oriental region + 15. {Reguloides | 2 |Europe and China |N. India, Formosa + 16. {Regulus | 4 |The whole region |N. and Central America + | | (excluding Iceland, | + | | &c.) | + 17. {Aedon | 2 |S. Europe, W. Asia, |E. and S. Africa + { | | N. Africa | + 18. {_Pyrophthalma_ | 2 |E. Europe and Palestine| + 19. {_Melizophilus_ | 2 |W. and S. Europe, | + { | | Sardinia | + 20. {_Sylvia_ | 6 |Madeira to W. India, |N. E. Africa, Ceylon + { | | N. Africa | migrants(?) + 21. {_Curruca_ | 7 |Madeira to India, |E. Africa, India, + | | N. Africa | migrants + 22. {_Luscinia_ | 2 |W. Europe, N. Africa, | + { | | Persia | + 23. {_Cyanecula_ | 3 |Europe and N. Africa to|Abyssinia and India + { | | Kamschatka | migrants + 24. {_Calliope_ | 2 |N. Asia, Himalayas, |Centl. India + { | | China | (? migrant) + 25. {_Erithacus_ | 3 |Atlantic Islands to | + { | | Japan | + 26. {_Grandala_ | 1 |High Himalayas and | + | | E. Thibet | + 27. { Ruticilla | 10 |Eu. to Japan, N. Afr., |Abyssinia, India + { | | Himalayas | + 28. { Larvivora | 2 |E. Thibet, Amoor, Japan|Oriental + 29. Dromolæa | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Ethiopian + | | Palestine | + 30. Saxicola | 10 |The whole region |E. and S. Africa, + | | | India + 31. Cercomela | 2 |Palestine (a desert |N. E. Africa, N. W. + | | genus) | India + 32. Pratincola | 3 |W. Europe, N. Africa to|Ethiopian to Oriental + | | India | + 33. _Accentor_ | 12 |W. Europe to Japan; |Himalayas(?) in winter + | | high Himalayas | + | | | + TIMALIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 34. _Pterorhinus_ | 3 |Thibet and N. W. China | + (Malacocercus | 1 |Palestine) |Oriental genus + (Crateropus | 2 |N. Africa, Persia) |Ethiopian genus + (Trochalopteron | 3 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus + (Ianthocincla | 3 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus + | | | + PANURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Paradoxornis | 3 |Himalayas and |(?)Oriental genus + | | E. Thibet) | + 35. _Conostoma_ | 1 |High Himalayas | + | | E. Thibet) | + 36. Suthora | 3 |E. Thibet |Himalayas, China, + | | | Formosa + 37. _Panurus_ | 1 |W. Europe to W. Siberia| + 38. _Heteromorpha_ | 1 |Nepaul and E. Thibet, | + | | from 10,000 feet | + | | altitude | + 39. _Cholornis_ | 1 |E. Thibet | + | | | + CINCLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 40. Cinclus | 5 |The whole region |American highlands + | | (Atlantic Islands | + | | excluded) | + (Myiophonus | 1 |Turkestan, Thian-Shan |Oriental genus + | | Mountains, 6,000 feet| + | | | + TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 41. Troglodytes | 3 |Iceland and Britain to |Neotropical and + | | Japan | Nearctic, Himalayas + (Pnoepyga | 2 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus + | | | + CERTHIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 42. Certhia | 2 |W. Europe to N. China |Himalayas, Nearctic + 43. _Tichodroma_ | 1 |S. Europe to N. China |Abyssinia, Nepaul, + | | | high + | | | + SITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 44. Sitta | 7 |W. Europe to Himalayas India, Nearctic + | | and Japan | + | | | + PARIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 45. Parus | 20 |W. Europe to Kamschatka|Nearctic, Oriental, + | | N. Africa | Ethiopian + 46. Lophophanes | 6 |Europe and high |Nearctic + | | Himalayas | + 47. _Acredula_ | 6 |W. Europe to N. China | + | | and Kamschatka | + 48. Ægithalus | 1 |S. E. Europe |Ethiopian + | | | + LIOTRICHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Proparus | 4 |Moupin, in E. Thibet) |Oriental genus and + | | | fam. + | | | + PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 49. Microscelis | 1 |Japan |Oriental genus + 50. Pycnonotus | 2 |Palestine, N. China, |Oriental and Ethiopian + | | Japan | + | | | + ORIOLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 51. Oriolus | |S. Europe, China |Ethiopian and Oriental + | | | + MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 52. Muscicapa | 2 |W. and Central Europe |Ethiopian. + 53. Butalis | 2 |W. Europe to Japan and |E. and S. Africa, + | | China | Moluccas + 54. Erythrosterna | 3 |Central Europe to N. |Oriental & Madagascar + | | China and Japan | + (Xanthopygia | 1 |Japan) |Oriental genus + (Eumyias-- | 1 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus + (Cyanoptila | 1 |Japan and Amoor) |Oriental genus + (Siphia | 1 |Moupin, E. Thibet) |Oriental genus + 55. Tchitrea | 2 |N. China and Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental + | | | + LANIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 56. Lanius | 11 |The whole region (excl.|Nearctic, Ethiopian, + | | Atlantic Islands) | Oriental + (Telephonus | 1 |N. Africa) |Ethiopian genus + | | | + CORVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 57. Garrulus | 7 |W. Europe, N. Africa, |Himalayas, Formosa + | | to Japan | + 58. Perisoreus | 1 |N. Europe and Siberia |N. America + (Urocissa | 2 |Cashmere, Japan) |Oriental genus + 59. _Nucifraga_ | 3 |W. Europe to Japan, |Himalayan pine forests + | | and Himalayas | + 60. _Pica_ | 5 |W. Europe to China and |S. China and Formosa + | | Japan | migrants[?] + 61. _Cyanopica_ | 2 |Spain, N. E. Asia and | + | | Japan | + 62. Corvus | 12 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (excl. + | | | S. Am.) + 63. _Fregilus_ | 3 |W. Europe to N. China, |Abyssinian mountains + | | Himalayas | + | | | + NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Arachnecthra | 1 |Palestine) |Oriental genus + | | | + DICÆIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Zosterops | 1 |Amoor and Japan) |Ethiop., Orien., + | | | Austral. + | | | + AMPELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 64. Ampelis | 2 |Northern half of region|North America + | | | + HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 65. Hirundo | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 66. Cotyle | 2 |The whole region (excl.|Nearctic, Ethiop., + | | Atlan. Is.) | Orien. + 67. Chelidon | 3 |The whole region |Oriental + | | | + FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 68. Fringilla | 6 |The whole region |Africa + 69. _Acanthis_ | 3 |Europe and N. Africa to| + | | Central Asia | + 70. _Procarduelis_ | 1 |High Himalayas and | + | | E. Thibet | + 71. Chrysomitris | 2 |W. Europe to Japan |N. and S. America + 72. _Dryospiza_ | 4 |Atlantic Islands to | + | | Palestine, N. Africa | + 73. _Metoponia_ | 1 |N. E. Europe to | + | | W. Himalayas | + 74. Chlorospiza | 5 |W. Europe, N. Africa |China, E. Africa + | | to Japan | + 75. Passer | 8 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Oriental + 76. Montifringilla | 4 |Europe to Cashmere and | + | | Siberia | + 77. _Fringillauda_ | 1 |N. W. Himalayas to | + | | E. Thibet, high | + 78. Coccothraustes | 3 |W. Europe, High |N. America + | | Himalayas to Japan | + 79. _Mycerobas_ | 2 |Central Asia & High | + | | Himalayas | + 80. Eophona | 2 |E. Thibet, China, and |China + | | Japan | + 81. _Pyrrhula_ | 9 |Azores to Japan, High |Alaska + | | Himalayas | + (Crithagra | 1 |Palestine) |Ethiopian genus + 82. Carpodacus | 12 |Cent. Eu. to Japan, |India & China, + | | High Himalayas | N. Amer. + 83. _Erythrospiza_ | 4 |N. Africa to | + | | Afghanistan and | + | | Turkestan | + 84. _Uragus_ | 2 |Turkestan & E. Thibet | + | | to Japan | + 85. Loxia | 3 |Europe, High Himalayas |N. America + | | to Japan | + 86. Pinicola | 1 |N. Europe, Siberia |N. America + 87. _Propyrrhula_ | 1 |High Himalayas |Darjeeling in winter + 88. _Pyrrhospiza_ | 1 |Snowy Himalayas | + 89. Linota | 6 |The whole region |N. America + 90. Leucosticte | 4 |Turkestan to Kamschatka|N. W. America + | | | + Emberizinæ | | | + | | | + 91. {Euspiza | 4 |E. Europe to Japan |N. America + 92. {_Emberiza_ | 25 |Europe to Japan |N. India, China + 93. {Fringillaria | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa |African genus + 94. {Plectrophanes | 2 |Northern half of region|N. America + | | | + STURNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 95. Pastor | 1 |East Europe, Central |India + | | Asia | + 96. Sturnia | 2 |Amoor, Japan, N. China |Oriental + 97. Sturnus | 3 |The whole region (excl.|India, China + | | Atlantic Islands) | + (Amydrus | 1 |Palestine) |N. E. African genus + 98. _Podoces_ | 3 |Cen. Asia, Turkestan, | + | | Yarkand | + | | | + ALAUDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 99. Otocorys | 6 |N. Europe to Japan, |India, N. America, + | | N. Africa, Arabia | Andes + 100. Alauda | 7 |The whole region (excl.|India, Africa + | | Iceland) | + 101. Galerita | 2 |Central Europe to |India, Central Africa + | | N. China, N. Africa | + 102. Calandrella | 4 |Central Europe to |India + | | N. China, N. Africa | + 103. _Melanocorypha_| 5 |S. Eu., N. Africa, |N. W. India + | | N. & Cen. Asia | + 104. _Pallasia_ | 1 |Mongolia | + (Certhilauda | 1 |N. Africa) |S. African genus + (Alaemon | 1 |N. Africa, Arabia) |Ethiopian genus + 105. Ammomanes | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Africa, India + | | to Cashmere | + | | | + MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 106. Motacilla | 6 |The whole region |Oriental, Ethiopian + 107. Budytes | 4 |Europe to China |Oriental, Moluccas + 108. Calobates | 2 |Atlantic Is., W. |Malaisia, Madagascar + | | Europe, to China | + | | | + PITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Pitta | 1 |Japan) |Oriental & Austral. + | | | genus + | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | + PICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 109. Picoides | 3 |N. and Cen. Europe to |North America + | | Thibet & E. Asia | + 110. Picus | 16 |The whole region (excl.|India, China, N. and + | | Atlantic Islands) | S. America + 111. Hypopicus | 1 |N. China |Himalayas + (Yungipicus | 1 |N. China) |Oriental genus + 112. Dryocopus | 1 |N. & Cen. Europe to |Neotropical + | | N. China | + 113. Gecinus | 6 |W. Europe to Thibet, |Oriental + | | Amoor & Japan | + | | | + YUNGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 114. Yunx | 2 |W. Europe to N. W. |N. E. Africa, + | | India, Thibet and | S. Africa + | | Japan | + | | | + CUCULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 115. Cuculus | 2 |The whole region (excl.|Ethiop., Oriental, + | | Atlantic Islands) | Austral. + 116. Coccystes | 1 |S. Europe and N. Africa|Ethiopian and Oriental + | | | + CORACIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 117. Coracias | 1 |Cent. Europe to Cent. |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | Asia | + (Eurystomus | 1 |Amoor in summer) |Oriental & Austral. + | | | genus + | | | + MEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 118. Merops | 2 |S. Europe to Cashmere, |Ethiopian and Oriental + | | N. Africa | + | | | + ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Halcyon | 3 |W. Asia, N. China, |Ethiop., Orien., + | | Japan) | Austral. + 119. Alcedo | 2 |Europe, N. China | + 120. Ceryle | 2 |S. E. Europe, Japan |Africa, India, America + | | | + UPUPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 121. Upupa | 1 |S. Europe, N. China |Ethiop. & Oriental + | | | genus + | | | + CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 122. Caprimulgus | 5 |Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental + | | | + CYPSELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 123. Cypselus | 4 |The whole region (excl.|Ethiopian, America + | | Iceland) | + 124. Chætura | 2 |N. China, Dauria |Africa, India + | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | + COLUMBIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 125. Columba | 6 |The whole region |Africa, Asia, America + 126. Turtur | 4 |W. Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental + (Alsæcomus | 1 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus + | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | + PTEROCLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 127. Pterocles | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Ethiopian genus + | | to W. India | + 128. _Syrrhaptes_ | 2 |Central Asia, N. China | + | | | + TETRAONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 129. Francolinus | 1 |Borders of |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | Mediterranean | + 130. _Perdix_ | 2 |Europe to Mongolia | + 131. Coturnix | 1 |Central and S. Europe |Ethiop., Orien., + | | to Japan | Austral. + 132. _Lerwa_ | 1 |Snowy Himalayas to | + | | E. Thibet | + 133. _Caccabis_ | 5 |Cen. Europe and N. |Abyssinia, Arabia + | | Africa to N. W. | + | | Himalayas | + 134. _Tetraogallus_ | 4 |Caucasus to E. Thibet | + | | and Altai Mountains | + 135. Tetrao | 4 |Europe and N. Asia |N. America + 136. Bonasa | 1 |Europe and N. Asia |N. America + 137. Lagopus | 4 |Iceland, W. Europe to |N. America, Greenland + | | Japan | + | | | + PHASIANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 138. _Crossoptilon_ | 4 |Thibet, Mongolia, | + | | N. China | + 139. _Lophophorus_ | 3 |Cashmere to E. Thibet | + | | (highest woods) | + 140. Tetraophasis | 1 |E. Thibet |E. Thibet(?) + 141. Ceriornis | 1 |N. W. Himalayas (high) |Himalayas to W. China + 142. Pucrasia-- | 3 |N. W. Himalayas to |Himalayas + | | N. W. China | + 143. _Phasianus_ | 10 |Western Asia to Japan |W. Himalayas, Formosa + 144. _Thaumalea_ | 3 |E. Thibet to Amoor, |West China + | | N. China | + 145. _Ithaginis_ | 2 |Nepaul to E. Thibet | + | | (high) | + | | | + TURNICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 146. Turnix | 2 |Spain and N. Africa, |Ethiop., Orien., + | | N. China | Austral. + | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | + VULTURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 147. _Vultur_ | 1 |Spain and N. Africa to | + | | N. China | + 148. Gyps | 1 |S. Europe, Palestine, |E. Africa, India + | | Cen. Asia | + 149. Otogyps | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa |S. Africa, India + 150. Neophron | 1 |Atlantic Isds. to |Africa, India + | | Palestine | + | | | + FALCONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 151. Circus | 5 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite + 152. Astur | 1 |Europe to N. China |Almost Cosmopolite + 153. Accipiter | 2 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite + 154. Buteo | 4 |Europe to Japan |Cosmopolite (excl. + | | | Australia) + 155. Archibuteo | 1 |N. Europe to Japan |N. America + 156. Gypaetus | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa |Abyssinia, Himalayas + 157. Aquila | 5 |Europe to Japan |Nearctic, Ethiop., + | | | Orien. + 158. Nisaetus | 2 |E. Europe, N. Africa, |India, Australia + | | W. Asia | + 159. Circaetus | 1 |E. and S. Europe, N. |Africa, India + | | Africa, W. Asia | + 160. Haliæetus | 3 |Iceland and S. Europe |Cosmopolite (excl. + | | to Japan | Neotropical region) + 161. Milvus | 4 |Europe to Japan, |The Old World & + | | N. Africa | Austral. + 162. Elanus | 2 |N. Africa, N. China to |Cosmopolite (excl. + | | Amoor | East U. S.) + 163. Pernis | 1 |Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental + 164. Falco | 5 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (excl. + | | | Pacific Islands) + 165. Hierofalco | 5 |The whole region |N. America + 166. Cerchneis | 4 |Atlantic Islands to |Cosmop. (excl. + | | Japan | Oceania) + | | | + PANDIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 167. Pandion | 1 |Europe to Japan |Cosmopolite + | | | + STRIGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 168. Surnia | 1 |N. Europe and Siberia |North America + 169. Nyctea | 1 |Arctic regions |Arctic America + 170. Athene | 4 |Central and S. Europe |Ethiop., Orien., + | | to Japan | Austral. + (Ninox | 1 |N. China and Japan) |Oriental genus + 171. Glaucidium | 1 |Europe to N. China |America + 172. Bubo | 2 |Europe to N. China |Africa, India, + | | | America + 173. Scops | 3 |S. Europe to Japan |African, Orien., + | | | Austral. + 174. Syrnium | 5 |Europe to Japan |African, Oriental, + | | | Amer. + 175. Otus | 2 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite + 176. Nyctala | 1 |N. Europe to E. Siberia|N. America + 177. Strix | 1 |Europe and N. Africa |All warm & temp. + | | | regions + + _Peculiar or very characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._ + + GRALLÆ. | | | + RALLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Ortygometra_ | 8 |Europe, N. E. Africa | + | | | + SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Ibidorhyncha_ | 1 |Cashmere & Cen. Asia, |Himalayan Valleys + | | N. China | + Terekia | 1 |N. E. Europe and |India, Australia + | | Siberia | (migrant) + _Helodromas_ | 1 |E. and N. Europe, | + | | N. India | + _Machetes_ | 1 |N. and Cen. Europe, |India in winter + | | Cen. Asia | + _Eurinorhynchus_ | 1 |N. E. Asia |Bengal + | | | + GLAREOLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Pluvianus_ | 1 |N. Africa, Spain | + | | | + CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Vanellus | 8 |Europe to the Punjaub |S. America + | | | + OTIDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Otis_ | 2 |W. Europe to Mongolia, | + | | N. Africa | + ANSERES. | | | + ANATIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Aix | 1 |N. China to Amoor |N. America + Bucephala | 3 |Iceland, N. Europe, and|N. America + | | Asia | + Histrionicus | 1 |Iceland, N. Siberia |N. America + Harelda | 1 |North of whole region |Arctic America + Somateria | 3 |North of whole region |N. America + Oedemia | 3 |North of whole region |N. America + | | | + LARIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Rissa | 1 |North coasts of whole |N. America + | | region | + | | | + COLYMBIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Colymbus | 3 |North of whole region |N. America + | | | + ALCIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Alca | 2 |North coasts of whole |N. America + | | region | + Fratercula | 3 |North coasts of whole |N. America + | | region | + Uria | 3 |North coasts of whole |N. America + | | region | + Mergulus | 1 |Iceland and Arctic |Arctic America + | | coasts | + --------------------+-----+-----------------------+---------------------- + + + + +[Illustration: ETHIOPIAN REGION] + + + + +{251}CHAPTER XI. + +THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. + + +This is one of the best defined of the great zoological regions, consisting +of tropical and South Africa, to which must be added tropical Arabia, +Madagascar, and a few other islands, all popularly known as African. Some +naturalists would extend the region northwards to the Atlas Mountains and +include the whole of the Sahara; but the animal life of the northern part +of that great desert seems more akin to the Palæarctic fauna of North +Africa. The Sahara is really a debatable land which has been peopled from +both regions; and until we know more of the natural history of the great +plateaus which rise like islands in the waste of sand, it will be safer to +make the provisional boundary line at or near the tropic, thus giving the +northern half to the Palæarctic, the southern to the Ethiopian region. The +same line may be continued across Arabia. + +With our present imperfect knowledge of the interior of Africa, only three +great continental sub-regions can be well defined. The open pasture lands +of interior tropical Africa are wonderfully uniform in their productions; a +great number of species ranging from Senegal to Abyssinia and thence to the +Zambesi, while almost all the commoner African genera extend over the whole +of this area. Almost all this extensive tract of country is a moderately +elevated plateau, with a hot and dry climate, and characterised by a grassy +vegetation interspersed with patches of forest. This forms our first or +East African sub-region. The whole of the west coast from the south side of +the Gambia River to about 10° or 12° south latitude, is a very +{252}different kind of country; being almost wholly dense forests where not +cleared by man, and having the hot moist uniform climate, and perennial +luxuriance of vegetation, which characterise the great equatorial belt of +forest all round the globe. This forest country extends to an unknown +distance inland, but it was found, with its features well marked, by Dr. +Schweinfurth directly he crossed the south-western watershed of the Nile; +and far to the south we find it again unmistakably indicated, in the +excessively moist forest country about the head waters of the Congo, where +the heroic Livingstone met his death. In this forest district many of the +more remarkable African types are alone found, and its productions +occasionally present us with curious similarities to those of the far +removed South American or Malayan forests. This is our second or West +African sub-region. + +Extra-tropical South Africa possesses features of its own, quite distinct +from those of both the preceding regions (although it has also much in +common with the first). Its vegetation is known to be one of the richest, +most peculiar, and most remarkable on the globe; and in its zoology it has +a speciality, similar in kind but less in degree, which renders it both +natural and convenient to separate it as our third, or South African +sub-region. Its limits are not very clearly ascertained, but it is probably +bounded by the Kalahari desert on the north-west, and by the Limpopo +Valley, or the mountain range beyond, on the north-east, although some of +its peculiar forms extend to Mozambique. There remains the great Island of +Madagascar, one of the most isolated and most interesting on the globe, as +regards its animal productions; and to this must be added, the smaller +islands of Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and the Comoro +Islands, forming together the Mascarene Islands,--the whole constituting +our fourth sub-region. + +_Zoological Characteristics of the Ethiopian Region._--We have now to +consider briefly, what are the peculiarities and characteristics of the +Ethiopian Region as a whole,--those which give it its distinctive features +and broadly separate it from the other primary zoological regions. + +{253}_Mammalia._--This region has 9 peculiar families of mammalia. +Chiromyidæ (containing the aye-aye); Potamogalidæ and Chrysochloridæ +(Insectivora); Cryptoproctidæ and Protelidae (Carnivora); Hippopotamidæ and +Camelopardalidæ (Ungulata); and Orycteropodidæ (Edentata). Besides these it +possesses 7 peculiar genera of apes, _Troglodytes_, _Colobus_, +_Myiopithecus_, _Cercopithecus_, _Cercocebus_, _Theropithecus_, and +_Cynocephalus_; 2 sub-families of lemurs containing 6 genera, confined to +Madagascar, with 3 genera of two other sub-families confined to the +continent; of Insectivora a family, Centetidæ, with 5 genera, peculiar to +Madagascar, and the genera _Petrodromus_ and _Rhynchocyon_ belonging to the +Macroscelididæ, or elephant-shrews, restricted to the continent; numerous +peculiar genera or sub-genera of civets; _Lycaon_ and _Megalotis_, +remarkable genera of Canidæ; _Ictonyx_, the zorilla, a genus allied to the +weasels; 13 peculiar genera of Muridæ; _Pectinator_, a genus of the South +American family Octodontidæ; and 2 genera of the South American Echimyidæ +or spiny rats. Of abundant and characteristic groups it possesses +_Macroscelides_, _Felis_, _Hyæna_, _Hyrax_, _Rhinoceros_, and _Elephas_, as +well as several species of zebra and a great variety of antelopes. + +The great speciality indicated by these numerous peculiar families and +genera, is still farther increased by the absence of certain groups +dominant in the Old-World continent, an absence which we can only account +for by the persistence, through long epochs, of barriers isolating the +greater part of Africa from the rest of the world. These groups are, +Ursidæ, the bears; Talpidæ the moles; Camelidæ, the camels; Cervidæ, the +deer; Caprinæ, the goats and sheep; and the genera _Bos_ (wild ox); and +_Sus_ (wild boar). Combining these striking deficiencies, with the no less +striking peculiarities above enumerated, it seems hardly possible to have a +region more sharply divided from the rest of the globe than this is, by its +whole assemblage of mammalia. + +_Birds._--In birds the Ethiopian region is by no means so strikingly +peculiar, many of these having been able to pass the ancient barriers which +so long limited the range of mammalia. {254}It is, however, sufficiently +rich, possessing 54 families of land birds, besides a few genera whose +position is not well ascertained, and which may constitute distinct +families. Of these 6 are peculiar, Musophagidæ (the plantain eaters); +Coliidæ (the colies); Leptosomidæ, allied to the cuckoos; Irrisoridæ, +allied to the hoopoes; and Serpentaridæ, allied to the hawks. Only one +Passerine family is peculiar--Paictidæ, while most of the other tropical +regions possess several; but _Euryceros_ and _Buphaga_, here classed with +the Sturnidæ, ought, perhaps, to form two more. It has, however, many +peculiar genera, especially among the fruit-thrushes, Pycnonotidæ; +flycatchers, Muscicapidæ; shrikes, Lanidæ; crows, Corvidæ; starlings, +Sturnidæ; and weaver-birds, Ploceidæ; the latter family being very +characteristic of the region. It is also rich in barbets, Megalæmidæ (7 +peculiar genera); cuckoos, Cuculidæ; rollers, Coraciidæ; bee-eaters, +Meropidæ; hornbills, Bucerotidæ; and goat-suckers, Caprimulgidæ. It is poor +in parrots and rather so in pigeons; but it abounds in _Pterocles_ and +_Francolinus_, genera of Gallinæ, and possesses 4 genera of the peculiar +group of the guinea-fowls, forming part of the pheasant family. It abounds +in vultures, eagles, and other birds of prey, among which is the anomalous +genus _Serpentarius_, the secretary-bird, constituting a distinct family. +Many of the most remarkable forms are confined to Madagascar and the +adjacent islands, and will be noticed in our account of that sub-region. + +_Reptiles._--Of the reptiles there are 4 peculiar Ethiopian families;--3 of +snakes, Rachiodontidæ, Dendraspidæ, and Atractaspidæ and 1 of lizards, +Chamæsauridæ. + +Psammophidæ (desert snakes) are abundant, as are Lycodontidæ (fanged +ground-snakes), and Viperidæ (vipers). The following genera of snakes are +peculiar or highly characteristic:--_Leptorhynchus_, _Rhamnophis_, +_Herpetethiops_ and _Grayia_ (Colubridæ); _Hopsidrophis_ and _Bucephalus_ +(Dendrophidæ); _Langalia_ (Dryophidæ); _Pythonodipsas_ (Dipsadidæ); +_Boedon_, _Lycophidion_, _Holuropholis_, _Simocephalus_ and _Lamprophis_ +(Lycodontidæ); _Hortulia_ and _Sanzinia_ (Pythonidæ); _Cyrptophis_, +_Elapsoidea_ and _Poecilophis_ (Elapidæ); and _Atheris_ (Viperidæ). The +following genera {255}of lizards are the most +characteristic:--_Monotrophis_ (Lepidosternidæ); _Cordylus_, +_Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_, _Cordylosaurus_, _Pleurostichus_, +_Saurophis_ and _Zonurus_ (Zonuridæ); _Sphænops_, _Scelotes_, +_Sphænocephalus_ and _Sepsina_ (Sepidæ); _Pachydactylus_ (Geckotidæ); +_Agama_ (Agamidæ); and _Chameleon_ (Chameleonidæ). Of tortoises, _Cynyxis_, +_Pyxis_ and _Chersina_ (Testudinidæ), and _Cycloderma_ (Trionychidæ) are +the most characteristic. + +_Amphibia._--Of the 9 families of amphibia there is only 1 peculiar, the +Dactylethridæ, a group of toads; but the Alytidæ, a family of frogs, are +abundant. + +_Fresh-water Fish._--Of the 14 families of fresh-water fishes 3 are +peculiar: Mormyridæ and Gymnarchidæ, small groups not far removed from the +pikes; and Polypteridæ, a small group of ganoid fishes allied to the +gar-pikes (Lepidosteidæ) of North America. + +_Summary of Ethiopian Vertebrates._--Combining the results here indicated +and set forth in greater detail in the tables of distribution, we find that +the Ethiopian region possesses examples of 44 families of mammalia, 72 of +birds, 35 of reptiles, 9 of amphibia, and 15 of fresh-water fishes. It has +23 (or perhaps 25) families of Vertebrata altogether peculiar to it out of +a total of 175 families, or almost exactly one-eighth of the whole. Out of +142 genera of mammalia found within the region, 90 are peculiar to it; a +proportion not much short of two-thirds. Of land birds there are 294 +genera, of which 179 are peculiar; giving a proportion of a little less +than three-fifths. + +Compared with the Oriental region this shows a considerably larger amount +of speciality under all the heads; but the superiority is mainly due to the +wonderful and isolated fauna of Madagascar, to which the Oriental region +has nothing comparable. Without this the regions would be nearly equal. + + + +_Insects: Lepidoptera._--11 out of the 16 families of butterflies have +representatives in Africa, but none are peculiar. Acræidæ is one of the +most characteristic families, and there {256}are many interesting forms of +Nymphalidæ, Lycænidæ, and Papilionidæ. The peculiar or characteristic forms +are _Amauris_ (Danaidæ); _Gnophodes_, _Leptoneura_, _Bicyclus_, +_Heteropsis_ and _Coenyra_ (Satyridæ); _Acræa_ (Acræidæ); _Lachnoptera_, +_Precis_, _Salamis_, _Crenis_, _Godartia_, _Amphidema_, _Pseudacræa_, +_Catuna_, _Euryphene_, _Romalæosoma_, _Hamanumida_, _Aterica_, _Harma_, +_Meneris_, _Charaxes_, and _Philognoma_ (Nymphalidæ); _Pentila_, _Liptena_, +_Durbania_, _Zeritis_, _Capys_, _Phytala_, _Epitola_, _Hewitsonia_ and +_Deloneura_ (Lycænidæ); _Pseudopontia_, _Idmais_, _Teracolus_, _Callosune_ +(Pieridæ); _Abantis_, _Ceratrichia_ and _Caprona_ (Hesperidæ). The total +number of species known is about 750; which is very poor for an extensive +tropical region, but this is not to be wondered at when the nature of much +of the country is considered. It is also, no doubt, partly due to our +comparative ignorance of the great equatorial forest district, which is the +only part likely to be very productive in this order of insects. + +_Coleoptera._--In our first representative family, Cicindelidæ or +tiger-beetles, the Ethiopian region is rather rich, having 13 genera, 11 of +which are peculiar to it; and among these are such remarkable forms as +_Manticora_, _Myrmecoptera_ and _Dromica_; with _Megacephala_, a genus only +found elsewhere in Australia and South America. + +In Carabidæ or carnivorous ground beetles, there are about 75 peculiar +genera. Among the most characteristic are _Anthia_, _Polyrhina_, +_Graphipterus_ and _Piezia_, which are almost all peculiar; while +_Orthogonius_, _Hexagonia_, _Macrochilus_, _Thyreopterus_, _Eudema_, and +_Abacetus_ are common to this and the Oriental region; and _Hypolithus_ to +the Neotropical. + +Out of 27 genera of Buprestidæ, or metallic beetles, only 6 are peculiar to +the region, one of the most remarkable being _Polybothrus_, confined to +Madagascar. _Sternocera_ and _Chrysochroa_ are characteristic of this +region and the Oriental; it has _Julodis_ in common with the Mediterranean +sub-region, and _Belionota_ with the Malayan. + +The region is not rich in Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, possessing only 10 +genera, 7 of which are peculiar, but most of them {257}consist of single +species. The other three genera, _Cladognathus_, _Nigidius_, and _Figulus_, +are the most characteristic, though all have a tolerably wide range in the +Old World. + +In the elegant Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, this region stands preeminent, +possessing 76 genera, 64 of which are peculiar to it. The others are +chiefly Oriental, except _Oxythræa_ which is European, and _Stethodesma_ +which is Neotropical. Preeminent in size and beauty is _Goliathus_, +comprising perhaps the most bulky of all highly-coloured beetles. Other +large and characteristic genera are _Ceratorhina_, _Ischnostoma_, +_Anochilia_, _Diplognatha_, _Agenius_, and many others of less extent. + +In the enormous tribe of Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, the Ethiopian +is not so rich as the other three tropical regions; but this may be, in +great part, owing to its more productive districts having never been +explored by any competent entomologists. It nevertheless possesses 262 +genera, 216 of which are peculiar, the others being mostly groups of very +wide range. Out of such a large number it is difficult to select a few as +most characteristic, but some of the peculiarities of distribution as +regards other regions may be named. Among Prionidæ, _Tithoes_ is a +characteristic Ethiopian genus. A few species of the American genera +_Parandra_ and _Mallodon_ occur here, while the North Temperate genus +_Prionus_ is only found in Madagascar. Among Cerambycidæ, _Promeces_ is the +most characteristic. The American genera _Oeme_ and _Cyrtomerus_ occur; +while _Homalachnus_ and _Philagathes_ are Malayan, and _Leptocera_ occurs +only in Madagascar, Ceylon, Austro-Malaya, and Australia. The Lamiidæ are +very fine; _Sternotomis_, _Tragocephala_, _Ceroplesis_, _Phryncta_, +_Volumnia_, and _Nitocris_, being very abundant and characteristic. Most of +the non-peculiar genera of this family are Oriental, but _Spalacopsis_ and +_Acanthoderes_ are American, while _Tetraglenes_ and _Schoenionta_ have +been found only in East and South Africa and in Malaya. + +_Terrestrial Mollusca_.--In the extensive family of the Helicidæ or snails, +13 genera are represented, only one of which, _Columna_, is peculiar. This +region is however the metropolis of _Achatina_, some of the species being +the largest land-shells {258}known. _Buliminus_, _Stenogyra_, and _Pupa_ +are characteristic genera. _Bulimus_ is absent, though one species inhabits +St. Helena. The operculated shells are not very well represented, the great +family of Cyclostomidæ having here only nine genera, with but one peculiar, +_Lithidion_, found in Madagascar, Socotra, and Arabia. None of the genera +appear to be well represented throughout the region, and they are almost or +quite absent from West Africa. + +According to Woodward's _Manual_ (1868) West Africa has about 200 species +of land-shells, South Africa about 100, Madagascar nearly 100, Mauritius +about 50. All the islands have their peculiar species; and are, in +proportion to their extent, much richer than the continent; as is usually +the case. + + +THE ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. + +It has been already explained that these are to some extent provisional; +yet it is believed that they represent generally the primary natural +divisions of the region, however they may be subdivided when our knowledge +of their productions becomes more accurate. + + +_I. The East African Sub-region, or Central and East Africa._ + +This division includes all the open country of tropical Africa south of the +Sahara, as well as an undefined southern margin of that great desert. With +the exception of a narrow strip along the east coast and the valleys of the +Niger and Nile, it is a vast elevated plateau from 1,000 to 4,000 feet +high, hilly rather than mountainous, except the lofty table land of +Abyssinia, with mountains rising to 16,000 feet and extending south to the +equator, where it terminates in the peaks of Kenia and Kilimandjaro, 18,000 +and 20,000 feet high. The northern portion of this sub-region is a belt +about 300 miles wide between the Sahara on the north and the great +equatorial forest on the south, extending from Cape Verd, the extreme +western point of Africa, across the northern bend of the Niger and Lake +Tchad to the mountains of Abyssinia. The greater part of this tract has a +{259}moderate elevation. The eastern portion reaches from about the second +cataract of the Nile, or perhaps from about the parallel of 20° N. +Latitude, down to about 20° S. Latitude, and from the east coast to where +the great forest region commences, or to Lake Tanganyika and about the +meridian of 28° to 30° E. Longitude. The greater part of this tract is a +lofty plateau. + +The surface of all this sub-region is generally open, covered with a +vegetation of high grasses or thorny shrubs, with scattered trees and +isolated patches of forest in favourable situations. The only parts where +extensive continuous forests occur, are on the eastern and western slopes +of the great Abyssinian plateau, and on the Mozambique coast from Zanzibar +to Sofala. The whole of this great district has one general zoological +character. Many species range from Senegal to Abyssinia, others from +Abyssinia to the Zambesi, and a few, as _Mungos fasciatus_ and +_Phacochoerus æthiopicus_, range over the entire sub-region. _Fennecus_, +_Ictonyx_, and several genera of antelopes, characterise every part of it, +as do many genera of birds. _Coracias nævia_, _Corythornis cyanostigma_, +_Tockus nasutus_, _T. erythrorhynchus_, _Parus leucopterus_, _Buphaga +africana_, _Vidua paradisea_, are examples of _species_, which are found in +the Gambia, Abyssinia and South East Africa, but not in the West African +sub-region; and considering how very little is known of the natural history +of the country immediately south of the Sahara, it may well be supposed +that these are only a small portion of the species really common to the +whole area in question, and which prove its fundamental unity. + +Although this sub-region is so extensive and so generally uniform in +physical features, it is by far the least peculiar part of Africa. It +possesses, of course, all those wide-spread Ethiopian types which inhabit +every part of the region, but it has hardly any special features of its +own. The few genera which are peculiar to it have generally a limited +range, and for the most part belong, either to the isolated +mountain-plateau of Abyssinia which is almost as much Palæarctic as +Ethiopian, or to the woody districts of Mozambique where the fauna has more +of a West or South African character. + +{260}_Mammalia._--The only forms of Mammalia peculiar to this sub-region +are _Theropithecus_, one of the Cynopithecidæ confined to Abyssinia; +_Petrodromus_ and _Rhynchocyon_, belonging to the insectivorous +Macroscelididæ, have only been found in Mozambique; the Antelopine genus +_Neotragus_, from Abyssinia southward; _Saccostomus_ and _Pelomys_ genera +of Muridæ inhabiting Mozambique; _Heterocephalus_ from Abyssinia, and +_Heliophobius_ from Mozambique, belonging to the Spalacidæ; and +_Pectinator_ from Abyssinia, belonging to the Octodontidæ. _Cynocephalus_, +_Rhinoceros_, _Camelopardalis_, and antelopes of the genera _Oryx_, +_Cervicapra_, _Kobus_, _Nanotragus_, _Cephalophus_, _Hippotragus_, +_Alcephalus_, and _Catoblepas_, are characteristic; as well as _Felis_, +_Hyæna_, and numerous civets and ichneumons. + +_Birds._--Peculiar forms of birds are hardly to be found here; we only meet +with two--_Hypocolius_, a genus of shrikes in Abyssinia; and _Balæniceps_, +the great boat-billed heron of the Upper Nile. Yet throughout the country +birds are abundant, and most of the typical Ethiopian forms are well +represented. + +_Reptiles._--Of reptiles, the only peculiar forms recorded are +_Xenocalamus_, a genus of snakes, belonging to the Calamariidæ; and +_Pythonodipsas_, one of the Dipsadidæ, both from the Zambesi; and among +lizards, _Pisturus_, one of the Geckotidæ, from Abyssinia. + +_Amphibia and Fishes._--There are no peculiar forms of amphibia or of +fresh-water fishes. + +_Insects._--Insects are almost equally unproductive of peculiar forms. +Among butterflies we have _Abantis_, one of the Hesperidæ, from Mozambique; +and in Coleoptera, 2 genera of Cicindelidæ, 8 of Carabidæ, 1 or 2 of +Cetoniidæ, and about half-a-dozen of Longicorns: a mere nothing, as we +shall see, compared with the hosts of peculiar genera that characterise +each of the other sub-regions. Neither do land-shells appear to present any +peculiar forms. + +The fact that so very few special types characterise the extensive area now +under consideration is very noteworthy. It justifies us in uniting this +large and widespread tract of country as forming essentially but one +sub-division of the great Ethiopian region, and it suggests some curious +speculations as to the former history of that region, a subject which must +be deferred to the latter part of this chapter. In none of the other great +tropical regions does it occur, that the largest portion of their area, +although swarming with life, yet possesses hardly any distinctive features +except the absence of numerous types characteristic of the other +sub-regions. + + + + +Plate IV. + +[Illustration] + +CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF EAST AFRICA. + +{261}_Plate IV._--_Illustrating the Zoology of East Africa._--Although this +sub-region has so little speciality, it is that which abounds most in large +animals, and is, perhaps, the best representative of Africa as regards +zoology. Some of the most distinctive of African animals range over the +whole of it, and as, from recent explorations, many parts of this wide area +have been made known to the reading public, we devote one of our plates to +illustrate the especially African forms of life that here abound. The +antelopes represented are the koodoo (_Tragelaphus strepsiceros_) one of +the handsomest of the family, which ranges over all the highlands of Africa +from Abyssinia to the southern districts. To the left is the aardvark, or +earth pig, of North Eastern Africa (_Orycteropus æthiopicus_) which, to the +north of the equator in East Africa, represents the allied species of the +Cape of Good Hope. These Edentata are probably remnants of the ancient +fauna of Africa, when it was completely isolated from the northern +continents and few of the higher types had been introduced. The large bird +in the foreground is the secretary-bird, or serpent-killer (_Serpentarius +reptilivorus_), which has affinities both for the birds-of-prey and the +waders. It is common over almost all the open country of Africa, destroying +and feeding on the most venomous serpents. The bird on the wing is the +red-billed promerops (_Irrisor erythrorhynchus_), a handsome bird with +glossy plumage and coral-red bill. It is allied to the hoopoes, and feeds +on insects which it hunts for among the branches of trees. This species +also ranges over a large part of east and central Africa to near the Cape +of Good Hope. Other species are found in the west; and the genus, which +forms a distinct family, _Irrisoridæ_, is one of the best marked Ethiopian +types of birds. In the distance is a rhinoceros, now one of the +characteristic features of African {262}zoology, though there is reason to +believe that it is a comparatively recent intruder into the country. + + +_II. The West-African Sub-region._ + +This may be defined as the equatorial-forest sub-region, since it comprises +all that portion of Africa, from the west coast inland, over which the +great equatorial forests prevail more or less uninterruptedly. These +commence to the south of the Gambia River, and extend eastwards in a line +roughly parallel to the southern margin of the great desert, as far as the +sources of the upper Nile and the mountains forming the western boundary of +the basin of the great lakes; and southward to that high but marshy +forest-country in which Livingstone was travelling at the time of his +death. Its southern limits are undetermined, but are probably somewhere +about the parallel of 11° S. Latitude.[10] + +This extensive and luxuriant district has only been explored zoologically +in the neighbourhood of the West coast. Much, no doubt, remains to be done +in the interior, yet its main features are sufficiently well known, and +most of its characteristic types of animal life have, no doubt, been +discovered. + +_Mammalia._--Several very important groups of mammals are peculiar to this +sub-region. Most prominent are the great anthropoid apes--the gorilla and +the chimpanzee--forming the genus _Troglodytes_; and monkeys of the genera +_Myiopithecus_ and _Cercocebus_. Two remarkable forms of lemurs, +_Perodicticus_ and _Arctocebus_, are also peculiar to West Africa. Among +the Insectivora is _Potamogale_, a semi-aquatic animal, forming a distinct +family; and three peculiar genera of civets (Viverridæ) have been +described. _Hyomoschus_, a small, deer-like animal, belongs to the +Tragulidæ, or chevrotains, a family otherwise {263}confined to the Oriental +region; and in the squirrel family is a curious genus, _Anomalurus_, which +resembles the flying squirrels of other parts of the world, without being +directly allied to them. + +_Birds._--In this class we find a larger proportionate number of peculiar +forms. _Hypergerus_ and _Alethe_, belonging to the Timaliidæ, or babblers, +are perhaps allied to Malayan groups; _Parinia_, a peculiar form of tit, is +found only in Prince's Island; _Ixonotus_ is an abundant and characteristic +form of Pycnonotidæ; _Fraseria_, _Hypodes_, _Cuphopterus_, and +_Chaunonotus_, are peculiar genera of shrikes; _Picathartes_ is one of the +many strange forms of the crow family; _Cinnyricinclus_ is a peculiar genus +of sun-birds; _Pholidornis_ is supposed to belong to the Oriental Dicæidæ, +or flower-peckers; _Waldenia_ is a recently-described new form of swallow; +_Ligurnus_, a finch, _Spermospiga_, a weaver bird, and _Onychognathus_ a +starling, are also peculiar West African genera. Coming to the Picariæ we +have _Verreauxia_, a peculiar woodpecker; three peculiar genera of barbets +(Megalæmidæ); the typical plantain-eaters (Musophaga); _Myioceyx_, a +peculiar genus of kingfishers; while _Berenicornis_ is a genus of crested +hornbills, only found elsewhere in Malaya. The grey parrots, of the genus +_Psittacus_, are confined to this sub-region, as are two peculiar genera of +partridges, and three of guinea-fowl. We have also here a species of +_Pitta_, one of the Oriental family of ground-thrushes; and the Oriental +paroquets, _Palæornis_, are found here as well as in Abyssinia and the +Mascarene Islands. + +We thus find, both in the Mammalia and birds of West Africa, a special +Oriental or even Malayan element not present in the other parts of tropical +Africa, although appearing again in Madagascar. In the Mammalia it is +represented by the anthropoid apes; by _Colobus_ allied to _Semnopithecus_, +and by _Cercocebus_ allied to _Macacus_; and especially by a form of the +Malayan family of chevrotains (Tragulidæ). The Malayan genus of otters, +_Aonyx_, is also said to occur in West and South Africa. In birds we have +special Oriental and Malayan affinities in _Alethe_, _Pholidornis_, +_Berenicornis_, _Pitta_, and _Palæornis;_ while the Oriental genus _Treron_ +has a wide range in Africa. We shall {264}endeavour to ascertain the +meaning of this special relation at a subsequent stage of our inquiries. + +_Plate V._--_River Scene in West Africa, with Characteristic Animals._--Our +artist has here well represented the luxuriance and beauty of a tropical +forest; and the whole scene is such as might be witnessed on the banks of +one of the rivers of equatorial West Africa. On the right we see a red +river-hog (_Potamochoerus penicillatus_), one of the handsomest of the +swine family, and highly characteristic of the West African sub-region. In +a tree overhead is the potto (_Perodicticus potto_), one of the curious +forms of lemur confined to West Africa. On the left is the remarkable +_Potamogale velox_, first discovered by Du Chaillu,--an Insectivorous +animal, with the form and habits of an otter. On the other side of the +river are seen a pair of gorillas (_Troglodytes gorilla_), the largest of +the anthropoid apes. + +The bird on the wing is the Whydah finch (_Vidua paradisea_), remarkable +for the enormous plumes with which the tail of the male bird is decorated +during the breeding season. The crested bird overhead is one of the +beautiful green touracos (_Turacus macrorhynchus_), belonging to the +Musophagidæ, or plantain-eaters, a family wholly African, and most abundant +in the western sub-region. + + + +_Reptiles._--In this class we find a large number of peculiar forms; 13 +genera of snakes, 3 of lizards, and 2 of tortoises being confined to the +sub-region. The snakes are _Pariaspis_, _Elapops_, and _Prosymna_ +(Calamariidæ), _Rhamnophis_, _Herpetethiops_, and _Grayia_ (Colubridæ), +_Neusterophis_ and _Limnophis_ (Homalopsidæ), _Simocephalus_ and +_Holurophis_ (Lycodontidæ); _Pelophilus_ (Pythonidæ); _Elapsoidea_ +(Elapidæ); and _Atheris_ (Viperidæ). The lizards are _Dalophia_ +(Lepidosternidæ); _Otosaurus_ (Scincidæ); _Psilodactylus_ (Geckotidæ). The +tortoises, _Cinyxis_ (Testudinidæ) and _Tetrathyra_ (Trionichidæ). + +_Amphibia._--Of Amphibia, there are 2 peculiar genera of tree-frogs, +_Hylambatis_ and _Hemimantis_, belonging to the Polypedatidæ. + + + +Plate V. + +[Illustration] + +SCENE IN WEST AFRICA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. + +{265}Here, too, we find some interesting relations with the Oriental region +on the one side, and the Neotropical on the other. The snakes of the family +Homalopsidæ have a wide range, in America, Europe, and all over the +Oriental region, but are confined to West Africa in the Ethiopian region. +_Dryiophis_ (Dryiophidæ) and _Dipsadoboa_ (Dipsadidæ) on the other hand, +are genera of tropical America which occur also in West Africa. The family +of lizards, Acontiadæ, are found in West and South Africa, Ceylon, and the +Moluccas. The family of toads, Engystomidæ, in West and South Africa and +the whole Oriental region; while the Phryniscidæ inhabit tropical Africa +and Java. + +_Insects._--We have here a large number of peculiar genera. There are 10 of +butterflies, _Lachnoptera_, _Amphidema_, and _Catuna_ belonging to the +Nymphalidæ, while four others are Lycænidæ. The genus _Euxanthe_ is common +to West Africa and Madagascar. + +Of Coleoptera there are 53 peculiar genera; 20 are Carabidæ, 2 Lucanidæ, 12 +Cetoniidæ, 3 Prionidæ, 16 Cerambycidæ, and 34 Lamiidæ. Besides these there +are 4 or 5 genera confined to West Africa and Madagascar. + +_Land Shells._--West Africa is very rich in land shells, but it does not +appear to possess any well-marked genera, although several of the smaller +groups or sub-genera are confined to it. Helicidæ of the genera _Nanina_, +_Buliminus_ and _Achatina_ are abundant and characteristic. + +_Islands of the West African Sub-region._--The islands in the Gulf of +Guinea are, Fernando Po, very near the main land, with Prince's Island and +St. Thomas, considerably further away to the south-west. Fernando Po was +once thought to be a remarkable instance of an island possessing a very +peculiar fauna, although close to the main land and not divided from it by +a deep sea. This, however, was due to our having obtained considerable +collections from Fernando Po, while the opposite coast was almost unknown. +One after another the species supposed to be peculiar have been found on +the continent, till it becomes probable, that, as in the case of other +islands similarly situated, it contains no peculiar species whatever. The +presence of numerous mammalia, among which are baboons, lemurs, _Hyrax_, +and {266}_Anomalurus_, shows that this island has probably once been united +to the continent. + +Prince's Island, situated about 100 miles from the coast, has no mammals, +but between 30 and 40 species of birds. Of these 7 are peculiar species, +viz., _Zosterops ficedulina_, _Cuphopterus dohrni_ (a peculiar genus of +Sylviidæ), _Symplectes princeps_, _Crithagra rufilata_, _Columba +chlorophæa_, _Peristera principalis_, and _Strix thomensis_. + +In the Island of St. Thomas, situated on the equator about 150 miles from +the coast, there are 6 peculiar species out of 30 known birds, viz., _Scops +leucopsis_, _Zosterops lugubris_, _Turdus olivaceofuscus_, _Oriolus +crassirostris_, _Symplectes sancti-thomæ_ and _Aplopelia simplex_; also +_Strix thomensis_ in common with Prince's Island. The remainder are all +found on the adjacent coasts. It is remarkable that in Prince's Island +there are no birds of prey, any that appear being driven off by the parrots +(_Psittacus erithacus_) that abound there; whereas in St. Thomas and +Fernando Po they are plentiful. + + +_III. South-African Sub-region._ + +This is the most peculiar and interesting part of Africa, but owing to the +absence of existing barriers its limits cannot be well defined. The typical +portion of it hardly contains more than the narrow strip of territory +limited by the mountain range which forms the boundary of the Cape Colony +and Natal, while in a wider sense it may be extended to include Mozambique. +It may perhaps be best characterised as bounded by the Kalahari desert and +the Limpopo river. It is in the more limited district of the extreme south, +that the wonderful Cape flora alone exists. Here are more genera and +species, and more peculiar types of plants congregated together, than in +any other part of the globe of equal extent. There are indications of a +somewhat similar richness and specialization in the zoology of this +country; but animals are so much less closely dependent on soil and +climate, that much of the original peculiarity has been obliterated, by +long continued interchange of species with so vast an area as {267}that of +Africa south of the equator. The extreme peculiarity and isolation of the +flora must not, however, be lost sight of, if we would correctly interpret +the phenomena afforded by the distribution of animal life on the African +continent. + +_Mammalia._--A much larger number of peculiar forms of mammals are found +here than in any of the other sub-regions, although it is far less in +extent than either of the three divisions of the continent. Among +Insectivora we have the Chrysochloridæ, or golden moles, consisting of two +genera confined to South Africa; while the Macroscelididæ, or elephant +shrews, are also characteristically South African, although ranging as far +as Mozambique and the Zambezi, with one outlying species in North Africa. +The Viverridæ are represented by three peculiar genera, _Ariela_, +_Cynictis_, and _Suricata_. The Carnivora present some remarkable forms: +_Proteles_, forming a distinct family allied to the hyænas and weasels; and +two curious forms of Canidæ--_Megalotis_ (the long-eared fox) and _Lycaon_ +(the hyæna-dog), the latter found also in parts of East Africa. _Hydrogale_ +is a peculiar form of Mustelidæ; _Pelea_ one of the antelopes; _Dendromys_, +_Malacothrix_, and _Mystromys_ are peculiar genera of the mouse family +(Muridæ); _Bathyerges_ one of the mole-rats (Spalacidæ); _Pedetes_, the +Cape-hare, a remarkable form of jerboa; and _Petromys_, one of the +spiny-rats (Echimyidæ). The remarkable _Orycteropus_, or earth-pig, has one +species in South and one in North East Africa. We have thus eighteen genera +of mammalia almost or quite peculiar to South Africa. + +_Birds._--These do not present so many peculiar forms, yet some are very +remarkable. _Chætops_ is an isolated genus of thrushes (Turdidæ). +_Lioptilus_, one of the fruit-thrushes (Pycnonotidæ). _Pogonocichla_, one +of the fly-catchers; _Urolestes_, a shrike; _Promerops_, a sun-bird; +_Philetærus_ and _Chera_, weaver-birds; and three peculiar genera of +larks--_Spizocorys_, _Heterocorys_, and _Tephrocorys_, complete the list of +peculiar types of Passeres. A wood-pecker, _Geocolaptes_, is nearly allied +to a South American genus. The Cape-dove, _Oena_, is confined to South and +East Africa and Madagascar; and _Thalassornis_ is a peculiar form of duck. +Several genera are also confined to West and South {268}Africa;--as +_Phyllastrephus_ (Pycnonotidæ), _Smithornis_ (Muscicapidæ), _Corvinella_ +(Laniidæ); _Barbatula_ and _Xylobucco_ (Megalæmidæ); _Ceuthmochares_, also +in Madagascar, (Cuculidæ); _Typanistria_ (Columbidæ). Other remarkable +forms, though widely spread over Africa, appear to have their metropolis +here, as _Colius_ and _Indicator_. Others seem to be confined to South +Africa and Abyssinia, as the curious _Buphaga_ (Sturnidæ); and _Apaloderma_ +(Trogonidæ). _Machærhamphus_ (Falconidæ) is found only in South-West +Africa, Madagascar, and the Malay Peninsula. + +_Reptiles._--There are 4 peculiar genera of snakes,--_Typhline_, belonging +to the blind burrowing snakes, Typhlopidæ; _Lamprophis_ (Lycodontidæ); +_Cyrtophis_ and _Pæcilophis_ (Elapidæ), a family which is chiefly Oriental +and Australian. Of Lizards there are 10 peculiar genera; _Monotrophis_ +(Lepidosternidæ), but with an allied form in Angola; _Cordylus_, +_Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_, _Cordylosaurus_, _Pleurostichus_, and +_Saurophis_, all peculiar genera of Zonuridæ; _Chamæsaura_, forming the +peculiar family Chamæsauridæ; _Colopus_ and _Rhopitropus_ (Geckotidæ). + +_Amphibia._--Of Amphibia there are 4 peculiar genera: _Schismaderma_ +(Bufonidæ); _Brachymerus_ (Engystomidæ); _Phrynobatrachus_ and +_Stenorhynchus_ (Ranidæ). These last are allied to Oriental genera, and the +only other Engystomidæ are Oriental and Neotropical. + +_Fresh-water Fish._--Of fresh-water fishes there is 1 +genus--_Abrostomus_--belonging to the carp family, peculiar to South +Africa. + +_Insects._--South Africa is excessively rich in insects, and the number of +peculiar types surpasses that of any other part of the region. We can only +here summarize the results. + +_Lepidoptera._--Of butterflies there are 7 peculiar genera; 2 belonging to +the Satyridæ, 1 to Acræidæ, 3 to Lycænidæ, and 1 to Hesperidæ. _Zeritis_ +(Lycænidæ) is also characteristic of this sub-region, although 1 species +occurs in West Africa. + +_Coleoptera._--These are very remarkable. In the family of Cicindelidæ, or +tiger-beetles, we have the extraordinary _Manticora_ and _Platychile_, +forming a sub-family, whose nearest allies are in North America; as well as +_Ophryodera_ and _Dromica_, the latter an extensive genus, which ranges as +far north as Mozambique {269}and Lake Ngami. Another genus of this family, +_Jansenia_, is common to South Africa and South India. + +In the large family of Carabidæ, or ground-beetles, there are 17 peculiar +South African genera, the most important being _Crepidogaster_, +_Hytrichopus_, _Arsinoë_, and _Piezia_. Three others--_Eunostus_, +_Glyphodactyla_, and _Megalonychus_--are common to South Africa and +Madagascar only. There is also a genus in common with Java, and one with +Australia. + +Of Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, there are 3 peculiar genera; of Cetoniidæ, or +rose-chafers, 14; and of Buprestidæ, 2. + +In the great family of Longicorns there are no less than 67 peculiar +genera--an immense number when we consider that the generally open +character of the country, is such as is not usually well suited to this +group of insects. They consist of 5 peculiar genera of Prionidæ, 25 of +Cerambycidæ, and 37 of Lamiidæ. + +_Summary of South-African Zoology._--Summarizing these results, we find +that South Africa possesses 18 peculiar genera of Mammalia, 12 of Birds, 18 +of Reptiles, 1 of Fishes, 7 of Butterflies, and 107 of the six typical +families of Coleoptera. Besides this large amount of speciality it contains +many other groups, which extend either to West Africa, to Abyssinia, or to +Madagascar only, a number of which are no doubt to be referred as +originating here. We also find many cases of direct affinity with the +Oriental region, and especially with the Malay districts, and others with +Australia; and there are also less marked indications of a relation to +America. + + + +_Atlantic Islands of the Ethiopian Region._ _St. Helena._--The position of +St. Helena, about 1,000 miles west of Africa and 16° south of the equator, +renders it difficult to place it in either of the sub-regions; and its +scanty fauna has a general rather than any special resemblance to that of +Africa. The entire destruction of its luxuriant native forests by the +introduction of goats which killed all the young trees (a destruction which +was nearly completed two centuries ago) must have led to the extermination +of most of the indigenous birds and insects. At present there is no land +bird that is believed to be really indigenous, and but one {270}wader, a +small plover (_Ægialitis sanctæ-helenæ_) which is peculiar to the island, +but closely allied to African species. Numerous imported birds, such as +canaries, Java sparrows, some African finches, guinea-fowls, and +partridges, are now wild. There are no native butterflies, but a few +introduced species of almost world-wide range. The only important remnant +of the original fauna consists of beetles and land shells. The beetles are +the more numerous and have been critically examined and described by Mr. T. +V. Wollaston, whose researches in the other Atlantic islands are so well +known. + +_Coleoptera of St. Helena._--Omitting those beetles which get introduced +everywhere through man's agency, there are 59 species of Coleoptera known +from St. Helena; and even of these there are a few widely distributed +species that may have been introduced by man. It will be well, therefore, +to confine ourselves almost wholly to the species peculiar to the island, +and, therefore, almost certainly forming part of the endemic or original +fauna. Of these we find that 10 belong to genera which have a very wide +range, and thus afford no indication of geographical affinity; 2 belong to +genera which are characteristic of the Palæarctic fauna (_Bembidium_, +_Longitarsus_); 3 to African genera (_Adoretus_, _Sciobius_, +_Aspidomorpha_); and two species of _Calosoma_ are most allied to African +species. There are also 4 African species, which may be indigenous in St. +Helena. The peculiar genera, 7 in number, are, however, the most +interesting. We have first _Haplothorax_, a large beetle allied to +_Carabus_ and _Calosoma_, though of a peculiar type. This may be held to +indicate a remote Palæarctic affinity. _Melissius_, one of the Dynastidæ, +is allied to South African forms. _Microxylobius_, one of the Cossonides (a +sub-family of Curculionidæ) is the most important genus, comprising as it +does 13 species. It is, according to Mr. Wollaston, an altogether peculiar +type, most allied to _Pentarthrum_, a genus found in St. Helena, Ascension, +and the south of England, and itself very isolated. _Nesiotes_, another +genus of Curculionidæ, belongs to a small group, the allied genera forming +which inhabit Europe, Madeira, and Australia. A third peculiar and isolated +genus is _Trachyphlæosoma_. The Anthribidæ are represented by {271}2 +genera, _Notioxenus_ and _Homoeodera_, which are altogether peculiar and +isolated, and contain 9 species. Thus no less than 27 species, or more than +half of the undoubtedly indigenous beetles, belong to 5 peculiar and very +remarkable genera of Rhyncophora. + +It appears from this enumeration, that the peculiar species as a whole, +exhibit most affinity to the Ethiopian fauna; next to the South European +fauna; and lastly to that of the islands of the North Atlantic; while there +is such a large amount of peculiarity in the most characteristic forms, +that no special geographical affinity can be pointed out. + +_Land Shells._--These consist of about a dozen living species, and about as +many extinct found in the surface soil, and probably exterminated by the +destruction of the forests. The genera are _Succinea_, _Zonites_, _Helix_, +_Bulimus_, _Pupa_, and _Achatina_. The _Bulimi_ (all now extinct but one) +comprise one large, and several small species, of a peculiar type, most +resembling forms now inhabiting South America and the islands of the +Pacific. _Zonites_ is chiefly South European, but the other genera are of +wide range, and none are peculiar to the island. + +The marine shells are mostly Mediterranean, or West Indian species, with +some found in the Indian Ocean; only 4 or 5 species being peculiar to the +island. + +_Tristan d'Acunha._--This small island is situated nearly midway between +the Cape of Good Hope and the mouth of the La Plata, but it is rather +nearer Africa than America, and a little nearer still to St. Helena. An +island so truly oceanic and of whose productions so little is known, cannot +be placed in any region, and is only noticed here because it comes +naturally after St. Helena. It is known to possess three peculiar land +birds. One is a thrush (_Nesocichla eremita_) whose exact affinities are +not determined; the other a small water-hen (_Gallinula nesiotis_) allied +to our native species, but with shorter and softer wings, which the bird +does not use for flight. A finch of the genus _Crithagra_ shows African +affinities; while another recently described as _Nesospiza acunhæ_ (Journ. +für Orn. 1873, p. 154) forms a new genus said to resemble more nearly some +American forms. + +{272}The only known land-shells are 2 peculiar species of _Balea,_ a genus +only found elsewhere in Europe and Brazil. + + +_IV. Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, or the Malagasy Sub-region._ + +This insular sub-region is one of the most remarkable zoological districts +on the globe, bearing a similar relation to Africa as the Antilles to +tropical America, or New Zealand to Australia, but possessing a much richer +fauna than either of these, and in some respects a more remarkable one even +than New Zealand. It comprises, besides Madagascar, the islands of +Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and Comoro islands. +Madagascar itself is an island of the first class, being a thousand miles +long and about 250 miles in average width. It lies parallel to the coast of +Africa, near the southern tropic, and is separated by 230 miles of sea from +the nearest part of the continent, although a bank of soundings projecting +from its western coast reduces this distance to about 160 miles. Madagascar +is a mountainous island, and the greater part of the interior consists of +open elevated plateaus; but between these and the coast there intervene +broad belts of luxuriant tropical forests. It is this forest-district which +has yielded most of those remarkable types of animal life which we shall +have to enumerate; and it is probable that many more remain to be +discovered. As all the main features of this sub-region are developed in +Madagascar, we shall first endeavour to give a complete outline of the +fauna of that country, and afterwards show how far the surrounding islands +partake of its peculiarities. + +_Mammalia._--The fauna of Madagascar is tolerably rich in genera and +species of mammalia, although these belong to a very limited number of +families and orders. It is especially characterized by its abundance of +Lemuridæ and Insectivora; it also possesses a few peculiar Carnivora of +small size; but most of the other groups in which Africa is especially +rich--apes and monkeys, lions, leopards and hyænas, zebras, giraffes, +antelopes, elephants and rhinoceroses, and even porcupines and squirrels, +are wholly wanting. No less than 40 distinct families of land {273}mammals +are represented on the continent of Africa, only 11 of which occur in +Madagascar, which also possesses 3 families peculiar to itself. The +following is a list of all the genera of Mammalia as yet known to inhabit +the island:-- + + + + PRIMATES. + LEMURIDÆ. + Indrisinæ. Species. + _Indris_ 6 + + Lemurinæ. + _Lemur_ 15 + _Hapalemur_ 2 + _Microcebus_ 4 + _Chirogaleus_ 5 + _Lepilemur_ 2 + + CHIROMYIDÆ. + _Chiromys_ 1 + + BATS--(Chiroptera). + PTEROPIDÆ. + Pteropus 2 + + RHINOLOPHIDÆ. + Rhinolophus 1 + + VESPERTILIONIDÆ. + Vespertilio 1 + Taphozous 1 + + NOCTILIONIDÆ. + Nyctinomus 1 + + INSECTIVORA. + CENTETIDÆ. + _Centetes_ 2 + _Hemicentetes_ 2 + _Ericulus_ 2 + _Oryzorictes_ 1 + _Echinops_ 3 + + SORICIDÆ. + Sorex 1 + + CARNIVORA. + CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ. + _Cryptoprocta_ 1 + + VIVERRIDÆ. + _Fossa_ 2 + _Galidia_ 3 + _Galidictis_ 2 + _Eupleres_ 1 + + UNGULATA. + SUIDÆ. + Potamochoerus 1 + + RODENTIA. + MURIDÆ. + _Nesomys_ 1 + _Hypogeomys_ 1 + _Brachytarsomys_ 1 + + +We have here a total of 12 families, 27 genera, and 65 species of Mammals; +3 of the families and 20 of the genera (indicated by italics) being +peculiar. All the species are peculiar, except perhaps one or two of the +wandering bats. Remains of a _Hippopotamus_ have been found in a sub-fossil +condition, showing that this animal probably inhabited the island at a not +very remote epoch. + +The assemblage of animals above noted is remarkable, and seems to indicate +a very ancient connection with the southern portion of Africa, before the +apes, ungulates, and felines had entered it. The lemurs, which are here so +largely developed, are {274}represented by a single group in Africa, with +two peculiar forms on the West coast. They also re-appear under peculiar +and isolated forms in Southern India and Malaya, and are evidently but the +remains of a once wide-spread group, since in Eocene times they inhabited +North America and Europe, and very probably the whole northern hemisphere. +The Insectivora are another group of high antiquity, widely scattered over +the globe under a number of peculiar forms; but in no equally limited area +represented by so many peculiar types as in Madagascar. South and West +Africa are also rich in this order. + +The Carnivora of Madagascar are mostly peculiar forms of Viverridæ, or +civets, a family now almost confined to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, +but which was abundant in Europe during the Miocene period. + +The _Potamochoerus_ is a peculiar _species_ only, which may be perhaps +explained by the unusual swimming powers of swine, and the semi-aquatic +habits of this genus, leading to an immigration at a later period than in +the case of the other Mammalia. The same remark will apply to the small +_Hippopotamus_, which was coeval with the great Struthious bird Æpiornis. + +Rodents are only represented by three peculiar forms of Muridæ, but it is +probable that others remain to be discovered. + +_Birds._--Madagascar is exceedingly rich in birds, and especially in +remarkable forms of Passeres. No less than 88 genera and 111 species of +land-birds have been discovered, and every year some additions are being +made to the list. The African families of Passeres are almost all +represented, only two being absent--Paridæ and Fringillidæ, both very +poorly represented in Africa itself. Among the Picariæ, however, the case +is very different, no less than 7 families being absent, viz.--Picidæ, or +woodpeckers; Indicatoridæ, or honey-guides; Megalæmidæ, or barbets; +Musophagidæ, or plantain-eaters; Coliidæ, or colies; Bucerotidæ, or +hornbills; and Irrisoridæ, or mockers. Three of these are peculiar to +Africa, and all are well represented there, so that their absence from +Madagascar is a very remarkable fact. The number of peculiar genera in +Madagascar constitutes one of the main features of its ornithology, and +many of these are so {275}isolated that it is very difficult to classify +them, and they remain to this day a puzzle to ornithologists. In order to +exhibit clearly the striking characteristics of the bird-fauna of this +island, we shall first give a list of all the peculiar genera; another, of +the genera of which the species only are peculiar; and, lastly, a list of +the species which Madagascar possesses in common with the African +continent. + + +GENERA OF BIRDS PECULIAR TO MADAGASCAR, OR FOUND ELSEWHERE ONLY IN THE +MASCARENE ISLANDS. + + SYLVIIDÆ. Species. + 1. Bernieria 2 + 2. Ellisia 1 + 3. Mystacornis 1 + 4. Eroessa 1 + 5. Gervasia 1 + + TIMALIIDÆ. + 6. Oxylabes 2 + + CINCLIDÆ(?). + 7. Mesites 1 + + SITTIDÆ. + 8. _Hypherpes_ 1 + + PYCNONOTIDÆ(?) + 9. Tylas 1 + + ORIOLIDÆ. + 10. Artamia 3 + 11. Cyanolanius 1 + + MUSCICAPIDÆ. + 12. Newtonia 1 + 13. Pseudobias 1 + + LANIIDÆ. + 14. Calicalicus(?) 1 + 15. Vanga 4 + + NECTARINIIDÆ. + 16. Neodrepanis 1 + + HIRUNDINIDÆ. + 17. Phedina 1 + + PLOCEIDÆ. + 18. Nelicurvius 1 + + STURNIDÆ. + 19. Euryceros(?) 1 + 20. Hartlaubia 1 + 21. Falculia 1 + + PAICTIDÆ. + 22. Philepitta 1 + + CUCULIDÆ. + 23. Coua 9 + 24. Cochlothraustes 1 + + LEPTOSOMIDÆ. + 25. Leptosomus 1 + + CORACIIDÆ. + 26. Atelornis 2 + 27. Brachypteracias 1 + 28. Geobiastes 1 + + PSITTACIDÆ. + 29. Coracopsis 2 + + COLUMBIDÆ. + 30. _Alectrænas_ 1 + + TETRAONIDÆ. + 31. _Margaroperdix_ 1 + + FALCONIDÆ. + 32. Nisoides 1 + 33. Eutriorchis 1 + -- + Total species of peculiar genera 50 + + ÆPYORNITHIDÆ(extinct). + 34. Æpyornis 1 + + +{276}ETHIOPIAN OR ORIENTAL GENERA WHICH ARE REPRESENTED IN MADAGASCAR BY +PECULIAR SPECIES. + + TURDIDÆ. Species. + 1. Bessonornis 1 + + SYLVIIDÆ. + 2. Acrocephalus 1 + 3. _Copsychus (Or.)_ 1 + 4. Pratincola 1 + + PYCNONOTIDÆ. + 5. _Hypsipetes (Or.)_ 1 + 6. Andropadus 1 + + CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. + 7. Campephaga 1 + + DICRURIDÆ. + 8. Dicrurus 1 + + MUSCICAPIDÆ. + 9. Tchitrea 1 + + LANIIDÆ. + 10. Laniarius 1 + + NECTARINIIDÆ. + 11. Nectarinia 1 + + PLOCEIIDÆ. + 12. Foudia 2 + 13. Hypargos 1 + 14. Spermestes 1 + + ALAUDIDÆ. + 15. Mirafra 1 + + MOTACILLIDÆ. + 16. Motacilla 1 + + CUCULIDÆ. + 17. Ceuthmochares 1 + 18. Centropus 1 + 19. Cuculus 1 + + CORACIIDÆ. + 20. Eurystomus 1 + + ALCEDINIDÆ. + 21. Corythornis 1 + 22. Ispidina 1 + + UPUPIDÆ. + 23. Upupa (?) 1 + + CAPRIMULGIDÆ. + 24. Caprimulgus 1 + + CYPSELIDÆ. + 25. Cypselus 2 + 26. Chætura 1 + + PSITTACIDÆ. + 27. Poliopsitta 1 + + COLUMBIDÆ. + 28. Treron 1 + 29. Columba 1 + 30. Turtur 1 + + PTEROCLIDÆ. + 31. Pterocles 1 + + TETRAONIDÆ. + 32. Francolinus 1 + + PHASIANIDÆ. + 33. Numida 1 + + TURNICIDÆ. + 34. Turnix 1 + + FALCONIDÆ. + 35. Polyboroides 1 + 36. Circus 1 + 37. Astur 3 + 38. Accipiter 1 + 39. Buteo 1 + 40. Haliæetus 1 + 41. Pernis 1 + 42. Baza 1 + 43. Cerchneis 1 + + STRIGIDÆ. {277} + 44. Athene 1 + 45. Scops 1 + + RALLIDÆ. + 46. Rallus 3 + 47. Porzana 1 + + SCOLOPACIDÆ. + 48. Gallinago 1 + + PLATALEIDÆ. + 49. Ibis 1 + + PODICIPIDÆ. + 50. Podiceps 1 + -- + Total peculiar species of Eth. } + or Or. genera } 56 + + +SPECIES OF BIRDS COMMON TO MADAGASCAR AND AFRICA OR ASIA. + + 1. Cisticola cursitans. + 2. Corvus scapulatus. + 3. Crithagra canicollis. + 4. Merops superciliosus. + 5. Collocalia fuciphaga. + 6. Oena capensis. + 7. Aplopelia tympanistria. + 8. Falco minor. + 9. Falco concolor. + 10. Milvus ægyptius. + 11. Milvus migrans. + 12. Strix flammea. + +These three tables show us an amount of speciality hardly to be found in +the birds of any other part of the globe. Out of 111 land-birds in +Madagascar, only 12 are identical with species inhabiting the adjacent +continents, and most of these belong to powerful-winged, or wide-ranging +forms, which probably now often pass from one country to the other. The +peculiar species--49 land-birds and 7 waders, or aquatics--are mostly +well-marked forms of African genera. There are, however, several genera +(marked by italics) which have Oriental or Palæarctic affinities, but not +African, viz.--_Copsychus_, _Hypsipetes_, _Hypherpes_, _Alectrænas_, and +_Margaroperdix_. These indicate a closer approximation to the Malay +countries than now exists. + +The table of 33 peculiar genera is of great interest. Most of these are +well-marked forms, belonging to families which are fully developed in +Africa; though it is singular that not one of the exclusively African +families is represented in any way in Madagascar. Others, however, are of +remote or altogether doubtful affinities. _Sittidæ_ is Oriental and +Palæarctic, but not Ethiopian. _Oxylabes_ and _Mystacornis_ are of doubtful +affinities. _Artamia_ and _Cyanolanius_ still more so, and it is quite +undecided what family they belong to. _Calicalicus_ is almost equally +obscure. _Neodrepanis_, one of the most recent discoveries, seems to +connect the Nectariniidæ with the Pacific {278}Depanididæ. _Euryceros_ is a +complete puzzle, having been placed with the hornbills, the starlings, or +as a distinct family. _Falculia_ is an exceedingly aberrant form of +starling, long thought to be allied to _Irrisor_. _Philepitta_, forming a +distinct family, (Paictidæ), is most remarkable and isolated, perhaps with +remote South American affinities. _Leptosoma_ is another extraordinary +form, connecting the cuckoos with the rollers. _Atelornis_, +_Brachypteracias_, and _Geobiastes_, are terrestrial rollers, with the form +and colouring of _Pitta_. So many perfectly isolated and remarkable groups +are certainly nowhere else to be found; and they fitly associate with the +wonderful aye-aye (_Chiromys_), the insectivorous Centetidæ, and +carnivorous _Cryptoprocta_ among the Mammalia. They speak to us plainly of +enormous antiquity, of long-continued isolation; and not less plainly of a +lost continent or continental island, in which so many, and various, and +peculiarly organized creatures, could have been gradually developed in a +connected fauna, of which we have here but the fragmentary remains. + +_Plate VI.--Illustrating the characteristic features of the Zoology of +Madagascar._--The lemurs, which form the most prominent feature in the +zoology of Madagascar, being comparatively well-known from the numerous +specimens in our zoological gardens; and good figures of the Insectivorous +genera not being available, we have represented the nocturnal and +extraordinary aye-aye (_Chiromys madagascariensis_) to illustrate its +peculiar and probably very ancient mammalian fauna; while the river-hogs in +the distance (_Potamochoerus edwardsii_) allied to African species, +indicate a later immigration from the mainland than in the case of most of +the other Mammalia. The peculiar birds being far less generally known, we +have figured three of them. The largest is the _Euryceros prevosti_, here +classed with the starlings, although its remarkable bill and other +peculiarities render it probable that it should form a distinct family. Its +colours are velvety black and rich brown with the bill of a pearly grey. +The bird beneath (_Vanga curvirostris_) is one of the peculiar Madagascar +shrikes whose plumage, variegated with green-black and pure white is very +conspicuous; while that in the right hand corner is the _Leptosoma +discolor_, a bird which appears to be intermediate between such very +distinct families as the cuckoos and the rollers, and is therefore +considered to form a family by itself. It is a coppery-green above and +nearly white beneath, with a black bill and red feet. The fan-shaped plant +on the left is the traveller's tree (_Urania speciosa_), one of the +peculiar forms of vegetation in this marvellous island. + + + +Plate VI. + +[Illustration] + +SCENE IN MADAGASCAR, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. + +{279}_Reptiles._--These present some very curious features, comparatively +few of the African groups being represented, while there are a considerable +number of Eastern and even of American forms. Beginning with the snakes, we +find, in the enormous family of Colubridæ, none of the African types; but +instead of them three genera--_Herpetodryas_, _Philodryas_, and +_Heterodon_--only found elsewhere in South and North America. The +Psammophidæ, which are both African and Indian, are represented by a +peculiar genus, _Mimophis_. The Dendrophidæ are represented by _Ahætulla_, +a genus which is both African and American. The Dryiophidæ, which inhabit +all the tropics but are most developed in the Oriental region, are +represented by a peculiar genus, _Langaha_. The tropical Pythonidæ are +represented by another peculiar genus, _Sanzinia_. The Lycodontidæ and +Viperidæ, so well developed in Africa, are entirely absent. + +The lizards are no less remarkable. The Zonuridæ, abundantly developed in +Africa, are represented by one peculiar genus, _Cicigna_. The wide-spread +Scincidæ by another peculiar genus, _Pygomeles_. The African Sepsidæ, are +represented by three genera, two of which are African, and one, +_Amphiglossus_, peculiar. The Acontiadæ are represented by a species of the +African genus _Acontias_. Of Scincidæ there is the wide-spread _Euprepes_. +The Sepidæ are represented by the African genera _Seps_ and _Scelotes_. The +Geckotidæ are not represented by any purely African genera, but by +_Phyllodactylus_, which is American and Australian; _Hemidactylus_, which +is spread over all the tropics; by two peculiar genera; and by _Uroplatis_, +_Geckolepis_, and _Phelsuma_, confined to Madagascar, Bourbon, and the +Andaman Islands. The Agamidæ, which are mostly Oriental and are represented +in {280}Africa by the single genus _Agama_, have here three peculiar +genera, _Tracheloptychus_, _Chalarodon_, and _Hoplurus_. Lastly, the +American Iguanidæ are said to be represented by a species of the South +American genus _Oplurus_. The classification of Reptiles is in such an +unsettled state that some of these determinations of affinities are +probably erroneous; but it is not likely that any corrections which may be +required will materially affect the general bearing of the evidence, as +indicating a remarkable amount of Oriental and American relationship. + +The other groups are of less interest. Tortoises are represented by two +African or wide-spread genera of Testudinidæ, _Testudo_ and _Chersina_, and +by one peculiar genus, _Pyxis_; and there are also two African genera of +Chelydidæ. + +The Amphibia are not very well known. They appear to be confined to species +of the wide-spread Ethiopian and Oriental genera--_Hylarana_, +_Polypedates_, and _Rappia_ (Polypedatidæ); and _Pyxicephalus_ (Ranidæ). + +_Fresh-water Fishes._--These appear to be at present almost unknown. When +carefully collected they will no doubt furnish some important facts. + + +_The Mascarene Islands._ + +The various islands which surround Madagascar--Bourbon, Mauritius, +Rodriguez, the Seychelles, and the Comoro Islands--all partake in a +considerable degree of its peculiar fauna, while having some special +features of their own. + +Indigenous Mammalia (except bats) are probably absent from all these +islands (except the Comoros), although _Lemur_ and _Centetes_ are given as +natives of Bourbon and Mauritius. They have, however, perhaps been +introduced from Madagascar. _Lemur mayottensis_, a peculiar species, is +found in the Comoro Islands, where a Madagascar species of _Viverra_ also +occurs. + +Bourbon and Mauritius may be taken together, as they much resemble each +other. They each possess species of a peculiar genus of Campephagidæ, or +caterpillar shrikes, _Oxynotus_; while the remarkable _Fregilupus_, +belonging to the starling family, inhabits Bourbon, if it is not now +extinct. They also have {281}peculiar species of _Pratincola_, +_Hypsipetes_, _Phedina_, _Tchitrea_, _Zosterops_, _Foudia_, _Collocalia_, +and _Coracopsis_; while Mauritius has a very peculiar form of dove of the +sub-genus _Trocaza_; an _Alectrænas_, extinct within the last thirty years; +and a species of the Oriental genus of parroquets, _Palæornis_. The small +and remote island of Rodriguez has another _Palæornis_, as well as a +peculiar _Foudia_, and a _Drymoeca_ of apparently Indian affinity. + +Coming to the Seychelle Islands, far to the north, we find the only mammal +an Indian species of bat (_Pteropus edwardsii_). Of the twelve land-birds +all but one are peculiar species, but all belong to genera found also in +Madagascar, except one--a peculiar species of _Palæornis_. This is an +Oriental genus, but found also in several Mascarene Islands and on the +African continent. A species of black parrot (_Coracopsis barklayi_) and a +weaver bird of peculiar type (_Foudia seychellarum_) show, however, a +decided connection with Madagascar. There are also two peculiar pigeons--a +short-winged _Turtur_ and an _Alectrænas_. + +Most of the birds of the Comoro Islands are Madagascar species, only two +being African. Five are peculiar, belonging to the genera _Nectarinia_, +_Zosterops_, _Dicrurus_, _Foudia_, and _Alectrænas_. + +Reptiles are scarce. There appear to be no snakes in Mauritius and Bourbon, +though some African species are said to be found in the Seychelle Islands. +Lizards are fairly represented. Mauritius has _Cryptoblepharus_, an +Australian genus of Gymnopthalmidæ; _Hemidactylus_ (a wide-spread genus); +_Peropus_ (Oriental and Australian)--both belonging to the Geckotidæ. +Bourbon has _Heteropus_, a Moluccan and Australian genus of Scincidæ; +_Phelsuma_ (Geckotidæ), and _Chameleo_, both found also in Madagascar; as +well as _Pyxis_, one of the tortoises. The Seychelles have _Theconyx_, a +peculiar genus of Geckotidæ, and _Chameleo_. Gigantic land-tortoises, which +formerly inhabited most of the Mascarene Islands, now only survive in +Aldabra, a small island north of the Seychelles. These will be noticed +again further on. Amphibia seem only to be recorded from the Seychelles, +where two genera of tree-frogs of the family Polypedatidæ are found; one +(_Megalixalus_) peculiar, the other (_Rappia_) found also in Madagascar and +Africa. + +{282}The few insect groups peculiar to these islands will be noted when we +deal with the entomology of Madagascar. + +_Extinct fauna of the Mascarene Islands and Madagascar._--Before quitting +the vertebrate groups, we must notice the remarkable birds which have +become extinct in these islands little more than a century ago. The most +celebrated is the dodo of the Mauritius (_Didus ineptus_), but an allied +genus, _Pezophaps_, inhabited Rodriguez, and of both of these almost +perfect skeletons have been recovered. Other species probably existed in +Bourbon. Remains of two genera of flightless rails have also been found, +_Aphanapteryx_ and _Erythromachus_; and even a heron (_Ardea megacephala_) +which was short-winged and seldom flew; while in Madagascar there lived a +gigantic Struthious bird, the _Æpyornis_. Some further details as to these +extinct forms will be found under the respective families, Dididæ, Rallidæ, +and Æpyornithidæ, in the fourth part of this work; and their bearing on the +past history of the region will be adverted to in the latter part of this +chapter. Dr. Günther has recently distinguished five species of fossil +tortoises from Mauritius and Rodriguez,--all of them quite different from +the living species of Aldabra. + +_Insects._--The butterflies of Madagascar are not so remarkable as some +other orders of insects. There seems to be only one peculiar genus, +_Heteropsis_ (Satyridæ). The other genera are African, _Leptoneura_ being +confined to Madagascar and South Africa. There are some fine _Papilios_ of +uncommon forms. The most interesting lepidopterous insect, however, is the +fine diurnal moth (_Urania_), as all the other species of the genus inhabit +tropical America and the West Indian Islands. + +The Coleoptera have been better collected, and exhibit some very remarkable +affinities. There is but one peculiar genus of Cicindelidæ, _Pogonostoma_, +which is allied to the South American genus, _Ctenostoma_. Another genus, +_Peridexia_, is common to Madagascar and South America. None of the +important African genera are represented, except _Eurymorpha_; while +_Meglaomma_ is common to Madagascar and the Oriental region. + +In the Carabidæ we have somewhat similar phenomena on a {283}wider scale. +Such large and important African genera as _Polyhirma_ and _Anthia_, are +absent; but there are four genera in common with South Africa, and two with +West Africa; while three others are as much Oriental as African. One genus, +_Distrigus_, is wholly Oriental; and another, _Homalosoma_, Australian. +_Colpodes_, well developed in Bourbon and Mauritius, is Oriental and South +American. Of the peculiar genera, _Sphærostylis_ has South American +affinities; _Microchila_, Oriental; the others being related to widely +distributed genera. + +The Lucanidæ are few in number, and all have African affinities. Madagascar +is very rich in Cetoniidæ, and possesses 20 peculiar genera. _Bothrorhina_, +and three other genera belonging to the _Ichnostoma_ group, have wholly +African relations. _Doryscelis_ and _Chromoptila_ are no less clearly +allied to Oriental genera. A series of eight peculiar genera belong to the +Schizorhinidæ, a family the bulk of which are Australian, while there are +only a few African forms. The remaining genera appear to have African +affinities, but few of the peculiarly African genera are represented. +_Glyciphana_ is characteristic of the Oriental region. + +The Buprestidæ of Madagascar consist mainly of one large and peculiar +genus, _Polybothris_, allied to the almost cosmopolite _Psiloptera_. Most +of the other genera are both Ethiopian and Oriental; but _Polycesta_ is +mainly South American, and the remarkable and isolated genus _Sponsor_ is +confined to the Mauritius with a species in Celebes and New Guinea. + +The Longicorns are numerous and interesting, there being no less than 24 +peculiar genera. Two of the genera of Prionidæ are very isolated, while a +third, _Closterus_, belongs to a group which is Malayan and American. + +Of the Cerambycidæ, _Philematium_ ranges to Africa and the West Indies; +_Leptocera_ is only found eastward in Ceylon and the New Hebrides; while +_Euporus_ is African. Of the peculiar genera, 2 are of African type; 3 +belong to the _Leptura_ group, which are mostly Palæarctic and Oriental, +with a few in South Africa; while _Philocalocera_ is allied to a South +American genus. + +Among the Lamiidæ there are several wide-ranging and 7 {284}African genera; +but _Coptops_ is Oriental, and the Oriental _Praonetha_ occurs in the +Comoro Islands. Among the peculiar genera several have African affinities, +but _Tropidema_ belongs to a group which is Oriental and Australian; +_Oopsis_ is found also in the Pacific Islands; _Mythergates_, _Sulemus_, +and _Coedomæa_, are allied to Malayan and American genera. + +_General Remarks on the Insect-fauna of Madagascar._--Taking the insects as +a whole, we find the remarkable result that their affinities are largely +Oriental, Australian, and South American: while the African element is +represented chiefly by special South African or West African forms, rather +than by such as are widely spread over the Ethiopian region.[11] In some +families--as Cetoniidæ and Lamiidæ--the African element appears to +preponderate; in others--as Cicindelidæ--the South American affinity seems +strongest; in Carabidæ, perhaps the Oriental; while in Buprestidæ and +Cerambycidæ the African and foreign elements seem nearly balanced. We must +not impute too much importance to these foreign alliances among insects, +because we find examples of them in every country on the globe. The reason +they are so much more pronounced in Madagascar may be, that during long +periods of time this island has served as a refuge for groups that have +been dying out on the great continents; and that, owing to the numerous +deficiencies of a somewhat similar kind in the series of vertebrata in +Australia and South America, the same groups have often been able to +maintain themselves in all these countries as well as in Madagascar. It +must be remembered too, that these peculiarities in the Malagasy and +Mascarene insect-fauna are but exaggerations of a like phenomenon on the +mainland. Africa also has numerous affinities with South America, with the +Malay countries, and with Australia; but they do not bear anything like so +large a proportion to the whole fauna, and do not, therefore, attract so +much attention. The special conditions of existence and the long-continued +isolation of Madagascar, will account for much of this difference; and it +will evidently not be necessary {285}to introduce, as some writers are +disposed to do, a special land connection or near approach between +Madagascar and all these countries, independently of Africa; except perhaps +in the case of the Malay Islands, as will be discussed further on. + +_Land-shells._--Madagascar and the adjacent islands are all rich in +land-shells. The genera of Helicidæ are _Vitrina_, _Helix_, _Achatina_, +_Columna_ (peculiar to Madagascar and West Africa), _Buliminus_, _Cionella_ +(chiefly Oriental and South American, but not African), _Pupa_, +_Streptaxis_, and _Succinea_. Among the Operculata we have _Truncatella_ +(widely scattered, but not African); _Cyclotus_ (South American, Oriental, +and South African); _Cyclophorus_ (mostly Oriental, with a few South +African); _Leptopoma_ (Oriental); _Megalomastoma_ (Malayan and South +American); _Lithidion_ (peculiar to Madagascar, Socotra, and South-West +Arabia); _Otopoma_ (with the same range, but extending to West India and +New Ireland); _Cyclostomus_ (widely spread but not African); and +_Omphalotropis_ (wholly Oriental and Australian). We thus find the same +general features reproduced in the land-shells as in the insects, and the +same remarks will to a great extent apply to both. The classification of +the former is, however, by no means so satisfactory, and we have no +extensive and accurate general catalogues of shells, like those of +Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, which have furnished us with such valuable +materials for the comparison of the several faunas. + + +_On the probable Past History of the Ethiopian Region._ + +Perhaps none of the great zoological regions of the earth present us with +problems of greater difficulty or higher interest than the Ethiopian. We +find in it the evidence of several distinct and successive faunas, now +intermingled; and it is very difficult, with our present imperfect +knowledge, to form an adequate conception of how and when the several +changes occurred. There are, however, a few points which seem sufficiently +clear, and these afford us a secure foundation in our endeavour to +comprehend the rest. + +Let us then consider what are the main facts we have to account for.--1. In +Continental Africa, more especially in the south {286}and west, we find, +along with much that is peculiar, a number of genera showing a decided +Oriental, and others with an equally strong South American affinity; this +latter more particularly showing itself among reptiles and insects. 2. All +over Africa, but more especially in the east, we have abundance of large +ungulates and felines--antelopes, giraffes, buffaloes, elephants, and +rhinoceroses, with lions, leopards, and hyænas, all of types now or +recently found in India and Western Asia. 3. But we also have to note the +absence of a number of groups which abound in the above-named countries, +such as deer, bears, moles, and true pigs; while camels and +goats--characteristic of the desert regions just to the north of the +Ethiopian--are equally wanting. 4. There is a wonderful unity of type and +want of speciality in the vast area of our first sub-region extending from +Senegal across to the east coast, and southward to the Zambezi; while West +Africa and South Africa each abound in peculiar types. 5. We have the +extraordinary fauna of Madagascar to account for, with its evident main +derivation from Africa, yet wanting all the larger and higher African +forms; its resemblances to Malaya and to South America; and its wonderful +assemblage of altogether peculiar types. + +Here we find a secure starting-point, for we are sure that Madagascar must +have been separated from Africa before the assemblage of large animals +enumerated above, had entered it. Now, it is a suggestive fact, that all +these belong to types which abounded in Europe and India about the Miocene +period. It is also known, from the prevalence of Tertiary deposits over the +Sahara and much of Arabia, Persia, and Northern India, that during early +Tertiary times a continuous sea from the Bay of Bengal to the British Isles +completely cut off all land communication between Central and Southern +Africa on the one side, and the great continent of the Eastern hemisphere +on the other. When Africa was thus isolated, its fauna probably had a +character somewhat analogous to that of South America at the same period. +Most of the higher types of mammalian life were absent, while lemurs, +Edentates, and Insectivora took their place. At this period Madagascar was +no doubt united with Africa, {287}and helped to form a great southern +continent which must at one time have extended eastward as far as Southern +India and Ceylon; and over the whole of this the lemurine type no doubt +prevailed. + +During some portion of this period, South Temperate Africa must have had a +much greater extension, perhaps indicated by the numerous shoals and rocks +to the south and east of the Cape of Good Hope, and by the Crozets and +Kerguelen Islands further to the south-east. This would have afforded means +for that intercommunion with Western Australia which is so clearly marked +in the flora, and to some extent also in the insects of the two countries; +and some such extension is absolutely required for the development of that +wonderfully rich and peculiar temperate flora and fauna, which, now crowded +into a narrow territory, is one of the greatest marvels of the organic +world. + +During this early period, when the great southern continents--South +America, Africa, and Australia--were equally free from the incursions of +the destructive felines of the north, the Struthious or ostrich type of +birds was probably developed into its existing forms. It is not at all +necessary to suppose that these three continents were at any time united, +in order to account for the distribution of these great terrestrial birds; +as this may have arisen by at least two other easily conceivable modes. The +ancestral Struthious type may, like the Marsupial, have once spread over +the larger portion of the globe; but as higher forms, especially of +Carnivora, became developed, it would be exterminated everywhere but in +those regions where it was free from their attacks. In each of these it +would develope into special forms adapted to surrounding conditions; and +the large size, great strength, and excessive speed of the ostrich, may +have been a comparatively late development caused by its exposure to the +attacks of enemies which rendered such modification necessary. This seems +the most probable explanation of the distribution of Struthious birds, and +it is rendered almost certain by the discovery of remains of this order in +Europe in Eocene deposits, and by the occurrence of an ostrich among the +fossils of the Siwalik hills; but it is just possible, also, that the +{288}ancestral type may have been a bird capable of flight, and that it +spread from one of the three southern continents to the others at the +period of their near approach, and more or less completely lost the power +of flight owing to the long continued absence of enemies. + +During the period we have been considering, the ancestors of existing apes +and monkeys flourished (as we have seen in Chapter VI.) along the whole +southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent; and it seems likely that +they first entered Africa by means of a land connection indicated by the +extensive and lofty plateaus of the Sahara, situated to the south-east of +Tunis and reaching to a little north-west of Lake Tchad; and at the same +time the elephant and rhinoceros type may have entered. This will account +for the curious similarity between the higher faunas of West Africa and the +Indo-Malay sub-region, for owing to the present distribution of land and +sea and the narrowing of the tropical zone since Miocene times, these are +now the only lowland, equatorial, forest-clad countries, which were in +connection with the southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent at the +time of its greatest luxuriance and development. This western connection +did not probably last long, the junction that led to the greatest incursion +of new forms, and the complete change in the character of the African +fauna, having apparently been effected by way of Syria and the shores of +the Red Sea at a somewhat later date. By this route the old +South-Palæarctic fauna, indicated by the fossils of Pikermi and the Siwalik +Hills, poured into Africa; and finding there a new and favourable country, +almost wholly unoccupied by large Mammalia, increased to an enormous +extent, developed into new forms, and finally overran the whole continent. + +Before this occurred, however, a great change had taken place in the +geography of Africa. It had gradually diminished on the south and east; +Madagascar had been left isolated; while a number of small islands, banks, +and coral reefs in the Indian Ocean alone remained to indicate the position +of a once extensive equatorial land. The Mascarene Islands appear to +represent the portion which separated earliest, before any carnivora had +{289}reached the country; and it was in consequence of this total exemption +from danger, that several groups of birds altogether incapable of flight +became developed here, culminating in the huge and unwieldy Dodo, and the +more active Aphanapteryx. To the same cause may be attributed the +development, in these islands, of gigantic land-tortoises, far surpassing +any others now living on the globe. They appear to have formerly inhabited +Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodriguez, and perhaps all the other Mascarene +islands, but having been recklessly destroyed, now only survive in the +small uninhabited Aldabra islands north of the Seychelle group. The largest +living specimen (5½ feet long) is now in our Zoological Gardens. The only +other place where equally large tortoises (of an allied species) are found, +is the Galapagos islands, where they were equally free from enemies till +civilized man came upon the scene; who, partly by using them for food, +partly by the introduction of pigs, which destroy the eggs, has greatly +diminished their numbers and size, and will probably soon wholly +exterminate them. It is a curious fact, ascertained by Dr. Günther, that +the tortoises of the Galapagos are more nearly related to the extinct +tortoises of Mauritius than is the living tortoise of Aldabra. This would +imply that several distinct groups or sub-genera of _Testudo_ have had a +wide range over the globe, and that some of each have survived in very +distant localities. This is rendered quite conceivable by the known +antiquity of the genus _Testudo_, which dates back to at least the Eocene +formation (in North America) with very little change of form. These +sluggish reptiles, so long-lived and so tenacious of life, may have +remained unchanged, while every higher animal type around them has become +extinct and been replaced by very different forms; as in the case of the +living _Emys tectum_, which is the sole survivor of the strange Siwalik +fauna of the Miocene epoch. The ascertained history of the genus and the +group, thus affords a satisfactory explanation of the close affinity of the +gigantic tortoises of Mauritius and the Galapagos. + +The great island of Madagascar seems to have remained longer united with +Africa, till some of the smaller and more active {290}carnivora had reached +it; and we consequently find there, no wholly terrestrial form of bird but +the gigantic and powerful _Æpyornis_, well able to defend itself against +such enemies. As already intimated, we refer the South American element in +Madagascar, not to any special connection of the two countries +independently of Africa, but to the preservation there of a number of +forms, some derived from America through Africa, others of once almost +cosmopolitan range, but which, owing to the severer competition, have +become extinct on the African continent, while they have continued to exist +under modified forms in the two other countries. + +The depths of all the great oceans are now known to be so profound, that we +cannot conceive the elevation of their beds above the surface without some +corresponding depression elsewhere. And if, as is probable, these opposite +motions of the earth's crust usually take place in parallel bands, and are +to some extent dependent on each other, an elevation of the sea bed could +hardly fail to lead to the submergence of large tracts of existing +continents; and this is the more likely to occur on account of the great +disproportion that we have seen exists between the mean height of the land +and the mean depth of the ocean. Keeping this principle in view, we may, +with some probability, suggest the successive stages by which the Ethiopian +region assumed its present form, and acquired the striking peculiarities +that characterise its several sub-regions. During the early period, when +the rich and varied temperate flora of the Cape, and its hardly less +peculiar forms of insects and of low type mammalia, were in process of +development in an extensive south temperate land, we may be pretty sure +that the whole of the east and much of the north of Africa was deep sea. At +a later period, when this continent sank towards the south and east, the +elevation may have occurred which connected Madagascar with Ceylon; and +only at a still later epoch, when the Indian Ocean had again been formed, +did central, eastern, and northern Africa gradually rise above the ocean, +and effect a connection with the great northern continent by way of +Abyssinia and Arabia. And if this last change took place with +{291}tolerable rapidity, or if the elevatory force acted from the north +towards the south, there would be a new and unoccupied territory to be +taken possession of by immigrants from the north, together with a few from +the south and west. The more highly-organised types from the great northern +continent, however, would inevitably prevail; and we should thus have +explained the curious uniformity in the fauna of so large an area, together +with the absence from it of those peculiar Ethiopian types which so +abundantly characterise the other three sub-regions. + +We may now perhaps see the reason of the singular absence from tropical +Africa of deer and bears; for these are both groups which live in fertile +or well-wooded countries, whereas the line of immigration from Europe to +Africa was probably always, as now, to a great extent a dry and desert +tract, suited to antelopes and large felines, but almost impassable to deer +and bears. We find, too, that whereas remains of antelopes and giraffes +abound in the Miocene deposits of Greece, there were no deer (which are +perhaps a somewhat later development); neither were there any bears, but +numerous forms of Felidæ, Viverridæ, Mustelidæ, and ancestral forms of +_Hyæna_, exactly suited to be the progenitors of the most prevalent types +of modern African Zoology. + +There appears to have been one other change in the geography of Africa and +the Atlantic Ocean that requires notice. The rather numerous cases of close +similarity in the insect forms of tropical Africa and America, seem to +indicate some better means of transmission, at a not very remote epoch, +than now exists. The vast depth of the Atlantic, and the absence of any +corresponding likeness in the vertebrate fauna, entirely negative the idea +of any union between the two countries; but a moderate extension of their +shores towards each other is not improbable, and this, with large islands +in the place of the Cape Verd group, St. Paul's Rocks, and Fernando +Noronha, to afford resting places in the Atlantic, would probably suffice +to explain the amount of similarity that actually exists. + +Our knowledge of the geology and palæontology of Africa {292}being so +scanty, it would be imprudent to attempt any more detailed explanation of +the peculiarities of its existing fauna. The sketch now given is, it is +believed, founded on a sufficient basis of facts to render it not only a +possible but a probable account of what took place; and it is something +gained to be able to show, that a large portion of the peculiarities and +anomalies of so remarkable a fauna as that of the Ethiopian region, can be +accounted for by a series of changes of physical geography during the +tertiary epoch, which can hardly be considered extreme, or in any way +unlikely to have occurred. + + +{293}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. + +In drawing up these tables showing the distribution of various classes of +animals in the Ethiopian Region, the following sources of information have +been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, +and catalogues, used for the Fourth Part of this work:-- + +_Mammalia._--Blanford's Abyssinia; Peters's Mozambique; Heuglin and +Schweinfurth for North East Africa; Grandidier Schlegel, &c., for +Madagascar; the local lists given by Mr. Andrew Murray; numerous papers by +Fraser, Gray, Kirk, Mivart, Peters, Sclater, and Speke; and a MS. list of +Bovidæ from Sir Victor Brooke. + +_Birds._--Finsch and Hartlaub for East Africa; Heuglin for North-East +Africa; Blanford for Abyssinia; Layard for South Africa; Hartlaub for West +Africa; Dohrn for Princes Island; Andersson for Damaraland; and papers by +Gurney, Hartlaub, Kirk, Newton, Peters, Sharpe, Sclater, Schlegel, and +Pollen and a MS. list of Madagascar Birds from Mr. Sharpe. + + +{294}TABLE I. + +_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE ETHIOPIAN REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show families peculiar to the region. + + Names inclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not + considered properly to belong to it. + + Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV. + + ---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- + | Sub-regions | + | 1=East Africa. | + Order and Family | 2=West Africa. | Range beyond the Region. + | 3=South Africa. | + | 4=Madagascar. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | | | | | + MAMMALIA. | | | | | + PRIMATES. | | | | | + 1. Simiidæ | | -- | | |Oriental + 2. Semnopithecidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental + 3. Cynopithecidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Palæarctic + 6. Lemuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental + 8. _Chiromyidæ_ | | | | -- | + | | | | | + CHEIROPTERA. | | | | | + 9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 13. Noctilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All Tropical regions + | | | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | | | + 15. Macroscelididæ | -- | | -- | |South Palæarctic + 17. Erinaceidæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic, Oriental + 18. _Centetidæ_ | | | | -- |Greater Antilles + 19. _Potamogalidæ_ | | -- | | | + 20. _Chrysochloridæ_ | -- | | -- | | + 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and + | | | | | Neotropical + | | | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | | | + 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 24. _Cryptoproctidæ_ | | | | -- | + 25. Viverridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Palæarctic + 26. _Protelidæ_ | | | -- | | + 27. Hyænidæ | -- | -- | -- | |S. Palæarctic, India + 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Almost cosmopolite + 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + 33. Otariidæ | | | -- | |All temperate regions + | | | | | + CETACEA. | | | | | + 36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic + | | | | | + SIRENIA. | | | | | + 42. Manatidæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, Oriental, + | | | | | Australian + | | | | | + UNGULATA. | | | | | + 43. Equidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic + 45. Rhinocerotidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental + 46. _Hippopotamidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + 47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite; excl. Australia + 49. Tragulidæ | | -- | | |Oriental + 51. _Camelopardidæ_ | -- | | -- | | + 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Neotrop. and + | | | | | Australian + | | | | | + PROBOSCIDEA. | | | | | + 53. Elephantidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental + | | | | | + HYRACOIDEA. | | | | | + 54. Hyracidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Syria + | | | | | + RODENTIA. | | | | | + 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite; excl. Oceania + 56. Spalacidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic, Oriental + 57. Dipodidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic, Nearctic + 58. Myoxidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Palæarctic + 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + 64. Octodontidæ | -- | | | |N. Africa, Neotropical + 65. Echimyidæ | -- | | -- | |Neotropical + 67. Hystricidæ | -- | -- | -- | |S. Palæarctic, Oriental + 70. Leporidæ | -- | | -- | |All regions but Australian + | | | | | + EDENTATA. | | | | | + 72. Manididæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental + 74. _Orycteropodidæ_ | -- | | -- | | + | | | | | + BIRDS. | | | | | + PASSERES. | | | | | + 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 5. Cinclidæ? | | | | -- |Widely scattered + 6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Almost Cosmopolite + 9. Sittidæ | | | | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental, + | | | | | Australian + 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + 13. Pycnonotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental + 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere and + | | | | | North America + 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, except Australian + | | | | | region + 34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere + 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and North + | | | | | America + 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 47. Pittidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Australian + 48. _Paictidæ_ | | | | -- | + | | | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | | | + 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite, excl. Australian + | | | | | region + 52. Yungidæ | -- | | -- | |Palæarctic + 53. Indicatoridæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental + 54. Megalæmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical + 56. _Musophagidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + 57. _Coliidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 59. _Leptosomidæ_ | | | | -- | + 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian + 66. Trogonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical + 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 68. Bucerotidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental and to N. Guinea + 69. Upupidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental + 70. _Irrisoridæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + | | | | | + PSITTACI. | | | | | + 78. Palæornithidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Oriental + 81. Psittacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical + | | | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | | | + 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 85. _Dididæ_ | | | | -- |(Extinct) + | | | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | | | + 86. Pteroclidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental + 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and + | | | | | N. America + 88. Phasianidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Old World and N. America + 89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere. + | | | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | | | + 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All the continents but + | | | | | Australia + 95. _Serpentariidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + GRALLÆ. | | | | | + 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 103. Parridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical + 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere + 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | |Eastern Hemisphere + 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Neotropical + 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 117. Phoenicopteridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Neotropical + | | | | | + ANSERES. | | | | | + 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 122. Spheniscidæ | | | -- | |South temperate regions + 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 126. Struthionidæ | -- | | -- | |Temperate S. America + 131. _Æpyornithidæ_ | | | | -- |(Extinct) + | | | | | + REPTILIA. | | | | | + OPHIDIA. | | | | | + 1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic + 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Warm parts of all regions + 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 8. Homalopsidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, and all other regions + 9. Psammophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and S. Palæarctic + 10. _Rachiodontidæ_ | | -- | -- | | + 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 12. Dryiophidæ | | -- | | -- |Oriental, Neotropical + 13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 15. Lycodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental + 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions + 18. Erycidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, S. Palæarctic + 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, S. U. States + | | | | | and Japan + 21. _Dendraspididæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 22. _Atractaspididæ_ | | -- | -- | | + 23. Hydrophidæ | | | | -- |Oriental, Australian, Panama + 25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Palæarctic + | | | | | + LACERTILIA. | | | | | + 28. Amphisbænidæ | -- | -- | | |S. Europe, Neotropical + 29. Lepidosternidæ | | -- | -- | |N. America + 30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Warm parts of E. Hemisphere + 33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All continents but America + 34. Zonuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All America, N. India, + | | | | | S. Europe + 40. _Chamæsauridæ_ | | | -- | | + 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 47. Sepidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |South + 48. Acontiadæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ceylon and Moluccas + 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite + 51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Australian, + | | | | | S. Palæarctic + 52. Chamæleonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Palæarctic + | | | | | + CROCODILIA. | | | | | + 55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Neotropical + | | | | | + CHELONIA. | | | | | + 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia + 58. Chelydidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australia, S. America + 59. Trionychidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Japan, E. United + | | | | | States + 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | |Marine + | | | | | + AMPHIBIA. | | | | | + PSEUDOPHIDIA. | | | | | + 1. Cæciliadæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Neotropical + | | | | | + ANOURA. | | | | | + 7. Phryniscidæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, Australia, Java + 9. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + 11. Engystomidæ | | -- | -- | |All regions but Palæarctic + 14. Alytidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Oriental + 17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All the regions + 18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 19. Discoglossidæ | | -- | -- | |All regions but Nearctic + 21. _Dactylethridæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + | | | | | + FISHES (FRESH-WATER).| | | | | + ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | + 3. Percidæ | -- | | | |All regions but Australian + 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + 35. Labyrinthici | | | -- | -- |Oriental, Moluccas + 38. Mugillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Neotropical + 52. Chromidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Neotropical + | | | | | + PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | + 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions + 60. Characinidæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical + 68. _Mormyridæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 69. _Gymnarchidæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 73. Cyprinodontidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, Oriental, American + 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent from Australia and + | | | | | S. America + 78. Osteoglossidæ | -- | -- | | |All tropical regions + 82. Notopteridæ | | -- | | |Oriental + | | | | | + GANOIDEI. | | | | | + 92. Sirenoidei | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, Australian + 94. _Polypteridæ_ | -- | -- | | | + | | | | | + INSECTS. | | | | | + LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | + DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | + 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm countries and Canada + 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 3. Elymniidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Moluccas + 6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions + 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 9. Libytheidæ | | -- | | -- |Absent from Australia only + 10. Nemeobiidæ | | -- | | -- |Absent from Australia and + | | | | | Nearctic region + 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | + 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Oriental + 20. Uraniidæ | | | | -- |All tropical regions + 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Australia + 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + +{300}TABLE II. + +_LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE ETHIOPIAN +REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region. + + Names inclosed thus (......) show genera which just enter the region, but + are not considered properly to belong to it. + + Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively. + + _MAMMALIA._ + + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond + Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + | | | + PRIMATES. | | | + SIMIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. _Troglodytes_ | 2 |W. Africa to Western | + | | Nile Sources | + | | | + SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + 2. _Colobus_ | 11 |Abyssinia to West | + | | Africa | + | | | + CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 3. _Myiopithecus_ | 1 |West Africa | + 4. _Cercopithecus_| 24 |Tropical Africa | + 5. _Cercocebus_ | 5 |West Africa | + 6. _Theropithecus_| 2 |North-east Africa, |Palestine + | | Arabia | + 7. _Cynocephalus_ | 10 |Nubia to Cape, | + | | W. Africa, Arabia | + | | | + (Sub-Order) | | | + _LEMUROIDEA._ | | | + LEMURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 8. _Indris_ | 6 |Madagascar | + 9. _Lemur_ | 15 |Madagascar | + 10. _Hapalemur_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 11. _Microcebus_ | 4 |Madagascar | + 12. _Chirogaleus_ | 5 |Madagascar | + 13. _Lepilemur_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 14. _Perodicticus_ | 1 |Sierra Leone | + 15. _Arctocebus_ | 1 |Old Calabar | + 16. _Galago_ | 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + CHIROMYIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 17. _Chiromys_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | + PTEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 18. Pteropus | 7 |Africa and Madagascar |Tropics of Eastern + | | | Hemisphere + 19. Xantharpya | 1 |All Africa |Oriental, Austro- + | | | Malayan + 20. Cynopterus | 1 |Tropical Africa |Oriental + 21. _Epomophorus_ | 6 |Tropical Africa and | + | | Abyssinia | + 22. _Hypsignathus_ | 1 |W. Africa | + | | | + RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 23. Rhinolophus | 6 |Africa and Madagascar |Warmer parts of + | | | Eastern Hemisphere + 24. _Macronycterys_| 1 |W. Africa | + 25. Phyllorhina | 4 |Tropical Africa |Indo-Malaya, Austro- + | | | Malaya + 26. Asellia | 1 |Nubia |Indo-Malaya, Austro- + | | | Malaya + 27. Megaderma | 1 |Senegal, Upper Nile |Oriental, Moluccas + 28. Nycteris | 3 |All Africa |Java + | | | + VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 29. Vespertilio | 14 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmopolite + 30. Kerivoula | 1 |S. Africa |Oriental + 31. Miniopteris | 1 |S. Africa |Indo-Malaya + 32. Nycticejus | 7 |Tropical Africa |India + 33. Taphozous | 2 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental, Austro- + | | | Malayan, Neotropical + | | | + NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 34. Nyctinomus | 1 |Madagascar |Oriental, American, + | | | S. Palæarctic + 35. Molossus | 3 |Africa, Bourbon |Neotropical, + | | | S. Palæarctic + | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | + MACROSCELIDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 36. _Macroscelides_| 2 |South and East Africa |N. Africa + 37. _Petrodromus_ | 1 |Mozambique | + 38. _Rhynchocyon_ | 1 |Mozambique | + | | | + ERINACEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 39. Erinaceus | 2 |Cen. and South Africa |Palæarctic, N. India + | | | + CENTETIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 40. _Centetes_ | 2 |Madagascar and | + | | Mauritius | + 41. _Hemicentetes_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 42. _Ericulus_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 43. _Oryzorictes_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 44. _Echinops_ | 3 |Madagascar | + | | | + POTAMOGALIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 45. _Potamogale_ | 1 |Old Calabar | + | | | + CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 46. _Chrysochloris_| 3 |Cape to Mozambique | + | | | + SORICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 47. Sorex | 15 |All Africa and |Palæarc., Nearc., Ori + | | Madagascar | + | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | + FELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 48. Felis | 8 |All Africa |All reg. but + | | | Australian + 49. Lynx[?] | 1 |N. and S. Africa |Palæarctic and + | | | Nearctic + 50. Cynælurus | 1 |Cape of Good Hope | + | | | + CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 51. _Cryptoprocta_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + VIVERRIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 52. Viverra | 1 |Tropical Africa |Oriental + 53. Genetta | 4 |Tropical and S. Africa |S. Palæarctic + 54. _Fossa_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 55. _Poiana_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 56. _Galidia_ | 3 |Madagascar | + 57. _Nandinia_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 58. _Galidictis_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 59. Herpestes | 13 |All Africa |S. Europe, Oriental + 60. _Athylax_ | 3 |S. and E. Africa(?) | + | | Madagascar | + 61. Calogale | 9 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental + 62. _Galerella_ | 1 |E. Africa | + 63. _Ariela_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 64. _Ichneumia_ | 4 |E. Africa, Senegal, | + | | S. Africa | + 65. _Bdeogale_ | 3 |Tropical Africa | + 66. _Helogale_ | 2 |E. and S. Africa | + 67. _Cynictis_ | 3 |S. Africa | + 68. _Rhinogale_ | 1 |E. Africa | + 69. _Mungos_ | 3 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 70. _Crossarchus_ | 1 |Tropical Africa | + 71. _Eupleres_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 72. _Suricata_ | 1 |S. Africa | + | | | + PROTELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 73. _Proteles_ | 1 |S. Africa | + | | | + HYÆNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 74. Hyæna | 3 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic, India + | | | + CANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 75. _Lycaon_ | 1 |S., Central, and | + | | E. Africa | + 76. Canis | 5 |All Africa |Almost Cosmopolitan + 77. _Megalotis_ | 1 |S. Africa | + | | | + MUSTELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 78. Mustela | 1 |Angola |Palæarctic, Nearctic + 79. Gymnopus[?] | 1 |S. Africa |Oriental + 80. Aonyx | 1 |S. and W. Africa |Oriental + 81. _Hydrogale_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 82. Mellivora | 2 |South and Tropical |India + | | Africa | + 83. _Ictonyx_ | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + OTARIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 84. Arctocephalus | 1 |Cape of Good Hope |South Temperate Zone + | | | + SIRENIA. | | | + MANATIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 85. Manatus | 1 |W. Africa |Tropical America + 86. Halicore | 1 |E. Africa |Oriental and + | | | Australian + | | | + UNGULATA. | | | + EQUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 87. Equus | 3 |Tropical and S. Africa |Palæarctic + | | | + RHINOCEROTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 88. Rhinoceros | 4 |All Tropical and |Oriental + | | S. Africa | + | | | + HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 89. _Hippopotamus_ | 2 |Great Rivers of Africa | + | | | + SUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 90. _Potamochoerus_| 3 |Tropical Africa and | + | | Madg. | + 91. _Phacochoerus_ | 2 |Abyssinia to Caffraria | + | | | + TRAGULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 92. _Hyomoschus_ | 1 |W. Africa | + | | | + CAMELOPARDALIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 93._Camelopardalis_| 1 |All open country | + | | | + BOVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 94. Bubalus | 3 |Trop. and S. Africa |India + 95. _Oreas_ | 2 |Africa S. of Sahara | + 96. _Tragelaphus_ | 8 |Africa S. of Sahara | + 97. Oryx | 3 |Arabian and African |S. Palæarctic + | | deserts | + 98. Gazella | 12 |Africa N. of Equator |Palæarctic Deserts + | | and S. Africa | + 99. _Æpyceros_ | 1 |S. E. Africa | + 100. _Cervicapra_ | 4 |All Tropical Africa | + 101. _Kobus_ | 6 |Pastures of all Africa | + 102. _Pelea_ | 1 |South Africa | + 103. _Nanotragus_ | 9 |Africa S. of Sahara | + 104. _Neotragus_ | 1 |Abyssinia and | + | | N. E. Africa | + 105. _Cephalophus_ | 22 |All tropical Africa | + 106. _Hippotragus_ | 3 |Gambia, Central Africa | + | | to Cape | + 107. _Alcephalus_ | 9 |All Africa | + 108. _Catoblepas_ | 2 |Africa S. of Equator | + (Capra | 1 |Abyssinia, high) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + PROBOSCIDEA. | | | + | | | + ELEPHANTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 109. Elephas | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental + | | | + HYRACOIDEA. | | | + HYRACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 110. Hyrax | 10 |Tropical and S. Africa |Syria + | | | + RODENTIA. | | | + MURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 111. Mus | 26 |All Africa |E. Hemis. excl. + | | | Oceania + 112. _Lasiomys_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 113. Acanthomys | 4 |Tropical Africa |India + 114. _Cricetomys_ | 1 |Tropical Africa | + 115. _Saccostomus_ | 2 |Mozambique | + 116. _Dendromys_ | 2 |S. Africa | + 117. _Nesomys_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 118. _Steatomys_ | 2 |East and S. Africa | + 119. _Pelomys_ | 1 |Mozambique | + 120. _Otomys_ | 6 |S. and E. Africa | + 121. Meriones | 14 |Africa |Palæarctic, India + 122. _Malacothrix_ | 2 |S. Africa | + 123. _Mystromys_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 124._Brachytarsomys_| 1 |Madagascar | + 125. _Hypogeomys_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 126. _Lophiomys_ | 1 |S. Arabia and | + | | N. E. Africa | + | | | + SPALACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 127. Rhizomys | 4 |Abyssinia |Oriental to Malacca + 128. _Bathyerges_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 129. _Georychus_ | 6 |E. Central, and | + | | S. Africa | + 130. _Heliophobius_ | 1 |Mozambique | + | | | + DIPODIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 131. Dipus | 7 |N. and Central Africa |Central Palæarctic + 132. _Pedetes_ | 1 |S. Af. to Mozambique | + | | and Angola | + | | | + MYOXIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 133. Myoxus | 1 |Africa to Cape |Palæarctic + | | | + SCIURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 134. Sciurus | 18 |All woody districts of |All regions but + | | Africa | Australia + 135. _Anomalurus_ | 5 |W. Africa and Fernando | + | | Po. | + | | | + OCTODONTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 136. _Pectinator_ | 1 |Abyssinia | + | | | + ECHIMYIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 137. _Petromys_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 138. _Aulacodes_ | 1 |W., E., and S. Africa | + | | | + HYSTRICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 139. Hystrix | 1 |Africa to Cape |S. Palæarctic Oriental + 140. Atherura | 1 |W. Africa |Palæarctic + | | | + LEPORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 141. Lepus | 5 |East and South Africa |All regions but + | | | Australian + | | | + EDENTATA. | | | + MANIDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 142. Manis | 4 |Sennaar to W. Africa |Oriental + | | and Cape | + | | | + ORYCTEROPODIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 143. _Orycteropus_ | 2 |N. E. Africa to Nile | + | | Sources, and S. Africa| + + _BIRDS._ + + PASSERES. | | | + TURDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. Turdus | 13 |The whole reg. (excl. |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Madagas.) | + 2. Monticola | 2 |S. Africa |Palæarctic and + | | | Oriental + 3. _Chætops_ | 3 |S. Africa | + 4. _Bessonornis_ | 15 |The whole region |Palestine + | | | + SYLVIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 5. { _Drymoeca_ | 70 |The whole region |Palestine + 6. { Cisticola | 13 |The whole region |Palæarc., Orien., + { | | | Austral. + 7. { Sphenoeacus | 1 |S. Africa |Australian + 8. { _Camaroptera_| 5 |Africa | + | | | + 9. { Acrocephalus | 8 |The whole region |Palæarc., Orien., + { | | | Austral. + 10. { Bradyptetus | 8 |Abyssinia and S. Africa|S. Europe, Palestine + 11. { _Catriscus_ | 3 |All Africa | + 12. { _Bernieria_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 13. { _Ellisia_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 14. { _Mystacornis_| 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + 15. { Phylloscopus | 1 |S. Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + 16. { _Eremomela_ | 16 |All Africa | + 17. { _Eroessa_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 18. { Hypolais | 2 |S. Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | | + 19. { Aedon | 8 |E. and S. Africa |Palæarctic + 20. { Sylvia | 3 |N. E. Africa, Gambia, |Palæarctic, Oriental + { | | Cape Verd Ids. | + 21. { Curruca | 2 |S. Africa |Palæarctic + | | | + 22. { Ruticilla | 2 |Abyssinia and Senegal |Palæarctic, Oriental + 23. { Cyanecula | 2 |N. E. Africa |Palæarctic + | | | + 24. { Copsychus | 2 |Madagascar and |Oriental + { | | Seychelle Ids. | + 25. { Thamnobia | 7 |All Africa |Oriental + 26. {_Cercotrichas_| 2 |W. and N. E. Africa | + 27. { _Poeoptera_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 28. { _Gervasia_ | 2 |Madagascar and | + { | | Seychelle Ids. | + 29. { Dromolæa | 13 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic, India + 30. { Saxicola | 14 |Central, E. and |Palæarctic, India + { | | S. Africa | + 31. { Cercomela | 3 |N. E. Africa |Palestine, N. W. India + 32. { Pratincola | 7 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | | + TIMALIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 33. Chatarrhæa | 1 |Abyssinia |Oriental, Palestine + 34. _Crateropus_ | 17 |All Africa |N. Africa, Persia + 35. _Hypergerus_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 36. _Cichladusa_ | 3 |W. and E. Africa | + 37. _Alethe_ | 4 |W. Africa | + 38. _Oxylabes_ | 2 |Madagascar | + | | | + CINCLIDÆ.[?] | | | + | | | + 39. _Mesites_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + TROGLODYTIDÆ.[?] | | | + | | | + 40. Sylvietta | 2 |Central, E. and | + | | S. Africa | + | | | + SITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 41. _Hypherpes_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + PARIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 42. Parus | 5 |All Africa |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Nearc. + 43. _Parisoma_ | 5 |All Africa | + 44. Ægithalus | 4 |W., Central, and |Palæarctic + | | S. Africa | + 45. _Parinia_ | 1 |W. Africa, Prince's | + | | Island | + | | | + PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 46. Pycnonotus | 8 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Oriental + 47._Phyllastrephus_| 4 |W. and S. Africa | + 48. Hypsipetes | 4 |Madagascar and |Oriental + | | Mascarene Ids. | + 49. _Tylas_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 50. Criniger | 14 |W. and S. Africa |Oriental + 51. _Ixonotus_ | 8 |W. Africa | + 52. _Andropadus_ | 9 |Africa and Madagascar | + 53. _Lioptilus_ | 1 |S. Africa | + | | | + ORIOLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 54. Oriolus | 10 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + 55. _Artamia_[?] | 3 |Madagascar | + 56._Cyanolanius_[?]| 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 57. _Lanicterus_ | 5 |All Africa | + 58. _Oxynotus_ | 2 |Mauritius and Bourbon | + 59. Campephaga | 5 |The whole region |Celebes to New + | | | Caledonia + | | | + DICRURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 60. Dicrurus | 11 |The whole region |Oriental, Australian + | | | + MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 61. Butalis | 3 |All Africa |Palæarctic, + | | | N. Oriental + 62. Muscicapa | 10 |All tropical Africa |Palæarctic + 63. Alseonax | 4 |S. Africa |Oriental + 64. _Newtonia_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 65. _Hyliota_ | 2 |W. Africa | + 66. _Erythrocercus_| 2 |Tropical Africa | + 67. _Artomyias_ | 2 |W. Africa | + 68. _Pseudobias_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 69. _Smithorius_ | 2 |W. and S. Africa | + 70. _Megabias_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 71. _Cassinia_ | 2 |W. Africa | + 72. _Bias_ | 1 |Tropical Africa | + 73. _Elminia_ | 2 |Tropical Africa | + 74. _Platystira_ | 12 |All Africa | + 75. Tchitrea | 18 |The whole region |Oriental + 76. _Pogonocichla_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 77. _Bradyornis_ | 7 |All Africa | + | | | + LANIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 78. _Parmoptila_[?]| 1 |W. Africa. | + 79. _Calicalicus_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 80. Lanius | 15 |All Africa |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Nearc. + 81. _Hypocolius_ | 1 |Abyssinia | + 82. _Corvinella_ | 1 |S. and W. Africa | + 83. _Urolestes_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 84. _Fraseria_ | 2 |W. Africa | + 85. _Hypodes_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 86. _Cuphoterus _ | 1 |Prince's Island | + 87. _Nilaus_ | 1 |All Africa | + 88. _Prionops_ | 9 |All Africa | + 89. _Eurocephalus_ | 2 |N. E. and S. Africa | + 90. _Chaunonotus_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 91. _Vanga_ | 4 |Madagascar | + 92. _Laniarius_ | 38 |All Africa, | + | | Madagascar[?] | + 93. _Meristes_ | 2 |W. and S. E. Africa | + 94. _Nicator_ | 1 |E. Africa | + 95. _Telephonus_ | 10 |All Africa |N. Africa + | | | + CORVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 96. _Ptilostomus_ | 2 |W. and E. Africa | + 97. Corvus | 7 |All Africa and |Cosmop., excl. + | | Madagascar | S. Amer. + 98. _Corvultur_ | 2 |N. E. to S. Africa | + 99. _Picathartes_ | |W. Africa | + (Fregilus | 1 |Abyssinia) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 100. _Nectarinia_ | 55 |The whole region | + 101. _Promerops_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 102._Cinnyricinclus_| 4 |W. Africa | + 103. _Neodrepanis_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + DICÆIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 104. Zosterops | 23 |The whole region |Oriental and + | | | Australian + 105. _Pholidornis_ | 1 |W. Africa | + | | | + HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 106. Hirundo | 17 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 107. _Psalidoprogne_| 10 |The whole region | + 108. _Phedina_ | 2 |Madagascar and | + | | Mauritius | + 109. Petrochelidon | 1 |S. Africa |Neotropical + 110. Chelidon | 1 |Bogos-land |Palæarctic, Oriental + 111. Cotyle | 6 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + 112. _Waldenia_ | 1 |W. Africa | + | | | + FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 113. Dryospiza | 8 |All Africa |S. Palæarctic + 114. Chlorospiza | 4 |Abyssinia to Cape |Palæarctic + 115. Passer | 18 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + 116. _Crithagra_ | 12 |All Africa |N. Africa, Syria + 117. _Ligurnus_ | 2 |W. Africa | + (Erythrospiza | 1 |Nubia, Arabia) |S. Palæarctic genus + 118. Pinicola[?] | 1 |Cameroons, W. Africa |N. Temperate genus + 119. _Fringillaria_ | 9 |All Africa |South Palæarctic + | | | + PLOCEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 120. _Textor_ | 5 |All Africa | + 121. _Hyphantornis_ | 32 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 122. _Symplectes_ | 8 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 123. _Malimbus_ | 9 |W. and E. Africa | + 124. Ploceus | 2 |W. and E. Africa |Oriental + 125. _Nelicurvius_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 126. _Foudia_ | 11 |Tropical Africa, | + | | Madagascar, &c. | + 127. _Sporopipes_ | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 128. _Pyromelana_ | 12 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 129. _Philetærus_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 130. _Nigrita_ | 7 |W. and N. E. Africa | + 131. _Plocepasser_ | 4 |E. and S. Africa | + 132. _Vidua_ | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 133. _Colliuspasser_| 9 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 134. _Chera_ | 1 |S. Africa | + 135. _Spermospiza_ | 2 |W. Africa | + 136. _Pyrenestes_ | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 137. Estrilda | 16 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental + 138. _Pytelia_ | 20 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 139. _Hypargos_ | 2 |E. Africa, Madagascar | + 140. _Amadina_ | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 141. _Spermestes_ | 7 |The whole region | + 142. _Amauresthes_ | 1 |E. and W. Africa | + 143. _Hypochera_ | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + STURNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 144. _Dilophus_ | 1 |S. Africa, Loanda, | + | | Sennaar | + 145. _Buphaga_ | 2 |Trop. and S. Africa | + | | ([?] a family) | + 146. _Euryceros_ | 1 |Madagascar ([?] a | + | | family) | + 147. _Juida_ | 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 148. _Lamprocolius_ | 16 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 149._Cinnyricinclus_| 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 150. _Onychognathus_| 2 |W. Africa | + 151. _Spreo_ | 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 152. _Amydrus_ | 5 |N. E. Africa |Palestine + 153. _Hartlaubius_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 154. _Falculia_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 155. _Fregilupus_ | 1 |Bourbon | + | | | + ALAUDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 156. Alauda | 3 |Abyssinia and |Palæarctic, Indian + | | S. W. Africa | + 157. _Spizocorys_ | 1 |South Africa | + 158. Galerida | 4 |North of tropical |Palæarctic, Indian + | | Africa | + 159. _Calendula_ | 2 |Abyssinia, S. Africa | + (Melanocorypha | 1 |Abyssinia) |Palæarctic genus + 160. Certhilauda | 3 |South Africa |S. Europe + 161. Alaemon | 3 |South Africa |S. Palæarctic + 162. _Heterocorys_ | 1 |South Africa | + 163. Mirafra | 10 |South Africa, |Oriental, Australian + | | Madagascar | + 164. Ammomanes | 4 |African deserts |S. Palæarctic, Indian + 165. _Megalophonus_ | 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 166. _Tephrocorys_ | 2 |S. Africa | + 167. Pyrrhulauda | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental, Canary + | | | Islands + | | | + MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 168. Budytes | 8 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Oriental, + | | |Australian + | | | + 169. Anthus | 10 |Tropical and S. Africa |All regions, exc. + | | | Australia + 170. _Macronyx_ | 4 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + PITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 171. Pitta | 1 |W. Africa |Oriental, Australian + | | | + PAICTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 172. _Philepitta_ | 2 |Madagascar | + | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | + | | | + PICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 173. _Verreauxia_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 174. _Dendropicus_ | 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 175. _Campethera_ | 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 176. _Geocolaptes_ | 1 |South Africa | + | | | + YUNGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 177. Yunx | 1 |N. E. Africa, S. Africa|Palæarctic + | | | + INDICATORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 178. Indicator | 8 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental + | | | + MEGALÆMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 179._Pogonorhynchus_| 14 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 180. _Buccanodon_ | 1 |West Africa | + 181. _Stactolæma_ | 1 |West Africa | + 182. _Barbatula_ | 9 |West and South Africa | + 183. _Xylobucco_ | 3 |West and South Africa | + 184. _Gymnobucco_ | 3 |West Africa | + 185. _Trachyphonus_ | 6 |Tropical and South | + | | Africa | + | | | + MUSOPHAGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 186. _Musophaga_ | 2 |West Africa | + 187. _Turacus_ | 10 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 188. _Schizorhis_ | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + COLIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 189. _Colius_ | 7 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + CUCULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 190. _Ceuthmochares_| 2 |Africa and Madagascar | + 191. _Coua_ | 9 |Madagascar | + 192._Cochlothraustes_ 1 |Madagascar | + 193. _Centropus_ | 8 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental, Australian + 194. Cuculus | 10 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Austral. + 195. Chrysococcyx | 7 |Tropical and S. Africa |Oriental, Australian + 196. Coccystes | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Oriental + | | | + LEPTOSOMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 197. _Leptosomus_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + CORACIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 198. Coracias | 5 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Oriental + 199. Eurystomus | 3 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental, Australian + 200. _Atelornis_ | 2 |Madagascar | + 201._Brachypteracias_ 1 |Madagascar | + 202. _Geobiastes_ | 1 |Madagascar | + | | | + MEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 203. Merops | 11 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæar., Orien., + | | | Austral. + 204. _Melittophagus_| 5 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + TROGONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 205. _Apaloderma_ | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 206. Alcedo | 2 |W. Africa, Abyssinia, |Palæar., Orien., + | | Natal | Austral. + 207. _Corythornis_ | 3 |Africa and Madagascar | + 208. Ceryle | 1 |W. Africa, Abyssinia, |American, Palæarctic + | | Natal | + 209. _Myioceyx_ | 2 |West Africa | + 210. _Ispidina_ | 4 |Africa and Madagascar | + 211. Halcyon | 10 |Africa, Prince's Is., |S. Palæar., Orien., + | | St. Thomé | Austral. + | | | + BUCEROTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 212. Berenicornis | 1 |West Africa |Malaya + 213. _Tockus_ | 12 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 214. _Bycanistes_ | 6 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 215. _Bucoreus_ | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + UPUPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 216. Upupa | 3 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Oriental + | | | + IRRISORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 217. _Irrisor_ | 12 |Africa and Madagascar | + | | | + CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 218. Caprimulgus | 18 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Austral. + 219. _Scortornis_ | 3 |Tropical Africa | + 220. _Macrodipteryx_| 2 |W. Africa to Abyssinia | + 221. _Cosmetornis_ | 1 |Tropical Africa to the | + | | Zambesi | + | | | + CYPSELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 222. Cypselus | 6 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Oriental + 223. Collocalia | 1 |Mascarene Ids., |Oriental, Australian + | | Madagascar | + 224. Chætura | 4 |Tropical Africa and |Cosmop., exc. + | | Madagascar | W. Palæarctic + | | | + PSITTACI. | | | + PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 225. Palæornis | 3 |W. Africa to Abys. & |Oriental + | | Mauritius | + | | | + PSITTACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 226. _Coracopsis_ | 5 |Madagascar and | + | | Seychelle Ids. | + 227. _Psittacus_ | 2 |W. Africa | + 228. _Poeocephalus_ | 9 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 229. _Agapornis_ | 4 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 230. _Poliopsitta_ | 2 |Trop. Africa and | + | | Madagascar | + | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | + COLUMBIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 231. Treron | 6 |Africa and Madagascar |Oriental + 232. _Alectrænas_ | 5 |Madagascar and Masc. | + | | Ids. (extct. in | + | | Mauritius and | + | | Rodriguez) | + 233. Columba | 12 |Africa and Madagascar |Palæarctic, Oriental + 234. _Oena_ | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 235. Turtur | 10 |Africa, Madagascar, |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | Comoro and Seychelle | + | | Islands | + 236. _Aplopelia_ | 4 |Abyssinia, S. Africa | + | | and West African | + | | Islands | + 237. _Chalcopelia_ | 3 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + DIDIDÆ. (extinct) | | | + | | | + 238. _Didus_ | 5 |Mascarene Islands | + | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | + PTEROCLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 239. Pterocles | 9 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, Indian + | | | + TETRAONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 240. _Ptilopachus_ | 1 |West Africa | + 241. Francolinus | 30 |Africa and Madagascar |S. Palæarctic, Indian + 242. _Peliperdix_ | 1 |West Africa | + 243. _Margaroperdix_| 1 |Madagascar | + 244. Coturnix | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa |Palæar., Orient., + | | | Austral. + (Caccabis | 1 |Abyssinia) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + PHASIANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 245. _Phasidus_ | 1 |West Africa | + 246. _Agelastes_ | 1 |West Africa | + 247. _Acryllium_ | 1 |West Africa | + 248. _Numida_ | 9 |Africa to Natal and | + | | Madagascar | + | | | + TURNICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 249. Turnix | 4 |S. Africa and |Palæarc., Orient., + | | Madagascar | Austrl. + 250. _Ortyxelos_ | 1 |Africa | + | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | + VULTURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 251. Gyps | 2 |Africa, except W. |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | sub-region | + 252. Pseudogyps | 1 |N. E. Africa to Senegal|Oriental + 253. Otogyps | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + 254. _Lophogyps_ | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa and| + | | Senegal | + 255. Neophron | 2 |Africa, excl. west |S. Palæarctic, + | | coast | Oriental + | | | + FALCONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 256. _Polyboroides_ | 2 |Africa and Madagascar | + 257. Circus | 4 |Africa and Madagascar |Almost Cosmopolite + 258. _Urotriorchis_ | 1 |W. Africa | + 259. _Melierax_ | 5 |Africa, excl. west | + | | coast | + 260. Astur | 5 |Africa and Madagascar |Almost Cosmopolite + 261. _Nisoides_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 262. _Eutriorchis_ | 1 |Madagascar | + 263. Accipiter | 8 |Africa and Madagascar |Almost Cosmopolite + 264. Buteo | 5 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmop., excl. + | | | Austral. + 265. Gypaëtus | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa |S. Palæarctic + 266. Aquila | 5 |All Africa |Nearc., Palæarc., + | | | Indian + 267. Nisaëtus | 1 |W. Africa |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Oriental, Australia + 268. Spizaëtus | 3 |All Africa |Neotropical, Oriental + | | | to N. Guinea + 269. _Lophoætus_ | 1 |All Africa | + 270. _Asturinula_ | 1 |Tropical Africa | + 271. _Dryotriorchis_| 1 |W. Africa | + 272. Circaëtus | 5 |All Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental + 273. Butastur | 1 |N. E. Africa |Oriental to New Guinea + 274. _Helotarsus_ | 2 |Tropical and S. Africa | + 275. Haliæetus | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite, excl. + | | | Neotropical region + 276. _Gypohierax_ | 1 |West and East Africa | + 277. _Elanoides_ | 1 |West and N. E. Africa | + 278. Milvus | 1 |The whole region |The Eastern Hemisphere + 279. Elanus | 1 |Africa |India to Australia + 280. Machærhamphus | 1 |S. W. Africa and |Malacca + | | Madagascar | + 281. Pernis | 1 |S. Africa and |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | Madagascar | + 282. Baza | 3 |Africa and Madagascar |India to N. Australia + 283. Poliohierax | 1 |East Africa |Burmah + 284. Falco | 4 |All Africa |Almost Cosmopolite + 285. Cerchneis | 8 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + | | | + SERPENTARIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 286. _Serpentarius_ | 1 |The greater part of | + | | Africa | + | | | + PANDIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 287. Pandion | 1 |All Africa |Cosmopolite + | | | + STRIGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 288. Athene | 5 |Africa and Madagascar, |Palæarctic, Oriental, + | | Rodriquez (extinct) | Australian + 289. Bubo | 8 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmopolite + 290. _Scotopelia_ | 2 |West and S. Africa to | + | | Zambesi | + 291. Scops | 3 |W. and S. Africa, |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Madagascar, Comoro | + | | Islands | + 292. Syrnium | 2 |Africa |Palæarctic, Oriental, + | | | American + 293. Asio | 1 |N. E. and S. Africa |Cosmopolite + 294. Strix | 4 |Africa and Madagascar |Cosmopolite + + _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading or Swimming Birds._ + + GRALLÆ. | | | + RALLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Himantornis_ | 1 |West Africa | + Podica | 3 |Africa |Burmah + | | | + GLAREOLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Cursorius | 8 |All Africa |S. Europe, India + | | | + OTIDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Eupodotis | 16 |All Africa |India, Australia + | | | + GRUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Balearica_ | 2 |All Africa | + | | | + ARDEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Balæniceps_ | 1 |Upper Nile | + | | | + PLATALEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Scopus_ | 1 |Tropical and S. Africa | + | | | + ANSERES. | | | + ANATIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Thalassornis_| 1 |South Africa | + | | | + STRUTHIONES. | | | + STRUTHIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 295. _Struthio_ | 2 |All Africa |Syria + | | | + ÆPYORNITHIDÆ. | |(Extinct) | + | | | + 296. _Æpyornis_ | 3[?]|Madagascar | + +{314}CHAPTER XII. + +THE ORIENTAL REGION. + + +This region is of comparatively small extent, but it has a very diversified +surface, and is proportionately very rich. The deserts on the north-west of +India are the debatable land that separates it from the Palæarctic and +Ethiopian regions. The great triangular plateau which forms the peninsula +of India is the poorest portion of the region, owing in part to its arid +climate and in part to its isolated position; for there can be little doubt +that in the later Tertiary period it was an island, separated by an arm of +the sea (now forming the valleys of the Ganges and Indus) from the +luxuriant Himalayan and Burmese countries. Its southern extremity, with +Ceylon, has a moister climate and more luxuriant vegetation, and exhibits +indications of a former extension southwards, with a richer and more +peculiar fauna, partly Malayan and partly Mascarene in its character. The +whole southern slopes of the Himalayas, with Burmah, Siam and Western +China, as well as the Malay peninsula and the Indo-Malay islands, are +almost everywhere covered with tropical forests of the most luxuriant +character, which abound in varied and peculiar forms of vegetable and +animal life. The flora and fauna of this extensive district are essentially +of one type throughout; yet it may be usefully divided into the +Indo-Chinese and the Malayan sub-regions, as each possesses a number of +peculiar or characteristic animals. The former sub-region, besides having +many tropical and sub-tropical types of its own, also possesses a large +number of peculiarly modified temperate forms on the mountain ranges of its +northern boundary, which are wholly wanting in the Malayan sub-region. The +Philippine islands are best classed with the Indo-Malay group, although +they are strikingly deficient in many Malayan types, and exhibit an +approach to the Celebesian division of the Austro-Malay sub-region. + + + + +[Illustration: ORIENTAL REGION] + +{315}_Zoological Characteristics of the Oriental Region._--The Oriental +Region possesses examples of 35 families of Mammalia, 71 of Birds, 35 of +Reptiles, 9 of Amphibia, and 13 of Fresh-water Fishes. Of these 163 +families, 12 are peculiar to the region; namely, Tarsiidæ, Galeopithecidæ, +and Tupaiidæ among Mammalia, while Æluridæ, though confined to the higher +Himalayas, may perhaps with more justice be claimed by the Palæarctic +region; Liotrichidæ, Phyllornithidæ, and Eurylæmidæ among birds; +Xenopeltidæ (extending, however, to Celebes), Uropeltidæ, and Acrochordidæ +among reptiles; Luciocephalidæ, Ophiocephalidæ and Mastacembelidæ among +fresh-water fishes. A number of other families are abundant, and +characteristic of the region; and it possesses many peculiar and +characteristic genera, which must be referred to somewhat more in detail. + +_Mammalia._--The Oriental region is rich in quadrumana, and is especially +remarkable for its orang-utans and long-armed apes (_Simia_, _Hylobates_, +and _Siamanga_); its abundance of monkeys of the genera _Presbytes_ and +_Macacus_; its extraordinary long-nosed monkey (_Presbytes nasalis_); its +Lemuridæ (_Nycticebus_ and _Loris_); and its curious genus _Tarsius_, +forming a distinct family of lemurs. All these quadrumanous genera are +confined to it, except _Tarsius_ which extends as far as Celebes. It +possesses more than 30 genera of bats, which are enumerated in the lists +given at the end of this chapter. In Insectivora it is very rich, and +possesses several remarkable forms, such as the flying lemur +(_Galeopithecus_); the squirrel-like Tupaiidæ consisting of three genera; +and the curious _Gymnura_ allied to the hedgehogs. In Carnivora, it is +especially rich in many forms of civets (Viverridæ), possessing 10 peculiar +genera, among which _Prionodon_ and _Cynogale_ are remarkable; numerous +Mustelidæ, of which _Gymnopus_, _Mydaus_, _Aonyx_ and _Helictis_ are the +most conspicuous; _Ælurus_, a curious animal, cat-like in appearance but +{316}more allied to the bears, forming a distinct family of Carnivora, and +confined to the high forest-districts of the Eastern Himalayas and East +Thibet; _Melursus_ and _Helarctos_, peculiar forms of bears; _Platanista_, +a dolphin peculiar to the Ganges and Indus. Among Ruminants it has the +beautiful chevrotain, forming the genus _Tragulus_ in the family Tragulidæ; +with one peculiar genus and three peculiar sub-genera of true deer. The +Antilopinæ and Caprinæ are few, confined to limited districts and not +characteristic of the region; but there are everywhere wild cattle of the +genera _Bibos_ and _Bubalus_, which, with species of _Rhinoceros_ and +_Elephas_, form a prominent feature in the fauna. The Rodents are less +developed than in the Ethiopian region, but several forms of squirrels +everywhere abound, together with some species of porcupine; and the +Edentata are represented by the scaly manis. + +_Birds._--The families and genera of birds which give a character to +Oriental lands, are so numerous and varied, that we can here only notice +the more prominent and more remarkable. The Timaliidæ, represented by the +babblers (_Garrulax_, _Pomatorhinus_, _Timalia_, &c.), are almost +everywhere to be met with, and no less than 21 genera are peculiar to the +region; the elegant fork-tailed _Enicurus_ and rich blue _Myiophonus_, +though comparatively scarce, are characteristic of the Malayan and +Indo-Chinese faunas; the elegant little "hill-tits" (Liotrichidæ) abound in +the same part of the region; the green bulbuls (_Phyllornis_) are found +everywhere; as are various forms of Pycnonotidæ, the black and crimson +"minivets" (_Pericrocotus_), and the glossy "king-crows" (_Dicrurus_); +_Urocissa_, _Platylophus_ and _Dendrocitta_ are some of the interesting and +characteristic forms of the crow family; sun-birds (Nectariniidæ) of at +least three genera are found throughout the region, as are the beautiful +little flower-peckers (Dicæidæ), and some peculiar forms of weaver-birds +(_Ploceus_ and _Munia_). Of the starling family, the most conspicuous are +the glossy mynahs (_Eulabes_). The swallow-shrikes (_Artamus_) are very +peculiar, as are the exquisitely coloured pittas (Pittidæ), and the gaudy +broad-bills (Eurylæmidæ). Leaving the true Passeres, we find woodpeckers, +barbets, and cuckoos everywhere, often of peculiar and {317}remarkable +forms; among the bee-eaters we have the exquisite _Nyctiornis_ with its +pendent neck-plumes of blue or scarlet; brilliant kingfishers and strangely +formed hornbills abound everywhere; while brown-backed trogons with red and +orange breasts, though far less frequent, are equally a feature of the +Ornithology. Next we have the frog-mouthed goatsuckers (_Battrachostomus_), +and the whiskered swifts (_Dendrochelidon_), both wide-spread, remarkable, +and characteristic groups of the Oriental region. Coming to the parrot +tribe, we have only the long-tailed _Palæornis_ and the exquisite little +_Loriculus_, as characteristic genera. We now come to the pigeons, among +which the fruit-eating genera _Treron_ and _Carpophaga_ are the most +conspicuous. The gallinaceous birds offer us some grand forms, such as the +peacocks (_Pavo_); the argus pheasants (_Argusianus_); the fire-backed +pheasants (_Euplocamus_); and the jungle-fowl (_Gallus_), all strikingly +characteristic; and with these we may close our sketch, since the birds of +prey and the two Orders comprising the waders and swimmers offer nothing +sufficiently remarkable to be worthy of enumeration here. + +_Reptiles._--Only the more abundant and characteristic groups will here be +noticed. In the serpent tribe, the Oligodontidæ, a small family of +ground-snakes; the Homalopsidæ, or fresh-water snakes; the Dendrophidæ, or +tree-snakes; the Dryiophidæ, or whip-snakes; the Dipsadidæ, or nocturnal +tree-snakes; the Lycodontidæ or fanged ground-snakes; the Pythonidæ, or +rock-snakes; the Elapidæ, or venomous colubrine snakes (including the +"cobras"); and the Crotalidæ, or pit-vipers, are all abundant and +characteristic, ranging over nearly the whole region, and presenting a +great variety of genera and species. Among lizards, the Varanidæ or +water-lizards; the Scincidæ or "scinks;" the Geckotidæ, or geckoes; and the +Agamidæ, or eastern iguanas; are the most universal and characteristic +groups. Among crocodiles the genus _Crocodilus_ is widely spread, +_Gavialis_ being characteristic of the Ganges. Among Chelonia, or shielded +reptiles, forms of fresh-water Testudinidæ and Trionychidæ (soft tortoises) +are tolerably abundant. + +_Amphibia._--The only abundant and characteristic groups of {318}this class +are toads of the family Engystomidæ; tree-frogs of the family Polypedatidæ; +and several genera of true frogs, Ranidæ. + +_Fresh-water Fishes._--The more remarkable and characteristic fishes +inhabiting the fresh waters of the Oriental region belong to the following +families: Nandidæ, Labyrinthici, Ophiocephalidæ, Siluridæ, and Cyprinidæ; +the last being specially abundant. + +The sketch here very briefly given, must be supplemented by an examination +of the tables of distribution of the genera of all the Mammalia and Birds +inhabiting the region. We will now briefly summarize the results. + +_Summary of the Oriental Vertebrata._--The Oriental region possesses +examples of 163 families of Vertebrata of which 12 are peculiar, a +proportion of a little more than one-fourteenth of the whole. + +Out of 118 genera of Mammalia 54 seem to be peculiar to the region, equal +to a proportion of 9/20 or a little less than half. Of Land-Birds there are +342 genera of which 165 are peculiar, bringing the proportion very close to +a half. + +In the Ethiopian region the proportion of peculiar forms both of Mammalia +and Birds is greater; a fact which is not surprising when we consider the +long continued isolation of the latter region--an isolation which is even +now very complete, owing to the vast extent of deserts intervening between +it and the Palæarctic region; while the Oriental and Palæarctic were, +during much of the Tertiary epoch, hardly separable. + + +_Insects._ + +_Lepidoptera._--We can only glance hastily at the more prominent features +of the wonderfully rich and varied butterfly-fauna of the Oriental region. +In the first family Danaidæ, the genera _Danais_ and _Euploea_ are +everywhere abundant, and the latter especially forms a conspicuous feature +in the entomological aspect of the country; the large "spectre-butterflies" +(_Hestia_) are equally characteristic of the Malayan sub-region. Satyridæ, +though abundant are not very remarkable, _Debis_, _Melanitis_, _Mycalesis_, +and _Ypthima_ being the most characteristic {319}genera. Morphidæ are well +represented by the genera _Amathusia_, _Zeuxidia_, _Discophora_, and +_Thaumantis_, some of the species of which almost equal the grand South +American Morphos. The Nymphalidæ furnish us with a host of characteristic +genera, among the most remarkable of which are, _Terinos_, _Adolias_, +_Cethosia_, _Cyrestis_, _Limenitis_, and _Nymphalis_, all abounding in +beautiful species. Among the Lycænidæ are a number of fine groups, among +which we may mention _Ilerda_, _Myrina_, _Deudoryx_, _Aphneus_, _Iolaus_, +and _Amblypodia_, as characteristic examples. The Pieridæ furnish many fine +forms, such as _Thyca_, _Iphias_, _Thestias_, _Eronia_, _Prioneris_, and +_Dercas_, the last two being peculiar. The Papilionidæ are unsurpassed in +the world, presenting such grand genera as _Teinopalpus_ and _Bhutanitis_; +the yellow-marked _Ornithopteræ_; the superb "Brookiana;" the elegant +_Leptocercus_; and _Papilios_ of the "Coon," "Philoxenus," "Memnon," +"Protenor," and especially the 'green-and-gold-dusted' "Paris" groups. + +The Moths call for no special observations, except to notice the existence +in Northern India of a number of forms which resemble in a striking manner +some of the most remarkable of the above mentioned groups of the genus +_Papilio_, especially the "Protenor" group, which there is reason to +believe protected by a peculiar smell or taste like the _Heliconias_ and +Danaidæ. + +_Coleoptera._--The most characteristic Oriental form of the Cicindelidæ or +tiger beetles, is undoubtedly the elegant genus _Collyris_, which is found +over the whole region and is almost confined to it. Less abundant, but +equally characteristic, is the wingless ant-like _Tricondyla_. Two small +genera _Apteroessa_ and _Dromicidia_ are confined to the Indian Peninsula, +while _Therates_ only occurs in the Malayan sub-region. + +The Carabidæ, or ground carnivorous beetles, are so numerous that we can +only notice a few of the more remarkable and characteristic forms. The +wonderful _Mormolyce_ of the Indo-Malay sub-region, stands pre-eminent for +singularity in the entire family. _Thyreopterus_, _Orthogonius_, +_Catascopus_, and _Pericallus_ are very characteristic forms, as well as +_Planetes_ and {320}_Distrigus_, the latter having a single species in +Madagascar. There are 80 genera of this family peculiar to the region, 10 +of which have only been found in Ceylon. + +Among the Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, _Lucanus_, _Odontolabris_, and +_Cladognathus_ are the most characteristic forms. Sixteen genera inhabit +the region, of which 7 are altogether peculiar, while three others only +extend eastward to the Austro-Malayan sub-region. + +The beautiful Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, are well represented by +_Rhomborhina_, _Heterorhina_, _Clinteria_, _Macronota_, _Agestrata_, +_Chalcothea_ and many fine species of _Cetonia_. There are 17 peculiar +genera, of which _Mycteristes_, _Phædimus_, _Plectrone_, and _Rhagopteryx_, +are Malayan; while _Narycius_, _Clerota_, _Bombodes_, and _Chiloloba_ are +Indian. + +In Buprestidæ--those elongate metallic-coloured beetles whose elytra are +used as ornaments in many parts of the world--this region stands +pre-eminent, in its gigantic _Catoxantha_, its fine _Chrysochroa_, its +Indian _Sternocera_, its Malayan _Chalcophora_ and _Belionota_, as well as +many other beautiful forms. It possesses 41 genera, of which 14 are +peculiar to it, the rest being generally of wide range or common to the +Ethiopian and Australian regions. + +In the extensive and elegant group of Longicorns, the Oriental region is +only inferior to the Neotropical. It possesses 360 genera, 25 of which are +Prionidæ, 117 Cerambicidæ, and 218 Lamiidæ;--about 70 per cent. of the +whole being peculiar. The most characteristic genera are _Rhaphidopodus_ +and _Ægosoma_ among Prionidæ; _Neocerambyx_, _Euryarthrum_, _Pachyteria_, +_Acrocyrta_, _Tetraommatus_, _Chloridolum_, and _Polyzonus_ among +Cerambycidæ; and _Coelosterna_, _Rhytidophora_, _Batocera_, _Agelasta_, and +_Astathes_ among Lamiidæ. + +Of remarkable forms in other families, we may mention the gigantic horned +_Chalcosoma_ among Scarabæidæ; the metallic _Campsosternus_ among +Elateridæ; the handsome but anomalous _Trictenotoma_ forming a distinct +family; the gorgeous _Pachyrhynchi_ of the Philippine Islands among +Curculionidæ; _Diurus_ {321}among Brenthidæ; with an immense number and +variety of Anthotribidæ, Heteromera, Malacoderma, and Phytophaga. + + +THE ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. + +The four sub-regions into which we have divided the Oriental region, are +very unequal in extent, and perhaps more so in productiveness, but they +each have well-marked special features, and serve well to exhibit the main +zoological characteristics of the region. As they are all tolerably well +defined and their faunas comparatively well-known, their characteristics +will be given with rather more than usual detail. + + +_I. Hindostan, or Indian Sub-region._ + +This includes the whole peninsula of India from the foot of the Himalayas +on the north to somewhere near Seringapatam on the south, the boundary of +the Ceylonese sub-region being unsettled. The deltas of the Ganges and +Brahmaputra mark its eastern limits, and it probably reaches to about +Cashmere in the north-west, and perhaps to the valley of the Indus further +south; but the great desert tract to the east of the Indus forms a +transition to the south Palæarctic sub-region. Perhaps on the whole the +Indus may be taken as a convenient boundary. Many Indian naturalists, +especially Mr. Blyth and Mr. Blanford, are impressed with the relations of +the greater part of this sub-region to the Ethiopian region, and have +proposed to divide it into several zoological districts dependent on +differences of climate and vegetation, and characterized by possessing +faunas more or less allied either to the Himalayan or the Ethiopian type. +But these subdivisions appear far too complex to be useful to the general +student, and even were they proved to be natural, would be beyond the scope +of this work. I agree, however, with Mr. Elwes in thinking that they really +belong to local rather than to geographical distribution, and confound +"station" with "habitat." Wherever there is a marked diversity of surface +and vegetation the productions of a country will correspondingly differ; +the groups peculiar to forests, for example, will be absent from open +{322}plains or arid deserts. It happens that the three great Old World +regions are separated from each other by a debatable land which is chiefly +of a desert character; hence we must expect to find a resemblance between +the inhabitants of such districts in each region. We also find a great +resemblance between the aquatic birds of the three regions; and as we +generally give little weight to these in our estimate of the degree of +affinity of the faunas of different countries, so we should not count the +desert fauna as of equal weight with the more restricted and peculiar types +which are found in the fertile tracts,--in the mountains and valleys, and +especially in the primeval forests. The supposed preponderance of +exclusively Ethiopian groups of Mammalia and Birds in this, sub-region, +deserves however a close examination, in order to ascertain how far the +facts really warrant such an opinion. + +_Mammalia._--The following list of the more important genera of Mammalia +which range over the larger part of this sub-region will enable naturalists +to form an independent judgment as to the preponderance of Ethiopian, or of +Oriental and Palæarctic types, in this, the most important of all the +classes of animals for geographical distribution. + + +RANGE OF THE GENERA OF MAMMALIA WHICH INHABIT THE SUB-REGION OF HINDOSTAN. + + 1. Presbytes Oriental only. + 2. Macacus Oriental only. + 3. Erinaceus Palæarctic genus. + 4. Sorex Widely distributed. + 5. Felis Almost Cosmopolitan. + 6. Cynælurus Ethiopian and S. Palæarctic. + 7. Viverra Ethiopian and Oriental to China and Malaya. + 8. Viverricula Oriental only. + 9. Paradoxurus Oriental only. + 10. Herpestes Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic, and Oriental to Malaya. + 11. Calogale Ethiopian, Oriental to Cambodja. + 12. Tæniogale Oriental. + 13. Hyæna Palæarctic and Ethiopian (a Palæarctic species.) + 14. Canis Palæarctic and Oriental to Malaya. + 15. Cuon Oriental to Malaya. + 16. Vulpes Very wide range. + 17. Lutra Oriental and Palæarctic. + 18. Mellivora Ethiopian. + 19. Melursus Oriental only; family not Ethiopian. + 20. Sus Palæarctic and Oriental, not Ethiopian. + 21. Tragulus Oriental. {323} + 22. Cervus Oriental and Palæarctic; family not Ethiopian. + 23. Cervulus Oriental; family not Ethiopian. + 24. Bibos Palæarctic and Oriental. + 25. Portax Oriental. + 26. Gazella Palæarctic and Ethiopian. + 27. Antilope Oriental. + 28. Tetraceros Oriental. + 29. Elephas Oriental species. + 30. Mus Cosmopolite nearly. + 31. Platacanthomys Oriental. + 32. Meriones Very wide range. + 33. Spalacomys Oriental. + 34. Sciurus Almost Cosmopolite. + 35. Pteromys Palæarctic and Oriental to China and Malaya, + 36. Hystrix Wide range. + 37. Lepus Wide range. + 38. Manis Ethiopian and Oriental to Malaya, + +Out of the above 38 genera, 8 have so wide a distribution as to give no +special geographical indications. Of the remaining 30, whose geographical +position we have noted, 14 are Oriental only; 5 have as much right to be +considered Oriental as Ethiopian, extending as they do over the greater +part of the Oriental region; 2 (the hyæna and gazelle) show Palæarctic +rather than Ethiopian affinity; 7 are Palæarctic and Oriental but not +Ethiopian; and only 2 (_Cynælurus_ and _Mellivora_) can be considered as +especially Ethiopian. We must also give due weight to the fact that we have +here Ursidæ and Cervidæ, two families entirely absent from the Ethiopian +region, and we shall then be forced to conclude that the affinities of the +Indian peninsula are not only clearly Oriental, but that the Ethiopian +element is really present in a far less degree than the Palæarctic. + +_Birds._--The naturalists who have adopted the "Ethiopian theory" of the +fauna of Hindostan, have always supported their views by an appeal to the +class of birds; maintaining, that not only are almost all the +characteristic Himalayan and Malayan genera absent, but that their place is +to a great extent supplied by others which are characteristic of the +Ethiopian region. After a careful examination of the subject, Mr. Elwes, in +a paper read before the Zoological Society (June 1873) came to the +conclusion, that this view was an erroneous one, founded on the fact that +the birds of the plains are the more abundant and more {324}open to +observation; and that these are often of wide-spread types, and some few +almost exclusively African. The facts he adduced do not, however, seem to +have satisfied the objectors; and as the subject is an important one, I +will here give lists of all the genera of Passeres, Picariæ, Psittaci, +Columbæ, and Gallinæ, which inhabit the sub-region, leaving out those which +only just enter within its boundaries from adjacent sub-regions. These are +arranged under four heads:--1. Oriental genera; which are either wholly +confined to, or strikingly prevalent in, the Oriental region beyond the +limits of the Indian peninsula. 2. Genera of Wide Range; which are fully as +much entitled to be considered Oriental or Palæarctic as Ethiopian, and +cannot be held to prove any Ethiopian affinity. 3. Palæarctic genera; which +are altogether or almost absent from the Ethiopian region. 4. Ethiopian +genera; which are confined to, or very prevalent in, the Ethiopian region, +whence they extend into the Indian peninsula but not over the whole +Oriental region. The last are the only ones which can be fairly balanced +against those of the first list, in order to determine the character of the +fauna. + + +1. ORIENTAL GENERA IN CENTRAL INDIA. + +_Geocichla_, _Orthotomus_, _Prinia_, _Megalurus_, _Abrornis_, _Larvivora_, +_Copsychus_, _Kittacincla_, _Pomatorhinus_, _Malacocercus_, _Chatarrhæa_, +_Layardia_, _Garrulax_, _Trochalopteron_, _Pellorneum_, _Dumetia_, +_Pyctoris_, _Alcippe_, _Myiophonus_, _Sitta_, _Dendrophila_, _Phyllornis_, +_Iora_, _Hypsipetes_, _Pericrocotus_, _Graucalus_, _Volvocivora_, _Chibia_, +_Chaptia_, _Irena_, _Erythrosterna_, _Hemipus_, _Hemichelidon_, _Niltava_, +_Cyornis_, _Eumyias_, _Hypothymis_, _Myialestes_, _Tephrodornis_, +_Dendrocitta_, _Arachnechthra_, _Nectarophila_, _Arachnothera_, _Dicæum_, +_Piprisoma_, _Munia_, _Eulabes_, _Pastor_, _Acridotheres_, _Sturnia_, +_Sturnopastor_, _Artamus_, _Nemoricola_, _Pitta_, _Yungipicus_, +_Chrysocolaptes_, _Hemicircus_, _Gecinus_, _Mulleripicus_, _Brachypternus_, +_Tiga_, _Micropternus_, _Megalæma_, _Xantholæma_, _Rhopodytes_, +_Taccocoua_, _Surniculus_, _Hierococcyx_, _Eudynamnis_, _Nyctiornis_, +_Harpactes_, _Pelargopsis_, _Ceyx_, _Hydrocissa_, _Meniceros_, +_Batrachostomus_, _Dendrochelidon_, _Collocalia_, _Palæornis_, _Treron_, +_Carpophaga_, _Chalcophaps_, _Ortygornis_, _Perdix_, _Pavo_, _Gallus_, +_Galloperdix_;--87 genera; and {325}one peculiar genus, _Salpornis_, whose +affinities are Palæarctic or Oriental. + + +2. GENERA OF WIDE RANGE OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA. + +_Tardus_, _Monticola_, _Drymoeca_, _Cisticola_, _Acrocephalus_, +_Phylloscopus_, _Pratincola_, _Parus_, _Pycnonotus_, _Criniger_, _Oriolus_, +_Dicrurus_, _Tchitrea_, _Lanius_, _Corvus_, _Zosterops_, _Hirundo_, +_Cotyle_, _Passer_, _Ploceus_, _Estrilda_, _Alauda_, _Calandrella_, +_Mirafra_, _Ammomanes_, _Motacilla_, _Anthus_, _Picus_, _Yunx_, +_Centropus_, _Cuculus_, _Chrysoccocyx_, _Coccystes_, _Coracias_, +_Eurystomus_, _Merops_, _Alcedo_, _Ceryle_, _Halcyon_, _Upupa_, +_Caprimulgus_, _Cypselus_, _Chætura_, _Columba_, _Turtur_, _Pterocles_, +_Coturnix_, _Turnix_;--48 genera. + + +3. PALÆARCTIC GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA. + +_Hypolais_, _Sylvia_, _Curruca_, _Cyanecula_, _Calliope_, _Chelidon_, +_Euspiza_, _Emberiza_, _Galerita_, _Calobates_, _Corydalla_;--11 genera. + + +4. ETHIOPIAN GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA. + +_Thamnobia_, _Pyrrhulauda_, _Pterocles_, _Francolinus_;--4 genera. + +A consideration of the above lists shows us, that the Hindostan sub-region +is by no means so poor in forms of bird-life as is generally supposed (and +as I had myself anticipated, it would prove to be), possessing, as it does, +151 genera of land-birds, without counting the Accipitres. It must also set +at rest the question of the zoological affinities of the district, since a +preponderance of 88 genera, against 4, cannot be held to be insufficient, +and cannot be materially altered by any corrections in details that may be +proposed or substantiated. Even of these four, only the first two are +exclusively Ethiopian, _Pterocles_ and _Francolinus_ both being Palæarctic +also. It is a question, indeed, whether anywhere in the world an outlying +sub-region can be found, exhibiting less zoological affinity for the +adjacent regions; and we have here a striking illustration of the necessity +of deciding all such cases, not by _examples_, which may be so chosen as to +support any view, but by carefully weighing and contrasting the whole of +the facts on which the solution of the {326}problem admittedly depends. It +will, perhaps, be said that a great many of the 88 genera above given are +very scarce and very local; but this is certainly not the case with the +majority of them; and even where it is so, that does not in any degree +affect their value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities. It is the +_presence_ of a type in a region, not its abundance or scarcity, that is +the important fact; and when we have to do, as we have here, with many +groups whose habits and mode of life necessarily seclude them from +observation, their supposed scarcity may not even be a fact. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Reptiles entirely agree with Mammalia and Birds +in the main features of their distribution. Out of 17 families of snakes +inhabiting Hindostan, 16 range over the greater part of the entire region, +and only two can be supposed to show any Ethiopian affinity. These are the +Psammophidæ and Erycidæ, both desert-haunting groups, and almost as much +South Palæarctic as African. The genus _Tropidococcyx_ is peculiar to the +sub-region, and _Aspidura_, _Passerita_ and _Cynophis_ to the peninsula and +Ceylon; while a large number of the most characteristic genera, as +_Dipsas_, _Simotes_, _Bungarus_, _Naja_, _Trimeresurus_, _Lycodon_ and +_Python_, are characteristically Oriental. + +Of the six families of lizards all have a wide range. The genera _Eumeces_, +_Pentadactylus_, _Gecko_, _Eublepharis_, and _Draco_, are +characteristically or wholly Oriental; _Ophiops_ and _Uromastix_ are +Palæarctic; while _Chamæleon_ is the solitary case of decided Ethiopian +affinity. + +Of the Amphibia not a single family exhibits special Ethiopian affinities. + + +_II. Sub-region of Ceylon and South-India._ + +The Island of Ceylon is characterised by such striking peculiarities in its +animal productions, as to render necessary its separation from the +peninsula of India as a sub-region; but it is found that most of these +special features extend to the Neilgherries and the whole southern +mountainous portion of India, and that the two must be united in any +zoo-geographical {327}province. The main features of this division +are,--the appearance of numerous animals allied to forms only found again +in the Himalayas or in the Malayan sub-region, the possession of several +peculiar generic types, and an unusual number of peculiar species. + +_Mammalia._--Among Mammalia the most remarkable form is _Loris_, a genus of +Lemurs altogether peculiar to the sub-region; several peculiar monkeys of +the genus _Presbytes_; the Malayan genus _Tupaia_; and _Platacanthomys_, a +peculiar genus of Muridæ. + +_Birds._--Among birds it has _Ochromela_, a peculiar genus of flycatchers; +_Phoenicophaës_ (Cuculidæ) and _Drymocataphus_ (Timaliidæ), both Malayan +forms; a species of _Myiophonus_ whose nearest ally is in Java; +_Trochalopteron_, _Brachypteryx_, _Buceros_ and _Loriculus_, which are only +found elsewhere in the Himalayas and Malayana. It also possesses about 80 +peculiar species of birds, including a large jungle fowl, one owl and two +hornbills. + +_Reptiles._--It is however by its Reptiles, even more than by its higher +vertebrates, that this sub-region is clearly characterised. Among snakes it +possesses an entire family, Uropeltidæ, consisting of 5 genera and 18 +species altogether confined to it,--_Rhinophis_ and _Uropeltis_ in Ceylon, +_Silybura_, _Plecturus_ and _Melanophidium_ in Southern India. Four other +genera of snakes, _Haplocercus_, _Cercaspis_, _Peltopelor_, and _Hypnale_ +are also peculiar; _Chersydrus_ is only found elsewhere in Malaya; while +_Aspidura_, _Passerita_, and _Cynophis_, only extend to Hindostan; and +species of _Eryx_, _Echis_, and _Psammophis_ show an affinity with +Ethiopian and Palæarctic forms. Among lizards several genera of _Agamidæ_ +are peculiar, such as _Otocryptis_, _Lyricoephalus_, _Ceratophora_, +_Cophotis_, _Salea_, _Sitana_ and _Charasia_. In the family Acontiadæ, +_Nessia_ is peculiar to Ceylon, while a species of the African genus +_Acontias_ shows an affinity for the Ethiopian region. + +_Amphibia._--The genera of Amphibians that occur here are generally of wide +range, but _Nannophrys_, _Haplobatrachus_, and _Cacopus_ are confined to +the sub-region; while _Megalophrys_ is Malayan, and the species found in +Ceylon also inhabit Java. + +{328}_Insects._--The insects of Ceylon also furnish some curious examples +of its distinctness from Hindostan, and its affinity with Malaya. Among its +butterflies we find _Papilio jophon_, closely allied to _P. antiphus_ of +Malaya. The remarkable genus _Hestia_, so characteristic of the Malay +archipelago, only occurs elsewhere on the mountains of Ceylon; while its +_Cynthia_ and _Parthenos_ are closely allied to, if not identical with, +Malayan species. Among Coleoptera we have yet more striking examples. The +highly characteristic Malayan genus _Tricondyla_ is represented in Ceylon +by no less than 10 species; and among Longicorns we find the genera +_Tetraommatus_, _Thranius_, _Cacia_, _Praonetha_, _Ropica_, and _Serixia_, +all exclusively Malayan or only just entering the Indo-Chinese peninsula, +yet all represented in Ceylon, while not a single species occurs in any +part of India or the Himalayas. + +_The Past History of Ceylon and South-India as indicated by its Fauna._--In +our account of the Ethiopian region we have already had occasion to refer +to an ancient connection between this sub-region and Madagascar, in order +to explain the distribution of the Lemurine type, and some other curious +affinities between the two countries. This view is supported by the geology +of India, which shows us Ceylon and South India consisting mainly of +granitic and old metamorphic rocks, while the greater part of the +peninsula, forming our first sub-region, is of tertiary formation, with a +few isolated patches of secondary rocks. It is evident therefore, that +during much of the tertiary period, Ceylon and South India were bounded on +the north by a considerable extent of sea, and probably formed part of an +extensive southern continent or great island. The very numerous and +remarkable cases of affinity with Malaya, require however some closer +approximation to these islands, which probably occurred at a later period. +When, still later, the great plains and table-lands of Hindostan were +formed, and a permanent land communication effected with the rich and +highly developed Himalo-Chinese fauna, a rapid immigration of new types +took place, and many of the less specialised forms of mammalia and birds +(particularly those of ancient Ethiopian type) became extinct. Among +reptiles and insects the competition was less severe, or the older forms +were too well {329}adapted to local conditions to be expelled; so that it +is among these groups alone that we find any considerable number, of what +are probably the remains of the ancient fauna of a now submerged southern +continent. + + +_III. Himalayan or Indo-Chinese Sub-region._ + +This, which is probably the richest of all the sub-regions, and perhaps one +of the richest of all tracts of equal extent on the face of the globe, is +essentially a forest-covered, mountainous country, mostly within the +tropics, but on its northern margin extending some degrees beyond it, and +rising in a continuous mountain range till it meets and intercalates with +the Manchurian sub-division of the Palæarctic region. The peculiar +mammalia, birds and insects of this sub-region begin to appear at the very +foot of the Himalayas, but Dr. Gunther has shown that many of the reptiles +characteristic of the plains of India are found to a height of from 2,000 +to 4,000 feet. + +In Sikhim, which may be taken as a typical example of the Himalayan portion +of the sub-region, it seems to extend to an altitude of little less than +10,000 feet, that being the limit of the characteristic Timaliidæ or +babbling thrushes; while the equally characteristic Pycnonotidæ, or +bulbuls, and Treronidæ, or thick-billed fruit-pigeons, do not, according to +Mr. Blanford, reach quite so high. We may perhaps take 9,000 feet as a good +approximation over a large part of the Himalayan range; but it is evidently +not possible to define the line with any great precision. Westward, the +sub-region extends in diminishing breadth, till it terminates in or near +Cashmere, where the fauna of the plains of India almost meets that of the +Palæarctic region, at a moderate elevation. Eastward, it reaches into East +Thibet and North-west China, where Père David has found a large number of +the peculiar types of the Eastern Himalayas. A fauna, in general features +identical, extends over Burmah and Siam to South China; mingling with the +Palæarctic fauna in the mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang river, and +with that of Indo-Malaya in Tenasserim, and to a lesser extent in Southern +Siam and Cochin China. + +{330}_Zoological Characteristics of the Himalayan Sub-region._--Taking this +sub-region as a whole, we find it to be characterised by 3 genera of +mammalia (without counting bats), and 44 genera of land-birds, which are +altogether peculiar to it; and by 13 genera of mammalia and 36 of birds, +which it possesses in common with the Malayan sub-region; and besides these +it has almost all the genera before enumerated as "Oriental," and several +others of wide range, more especially a number of Palæarctic genera which +appear in the higher Himalayas. The names of the more characteristic genera +are as follows:-- + + +PECULIAR HIMALO-CHINESE GENERA. + +Mammalia.--_Urva_, _Arctonyx_, _Ælurus_. + +Birds.--_Suya_, _Horites_, _Chæmarrhornis_, _Tarsiger_, _Oreicola_, +_Acanthoptila_, _Grammatoptila_, _Trochalopteron_, _Actinodura_, _Sibia_, +_Suthora_, _Paradoxornis_, _Chlenasicus_, _Tesia_, _Rimator_, +_Ægithaliscus_, _Cephalopyrus_, _Liothrix_, _Siva_, _Minla_, _Proparus_, +_Cutia_, _Yuhina_, _Ixulus_, _Myzornis_, _Erpornis_, _Hemixus_, _Chibia_, +_Niltava_, _Anthipes_, _Chelidorhynx_, _Urocissa_, _Pachyglossa_, +_Heterura_, _Hæmatospiza_, _Ampeliceps_, _Saroglossa_, _Psarisomus_, +_Serilophus_, _Vivia_, _Hyopicus_, _Gecinulus_, _Aceros_, _Ceriornis_. + + +GENERA COMMON TO THE HIMALO-CHINESE AND MALAYAN SUB-REGIONS. + +Mammalia.--_Hylobates_, _Nycticebus_, _Viverricula_, _Prionodon_, +_Arctitis_, _Paguma_, _Arctogale_, _Cuon_, _Gymnopus_, _Aonyx_, _Helictis_, +_Rhinoceros_, _Nemorhedus_, _Rhizomys_. + +Birds.--_Oreocincla_, _Notodela_, _Janthocincla_, _Timalia_, _Stachyris_, +_Mixornis_, _Trichastoma_, _Enicurus_, _Pnoepyga_, _Melanochlora_, +_Allotrius_, _Microscelis_, _Iole_, _Analcipus_, _Cochoa_, _Bhringa_, +_Xanthopygia_, _Hylocharis_, _Cissa_, _Temnurus_, _Crypsirhina_, +_Chalcostetha_, _Anthreptes_, _Chalcoparia_, _Cymbirhynchus_, _Hydrornis_, +_Sasia_, _Venilia_, _Indicator_, _Carcineutes_, _Lyncornis_, _Macropygia_, +_Argusianus_, _Polyplectron_, _Euplocamus_, _Phodilus_. + + + + +Plate VII. + +[Illustration] + +SCENE IN NEPAUL, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. + +{331}_Plate VII. Scene in Nepal, with Characteristic Himalayan +Animals._--Our illustration contains figures of two mammals and two birds, +characteristic of the higher woody region of the Himalayas. The lower +figure on the left is the _Helictis nepalensis_, confined to the Eastern +Himalayas, and belonging to a genus of the weasel family which is +exclusively Oriental. It is marked with white on a grey-brown ground. Above +it is the remarkable Panda (_Ælurus fulgens_), a beautiful animal with a +glossy fur of a reddish colour, darker feet, and a white somewhat cat-like +face. It is distantly allied to the bears, and more nearly to the American +racoons, yet with sufficient differences to constitute it a distinct +family. The large bird on the tree, is the horned Tragopan (_Ceriornis +satyra_), one of the fine Himalayan pheasants, magnificently spotted with +red and white, and ornamented with fleshy erectile wattles and horns, of +vivid blue and red colours. The bird in the foreground is the +_Ibidorhynchus struthersii_, a rare and curious wader, allied to the +curlews and sandpipers but having the bill and feet red. It frequents the +river-beds in the higher Himalayas, but has also been found in Thibet. + + + +_Reptiles._--Very few genera of reptiles are peculiar to this sub-region, +all the more important ranging into the Malay islands. Of snakes the +following are the more characteristic genera:--_Typhline_, _Cylindrophis_, +_Xenopeltis_, _Calamaria_, _Xenelaphis_, _Hypsirhina_, _Fordonia_, several +small genera of Homalopsidæ (_Herpeton_ and _Hipistes_ being characteristic +of Burmah and Siam), _Psammodynastes_, _Gonyosoma_, _Chrysopelea_, +_Tragops_, _Dipsas_, _Pareas_, _Python_, _Bungarus_, _Naja_, _Callophis_, +and _Trimeresurus_. _Naja_ reaches 8,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas, +_Tropidonotus_ 9,000 feet, _Ablabes_ 10,000 feet, and _Simotes_ 15,000 +feet. + +Of lizards, _Pseudopus_ has one species in the Khasya hills while the other +inhabits South-east Europe; and there are two small genera of Agamidæ +peculiar to the Himalayas, while _Draco_ and _Calotes_ have a wide range +and _Acanthosaura_, _Dilophyrus_, _Physignathus_, and _Liolepis_ are found +chiefly in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. There are several genera of +Scincidæ; and the extensive genus of wall-lizards, _Gecko_, ranges over the +whole region. + +Of Amphibia, the peculiar forms are not numerous. _Ichthyophis_ {332}a +genus of Ceciliadæ, is peculiar to the Khasya Hills; _Tylotritron_ +(Salamandridæ) to Yunan in Western China, and perhaps belongs to the +Palæarctic region. + +Of the tail-less Batrachians, _Glyphoglossus_ is found in Pegu; _Xenophys_ +in the Eastern Himalayas; while _Callula_, _Ixalus_, _Rhacophorus_, +_Hylurana_, _Oxyglossus_, and _Phrynoglossus_, are common to the +Himalo-Chinese and Malayan sub-regions. + +Of the lizards, _Colotes_, _Barycephalus_, and _Hinulia_,--and of the +Batrachia, _Bufo_,--are found at above 11,000 feet elevation in the +Himalayas. + +_Insects._--So little has been done in working out the insect faunas of the +separate sub-regions, that they cannot be treated in detail, and the reader +is referred to the chapter on the distribution of insects in the part of +this work devoted to Geographical Zoology. A few particulars may, however, +be given as to the butterflies, which have been more systematically +collected in tropical countries than any other order of insects. The +Himalayan butterflies, especially in the eastern portions of the range--in +Assam and the Khasya Hills--are remarkably fine and very abundant; yet all +the larger groups extend into the Malayan sub-region, many to Ceylon, and a +considerable proportion even to Africa and Austro-Malaya. There are a large +number of peculiar types, but most of them consist of few or single +species. Such are _Neope_, _Orenoma_, and _Rhaphicera_, genera of Satyridæ; +_Enispe_ (Morphidæ); _Hestina_, _Penthema_, and _Abrota_ (Nymphalidæ); +_Dodona_ (Erycinidæ); _Ilerda_ (Lycænidæ); _Calinaga_, _Teinopalpus_, and +_Bhutanitis_ (Papilionidæ). Its more prominent features are, however, +derived from what may be termed Malayan, or even Old World types, such as +_Euplæa_, among Danaidæ; _Amathusia_, _Clerome_, and _Thaumantis_, among +Morphidæ; _Euripus_, _Diadema_, _Athyma_, _Limenitis_, and _Adolias_, among +Nymphalidæ; _Zemeros_ and _Taxila_ among Erycinidæ; _Amblypodia_, +_Miletus_, _Ilerda_, and _Myrina_, among Lycænidæ; _Thyca_, _Prioneris_, +_Dercas_, _Iphias_, and _Thestias_ among Pieridæ; and Papilios of the +"_Amphrisius_," "_Coon_", "_Philoxenus_," "_Protenor_," "_Paris_," and +"_Sarpedon_" groups. In the Himalayas there is an unusual abundance of +large and gorgeous species of the genus _Papilio_, {333}and of large and +showy Nymphalidæ, Morphidæ, and Danaidæ, which render it, in favoured +localities, only second to South America for a display of this form of +beauty and variety in insect life. + +Among the other orders of insects in which the Himalayas are remarkably +rich, we may mention large and brilliant Cetoniidæ, chiefly of the genus +_Rhomborhima_; a magnificent Lamellicorn, _Euchirus macleayii_, allied to +the gigantic long-armed beetle (_E. longimanus_) of Amboyna; superb moths +of the families Agaristidæ and Sesiidæ; elegant and remarkable Fulgoridæ, +and strange forms of the gigantic Phasmidæ; most of which appear to be of +larger size or of more brilliant colours than their Malayan allies. + + + +_Islands of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region._--A few important islands belong +to this sub-region, the Andamans, Formosa, and Hainan being the most +interesting. + +_Andamans._--The only mammalia are a few rats and mice, a _Paradoxurus_, +and a pig supposed to be a hybrid race,--all of which may have been +introduced by man's agency. The birds of the Andaman Islands have been +largely collected, no less than 155 species having been obtained; and of +these 17, (all land-birds) are peculiar. The genera are all found on the +continent, and are mostly characteristic of the Indo-Chinese fauna, to +which most of the species belong. Reptiles are also tolerably abundant; +about 20 species are known, the majority being found also on the continent, +while a few are peculiar. There are also a few Batrachia, and some +fresh-water fishes, closely resembling those of Burmah. The absence of such +mammalia as monkeys and squirrels, which abound on the mainland, and which +are easily carried over straits or narrow seas by floating trees, is +sufficient proof that these islands have not recently formed part of the +continent. The birds are mostly such as may have reached the islands while +in their present geographical position; and the occurrence of reptiles and +fresh-water fishes, said to be identical in species with those of Burmah, +must be due to the facilities, which some of these animals undoubtedly +{334}possess, for passing over a considerable width of sea. We must +conclude, therefore, that these islands do not owe their existing fauna to +an actual union with the mainland; but it is probable that they may have +been formerly more extensive, and have then been less distant from the +continent than at the present time. + +The Nicobar Islands, usually associated with the Andamans, are less known, +but present somewhat similar phenomena. They are, however, more Malayan in +their fauna, and seem properly to belong to the Indo-Malay sub-region. + +_Formosa._--This island has been carefully examined by Mr. Swinhoe, who +found 144 species of birds, of which 34 are peculiar. There is one peculiar +genus, but the rest are all Indo-Chinese, though some of the species are +more allied to Malayan than to Chinese or Himalayan forms. About 30 species +of mammalia were found in Formosa, of which 11 are peculiar species, the +rest being either Chinese or Himalayan. The peculiar species belong to the +genera _Talpa_, _Helictis_, _Sciuropterus_, _Pteromys_, _Mus_, _Sus_, +_Cervus_, and _Capricornis_. A few lizards and snakes of continental +species have also been found. These facts clearly indicate the former +connection of Formosa with China and Malaya, a connection which is rendered +the more probable by the shallow sea which still connects all these +countries. + +_Hainan._--The island of Hainan, on the south coast of China, is not so +well known in proportion, though Mr. Swinhoe collected 172 species of +birds, of which 130 were land-birds. Of these about 20 were peculiar +species; the remainder being either Chinese, Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan. +Mr. Swinhoe also obtained 24 species of mammalia, all being Chinese, +Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan species except a hare, which is peculiar. This +assemblage of animals would imply that Hainan, as might be anticipated from +its position, has been more recently separated from the continent than the +more distant island of Formosa. + + +_IV. Indo-Malaya, or the Malayan Sub-region._ + +This sub-region, which is almost wholly insular (including only the Malayan +peninsula on the continent of Asia), is equal, if {335}not superior, in the +variety and beauty of its productions, to that which we have just been +considering. Like Indo-China, it is a region of forests, but it is more +exclusively tropical; and it is therefore deficient in many of those +curious forms of the temperate zone of the Himalayas, which seem to have +been developed from Palæarctic rather than from Oriental types. Here alone, +in the Oriental region, are found the most typical equatorial forms of +life--organisms adapted to a climate characterised by uniform but not +excessive heat, abundant moisture, and no marked departure from the average +meteorological state, throughout the year. These favourable conditions of +life only occur in three widely separated districts of the globe--the Malay +archipelago, Western Africa, and equatorial South America. Hence perhaps it +is, that the tapir and the trogons of Malacca should so closely resemble +those of South America; and that the great anthropoid apes and crested +hornbills of Western Africa, should find their nearest allies in Borneo and +Sumatra. + +Although the islands which go to form this sub-region are often separated +from each other by a considerable expanse of sea, yet their productions in +general offer no greater differences than those of portions of the +Indo-Chinese sub-region separated by an equal extent of dry land. The +explanation is easy, however, when we find that the sea which separates +them is a very shallow one, so shallow that an elevation of only 300 feet +would unite Sumatra, Java, and Borneo into one great South-eastern +prolongation of the Asiatic continent. As we know that our own country has +been elevated and depressed to a greater amount than this, at least twice +in recent geological times, we can have no difficulty in admitting similar +changes of level in the Malay archipelago, where the subterranean forces +which bring about such changes are still at work, as manifested by the +great chain of active volcanoes in Sumatra and Java. Proofs of somewhat +earlier changes of level are to be seen in the Tertiary coal formations of +Borneo, which demonstrate a succession of elevations and subsidences, with +as much certainty as if we had historical record of them. + +It is not necessary to suppose, nor is it probable, that all these +{336}great islands were recently united to the continent, and that their +separation took place by one general subsidence of the whole. It is more +consonant with what we know of such matters, that the elevations and +depressions were partial, varying in their points of action and often +recurring; sometimes extending one part of an island, sometimes another; +now joining an island to the main land, now bringing two islands into +closer proximity. There is reason to believe that sometimes an intervening +island has sunk or receded and allowed others which it before separated to +effect a partial union independently of it. If we recognise the probability +that such varied and often-renewed changes of level have occurred, we shall +be better able to understand how certain anomalies of distribution in these +islands may have been brought about. We will now endeavour to sketch the +general features of the zoology of this interesting district, and then +proceed to discuss some of the relations of the islands to each other. + +_Mammalia._--We have seen that the Indo-Chinese sub-region possesses 13 +species of mammalia in common with the Indo-Malay sub-region, and 4 others +peculiar to itself, besides one Ethiopian and several Oriental and +Palæarctic forms of wide range. Of this latter class the Malay islands have +comparatively few, but they possess no less than 14 peculiar genera, viz. +_Simia_, _Siamanga_, _Tarsius_, _Galeopithecus_, _Hylomys_, _Ptilocerus_, +_Gymnura_, _Cynogale_, _Hemigalea_, _Arctogale_, _Barangia_, _Mydaus_, +_Helarctos_, and _Tapirus_. The islands also possess tigers, deer, wild +pigs, wild cattle, elephants, the scaly ant-eater, and most of the usual +Oriental genera; so that they are on the whole fully as rich as, if not +richer than, any part of Asia; a fact very unusual in island faunas, and +very suggestive of their really continental nature. + + + + +Plate VIII. + +[Illustration] + +A FOREST IN BORNEO, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA. + +{337}_Plate VIII. Scene in Borneo with Characteristic Malayan +Quadrupeds._--The Malayan fauna is so rich and peculiar that we devote two +plates to illustrate it. We have here a group of mammalia, such as might be +seen together in the vast forests of Borneo. In the foreground we have the +beautiful deer-like Chevrotain (_Tragulus javanicus_). These are delicate +little animals whose body is not larger than a rabbit's, thence often +called "mouse-deer." They were formerly classed with the "musk-deer," owing +to their similar tusk-like upper canines; but their anatomy shows them to +form quite a distinct family, having more resemblance to the camels. On the +branch above is the curious feather-tailed Tree-Shrew (_Ptilocerus lowii_), +a small insectivorous animal altogether peculiar to Borneo. Above this is +the strange little Tarsier (_Tarsius spectrum_), one of the lemurs confined +to the Malay islands, but so distinct from all others as to constitute a +separate family. The other small animals are the Flying Lemurs +(_Galæopithecus volans_) formerly classed with the lemurs, but now +considered to belong to the Insectivora. They have a very large expansion +of the skin connecting the fore and hind limbs and tail, and are able to +take long flights from one tree to another, and even to rise over obstacles +in their course by the elevatory power of the tail-membrane. They feed +chiefly on leaves, and have a very soft and beautifully marbled fur. + +In the distance is the Malayan tapir (_Tapirus indicus_), a representative +of a group of animals now confined to the larger Malay islands and tropical +America, but which once ranged over the greater part of temperate Europe. + + + +_Birds._--Owing to several of the families consisting of very obscure and +closely allied species, which have never been critically examined and +compared by a competent ornithologist, the number of birds inhabiting this +sub-region is uncertain. From the best available materials there appear to +be somewhat less than 650 species of land-birds actually known, or +excluding the Philippine Islands somewhat less than 600. The larger part of +these are peculiar species, but mostly allied to those of Indo-China; 36 of +the genera, as already stated, being common to these two sub-regions. There +are, however, no less than 46 genera which are peculiarly or wholly Indo +Malayan and, in many cases, have no close affinity with other Oriental +groups. These peculiar genera are as follows:--_Timalia_, _Malacopteron_, +_Macronus_, _Napothera_, _Turdinus_, and _Trichixos_--genera {338}of +Timaliidæ; _Eupetes_, a most remarkable form, perhaps allied to _Enicurus_, +and _Cinclus_; _Rhabdornis_ (Certhiidæ) found only in the Philippines; +_Psaltria_, a diminutive bird of doubtful affinities, provisionally classed +among the tits (Paridæ); _Setornis_ (Pycnonotidæ); _Lalage_ (Campephagidæ) +extending eastward to the Pacific Islands; _Pycnosphrys_, _Philentoma_ +(Muscicapidæ); _Laniellus_, a beautiful bird doubtfully classed with the +shrikes (Laniidæ); _Platylophus_ and _Pityriasis_, the latter a most +anomalous form--perhaps a distinct family, at present classed with the +jays, in Corvidæ; _Prionochilus_, a curious form classed with Dicæidæ; +_Erythrura_ (Ploceidæ), extending eastwards to the Fiji Islands; _Gymnops_, +_Calornis_, (Sturnidæ); _Eurylæmus_, _Corydon_, and _Calyptomena_ +(Eurylæmidæ); _Eucichla_, the longest tailed and most elegantly marked of +the Pittidæ; _Reinwardtipicus_ and _Miglyptes_ (Picidæ); _Psilopogon_ and +_Calorhamphus_, (Megalæmidæ); _Rhinococcyx_, _Dasylophus_, _Lepidogrammus_, +_Carpococcyx_, _Zanclostomus_, _Poliococcyx_, _Rhinortha_, (Cuculidæ); +_Berenicornis_, _Caldo_, _Cranorhinus_, _Penelopides_, _Rhinoplax_, +(Bucerotidæ); _Psittinus_, (Psittacidæ); _Ptilopus_, _Phapitreron_, +(Columbidæ); _Rollulus_, (Treronidæ); _Machærhamphus_, (Falconidæ). Many of +these genera are abundant and wide-spread, while some of the most +characteristic Himalayan genera, such as _Larvivora_, _Garrulax_, +_Hypsipetes_, _Pomatorhinus_, and _Dendrocitta_, are here represented by +only a few species. + +Among the groups that are characteristic of the Malayan sub-region, the +Timaliidæ and Pycnonotidæ stand pre-eminent; the former represented chiefly +by the genera _Timalia_, _Malacopteron_, _Macronus_, and _Trichastoma_, the +latter by _Criniger_, _Microscelis_, and many forms of _Pycnonotus_. The +Muscicapidæ, Dicruridæ, Campephagidæ, Ploceidæ, and Nectariniidæ are also +well developed; as well as the Pittidæ, and the Eurylæmidæ, the limited +number of species of the latter being compensated by a tolerable abundance +of individuals. Among the Picariæ are many conspicuous groups; as, +woodpeckers (Picidæ); barbets (Megalæmidæ); trogons (Trogonidæ); +kingfishers (Alcedinidæ); and hornbills (Bucerotidæ); five families which +are perhaps the most conspicuous in the whole fauna. Lastly come the +pigeons {339}(Columbidæ), and the pheasants (Phasianidæ), which are fairly +represented by such fine genera as _Treron_, _Ptilopus_, _Euplocamus_, and +_Argusianus_. A few forms whose affinities are Australian rather than +Oriental, help to give a character to the ornithology, though none of them +are numerous. The swallow-shrikes (_Artamus_); the wag-tail fly-catchers +(_Rhipidura_); the green fruit-doves (_Ptilopus_); and the mound-makers +(_Megapodius_), are the chief of these. + +There are a few curious examples of remote geographical alliances that may +be noted. First, we have a direct African connection in _Machærhamphus_, a +genus of hawks, and _Berenicornis_, a genus of hornbills; the only close +allies being, in the former case in South, and in the latter in West +Africa. Then we have a curious Neotropical affinity, indicated by +_Carpococcyx_, a large Bornean ground-cuckoo, whose nearest ally is the +genus _Neomorphus_ of South America; and by the lovely green-coloured +_Calyptomena_ which seems unmistakably allied to the orange-coloured +_Rupicola_, or "Cock of the rock," in general structure and in the +remarkable form of crest, a resemblance which has been noticed by many +writers. + +In the preceding enumeration of Malayan genera several are included which +extend into the Austro-Malay Islands, our object, at present, being to show +the differences and relations of the two chief Oriental sub-regions. + +_Plate IX. A Malayan Forest with some of its peculiar Birds._--Our second +illustration of the Malayan fauna is devoted to its bird-life; and for this +purpose we place our scene in the Malay peninsula, where birds are perhaps +more abundant and more interesting, than in any other part of the +sub-region. Conspicuous in the foreground is the huge Rhinoceros Hornbill +(_Buceros rhinoceros_), one of the most characteristic birds of the Malayan +forests, the flapping of whose wings, as it violently beats the air to +support its heavy body, may be heard a mile off. On the ground behind, is +the Argus pheasant (_Argusianus giganteus_) whose beautifully ocellated +wings have been the subject of a most interesting description in Mr. +Darwin's _Descent of Man_. The wing-feathers are here so enormously +{340}developed for display (as shown in our figure) that they become +almost, if not quite, useless for their original purpose of flight; yet the +colours are so sober, harmonizing completely with the surrounding +vegetation, and the bird is so wary, that in the forests where it abounds +an old hunter assured me he had never been able to see a specimen till it +was caught in his snares. It is interesting to note, that during the +display of the plumage the bird's head is concealed by the wings from a +spectator in front, and, contrary to what usually obtains among pheasants, +the head is entirely unadorned, having neither crest nor a particle of +vivid colour,--a remarkable confirmation of Mr. Darwin's views, that gayly +coloured plumes are developed in the male bird for the purpose of +attractive display in the breeding season. The long-tailed bird on the +right is one of the Drongo-shrikes (_Bhringa remifer_), whose long bare +tail-feathers, with an oar-like web at the end, and blue-black glossy +plumage, render it a very attractive object as it flies after its insect +prey. On the left is another singular bird the great Broad-bill (_Corydon +sumatranus_), with dull and sombre plumage, but with a beak more like that +of a boat-bill than of a fruit-eating passerine bird. Over all, the +white-handed Gibbon (_Hylobates lar_) swings and gambols among the topmost +branches of the forest. + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These are not sufficiently known to be of much +use for our present purpose. Most of the genera belong to the continental +parts of the Oriental region, or have a wide range. Of snakes _Rhabdosoma_, +_Typhlocalamus_, _Tetragonosoma_, _Acrochordus_, and _Atropos_, are the +most peculiar, and there are several peculiar genera of Homalopsidæ. Of +Oriental genera, _Cylindrophis_, _Xenopeltes_, _Calamaria_, _Hypsirhina_, +_Psammodynastes_, _Gonyosoma_, _Tragops_, _Dipsas_, _Pareas_, _Python_, +_Bungarus_, _Naja_, and _Callophis_ are abundant; as well as _Simotes_, +_Ablabes_, _Tropidonotus_, and _Dendrophis_, which are widely distributed. +Among lizards _Hydrosaurus_ and _Gecko_ are common; there are many isolated +groups of Scincidæ; while _Draco_, _Calotes_, and many forms of Agamidæ, +some of which are peculiar, abound. + + + +Plate IX. + +[Illustration] + +A MALAYAN FOREST, WITH ITS CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS. + +{341}Among the Amphibia, toads and frogs of the genera _Micrhyla_, +_Kalophrynus_, _Ansonia_, and _Pseudobufo_, are peculiar: while the +Oriental _Megalophrys_, _Ixalus_, _Rhacophorus_, and _Hylorana_ are +abundant and characteristic. + +_Fishes._--The fresh-water fishes of the Malay archipelago have been so +well collected and examined by the Dutch naturalists, that they offer +valuable indications of zoo-geographical affinity; and they particularly +well exhibit the sharply defined limits of the region, a large number of +Oriental and even Ethiopian genera extending eastward as far as Java and +Borneo, but very rarely indeed sending a single species further east, to +Celebes or the Moluccas. Thirteen families of fresh-water fishes are found +in the Indo-Malay sub-region. Of these the Scienidæ and Symbranchidæ have +mostly a wide range in the tropics. Ophiocephalidæ are exclusively +Oriental, reaching Borneo and the Philippine islands. The Mastacembelidæ +are also Oriental, but one species is found as far as Ceram. Of the +Nandidæ, 3 genera range over the whole region. The Labyrinthici extend from +Africa through the Oriental region to Amboyna, The single species +constituting the family Luciocephalidæ is confined to Borneo and the small +islands of Biliton and Banca. Of the extensive family Siluridæ 17 genera +are Oriental and Malayan, and 11 are Malayan exclusively; and not one of +these appears to pass beyond the limits of the sub-region. The Cyprinidæ +offer an equally striking example, 23 genera ranging eastward to Java and +Borneo and not one beyond; 14 of these being exclusively Malayan. It must +be remembered that this is not from any want of knowledge of the countries +farther east, as extensive collections have also been made in Celebes, the +Moluccas, and Timor; so that the facts of distribution of fresh-water +fishes come, most unexpectedly, to fortify that division of the archipelago +into two primary regions, which was founded on a consideration of mammalia +and birds only. + +_Insects._--Few countries in the world can present a richer and more varied +series of insects than the Indo-Malay islands, and we can only here notice +a few of their more striking peculiarities and more salient features. + +{342}The butterflies of this sub-region, according to the best estimate +that can be formed, amount to about 650 described species, a number that +will yet, no doubt, be very considerably increased. The genera which appear +to be peculiar to it are _Erites_ (Satyridæ); _Zeuxidia_ (Morphidæ); +_Amnosia_, _Xanthotænia_, and _Tanæcia_ (Nymphalidæ). The groups which are +most characteristic of the region, either from their abundance in +individuals or species, or from their size and beauty, are--the rich +dark-coloured _Euplæa_; the large semi-transparent _Hestia_; the +plain-coloured _Mycalesis_, which replace our meadow-brown butterflies +(_Hipparchia_); the curious _Elymnias_, which often closely resemble +Euplæas; the large and handsome _Thamantis_ and _Zeuxidia_, which take the +place of the giant Morphos of South America; the _Cethosia_, of the +brightest red, and marked with a curious zigzag pattern; the velvety and +blue-glossed _Terinos_; the pale and delicately-streaked _Cyrestis_; the +thick-bodied and boldly coloured _Adolias_; the small wine-coloured +_Taxila_; the fine blue _Amblypodia_; the beautiful _Thyca_, elegantly +marked underneath with red and yellow, which represent our common white +butterflies and are almost equally abundant; the pale blue _Eronia_, and +the large red-tipped _Iphias_. The genus _Papilio_ is represented by a +variety of fine groups; the large _Ornithoptera_, with satiny yellow +under-wings; the superb green-marked "_brookeana_;" the "_paradoxa_" group, +often closely resembling the Euplæas that abound in the same district; the +"_paris_" group richly dusted with golden-green specks; the "_helenus_" +group with wide-spreading black and white wings; the black and crimson +"_polydorus_" group; the "_memnon_" group, of the largest size and +richly-varied colours; and the "_eurypilus_" group, elegantly banded or +spotted with blue or green: all these are so abundant that some of them are +met with in every walk, and are a constant delight to the naturalist who +has the privilege of observing them in their native haunts. + +The Coleoptera are far less prominent and require to be carefully sought +after; but they then well repay the collector. As affording some measure of +the productiveness of the tropics in insect life it will not be out of +place to give a few notes of the {343}number of species collected by myself +in some of the best localities. At Singapore 300 species of Coleoptera were +collected in 15 days, and in a month the number had increased to 520; of +which 100 were Longicorns and 140 Rhyncophora. At Sarawak in Borneo I +obtained 400 species in 15 days, and 600 in a month. In two months this +number had increased to about 850, and in three months to 1,000 species. +This was the most prolific spot I ever collected in, especially for +Longicorns which formed about one-fifth of all the species of beetles. In +the Aru Islands in one month, I obtained only 235 species of Coleoptera, +and about 600 species of insects of all orders; and this may be taken as a +fair average, in localities where no specially favourable conditions +existed. On the average 40 to 60 species of Coleoptera would be a good +day's collecting; 70 exceptionally good; while the largest number ever +obtained in one day was 95, and the majority of these would be very minute +insects. It must be remembered, however, that many very common species were +passed over, yet had every species met with been collected, not much more +than 100 species would ever have been obtained in one day's collecting of +four or five hours. These details may afford an interesting standard of +comparison for collectors in other parts of the world. + +Of Cicindelidæ the most peculiarly Malayan form is _Therates_, found always +on leaves in the forests in the same localities as the more widely spread +_Collyris_. Five genera of this family are Indo-Malayan. + +The Carabidæ, though sufficiently plentiful, are mostly of small size, and +not conspicuous in any way. But there is one striking exception in the +purely Malayan genus _Mormolyce_, the largest and most remarkable of the +whole family. It is nocturnal, resting during the days on the under side of +large _boleti_ in the virgin forest. _Pericallus_ and _Catascopus_ are +among the few genera which are at all brillantly coloured. + +Buprestidæ are abundant, and very gay; the genus _Belionota_ being perhaps +one of the most conspicuous and characteristic. The giant _Catoxantha_ is, +however, the most peculiar, though comparatively scarce. _Chrysochroa_ and +_Chalcophora_ are also {344}abundant and characteristic. Out of the 41 +Oriental genera 21 are Malayan, and 10 of these are not found in the other +sub-regions. + +In Lucanidæ the Malay islands are rich, 14 out of the 16 Oriental genera +occurring there, and 3 being peculiar. There are many fine species of +_Odontolabris_, which may be considered the characteristic genus of the +sub-region. + +The Cetoniidæ are well represented by 16 genera and about 120 species. The +genera _Mycteristes_, _Phædimus_, _Plectrone_, _Euremina_, _Rhagopteryx_ +and _Centrognathus_ are peculiar, while _Agestrata_, _Chalcothea_, and +_Macronota_ are abundant and characteristic. + +The Longicorns, as in all continental forest regions near the equator, are +very abundant and in endlessly varied forms. No less than 55 genera +containing about 200 species are peculiar to this sub-region, the +Cerambycidæ being much the most numerous. _Euryarthrum_, _Coelosterna_, +_Agelasta_, and _Astathes_ may be considered as most characteristic; but to +name the curious and interesting forms would be to give a list of half the +genera. For the relations of the Longicorns of the Indo-Malay, and those of +the Austro-Malay region, the reader is referred to the chapter on the +distribution of insects in the succeeding part of this work. + +_Terrestrial Mollusca._--The Philippine islands are celebrated as being one +of the richest parts of the world for land shells, about 400 species being +known. The other islands of the sub-region are far less rich, not more than +about 100 species having yet been described from the whole of them. _Helix_ +and _Bulimus_ both abound in species in the Philippines, whereas the latter +genus is very scarce in Borneo and Java. Ten genera of Helicidæ inhabit the +sub-region; _Pfeifferia_ is found in the Philippines and Moluccas, while +the large genus _Cochlostyla_ is almost peculiar to the Philippines. Of the +Operculata there are representatives of 20 genera, of which _Dermatoma_ and +_Pupinella_ are peculiar, while _Registoma_ and _Callia_ extend to the +Australian region. _Cyclophorus_, _Leptopoma_, and _Pupina_ are perhaps the +most characteristic genera. + +{345}_The Zoological Relations of the Several Islands of the Indo-Malay +Sub-region._ + +Although we have grouped the Philippine islands with the Indo-Malay +sub-region, to which, as we shall see, they undoubtedly belong, yet most of +the zoological characteristics we have just sketched out, apply more +especially to the other groups of islands and the Malay peninsula. The +Philippine islands stand, to Malaya proper, in the same relation that +Madagascar does to Africa or the Antilles to South America; that is, they +are remarkable for the absence of whole families and genera which +everywhere characterise the remainder of the district. They are, in fact, +truly insular, while the other islands are really continental in all the +essential features of their natural history. Before, therefore, we can +conveniently compare the separate islands of Malaya[12] with each other, we +must first deal with the Philippine group, showing in what its speciality +consists, and why it must be considered apart from the sub-region to which +it belongs. + +_Mammals of the Philippine Islands._--The only mammalia recorded as +inhabiting the Philippine Islands are the following:-- + + QUADRUMANA. 1. Macacus cynomolgus. + 2. Cynopithecus niger. Dr. Semper doubts this + being a Philippine + species. + LEMUROIDEA. 3. Tarsius spectrum. + INSECTIVORA. 4. Galeopithecus philippinensis. + 5. Tupaia (species). On Dr. Semper's authority. + CARNIVORA. 6. Viverra tangalunga. + 7. Paradoxurus philippensis. + UNGULATA. 8. Sus (species). On Dr. Semper's authority. + 9. Cervus mariannus. + 10. Cervus philippensis. + 11. Cervus alfredi. + 12. Bos (species). Wild cattle; perhaps + introduced. + RODENTIA. 13. Phlæomys cummingii. + 14. Scuirus philippinensis. + + Also 24 species, belonging to 17 genera, of bats. + +{346}The foregoing list, although small, contains an assemblage of species +which are wholly Oriental in character, and several of which (_Tarsius_, +_Galeopithecus_, _Tupaia_) are characteristic and highly peculiar Malayan +forms. At the same time these islands are completely separated from the +rest of Malaya by the total absence of _Semnopithecus_, _Hylobates_, +_Felis_, _Helarctos_, _Rhinoceros_, _Manis_, and other groups constantly +found in the great Indo-Malay islands and peninsula of Malacca. We find +apparently two sets of animals: a more ancient series, represented by the +deer, _Galeopithecus_, and squirrel, in which the species are distinct from +any others; and a more recent series, represented by _Macacus cynomolgus_, +and _Viverra tangalunga_, identical with common Malayan animals. The former +indicate the earliest period when these volcanic islands were connected +with some part of the Malayan sub-region, and they show that this was not +geologically remote, since no peculiar generic types have been preserved or +differentiated. The latter may indicate either the termination of the +period of union, or merely the effects of introduction by man. The reason +why a larger number of mammalian forms were not introduced and established, +was probably because the union was effected only with some small islands, +and from these communicated to other parts of the archipelago; or it may +well be that later subsidences extinguished some of the forms that had +established themselves. + +_Birds of the Philippine Islands._--These have been carefully investigated +by Viscount Walden, in a paper read before the Zoological Society of London +in 1873, and we are thus furnished with ample information on the relations +of this important portion of the fauna. + +The total number of birds known to inhabit the Philippines is 219, of which +106 are peculiar. If, however, following our usual plan, we take only the +land-birds, we find the numbers to be 159 species, of which 100 are +peculiar; an unusually large proportion for a group of islands so +comparatively near to various parts of the Oriental and Australian regions. +The families of birds which are more especially characteristic of the +Indo-Malay sub-region are about 28 in number, and examples {347}of all +these are found in the Philippines except four, viz., Cinclidæ, +Phyllornithidæ, Eurylæmidæ, and Podargidæ. The only Philippine families +which are, otherwise, exclusively Austro-Malayan are, Cacatuidæ and +Megapodiidæ. Yet although the birds are unmistakably Malayan, as a whole, +there are, as in the mammalia (though in a less degree), marked +deficiencies of most characteristic Malayan forms. Lord Walden gives a list +of no less than 69 genera thus absent; but it will be sufficient here to +mention such wide-spread and specially Indo-Malay groups as,--_Eurylæmus_, +_Nyctiornis_, _Arachnothera_, _Geocichla_, _Malacopteron_, _Timalia_, +_Pomatorhinus_, _Phyllornis_, _Iora_, _Criniger_, _Enicurus_, _Chaptia_, +_Tchitrea_, _Dendrocitta_, _Eulabes_, _Palæornis_, _Miglyptes_, _Tiga_, and +_Euplocamus_. These deficiencies plainly show the isolated character of the +Philippine group, and imply that it has never formed a part of that +Indo-Malayan extension of the continent which almost certainly existed when +the peculiar Malayan fauna was developed; or that, if it has been so +united, it has been subsequently submerged and broken up to such an extent, +as to cause the extinction of many of the absent types. + +It appears from Lord Walden's careful analysis, that 31 of the Philippine +species occur in the Papuan sub-region, and 47 in Celebes; 69 occur also in +India, and 75 in Java. This last fact is curious, since Java is the most +remote of the Malayan islands, but it is found to arise almost wholly from +the birds of that island being better known, since only one species, +_Xantholæma rosea_, is confined to the Philippine Islands and Java. + +The wading and swimming birds are mostly of wide-spread forms, only 6 out +of the 60 species being peculiar to the Philippine archipelago. Confining +ourselves to the land-birds, and combining several of the minutely +subdivided genera of Lord Walden's paper so as to agree with the +arrangement adopted in this work, we find that there are 112 genera of +land-birds represented in the islands. Of these, 50 are either +cosmopolitan, of wide range, or common to the Oriental and Australian +regions, and may be put aside as affording few indications of geographical +affinity. Of the remaining 62 no less than 40 are exclusively {348}or +mainly Oriental, and most of them are genera which range widely over the +region, only two (_Philentoma_ and _Rollulus_) being exclusively Malayan, +and two others (_Megalurus_ and _Malacocircus_) more especially Indian or +continental. Five other genera, though having a wide range, are typically +Palæarctic, and have reached the islands through North China. They are, +_Monticola_, _Acrocephalus_, _Phylloscopus_, _Calliope_, and _Passer_; the +two first having extended their range southward into the Moluccas. The +peculiarly Australian genera are only 12, the majority being characteristic +Papuan and Moluccan forms; such as--_Campephaga_, _Alcyone_, _Cacatua_, +_Tanygnathus_, _Ptilopus_, _Janthænas_, _<Phlogænas_, and _Megapodius_. One +is peculiar to Celebes (_Prioniturus_); one to the Papuan group +(_Cyclopsitta_); and one is chiefly Australian (_Gerygone_). The beautiful +little parroquets forming the genus _Loriculus_, are characteristic of the +Philippines, which possess 5 species, a larger number than occurs in any +other group of islands, though they range from India to New Guinea. There +remain six peculiar genera--_Rhabdornis_, an isolated form of creepers +(Certhiidæ); _Gymnops_, a remarkable bareheaded bird belonging to the +starlings (Sturnidæ); _Dasylophus_, and _Lepidogrammus_, remarkable genera +of cuckoos (Cuculidæ); _Penelopides_, a peculiar hornbill, and +_Phapitreron_, a genus of pigeons. Besides these there are four other types +(here classed as sub-genera, but considered to be distinct by Lord Walden) +which are peculiar to the Philippines. These are _Pseudoptynx_, an owl of +the genus _Athene_; _Pseudolalage_, a sub-genus of _Lalage_; _Zeocephus_, a +sub-genus of _Tchitrea_; and _Ptilocolpa_, included under _Carpophaga_. + +When we look at the position of the Philippine group, connected by the +Bashee islands with Formosa, by Palawan and the Sooloo archipelago with +Borneo, and by the Tulour and other islets with the Moluccas and Celebes, +we have little difficulty in accounting for the peculiarities of its bird +fauna. The absence of a large number of Malayan groups would indicate that +the actual connection with Borneo, which seems necessary for the +introduction of the Malay types of mammalia, was not of long duration; +while the large proportion of wide-spread continental genera of birds would +seem to imply that greater facilities had {349}once existed for immigration +from Southern China, perhaps by a land connection through Formosa, at which +time the ancestors of the peculiar forms of deer entered the country. It +may indeed be objected that our knowledge of these islands is far too +imperfect to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions as to their former +history; but although many more species no doubt remain to be discovered, +experience shows that the broad characters of a fauna are always determined +by a series of collections made by different persons, at various +localities, and at different times, even when more imperfect than those of +the Philippine birds really are. The isolated position, and the volcanic +structure of the group, would lead us to expect them to be somewhat less +productive than the Moluccas, close to the rich and varied Papuan +district,--or than Celebes, with its numerous indications of an extensive +area and great antiquity; and taking into account the excessive poverty of +its mammalian fauna, which is certain to be pretty well known, I am +inclined to believe that no future discoveries will materially alter the +character of Philippine ornithology, as determined from the materials +already at our command. + + + +_Java._--Following the same plan as we have adopted in first discussing the +Philippine islands, and separating them from the body of the sub-region on +account of special peculiarities, we must next take Java, as possessing +marked individuality, and as being to some extent more isolated in its +productions than the remaining great islands. + +Java is well supplied with indigenous mammalia, possessing as nearly as can +be ascertained 55 genera and 90 species. None of these genera are peculiar, +and only about 5 of the species,--3 quadrumana, a deer and a wild pig. So +far then there is nothing remarkable in its fauna, but on comparing it with +that of the other great islands, viz., Borneo and Sumatra, and the Malay +peninsula, we find an unmistakable deficiency of characteristic forms, the +same in kind as that we have just commented on in the case of the +Philippines, though much less in degree. First, taking genera which are +found in all three of the above-named {350}localities and which must +therefore be held to be typical Malayan groups, the following are absent +from Java: _Viverra_, _Gymnopus_, _Lutra_, _Helarctos_, _Tapirus_, +_Elephas_, and _Gymnura_; while of those _known_ to occur in two, and +which, owing to our imperfect knowledge, may very probably one day be +discovered in the third, the following are equally wanting: _Simia_, +_Siamanga_, _Hemigalea_, _Paguma_, _Rhinosciurus_, and _Rhizomys_. It may +be said this is only negative evidence, but in the case of Java it is much +more, because this island is not only the best known of any in the +archipelago, but there is perhaps no portion of British India of equal +extent so well known. It is one of the oldest of the Dutch possessions and +the seat of their colonial government; good roads traverse it in every +direction, and experienced naturalists have been resident in various parts +of it for years together, and have visited every mountain and every forest, +aided by bands of diligent native collectors. We should be almost as likely +to find new species of mammalia in Central Europe as in Java; and therefore +the absence of such animals as the Malay bear, the elephant, tapir, +gymnura, and even less conspicuous forms, must be accepted as a positive +fact. + +In the other islands there are still vast tracts of forest in the hands of +natives and utterly unexplored, and any similar absence in their case will +prove little; yet on making the same comparison in the case of Borneo, the +most peculiar and the least known of the other portions of the sub-region, +we find only 2 genera absent which are found in the three other divisions, +and only 3 which are found in two others. A fact to be noted also is, that +the only genus found in Java but not in other parts of the sub-region +(_Helictis_) occurs again in North India; and that some Javan _species_, as +_Rhinoceros javanicus_, and _Lepus kurgosa_ occur again in the Indo-Chinese +sub-region, but not in the Malayan. + +Among the birds we meet with facts of a similar import; and though the +absence of certain types from Java is not quite so certain as among the +mammalia, this is more than balanced by the increased number of such +deficiencies, so that if a few {351}should be proved to be erroneous, the +main result will remain unaltered. + +Java possesses about 270 species of land birds, of which about 40 are +peculiar to it. There are, however, very few peculiar genera, _Laniellus_, +a beautiful spotted shrike, being the most distinct, while _Cochoa_ and +_Psaltria_ are perhaps not different from their Indian allies. The island +has however a marked individuality in two ways--in the absence of +characteristic Malayan types, and in the presence of a number of forms not +yet found in any of the other Malay islands, but having their nearest +allies in various parts of the Indo-Chinese sub-region. The following 16 +genera are all found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, but are absent from +Java: _Setornis_, _Temnurus_, _Dendrocitta_, _Corydon_, _Calyptomena_, +_Venilia_, _Reinwardtipicus_, _Caloramphus_, _Rhinortha_, _Nyctiornis_, +_Cranorhinus_, _Psittinus_, _Polyplectron_, _Argusianus_, _Euplocamus_, and +_Rollulus_. The following 9 are known from _two_ of the above localities, +and will very probably be found in the third, but are absent from, and not +likely to occur in, Java: _Trichixos_, _Eupetes_, _Melanochlora_, +_Chaptia_, _Pityriasis_, _Lyncornis_, _Carpococcyx_, _Poliococcyx_, and +_Rhinoplax_. We have thus 25 typically Malayan genera which are not known +to occur in Java. + +The following genera, on the other hand, do not occur in any of the Malayan +sub-divisions except Java, and they all occur again, or under closely +allied forms, in the Indo-Chinese sub-region; _Brachypteryx_ (allied +species in Himalayas); _Zoothera_ (allied species in Aracan); _Notodela_ +(allied species in Pegu); _Pnoëpyga_ (allied species in Himalayas); +_Allotrius_ (allied species in the Himalayas); _Cochoa_ (allied species in +the Himalayas); _Crypsirhina_ (allied species in Burmah); _Estrilda_ +(allied species in India); _Psaltria_ (allied genus--_Ægithaliscus_--in +Himalayas); _Pavo muticus_ and _Harpactes oreskios_ (same species in Siam +and Burmah); _Cecropis striolata_ (same species in Java and Formosa, and +allied species in India). + +Here we have 12 instances of very remarkable distribution, and considering +that there are nearly as many birds known from Sumatra and Borneo as from +Java, and considerably more from {352}the Malay peninsula, it is not likely +that many of these well marked forms will be discovered in these countries. + +There are also a considerable number of species of birds common to Malacca, +Sumatra, and Borneo, but represented in Java by distinct though closely +allied species. Such are,-- + + _Venilia malaccensis_ (represented in Java by) _V. miniata_. + _Drymocataphus nigrocapitatus_ " " _D. capistratus_. + _Malacopteron coronatum_ " " _M. rufifrons_. + _Irena cyanea_ " " _I. turcosa_. + _Ploceus baya_ " " _P. hypoxantha_. + _Loriculus galgulus_ " " _L. pusillus_. + _Ptilopus jambu_ " " _P. porphyreus_. + +Now if we look at our map of the region, and consider the position of Java +with regard to Borneo, Sumatra, and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, the facts +just pointed out appear most anomalous and perplexing. First, we have Java +and Sumatra forming one continuous line of volcanoes, separated by a very +narrow strait, and with all the appearance of having formed one continuous +land; yet their productions differ considerably, and those of Sumatra show +the closest resemblance to those of Borneo, an island ten times further off +than Java and differing widely in the absence of volcanoes or any +continuous range of lofty mountains. Then again, not only does Java differ +from these two, but it agrees with a country beyond them both--a country +from which they seem to have a much better chance to have been supplied by +immigration than Java has, and to have (almost necessarily) participated, +even more largely, in the benefits of any means of transmission capable of +reaching the latter island. Yet more; whatever changes have occurred to +bring about the anomalous state of things that exists must have been, +zoologically and geologically, recent; for the strange cross-affinities +between Java and the Indo-Chinese continent (in which Sumatra and Borneo +have not participated), as well as that between Malacca, Sumatra, and +Borneo (in which Java has not participated) are exhibited, in many cases by +community of _species_, in others by the presence of very closely allied +forms of the same _genera_, of mammalia and birds. Now we know that +{353}these higher animals become replaced by allied species much more +rapidly than the mollusca; and it is also pretty certain that the +modification by which this replacement is effected takes place more rapidly +when the two sets of individuals are isolated from each other, and +especially when they are restricted to islands, where they are necessarily +subject to distinct and pretty constant conditions, both physical and +organic. It becomes therefore almost a certainty, that Siam and Java on the +one hand, and Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca on the other must have been +brought into some close connexion, not earlier than the newer Pliocene +period; but while the one set of countries were having their meeting, the +other must have been by some means got out of the way. Before attempting to +indicate the mode by which this might have been effected in accordance with +what we know of the physical geography, geology, and vegetation of the +several islands, it will be as well to complete our sketch of their +zoological relations to each other, so as ascertain with some precision, +what are the facts of distribution which we have to explain. + + + +_Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo._--After having set apart the Philippine +Islands and Java, we have remaining two great islands and a peninsula, +which, though separated by considerable arms of the sea, possess a fauna of +wonderful uniformity having all the typical Malayan features in their full +development. Their unity is indeed so complete, that we can find hardly any +groups of sufficient importance by which to differentiate them from each +other; and we feel no confidence that future discoveries may not take away +what speciality they possess. One after another, species or genera once +peculiar to Borneo or Sumatra have been found elsewhere; and this has gone +to such an extent in birds, that hardly a peculiar genus and very few +peculiar species are left in either island. Borneo however is undoubtedly +the most peculiar. It possesses three genera of Mammalia not found +elsewhere; _Cynogale_, a curious carnivore allied to the otters; with +_Dendrogale_ and _Ptilocerus_, small insectivora allied to _Tupaia_. It has +_Simia_, the {354}Orang-utan, and _Paguma_, one of the Viverridæ, in common +with Sumatra; as well as _Rhinosciurus_, a peculiar form of squirrel, and +_Hemigalea_, one of the Viverridæ, in common with Malacca. Sumatra has only +one genus not found in any other Malayan district--_Nemorhedus_, a form of +antelope which occurs again in North India. It also has _Siamanga_ in +common with Malacca, _Mydaus_ with Java, and _Rhizomys_ with India. The +Malay Peninsula seems to have no peculiar forms of Mammalia, though it is +rich in all the characteristic Malay types. + +The bats of the various islands have been very unequally collected, 36 +species being recorded from Java, 23 from Sumatra, but only 16 each from +Borneo and Malacca. Leaving these out of consideration, and taking into +account the terrestrial mammals only, we find that Java is the poorest in +species, while Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca are tolerably equal; the +numbers being 55, 62, 66, and 65 respectively. Of these we find that the +species confined to each island or district are (in the same order) 6, 16, +5, and 6. It thus appears that Borneo is, in its mammalia, the most +isolated and peculiar; next comes Sumatra, and then Malacca and Java, as +shown by the following table. + + Peculiar Peculiar + Genera. Species. + Borneo 4 16 + Sumatra 1 5 + Malacca 0 6 + Java 0 6 + +This result differs from that which we have arrived at by the more detailed +consideration of the fauna of Java; and it serves to show that the estimate +of a country by the number of its peculiar genera and species alone, may +not always represent its true zoological importance or its most marked +features. Java, as we have seen, is differentiated from the other three +districts by the absence of numerous types common to them all, and by its +independent continental relations. Borneo is also well distinguished by its +peculiar genera and specific types, yet it is at the same time more closely +related to Sumatra and Malacca than is Java. The two islands have evidently +had a very different history, which a detailed knowledge of their geology +{355}would alone enable us to trace. Should we ever arrive at a fair +knowledge of the physical changes that have resulted in the present +condition, we shall almost certainly find that many of the differences and +anomalies of their existing fauna and flora will be accounted for. + +In Birds we hardly find anything to differentiate Borneo and Sumatra in any +clear manner. _Pityriasis_ and _Carpococcyx_, once thought peculiar to the +former, are now found also in the latter; and we have not a single genus +left to characterize Borneo except _Schwaneria_ a peculiar fly-catcher, and +_Indicator_, an African and Indian group not known to occur elsewhere in +the Malay sub-region. Sumatra as yet alone possesses _Psilopogon_, a +remarkable form of barbet, but we may well expect that it will be soon +found in the interior of Borneo or Malacca; it also has _Berenicornis_, an +African form of hornbill. The Malay Peninsula appears to have no genus +peculiar to it, but it possesses some Chinese and Indian forms which do not +pass into the islands. As to the species, our knowledge of them is at +present very imperfect. The Malay Peninsula is perhaps the best known, but +it is probable that both Sumatra and Borneo are quite as rich in species. +With the exception of the genera noted above, and two or three others as +yet found in two islands only, the three districts we are now considering +may be said to have an almost identical bird-fauna, consisting largely of +the same species and almost wholly of these together with closely allied +species of the same genera. There are no well-marked groups which +especially characterise one of these islands rather than the other, so that +even the amount of speciality which Borneo undoubtedly exhibits as regards +mammalia, is only faintly shown by its birds. The Pittidæ may perhaps be +named as the most characteristic Bornean group, that island possessing six +species, three of which are peculiar to it and are among the most beautiful +birds of an unusually beautiful family. Yet Sumatra possesses two peculiar, +and hardly less remarkable species. + +In other classes of vertebrates, in insects, and in land-shells, our +knowledge is far too imperfect to allow of our making any useful comparison +between the faunas. + +{356}_Banca._--We must, however note the fact of peculiar species occurring +in Banca, a small island close to Sumatra, and thus offering another +problem in distribution. A squirrel (_Sciurus bangkanus_) is allied to +three species found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo respectively, but quite +as distinct from them all as they are from each other. More curious are the +two species of _Pitta_ peculiar to Banca; one, _Pitta megarhynchus_, is +allied to the _P. brachyurus_, which inhabits the whole sub-region and +extends to Siam and China, but differs from it in its very large bill and +differently coloured head; the other, _P. bangkanus_, is allied to _P. +cucullatus_, which extends from Nepal to Malacca, and to _P. sordidus_, +which inhabits both Borneo and Sumatra as well as the Philippines. + +We have here, on a small scale, a somewhat similar problem to that of Java, +and as this is comparatively easy of solution we will consider it first. +Although, on the map, Banca is so very close to Sumatra, the observer on +the spot at once sees that the proximity has been recently brought about. +The whole south-east coast of Sumatra is a great alluvial plain, hardly yet +raised above the sea level, and half flooded in the wet season. It is +plainly a recent formation, caused by the washing down into a shallow sea +of the _débris_ from the grand range of volcanic mountains 150 miles +distant. Banca, on the other hand is, though low, a rugged and hilly +island, formed almost wholly of ancient rocks of apparently volcanic +origin, and closely resembling parts of the Malay Peninsula and the +intervening chain of small islands. There is every appearance that Banca +once formed the extremity of the Peninsula, at which time it would probably +have been separated from Sumatra by 50 or 100 miles of sea. Its productions +should, therefore, most resemble those of Singapore and Malacca, and the +few peculiar species it possesses will be due to their isolation in a small +tract of country, surrounded by a limited number of animal and vegetable +forms, and subject to the influence of a peculiar soil and climate. The +parent species existing in such large tracts as Borneo or Sumatra, +subjected to more varied conditions of soil, climate, vegetation, food, and +enemies, would preserve, almost or quite {357}unchanged, the +characteristics which had been developed under nearly identical conditions +when the great island formed part of the continent. Geology teaches us that +similar changes in the forms of the higher vertebrates have taken place +during the Post-Tertiary epoch; and there are other reasons for believing +that, under such conditions of isolation as in Banca, the change may have +required but a very moderate period, even reckoned in years. We will now +return to the more difficult problem presented by the peculiar continental +relations of Java, as already detailed. + + + +_Probable Recent Geographical Changes in the Indo-Malay Islands._--Although +Borneo is by far the largest of the Indo-Malay islands, yet its physical +conformation is such that, were a depression to occur of one or two +thousand feet, it would be reduced to a smaller continuous area than either +Sumatra or Java. Except in its northern portion it possesses no lofty +mountains, while alluvial valleys of great extent penetrate far into its +interior. A very moderate depression, of perhaps 500 feet, would convert it +into an island shaped something like Celebes; and its mountains are of so +small an average elevation, and consist so much of isolated hills and +detached ranges, that a depression of 2,000 feet would almost certainly +break it up into a group of small islands, with a somewhat larger one to +the north. Sumatra (and to a less extent Java) consists of an almost +continuous range of lofty mountains, connected by plateaus from 3,000 to +4,000 feet high; so that although a depression of 2,000 feet would greatly +diminish their size, it would probably leave the former a single island, +while the latter would be separated into two principal islands of still +considerable extent. The enormous amount of volcanic action in these two +islands, and the great number of conical mountains which must have been +slowly raised, chiefly by ejected matter, to the height of 10,000 and +12,000 feet, and whose shape indicates that they have been formed above +water, renders it almost certain that for long periods they have not +undergone submersion to any considerable extent. In Borneo, however, we +have no such evidences. No volcano, {358}active or extinct, is known in its +entire area; while extensive beds of coal of tertiary age, in every part of +it, prove that it has been subject to repeated submersions, at no distant +date geologically. An indication, if not a proof, of still more recent +submersion is to be found in the great alluvial valleys which on the south +and south-west extend fully 200 miles inland, while they are to a less +degree a characteristic feature all round the island. These swampy plains +have been formed by the combined action of rivers and tides; and they point +clearly to an immediately preceding state of things, when that which is +even now barely raised above the ocean, was more or less sunk below it. + +These various indications enable us to claim, as an admissible and even +probable supposition, that at some epoch during the Pliocene period of +geology, Borneo, as we now know it, did not exist; but was represented by a +mountainous island at its present northern extremity, with perhaps a few +smaller islets to the south. We thus have a clear opening from Java to the +Siamese Peninsula; and as the whole of that sea is less than 100 fathoms +deep, there is no difficulty in supposing an elevation of land connecting +the two together, quite independent of Borneo on the one hand and Sumatra +on the other. This union did not probably last long; but it was sufficient +to allow of the introduction into Java of the _Rhinoceros javanicus_, and +that group of Indo-Chinese and Himalayan species of mammalia and birds +which it alone possesses. When this ridge had disappeared by subsidence, +the next elevation occurred a little more to the east, and produced the +union of many islets which, aided by sub-aerial denudation, formed the +present island of Borneo. It is probable that this elevation was +sufficiently extensive to unite Borneo for a time with the Malay Peninsula +and Sumatra, thus helping to produce that close resemblance of genera and +even of species, which these countries exhibit, and obliterating much of +their former speciality, of which, however, we have still some traces in +the long-nosed monkey and _Ptilocerus_ of Borneo, and the considerable +number of genera both of mammalia and birds confined to two only out of the +three divisions of typical Malaya. The subsidence which again divided these +{359}countries by arms of the sea rather wider than at present, might have +left Banca isolated, as already referred to, with its proportion of the +common fauna to be, in a few instances, subsequently modified. + +Thus we are enabled to understand how the special relations of the +_species_ of these islands to each other may have been brought about. To +account for their more deep-seated and general zoological features, we must +go farther back. + + + +_Probable Origin of the Malayan Fauna._--The typical Malayan fauna is +essentially an equatorial one, and must have been elaborated in an +extensive equatorial area. This ancient land almost certainly extended +northward over the shallow sea as far as the island of Palawan, the +Paracels shoals and even Hainan. To the east, it may at one time have +included the Philippines and Celebes, but not the Moluccas. To the south it +was limited by the deep sea beyond Java. It included all Sumatra and the +Nicobar islands, and there is every reason to believe that it stretched out +also to the west so as to include the central peak of Ceylon, the Maldive +isles, and the Cocos islands west of Sumatra. We should then have an area +as extensive as South America to 15° south latitude, and well calculated to +develop that luxuriant fauna and flora which has since spread to the +Himalayas. The submergence of the western half of this area (leaving only a +fragment in Ceylon) would greatly diminish the number of animals and +perhaps extinguish some peculiar types; but the remaining portion would +still form a compact and extensive district, twice as large as the +peninsula of India, over the whole of which a uniform Malayan fauna would +prevail. The first important change would be the separation of Celebes; and +this was probably effected by a great subsidence, forming the deep strait +that now divides that island from Borneo. During the process Celebes itself +was no doubt greatly submerged, leaving only a few islands in which were +preserved that remnant of the ancient Malayan fauna that now constitutes +one of its most striking and anomalous features. The Philippine area would +next be separated, and perhaps be almost wholly submerged; or {360}broken +up into many small volcanic islets in which a limited number of Malayan +types alone survived. Such a condition of things will account for the very +small variety of mammalia compared with the tolerably numerous genera of +birds, that now characterise its fauna; while both here and in Celebes we +find some of the old Malayan types preserved, which, in the extended area +of the Sunda Isles have been replaced by more dominant forms. + +The next important change would be the separation of Java; and here also no +doubt a considerable submergence occurred, rendering the island an +unsuitable habitation for the various Malay types whose absence forms one +of its conspicuous features. It has since remained permanently separated +from the other islands, and has no doubt developed some peculiar species, +while it may have preserved some ancient forms which in the larger area +have become changed. From the fact that a number of its species are +confined either to the western or the eastern half of the island, it is +probable that it long continued as two islands, which have become united at +a comparatively recent period. It has also been subjected to the +immigration of Indo-Chinese forms, as already referred to in the earlier +part of this sketch. + +We have thus shown how the main zoological features of the several +sub-divisions of the Malayan sub-region may be accounted for, by means of a +series of suppositions as to past changes which, though for the most part +purely hypothetical, are always in accordance with what we know both of the +physical geography and the zoology of the districts in question and those +which surround them. It may also be remarked, that we know, with a degree +of certainty which may be called absolute, that alternate elevation and +subsidence is the normal state of things all over the globe; that it was +the rule in the earliest geological epochs, and that it has continued down +to the historical era. We know too, that the _amount_ of elevation and +subsidence that can be proved to have occurred again and again in the same +area, is often much greater than is required for the changes here +speculated on,--while the _time_ required for such changes is certainly +less than that necessitated by the changes {361}of specific and generic +forms which have coincided with, and been to a large extent dependent on +them. We have, therefore, true causes at work, and our only suppositions +have been as to how those causes could have brought about the results which +we see; and however complex and unlikely some of the supposed changes may +seem to the reader, the geologist who has made a study of such changes, as +recorded in the crust of the earth, will not only admit them to be +probable, but will be inclined to believe that they have really been far +more complex and more unexpected than any supposition we can make about +them. + +There is one other external relation of the Malayan fauna about which it +may be necessary to say a few words. I have supposed the greatest westward +extension of the Malayan area to be indicated by the Maldive islands, but +some naturalists would extend it to include Madagascar in order to account +for the range of the Lemuridæ. Such an extension would, however, render it +difficult to explain the very small amount of correspondence with a +pervading diversity, between the Malayan and Malagasy faunas. It seems more +reasonable to suppose an approximation of the two areas, without actual +union having ever occurred. This approximation would have allowed the +interchange of certain genera of birds, which are common to the Oriental +Region and the Mascarene islands, but it would have been too recent to +account for the diffusion of the lemurs, which belong to distinct genera +and even distinct families. This probably dates back to a much earlier +period, when the lemurine type had a wide range over the northern +hemisphere. Subjected to the competition of higher forms, these imperfectly +developed groups have mostly died out, except a few isolated examples, +chiefly found in islands, and a few groups in Africa. + +In our discussion of the origin of the Ethiopian fauna, we have supposed +that a close connection once existed between Madagascar and Ceylon. This +was during a very early tertiary epoch; and if, long after it had ceased +and the fauna of Ceylon and South India had assumed somewhat more of their +present character, we suppose the approximation or union of Ceylon {362}and +Malaya to have taken place, we shall perhaps be able to account for most of +the special affinities they present, with the least amount of simultaneous +elevation of the ocean bed; which it must always be remembered, requires a +corresponding depression elsewhere to balance it. + + + +_Concluding Remarks on the Oriental Region._--We have already so fully +discussed the internal and external relations of the several sub-regions, +that little more need be said. The rich and varied fauna which inhabited +Europe at the dawn of the tertiary period,--as shown by the abundant +remains of mammalia wherever suitable deposits of Eocene age have been +discovered,--proves, that an extensive Palæarctic continent then existed; +and the character of the flora and fauna of the Eocene deposits is so +completely tropical, that we may be sure there was then no barrier of +climate between it and the Oriental region. At that early period the +northern plains of Asia were probably under water, while the great Thibetan +plateau and the Himalayan range, had not risen to more than a moderate +height, and would have supported a luxuriant sub-tropical flora and fauna. +The Upper Miocene deposits of northern and central India, and Burmah, agree +in their mammalian remains with those of central and southern Europe, while +closely allied forms of elephant, hyæna, tapir, rhinoceros, and +_Chalicotherium_ have occurred in North China; leading us to conclude that +one great fauna then extended over much of the Oriental and Palæarctic +regions. Perim island at the mouth of the Red Sea, where similar remains +are found, probably shows the southern boundary of this part of the old +Palæarctic region in the Miocene period. Towards the equator there would, +of course, be some peculiar groups; but we can hardly doubt, that, in that +wonderful time when even the lands that stretched out furthest towards the +pole, supported a luxuriant forest vegetation, substantially one fauna +ranged over the whole of the great eastern continent of the northern +hemisphere. During the Pliocene period, however, a progressive change went +on which resulted in the complete differentiation of the Oriental and +Palæarctic faunas. The {363}causes of this change were of two kinds. There +was a great geographical and physical revolution effected by the elevation +of the Himalayas and the Thibetan plateau, and, probably at the same time, +the northward extension of the great Siberian plains. This alone would +produce an enormous change of climate in all the extra-tropical part of +Asia, and inevitably lead to a segregation of the old fauna into tropical +and temperate, and a modification of the latter so as to enable it to +support a climate far more severe than it had previously known. But it is +almost certain that, concurrently with this, there was a change going on of +a cosmical nature, leading to an alteration of the climate of the northern +hemisphere from equable to extreme, and culminating in that period of +excessive cold which drove the last remnants of the old sub-tropical fauna +beyond the limits of the Palæarctic region. From that time, the Oriental +and the Ethiopian regions alone contained the descendants of many of the +most remarkable types which had previously flourished over all Europe and +Asia; but the early history of these two regions, and the peculiar +equatorial types developed in each, sufficiently separate them, as we have +already shown. The Malayan sub-region is that in which characteristic +Oriental types are now best developed, and where the fundamental contrast +of the Oriental, as compared with the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, is +most distinctly visible. + + +{364}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. + +In constructing these tables, showing the distribution of various classes +of animals in the Oriental region, the following sources of information +have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, +monographs, catalogues, &c., used for the compilation of the Fourth Part of +this work. + +_Mammalia._--Jerdon's Indian Mammalia; Kelaart's Fauna of Ceylon; Horsfield +and Moore's Catalogue of the East India Museum; Swinhoe's Catalogue of +Chinese Mammalia; S. Müller's Zoology of the Indian Archipelago; Dr. J. E. +Gray's list of Mammalia of the Malay Archipelago (Voyage of Samarang); and +papers by Anderson, Blyth, Cantor, Gray, Peters, Swinhoe, &c. + +_Birds._--Jerdon's Birds of India; Horsfield and Moore's Catalogue; +Holdsworth's list of Ceylon Birds; Schlegel's Catalogue of the Leyden +Museum; Swinhoe on the Birds of China, Formosa, and Hainan; Salvadori on +the Birds of Borneo; Lord Walden on the Birds of the Philippine Islands; +and papers by Blyth, Blanford, Elwes, Elliot, Stoliczka, Sclater, Sharpe, +Swinhoe, Verreaux, and Lord Walden. + +_Reptiles._--Günther's Reptiles of British India; papers by same author, +and by Dr. Stoliczka. + + +{365}TABLE I. + +_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE ORIENTAL REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show families peculiar to the region. + + Numbers correspond with those in Part IV. + + Names enclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not + considered really to belong to it. + + ---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- + | Sub-regions | + | 1=Hindostan. | + Order and Family | 2=Ceylon. | Range beyond the Region. + | 3=Indo-China. | + | 4=Indo-Malaya. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | | | | | + MAMMALIA. | | | | | + PRIMATES. | | | | | + 1. Simiidæ | | | -- | -- |W. Africa + 2. Semnopithecidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical Africa + 3. Cynopithecidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All Africa, S. Palæarctic + 6. Lemuridæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian + 7. _Tarsiidæ_ | | | | -- |Celebes + | | | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | | | + 9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 13. Noctilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical regions + | | | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | | | + 14. _Galeopithecidæ_| | | | -- | + 16. _Tupaiidæ_ | | -- | -- | -- | + 17. Erinaceidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, S. Africa + 21. Talpidæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic, Nearctic + 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, + | | | | | N. America + | | | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | | | + 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 25. Viverridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic + 27. Hyænidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic + 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian [?] + 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 31. Æluridæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic + 32. Ursidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic, Chili + | | | | | + CETACEA. | | | | |Oceanic + | | | | | + SIRENIA. | | | | | + 42. Manatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, N. Pacific + | | | | | + UNGULATA. | | | | | + 43. (Equidæ) | -- | | | |Palæarctic, Ethiopian + 44. Tapiridæ | | | | -- |Neotropical + 45. Rinocerotidæ | | | -- | -- |Ethiopian + 47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 49. Tragulidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |W. Africa + 50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Ethiopian and + | | | | | Australian + 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and + | | | | | Neotropical + 53. Elephantidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian + | | | | | + RODENTIA. | | | | | + 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Oceania + 56. Spalacidæ | | | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian + 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 67. Hystricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. Palæarctic, Ethiopian + 70. Leporidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + | | | | | + EDENTATA. | | | | | + 72. Manididæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian + | | | | | + BIRDS. | | | | | + PASSERES. | | | | | + 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 4. Panuridæ | | | -- | |Palæarctic + 5. Cinclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Not Ethiopian or Australian + 6. Troglodytidæ | | | -- | -- |American and Palæarctic + 8. Certhiidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic, + | | | | | Australian + 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic, + | | | | | Australian, Madagascar + 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere and + | | | | | North America + 11. _Liotrichidæ_ | | | -- | -- | + 12. _Phyllornithidæ_| -- | -- | -- | -- | + 13. Pycnonotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Moluccas + 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 18. Pachycephalidæ | | | -- | -- |Australian + 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere and + | | | | | North America + 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 36. Artamidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian + 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical + 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 43. _Eurylæmidæ_ | | | -- | -- | + 47. Pittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + | | | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | | | + 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 52. Yungidæ | -- | | | |Palæarctic + 53. Indicatoridæ | | | -- | -- |Ethiopian + 54. Megalæmidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical + 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian + 66. Trogonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical, Ethiopian + 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 68. Bucerotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Austro-Malayan + 69. Upupidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic + 71. Podargidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian + 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + PSITTACI. | | | | | + 76. (Cacatuidæ) | | | | -- |Australian + 78. Palæornithidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Austro-Malayan + | | | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | | | + 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | | | + 86. Pteroclidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, Palæarctic + 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and North + | | | | | America + 88. Phasianidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Palæarctic, North + | | | | | America + 89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, + | | | | | S. Palæarctic + 90. Megapodiidæ | | | | -- |Australian + | | | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | | | + 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Australian + 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + GRALLÆ. | | | | | + 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 103. Parridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical regions + 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere + 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | |Eastern Hemisphere + 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Neotropical + 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 117. Phænicopteridæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical, + | | | | | S. Palæarctic + | | | | | + ANSERES. | | | | | + 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + REPTILIA. | | | | | + OPHIDIA. | | | | | + 1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic + 2. Tortricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Austro-Malaya, S. America + 3. _Xenopeltidæ_ | | | -- | -- |Celebes + 4. _Uropeltidæ_ | | -- | | | + 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All the warmer regions + 6. Oligodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. America, Japan + 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 8. Homalopsidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All the regions + 9. Psammophidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic + 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 12. Dryiophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical + 13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 14. Scytalidæ | | | | -- |Tropical America + 15. Lycodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian + 16. Amblycephalidæ | | | -- | -- |Neotropical + 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The tropical regions, and + | | | | | California + 18. Erycidæ | -- | | -- | |Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic + 19. _Acrochordidæ_ | | -- | | -- | + 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Tropical regions, Japan, + | | | | | S. Carolina + 23. Hydrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Panama, Madagascar + 24. Crotalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |America, E. Palæarctic + 25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Palæarctic + | | | | | + LACERTILIA. | | | | | + 30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Africa, Australia + 33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 34. Zonuridæ | | | -- | |America, S. Europe, Ethiopian + 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 48. Acontiadæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Moluccas + 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Eastern Hemisphere + 52. Chamæleonidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian + | | | | | + CROCODILIA. | | | | | + 54. Gavialidæ | -- | | | -- |N. Australia + 55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical, + | | | | | N. Australia + | | | | | + CHELONIA. | | | | | + 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia + 59. Trionychidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Japan, E. of N. America, + | | | | | Africa + 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | |Marine + | | | | | + AMPHIBIA. | | | | | + PSEUDOPHIDIA. | | | | | + 1. Cæciliadæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Neotropical + | | | | | + URODELA. | | | | | + 5. Salamandridæ | | | -- | |North temperate zone + | | | | | + ANOURA. | | | | | + 7. Phryniscidæ | | | | -- |Ethiopian, Australian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 9. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia + 11. Engystomidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Palæarctic + 16. Hylidæ | | | -- | |All regions but Ethiopian + 17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical and all other + | | | | | regions + 18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite + 19. Discoglossidæ | | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic + | | | | | + FISHES. (FRESHWATER).| | | | | + ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | + 3. Percidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian + 33. Nandidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical + 35. Labyrinthici | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. Africa, Moluccas + 36. _Luciocephalidæ_| | | | -- | + 39. _Ophiocephalidæ_| -- | -- | -- | -- | + 46. _Mastacembelidæ_| -- | -- | -- | -- | + 52. Chromidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical + | | | | | + PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | + 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions + 73. Cyprinodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |S. Palæarctic, Ethiopian, + | | | | | American + 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Not in S. America and Australia + 78. Osteoglossidæ | | | | -- |All tropical regions + 82. Notopteridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |W. Africa + 85. Symbranchidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Australian (? Marine) + | | | | | Neotropical + | | | | | + INSECTS. | | | | | + LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | + DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES.)| | | | | + 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions and to Canada + 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 3. Elymniidæ | | | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Moluccas + 4. Morphidæ | | | -- | -- |Neotropical, Moluccas, and + | | | | | Polynesia + 6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions + 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 9. Libytheidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent from Australia + 10. Nemeobeidæ | | | -- | -- |Not in Australia or Nearctic + | | | | | regions + 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | + 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Australian, Ethiopian + 20. Uraniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions + 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent from Australia + 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + + +TABLE II. + +GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE ORIENTAL REGION. + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region. + + Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but + are not considered properly to belong to it. + + Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. + + +_MAMMALIA._ + + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond + Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + | | | + PRIMATES. | | | + SIMIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. _Simia_ | 2 |Borneo and Sumatra | + 2. _Hylobates_ | 7 |Sylhet to Java and | + | | S. China | + 3. _Siamanga_ | 1 |Malacca and Sumatra | + | | | + SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 4. _Presbytes_ | 28 |Simla to Aracan and |Moupin, Palæarctic [?] + | | E. Thibet, Ceylon, | + | | and Java | + | | | + CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 5. _Macacus_ | 22 |The whole region |S. Palæarctic + 6. _Cynopithecus_ | 1 |Philippines |Celebes + | | | + (_Sub-Order_) | | | + _LEMUROIDEA._ | | | + | | | + LEMURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 7. _Nycticebus_ | 3 |E. Bengal to Java, and | + | | S. China | + 8. _Loris_ | 1 |Ceylon and S. India | + | | | + TARSIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 9. _Tarsius_ | 1 |Sumatra, Borneo and | N. Celebes + | | Philippines | + | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | + PTEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 10. Pteropus | 6 |The whole region |Tropics of E. Hemisp. + 11. Xantharpyia | 1 |The whole region |Austro-Malaya, + | | | Ethiop., + | | | S. Palæarctic + 12. Cynopterus | 3 |The whole region |Tropical Africa + 13. _Megærops_ | 1 |Sumatra | + 14. Macroglossus | 1 |Java, Borneo, |Austro-Malaya + | | Philippines | + 15. Harpyia | 1 |Philippines |Austro-Malaya + | | | + RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 16. _Aquias_ | 2 |Nepal to Java | + 17. _Phyllotis_ | 1 |Philippines | + 18. Rhinolophus | 10 |The whole region |Warmer parts of + | | | E. Hem. + 19. Hipposideros | 8 |The whole region |Austro-Malaya + 20. Phyllorhina | 4 |Indo-Malay subregion |Austro-Malaya, + | | | Tropical Africa + 21. Asellia | 1 |Java, Sumatra |Amboyna, Egypt + 22. _Petalia_ | 1 |Java | + 23. _Coelops_ | 1 |India (Bengal) | + 24. _Rhinopoma_ | 1 |All India |Egypt, Palestine + 25. Megaderma | 2 |The whole region |Ternate, N. Ethiopian + 26. Nycteris | 1 |Java |Ethiopian + | | | + VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 27. Scotophilus | 10 |The whole region |Austral., Nearc., + | | | Neotrop. + 28. Vespertilio | 12 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 29. Keriovula | 8 |The whole region |S. Africa, N. China + 30. _Trilatitus_ | 2 |Indo-Malaya |? + 31. _Noctulina_ | 3 |Nepal to Philippines |? + 32. Miniopteris | 3 |Java, Philippines, and |S. Africa, + | | China | S. Palæarctic, + | | | Australian + 33. _Murina_ | 2 |Himalayas to Java |? + 34. Nycticejus | 8 |All India |Trop. Africa, Temp. . + | | | Amer + 35. Harpiocephalus | 2 |Java and Philippines | + 36. Taphozous | 4 |The whole region |Ethiop., Austro- + | | | Malayan, Neotropical + 37. _Myotis_ | 3 |Himalayas | + 38. Plecotus | 1 |Darjeeling |Timor, S. Palæarctic + 39. Barbastellus | 1 |Himalayas |Europe + 40. Nyctophilus | 1 |Mussoorie |Australian + | | | + NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 41. _Chiromeles_ | 1 |Indo-Malaya, Siam | + 42. Nyctinomus | |The whole region |Madagascar, America + | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | + GALEOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 43. _Galeopithecus_| 2 |Indo-Malay and | + | | Philippines, excl. | + | | Java | + | | | + TUPAIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 44. _Tupaia_ | 7 |S. and E. of India to | + | | Borneo | + 45. _Hylomys_ | 2 |Tenasserim to Java and | + | | Borneo | + 46. _Ptilocerus_ | 1 |Borneo | + | | | + ERINACEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 47. Erinaceus | 2 |Hindostan and Formosa |Palæarctic, S. Africa + 48. _Gymnura_ | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | + | | Borneo | + | | | + TALPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 49. Talpa | 2 |Himalayas to Assam, & |Palæarctic + | | Formosa | + | | | + SORICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 50. Sorex | 21 |The whole region |All regions but + | | | Austral. and + | | | S. America + | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | + FELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 51. Felis | 20 |The whole region |All regions but + | | | Austral. + (Lynx | 1 |Central India) |Palæarctic, Ethiopian + 52. Cynælurus | 1 |S. and W. India |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian + | | | + VIVERRIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 53. Viverra | 2 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Moluccas + 54. _Viverricula_ | 2 |India to China and Java| + 55. _Prionodon_ | 2 |Nepal to Borneo and | + | | Java | + 56. _Hemigalea_ | 2 |Malacca and Borneo | + 57. _Arctitis_ | 1 |Nepal to Sumatra and | + | | Java | + 58. _Paradoxurus_ | 8 |The whole region |Ke Islands (? + | | | introduced) + 59. _Paguma_ | 3 |Nepal to Malaya and | + | | China | + 60. _Arctogale_ | 1 |Tenasserim and Malaya | + 61. _Cynogale_ | 1 |Borneo | + 62. Herpestes | 7 |The whole reg., excl. |S. Palæarctic, + | | Philippines | Ethiopian + 63. Calogale | 4 |India to Cambodjia |Ethiopian + 64. _Calictis_ | 1 |Ceylon ? | + 65. _Urva_ | |N. India | + 66. _Tæniogale_ | 1 |Central India | + 67. _Onychogale_ | 1 |Ceylon | + | | | + HYÆNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 68. Hyæna | 1 |Hindostan, open country|S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian + | | | + CANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 69. Canis | 2 |All India |Almost Cosmopolite + 70. _Cuon_ | 1 |India to Java | + 71. Vulpes | 4 |All India |All Continents but S. + | | |America and Australia + (Nyctereutes | 1 |China) |Japan and Amoorland + | | | + MUSTELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 72. Martes | 2 |India, Ceylon, Java, |Palæarctic, Nearctic + | | and China | + 73. Mustela | 3 |Himalayas to Bhotan and|Palæarc., Ethiop., + | | China | Nearc. + 74. _Gymnopus_ | 2 |Nepal to Borneo | + 75. _Barangia_ | 1 |Sumatra | + 76. Lutra | 5 |The whole region |Palæarctic + 77. Aonyx | 2 |N. India, Malaya |W. and S. Africa + 78. _Arctonyx_ | 1 |Nepal to Aracan | + (Meles | 1 |S. China) |Palæarctic genus + 79. Mydaus | 1 |Sumatra, Java | + 80. Mellivora | 1 |Hindostan |Ethiopian + 81. _Helictis_ | 4 |Nepal, Formosa, China &| + | | Java | + | | | + ÆLURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 82. Ælurus | 1 |E. Himalayas to |Palæarctic ? + | | E. Thibet | + | | | + URSIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 83. Ursus | 2 |Himalayas to China |Palæarctic, Nearctic + 84. _Helarctos_ | 1 |Indo-Malaya | + 85. _Melursus_ | 1 |Ganges to Ceylon | + | | | + CETACEA. | | | + DELPHINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 86. _Platanista_ | 2 |Ganges to India | + | | | + SIRENIA. | | | + MANATIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 87. Halicore | 1 |Coasts of W. India, |E. Africa, + | | Ceylon, and | N. Australia + | | Indo-Malaya | + | | | + UNGULATA. | | | + TAPIRIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 88. Tapirus | 1 |Malay Pen., Sumatra, |Neotropical + | | Borneo | + | | | + RHINOCEROTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 89. Rhinoceros | 5 |Nepal to Bengal, Siam, |Ethiopian + | | & Java | + | | | + SUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 90. Sus | 6 |The whole region |Palæarc., Austro- + | | | Malaya + | | | + TRAGULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 91. _Tragulus_ | 5 |India and Ceylon to | + | | Cambodja and Java | + | | | + CERVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 92. Cervus | 15 |The whole region |Palæarc., Amer., + | | | Moluc. + 93. _Cervulus_ | 4 |The whole region | + (Moschus | 1 |Himalayas above 8,000 |Central Asia, + | | feet) | Palæarctic + | | | + BOVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 94. _Bibos_ | 3 |India to Burmah, | + | | Formosa, and Java | + 95. Bubalus | 1 |N. and N. Central India|Ethiopian, + | | | S. Palæarctic + 96. _Portax_ | 1 |Peninsula of India | + 97. Gazella | 1 |Deserts and plains of |Palæarctic deserts + | | India | + 98. _Antilope_ | 1 |Open country of India | + 99. _Tetraceros_ | 2 |Hilly districts all | + | | over India | + 100. Nemorhedus | 3 |E. Himalayas and |N. China and Japan + | | Sumatra | + 101. Capra | 1 |Neilgherries |Palæarctic, Nearctic + | | | + PROBOSCIDEA. | | | + ELEPHANTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 102. Elephas | |India to Siam, Sumatra |Ethiopian + | | & Borneo | + | | | + RODENTIA. | | | + MURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 103. Mus | 50 |The whole region |The E. Hemisphere + 104. Acanthomys | 1 |India |Ethiopian, Australian + 105. _Phlæomys_ | 1 |Philippines | + 106._Platacanthomys_| 1 |S. W. India | + 107. Meriones | 2 |India and Ceylon |Palæarctic, Ethiopian + 108. _Spalacomys_ | 1 |India | + 109. Arvicola | 2 |Himalayas |Palæarctic, Nearctic + | | | + SPALACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 110. Rhizomys | 3 |Nepal to Canton, |Abyssinia + | | Malacca and Sumatra | + | | | + SCIURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 111. Sciurus | 50 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl. + | | | Austral. region + 112. Sciuropterus | 9 |India, and Ceylon to |N. and E. Palæarctic + | | Java, Formosa | + 113. _Pteromys_ | 9 |India & Ceylon to |Japan + | | Borneo, Java, Formosa| + (Arctomys | 2 |W. Himalayas above |Palæarctic and + | | 8,000 ft.) | Nearctic + | | | + HYSTRICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 114. Hystrix | 3 |India and Ceylon, to |S. Palæarctic, + | | Malacca & S. China | Ethiopian + 115. Atherura | 2 |India to Malaya |West Africa + 116. _Acanthion_ | 2 |Nepal to Borneo and | + | | Java | + | | | + LEPORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 117. Lepus | 5 |India and Ceylon to |All regions but + | | S. China and Formosa | Austral. + | | | + ENDENTATA. | | | + MANIDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 118. Manis | 2 |Nepal to Ceylon, |Ethiopian + | | S. China and Java | + | | | + + _BIRDS._ + + PASSERES. | | | + TURDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. _Brachypteryx_ | 8 |Himalayas, Ceylon and | + | | Java | + 2. Oreocincla | 8 |N. W. Himalayas to E. |Palæarctic, Australian + | | Thibet Ceylon, Burmah,| + | | Malaya, Formosa | + 3. Turdus | 26 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + 4. Geocichla | 9 |India & Ceylon to Java,|Celebes, Lombock, to + | | Formosa | N. Australia + 5. Monticola | 3 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, + | | |Moluccas + 6. _Orocætes_ | 2 |N. W. Himalayas, and | + | | India | + 7. _Zoothera_ | 3 |W. Himalayas to Aracan,|Lombock, Timor ? + | | Java | + | | | + SYLVIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 8. {_Orthotomus_ | 13 |The whole region | + 9. {_Prinia_ | 11 |The whole reg., excl. | + { | | Philippines | + 10. {Drymæca | 13 |The whole reg., excl. |Ethiopian + { | | Philippines | + 11. {Cisticola | 6 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian + 12. {_Suya_ | 5 |Nepal to S. China and | + { | | Formosa | + 13. {_Megalurus_ | 3 |Central India, Java, | + | | Philippines | + | | | + 14. {Acrocephalus | 9 |India to Ceylon, S. |Palæarc., Ethiop., + { | | China, and Philippines| Austral. + {(Dumeticola | 2 |Nepal and E. Thibet) |A Palæarctic genus + | | | + 15. {Locustella | 4 |Nepal, Hindostan, |Palæarctic + { | | S. China | + 16. {Horites | 2 |Himalayas, Formosa |High Himal., E. Thibet + | | | + 17. {Phylloscopus | 10 |All India and Ceylon, |Palæarctic, Ethiopian + { | | to China, Philippines| + {(Gerygone | 1 |Philippine Islands) |Australian genus + {(Hypolais | 1 |All India, ? migrant) |Palæarctic genus + 18. {Abrornis | 26 |The whole reg., excl. |Cashmere, E. Thibet + { | | Philippines | + 19. {Reguloides | 2 |Himalayas and Central |Palæarctic + { | | India | + {(Regulus | 1 |N. W. Himalayas and |Palæarctic and + | | E. Thibet) | Nearctic + {(Sylvia | 2 |India and Ceylon) |Palæarctic genus + {(Curruca | 2 |India) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + {(Cyanecula | 1 |India) |Palæarctic genus + 20. {Calliope | 2 |Himalayas and Central |Palæarctic + { | | India, Philippine | + { | | Islands | + 21. {Ruticilla | 8 |Himalayas to China and |Palæarctic, Ethiopian + { | | Formosa | + 22. {_Chæmarrhornis_ 1 |Himalayas to Burmah | + 23. {_Larvivora_ | 10 |W. Himalayas to Ceylon,| + { | | Malacca and China | + 24. {_Notodela_ | 3 |Himalayas to Pegu, | + { | | Java, Formosa | + 25. {_Tarsiger_ | 2 |Nepal and W. Himalayas | + {(Grandala | 1 |Nepal and E. Thibet, |Palæarctic genus + | | high) | + 26. {Copsychus | 6 |The whole region |Madagascar + 27. {_Kittacincla_ | 5 |The whole region | + 28. {Thamnobia | 2 |N. W. India, Hindostan,|Ethiopian + { | | and Ceylon | + {(Dromolæa | 1 |N. W. India) |Ethiopian genus + {(Saxicola | 2 |N. W. India) |Palæarctic and + { | | | Ethiopian + 29. {Oreicola ? | 1 |Burmah |Timor + {(Cercomela | 1 |N. W. India, a desert |N. E. Africa, + { | | genus) | S. W. Asia + 30. {Pratincola | 5 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, + | | |Celebes, and Timor + (Accentor | 2 |Himalayas, in winter) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + TIMALIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 31. Pomatorhinus | 20 |The whole region |Australian + 32. Malacocercus | 14 |All India to Burmah, |Arabia, Nubia + | | Philippines | + 33. Chatarrhæa | 5 |India, Burmah, |Palestine, Abyssinia + | | Philippines | + 34. _Layardia_ | 3 |India and Ceylon | + 35. _Acanthoptila_ | 1 |Nepal | + 36. _Garrulax_ | 22 |The whole region | + 37. _Janthocincla_ | 8 |Himalayas to E. Thibet,| + | | Sumatra, Formosa | + 38._Gampsorhynchus_| 1 |Nepal | + 39. _Grammatoptila_| 1 |N. India | + 40._Trochalopteron_| 22 |N. W. Himalayas, India,| + | | China, Formosa | + 41. _Actinodura_ | 3 |E. Himalayas, 3,000 to | + | | 10,000 | + 42. _Pellorneum_ | 3 |India, Ceylon, | + | | Tenasserim | + 43. _Dumetia_ | 2 |India and Ceylon | + 44. _Timalia_ | 10 |Malacca to Java | + 45. _Stachyris_ | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to | + | | China, Formosa, | + | | Sumatra | + 46. _Pyctoris_ | 3 |India, Ceylon, and | + | | Up. Burmah | + 47. _Mixornis_ | 8 |Himalayas to Borneo and| + | | Java | + 48. _Malacopteron_ | 3 |Malacca to Java | + 49. Alcippe | 16 |The whole region |New Guinea + 50. _Macronus_ | 1 |Malacca to Java | + 51. _Cacopitta_ | 5 |Java, Borneo, Sumatra | + 52. Trichastoma | 9 |Nepal, Malacca to Java |Celebes + 53. _Napothera_ | 5 |Malacca to Java | + 54. Drymocataphus | 6 |Malacca to Java, Ceylon|Timor + 55. _Turdinus_ | 4 |Tenasserim, Malacca | + 56. _Trichixos_ | 1 |Malacca, Borneo | + 57. _Sibia_ | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to | + | | Tenasserim, Formosa | + | | | + PANURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 58. _Paradoxornis_ | 3 |Nepal to Aracan and E. | + | |Thibet, 3,000-6,000 ft.| + 59. Suthora | 8 |Himalayas to E. Thibet,|N. W. China, E. Thibet + | | China, Formosa | + 60. _Chlenasicus_ | 1 |Sikhim | + | | | + CINCLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 61. Cinclus | 2 |Himalayas, China, and |Palæarctic and + | | Formosa | American + 62. Eupetes | 2 |Malacca and Sumatra |New Guinea + 63. _Enicurus_ | 9 |N. W. Himalayas (to | + | | 11,000 ft.) to Java | + | | and West China | + 64. _Myiophonus_ | 6 |All India (to 9,000 ft.|Turkestan + | | in N. W. Himalayas) | + | | S. China, Formosa, | + | | Java, Sumatra | + | | | + TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 65. _Tesia_ | 2 |Eastern Himalayas | + 66. _Pnoepyga_ | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to | + | | E. Thibet, Java | + 67. Troglodytes | 1 |Himalayas to E. Thibet |Palæarctic and + | | | American + 68. _Rimator_ | 2 |Darjeeling | + | | | + CERTHIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 69. Certhia | 2 |Himalayas |Palæarctic and + | | | Nearctic + 70. _Salpornis_ | 1 |Central India | + 71. _Rhabdornis_ | 1 |Philippine Islands | + (Tichodroma | 1 |Himalayas in winter) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + SITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 72. Sitta | 5 |Himalayas to S. India, |Palæarctic and + | | S. China | Nearctic + 73. _Dendrophila_ | 2 |All India and Ceylon to| + | | Pegu and Java | + | | | + PARIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 74. Parus | 16 |The whole region |Palæarctic and + | | | Nearctic + 75. _Melanochlora_ | 2 |Nepal to Malacca and | + | | Sumatra | + 76. _Psaltria_ | 1 |West Java | + 77. _Ægithaliscus_ | 6 |W. Himalayas to China |Afghanistan + 78. _Sylviparus_ | 1 |W. Himalayas to Central| + | | India and E. Thibet | + 79. _Cephalopyrus_ | 1 |N. W. Himalayas | + | | | + LIOTRICHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 80. _Liothrix_ | 3 |Nepal to S. W. China | + 81. _Siva_ | 3 |Himalayas:--3,000-7,000| + | | ft. | + 82. _Minla_ | 4 |Nepal to E. Thibet; | + | | moderate heights | + 83. Proparus | 6 |N. W. Himalayas to |Perhaps also + | | E. Thibet; high | Palæarctic + 84. _Allotrius_ | 7 |N. W. Himalayas to | + | | Tenasserim, E. Thibet| + | | and Java | + 85. _Cutia_ | 2 |Nepal and Sikhim | + 86. _Yuhina_ | 4 |Himalayas to E. Thibet,|Perhaps Palæarctic + | | high | + 87. _Ixulus_ | 4 |Darjeeling to | + | | Tenasserim | + 88. _Myzornis_ | 1 |Nepal and Sikhim | + | | | + PHYLLORNITHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 89. _Phyllornis_ | 10 |The whole region; | + | | excluding China and | + | | Philippines | + 90. _Iora_ | 5 |The whole reg., excl. | + | | Philippines | + 91. _Erpornis_ | 2 |Nepal and Hainan | + | | | + PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 92. _Microscelis_ | 5 |Burmah, China, Malaya |Japan + 93. Pycnonotus | 40 |The whole region |Ethiopian + 94. _Hemixus_ | 2 |Himalayas and Hainan | + 95. Hypsipetes | 15 |The whole region |Madagascar + 96. Criniger | 11 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Africa, Moluccas + | | Hainan | + 97. _Setornis_ | 3 |Malacca, Sumatra, | + | | Borneo | + 98. _Iole_ | 4 |Aracan and Malaya | + | | | + ORIOLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 99. Oriolus | 12 |The whole region |Palæarc. Ethiopian, + | | | Celebes, Flores + 100. _Analcipus_ | 3 |Himalayas, Malaya, | + | | Formosa, Hainan | + | | | + CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 101. _Pericrocotus_ | 22 |The whole region |Lombock; the Amoor, + | | | migrant + 102. Graucalus | 7 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Australian + | | Philippines, Hainan | + | | and Formosa | + 103. Campephaga | 1 |Philippine Islands |Celebes to N. Guinea + 104. _Volvocivora_ | 7 |The whole reg., excl. | + | | Philippines | + 105. Lalage | 2 |Malaya and Philippines |Celebes to Pacific Is. + 106. _Cochoa_ | 3 |Himalayas and Java | + | | | + DICRURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 107. Dicrurus | 17 |The whole region |Ethiop. and Australian + 108. _Bhringa_ | 2 |Himalayas to Burmah and| + | | Java | + 109. _Chibia_ | 1 |India to China |Pekin in summer + 110. _Chaptia_ | 3 |India to Borneo and | + | | Formosa | + 111. _Irena_ | 3 |S. India and Ceylon, | + | | Assam to Malaya and | + | | Philippines | + | | | + MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 112. _Muscicapula_ | 6 |Cashmere to W. China, | + | | S. India | + 113. Erythrosterna | 7 |The whole region, |Palæarctic and + | | excluding Philippines| Madagascar + 114. Xanthpygia | 2 |Malacca to China |N. China and Japan + 115. _Hemipus_ | 1 |India and Ceylon | + 116. _Pycnophrys_ | 1 |Java | + 117. Hemichelidon | 3 |N. India to Ceylon, and|Eastern Asia + | | China; ? Philippines | + 118. _Niltava_ | 3 |Himalayas to W. China | + 119. Cyornis | 14 |The whole region |Celebes and Timor + 120. Cyanoptila | 1 |Hainan to Japan |Japan and N. China + 121. _Eumyias_ | 8 |The whole reg., excl. | + | | Philippines | + 122. _Siphia_ | 9 |N. W. India, Ceylon, | + | | Formosa, E. Thibet | + 123. _Anthipes_ | 1 |Nepal | + 124. _Schwaneria_ | 1 |Borneo | + 125. _Hypothymis_ | 1 |The whole region |Celebes + 126. Rhipidura | 7 |All India and Ceylon, | + | | Malaya, Philippines |Australian + 127. _Chelidorhynx_ | 1 |N. India | + 128. _Cryptolopha_ | 1 |The whole region |Celebes + | | | + 129. Tchitrea | 6 |The whole region |N. China, and Japan, + | | |Flores, Ethiopian + 130. _Philentoma_ | 4 |Malaya and Philippines | + | | | + PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 131. Hylocharis | 2 |Aracan to Malaya & |Celebes, Timor + | | Philippines | + | | | + LANIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 132. Lanius | 16 |The whole region |Nearc., Palæarc., + | | | Ethiop. + 133. _Laniellus_ | 1 |Java | + 134. _Tephrodornis_ | 5 |India, Ceylon, and | + | | Malaya; Hainan | + | | | + CORVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 135. _Pityriasis_ | 1 |Borneo, Sumatra | + 136. _Platylophus_ | 4 |Malaya | + 137. Garrulus | 4 |Himalayas, S. China, |Palæarctic + | | Formosa | + 138. _Cissa_ | 3 |Himalayas and Aracan to| + | | Java | + 139. _Urocissa_ | 7 |N.W. Himalayas, Ceylon,|N. China and Japan + | | Burmah, China, Formosa| + 140. _Temnurus_ | 3 |Malaya and Cochin China| + 141. _Dendrocitta_ | 8 |All India to S. China, | + | | Formosa, and Sumatra | + 142. _Crypsirhina_ | 2 |Java and Burmah | + 143. Nucifraga | 2 |Himalayas and E. Thibet|Palæarctic genus + | | 8,000-10,000 feet | + 144. Pica | 2 |China and Himalayas of |Palæarctic and + | | Boetan | Nearctic + 145. Corvus | 9 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl. S. Am. + (Fregilus | 2 |Himalayas, high) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 146. _Æthopaga_ | 13 |Himalayas to W. China &|Celebes + | | Java, Central India | + 147. Chalcostetha | 1 |Malaya and Siam |Celebes to New Guinea + 148. Arachnothera | 12 |The whole reg., excl. |Celebes, Lombock, New + | | Philippine |Guinea + 149. Arachnecthera | 7 |The whole region, excl.|Celebes to New Ireland + | | China | + 150. _Nectarophila_ | 4 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Celebes + | | Philipp. | + 151. _Anthreptes_ | 1 |Malaya and Indo-China |Celebes + | | | + DICÆIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 152. Dicæum | 10 |The whole region |Australian + 153. Pachyglossa | 1 |Nepal |Celebes + 154. _Piprisoma_ | 1 |India and Ceylon | + 155. _Prionochilus_ | 4 |Malaya | + 156. Zosterops | 8 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian + 157. _Chalcoparia_ | 1 |Aracan to Malaya | + | | | + HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 158. Hirundo | 10 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 159. Cotyle | 5 |India to China |Palæarc., Ethiop., + | | | Amer. + 160. Chelidon | 3 |India, Borneo |Palæarctic + | | | + FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Fringilla | 1 |Himalayas, in winter) |Palæarctic genus + (Acanthis | 1 |N. W. Himalayas, in |Palæarctic genus + | | winter) | + (Procarduelis | 1 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus + (Chlorospiza | 1 |China) |Palæarctic and + | | | Ethiopian + 161. Passer | 6 |The whole region |Palæarctic and + | | | Ethiopian + (Fringillauda | 1 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus + (Coccothraustes| 2 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic and + | | | Nearctic + (Mycerobas | 1 |High Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus + 162. Eophona | 1 |China |Palæarctic + (Pyrrhula | 4 |Himalayas, winter) |Palæarctic + (Carpodacus | 4 |Himalayas and Central |Palæarctic and + | | India, in winter) | Nearctic + (Loxia | 1 |Snowy Himalayas) |Palæarctic and + | | | Nearctic + (Propyrrhula | 1 |Darjeeling, in winter) |[?] Palæarctic + 163. _Hæmatospiza_ | 1 |S. E. Himal., 5,000 to | + | | 10,000 ft. | + | | | + (_S. Fam._ EMBERIZINÆ) | | + | | | + 164. Euspiza | 4 |N. W. India to Burmah, |Palæarctic and + | | & China | Nearctic + 165. Emberiza | 7 |All India and China, in|Palæarctic genus + | | winter | + | | | + PLOCEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 166. Ploceus | 4 |India & Ceylon, Burmah,|Ethiopian + | | Malaya | + 167. Munia | 20 |The whole region |Austro-Malayan + 168. Estrilda | 2 |India and Ceylon, |Ethiopian, Australian + | | Burmah, Java | + 169. Erythrura | 1 |Java, Sumatra |Moluccas to Fiji + | | | Islands + | | | + STURNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 170. Eulabes | 7 |The whole reg., excl. |Flores, Papua + | | Philippines | + 171. _Ampeliceps_ | 1 |Tenasserim to | + | | Cochin-China | + 172. _Gymnops_ | 1 |Philippine Islands | + 173. Pastor | 1 |All India to Burmah |S. Palæarctic + 174. _Acridotheres_ | 6 |The whole region |Celebes + 175. _Sturnia_ | 12 |The whole region |N. China & Japan, + | | | Celebes + 176. Sturnus | 3 |India and China |Palæarctic + 177. _Sturnopastor_ | 3 |Cen. India to Burmah & | + | | Malaya | + 178. Calornis | 2 |Malaya and Philippines |[?] Celebes, Moluccas + | | | to Samoan Islands + 179. _Saroglossa_ | 1 |W. and Central | + | | Himalayas | + | | | + ARTAMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 180. Artamus | 3 |The whole region |Australian + | | | + ALAUDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Otocorys | 1 |N. India, in winter) |Palæarctic and + | | | Nearctic + 181. Alauda | 7 |India and China |Palæarctic and + | | | Ethiopian + 182. Galerita | 2 |Central India |Palæarctic + 183. Calandrella | 2 |India and Burmah |Palæarctic and + | | | Ethiopian + (Melanocorypha | 1 |N. W. India) |Palæarctic + 184. Mirafra | 5 |India, Ceylon, and Java|Ethiopian + 185. Ammomanes | 1 |Central India |Palæarctic and + | | | Ethiopian + 186. Pyrrhulauda | 1 |India and Ceylon |Ethiopian + | | | + MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 187. Motacilla | 6 |India and Ceylon to |Palæarctic and + | | China and Philippines| Ethiopian + 188. Budytes | 2 |China and Philippines |Palæarctic & + | | | Ethiopian, Moluccas + 189. Calobates | 1 |The whole region |Palæarctic + 190. _Nemoricola_ | 1 |India, Ceylon, and | + | | Malaya | + 191. Authus | 3 |India and China |Cosmopolite + 192. Corydalla | 8 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Australian + 193. _Heterura_ | 1 |Himalayas | + | | | + EURYLÆMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 194. _Eurylæmus_ | 2 |Malaya | + 195. _Serilophus_ | 1 |Himalayas | + 196. _Psarisomus_ | 1 |Himalayas | + 197. _Corydon_ | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | + | | Borneo | + 198. _Cymbirhynchus_| 2 |Aracan, Siam, and | + | | Malaya | + 199. _Calyptomena_ | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | + | | Borneo | + | | | + PITTIDÆ | | | + | | | + 200. Pitta | 11 |The whole region |Australian, Ethiopian + 201. _Eucichla_ | 3 |Malaya | + 202. _Hydrornis_ | 3 |Himalayas and Malaya | + | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | + PICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 203. _Vivia_ | 1 |N. W. Himalayas to E. | + | |Thibet, 3,000-6,000 ft.| + 204. _Sasia_ | 2 |Nepal to Malaya and | + | | Borneo | + 205. Picus | 14 |The whole region, excl.|Palæarctic, American + | | Philippines | + 206. Hyopicus | 1 |Himalayas |N. China + 207. _Yungipicus_ | 12 |The whole region |N. China, Japan, + | | | Celebes + 208._Reinwardtipicus_ 1 |Penang to Sumatra and | + | | Borneo | + 209. _Venilia_ | 2 |Nepal to Sumatra and | + | | Borneo | + 210._Chrysocolaptes_| 8 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, | + | | Philippines | + 211. _Hemicercus_ | 5 |Malabar, Pegu to Malaya| + 212. Gecinus | 12 |All India and Ceylon to|Palæarctic + | | Pegu and Malaya | + 213. _Mulleripicus_ | 5 |Malabar, Aracan to |Celebes + | | Malaya and Philippines| + 214. _Brachypternus_| 5 |India, Ceylon, and | + | | China | + 215. _Tiga_ | 5 |India to Malaya | + 216. _Gecinulus_ | 2 |S. Himalayas to Burmah | + 217. _Miglyptes_ | 3 |Malaya | + 218. _Micropternus_ | 8 |India and Ceylon, to | + | | Borneo and S. China | + | | | + YUNGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 219. Yunx | 1 |Central and S. China |Palæarctic, S. Africa + | | | + INDICATORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 220. Indicator | 2 |Himalayas and Borneo |Ethiopian + | | | + MEGALÆMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 221. _Megalæma_ | 27 |The whole region, excl.| + | | Philippines | + 222. _Xantholæma_ | 4 |All India and Ceylon to| + | | Pegu and Malaya | + 223. _Psilopogon_ | 1 |Sumatra | + 224. _Caloramphus_ | 2 |Malacca, Sumatra and | + | | Borneo | + | | | + CUCULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 225. _Phoenicophaës_| 1 |Ceylon | + 226. _Rhinococcyx_ | 1 |Java | + 227. _Dasylophus_ | 1 |Philippine Islands | + 228. _Lepidogrammus_| 1 |Philippine Islands | + 229. _Carpococcyx_ | 1 |Borneo, Sumatra | + 230. _Zanclostomus_ | 1 |Malaya | + 231. _Rhopodytes_ | 7 |Nepal to Ceylon, Hainan| + | | and Malaya | + 232. _Taccocoua_ | 4 |All India, Ceylon, | + | | Malacca | + 233. _Poliococcyx_ | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | + | | Borneo | + 234. _Rhinortha_ | 1 |Malacca, Sumatra, | + | | Borneo | + 235. Centropus | 14 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian + 236. Cuculus | 10 |The whole region |Palæarc., Ethiop., + | | | Aust. + 237. Cacomantis | 9 |The whole region |Australian + 238. Chrysococcyx | 5 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian + 239. _Surniculus_ | 2 |India, Ceylon and | + | | Malaya | + 240. Hierococcyx | 6 |The whole region |Celebes, N. China and + | | | Amoorland + 241. Coccystes | 2 |The whole region, excl.|Ethiopian + | | Philippines | + 242. Eudynamis | 2 |The whole region |Australian + | | | + CORACIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 243. Coracias | 2 |India, Ceylon and |Ethiopian, S. + | | Burmah | Palæarctic, Celebes + 244. Eurystomus | 1 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Australian + | | | + MEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 245. _Nyctiornis_ | 3 |S. India to Himalayas, | + | | Burmah, Sumatra, and | + | | Borneo | + 246. Merops | 5 |The whole region |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian, + | | | Australian + | | | + TROGONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 247. _Harpactes_ | 10 |The whole region, excl.| + | | China | + | | | + ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 248. Halcyon | 10 |The whole region |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian, + | | | Australian + 249. _Pelargopsis_ | 7 |The whole region, excl.|Celebes and Timor + | | China | + 250. _Carcineutes_ | 2 |Burmah, Siam, and | + | | Malaya | + 251. Ceyx | 6 |India and Ceylon, |Moluccas & New Guin. + | | Malaya and Philippines| + 252. Alcedo | 5 |The whole region |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, + | | |Austro-Malayan + 253. Alcyone | 1 |Philippines |Australian genus + 254. Ceryle | 2 |India to S. China |Ethiopian, S. + | | | Palæarctic, American + | | | + BUCEROTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 255. _Buceros_ | 4 |Nepal to Malaya, S. | + | | India, Philippines | + 256. _Hydrocissa_ | 7 |India, Ceylon and | + | | Malaya | + 257. Berenicornis | 1 |Sumatra |W. Africa + 258. Calao | 2 |Tenasserim, Malaya |Austro-Malaya + 259. _Aceros_ | 1 |S. E. Himalayas | + 260. _Cranorrhinus_ | 2 |Malacca to Borneo and |Celebes + | | Philippines | + 261. _Penelopides_ | 1 |Philippines | + 262. _Rhinoplax_ | 1 |Sumatra, Borneo | + 263. _Meniceros_ | 3 |India and Ceylon to | + | | Tenasserim | + | | | + UPUPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 264. Upupa | 3 |India, Ceylon and |Ethiopian, + | | Burmah | S. Palæarctic + | | | + PODARGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 265. Batrachostomus | 6 |India, Ceylon and |Moluccas + | | Malaya | + | | | + CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 266. Caprimulgus | 13 |The whole region |The Eastern + | | | Hemisphere + 267. _Lyncornis_ | 4 |Burmah, Malaya, & |Celebes + | | Philippines | + | | | + CYPSELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 268. Cypselus | 8 |The region, excl. |The Old World & + | | Philippines | S. Amer. + 269. Dendrochelidon | 3 |Ceylon, India, Malaya, |Austro-Malaya + | | Philipp. | + 270. Collocalia | 3 |The whole region |Madagascar, Moluccas, + | | | Pacific Islands + 271. Chætura | 3 |Ceylon, India, Malaya, |America, Africa + | | Hainan | + | | | + PSITTACI. | | | + CACATUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Cacatua | 1 |Philippines) |Australian genus + | | | + PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 272. Palæornis | 14 |N. W. India to Ceylon, |Ethiopian + | | Siam & Malaya | + 273. Prioniturus | 1 |Philippine Islands |Celebes + 274. Cyclopsitta | 1 |Philippine Islands |Papuan Islands + 275. _Psittinus_ | 1 |Malaya, excl. Java | + 276. Tanygnathus | 1 |Philippine Islands |Austro-Malaya + 277. Loriculus | 9 |Ceylon, India, Malaya, |Celebes and Moluccas, + | | Philippines | Flores + | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | + COLUMBIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 278. Treron | 21 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Moluccas + 279. Ptilopus | 3 |Malaya and Philippines |Australian + 280. Carpophaga | 10 |India and Ceylon to |Australian + | | Hainan and Philippines| + 281. Columba | 7 |Ceylon and India to |Palæarc., Ethiop., + | | Tenasserim | Amer. + 282. Janthænas | 3 |Philippine, Andaman & |Japan, Moluccas to + | | Nicobar Islands | Samoan Islands + 283. Macropygia | 6 |Nepal, Java, Hainan, |Austro-Malaya, + | | Philippines | Australia + 284. Turtur | 8 |The whole region |Old World, Austro- + | | | Malay. + 285. Chalcophaps | 2 |India, Ceylon, Malaya, |Austro-Malaya, + | | Hainan, Philippines, | Australia + | | Formosa | + 286. _Phapitreron_ | 2 |Philippine Islands | + 287. Caloenas | 1 |Nicobar and Philippine |Austro-Malaya + | | Islands | + 288. Phlegoenas | 2 |Philippine and Sooloo |Austro-Mal. & + | | Islands | Polynesia + 289. Geopelia | 1 |Philippine Islands, |Austro-Malaya & + | | Java | Austral. + | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | + PTEROCLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 290. Pterocles | 2 |Central and S. India |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian + | | | + TETRAONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 291. Francolinus | 3 |Ceylon and India to |S. Palæarctic, + | | S. China | Ethiopian + 292. _Ortygornis_ | 3 |Ceylon to Himalayas, | + | | Sumatra & Borneo | + 293. Perdix | 12 |India, Malaya, |Palæarctic + | | Philippines, China | + 294. Coturnix | 9 |The whole region |The Eastern Hemisphere + 295. _Rollulus_ | 2 |Malacca, Siam, Borneo, | + | | Philipp. | + (Caccabis | 1 |W. Himalayas) |Palæarctic genus + | | | + PHASIANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 296. _Pavo_ | 2 |Ceylon to Himalayas, | + | | S. W. China and Java | + | | | + 297. _Argusianus_ | 4 |Siam, Malacca, Borneo | + 298. _Polyplectron_ | 5 |Upper Assam to S. W. | + | | China & Sumatra | + (Lophophorus | 3 |Cashmere and E. Thibet)|Palæarctic genus + (Tetraophasis | 1 |E. Thibet) |Palæarctic genus + 299. Ceriornis | 5 |N. W. Himalayas to |S. E. Palæarctic + | | W. China | + (Pucrasia | 3 |N. W. Himalayas to N. |Palæarctic genus + | | China and Mongolia) | + 300. Phasianus | 3 |W. Himalayas, S. China,|S. Palæarctic + | | Formosa | + 301. _Euplocamus_ | 13 |N. W. Himalayas to | + | | China, Sumatra and | + | | Borneo | + 302. _Gallus_ | 4 |The region, excl. China|Celebes and Timor + 303. _Galloperdix_ | 3 |Central India to Ceylon| + | | | + TURNICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 304. Turnix | 9 |The whole region |S. Palæarc., + | | | Ethiopian, Australian + | | | + MEGAPODIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 305. Megapodius | 2 |Nicobar Is., |Celebes to Samoan Is., + | | Philippines, N. W. | N. Australia + | | Borneo | + | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | + VULTURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 306. Vultur | 1 |Himalayas |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian + 307. Gyps | 3 |India and Siam |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian + 308. _Pseudogyps_ | 1 |India and Burmah |N. Ethiopian + 309. Neophron | 1 |All India |S. Palæarctic, + | | | Ethiopian + | | | + FALCONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 310. Circus | 4 |India and China |Almost Cosmopolite + 311. Astur | 4 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + 312. Accipiter | 2 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + 313. Buteo | 2 |India to China |Cosmopolite; excl. + | | | Austl. + 314. Aquila | 4 |India to China |Nearc, Palæarc., + | | | Ethiop. + 315. Nisaëtus | 2 |India and Ceylon |S. Palæar., Ethiop., + | | | Aus. + 316. Lophotriorchis | 1 |Indo-Malaya |Neotropical + 317. Neopus | 1 |India to Burmah and |Celebes and Moluccas + | | Malaya | + 318. Spizaëtus | 5 |India to Malaya and |Neotropical, + | | Formosa | Ethiopian, + | | | Austro-Malayan + 319. Circaëtus | 1 |Indian peninsula |Palæarc., Ethiop., + | | | Timor + 320. _Spilornis_ | 5 |The whole region |Celebes + 321. Butastur | 3 |The whole region |N. E. Africa, Celebes, + | | |New Guinea + 322. Haliæetus | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite; excl. + | | | Neotropical region + 323. Haliastur | 1 |India to Malaya |Austro-Malaya, + | | | Austral. + 324. Milvus | 3 |The whole region |The Eastern + | | | Hemisphere. + 325. Elanus | 2 |India, Malaya |Africa, Australia + 326. Machærhamphus | 1 |Malacca |S. W. Africa & Madag. + 327. Pernis | 1 |India |Palæarctic and + | | | Ethiopian, Celebes + 328. Baza | 3 |India to Malaya | + | |Moluccas and N. Austrl.| + 329. _Hierax_ | 4 |N. India, Burmah, | + | | Malaya | + 330. Poliohierax | 1 |Burmah |E. Africa + 331. Falco | 8 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + 332. Cerchneis | 3 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + | | | + PANDIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 333. Pandion | 1 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 334. Polioaëtus | 2 |India to Malaya |Indo-Malaya & + | | | Polynesia + | | | + STRIGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 335. Athene | 9 |The whole region |The Eastern Hemisphere + 336. _Ninox_ | 7 |The whole region |N. China and Japan + 337. Bubo | 4 |India, Ceylon, Malaya |Cosmop. exc. Austr. + | | and Philip. | reg. + 338. _Ketupa_ | 3 |The whole region | + 339. Scops | 7 |The whole region |Almost Cosmopolite + 340. Syrnium | 6 |The whole region |Cosmop. exc. Austr. + | | | reg. + (Asio | 2 |India) |Palæarc., Ethiop. + | | | Amer. + 341. Strix | 4 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 342. _Phodilus_ | 2 |Nepal, Malaya | + + _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading or Swimming Birds._ + + | | | + GRALLÆ. | | | + RALLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Rallina | 10 |The whole region |Austro-Malaya + | | | + PARRIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Hydrophasanus _| 1 |The whole region | + | | | + CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Æsacus | 1 |The whole region |Austro-Malayan, Austra + + + + +[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN REGION] + + + + +{387}CHAPTER XIII. + +THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. + + +The Australian is the great insular region of the earth. As a whole it is +one of the best marked, and has even been considered to be equal in +zoological value to all the rest of the globe; but its separate portions +are very heterogeneous, and their limits sometimes ill-defined. Its central +and most important masses consist of Australia and New Guinea, in which the +main features of the region are fully developed. To the north-west it +extends to Celebes, in which a large proportion of the Australian +characters have disappeared, while Oriental types are mingled with them to +such an extent that it is rather difficult to determine where to locate it. +To the south-east it includes New Zealand, which is in some respects so +peculiar, that it has even been proposed to constitute it a distinct +region. On the east it embraces the whole of Oceania to the Marquesas and +Sandwich Islands, whose very scanty and often peculiar fauna, must be +affiliated to the general Australian type. + +Australia is the largest tract of land in the region, being several times +more extensive than all the other islands combined, and it is here that the +greatest variety of peculiar types have been developed. This +island-continent, being situated in the track of the southern desert zone, +and having no central mountains to condense the vapours from the +surrounding ocean, has a large portion of its interior so parched up and +barren as to be almost destitute of animal life. The most extensive tract +of fertile and well-watered country is on the east and south-east, +{388}where a fine range of mountains reaches, in the Colony of Victoria, +the limits of perpetual snow. The west coast also possesses mountains of +moderate height, but the climate is very dry and hot. The northern portion +is entirely tropical, yet it nowhere presents the luxuriance of vegetation +characteristic of the great island of New Guinea immediately to the north +of it. Taken as a whole, Australia is characterized by an arid climate and +a deficiency of water; conditions which have probably long prevailed, and +under which its very peculiar fauna and flora have been developed. This +fact will account for some of the marked differences between it and the +adjacent sub-regions of New Guinea and the Moluccas, where the climate is +moist, and the vegetation luxuriant; and these divergent features must +never be lost sight of, in comparing the different portions of the +Australian region. In Tasmania alone, which is however, essentially a +detached portion of Australia, a more uniform and moister climate prevails; +but it is too small a tract of land, and has been too recently severed from +its parent mass to have developed a special fauna. + +The Austro-Malay sub-region (of which New Guinea is the central and typical +mass) is strikingly contrasted with Australia, being subjected to purely +equatorial conditions,--a high, but uniform temperature, excessive +moisture, and a luxuriant forest vegetation, exactly similar in general +features to that which clothes the Indo-Malay Islands, and the other +portions of the great equatorial forest zone. Such a climate and +vegetation, being the necessary result of its geographical position, must +have existed from remote geological epochs with but little change, and must +therefore have profoundly affected all the forms of life which have been +developed under their influence. Around New Guinea as a centre are grouped +a number of important islands, more or less closely agreeing with it in +physical features, climate, vegetation, and forms of life. In most +immediate connection we place the Aru Islands, Mysol and Waigiou, with +Jobie and the other Islands in Geelvinck Bay, all of which are connected +with it by shallow seas; they possess one of its most characteristic +groups, the Birds of Paradise, and have no doubt only recently (in {389}a +geological sense) been separated from it. In the next rank come the large +islands of the Moluccas on the west, and the range terminating in the +Solomon Islands on the east, both of which groups possess a clearly Papuan +fauna, although deficient in many of the most remarkable Papuan types. + +All these islands agree closely with New Guinea itself in being very +mountainous, and covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation; but to the +south-west we find a set of islands extending from Timor to Lombock, which +agree more nearly with Australia, both in climate and vegetation; being +arid and abounding in eucalypti, acacias, and thickets of thorny shrubs. +These, like the Moluccas, are surrounded by deep sea, and it is doubtful +whether they have either of them been actually connected with New Guinea or +Australia in recent geological times; but the general features of their +zoology oblige us to unite all these islands with New Guinea as forming the +Austro-Malay sub-division of the Australian region. Still further west +however, we have the large island of Celebes, whose position is very +difficult to determine. It is mountainous, but has also extensive plains +and low lands. Its climate is somewhat arid in the south, where the woods +are often scattered and thorny, while in the north it is moister, and the +forests are luxuriant. It is surrounded by deep seas, but also by coralline +and volcanic islets, indicating former elevations and subsidences. Its +fauna presents the most puzzling relations, showing affinities to Java, to +the Philippines, to the Moluccas, to New Guinea, to continental India, and +even to Africa; so that it is almost impossible to decide whether to place +it in the Oriental or the Australian region. On the whole the preponderance +of its relations appears to be with the latter, though it is undoubtedly +very anomalous, and may, with almost as much propriety, be classed with the +former. This will be better understood when we come to discuss its +zoological peculiarities. + +The next sub-region consists of the extensive series of islands scattered +over the Pacific, the principal groups being the Sandwich Islands, the +Marquesas and Society Islands, the Navigators', Friendly, and Fiji Islands. +New Caledonia and the New {390}Hebrides have rather an uncertain position, +and it is difficult to decide whether to class them with the Austro-Malay +Islands, the Pacific Islands, or Australia. The islands of the west +Pacific, north of the equator, also probably come into this region, +although the Ladrone Islands may belong to the Philippines; but as the +fauna of all these small islets is very scanty, and very little known, they +are not at present of much importance. + +There remains the islands of New Zealand, with the surrounding small +islands, as far as the Auckland, Chatham, and Norfolk Islands. These are +situated in the south temperate forest-zone. They are mountainous, and have +a moist, equable, and temperate climate. They are true oceanic islands, and +the total absence of mammalia intimates that they have not been connected +with Australia or any other continent in recent geological times. The +general character of their zoology, no less than their botany, affiliates +them however, to Australia as portions of the same zoological region. + +_General Zoological Characteristics of the Australian Region._--For the +purpose of giving an idea of the very peculiar and striking features which +characterise the Australian region, it will be as well at first to confine +ourselves to the great central land masses of Australia and New Guinea, +where those features are manifested in their greatest force and purity, +leaving the various peculiarities and anomalies of the outlying islands to +be dealt with subsequently. + +_Mammalia._--The Australian region is broadly distinguished from all the +rest of the globe by the entire absence of all the orders of non-aquatic +mammalia that abound in the Old World, except two--the winged bats +(Chiroptera), and the equally cosmopolite rodents (Rodentia). Of these +latter however, only one family is represented--the Muridæ--(comprising the +rats and mice), and the Australian representatives of these are all of +small or moderate size--a suggestive fact in appreciating the true +character of the Australian fauna. In place of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, +and Ungulates, which abound in endless variety in all the other regions +under equally favourable conditions, Australia possesses two new orders (or +perhaps {391}sub-classes)--Marsupialia and Monotremata, found nowhere else +on the globe except a single family of the former in America. The +Marsupials are wonderfully developed in Australia, where they exist in the +most diversified forms, adapted to different modes of life. Some are +carnivorous, some herbivorous; some arboreal, others terrestrial. There are +insect-eaters, root-gnawers, fruit-eaters, honey-eaters, leaf or +grass-feeders. Some resemble wolves, others marmots, weasels, squirrels, +flying squirrels, dormice or jerboas. They are classed in six distinct +families, comprising about thirty genera, and subserve most of the purposes +in the economy of nature, fulfilled in other parts of the world by very +different groups; yet they all possess common peculiarities of structure +and habits which show that they are members of one stock, and have no real +affinity with the Old-World forms which they often outwardly resemble. + +The other order, Monotremata, is only represented by two rare and very +remarkable forms, _Ornithorhynchus_ and _Echidna_, probably the descendants +of some of those earlier developments of mammalian life which in every +other part of the globe have long been extinct. + +The bats of Australia all belong to Old-World genera and possess no +features of special interest, a result of the wandering habits of these +aerial mammals. The Rodents are more interesting. They are all more or less +modified forms of mice or rats. Some belong to the widely distributed genus +_Mus_, others to four allied genera, which may be all modifications of some +common Old-World form. They spread all over Australia, and allied species +occur in Celebes and the Papuan Islands, so that although not yet known +from the Moluccas, there can be little doubt that some of them exist there. + +_Birds._--The typical Australian region, as above defined, is almost as +well characterized by its birds, as by its mammalia; but in this case the +deficiencies are less conspicuous, while the peculiar and characteristic +families are numerous and important. The most marked deficiency as regards +wide-spread families, is the total absence of Fringillidæ (true finches), +Picidæ (woodpeckers), Vulturidæ (vultures), and Phasianidæ (pheasants). +{392}and among prevalent Oriental groups, Pycnonotidæ (bulbuls), +Phyllornithidæ (green bulbuls), and Megalæmidæ (barbets) are families whose +absence is significant. Nine families are peculiar to the region, or only +just pass its limits in the case of single species. These are Paridiseidæ +(paradise-birds), Meliphagidæ (honey-suckers), Menuridæ (lyre-birds), +Atrichidæ (scrub-birds), Cacatuidæ (cockatoos), Platycercidæ (broad-tailed +and grass-paroquets), Trichoglossidæ (brush-tongued paroquets), Megapodiidæ +(mound-makers), and Casuariidæ (cassowaries). There are also eight very +characteristic families, of which four,--Pachycephalidæ (thick-headed +shrikes), Campephagidæ (caterpillar shrikes), Dicæidæ (flower-peckers), and +Artamidæ (swallow-shrikes)--are feebly represented elsewhere, while the +other four--Ploceidæ (weaver-finches), Alcædinidæ (kingfishers), Podargidæ +(frog-mouths), and Columbidæ (pigeons)--although widely distributed, are +here unusually abundant and varied, and (except in the case of the +Ploceidæ) better represented in the Australian than in any other region. Of +all these the Meliphagidæ (honeysuckers) are the most peculiarly and +characteristically Australian. This family abounds in genera and species; +it extends into every part of the region from Celebes and Lombock on the +west, to the Sandwich Islands, Marquesas, and New Zealand on the east, +while not a single species overpasses its limits, with the exception of one +(_Ptilotis limbata_) which abounds in all the islands of the Timorese +group, and has crossed the narrow strait from Lombock to Baly; but this can +hardly be considered to impugn the otherwise striking fact of wide +diffusion combined with strict limitation, which characterizes it. This +family is the more important, because, like the Trichoglossidæ or +brush-tongued paroquets, it seems to have been developed in co-ordination +with that wealth of nectariferous flowering shrubs and trees which is one +of the marked features of Australian vegetation. It probably originated in +the extensive land-area of Australia itself, and thence spread into all the +tributary islands, where it has become variously modified, yet always in +such close adaptation to the other great features of the Australian fauna, +that it seems unable to maintain itself when subject to the competition of +the more {393}varied forms of life in the Oriental region; to which, +possessing great powers of flight, some species must occasionally have +emigrated. Its presence or absence serves therefore to define and limit the +Australian region with a precision hardly to be equalled in the case of any +other region or any other family of birds. + +The Trichoglossidæ, as already intimated, are another of these peculiarly +organized Australian families,--parrots with an extensile brush-tipped +tongue, adapted to extract the nectar and pollen from flowers. These are +also rigidly confined to this region, but they do not range so completely +over the whole of it, being absent from New Zealand (where however they are +represented by a closely allied form _Nestor_), and from the Sandwich +Islands. The Paradiseidæ (birds of paradise and allies) are another +remarkable family, confined to the Papuan group of Islands, and the +tropical parts of Australia. The Megapodiidæ (or mound-builders) are +another most remarkable and anomalous group of birds, no doubt specially +adapted to Australian conditions of existence. Their peculiarity consists +in their laying enormous eggs (at considerable intervals of time) and +burying them either in the loose hot sand of the beach above high-water +mark, or in enormous mounds of leaves, sticks, earth, and refuse of all +kinds, gathered together by the birds, whose feet and claws are enlarged +and strengthened for the work. The warmth of this slightly fermenting mass +hatches the eggs; when the young birds work their way out, and thenceforth +take care of themselves, as they are able to run quickly, and even to fly +short distances, as soon as they are hatched. This may perhaps be an +adaptation to the peculiar condition of so large a portion of Australia, in +respect to prolonged droughts and scanty water-supply, entailing a +periodical scarcity of all kinds of food. In such a country the confinement +of the parents to one spot during the long period of incubation would often +lead to starvation, and the consequent death of the offspring. But the same +birds with free power to roam about, might readily maintain themselves. +This peculiar constitution and habit, which enabled the Megapodii to +maintain an existence under the unfavourable conditions of their +{394}original habitat gives them a great advantage in the luxuriant islands +of the Moluccas, to which they have spread. There they abound to a +remarkable extent, and their eggs furnish a luxurious repast to the +natives. They have also reached many of the smallest islets, and have +spread beyond the limits of the region to the Philippines, and +North-Western Borneo, as well as to the remote Nicobar Islands. + +The Platycercidæ, or broad-tailed paroquets, are another wide-spread +Australian group, of weak structure but gorgeously coloured, ranging from +the Moluccas to New Zealand and the Society Islands, and very +characteristic of the region, to which they are strictly confined. The +Cockatoos have not quite so wide a range, being confined to the +Austro-Malayan and Australian sub-regions, while one species extends into +the Philippine Islands. The other two peculiar families are more restricted +in their range, and will be noticed under the sub-regions to which they +respectively belong. + +Of the characteristic families, the Pachycephalidæ, or thick-headed +shrikes, are especially Australian, ranging over all the region, except New +Zealand; while only a single species has spread into the Oriental, and one +of doubtful affinity to the Ethiopian region. The Artamidæ, or +swallow-shrikes, are also almost wholly confined to the region, one species +only extending to India. They range to the Fiji Islands on the east, but +only to Tasmania on the south. These two families must be considered as +really peculiar to Australia. The Podargidæ, or frog-mouths--large, +thick-billed goat-suckers--are strange birds very characteristic of the +Australian region, although they have representatives in the Oriental and +Neotropical regions. Campephagidæ (caterpillar-shrikes) also abound, but +they are fairly represented both in India and Africa. The Ploceidæ, or +weaver-birds, are the finches of Australia, and present a variety of +interesting and beautiful forms. + +We now come to the kingfishers, a cosmopolitan family of birds, yet so +largely developed in the Australian region as to deserve special notice. +Two-thirds of all the genera are found here, and no less than 10 out of the +19 genera in the family are {395}peculiar to the Australian region. Another +of the universally distributed families which have their metropolis here, +is that of the Columbidæ or pigeons. Three-fourths of the genera have +representatives in the Australian region, while two-fifths of the whole are +confined to it; and it possesses as many species of pigeons as any other +two regions combined. It also possesses the most remarkable forms, as +exemplified in the great crowned pigeons (_Goura_) and the hook-billed +_Didunculus_, while the green fruit-pigeons (_Ptilopus_) are sometimes +adorned with colours vying with those of the gayest parrots or chatterers. +This enormous development of a family of birds so defenceless as the +pigeons, whose rude nests expose their eggs and helpless young to continual +danger, may perhaps be correlated, as I have suggested elsewhere (Ibis, +1865, p. 366), with the entire absence of monkeys, cats, lemurs, weasels, +civets and other arboreal mammals, which prey on eggs and young birds. The +very prevalent green colour of the upper part of their plumage, may be due +to the need of concealment from their only enemies,--birds of prey; and +this is rendered more probable by the fact that it is among the pigeons of +the small islands of the Pacific (where hawks and their allies are +exceedingly scarce) that we alone meet with species whose entire plumage is +a rich and conspicuous yellow. Where the need of concealment is least, the +brilliancy of colour has attained its maximum. We may therefore look upon +the genus _Ptilopus_, with its fifty species whose typical coloration is +green, with patches of bright blue, red, or yellow on the head and breast, +as a special development suited to the tropical portion of the Australian +region, to which it is almost wholly confined. + +It will be seen from the sketch just given, that the ornithological +features of the Australian region are almost as remarkable as those +presented by its Mammalian fauna; and from the fuller development attained +by the aërial class of birds, much more varied and interesting. None of the +other regions of the earth can offer us so many families with special +points of interest in structure, or habits, or general relations. The +paradise-birds, the honeysuckers, the brush-tongued paroquets, the +mound-builders, and the cassowaries--all strictly peculiar {396}to the +region--with such remarkable developments as we have indicated in the +kingfishers and pigeons, place the Australian region in the first rank for +the variety, singularity, and interest of its birds, and only second to +South America as regards numbers and beauty. + +_Reptiles._--In Reptiles the peculiarity of the main Australian region is +less marked, although the fauna is sufficiently distinct. There is no +family of snakes confined to the region, but many peculiar genera of the +families Pythonidæ and Elapidæ. About two-thirds of the Australian snakes +belong to the latter family, and are poisonous; so that although the +Crotalidæ and Viperidæ are absent, there are perhaps a larger proportion of +poisonous to harmless snakes than in any other part of the world. According +to Mr. Gerard Krefft the proportion varies considerably in the different +colonies. In Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland the proportion is +about two to one; in West Australia three to one; and in South Australia +six to one. In Tasmania there are only 3 species and all are poisonous. The +number of species, as in other parts of the world, seems to increase with +temperature. The 3 in Tasmania have increased to 12 in Victoria, 15 in +South Australia and the same in West Australia; 31 in New South Wales, and +42 in sub-tropical Queensland. + +The lizards of Australia have lately been catalogued by Dr. Günther in the +concluding part of the "Voyage of the Erebus and Terror," issued in 1875. +They belong to 8 families, 3 of which are peculiar; 57 genera of which 36 +are peculiar; and about 140 species, all but 2 or 3 of which are peculiar. +The scinks and geckoes form the great bulk of the Australian lizards, with +a few Agamidæ, Gymnopthalmidæ, and Varanidæ. The three peculiar families +are the Pygopodidæ, Aprasiidæ and Lialidæ; comprising only 4 genera and 7 +species. The above all belong to Australia proper. Those of the other +sub-regions are few in number and will be noticed under their respective +localities. They will perhaps bring up the number of genera to 70. West and +South Australia seem to offer much peculiarity in their lizards; these +districts possessing 12 peculiar genera, {397}while a much smaller number +are confined to the East and South-East, or to the North. + +Among the fresh-water turtles of the family Chelydidæ there are three +peculiar genera--_Chelodina_, _Chelemys_, and _Elseya_, all from Australia. + +_Amphibia._--No tailed amphibians are known from the whole region, but no +less than eleven of the families of tail-less Batrachians (toads and frogs) +are known to inhabit some part or other of it. A peculiar family +(Xenorhinidæ), consisting of a single species, is found in New Guinea; the +true toads (Bufonidæ) are only represented by a single species of a +peculiar genus in Australia, and by a _Bufo_ in Celebes. Nine of the +families are represented in Australia itself, and the following genera are +peculiar to it:--_Pseudophryne_ (Phryniscidæ), _Pachybatrachus_, and +_Chelydobatrachus_ (Engystomydæ); _Helioporus_ (Alytidæ); _Pelodyras_ and +_Chirodyras_ (Pelodryadæ); _Notaden_ (Bufonidæ). + +_Fresh-water Fish._--There is only one peculiar family of fresh-water +fishes in this region--the Gadopsidæ--represented by a single genus and +species. The other species of Australia belong to the families Trachinidæ, +Atherinidæ, Mugillidæ, Siluridæ, Homalopteræ, Haplochitonidæ, Galaxidæ, +Osteoglossidæ, Symbranchidæ, and Sirenoidei; most of the genera being +peculiar. The large and widely-distributed families, Cyprinodontidæ and +Cyprinidæ, are absent. The most remarkable fish is the recently discovered +_Ceratodus_, allied to the _Lepidosiren_ of Tropical America, and +_Protopterus_ of Tropical Africa, the three species constituting the +Sub-class Dipnoi, remains of which have been found fossil in the Triassic +formation. + +_Summary of Australian Vertebrata._--In order to complete our general +sketch of Australian zoology, and to afford materials for comparison with +other regions, we will here summarize the distribution of Vertebrata in the +entire Australian region, as given in detail in the tables at the end of +this chapter. When an undoubted Oriental family or genus extends to Celebes +only we do not count it as belonging to the Australian region, that island +being so very anomalous and intermediate in character. + +{398}The Australian region, then, possesses examples of 18 families of +Mammalia, 8 of which are peculiar; 71 of Birds, 16 being peculiar; 31 of +Reptiles, 4 being peculiar; 11 of Amphibia, with 1 peculiar; and 11 of +Fresh-water fish, with 1 peculiar. In all, 142 families of Vertebrates, 30 +of which are almost or quite confined to it, or between one-fourth and +one-fifth of the whole number. + +The genera of Mammalia occurring within the limits of this region are 70, +of which 45 are almost, or quite, confined to it. + +Of Land-Birds there are 296 genera, 196 of which are equally limited. The +proportion is in both cases very nearly five-eighths. + +This shows a considerable deficiency both in families of Vertebrates and +genera of Mammalia, as compared with the Oriental and Ethiopian regions; +while in genera of Birds it is a little superior to the latter in total +numbers, and considerably so in the proportion of peculiar types. + + +_Supposed Land Connection between Australia and South America._ + +We may now consider how far the different classes and orders of vertebrates +afford indications that during past ages there has been some closer +connection between Australia and South America than that which now exists. + +Among Mammalia we have the remarkable fact of a group of marsupials +inhabiting South America, and extending even into the temperate regions of +North America, while they are found in no other part of the globe beyond +the limits of the Australian region; and this has often been held to be +evidence of a former connection between the two countries. A preliminary +objection to this view is, that the opossums seem to be rather a tropical +group, only one species reaching as far as 42° south latitude on the west +coast of South America; but whatever evidence we have which seems to +require a former union of these countries shows that it took place, if at +all, towards their cold southern limits, the tropical faunas on the whole +showing no similarity. This is not a very strong objection, since climates +may have changed in the south to as great an extent as we {399}know they +have in the north. Perhaps a more important consideration is, that +_Didelphys_ is a family type unknown in Australia; and this implies that +the point of common origin is very remote in geological time. But the most +conclusive fact is that in the Eocene and Miocene periods this very family, +Didelphyidæ, existed in Europe, while it only appeared in America in the +Post-pliocene or perhaps the Pliocene period; so that it is really an +Old-World group, which, though long since extinct in its birthplace, has +survived in America, to which country it is a comparatively recent +emigrant. Primeval forms of marsupials we know abounded in Europe during +much of the Secondary epoch, and no doubt supplied Australia with the +ancestors of the present fauna. It is clear, therefore, that in this case +there is not a particle of evidence for any former union between Australia +and South America; while it is almost demonstrated that both derived their +marsupials from a common source in the northern hemisphere. + +Birds offer us more numerous but less clearly defined cases of this kind. +Among Passeres, the wonderful lyre bird (_Menura_) is believed by some +ornithologists to be decidedly allied to the South American Pteroptochidæ, +while others maintain that it is altogether peculiar, and has no such +affinity. The Australian Pachycephalidæ have also been supposed to find +their nearest allies in the American Vireonidæ, but this is, perhaps, +equally problematical. That the mound-makers (Megapodiidæ) of the +Australian region are more nearly allied to the South American curassows +(Cracidæ) than to any other family, is perhaps better established; but if +proved, it is probably due, as in the case of the marsupials, to the +survival of an ancient and once wide-spread type, and thus lends no support +to the theory of a land connection between the two regions. A recent +author, Professor Garrod, classes _Phaps_ and other Australian genera of +pigeons along with _Zenaida_ and allied South American forms; but here +again the affinity, if it exists, is so remote that the explanation already +given will suffice to account for it. There remain only the penguins of the +genus _Eudyptes_; and these have almost certainly passed from one region to +the other, but {400}no actual land connection is required for birds which +can cross considerable arms of the sea. + +Reptiles again seem to offer no more support to the view than do mammalia +or birds. Among snakes there are no families in common that have not a very +wide distribution. Among lizards the Gymnopthalmidæ are the only family +that favour the notion, since they are found in Australia and South +America, but not in the Oriental region. Yet they occur in both the +Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions, and their distribution is altogether too +erratic to be of any value in a case of this kind; and the same remarks +apply to the tortoises of the family Chelydidæ. + +The Amphibia, however, furnish us with some more decided facts. We have +first the family of tree-frogs, Pelodryade, confined to the two regions; +_Litoria_, a genus of the family Hylidæ peculiar to Australia, but with one +species in Paraguay; and in the family Discoglossidæ, the Australian genus +_Chiroleptes_ has its nearest ally in the Chilian genus _Calyptocephalus_. + +Fresh-water fishes give yet clearer evidence. Three groups are exclusively +found in these two regions; _Aphritis_, a fresh-water genus of Trachinidæ, +has one species in Tasmania and two others in Patagonia; the Haplochitonidæ +inhabit only Terra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands and South Australia; +while the genus _Galaxias_ (forming the family Galaxidæ) is confined to +South Temperate America, Australia, and New Zealand. We have also the genus +_Osteoglossum_ confined to the tropical rivers of Eastern South America, +the Indo-Malay Islands and Australia. + +It is important here to notice that the heat-loving Reptilia afford hardly +any indications of close affinity between the two regions, while the +cold-enduring amphibia and fresh-water fish, offer them in abundance. +Taking this fact in connection with the absence of all indications of close +affinity among the mammalia and terrestrial birds, the conclusion seems +inevitable that there has been no land-connection between the two regions +within the period of existing species, genera, or families. Yet some +interchange of amphibia and fresh-water {401}fishes, as of plants and +insects, has undoubtedly occurred, but this has been effected by other +means. If we look at a globe we see at once how this interchange may have +taken place. Immediately south of Cape Horn we have the South Shetland +Islands and Graham's land, which is not improbably continuous, or nearly +so, with South Victoria land immediately to the south of New Zealand. The +intervening space is partly occupied by the Auckland, Campbell, and +Macquaries' Islands, which, there is reason to believe are the relics of a +great southern extension of New Zealand. At all events they form points +which would aid the transmission of many organisms; and the farthest of the +Macquaries' group, Emerald Island, is only 600 miles from the outlying +islets of Victoria land. The ova of fish will survive a considerable time +in the air, and the successful transmission of salmon ova to New Zealand +packed in ice, shows how far they might travel on icebergs. Now there is +evidently some means by which ova or young fishes are carried moderate +distances, from the fact that remote alpine lakes and distinct river +systems often have the same species. Glaciers and icebergs generally have +pools of fresh water on their surfaces; and whatever cause transmits fish +to an isolated pond might occasionally stock these pools, and by this means +introduce the fishes of one southern island into another. Batrachians, +which are equally patient of cold, might be transported by similar means; +while, as Mr. Darwin has so well shown, (_Origin of Species_, 6th Ed. p. +345) there are various known modes by which plants might be transmitted, +and we need not therefore be surprised that botanists find a much greater +similarity between the production of the several Southern lands and +islands, than do zoologists. It is important to notice that, however this +intercommunication was effected, it has continued down to the epoch of +existing species; for Dr. Günther finds the same species of fresh-water +fish (_Galaxias attenuatus_) inhabiting Tasmania, New Zealand, the Falkland +Islands, and Temperate South America; while another species is common to +New Zealand and the Auckland Islands. We cannot believe that a land +connection has existed between all these remote lands within the period of +existence of this one species of fish, {402}not only on account of what we +know of the permanence of continents and deep oceans, but because such a +connection must have led to much more numerous and important cases of +similarity of natural productions than we actually find. And if within the +life of _species_ such interchange may have taken place across seas of +greater or less extent, still more easy is it to understand, how, within +the life of _genera_ and _families_, a number of such interchanges may have +occurred; yet always limited to those groups whose conditions of life +render transmission possible. Had an actual land connection existed within +the temperate zone, or during a period of warmth in the Antarctic regions, +there would have been no such strict limitations to the inter-migration of +animals. It may be held to support the view that floating ice has had +_some_ share in the transmission of fish and amphibia, when we find that in +the case of the narrow tropical sea dividing Borneo from Celebes and the +Moluccas, no proportionate amount of transmission has taken place, but +numerous species, genera, and whole families, terminate abruptly at what we +have other reasons for believing to be the furthest limits of an ancient +continent. We can hardly suppose, however, that this mode of transmission +would have sufficed for such groups as tree-frogs, which are inhabitants of +the more temperate or even warm portions of the two southern lands. Some of +these cases may perhaps be explained by the supposition of a considerable +extent of land in the South-Temperate and Antarctic regions now submerged, +and by a warm or temperate climate analogous to that which prevailed in the +Arctic regions during some part of the Miocene epoch; while others may be +due to cases of survival in the two areas of once wide-spread groups, a +view supported in the case of the Amphibia by the erratic manner in which +many of the groups are spread over the globe. + +From an examination of the facts presented by the various classes of +vertebrates, we are, then, led to the conclusion, that there is no evidence +of a former land-connection between the Australian and Neotropical regions; +but that the various scattered resemblances in their natural productions +{403}that undoubtedly occur, are probably due to three distinct causes. + +First, we have the American Didelphyidæ, among Mammals, and the Cracidæ, +among birds, allied respectively to the Marsupials and the Megapodiidæ of +Australia. This is probably more a coincidence than an affinity, due to the +preservation of ancient wide-spread types in two remote areas, each cut off +from the great northern continental masses, in which higher forms were +evolved leading to the extinction of the lower types. In each of these +southern isolated lands the original type would undergo a special +development; in the one case suited to an arboreal existence, in the other +to a life among arid plains. + +The second case is that of the tree-frogs, and the genus _Osteoglossum_ +among fishes; and is most likely due to the extension and approximation of +the two southern continents, and the existence of some intermediate lands, +during a warm period when facilities would be afforded for the transmission +of a few organisms by the causes which have led to the exceptional +diffusion of fresh-water productions in all parts of the world. As however +_Osteoglossum_ occurs also in the Sunda Islands, this may be a case of +survival of a once wide-spread group. + +The third case is that of the same genera and even species of fish, and +perhaps of frogs, in the two countries; which may be due to transmission +from island to island by the aid of floating ice, with or without the +assistance of more intervening lands than now exist. + +Having arrived at these conclusions from a consideration of the vertebrata, +we shall be in a position to examine how far the same causes will explain, +or agree with, the distribution of the invertebrate groups, or elucidate +any special difficulties we may meet with in the relations of the +sub-regions. + + +_Insects._ + +The insects of the Australian region are as varied, and in some respects as +peculiar as its higher forms of life. As we have already indicated in our +sketch of the Oriental region, a vast number of forms inhabit the +Austro-Malay sub-region {404}which are absent from Australia proper. Such +of these as are common to the Malay archipelago as a whole, have been +already noted; we shall here confine ourselves more especially to the +groups peculiar to the region, which are almost all either Australian or +Austro-Malayan, the Pacific Islands and New Zealand being very poor in +insect life. + +_Lepidoptera._--Australia itself is poor in butterflies, except in its +northern and more tropical parts, where green _Ornithopteræ_ and several +other Malayan forms occur. In South Australia there are less than +thirty-five species, whereas in Queensland there are probably over a +hundred. The peculiar Australian forms are few. In the family Satyridæ, +_Xenica_ and _Heteronympha_, with _Hypocista_ extending to New Guinea; +among the Lycænidæ, _Ogyris_ and _Utica_ are confined to Australia proper, +and _Hypochrysops_ to the region; and in Papilionidæ, the remarkable +_Eurycus_ is confined to Australia, but is allied to _Euryades_, a genus +found in Temperate South America (La Plata), and to the _Parnassius_ of the +North-Temperate zone. + +The Austro-Malay sub-region has more peculiar forms. _Hamadryas_, a genus +of Danaidæ, approximates to some South American forms; _Hyades_ and +_Hyantis_ are remarkable groups of Morphidæ; _Mynes_ and _Prothoë_ are fine +Nymphalidæ, the former extending to Queensland; _Dicallaneura_, a genus of +Erycinidæ, and _Elodina_, of Pieridæ, are also peculiar forms. The fine +_Ægeus_ group of _Papilio_, and _Priamus_ group of _Ornithoptera_, also +belong exclusively to this region. + +_Xois_ is confined to the Fiji Islands, _Bletogona_ to Celebes, and +_Acropthalmia_ to New Zealand, all genera of Satyridæ. Seventeen genera in +all are confined to the Australian region. + +Among the Sphingina, _Pollanisus_, a genus of Zygænidæ, is Australian; also +four genera of Castniidæ--_Synemon_, _Euschemon_, _Damias_, and _Cocytia_, +the latter being confined to the Papuan islands. The occurrence of this +otherwise purely South American family in the Australian region, as well as +the affinity of _Eurycus_ and _Euryades_ noticed above, is interesting; but +as we have seen that the genera and families of insects are more permanent +than those of the higher animals, and as the groups in question are +{405}confined to the warmer parts of both countries, they may be best +explained as cases of survival of a once wide-spread type, and may probably +date back to the period when the ancestors of the Marsupials and Megapodii +were cut off from the rest of the world. + +_Coleoptera._--The same remark applies here as in the Lepidoptera, +respecting the affinity of the Austro-Malay fauna to that of Indo-Malay +Islands; but Australia proper is much richer in beetles than in +butterflies, and exhibits much more speciality. Although the other two +parts of the Australian region (Polynesia and New Zealand) are very poor in +beetles, it will, nevertheless, on the whole compare favourably with any of +the regions except the very richest. + +Cicindelidæ are not very abundant. _Therates_ and _Tricondyla_ are the +characteristic genera in Austro-Malaya, but are absent from Australia, +where we have _Tetracha_ as the most characteristic genus, with one species +of _Megacephala_ and two of _Distypsidera_, a genus which is found also in +New Zealand and some of the Pacific Islands. The occurrence of the South +American genus, _Tetracha_, may perhaps be due to a direct transfer by +means of intervening lands during the warm southern period; but considering +the permanence of coleopterous forms (as shown by the Miocene species +belonging almost wholly to existing genera), it seems more probable that it +is a case of the survival of a once wide-spread group. + +Carabidæ are well represented, there being no less than 94 peculiar genera, +of which 19 are confined to New Zealand. The Australian genera of most +importance are _Carenum_ (68 species), _Promecoderus_ (27 species), +_Silphomorpha_ (32 species), _Adelotopus_ (27 species), _Scaraphites_ (25 +species), _Notonomus_ (18 species), _Gnathoxys_ (12 species), _Eutoma_ (9 +species), _Ænigma_ (15 species), _Lacordairea_ (8 species), _Pamborus_ (8 +species), _Catadromus_ (4 species),--the latter found in Australia and +Celebes. Common to Australia and New Zealand are _Mecodema_ (14 species), +_Homalosoma_ (32 species), _Dicrochile_ (12 species), and _Scopodes_ (5 +species). The larger genera, confined to New Zealand only, are _Metaglymma_ +(8 species), and _Demetrida_ (3 species). The curious genus _Pseudomorpha_ +(10 species), is divided between California, Brazil, {406}and Australia; +and the Australian genera, _Adelotopus_, _Silphomorpha_, and +_Sphallomorpha_, form with it a distinct tribe of Coleoptera. These being +all confined to the warmer regions, and having so scattered a distribution, +are no doubt the relics of a widespread group. The Australian genus, +_Promecoderus_, has, however, closely allied genera (_Cascelius_ and its +allies), in Chili and Patagonia; while two small genera confined to the +Auckland Islands (_Heterodactylus_ and _Pristancyclus_) are allied to a +group found only in Terra-del-Fuego and the Falkland Islands, (_Migadops_); +and in these cases we may well believe that a direct transmission has taken +place by some of the various means already indicated. + +In Lucanidæ, Australia is only moderately rich, having 7 peculiar genera. +The most important are _Ceratognathus_ and _Rhyssonotus_, confined to +Australia; _Lissotes_ to Australia and New Zealand; _Lamprima_ to Australia +and Papua. _Mitophyllus_ and _Dendroblax_ inhabit New Zealand only; while +_Syndesus_ is found in Australia, New Caledonia, and tropical South +America. + +The beautiful Cetoniidæ are poorly represented, there being only 3 peculiar +genera;--_Schizorhina_, mainly Australian, but extending to Papua and the +Moluccas; _Anacamptorhina_, confined to New Guinea, and _Sternoplus_ to +Celebes. _Lomaptera_ is very characteristic of the Austro-Malay Islands. +This almost tropical family shows no approximations between the Australian +and Neotropical faunas. + +In Buprestidæ, the Australian region is the richest, possessing no less +than 47 genera, of which 20 are peculiar to it. Of these, 15 are peculiar +to Australia itself, the most important being _Stigmodera_ (212 species), +_Ethon_ (13 species), and _Nascio_ (3 species); _Cisseis_ (17 species), and +the magnificent _Calodema_ (3 species), are common to Australia and +Austro-Malaya; while _Sambus_ (10 species) and _Anthaxomorpha_ (4 species), +with some smaller groups, are peculiarly Austro-Malayan. In this family +occur several points of contact with the Neotropical region. _Stigmodera_ +is said to have a species in Chili, while there are undoubtedly several +allied genera in Chili and South Temperate America. The genus _Curis_ has 5 +Australian and 3 Chilian species, and {407}_Acherusia_ has 2 species in +Brazil, 1 in Australia. These resemblances may probably have arisen from +intercommunication during the warm southern period, when floating timber +would occasionally transmit a few larvæ of this family from island to +island across the antarctic seas. When the cold period returned, they would +spread northward, and become more or less modified under the new physical +conditions and organic competition, to which they were subjected. + +We now come to the very important group of Longicorns, in which the +Australian region as a whole, is very rich, possessing 360 genera, of which +263 are peculiar to it. Of these about 50 are confined to the Austro-Malay +Islands, 12 to New Zealand, and the remainder to Australia proper with +Tasmania. Of the genera confined to, or highly characteristic of Australia, +the following are the most important:--_Cnemoplites_, belonging to the +Prionidæ; _Phoracantha_, to the Cerambycidæ; _Zygocera_, _Hebecerus_, +_Symphyletes_, and _Rhytidophora_, to the Lamiidæ. Confined to the +Austro-Malay Islands are _Tethionea_ (Cerambycidæ): _Tmesisternus_, +_Arrhenotus_, _Micracantha_, and _Sybra_ (Lamiidæ); but there are also such +Malayan genera as _Batocera_, _Gnoma_, _Praonetha_, and _Sphenura_, which +are very abundant in the Austro-Malay sub-region. A species of each of the +Australian genera, _Zygocera_, _Syllitus_, and _Pseudocephalus_, is said to +occur in Chili, and one of the tropical American genus, _Hammatochærus_, in +tropical Australia; an amount of resemblance which, as in the case of the +Buprestidæ, may be imputed to trans-oceanic migration during the Southern +warm period. This concludes our illustrations of the distribution of some +of the more important groups of Australian insects; and it will be admitted +that we have not met with any such an amount of identity with the fauna of +Temperate South America, as to require us to modify the conclusions we +arrived at from a consideration of the vertebrate groups. + +_Land-Shells._--The distribution of many of the larger genera of +land-shells is very erratic, while others are exceedingly restricted, so +that it requires an experienced conchologist to investigate the affinities +of the several groups, and thus work {408}out the important facts of +distribution. All that can be done here is to note the characteristic and +peculiar genera, and any others presenting features of special interest. + +In the great family of the snails (Helicidæ), the only genera strictly +confined to the region are, _Partula_, now containing above 100 species, +and ranging over the Pacific from the Solomon Isles on the west, to the +Sandwich Islands and Tahiti on the east; and _Achatinella_, now containing +nearly 300 species, and wholly confined to the Sandwich Islands. +_Pfeifferia_ is confined to the Philippine Islands and Moluccas; +_Cochlostyla_ to the Indo-Malay Islands and Australia; _Bulimus_ occurs in +most of the insular groups, including New Zealand, but is absent from +Australia. + +Among the Aciculidæ, the widely-scattered _Truncatella_ is the only genus +represented. Among Diplommatinidæ, _Diplommatina_ is the characteristic +genus, ranging over the whole region, and found elsewhere as far as India, +with one species in Trinidad. The extensive family Cyclostomidæ, is not +well represented. Seven genera reach the Austro-Malay Islands, one of +which, _Registoma_, is confined to the Philippines, Moluccas, New +Caledonia, and the Marshall Islands. _Omphalotropis_ is the most +characteristic genus, ranging over the whole region; _Callia_ is confined +to the Philippines, Ceram, and Australia; _Realia_ to New Zealand and the +Marquesas. The genus _Helicina_ alone represents the Helicinidæ, and is +found in the whole region except New Zealand. The number of species known +from Australia is perhaps about 300; while the Polynesian sub-region, +according to Mr. Harper Pease, contains over 600; the Austro-Malay Islands +will furnish probably 200; and New Zealand about 100; making a total of +about 1,200 species for the whole region. + + +AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. + +Few of the great zoological regions comprise four divisions so strongly +contrasted as these, or which present so many interesting problems. We have +first the Austro-Malay Islands, an equatorial forest-region teeming with +varied and beautiful forms of life; next we have Australia itself, an +island-continent with its satellite {409}Tasmania, both tropical and +temperate, but for the most part arid, yet abounding in peculiar forms in +all the classes of animals; then come the Polynesian Islands, another +luxuriant region of tropical vegetation, yet excessively poor in most of +the higher groups of animals as well as in some of the lower; and lastly, +we have New Zealand, a pair of temperate forest-clad islands far in the +southern ocean, with a very limited yet strange and almost wholly peculiar +fauna. We have now to consider the general features and internal relations +of the faunas of each of these sub-regions, together with any external +relations which have not been discussed while treating the region as a +whole. + + +_I. Austro-Malayan Sub-region._ + +The central mass on which almost every part of this sub-region is clearly +dependent, is the great island of New Guinea, inhabited by the Papuan race +of mankind; and this, with the surrounding islands, which are separated +from it by shallow seas and possess its most marked zoological features, +are termed Papua. A little further away lie the important groups of the +Moluccas on one side and the Eastern Papuan Islands on the other, which +possess a fauna mainly derivative from New Guinea, yet wanting many of its +distinctive types; and, in the case of the Moluccas possessing many groups +which are not Australian, but derived from the adjacent Oriental region. To +the south of these we have the Timor group, whose fauna is clearly +derivative, from Australia, from Java, and from the Moluccas. Lastly comes +Celebes, whose fauna is most complex and puzzling, and, so far as we can +judge, not fundamentally derivative from any of the surrounding islands. + +_Papua, or the New Guinea Group._--New Guinea is very deficient in Mammalia +as compared with Australia, though this apparent poverty may, in part, +depend on our very scanty knowledge. As yet only four of the Australian +families of Marsupials are known to inhabit it, with nine genera, several +of which are peculiar. It also possesses a peculiar form of wild pig; but +as yet no other non-marsupial terrestrial mammal has been discovered, +except a rat, described by Dr. Gray as _Uromys {410}aruensis_, but about +the locality of which there seems some doubt.[13] Omitting bats, of which +our knowledge is very imperfect, the Papuan Mammals are as follows:-- + + Family. Genus. Species. + + Suidæ _Sus_ 1 Eastern limit of the genus. + Muridæ _Uromys_ 1 Aru Islands (?) + Dasyuridæ _Phascogale_ 1 Australian genus. + " _Antechinus_ 1 " " + " _Dactylopsila_ 1 To North Australia only. + " _Myoictis_ 1 Aru islands only. + Peramelidæ _Perameles_ 1 New Guinea only. + Macropodidæ _Dendrolagus_ 2 New Guinea only. + " _Dorcopsis_ 2 Papua only. + Phalangistidæ _Cuscus_ 7 Celebes to New Guinea. + " _Belideus_ 1 Australia and Moluccas. + +We have here no sign of any approach to the Mammalian fauna of the Oriental +region, for though _Sus_ has appeared, the Muridæ (rats and mice) seem to +be wanting. + +In Birds the case is very different, since we at once meet with important +groups, either wholly, or almost peculiar to the Papuan fauna. According to +a careful estimate, embodying the recent discoveries of Meyer and +D'Albertis, there are 350 species of Papuan land-birds comprised in 136 +genera. About 300 of the species are absolutely peculiar to the district, +while 39 of the genera are exclusively Papuan or just extend into the +Moluccas, or into North Australia where it closely approaches New Guinea. +In analysing the genera we may set aside 31 as having a wide range, and +being of no significance in distribution; such are most of the birds of +prey, with the genera _Hirundo_, _Caprimulgus_, _Zosterops_; and others +widely spread in both the Oriental and Australian regions, as _Dicæum_, +_Munia_, _Eudynamis_, &c. Of the remainder, as above stated, about 39 are +peculiar to the Papuan fauna, 50 are characteristic Australian genera; 9 +are more especially Malayan, and as much Australian as Oriental; while 7 +only, appear to be typically Oriental with a discontinuous distribution, +none of them occurring in the Moluccas. + +{411}This Papuan fauna is so interesting and remarkable, that it seems +advisable to give lists of these several classes of generic types. + +I. Genera occurring in the Papuan Islands which are characteristic of the +Australian region (89). Those marked with an asterisk are exclusively +Papuan. + + Sylviidæ _Malurus_, _Gerygone_, _Petroica_, _Orthonyx_. + Certhiidæ _Climacteris_. + Sittidæ _Sittella_. + Oriolidæ _Mimeta_. + Campephagidæ _Graucalus_, _Lalage_. + Dicruridæ *_Chætorhynchus_. + Muscicapidæ *_Peltops_, _Monarcha_, *_Leucophantes_, _Microeca_, + _Sisura_, _Myiagra_, *_Machærirhynchus_, + _Rhipidura_, *_Todopsis_. + Pachycephalidæ _Pachycephala_. + Laniidæ *_Rectes_. + Corvidæ _Cracticus_, *_Gymnocorvus_. + Paradiseidæ *_Paradisea_, *_Manucodia_, *_Astrapia_, *_Parotia_, + *_Lophorina_, *_Diphyllodes_, *_Xanthomelus_, + *_Cicinnurus_, *_Paradigalla_, *_Epimachus_, + *_Drepanornis_, *_Seleucides_, _Ptilorhis_, + _Æluroedus_, *_Amblyornis_. + Meliphagidæ _Myzomela_, _Entomophila_, _Glicyphila_, _Ptilotis_, + *_Melidectes_, *_Melipotes_, *_Melirrhophetes_, + _Anthochæra_, _Philemon_, *_Euthyrhynchus_, + _Melithreptes_. + Nectariniidæ _Chalcostetha_, *_Cosmetira_. + Artamidæ _Artamus_. + Pittidæ *_Melampitta_. + Cuculidæ *_Caliechthrus_. + Alcedinidæ _Alcyone_, *_Syma_, _Dacelo_, *_Tanysiptera_, + *_Melidora_. + Podargidæ _Podargus_, _Ægotheles_. + Caprimulgidæ _Eurostopodus_. + Cacatuidæ _Cacatua_, *_Microglossus_, _Licmetis_, *_Nasiterna_. + Platycercidæ _Aprosmictus_ + Palæornithidæ _Tanygnathus_, _Eclectus_, _Geoffroyus_, + *_Cyclopsitta_. + Trichoglossidæ _Trichoglossus_, *_Charmosyna_, _Eos_, _Lorius_. + Nestoridæ *_Dasyptilus_. + Columbidæ _Ptilopus_, _Carpophaga_, _Ianthoenas_, + _Reinwardtoenas_, *_Trugon_, *_Henicophaps_, + _Phlogoenas_, *_Otidiphaps_, *_Goura_. + Megapodiidæ _Talegallus_, _Megapodius_. + Falconidæ *_Henicopernis_. + Casuariidæ _Casuarius_. + +The chief points of interest here are the richness and specialization of +the parrots, pigeons, and kingfishers; the wonderful paradise-birds; the +honeysuckers; and some remarkable flycatchers. {412}The most prominent +deficiencies, as compared with Australia, are in Sylviidæ, Timaliidæ, +Ploceidæ, Platycercidæ, and Falconidæ. + +II. The genera which are characteristic of the whole Malay Archipelago are +the following (10):-- + + 1. _Erythrura_ (Ploceidæ) + 2. _Pitta_ (Pittidæ) + 3. _Ceyx_ (Alcedinidæ) + 4. _Calao_ (Bucerotidæ) + 5. _Dendrochelidon_ (Cypselidæ) + 6. _Loriculus_ (Psittacidæ) + 7. _Macropygia_ (Columbidæ) + 8. _Chalcophaps_ " + 9. _Caloenas_ " + 10. _Baza_ (Falconidæ) + + +III. The curious set of genera apparently of Indo-Malayan origin, but +unknown in the Moluccas, are as follows:-- + + 1. _Eupetes_ (Cinclidæ) + 2. _Alcippe_ (Timaliidæ) + 3. _Pomatorhinus_ " + 4. _Arachnothera_ (Nectariniidæ) + 5. _Prionochilus_ (Dicæidæ) + 6. _Eulabes_ (Sturnidæ) + +The above six birds are very important as indicating past changes in the +Austro-Malay Islands, and we must say a few words about each. (1) _Eupetes_ +is very remarkable, since the New Guinea birds resemble in all important +characters that which is confined to Malacca and Sumatra. They are probably +the survivors of a once wide-spread Malayan group. (2) _Alcippe_ or +_Drymocataphus_ (for in which genus the birds should be placed is doubtful) +seems another clear case of a typical Indo-Malayan form occurring in New +Guinea and Java, but in no intervening island. (3) _Pomatorhinus_ is a most +characteristic Himalayan and Indo-Malayan genus, occurring again in New +Guinea and also in Australia, but in no intermediate island. The New Guinea +bird seems as nearly related to Oriental as Australian species. (4) +_Arachnothera_ is exactly parallel to _Alcippe_, occurring nowhere east of +Borneo except in New Guinea. (5) _Prionochilus_, a small black bird, +sometimes classed as a distinct genus, but evidently allied to the +_Prionochili_ of the Indo-Malay Islands. (6) _Eulabes_, the genus which +contains the well known Mynahs of India, extends east of Java as far as +Flores, but is not found in Celebes or the Moluccas. The two New Guinea +species are sometimes classed in different genera, but they are undoubtedly +allied to the Mynahs of India and Malaya. + +We find then, that while the ornithology of New Guinea is {413}preeminently +Australian in character and possesses many peculiar developments of +Australian types, it has also--as might be expected from its geographical +position, its climate, and its vegetation--received an infusion of Malayan +forms. But while one group of these is spread over the whole Archipelago, +and occasionally beyond it, there is another group which presents the +unusual and interesting feature of discontinuous distribution, jumping over +a thousand miles of island-studded sea from Java and Borneo to New Guinea +itself. It is a parallel case to that of Java in the Oriental region, which +we have already discussed, but the suggested explanation in that case is +more difficult to apply here. The recent soundings by the _Challenger_ show +us, that although the several islands of the Moluccas are surrounded by +water from 1,200 to 2,800 fathoms deep, yet these seas form inclosed basins +with rims not more than from 400 to 900 fathoms deep, suggesting the idea +of great lakes or inland seas which have sunk down bodily with the +surrounding land, or that enormous local and restricted elevations and +subsidences have here occurred. We have also the numerous small islands and +coral banks south of Celebes and eastward towards Timor-Laut and the Aru +Islands, indicating great subsidence; and it is possible that there was an +extension of Papua to the west, approaching sufficiently near to Java to +receive occasional straggling birds of Indo-Malay type, altogether +independent of the Moluccas to the north. + +_Bright Colours and Ornamental Plumage of New Guinea Birds._--One of the +most striking features of Papuan ornithology is the large proportion which +the handsome and bright-coloured birds bear to the more obscure species. +That this is really the case has been ascertained by going over my own +collections, made at Aru and New Guinea, and comparing them with my +collection made at Malacca--a district remarkable for the number of +handsome birds it produces. Using, as nearly as possible, the same standard +of beauty, about one-third of the Malacca birds may be classed as +handsome,[14] while in Papua the proportion comes out exactly one-half. +This is due, in part to the great abundance of {414}parrots, cockatoos, and +lories, almost all of which are beautiful; and of pigeons, more than half +of which are very beautiful; as well as to the numerous kingfishers, most +of which are excessively brilliant. Then we have the absence of thrushes, +and the very small numbers of the warblers, shrikes, and Timaliidæ, which +are dull-coloured groups; and, lastly, the presence of numerous gay pittas, +flycatchers, and the unequalled family of paradise-birds. A large number of +birds adorned with metallic plumage is also a marked feature of this fauna, +more than a dozen genera being so distinguished. Among the remarkable forms +are _Peltops_, a flycatcher, long classed as one of the Indo-Malayan +Eurylæmidæ, which it resembles both in bill and coloration; +_Machærirhynchus_, curious little boat-billed flycatchers; and _Todopsis_, +a group of terrestrial flycatchers with the brilliant colours of _Pitta_ or +_Malurus_. The paradise-birds present the most wonderful developments of +plumage and the most gorgeous varieties of colour, to be found among +passerine birds. The great whiskered-swift, the handsomest bird in the +entire family, has its head-quarters here. Among kingfishers the elegant +long-tailed _Tanysipteræ_ are preeminent, whether for singularity or +beauty. Among parrots, New Guinea possesses the great black cockatoo, one +of the largest and most singular birds in the order; _Nasiterna_, the +smallest of known parrots; and _Charmosyna_, perhaps the most elegant. +Lastly, among the pigeons we have the fine crowned-pigeons, the largest and +most remarkable group of the order. + + + + +Plate X. + +[Illustration] + +SCENE IN NEW GUINEA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. + + + +_Plate X. Illustrating the Ornithology of New Guinea._--The wonderful +ornithological fauna we have just sketched, could only be properly +represented in a series of elaborate coloured plates. We are obliged here +to confine ourselves to representing a few of the more remarkable types of +form, as samples of the great number that adorn this teeming bird-land. The +large central figure is the fine twelve-wired paradise-bird (_Seleucides +albus_), one of the most beautiful and remarkable of the family. Its +general plumage appears, at first sight, to be velvety black; but on closer +examination, and by holding the bird in various lights, it is found that +every part of it glows with the most exquisite metallic tints--rich bronze, +intense violet, and, on the {415}edges of the breast-feathers, brilliant +green. An immense tuft of dense plumes of a fine orange-buff colour, +springs from each side of the body, and six of these on each side terminate +in a black curled rachis or shaft, which form a perfectly unique adornment +to this lovely bird. To appreciate this wonderful family (of which no good +mounted collection exists) the reader should examine the series of plates +in Mr. Elliot's great work on the Paradiseidæ, where every species is +figured of the size of life, and with a perfection of colouring that leaves +little to be desired. + +Below the _Seleucides_ is one of the elegant racquet-tailed king-hunters +(_Tanysiptera galatea_) whose plumage of vivid blue and white, and +coral-red bill, combined with the long spatulate tail, renders this bird +one of the most attractive of the interesting family of kingfishers. On a +high branch is seated the little Papuan parroquet (_Charmosyna papuensis_), +one of the Trichoglossidæ, or brush-tongued parrots,--richly adorned in red +and yellow plumage, and with an unusually long and slender tail. On the +ground is the well-known crowned pigeon (_Goura coronata_), a genus which +is wholly confined to New Guinea and a few of the adjacent islands. One of +the very few Papuan mammals, a tree-kangaroo (_Dendrolagus inustus_), is +seated on a high branch. It is interesting, as an arboreal modification of +a family which in Australia is purely terrestrial; and as showing how very +little alteration of form or structure is needed to adapt an animal to such +a different mode of life. + + + +_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Of these classes comparatively little is at +present known, but there is evidence that the same intermixture of Oriental +and Australian forms that occurs in birds and insects, is also found here. +Dr. A. B. Meyer, the translator of this work into German, and well known +for his valuable discoveries in New Guinea, has kindly furnished me with a +manuscript list of Papuan reptiles, from which most of the information I am +able to give is derived. + +Of Snakes, 24 genera, are known, belonging to 11 families. Six of the +genera are Oriental,--_Calamaria_, _Cerberus_, _Chrysopelea_, _Lycodon_, +_Chersydrus_, and _Ophiophagus_. Four are Australian,--_Morelia_, +{416}_Liasis_, _Diemenia_, and _Acanthophis_; while four others are more +especially Papuan,--_Dibamus_ (Typhlopidæ), _Brachyorros_--a sub-genus of +the wide-spread _Rhabdosoma_ (Calamariidæ), found also in Timor; _Nardoa_ +and _Enygrus_ (Pythonidæ), ranging from the Moluccas to the Fiji Islands. +The rest are either common to the Oriental and Australian regions or of +wide range. + +Of Lizards also, 24 genera are recorded, belonging to 5 families. Three +only are peculiarly Oriental,--_Eumeces_, _Tiaris_, and _Nycteridium_; but +another, _Gonyocephalus_, is Malayan, ranging from Java and Borneo to the +Pelew Islands. Three are Australian,--_Cyclodus_, _Heteropus_, and +_Gehyra_; while six are especially Papuan,--_Keneuxia_ (extending to the +Philippines), _Elania_, _Carlia_ (to North Australia), _Lipinia_ (to the +Philippine Islands), and _Tribolonotus_,--all belonging to the Scincidæ; +and _Arua_ belonging to the Agamidæ. We must add _Cryptoblepharus_, which +is confined to the Australian region, except a species in Mauritius. The +other genera have a wider distribution. + +The preponderant Oriental element in the snakes as compared with the +lizards, is suggestive of the dispersal of the former being dependent on +floating trees, or even on native canoes, which for an unknown period have +traversed these seas, and in which various species of snakes often secrete +themselves. This seems the more probable, as snakes are usually more +restricted in their range than lizards, and exhibit less numerous examples +of widespread genera and species. The other orders of reptiles present no +features of interest. + +Of Amphibia only 8 genera are known, belonging to 6 families. _Rana_, +_Hylarana_, and _Hyla_ are wide-spread genera, the former being, however, +absent from Australia. _Hyperolius_, _Pelodryas_, _Litoria_, and +_Asterophrys_ are Australian; while _Platymantis_ is Polynesian, with a +species in the Philippine Islands. Hence it appears that the amphibia, so +far as yet known, exhibit no Oriental affinity; and this is a very +suggestive fact. We have seen (p. 29) that salt water is almost a complete +barrier to the dispersal of these creatures; so that the wholly Australian +character of the Papuan batrachia is what we might expect, if, as here +advocated, no actual land connection between {417}the Oriental and +Australian regions, has probably occurred during the entire Tertiary and +Post-tertiary periods. + +_Insects._--The general character of the Papuan insects has been +sufficiently indicated in our sketch of the Entomology of the region. We +will here only add, that the metallic lustre so prevalent among the birds, +is also apparent in such insects as _Sphingnotus mirabilis_, a most +brilliant metallic Longicorn; _Lomaptera wallacei_ and _Anacamptorhina +fulgida_, Cetonii of intense lustre; _Calodema wallacei_ among the +Buprestidæ; and the elegant blue _Eupholi_ among the weevils. Even among +moths we have _Cocytia durvillii_, remarkable for its brilliant metallic +colours. + + + +_The Moluccas._--The islands of Gilolo, Bouru, and Ceram, with several +smaller islands adjacent, together with Sanguir, and perhaps Tulour or +Salibaboo to the north-west, and the islands from Ke to Timor-Laut to the +south-east, form the group of the Moluccas or Spice-Islands, remarkable for +the luxuriance of their vegetation and the extreme beauty of their birds +and insects. Their Mammalia are of Papuan character, with some foreign +intermixture. Two genera of the New Guinea marsupials, _Belideus_ and +_Cuscus_, abound; and we have also the wide-spread _Sus_. But besides +these, we find no less than five genera of placental Mammals quite foreign +to the Papuan or Australian faunas. These are 1. _Cynopithecus nigrescens_, +found only in the small island of Batchian, and probably introduced from +Celebes, where the same ape occurs. 2. _Viverra tangalunga_, a common +Indo-Malayan species of civet, probably introduced. 3. _Cervus +hippelaphus_, var. _Moluccensis_, a deer abundant in all the islands, very +close to a Javan species and almost certainly introduced by man, perhaps +very long ago. 4. _Babirusa alfurus_, the babirusa, found only in the +island of Bouru, and perhaps originally introduced from Celebes. 5. _Sorex_ +sp., small shrews. With the exception of the last, _all_ these species are +animals habitually domesticated and kept in confinement by the Malays; and +when we consider that none of the smaller Mammalia of Java and Borneo, +numbering at least fifty different species, are found {418}in any of the +Moluccas, we can hardly suppose that such large animals as the deer and +ape, could have reached them by natural means. There is every reason to +believe, therefore, that the indigenous Mammalia of the Moluccas are wholly +of Papuan stock, and very limited in number. + +The birds are much more varied and interesting. About 200 species of +land-birds are now known, belonging to 85 genera. Of the species about 15 +are Indo-Malayan, 32 Papuan, and about 140 peculiar. Of the genera only two +are peculiar,--_Semioptera_, a paradise bird, and _Lycocorax_, a singular +form of Corvidæ; but there is also a peculiar rail-like wader, +_Habroptila_. One genus, _Basilornis_, is found only in Ceram and Celebes; +another, _Scythrops_, is Australian, and perhaps a migrant. About 30 genera +are characteristic Papuan types, and 37 others, of more or less wide range, +are found in New Guinea and were therefore probably derived thence. There +remains a group of birds which are not found in New Guinea, and are either +Palæarctic or Oriental. These are 13 in number as follows:-- + + 1. Monticola. + 2. Acrocephalus. + 3. Cisticola. + 4. Hypolais. + 5. Criniger. + 6. Butalis. + 7. Budytes. + 8. Corydalla. + 9. Hydrornis. + 10. Batrachostomus. + 11. Loriculus. + 12. Treron. + 13. Neopus. + + +Of these the _Monticola_, found only in Gilolo, appears to be a straggler +or migrant from the Philippine islands. _Acrocephalus_, of which four +species occur, is a wide-spread group; one of the Moluccan birds is an +Australian and another a North-Asian species, which perhaps indicates that +there has long been some migration southward from island to island, across +the Moluccas. _Cisticola_ is a genus of very wide range, extending to +Australia. _Hypolais_ is probably a modified form of a Chinese or Javanese +species. _Criniger_ is a pure Indo-Malay form, represented here by three +fine species. _Butalis_ is a Chinese species, no doubt straggling +southward. _Budytes_ and _Corydalla_ are widespread Oriental and Palæarctic +species or slight modifications of them. _Hydrornis_ is a Malayan form of +Pittidæ. _Batrachostomus_ is a distinct representative of a purely +Indo-Malay genus. {419}_Loriculus_ is Malayan, and especially Philippine, +but it reaches as far as Mysol. _Treron_ is here at its eastern limit, and +is represented in Bouru and Ceram by one of the most beautiful species. +_Neopus_, a Malayan eagle, is said to occur in the Moluccas. We find then +only three characteristic Indo-Malay types in the Moluccas,--_Criniger_, +_Batrachostomus_, and _Treron_. All are represented by distinct and well +marked species, indicating a somewhat remote period since their ancestors +entered the district, but all are birds of considerable powers of flight, +so that a very little extension of the islands in a south-westerly +direction would afford the means of transmission, but this could not well +have been by way of Celebes, because the two former genera are unknown in +that island. + +It is evident, therefore, that the Moluccas are wholly Papuan in their +zoology; yet they are no less clearly derivative, and must have obtained +their original immigrants under conditions that rendered a full +representation of the fauna impossible. Such remarkable and dominant types +as the eleven genera of Paradiseidæ, with _Cracticus_, _Rectes_, +_Todopsis_, _Machærirhynchus_, _Gerygone_, _Dacelo_, _Podargus_, +_Cyclopsitta_, _Microglossum_, _Nasiterna_, _Chalcopsitta_, and +_Goura_,--all characteristic Papuan groups, found in almost all the islands +and most of them very abundant, are yet totally absent from the Moluccas. +Taking this, in conjunction with the absence of the two genera of Papuan +kangaroos and the other smaller groups of marsupials, and we must be +convinced that the Moluccas cannot be mere fragments of the old Papuan +land, or they would certainly, in some one or other of their large and +fertile islands, have preserved a more complete representation of the +parent fauna. Most of the Moluccan birds are very distinct from the allied +species of New Guinea; and this would imply that the entrance of the +original forms took place at a remote period. The two peculiar genera with +clearly Papuan affinities, show the same thing. The cassowary, found only +in the large island of Ceram and distinct from any Papuan species, would +however seem to have required a land connection for its introduction, +almost as much as any of the larger mammalia. + +{420}Taking all the facts into consideration, I would suggest as the most +probable explanation, that if the Moluccas ever formed part of the main +Papuan land, they were separated at an early date, and subsequently so +greatly submerged as to destroy a large proportion of their fauna. They +have since risen, and have probably been larger than at present, and rather +more closely approximated to the parent land, whence they received a +considerable immigration of such animals as were adapted to cross narrow +seas. This gave them several Papuan forms, but still left them without a +number of the types more especially confined to the forest depths, or +powerful enough to combat the gales which often blow weaker flyers out to +sea. Most of the birds whose absence from the Moluccas is so conspicuous +belong to one or other of these classes. + +Among the most characteristic birds of the Moluccas are the handsome +crimson lories of the genera _Lorius_ and _Eos_. These are found in every +island (but not in Celebes or the Timor group); and a fine species of +_Eos_, peculiar to the small islands of Siau and Sanguir, just north of +Celebes, obliges us to place these with the Moluccas instead of with the +former island, to which they seem most naturally to belong. The crimson +parrots of the genus _Eclectus_ are almost equally characteristic of the +Moluccas, and add greatly to the brilliancy of the ornithology of these +favoured islands. + +_Reptiles._--The Reptiles, so far as known, appear to agree in their +distribution with the other vertebrates. In some small collections from +Ceram there were no less than six of the genera peculiar to the Australian +region, and which were before only known from Australia itself. These are, +of snakes, _Liasis_ and _Enygrus_, genera of Pythonidæ; with _Diemenia_ and +_Acanthophis_ (Elapidæ); of lizards, _Cyclodus_, a genus of Scincidæ; and +of Amphibia, a tree-frog of the genus _Pelodryas_. + +_Insects--Peculiarities of the Moluccan Fauna._--In insects the Moluccas +are hardly, if at all, inferior to New Guinea itself. The islands abound in +grand _Papilios_ of the largest size and extreme beauty; and it is a very +remarkable fact, that when the closely-allied species of the Moluccas and +New Guinea are compared, {421}the former are almost always the largest. As +examples may be mentioned, _Ornithoptera priamus_ and _O. helena_ of the +Moluccas, both larger than the varieties (or species) of Papua; _Papilio +ulysses_ and _deiphobus_ of Amboyna, usually larger than their allies in +New Guinea; _Hestia idea_, the largest species of the genus; _Diadema +pandarus_ and _Charaxes euryalus_, both larger than any other species of +the same genera in the whole archipelago. It is to be noted also, that in +the Moluccas, the very largest specimens or races seem always to come from +the small island of Amboyna; even those of Ceram, the much larger island to +which it is a satellite, being almost always of less dimensions. Among +Coleoptera, the Moluccas produce _Euchirus longimanus_, one of the largest +and most remarkable of the Lamellicornes; _Sphingnotus dunningi_, the +largest of the Austro-Malayan Tmesisterninæ; a _Sphenura_, the largest and +handsomest of an extensive genus; an unusually large _Schizorhina_ +(Cetoniidæ); and some of the most remarkable and longest-horned +Anthotribidæ. Even in birds the same law may be seen at work,--in the +_Tanysiptera nais_ of Ceram, which has a larger tail than any other in the +genus; in _Centropus goliath_ of Gilolo, being the largest and +longest-tailed species; in _Hydrornis maximus_ of Gilolo, the largest and +perhaps the most elegantly and conspicuously coloured of all the Pittidæ; +in _Platycercus amboinensis_, being pre-eminent in its ample blue tail; in +the two Moluccan lories and _Eos rubra_, being more conspicuously red than +the allied New Guinea species; and in _Megapodius wallacei_ of Bouru, being +the only species of the genus conspicuously marked and banded. + +All these examples, of larger size, of longer tails or other appendages, +and of more conspicuous colouring, are probably indications of a less +severe struggle for existence in these islands than in the larger tract of +New Guinea, with a more abundant and more varied fauna; and this may apply +even to the smaller islands, as compared with the larger in the immediate +vicinity. The limited number of forms in the small islands compared with a +similar area in the parent land, implies, perhaps, less competition and +less danger; and thus allows, where all other conditions are favourable, an +unchecked and continuous {422}development in size, form, and colour, until +they become positively injurious. This law may not improbably apply to the +New Guinea fauna itself, as compared with that of Borneo or any other +similar country; and some of its peculiarities (such as its wonderful +paradise-birds) may be due to long isolation, and consequent freedom from +the influence of any competing forms. The difference between the very sober +colours of the Coleoptera, and in a less degree of the birds, of Borneo, as +compared with their brilliancy in New Guinea, always struck me most +forcibly, and was long without any, even conjectural, explanation. It is +not the place here to go further into this most curious and interesting +subject. The reader who wishes for additional facts to aid him in forming +an opinion, should consult Mr. Darwin's _Descent of Man_, chapters x. to +xv.; and my own _Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection_, +chapters iii. and iv. + + + +_Timor Group._--_Mammalia._--In the group of islands between Java and +Australia, from Lombok to Timor inclusive, we find a set of mammals similar +to those of the Moluccas, but some of them different species. A wide-spread +species of _Cuscus_ represents the Papuan element. A _Sorex_ and a peculiar +species of wild pig, we may also accept as indigenous. Three others have +almost certainly been introduced. These are, (1.) _Macacus cynomolgus_, the +very commonest Malay monkey, which may have crossed the narrow straits from +island to island between Java and Timor, though it seems much more probable +that it was introduced by Malays, who constantly capture and rear the young +of this species. (2.) _Cervus timoriensis_, a deer, said to be a distinct +species, inhabits Timor, but it is probably only a variety of the _Cervus +hippelaphus_ of Java. This animal is, however, much more likely to have +crossed the sea than the monkey. (3.) _Paradoxurus fasciatus_, takes the +place of _Viverra tangalunga_ in the Moluccas, both common and wide-spread +civets which are often kept in confinement by the Malays. The _Felis +megalotis_, long supposed to be a native of Timor, has been ascertained by +Mr. Elliot to belong to a different country altogether. + +_Birds._--The birds are much more interesting, since they are +{423}sufficiently numerous to allow us to determine their relations, and +trace their origin, with unusual precision. There are 96 genera and 160 +species of land-birds known to inhabit this group of islands; and on a +careful analysis, they are found to be almost equally related to the +Australian and Oriental regions, 30 genera being distinctly traceable to +the former, and the same number to the latter. Their connection with the +Moluccas is shown by the presence of the genera _Mimeta_, _Geoffroyus_, +_Cacatua_, _Ptilopus_, and _Ianthænas_, together with _Megapodius_ and +_Cerchneis_ represented by Moluccan species. _Turacoena_ shows a connection +with Celebes, and _Scops_ is represented by a Celebesian species. The +connection with Australia is shown by the genera _Sphæcothera_, _Gerygone_, +_Myiagra_, _Pardalotus_, _Gliciphila_, _Amadina_, and _Aprosmictus_; while +_Milvus_, _Hypotriorchis_, _Eudynamis_, and _Eurystomus_, are represented +by Australian species. Other genera confined to or characteristic of the +Australian region, are _Rhipidura_, _Monarcha_, _Artamus_, _Campephaga_, +_Pachycephala_, _Philemon_, _Ptilotis_, and _Myzomela_. + +We now come to the Indo-Malay or Javan element represented by the following +genera: + + 1. Turdus (T.) + 2. Geocichla (T.) + 3. Zoothera. + 4. Megalurus (T.) + 5. Orthotomus. + 6. Pratincola (T.) + 7. Oreicola (T.) + 8. Drymocataphus (T.) + 9. Parus. + 10. Pycnonotus. + 11. Oriolus. + 12. Pericrocotus. + 13. Cyornis (T.) + 14. Hypothymis. + 15. Tchitrea. + 16. Lanius (T.) + 17. Anthreptes. + 18. Eulabes. + 19. Estrilda (T.) + 20. Erythrura (T.) + 21. Yungipicus. + 22. Merops. + 23. Pelargopsis. + 24. Ceyx. + 25. Loriculus. + 26. Treron (T.) + 27. Iotreron (s.g. of _Ptilopus_). + 28. Chalcophaps (T.) + 29. Gallus (T.) + 30. Strix. + +Such genera as _Merops_ and _Strix_, which are as much Australian as +Oriental, are inserted here because they are represented by Javan species. +The list is considerably swelled by genera which have reached Lombok across +the narrow strait from Baly, but have passed no further. Such are +_Zoothera_, _Orthotomus_, _Pycnonotus_, _Pericrocotus_ and _Strix_. A much +larger number (12) stop short at Flores, leaving only 13, indicated in the +list by (T) after their names, which reach Timor. It is evident, therefore, +that these islands have been stocked from three chief sources,--the +{424}Moluccas (with New Guinea and Celebes,) Australia, and Java. The +Moluccan forms may well have arrived as stragglers from island to island, +aided by whatever facilities have been afforded by lands now submerged. +Most of the remainder have been derived either from Australia or from Java; +and as their relations to these islands are very interesting, they must be +discussed with some detail. + +_Origin of the Timorese Fauna._--We must first note, that 80 species, or +exactly one-half of the land-birds of the islands, are peculiar and mostly +very distinct, intimating that the immigration commenced long enough back +to allow of much specific modification. There is also one peculiar genus of +kingfishers, _Caridonax_, found only in Lombok and Flores, and more allied +to Australian than to Oriental types. The fine white-banded pigeons (s. g. +_Leucotreron_) are also almost peculiar; one other less typical species +only being known, a native of N. Celebes. In order to compare the species +with regard to their origin, we must first take away those of wide +distribution from which no special indications can be obtained. In this +case 49 of the land-birds must be deducted, leaving 111 species which +afford good materials for comparison. These, when traced to their origin, +show that 62 came from some part of the Australian region, 49 from Java or +the Oriental region. But if we divide them into two groups, the one +containing the species identical with those of the Australian or Oriental +regions, the other containing _allied_ or _representative_ species peculiar +to the islands, we have the following result: + + Species common to the Timorese Islands and the Oriental Region 30 + Peculiar Timorese species allied to those of the Oriental Region 19 + -- + Total 49 + + Species common to the Timorese Islands and the Australian Region 18 + Peculiar Timorese species allied to those of the Australian Region 44 + -- + Total 62 + +This table is very important, as indicating that the connection {425}with +Australia was probably earlier than that with Java; since the majority of +the Australian species have become modified, while the majority of the +Oriental species have remained unchanged. This is due, no doubt, in part to +the continued immigration of fresh individuals from Java, after that from +Australia, the Moluccas and New Guinea had almost wholly ceased. We must +also notice the very small proportion of the genera, either of Australia or +Java, that have found their way into these islands, many of the largest and +most wide-spread groups in both countries being altogether absent. Taking +these facts into consideration, it is pretty clear that there has been no +close and long-continued approximation of these islands to any part of the +Australian region; and it is also probable that they were fairly stocked +with such Australian groups as they possess before the immigration from +Java commenced, or a larger number of characteristic Oriental forms would +have been able to have established themselves. + +On looking at our map, we find that a shallow submerged bank extends from +Australia to within about twenty miles of the coast of Timor; and this is +probably an indication that the two countries were once only so far apart. +This would have allowed the purely Australian types to enter, as they are +not numerous; there being about 6 Australian species, and 10 or 12 +representatives of Australian species, in Timor. All the rest may have been +derived from the Moluccas or New Guinea, being mostly wide-spread genera of +the Australian region; and the extension of Papua in a south-west direction +towards Java (which was suggested as a means of providing New Guinea with +peculiar Indo-Malay types not found in any other part of the region) may +have probably served to supply Timor and Flores with the mass of their +Austro-Malayan genera across a narrow strait or arm of the sea. Lombok, +Baly, and Sumbawa were probably not then in existence, or nothing more than +small volcanic cones rising out of the sea, thus leaving a distance of 300 +miles between Flores and Java. Subsequently they grew into islands, which +offered an easy passage for a number of Indo-Malay genera into such +scantily stocked territories as Flores and Timor. The {426}north coast of +Australia then sank, cutting off the supply from that country; and this +left the Timorese group in the position it now occupies. + +The reptiles and fishes of this group are too little known to enable us to +make any useful comparison. + +_Insects._--The insects, though not numerous, present many fine species, +some quite unlike any others in the Archipelago. Such are--_Papilio liris_, +_Pieris læta_, _Cirrochroa lamarckii_ and _C. leschenaultii_ among +butterflies. The Coleoptera are comparatively little known, but in the +insects generally the Indo-Malay element predominates. This may have arisen +from the peculiar vegetation and arid climate not being suitable to the +Papuan insects. Why Australian forms did not establish themselves we cannot +conjecture; but the field appears to have been open to immigrants from +Java, the climate and vegetation of which island at its eastern extremity +approximates to that of the Timorese group. The insects are, however, so +peculiarly modified as to imply a very great antiquity, and this is also +indicated by a group of Sylviine birds here classed under _Oreicola_, but +some of which probably form distinct genera. There may, perhaps, have been +an earlier and a later approximation to Java, which, with the other changes +indicated, would account for most of the facts presented by the fauna of +these islands. One deduction is, at all events, clear: the extreme paucity +of indigenous mammals along with the absence of so many groups of birds, +renders it certain that the Timorese islands did not derive their animal +life by means of an actual union with any of the large islands either of +the Australian or the Oriental regions. + + + +_Celebes Group._--We now come to the Island of Celebes, in many respects +the most remarkable and interesting in the whole region, or perhaps on the +globe, since no other island seems to present so many curious problems for +solution. We shall therefore give a somewhat full account of its peculiar +fauna, and endeavour to elucidate some of the causes to which its +zoological isolation may be attributed. + +_Mammalia._--The following is the list of the mammalia of {427}Celebes as +far as at present known, though many small species may yet be discovered. + + 1. Cynopithecus nigrescens. + 2. Tarsius spectrum. + 3. Viverra tangalunga. + 4. Cervus hippelaphus. + 5. Anoa depressicornis. + 6. Sus celebensis. + 7. Barbirusa alfurus. + 8. Sciurus (5 peculiar sp.) + 9. Mus (2 peculiar sp.) + 10. Cuscus (2 peculiar sp.) + Also 7 species of bats, of which 5 are peculiar. + + +The first--a large black ape--is itself an anomaly, since it is not closely +allied to any other form of quadrumana. Its flat projecting muzzle, large +superciliary crests and maxillary ridges, with the form and appearance of +its teeth, separate it altogether from the genus _Macacus_, as represented +in the Indo-Malay islands, and ally it closely to the baboons of +Africa.[15] We have already seen reason to suppose that it has been carried +to Batchian, and there is some doubt about the allied species or variety +(_C. niger_) of the Philippines being really indigenous there; in which +case this interesting form will remain absolutely confined to Celebes. (2.) +The tarsier is a truly Malayan species, but it is said to occur in a small +island at the northern extremity of Celebes and on some of the Philippine +Islands. It might possibly have been introduced there. (3) and (4)--a civet +and a deer--are, almost certainly, as in the Moluccas, introduced species. +(5.) _Anoa depressicornis._ This is one of the peculiar Celebesian types; a +small straight-horned wild-bull, anatomically allied to the buffaloes, and +somewhat resembling the bovine antelopes of Africa, but having no near +allies in the Oriental region. (6.) _Sus Celebensis_; a peculiar species of +wild-pig. (7.) _Babirusa alfurus_; another remarkable type, having no near +allies. It differs in its dentition from the typical Suidæ, and seems to +approach the African Phacochoeridæ, The manner in which the canines of the +upper jaw are reversed, and grow directly upwards in a spiral curve over +the eyes, is unique among mammalia. (8.) Five squirrels inhabit Celebes, +and all are peculiar species. (9.) These are forest rats of the sub-genus +_Gymnomys_, allied to Australian species. 10. _Cuscus._ This typical +{428}Australian form is represented in Celebes by two peculiar species. + +Leaving out the Indo-Malay _species_, which may probably have been +introduced by man, and are at all events comparatively recent immigrants, +and the wild pig, a genus which ranges over the whole archipelago and which +has therefore little significance, we find two genera which have come from +the Australian side,--_Cuscus_ and _Mus_; and four from the Oriental +side,--_Cynopithecus_, _Anoa_, _Babirusa_, and _Sciurus_. But _Sciurus_ +alone corresponds to _Cuscus_, as a genus still inhabiting the adjacent +islands; the other three being not only peculiar to Celebes, but incapable +of being affiliated to any specially Oriental group. We seem, then, to have +indications of two distinct periods; one very ancient, when the ancestors +of the three peculiar genera roamed over some unknown continent of which +Celebes formed, perhaps, an outlying portion;--another more recent, when +from one side there entered _Sciurus_, and from the other _Cuscus_. But we +must remember that the Moluccas to the east, possess scarcely any +indigenous mammals except _Cuscus_; whereas Borneo and Java on the west, +have nearly 50 distinct genera. It is evident then, that the facilities for +immigration must have been much less with the Oriental than with the +Australian region, and we may be pretty certain that at this later period +there was no land connection with the Indo-Malay islands, or some other +animals than squirrels would certainly have entered. Let us now see what +light is thrown upon the subject by the birds. + +_Birds._--The total number of birds known to inhabit Celebes is 205, +belonging to about 150 genera. We may leave out of consideration the wading +and aquatic birds, most of which are wide-ranging species. There remain 123 +genera and 152 species of land-birds, of which 9 genera and 66 species are +absolutely confined to the island, while 20 more are found also in the Sula +or Sanguir Islands, so that we may take 86 to be the number of peculiar +Celebes species. Lord Walden, from whose excellent paper on the birds of +Celebes (_Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. viii. p. 23) most of these figures are +obtained, estimates, that of the species which are not peculiar to Celebes, +55 are of Oriental and 22 of {429}Australian origin, the remainder being +common to both regions. This shows a preponderant recent immigration from +the West and North, which is not to be wondered at when we look at the long +coast line of Java, Borneo, and the Philippine islands, with an abundant +and varied bird population, on the one side, and the small scattered +islands of the Moluccas, with a comparatively scanty bird-fauna, on the +other. + +But, adopting the method here usually followed, let us look at the +relations of the _genera_ found in Celebes, omitting for the present those +which are peculiar to it. I divide these genera into two series:--those +which are found in Borneo or Java but not in the Moluccas, and those which +inhabit the Moluccas and not Borneo or Java; these being the respective +sources from which, _primâ facie_, the species of these genera must have +been derived. Genera which range widely into both these districts are +rejected, as teaching us nothing of the origin of the Celebesian fauna. In +a few cases, sub-genera which show a decided eastern or western origin, are +given. + + +GENERA DERIVED FROM BORNEO AND JAVA. + + 1. Geocichla. + 2. Pratincola (sp.) + 3. Trichastoma. + 4. Oriolus (sp.) + 5. Cyornis. + 6. Hypothymis. + 7. Hylocharis. + 8. Æthopyga. + 9. Nectarophila. + 10. Anthreptes (sp.) + 11. Munia (sp.) + 12. Acridotheres. + 13. Yungipicus. + 14. Mulleripicus. + 15. Rhamphococcyx. + 16. Hierococcyx. + 17. Hydrocissa. + 18. Cranorrhinus. + 19. Lyncornis. + 20. Treron (sp.) + 21. Gallus (sp.) + 22. Spilornis. + 23. Butastur. + 24. Pernis. + + +GENERA DERIVED FROM THE MOLUCCAS OR TIMOR. + + 1. Graucalus (sp.) + 2. Chalcostetha. + 3. Myzomela. + 4. Munia (sp.) + 5. Cacatua (sp.) + 6. Tanygnathus. + 7. Trichoglossus. + 8. Scythrops (sp.) + 9. Turacoena. + 10. Reinwardtoenas (sp.) + 11. Myristicivora (s. g.) + 12. Ducula (s. g.) + 13. Zonoenas (s. g.) + 14. Lamproteron (s. g.) + 15. Megapodius. + +These tables show a decided preponderance of Oriental over Australian +forms. But we must remember that the immediately adjacent lands from whence +the supply was derived, is {430}very much richer in the one case than in +the other. The 24 genera derived from Borneo and Java are only about _one +fourth_ of the characteristic genera of those islands; while the 15 +Moluccan and Timorese genera are fully _one third_ of their characteristic +types. The _proportion_ derived from the Australian, is greater than that +derived from the Oriental side. + +We shall exhibit this perhaps more clearly, by giving a list of the +important groups of each set of islands which are absent from Celebes. + + +Important Families of Java and Borneo absent from Celebes. + + 1. Eurylæmidæ. + 2. Timaliidæ. + 3. Phyllornithidæ. + 4. Pycnonotidæ + 5. Laniidæ. + 6. Megalæmidæ. + 7. Trogonidæ. + 8. Phasianidæ. + + +Important Families of the Moluccas absent from Celebes. + + 1. Meliphagidæ. + + +Additional important genera of Java or Borneo absent from Celebes. + + 1. Orthotomus. + 2. Copsychus. + 3. Enicurus. + 4. Tchitrea. + 5. Pericrocotus. + 6. Irena. + 7. Platylophus. + 8. Dendrocitta. + 9. Eulabes. + 10. Hemicercus. + 11. Chrysocolaptes. + 12. Tiga. + 13. Micropternus. + 14. Batrachostomus. + 15. Palæornis. + 16. Rollulus. + + +Important genera of the Moluccas absent from Celebes. + + 1. Mimeta. + 2. Monarcha. + 3. Rhipidura. + 4. Pachycephala. + 5. Lycocorax. + 6. Alcyone. + 7. Tanysiptera. + 8. Geoffroyus. + 9. Eclectus. + 10. Platycercus. + 11. Eos. + 12. Lorius. + +If we reckon the absent families to be each represented by only two +important genera, we shall find the deficiency on the Oriental side much +the greatest; yet those on the side of the Moluccas are sufficiently +remarkable. The Meliphagidæ are not indeed absolutely wanting, since a +_Myzomela_ has now been found in Celebes; but all its larger and more +powerful forms which range over almost the entire region, are absent. This +may be balanced by the absence of the excessively abundant Timaliidæ of the +Indo-Malay islands, which are represented by {431}only a single species; +and by the powerful Phasianidæ, represented only by the common Malay jungle +fowl, perhaps introduced. The entire absence of Pycnonotidæ is a very +anomalous fact, since one of the largest genera, _Criniger_, is well +represented in several islands of the Moluccas, and one has even been found +in the Togian islands in the great northern inlet of Celebes; but yet it +passes over Celebes itself. _Ceyx_, a genus of small kingfishers, is a +parallel case, since it is found everywhere from India to New Guinea, +leaving out only Celebes; but this comes among those curiosities of the +Celebesian fauna which we shall notice further on. In the list of genera +derived from Borneo or Java, no less than 6 are represented by identical +species (indicated by sp. after the name); while in the Moluccan list 5 are +thus identical. These must be taken to indicate, either that the genus is a +recent introduction, or that stragglers still occasionally enter, crossing +the breed, and thus preventing specific modification. In either case they +depend on the existing state of things, and throw no light on the different +distribution of land and sea which aided or checked migration in former +times; and they therefore to some extent diminish the weight of the +Indo-Malay affinity, as measured by the relations of the peculiar species +of Celebes. + +From our examination of the evidence thus far,--that is, taking account +firstly, of the _species_, and, secondly, of the _genera_, which are common +to Celebes and the groups of islands between which it is situated, we must +admit that the connexion seems rather with the Oriental than with the +Australian region; but when we take into account the _proportion_ of the +genera and species present, to those which are absent, and giving some +weight to the greater extent of coast line on the Indo-Malay side, we seem +justified in stating that the Austro-Malay element is rather the most fully +represented. This result applies both to birds and mammals; and it leads us +to the belief, that during the epoch of existing species and genera, +Celebes has never been united with any extensive tract of land either on +the Indo-Malay or Austro-Malay side, but has received immigrants from both +during a very long period, the facilities for immigration having been +rather the {432}greatest on the Austro-Malay or Australian side. We have +now to consider what further light can be thrown on the subject by the +consideration of the _peculiar genera_ of Celebes, and of those curiosities +or anomalies of distribution to which we have referred. + +Nine genera of birds are altogether peculiar to Celebes; three more are +found only in one other island, and seem to be typically Celebesian; while +one is found in the Sula islands (which belongs to the Celebes group) and +probably exists in Celebes also. The following is a list of these 13 +genera: + + 1. _Artamides_ (Campephagidæ) + 2. _Streptocitta_ (Corvidæ) + 3. _Charitornis_ " + 4. _Gazzola_, (s. g.) " + 5. _Basilornis_ (Sturnidæ) + 6. _Enodes_ " + 7. _Scissirostrum_ " + 8. _Monachalcyon_ (Alcedinidæ) + 9. _Cittura_ " + 10. _Ceycopsis_ " + 11. _Meropogon_ (Meropidæ) + 12. _Prioniturus_ (Psittacidæ) + 13. _Megacephalon_ (Megapodiidæ) + +Of the above, _Artamides_, _Monachalcyon_, _Cittura_, and _Megacephalon_, +are modifications of types characteristic of the Australian region. All are +peculiar to Celebes except _Cittura_, found also in the Sanguir islands to +the northward, but which seems to belong to the Moluccan group. +_Streptocitta_, _Charitornis_, and _Gazzola_, are peculiar types of +Corvidæ; the two former allied to the magpies, the latter to the jackdaws. +_Charitornis_ is known only from the Sula islands east of Celebes, and is +closely related to _Streptocitta_. There is nothing comparable to these +three groups in any of the Malay islands, and they seem to have relations +rather with the Corvidæ of the old-world northern continent. _Basilornis_, +_Enodes_, and _Scissirostrum_, are remarkable forms of Sturnidæ. +_Basilornis_ has a beautiful compressed crest, which in the allied species +found in Ceram is elongated behind. _Enodes_ has remarkable red +superciliary streaks, but seems allied to _Calornis_. _Scissirostrum_ seems +also allied to _Calornis_ in general structure, but has a very peculiarly +formed bill and nostrils. We can hardly say whether these three forms show +more affinity to Oriental or to Australian types, but they add to the +weight of evidence as to the great antiquity and isolation of the +Celebesian fauna. _Scissirostrum_ has been classed with _Euryceros_, a +{433}Madagascar bird, and with _Buphaga_, an African genus; but the +peculiar beak and nostrils approximate more to _Cracticus_ and its allies, +of the Australian region, which should probably form a distinct family. +_Ceycopsis_ is undoubtedly intermediate between the Malayan _Ceyx_ and the +African _Ispidina_, and is therefore especially interesting. _Meropogon_ is +a remarkable form of bee-eater, allied to the Indo-Malayan _Nyctiornis_. +_Prioniturus_ (the raquet-tailed parrots) of which two species inhabit +Celebes, and one the Philippines, appears to be allied to the +Austro-Malayan _Geoffroyus_. + +We must finally notice a few genera found in Celebes, whose nearest allies +are not in the surrounding islands, and which thus afford illustrations of +discontinuous distribution. The most remarkable, perhaps, is _Coracias_, of +which a fine species inhabits Celebes; while the genus is quite unknown in +the Indo-Malay sub-region, and does not appear again till we reach Burmah +and India; and the species has no closer affinity for Indian than for +African forms. _Myialestes_, a small yellow flycatcher, is another exmple; +its nearest ally (_M. cinereocapilla_) being a common Indian bird, but +unknown in the Malay islands. The Celebesian bird described by me as +_Prionochilus aureolimbatus_, is probably a third case of discontinuous +distribution, if (as a more careful examination seems to show) it is not a +_Prionochilus_, but congeneric with _Pachyglossa_, a bird only found in the +Himalayas. The fine pigeon, _Carpophaga forsteni_, belongs to a group found +in the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand; but the Celebes species is +very distinct from all the others, and seems, if anything, more allied to +that of New Zealand. + +The Sula islands (Sula-mangola, Sula-taliabo, and Sula-besi) lie midway +between Celebes and the Moluccas, being 80 miles from the nearest part of +Celebes, with several intervening islands, and 40 miles from Bouru, all +open sea. Their birds show, as might be expected, a blending of the two +faunas, but with a decided preponderance of that of Celebes. Out of 43 land +birds which have been collected in these islands, we may deduct 6 as of +wide range and no significance. Of the 37 remaining, 21 are Celebesian +species, and 4 are new species but {434}allied to those of Celebes; while +there are 10 Moluccan species and 2 new species allied to those of the +Moluccas. It is curious that no less than 3 Moluccan genera, quite unknown +in Celebes itself, occur here,--_Monarcha_, _Pachycephala_, and _Criniger_; +but all these, as well as several other of the Moluccan birds, are rather +weak flyers, and such as are likely to have been carried across by strong +winds. Of the _genera_, 23 are from Celebes, 10 from the Moluccas. These +facts show, that the Sula islands form part of the Celebes group, although +they have received an infusion of Moluccan forms, which will perhaps in +time spread to the main island, and diminish the remarkable individuality +that now characterises its fauna. + +_Insects._--Of the reptiles and fishes of Celebes we have not sufficient +information to draw any satisfactory conclusions. I therefore pass to the +insects of which something more is known. + +The Butterflies of Celebes are not very numerous, less than 200 species in +all having been collected; but a very large proportion of them, probably +three-fourths of the whole, are peculiar. There is only one peculiar genus, +_Amechania_, allied to _Zethera_ (a group confined to the Philippine +Islands), with which it should perhaps be united. Most of the genera are of +wide distribution in the archipelago, or are especially Malayan, only two +truly Australian genera, _Elodina_ and _Acropthalmia_, reaching Celebes. On +the other hand, 7 peculiar Oriental genera are found in Celebes, but not +further east, viz., _Clerome_, _Adolias_, _Euripus_, _Apatura_, +_Limenitis_, _Iolaus_, and _Leptocircus_. There are also several +indications of a direct affinity with the continent rather than with +Malaya, as in the cases already enumerated among birds. A fine butterfly, +yet unnamed, almost exactly resembles _Dichorragia nesimachus_, a Himalayan +species. _Euripus robustus_ is closely allied to _E. halitherses_ of N. +India; there are no less than 5 species of _Limenitis_, all quite unlike +those found in other parts of the archipelago. The butterflies of Celebes +are remarkably distinguished from all others in the East, by peculiarities +of form, size, and colour, which run through groups of species belonging to +different genera. Many Papilionidæ and Pieridæ, and some {435}Nymphalidæ, +have the anterior wings elongated, with the apex often acute, and, what is +especially remarkable, an abrupt bend or shoulder near the base of the +wing. (See _Malay Archipelago_, 3rd Ed. p. 281, woodcut.) No less than 13 +species of _Papilio_, 10 Pieridæ, and 4 or 5 Nymphalidæ, are thus +distinguished from their nearest allies in the surrounding islands or in +India. In size again, a large number of Celebesian butterflies stand +preeminent over their allies. The fine Papilios--_adamantius_, _blumei_, +and _gigon_--are perfect giants by the side of the closely-allied forms of +Java; while _P. androcles_ is the largest and longest-tailed, of all the +true swallow-tailed group of the Old World. Among Nymphalidæ, the species +of _Rhinopalpa_ and _Euripus_, peculiar to Celebes, are immensely larger +than their nearest allies; and several of the Pieridæ are also decidedly +larger, though in a less marked degree. In colour, many of the Celebesian +butterflies differ from the nearest allied species; so that they acquire a +singularity of aspect which marks them off from the rest of the group. The +most curious case is that of three butterflies, belonging to three distinct +genera (_Cethosia myrina_, _Messaras mæonides_, and _Atella celebensis_) +all having a delicate violet or lilac gloss in lines or patches, which is +wholly wanting in every allied species of the surrounding islands. These +numerous peculiarities of Celebesian butterflies are very extraordinary; +and imply isolation from surrounding lands, almost as much as do the +strange forms of mammals and birds, which more prominently characterise +this interesting island. + +Of the Coleoptera we know much less, but a few interesting facts may be +noted. There are a number of fine species of _Cicindela_, some of peculiar +forms; and one _Odontochila_, a South American genus; while _Collyris_ +reaches Celebes from the Oriental region. In Carabidæ it has one peculiar +genus, _Dicraspeda_; and a species of the fine Australian genus +_Catadromus_. In Lucanidæ it has the Oriental genus, _Odontolabris_. In +Cetoniidæ it has a peculiar genus, _Sternoplus_, and several fine +_Cetoniæ_; but the characteristic Malayan genus, _Lomaptera_, found in +every other island of the archipelago from Sumatra to New Guinea, is +absent--an analogous fact to the case of _Ceyx_ among birds. {436}In +Buprestidæ, the principal Austro-Malay genus, _Sambus_, is found here; +while _Sponsor_, a genus 8 species of which inhabit Mauritius, has one +species here and one in New Guinea. In Longicorns there are four peculiar +genera, _Comusia_, _Pytholia_, _Bityle_, and _Ombrosaga_; but the most +important features are the occurrence of the otherwise purely Indo-Malayan +genera _Agelasta_, _Nyctimene_, and _Astathes_; and of the purely +Austro-Malayan _Arrhenotus_, _Trysimia_, _Xenolea_, _Amblymora_, _Diallus_, +and _Ægocidnus_. The remaining genera range over both portions of the +archipelago. In the extensive family of Curculionidæ we can only notice the +elegant genus, _Celebia_, allied to _Eupholus_, which, owing to its +abundance and beauty, is a conspicuous feature in the entomology of the +island. + +_Origin of the fauna of Celebes._--We have now to consider, briefly, what +past changes of physical geography are indicated by the curious assemblage +of facts here adduced. We have evidently, in Celebes, a remnant of an +exceedingly ancient land, which has undergone many and varied revolutions; +and the stock of ancient forms which it contains must be taken account of, +when we speculate on the causes that have so curiously limited more recent +immigrations. Going back to the arrival of those genera which are +represented in Celebes by peculiar species, and taking first the +Austro-Malay genera, we find among them such groups as _Zonoenas_ (s.g.), +_Phlogoenas_, _Leucotreron_ (s.g.), and _Turacoena_, which are not found in +the Moluccas at all; and _Myzomela_, found in Timor and Banda, but not in +Ceram or Bouru, which are nearest to Celebes. This, combined with the +curious absence of so many of the commonest Moluccan genera, leads to the +conclusion that the Austro-Malay immigration took place by way of Timor and +the southern part of New Guinea. It will be remembered, that to account for +the Indo-Malayan forms in New Guinea, we suggested an extension of that +country in a westerly direction just north of Timor. Now this is exactly +what we require, to account for the stocking of Celebes with the Australian +forms it possesses. At this time Borneo did not approach so near, and it +was at a somewhat later period that the last great Indo-Malay migration set +in; but {437}finding the country already fairly stocked, comparatively few +groups were able to establish themselves. + +Going back a little farther, we come to the entrance of those few birds and +insects which belong to India or Indo-China; and this probably occurred at +the same time as that continental extension southward, which we found was +required to account for a similar phenomenon in Java. Celebes, being more +remote, received only a few stragglers. We have now to go much farther +back, to the time when the ancestors of the peculiar Celebesian genera +entered the country, and here our conjectures must necessarily be less +defined. + +On the Australian side we have to account for _Megacephalon_, and the other +genera of purely Papuan type. It may perhaps be sufficient to say, that we +do not yet know that these genera, or some very close allies, do not still +exist in New Guinea; in which case they may well have entered at the same +time with the species, already referred to. If, on the other hand, they are +really as isolated as they appear to be, they represent an earlier +communication, either by an approximation of the two islands over the space +now occupied by the Moluccas; or, what is perhaps more probable, through a +former extension of the Moluccas, which have since undergone so much +subsidence, as to lead to the extinction of a large proportion of their +ancient fauna. The wide-spread volcanic action, and especially the +prevalence of raised coral-reefs in almost all the islands, render this +last supposition very probable. + +On the Oriental side the difficulty is greater; for here we find, what seem +to be clear indications of a connection with Africa, as well as with +Continental Asia, at some immensely remote epoch. _Cynopithecus_, +_Babirusa_, and _Anoa_; _Ceycopsis_, _Streptocitta_, and _Gazzola_ (s. g.), +and perhaps _Scissirostrum_, may be well explained as descendants of +ancestral types in their respective groups, which also gave rise to the +special forms of Africa on the one hand, and of Asia on the other. For this +immigration we must suppose, that at a period before the formation of the +present Indo-Malay Islands, a great tract of land extended in a +north-westerly direction, till it met the old Asiatic continent. This may +have been before {438}the Himalayas had risen to any great height, and when +a large part of what are now the cold plateaus of Central Asia may have +teemed with life, some forms of which are preserved in Africa, some in +Malaya, and a few in Celebes. Here may have lived the common ancestor of +_Sus_, _Babirusa_, and _Phacochoerus_; as well as of _Cynopithecus_, +_Cynocephalus_, and _Macacus_; of _Anoa_ and _Bubalus_; of _Scissirostrum_ +and _Euryceros_; of _Ceyx_, _Ceycopsis_, and _Ispidina_. Such an origin +accounts, too, for the presence of the North-Indian forms in Celebes; and +it offers less difficulties than a direct connection with continental +Africa, which once appeared to be the only solution of the problem. If this +south-eastward extension of Asia occurred at the same time as the +north-eastward extension of South Africa and Madagascar, the two early +continents may have approached each other sufficiently to have allowed of +some interchange of forms: _Tarsius_ may be the descendant of some Lemurine +animal that then entered the Malayan area, while the progenitors of +_Cryptoprocta_ may then have passed from Asia to Madagascar. + +It is true that we here reach the extremest limits of speculation; but when +we have before us such singular phenomena as are presented by the fauna of +the island of Celebes, we can hardly help endeavouring to picture to our +imaginations by what past changes of land and sea (in themselves not +improbable) the actual condition of things may have been brought about. + + +_II. Australia and Tasmania, or the Australian Sub-region._ + +A general sketch of Australian zoology having been given in the earlier +part of this chapter, it will not be necessary to occupy much time on this +sub-region, which is as remarkably homogeneous as the one we have just left +is heterogeneous. Although much of the northern part of Australia is within +the tropics, while Victoria and Tasmania are situated from 36° to 43° south +latitude, there is no striking change in the character of the fauna +throughout the continent; a number of important genera extending over the +whole country, and giving a very uniform character to its zoology. The +eastern parts, including the colonies of New South Wales and Queensland, +are undoubtedly the richest, several peculiar types being found only here. +The southern portion is somewhat poorer, and has very few peculiar forms; +and Tasmania being isolated is poorer still, yet its zoology has much +resemblance to that of Victoria, from which country it has evidently not +been very long separated. The north, as far as yet known, is characterised +by hardly any peculiar forms, but by the occurrence of a number of Papuan +types, which have evidently been derived from New Guinea. + + + + +Plate XI. + +[Illustration] + +A SCENE IN TASMANIA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA. + +{439}_Mammalia._--The Australian sub-region contains about 160 species of +Mammalia, of which 3 are Monotremata, 102 Marsupials, 23 Chiroptera, 1 +Carnivora (the native dog, probably not indigenous), and 31 Muridæ. The +north is characterised by a species of the Austro-Malayan genus _Cuscus_. +_Phascolarctos_ (the koala, or native bear) is found only in the eastern +districts; _Phascolomys_ (the wombat) in the south-east and Tasmania; +_Petaurista_ (a peculiar form of flying opossum) in the east. _Thylacinus_ +(the zebra-wolf), and _Sarcophilus_ (the "native devil"), two carnivorous +marsupials, are confined to Tasmania. West Australia, the most isolated and +peculiar region botanically, alone possesses the curious little +honey-eating _Tarsipes_, and the _Peragalea_, or native rabbit. The +remarkable _Myrmecobius_, a small ant-eating marsupial, is found in the +west and south; and _Onychogalea_, a genus of kangaroos, in West and +Central Australia. All the other genera have a wider distribution, as will +be seen by a reference to the list at the end of this chapter. + +_Plate XI. A Scene in Tasmania, with Characteristic Mammalia._--As some of +the most remarkable Mammalia of the Australian region are now found only in +Tasmania, we have chosen this island for the scene of our first +illustration of the fauna of the Australian sub-region. The pair of large +striped animals are zebra-wolves (_Thylacinus cynocephalus_), the largest +and most destructive of the carnivorous marsupials. These creatures used to +be tolerably plentiful in Tasmania, where they are alone found. They are +also called "native tigers," or "native hyænas;" and being destructive to +sheep, they have been destroyed by the farmers and will doubtless soon be +exterminated. In the foreground on {440}the left is a bandicoot (_Perameles +gunnii_). These are delicate little animals allied to the kangaroos; and +they are found in all parts of Australia, and Tasmania, to which latter +country this species is confined. On the right is the wombat (_Phascolomys +wombat_), a root-eating marsupial, with large incisor teeth like those of +our rodents. They inhabit south-east Australia and Tasmania. In the +foreground is the porcupine ant-eater (_Echidna setosa_), belonging to a +distinct order of mammalia, Monotremata, of which the only other member is +the duck-billed _Ornithorhynchus_. These animals are, however, more nearly +allied to the marsupials, than to the insectivora or edentata of the rest +of the world, which in some respects they resemble. An allied species +(_Echidna hystrix_) inhabits south-east Australia. + + + +_Birds._--Australia (with Tasmania) possesses about 630 species of birds, +of which 485 are land-birds. Not more than about one-twentieth of these are +found elsewhere, so that it has a larger proportion of endemic species than +any other sub-region on the globe. These birds are divided among the +several orders as follows: + + Passeres 306 + Picariæ 41 + Psittaci 60 + Columbæ 24 + Gallinæ 15 + Accipitres 36 + Grallæ 77 + Anseres 65 + Struthiones 3 + +The Psittaci, we see, are very richly represented, while the Picariæ are +comparatively few; and the Columbæ are scarce as compared with their +abundance in the Austro-Malay sub-region. + +Birds seem to be very evenly distributed over all Australia; comparatively +few genera of importance being locally restricted. In the eastern districts +alone, we find _Origma_, and _Orthonyx_ (Sylviidæ); _Sericulus_ and +_Ptilorhynchus_ (Paradiseidæ); _Leucosarcia_ (Columbidæ); and _Talegalla_ +(Megapodiidæ). _Nectarinia_, _Pitta_, _Ptilorhis_, _Chlamydodera_, and +_Sphecotheres_, range from the north down the east coasts. _Nanodes_ +(Psittacidæ), and _Lipoa_ (Megapodiidæ), are southern forms, the first +extending {441}to Tasmania; which island appears to possess no peculiar +genus of birds except _Eudyptes_, one of the penguins. West Australia has +no wholly peculiar genus except _Geopsittacus_, a curious form of ground +parroquet; the singular _Atrichia_, first found here, having been +discovered in the east. In North Australia, _Emblema_ (Ploceidæ) is the +only peculiar Australian genus, but several Austro-Malayan and Papuan +genera enter,--as, _Syma_ and _Tanysiptera_ (Alcedinidæ); _Machærihynchus_ +(Muscicapidæ); _Calornis_ (Sturnidæ); _Manucodia_, _Ptilorhis_, and +_Æluroedus_ (Paradiseidæ); _Megapodius_; and _Casuarius_. The presence of a +species of bustard (_Eupodotis_) in Australia, is very curious, its nearest +allies being in the plains of India and Africa. Among waders the genus +_Tribonyx_, a thick-legged bird somewhat resembling the _Notornis_ of New +Zealand, though not closely allied to it, is the most remarkable. The +district where the typical Australian forms most abound is undoubtedly the +eastern side of the island. The north and south are both somewhat poorer, +the west much poorer, although it possesses a few very peculiar forms, +especially among Mammalia. Tasmania is the poorest of all, a considerable +number of genera being here wanting; but, except the two peculiar +carnivorous marsupials, it possesses nothing to mark it off zoologically +from the adjacent parts of the main land. It is probable that its insular +climate, more moist and less variable than that of Australia, may not be +suitable to some of the absent forms; while others may require more space +and more varied conditions, than are offered by a comparatively small +island. + +The remaining classes of animals have been already discussed in our sketch +of the region as a whole (p. 396). + +_Plate XII. Illustrating the Fauna of Australia._--In this plate we take +New South Wales as our locality, and represent chiefly, the more remarkable +Australian types of birds. The most conspicuous figure is the wonderful +lyre-bird (_Menura superba_), the elegant plumage of whose tail is +altogether unique in the whole class of birds. The unadorned bird is the +female. In the centre is the emu (_Dromæus novæ-hollandiæ_), the +representative in Australia, of the ostrich in Africa and America, but +{442}belonging to a different family, the Casurariidæ. To the right are a +pair of crested pigeons (_Ocyphaps lophotes_), one of the many singular +forms of the pigeon family to which the Australian region gives birth. In +every other part of the globe pigeons are smooth-headed birds, but here +they have developed three distinct forms of crest, as seen in this bird, +the crowned pigeon figured in Plate X., and the double-crested pigeon +(_Lopholæmus antarcticus_). The large bird on the tree is one of the +Australian frog-mouthed goat-suckers (_Podargus strigoides_), which are +called in the colony "More-pork," from their peculiar cry. They do not +capture their prey on the wing like true goat-suckers, but hunt about the +branches of trees at dusk, for large insects, and also for unfledged birds. +A large kangaroo (_Macropus giganteus_) is seen in the distance; and +passing through the air, a flying opossum (_Petaurus sciureus_), a +beautiful modification of a marsupial, so as to resemble in form and habits +the flying squirrels of the northern hemisphere. + + +_III. The Pacific Islands, or Polynesian Sub-region._ + +Although the area of this sub-region is so vast, and the number of islands +it contains almost innumerable, there is a considerable amount of +uniformity in its forms of animal life. From the Ladrone islands on the +west, to the Marquesas on the east, a distance of more than 5,000 miles, +the same characteristic genera of birds prevail; and this is the only class +of animals on which we can depend, mammalia being quite absent, and +reptiles very scarce. The Sandwich Islands, however, form an exception to +this uniformity; and, as far as we yet know, they are so peculiar that they +ought, perhaps, to form a separate sub-region. They are, however, +geographically a part of Polynesia; and a more careful investigation of +their natural history may show more points of agreement with the other +islands. It is therefore a matter of convenience, at present, to keep them +in the Polynesian sub-region, which may be divided into Polynesia proper +and the Sandwich Islands. + + + +Plate XII. + +[Illustration] + +THE PLAINS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. + +{443}Polynesia proper consists of a number of groups of islands of some +importance, and a host of smaller intermediate islets. For the purpose of +zoological comparison, we may class them in four main divisions. 1. The +Ladrone and Caroline Islands; 2. New Caledonia and the New Hebrides; 3. The +Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands; 4. The Society, and Marquesas Islands. The +typical Polynesian fauna is most developed in the third division; and it +will be well to describe this first, and then show how the other islands +diverge from it, and approximate other sub-regions. + +_Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands._--The land-birds inhabiting these islands +belong to 41 genera, of which 17 are characteristic of the Australian +region, and 9 more peculiarly Polynesian. The characteristic Australian +genera are the following: _Petroica_ (Sylviidæ); _Lalage_ (Campephagidæ); +_Monarcha_, _Myiagra_, _Rhipidura_ (Muscicapidæ); _Pachycephala_ +(Pachycephalidæ); _Rectes_ (Laniidæ); _Myzomela_, _Ptilotis_, _Anthochæra_ +(Meliphagidæ); _Amadina_, _Eythrura_, (Ploceidæ); _Artamus_ (Artamidæ); +_Lorius_ (Trichoglossidæ); _Ptilopus_, _Phlogænas_ (Columbidæ); +_Megapodius_ (Megapodiidæ). + +The peculiar Polynesian genera are:--_Tatare_, _Lamprolia_ (Sylviidæ); +_Aplonis_, _Sturnodes_ (Sturnidæ); _Todiramphus_ (Alcedinidæ); +_Pyrhulopsis_, _Cyanoramphus_, (Platycercidæ); _Coriphilus_ +(Trichoglossidæ); _Didunculus_ (Didunculidæ). + +The wide-spread genera are _Turdus_, _Zosterops_, _Hirundo_, _Halcyon_, +_Collocalia_, _Eudynamis_, _Cuculus_, _Ianthoenas_, _Carpophaga_, _Turtur_, +_Haliæetus_, _Astur_, _Circus_, _Strix_, _Asio_. The aquatic birds are +fifteen in number, all wide-spread species except one--a form of moor-hen +(Gallinulidæ), which has been constituted a new genus _Pareudiastes_. + +_Society, and Marquesas Islands._--Here, the number of genera of land-birds +has considerably diminished, amounting only to 16 in all. The +characteristic Australian genera are 5;--_Monarcha_, _Anthochæra_, +_Trichoglossus_, _Ptilopus_, and _Phlogoenas_. The Polynesian genera are +4;--_Tatare_, _Todiramphus_, _Cyanoramphus_, _Coriphilus_, and one recently +described genus, _Serresius_, an extraordinary form of large fruit pigeon, +here classed under _Carpophaga_. These remote groups have thus all the +character of Oceanic islands, even as regards the rest of Polynesia, since +they {444}possess hardly anything, but what they might have received by +immigration over a wide extent of ocean. + +_Ladrone, and Caroline Islands._--These extensive groups of small islands +are very imperfectly known, yet a considerable number of birds have been +obtained. They possess two peculiar Polynesian genera, _Tatare_ and +_Sturnodes_; one peculiar sub-genus, _Psammathia_ (here included under +_Acrocephalus_); and ten of the typical Australian genera found in +Polynesia,--_Lalage_, _Monarcha_, _Myiagra_, _Rhipidura_, _Myzomela_, +_Erythrura_, _Artamus_, _Phlogoenas_, _Ptilopus_, and _Megapodius_, as well +as the Papuan genus _Rectes_, and the Malayan _Calornis_;--so that they can +be certainly placed in the sub-region. Genera which do not occur in the +other Polynesian islands are, _Acrocephalus_, (s.g. _Psammathia_) +originally derived perhaps from the Philippines; and _Caprimulgus_, a +peculiar species, allied to one from Japan. + +_New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides._--Although these islands seem best +placed with Polynesia, yet they form a transition to Australia proper, and +to the Papuan group. They possess 30 genera of land-birds, 18 of which are +typical of the Australian region; but while 13 are also Polynesian, there +are 5 which do not pass further east. These are _Acanthiza_, _Eopsaltria_, +_Gliciphila_, _Philemon_, and _Ianthoenas_. The peculiar Polynesian genus, +_Aplonis_, of which three species inhabit New Caledonia, link it to the +other portions of the sub-region. The following are the genera at present +known from New Caledonia:--_Turdus_, _Acanthiza_, _Campephaga_, _Lalage_, +_Myiagra_, _Rhipidura_, _Pachycephala_, _Eopsaltria_, _Corvus_, +_Physocorax_ (s.g. of _Corvus_, allied to the jackdaws), _Glicphila_, +_Anthochæra_, _Philemon_, _Zosterops_, _Erythrura_, _Aplonis_, _Artamus_, +_Cuculus_, _Halcyon_, _Collocalia_, _Cyanoramphus_, _Trichoglossus_, +_Ptilopus_, _Carpophaga_, _Macropygia_, _Ianthoenas_, _Chalcophaps_, +_Haliastur_, _Accipiter_. The curious _Rhinochetus jubatus_, forming the +type of a distinct family of birds (Rhinochetidæ), allied to the herons, is +only known from New Caledonia. + +It thus appears, that not more than about 50 genera and 150 species of +land-birds, are known from the vast number of islands that are scattered +over the Central Pacific, and it is not probable {445}that the number will +be very largely increased. Some of the species, as the _Eudynamis +taitensis_ and _Tatare longirostris_, range over 40° of longitude, from the +Fiji Islands to the Marquesas. In other genera, as _Cyanoramphus_ and +_Ptilopus_, each important island or group of islands, has its peculiar +species. The connection of all these islands with each other, on the one +hand, and their close relation to the Australian region, on the other, are +equally apparent; but we have no sufficient materials for speculating with +any success, on the long series of changes that have brought about their +existing condition, as regards their peculiar forms of animal life. + +_Sandwich Islands._--This somewhat extensive group of large islands, is +only known to contain 11 genera and 18 species of indigenous land-birds; +and even of this small number, two birds of prey are wide ranging species, +which may well have reached the islands during their present isolated +condition. These latter are, _Strix delicatula_, an owl spread over +Australia and the Pacific; and _Asio accipitrinus_, a species which has +reached the Galapagos from S. America, and thence perhaps the Sandwich +Islands. Of the remaining 8 genera, one is a crow (_Corvus hawaiensis_), +and another a fishing eagle (_Pandion solitarius_), of peculiar species; +leaving 7 genera, which are all (according to Mr. Sclater) peculiar. First +we have _Chasiempis_, a genus of Muscicapidæ, containing two species (which +may however belong to distinct genera); and as the entire family is unknown +on the American continent these birds must almost certainly be allied to +some of the numerous Muscicapine forms of the Australian region. Next we +have the purely Australian family Meliphagidæ, represented by two +genera,--_Moho_, an isolated form, and _Chætoptila_, a genus established by +Mr. Sclater for a bird before classed in _Entomyza_, an Australian group. +The four remaining genera are believed by Mr. Sclater to belong to one +group, the Drepanididæ, altogether confined to the Sandwich Islands. Two of +them, _Drepanis_ and _Hemignathus_, with three species each, are +undoubtedly allied; the other two, _Loxops_ and _Psittirostra_, have +usually been classed as finches. The former seem to approach the Dicæidæ; +and all resemble this group in their coloration, + +{446}The aquatic birds and waders all belong to wide-spread genera, and +only one or two are peculiar species. + +The Sandwich Islands thus possess a larger proportion of peculiar genera +and species of land-birds than any other group of islands, and they are +even more strikingly characterised by what seems to be a peculiar family. +The only other class of terrestrial animals at all adequately represented +on these islands, are the land shells; and here too we find a peculiar +family, sub-family, or genus (Achatinella or Achatinellidæ) consisting of a +number of genera, or sub-genera,--according to the divergent views of +modern conchologists,--and nearly 300 species. The Rev. J. T. Gulick, who +has made a special study of these shells on the spot, considers that there +are 10 genera, some of which are confined to single islands. The species +are so restricted that their average range is not more than five or six +square miles, while some are confined to a tract of only two square miles +in extent, and very few range over an entire island. Some species are +confined to the mountain ridges, others to the valleys; and each ridge or +valley possesses its peculiar species. Considerably more than half the +species occur in the island of Oahu, where there is a good deal of forest. +Very few shells belonging to other groups occur, and they are all small and +obscure; the Achatinellæ almost monopolising the entire archipelago. + +_Remarks on the probable past history of the Sandwich Islands._--The +existence of these peculiar groups of birds and land-shells in so remote a +group of volcanic islands, clearly indicates that they are but the relics +of a more extensive land; and the reefs and islets that stretch for more +than 1,000 miles in a west-north-west direction, may be the remains of a +country once sufficiently extensive to develope these and many other, now +extinct, forms of life.[16] + +Some light may perhaps be thrown on the past history of the {447}Sandwich +Islands, by the peculiar plants which are found on their mountains. The +peak of Teneriffe produces no Alpine plants of European type, and this has +been considered to prove that it has been always isolated; whereas the +occurrence of North Temperate forms on the mountains of Java, accords with +other evidence of this island having once formed part of the Asiatic +continent. Now on the higher summits of the Sandwich Islands, nearly 30 +genera of Arctic and North Temperate flowering plants have been found. Many +of these occur also in the South Temperate zone, in Australia or New +Zealand; but there are others which seem plainly to point to a former +connection with some North Temperate land, probably California, as a number +of islets are scattered in the ocean between the two countries. The most +interesting genera are the following:--_Silene_, which is wholly North +Temperate, except that it occurs in S. Africa; _Vicia_, also North +Temperate, and in South Temperate America; _Fragaria_, with a similar +distribution; _Aster_, widely spread in America, otherwise North Temperate +only; _Vaccinium_, wholly confined to the northern hemisphere, in cold and +temperate climates. None of these are found in Australia or New Zealand; +and their presence in the Sandwich Islands seems clearly to indicate a +former approximation to North Temperate America, although the absence of +any American forms of vertebrata renders it certain that no actual land +connection ever took place. + +Recent soundings have shown, that the Sandwich Islands rise from a sea +which is 3,000 fathoms or 18,000 feet deep; while there is a depth of at +least 2,000 fathoms all across to California on one side, and to Japan on +the other. Between the Fiji Islands, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, +and Australia, the depth is about 1,300 fathoms, and between Sydney and New +Zealand 2,600 fathoms; showing, in every case, a general accordance between +the depth of sea and the approximation of the several faunas. In a few more +years, when it is to be hoped we shall know the contour of the sea-bottom +better than that of the continents, we shall be able to arrive at more +definite and trustworthy conclusions as to the probable changes {448}of +land and sea by which the phenomena of animal distribution in the Pacific +have been brought about. + +_Reptiles of the Polynesian Sub-region._--The researches of Mr. Darwin on +Coral Islands, proved, that large areas in the Pacific Ocean have been +recently subsiding; but the peculiar forms of life which they present, no +less clearly indicate the former existence of some extensive lands. The +total absence of Mammalia, however, shows either that these lands never +formed part of the Australian or Papuan continents, or if they did, that +they have been since subjected to such an amount of subsidence as to +exterminate most of their higher terrestrial forms of life. It is a +remarkable circumstance, that although Mammalia (except bats) are wanting, +there are a considerable number of reptiles ranging over the whole +sub-region. Lizards are the most numerous, five families and fourteen +genera being represented, as follows:-- + + 1. Cryptoblepharus (Gymnopthalmidæ ) Fiji Islands. + 2. Ablepharus " All the islands. + 3. Lygosoma (Scincidæ) Pelew Islands, New Caledonia. + 4. Mabouya " Samoa Islands. + 5. Euprepes " Pacific Islands. + 6. _Dactyloperus_ (Geckotidæ) Sandwich Islands. + 7. _Doryura_ (Geckotidæ) Pacific Islands. + 8. Gehyra " Fiji Islands. + 9. _Amydosaurus_ " Tahiti. + 10. Heteronota " Fiji Islands. + 11. _Correlophus_ " New Caledonia. + 12. _Brachylophus_ (Iguanidæ) Fiji Islands. + 13. Lophura (Agamidæ) Pelew Islands. + 14. _Chloroscartes_ " Fiji Islands. + + +The first five are wide-spread genera, represented mostly by peculiar +species; but sometimes the species themselves have a wide range, as in the +case of _Ablepharus poecilopleurus_, which (according to Dr. Günther) is +found in Timor, Australia, New Caledonia, Savage Island (one of the Samoa +group), and the Sandwich Islands! _Gehyra_ and _Heteronota_ are Australian +genera; while _Lophura_ has reached the Pelew Islands from the Moluccas. +The remainder (printed in italics), are peculiar genera; _Brachylophus_ +being especially interesting as an example of an {449}otherwise peculiar +American family, occurring so far across the Pacific. + +Snakes are much less abundant, only four genera being represented, one of +them marine. They are, _Anoplodipsas_, a peculiar genus of Amblycephalidæ +from New Caledonia; _Enygrus_, a genus of Pythonidæ from the Fiji Islands; +_Ogmodon_, a peculiar genus of Elapidæ, also from the Fiji Islands, but +ranging to Papua and the Moluccas; and _Platurus_, a wide-spread genus of +sea-snakes (Hydrophidæ). In the more remote Sandwich and Society Islands +there appear to be no snakes. This accords with our conclusion that lizards +have some special means of dispersal over the ocean which detracts from +their value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities; which is further +proved by the marvellous range of a single species (referred to above) from +Australia to the Sandwich Islands. + +A species of _Hyla_ is said to inhabit the New Hebrides, and several +species of _Platymantis_ (tree-frogs) are found in the Fiji Islands; but +otherwise the Amphibians appear to be unrepresented in the sub-region, +though they will most likely be found in so large an island as New +Caledonia. + +From the foregoing sketch, it appears, that although the reptiles present +some special features, they agree on the whole with the birds, in showing, +that the islands of Polynesia all belong to the Australian region, and that +in the Fiji Islands is to be found the fullest development of their +peculiar fauna. + + +_IV. New Zealand Sub-region._ + +The islands of New Zealand are more completely oceanic than any other +extensive tract of land, being about 1,200 miles from Australia and nearly +the same distance from New Caledonia and the Friendly Isles. There are, +however, several islets scattered around, whose productions show that they +belong to the same sub-region;--the principal being, Norfolk Island, Lord +Howe's Island, and the Kermadec Isles, on the north; Chatham Island on the +east; the Auckland and Macquarie Isles on the south;--and if these were +once joined to {450}New Zealand, there would have been formed an +island-continent not much inferior in extent to Australia itself. + +New Zealand is wholly situated in the warmer portion of the Temperate zone, +and enjoys an exceptionally mild and equable climate. It has abundant +moisture, and thus comes within the limits of the South-Temperate forest +zone; and this leads to its productions often resembling those of the +tropical, but moist and wooded, islands of the Pacific, rather than those +of the temperate, but arid and scantily wooded plains of Australia. The two +islands of New Zealand are about the same extent (approximately) as the +British Isles, but the difference in the general features of their natural +history is very great. There are, in the former, no mammalia, less than +half as many birds, very few reptiles and fresh-water fishes, and an +excessive and most unintelligible poverty of insects; yet, considering the +situation of the islands and their evidently long-continued isolation, the +wonder rather is that their fauna is so varied and interesting as it is +found to be. Our knowledge of this fauna, though no doubt far from +complete, is sufficiently ample; and it will be well to give a pretty full +account of it, in order to see what conclusions may be drawn as to its +origin. + +_Mammalia._--The only mammals positively known as indigenous to New Zealand +are two bats, both peculiar to it,--_Scotophilus tuberculatus_ and +_Mystacina tuberculata_. The former is allied to Australian forms; the +latter is more interesting, as being a peculiar genus of the family +Noctilionidæ, which does not exist in Australia; and in having decided +resemblances to the Phyllostomidæ of South America, so that it may almost +be considered to be a connecting link between the two families. A forest +rat is said to have once abounded on the islands, and to have been used for +food by the natives; but there is much doubt as to what it really was, and +whether it was not an introduced species. The seals are wide-spread +antarctic forms which have no geographical significance. + +_Birds._--About 145 species of birds are natives of New Zealand, of which +88 are waders or aquatics, leaving 57 land-birds {451}belonging to 34 +genera. Of this latter number, 16, or nearly half, are peculiar; and there +are also 5 peculiar genera of waders and aquatic birds, making 21 in all. +Of the remaining genera of land-birds, four are cosmopolite or of very wide +range, while the remainder are characteristic of the Australian region. The +following is a list of the Australian genera found in New Zealand: +_Sphenæacus_, _Gerygone_, _Orthonyx_ (Sylviidæ); _Graucalus_ +(Campephagidæ); _Rhipidura_ (Muscicapidæ); _Anthochæra_ (Meliphagidæ); +_Zosterops_ (Dicæidæ); _Cyanoramphus_ (Platycercidæ); _Carpophaga_ +(Columbidæ); _Hieracidea_ (Falconidæ); _Tribonyx_ (Rallidæ). Besides these +there are several genera of wide range, as follows:--_Anthus_ +(Motacillidæ); _Hirundo_ (Hirundinidæ); _Chrysococcyx_, _Eudynamis_ +(Cuculidæ); _Halcyon_ (Alcedinidæ); _Coturnix_ (Tetraonidæ); _Circus_ +(Falconidæ); _Athene_ (Strigidæ). + +Most of the above genera are represented by peculiar New Zealand species, +but in several cases the species are identical with those of Australia, as +in the following: _Anthochæra carunculata_, _Zosterops lateralis_, _Hirundo +nigricans_, and _Chrysococcyx lucidus_; also one--_Eudynamis +taitensis_--which is Polynesian. + +We now come to the genera peculiar to New Zealand, which are of especial +interest: + + +LIST OF GENERA OF BIRDS PECULIAR TO NEW ZEALAND. + + No. of + Family and Genus. Species. Remarks. + + SYLVIIDÆ. + 1. Myiomoira 3 Allied to Petroica, an Australian genus + 2. Miro 2 " " " " + + TIMALIIDÆ (?) + 3. Turnagra 2 Of doubtful affinities. + + SITTIDÆ. + 4. Xenicus 3 Of doubtful affinities. + 5. Acanthisitta 1 Of doubtful affinities. + + PARIDÆ. + 6. Certhiparus 2 Of doubtful affinities. + + MELIPHAGIDÆ. + 7. Prosthemadera 1 Peculiar genera of honeysuckers, a + 8. Pogonornis 1 family which is confined to the + 9. Anthornis 3 Australian Region. + + STURNIDÆ. {452} + 10. Creadion 2 These three genera are probably + 11. Heterolocha 1 allied, and perhaps form a distinct + 12. Callæas 2 family. + + NESTORIDÆ. + 13. Nestor 3 A peculiar family of Parrots. + + STRINGOPIDÆ. + 14. Stringops 1 A peculiar family of Parrots. + + STRIGIDÆ. + 15. (Sceloglaux) 1 s.g. of Athene. + + RALLIDÆ. + 16. Ocydromus 6 Allied to _Eulabeornis_, an Australian + genus. + 17. Notornis 1 Allied to _Porphyrio_, a genus of wide + range. + + CHARADRIIDÆ. + 18. Thinornis 1 + 19. Anarhynchus 1 + + ANATIDÆ. + 20. Hymenolæmus 1 Allied to _Malacorhynchus_, an Australian + genus. + APTERYGIDÆ. + 21. Apteryx 4 Forming a peculiar family. + +We have thus a wonderful amount of speciality; yet the affinities of the +fauna, whenever they can be traced, are with Australia or Polynesia. Nine +genera of New Zealand birds are characteristically Australian, and the +eight genera of wide range are Australian also. Of the peculiar genera, 7 +or 8 are undoubtedly allied to Australian groups. There are also four +Australian and one Polynesian _species_. Even the peculiar _family_, +Nestoridæ is allied to the Australian Trichoglossidæ. We have therefore +every gradation of similarity to the Australian fauna, from identical +species, through identical genera, and allied genera, to distinct but +allied families; clearly indicating very long continued yet rare +immigations from Australia or Polynesia; immigrations which are continued +down to our day. For resident ornithologists believe, that the _Zosterops +lateralis_ has found its way to New Zealand within the last few years, and +that the two cuckoos now migrate annually, the one from Australia, the +other from some {453}part of Polynesia, distances of more than 1,000 miles! +These facts seem, however, to have been accepted on insufficient evidence +and to be in themselves extremely improbable. It is observed that the +cuckoos appear annually in certain districts and again disappear; but their +course does not seem to have been traced, still less have they ever been +actually seen arriving or departing across the ocean. In a country which +has still such wide tracts of unsettled land, it is very possible that the +birds in question may only move from one part of the islands to another. + + +_Islets of the New Zealand Sub-region._ + +We will here notice the smaller islands belonging to the sub-region, as it +is chiefly their birds that possess any interest. + +_Norfolk Island._--The land-birds recorded from this island amount to 15 +species, of which 8 are Australian, viz.: _Climacteris scandens_, +_Symmorphus leucopygius_, _Zosterops tenuirostris_ and _Z. albogularis_, +_Halcyon sanctus_, _Platycercus pennanti_, _Carpophaga spadicea_, +_Phapspicata_ and _P. chalcoptera_. Of the peculiar species three belong to +Australian genera; _Petroica_, _Gerygone_, and _Rhipidura_; one to a +cosmopolitan genus, _Turdus_. So far the affinity seems to be all +Australian, and there remain only three birds which ally this island to New +Zealand,--_Nestor productus_, _Cyanoramphus rayneri_, and _Notornis alba_. +The former inhabited the small Phillip Island (close to Norfolk Island) but +is now extinct. Being a typical New Zealand genus, quite incapable of +flying across the sea, its presence necessitates some former connexion +between the two islands, and it is therefore perhaps of more weight than +all the Australian genera and species, which are birds capable of long +flights. The _Cyanoramphus_ is allied to a New Zealand broad-tailed +parroquet. The _Notornis alba_ is extinct, but two specimens exist in +museums, and it is even a stronger case than the _Nestor_, as showing a +former approximation or union of this island with New Zealand. A beautiful +figure of this bird is given in the _Ibis_ for 1873. + +_Lord Howe's Island._--This small island, situated half-way between +Australia and Norfolk Island, is interesting, as containing a peculiar +species of the New Zealand genus _Ocydromus_, or {454}wood-hen (_O. +sylvestris_). There is also a peculiar thrush, _Turdus vinitinctus_. Its +other birds are wholly of Australian types, and most of them probably +Australian species. The following have been observed, and no doubt +constitute nearly its whole indigenous bird fauna. _Acanthiza_ sp., +_Rhipidura_ sp., _Pachycephala gutturalis_, _Zosterops strennuus_ and _Z. +tephropleurus_, _Strepera_ sp., _Halcyon_ sp., and _Chalcophaga +chrysochlora_. The two species of _Zosterops_ are peculiar. The _Ocydromus_ +is important enough to ally this island to New Zealand rather than to +Australia; and if the white bird seen there is, as supposed, the _Notornis +alba_ which is extinct in Norfolk Island, the connection will be rendered +still more clear. + +_Chatham Islands._--These small islands, 450 miles east of New Zealand, +possess about 40 species of birds, of which 13 are land-birds. All but one +belong to New Zealand genera, and all but five are New Zealand species. The +following are the genera of the land-birds: _Sphenæacus_, _Gerygone_, +_Myiomoira_, _Rhipidura_, _Zosterops_, _Anthus_, _Prosthemadera_, +_Anthornis_, _Chrysococcyx_, _Cyanoramphus_, _Carpophaga_, _Circus_. The +peculiar species are _Anthornis melanocephala_, _Myiomoira diffenbachi_ and +_M. traversi_, _Rhipidura flabellifera_, and a peculiar rail incapable of +flight, named by Captain Hutton _Cabalus modestus_. It is stated that the +_Zosterops_ differs from that of New Zealand, and is also a migrant; and it +is therefore believed to come every year from Australia, passing over New +Zealand, a distance of nearly 1,700 miles! Further investigation will +perhaps discover some other explanation of the facts. It is also stated, +that the pigeon and one of the small birds (? _Gerygone_ or _Zosterops_) +have arrived at the islands within the last eight years. The natives +further declare, that both the _Stringops_ and _Apteryx_ once inhabited the +islands, but were exterminated about the year 1835. + +_The Auckland Islands._--These are situated nearly 300 miles south of New +Zealand, and possess six land-birds, of which three are peculiar,--_Anthus +aucklandicus_, _Cyanoramphus aucklandicus_, and _C. malherbii_, the others +being New Zealand species of _Myiomoira_, _Prosthemadera_, and _Anthornis_. +It is remarkable that two peculiar parrots of the same genus should inhabit +these small islands; but such localities seem favourable to the +Platycercidæ, for another peculiar species is found in the remote Macquarie +Islands, more than 400 miles farther south. A peculiar species and genus of +ducks, _Nesonetta aucklandica_, is also found here, and as far as yet +known, nowhere else. A species of the northern genus _Mergus_ is also found +on these islands, and has been recently obtained by Baron von Hügel. + + + + +Plate XIII. + +[Illustration] + +SCENE IN NEW ZEALAND, WITH SOME OF ITS REMARKABLE BIRDS. + +{455}_Plate XIII. Illustrating the peculiar Ornithology of New +Zealand._--Our artist has here depicted a group of the most remarkable and +characteristic of the New Zealand birds. In the middle foreground is the +Owl-parrot or Kakapoe (_Stringops habroptilus_), a nocturnal burrowing +parrot, that feeds on fern-shoots, roots, berries, and occasionally +lizards; that climbs but does not fly; and that has an owl-like mottled +plumage and facial disc. The wings however are not rudimentary, but fully +developed; and it seems to be only the muscles that have become useless for +want of exercise. This would imply, that these birds have not long been +inhabitants of New Zealand only, but were developed in other countries +(perhaps Australia) where their wings were of use to them. + +Beyond the Kakapoe are a pair of the large rails, _Notornis mantelli_; +heavy birds with short wings quite useless for flight, and with massive +feet and bill of a red colour. On the right is a pair of Kiwis (_Apteryx +australis_), one of the queerest and most unbird-like of living birds. It +has very small and rudimentary wings, entirely concealed by the hair-like +plumage, and no tail. It is nocturnal, feeding chiefly on worms, which it +extracts from soft earth by means of its long bill. The genus _Apteryx_ +forms a distinct family of birds, of which four species are now known, +besides some which are extinct. They are allied to the Cassowary and to the +gigantic extinct _Dinornis_. On the wing are a pair of Crook-billed Plovers +(_Anarhynchus frontalis_), remarkable for being the only birds known which +have the bill bent sideways. This was at first thought to be a +malformation; but it is now proved to be a constant character of the +species, as it exists even in the young chicks; yet the purpose served by +such an anomalous structure is not yet discovered. {456}No country on the +globe can offer such an extraordinary set of birds as are here depicted. + + + +_Reptiles._--These consist almost wholly of lizards, there being no +land-snakes and only one frog. Twelve species of lizards are known, +belonging to three genera, one of which is peculiar, as are all the +species. _Hinulia_, with two species, and _Mocoa_, with four species (one +of which extends to the Chatham Islands), belong to the Scincidæ; both are +very wide-spread genera and occur in Australia. The peculiar genus +_Naultinus_, with six species, belongs to the Geckotidæ, a family spread +over the whole world. + +The most extraordinary and interesting reptile of New Zealand is, however, +the _Hatteria punctata_, a lizard-like animal living in holes, and found in +small islands on the north-east coast, and more rarely on the main land. It +is somewhat intermediate in structure between lizards and crocodiles, and +also has bird-like characters in the form of its ribs. It constitutes, not +only a distinct family, Rhyncocephalidæ, but a separate order of reptiles, +Rhyncocephalina. It is quite isolated from all other members of the class; +and is probably a slightly modified representative of an ancient and +generalised form, which has been superseded in larger areas by the more +specialized lizards and saurians. + +The only representatives of the Ophidia are two sea-snakes of Australian +and Polynesian species, and of no geographical interest. + +_Amphibia._--The solitary frog indigenous to New Zealand, belongs to a +peculiar genus, _Liopelma_, and to the family Bomburatoridæ, otherwise +confined to Europe and temperate South America. + +_Fresh-water Fishes._--There are, according to Captain Hutton, 15 species +of fresh-water fish in New Zealand, belonging to 7 genera; six species, and +one genus (_Retropinna_), being peculiar. _Retropinna richardsoni_ belongs +to the Salmonidæ, and is the only example of that family occurring in the +Southern hemisphere, where it is confined to New Zealand and the Chatham +Islands. The wide distribution of _Galaxias attenuatus_--from the +{457}Chatham Islands to South America--has already been noticed; while +another species, _G. fasciatus_, is found in the Chatham and Auckland Isles +as well as New Zealand. A second genus peculiar to New Zealand, +_Neochanna_, allied to _Galaxias_, has recently been described. +_Prototroctes oxyrhynchus_ is allied to an Australian species, but belongs +to a family (Haplochitonidæ) which is otherwise South American. An eel, +_Anguilla latirostris_, is found in Europe, China, and the West Indies, as +well as in New Zealand! while the genus _Agonostoma_ ranges to Australia, +Celebes, Mauritius, and Central America. + +_Insects._--The great poverty of this class is well shown by the fact, that +only eleven species of butterflies are known to inhabit New Zealand. Of +these, six are peculiar, and one, _Argyrophenga_ (Satyridæ), is a peculiar +genus allied to the Northern genus _Erebia_. The rest are either of wide +range, as _Pyrameis cardui_ and _Diadema bolina_; or Australian, as +_Hamdyaas zoilus_; while one, _Danais erippus_, is American, but has also +occurred in Australia, and is no doubt a recent introduction into both +countries. Only one _Sphinx_ is recorded, and no other species of the +Sphingina except the British currant-moth, _Ægeria tipuliformis_, doubtless +imported. Coleoptera are better represented, nearly 300 species having been +described, all or nearly all being peculiar. These belong to about 150 +genera, of which more than 50 are peculiar. No less than 14 peculiar genera +belong to the Carabidæ, mostly consisting of one or two species, but +_Demetrida_ has 3, and _Metaglymma_ 8 species. Other important genera are +_Dicrochile_, _Homalosoma_, _Mecodema_, and _Scopodes_, all in common with +Australia. _Mecodema_ and _Metaglymma_ are the largest genera. Even the +Auckland Islands have two small genera of Carabidæ found nowhere else. + +Cicindelidæ are represented in New Zealand by 6 species of _Cicindela_, and +1 of _Dystipsidera_, a genus peculiar to the Australian region. + +The Lucanidæ are represented by two peculiar genera, _Dendroblax_ and +_Oxyomus_; two Australian genera, _Lissotes_ and _Ceratognathus_; and by +the almost cosmopolite _Dorcus_. + +The Scarabeidæ consist of ten species only, belonging to four {458}genera, +two of which are peculiar (_Odontria_ and _Stethaspis_); and two Australian +(_Pericoptus_ and _Calonota_). There are no Cetoniidæ. + +There is only one Buprestid, belonging to the Australian genus _Cisseis_. +The Elateridæ, (about a dozen species,) belong mostly to Australian genera, +but two, _Metablax_ and _Ochosternus_, are peculiar. + +There are 30 species of Curculionidæ, belonging to 22 genera. Of the +genera, 12 are peculiar; 1 is common to New Zealand and New Caledonia; 5 +belong to the Australian region, and the rest are widely distributed. + +Longicorns are, next to Carabidæ, the most numerous family, there being, +according to Mr. Bates (_Ann. Nat. Hist._, 1874), about 35 genera, of which +26 are peculiar or highly characteristic, and 7 of the others Australian. +The largest and most characteristic genera are _Æmona_ and _Xyloteles_, +both being peculiar to New Zealand; few of the remainder having more than +one or two species. _Demonax_ extends to the Moluccas and S. E. Asia. A +dozen of the genera have no near relations with those of any other country. + +Phytophaga are remarkably scarce, only two species of _Colaspis_ being +recorded; and there is only a single species of _Coccinella_. + +The other orders of Insects appear to be equally deficient. Hymenoptera are +very poorly represented, only a score of species being yet known; but two +of the genera are peculiar, as are all the species. The Neuroptera and +Heteroptera are also very scarce, and several of the species are +wide-spread forms of the Australian region. The few species of Homoptera +are all peculiar. The Myriapoda afford some interesting facts. There are +nine or ten species, all peculiar. One genus, _Lithobius_, ranges over the +northern hemisphere as far south as Singapore, and probably through the +Malay Archipelago, but is not found in Australia. _Henicops_ occurs +elsewhere only in Tasmania and Chili. _Cryptops_, only in the north +temperate zone; while two others, _Cermatia_ and _Cormocephalus_, both +occur in Australia. + +{459}_Land-Shells._--Of these, 114 species are known, 97 being peculiar. +Three species of _Helix_ are also found in Australia, and five more in +various tropical islands of the Pacific. _Nanina_, _Lymnæa_, and +_Assiminea_, are found in Polynesia or Malaya, but not in Australia. +_Amphibola_ is an Australian genus, as is _Janella_. _Testacella_ and +_Limax_ belong to the Palæarctic region. + +From the Chatham Islands, 82 species of shells are known, all being New +Zealand species, except nine, which are peculiar. + + + +_The Ancient Fauna of New Zealand._--One of the most remarkable features of +the New Zealand fauna, is the existence, till quite recent times, of an +extensive group of wingless birds,--called Moas by the natives--many of +them of gigantic size, and which evidently occupied the place which, in +other countries, is filled by the mammalia. The most recent account of +these singular remains, is that by Dr. Haast, who, from a study of the +extensive series of specimens in the Canterbury museum, believes, that they +belong to two families, distinguished by important differences of +structure, and constitute four genera,--_Dinornis_ and _Miornis_, forming +the family Dinornithidæ; _Palapteryx_ and _Euryapteryx_, forming the family +Palapterygidæ. These were mostly larger birds than the living _Apteryx_, +and some of them much larger even than the African ostrich, and were more +allied to the Casuariidæ and Struthionidæ than to the Apterygidæ. No less +than eleven species of these birds have been discovered; all are of recent +geological date, and there are indications that some of them may have been +in existence less than a century ago, and were really exterminated by man. +Remains have been found (of apparently the same recent date) of species of +_Apteryx_, _Stringops_, _Ocydromus_, and many other living forms, as well +as of _Harpagornis_, a large bird of prey, and _Cnemiornis_, a gigantic +goose. Bodies of the _Hatteria punctata_ have also been found along with +those of the Moa, showing that this remarkable reptile was once more +abundant on the main islands than it is now. + + + +_The Origin of the New Zealand Fauna._--Having now given {460}an outline +sketch of the main features of the New Zealand fauna and of its relations +with other regions, we may consider what conclusions are fairly deducible +from the facts. As the outlying Norfolk, Chatham, and Lord Howe's Islands, +are all inhabited (or have recently been so) by birds of New Zealand type +or even identical species, almost incapable of flight, we may infer that +these islands show us the former minimum extent of the land-area in which +the peculiar forms which characterise the sub-region were developed. If we +include the Auckland and Macquarie Islands to the south, we shall have a +territory of not much less extent than Australia, and separated from it by +perhaps several hundred miles of ocean. Some such ancient land must have +existed to allow of the development and specialization of so many peculiar +forms of birds, and it probably remained with but slight modifications for +a considerable geological period. During all this time it would interchange +many of its forms of life with Australia, and there would arise that amount +of identity of genera between the two countries which we find to exist. Its +extension southwards, perhaps considerably beyond the Macquaries, would +bring it within the range of floating ice during colder epochs, and within +easy reach of the antarctic continent during the warm periods; and thus +would arise that interchange of genera and species with South America, +which forms one of the characteristic features of the natural history of +New Zealand. + +Captain F. W. Hutton (to whose interesting paper on the Geographical +relations of the New Zealand Fauna we are indebted for some of our facts) +insists upon the necessity of former land-connections in various +directions, and especially of an early southern continental period, when +New Zealand, Australia, Southern Africa, and South America, were united. +Thus he would account for the existence of Struthious birds in all these +countries, and for the various other groups of birds, reptiles, fishes, or +insects which have no obvious means of traversing the ocean,--and this +union must have occurred before mammalia existed in any of these countries. +But such a supposition is quite unnecessary, if we consider that all +wingless land-birds and some water-birds (as the Gare-fowl {461}and Steamer +Duck) are probably cases of abortion of useless organs, and that the common +ancestors of the various forms of Struthiones may have been capable of a +moderate degree of flight; or they may have originated in the northern +hemisphere, as already explained in Chap. XI. p. 287. The existence of two, +if not three, distinct families of these birds in New Zealand, proves that +the original type was here isolated at a very early date, and being wholly +free from the competition of mammalia, became more differentiated than +elsewhere. The _Hatteria_ is probably coeval with these early forms, and is +the only relic of a whole order of reptiles, which once perhaps ranged far +over the globe. + +Still less does any other form of animal inhabiting New Zealand, require a +land connection with distant countries to account for its presence. With +the example before us of the Bermudas and Azores, to which a great variety +of birds fly annually over vast distances, and even of the recent arrival +of new birds in New Zealand and Chatham Island, we may be sure that the +ancestors of every New Zealand bird could easily have reached its shores +during the countless ages which elapsed while the _Dinornis_ and _Apteryx_ +were developing. The wonderful range of some of the existing species of +lizards and fresh-water fish, as already given, proves that they too +possess means of dispersal which have sufficed to spread them, within a +comparatively recent period, over countries separated by thousands of miles +of ocean; and the fact that a group like the snakes, so widely distributed +and for which the climate of New Zealand is so well adapted, does not exist +there, is an additional proof that land connection had nothing to do with +the introduction of the existing fauna. We have already (p. 398), discussed +in some detail the various modes in which the dispersal of animals in the +southern hemisphere has been effected; and in accordance with the +principles there established, we conclude, that the New Zealand fauna, +living and extinct, demonstrates the existence of an extensive tract of +land in the vicinity of Australia, Polynesia, and the Antarctic continent, +without having been once actually connected with either of these countries, +since the period when mammalia had peopled {462}all the great continents. +That event certainly dates back to Secondary, if not to Palæozoic, times, +because so dominant a group must soon have spread over the whole continuous +land-area of the globe. We have no reason for believing that birds were an +earlier development; and certainly cannot, with any probability, place the +origin of the Struthiones before that of Mammals. + +_Causes of the Poverty of Insect-life in New Zealand: its Influence on the +Character of the Flora._--The extreme paucity of insects in New Zealand, to +which we have already alluded, seems to call for some attempt at +explanation. No other country in the world, in which the conditions are +equally favourable for insect-life, and which has either been connected +with, or is in proximity to, any of the large masses of land, presents a +similar phenomenon. The only approach to it is in the Galapagos, and in +some of the islands of the Pacific; and in each of these cases the absence +of mammals leads us to infer, that no connection with a continent has ever +taken place. Yet the fauna of New Zealand evidently dates back to a remote +geological epoch, and it seems strange that an abundance of indigenous +insects have not been developed, especially when we consider the vast +antiquity that most of the orders and families, and many of the genera, of +insects possess (see p. 166), and that they must always have reached the +country in greater numbers and variety than any of the higher animals. The +undoubted fact that such an indigenous insect-fauna has not arisen, would +therefore lead us to conclude, that insects find the conditions requisite +for their development only in the great continental masses of land, in +strict adaptation to, and dependance on, a varied fauna and flora of +ever-increasing richness and complexity. A small number of widely-separated +forms, introduced into a country where the fauna and flora are alike scanty +and unrelated to them, seem to have little tendency to vary and branch out +into that vast network of insect-life which enriches all the great +continents and their once connected islands. + +It is a striking confirmation on a large scale, of Mr. Darwin's beautiful +theory--that the gay colours of flowers have mostly, or {463}perhaps, +wholly been produced, in order to attract insects which aid in their +fertilization--that in New Zealand, where insects are so strikingly +deficient in variety, the flora should be almost as strikingly deficient in +gaily-coloured blossoms. Of course there are some exceptions, but as a +whole, green, inconspicuous, and imperfect flowers prevail, to an extent +not to be equalled in any other part of the globe; and affording a +marvellous contrast to the general brilliancy of Australian flowers, +combined with the abundance and variety of its insect-life. We must +remember, too, that the few gay or conspicuous flowering-plants possessed +by New Zealand, are almost all of Australian, South American, or European +_genera_; the peculiar New Zealand or Antarctic genera being almost wholly +without conspicuous flowers. In the tropical Galapagos the same thing +occurs. Mr. Darwin notices the wretched weedy appearance of the vegetation; +and states that it was some time before he discovered that most of the +plants were in flower at the time of his visit! And the insect-life was +correspondingly deficient, consisting mainly of a few terrestrial beetles. + +The poverty of insect-life in New Zealand must, therefore, be a very +ancient feature of the country; and it furnishes an additional argument +against the theory of land-connection with, or even any near approach to, +either Australia, South Africa, or South America. For in that case numbers +of winged insects would certainly have entered, and the flowers would then, +as in every other part of the world, have been rendered attractive to them +by the development of coloured petals; and this character once acquired +would long maintain itself, even if the insects had, from some unknown +cause, subsequently disappeared. + +After the preceding paragraphs were written, it occurred to me, that if +this reasoning were correct, New Zealand plants ought to be also deficient +in scented flowers; because it is a part of the same theory, that the +odours of flowers have, like their colours, been developed to attract the +insects required to aid in their fertilization. I therefore at once applied +to my friend Dr. Hooker, as the highest authority on New Zealand botany; +simply asking whether there was any such observed deficiency. His reply +{464}was:--"New Zealand plants are remarkably scentless, both in regard to +the rarity of scented flowers, of leaves with immersed glands containing +essential oils, and of glandular hairs." There are a few exceptional cases, +but these seem even more rare than might be expected, so that the +confirmation of theory is very complete. The circumstance that aromatic +leaves are also very scarce, suggests the idea that these, too, serve as an +attraction to insects. Aromatic plants abound most in arid countries, and +on Alpine heights; both localities where winged insects are comparatively +scarce, and where it may be necessary to attract them in every possible +way. Dr. Hooker also informs, me that since his _Introduction to the New +Zealand Flora_ was written, many plants with handsome flowers have been +discovered, especially among the _Ranunculi_, shrubby Veronicas, and +herbaceous Compositæ. The two former, however, are genera of wide range, +which may have originated in New Zealand by the introduction of plants with +handsome flowers, which the few indigenous insects would be attracted by, +and thus prevent the loss of their gay corollas; so that these discoveries +will not much affect the general character of the flora, and its very +curious bearing on the past history of the islands through the relations of +flowers and insects. + +In judging of the relation here supposed to exist, it must be remembered, +that if the New Zealand insects have been introduced from the surrounding +countries by chance immigrations at distant intervals, then, as we go back +into the past the insect fauna will become poorer and poorer, and still +more inadequate than at present to lead to the development of attractive +flowers and odours. This quite harmonizes with the fact of the ancient +indigenous flora being so remarkably scentless and inconspicuous, while a +few of the more recently introduced genera of plants have retained their +floral attractions. + + +_Concluding Remarks on the Early History of the Australian Region._ + +We have already discussed in some detail, the various relations of the +Australian sub-regions to the surrounding Regions, and the geographical +changes that appear to have taken place. A very {465}few observations will +therefore suffice, on the supposed early history of the Australian region +as a whole. + +It was probably far back in the Secondary period, that some portion of the +Australian region was in actual connection with the northern continent, and +became stocked with ancestral forms of Marsupials; but from that time till +now there seems to have been no further land connection, and the Australian +lands have thenceforward gone on developing the Marsupial and Monotremate +types, into the various living and extinct races we now find there. During +some portion of the Tertiary epoch Australia probably comprised much of its +existing area, together with Papua and the Solomon Islands, and perhaps +extended as far east as the Fiji Islands; while it might also have had a +considerable extension to the south and west. Some light has recently been +thrown on this subject by Professor McCoy's researches on the Palæontology +of Victoria. He finds abundant marine fossils of Eocene and Miocene age, +many of which are strikingly similar to those of Europe at the same period. +Among these are Cetaceans of the genus _Squalodon_; European species of +Plagiostomous fishes; mollusca and corals closely resembling those of +Europe and North America of the same age,--such as numerous Volutes closely +allied to those of the Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight, and the genus +_Dentalium_ in great abundance, almost or quite identical with European +tertiary species. Along with these, are found some living species, but +always such as now live farther north in tropical seas. The Cretaceous and +Mesozoic marine fossils are equally close to those of Europe. + +The whole of these remains demonstrate that, as in the northern so in the +southern hemisphere, a much warmer climate prevailed in the Eocene and +Miocene periods than at the present time. This is a most important result, +and one which strongly supports Mr. Belt's view, before referred to, that +the warmer climates in past geological epochs, and especially that of the +Miocene as compared with our own, was caused by a diminution of the +obliquity of the ecliptic, leading to a much greater uniformity of the +seasons for a considerable distance from the equator, and greatly reducing +the polar area within which the sun would ever {466}disappear during an +entire rotation of the earth. During such a period, tropical forms of +marine animals would have been able to spread north and south, into what +are now cool latitudes; and identical genera, and even species, might then +have ranged along the southern shores of the old Palæarctic continent, from +Britain to the Bay of Bengal, and southward along the Malayan coasts to +Australia, + +Numerous Miocene plant-beds have also been found in Victoria, containing +abundance of Dicotyledonous leaves, which are said generally to resemble +those of the Asiatic flora, and of the Miocene plant-beds of the Rhine. It +is to be hoped these beds will be more closely examined for remains of +insects, land-shells, and vertebrates, and that the plants will be +carefully preserved and critically studied; for here probably lies hidden +the key, that will solve much of the mystery that attaches to the past +history of the Australian fauna. + + +{467}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. + +In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes +of animals in the Australian region, the following sources of information +have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and +catalogues used in compiling the 4th Part of this work. + +_Mammalia._--Gould, Mammals of Australia; Waterhouse on Marsupials; Dr. J. +E. Gray's List of Mammalia of New Guinea; Müller, Temminck and Schlegel on +Mammals of the Moluccas; papers by Dr. Gray; and personal observations by +the Author. + +_Birds._--Gould's Birds of Australia; Buller's Birds of New Zealand; G. R. +Gray's Lists of Birds of Moluccas, &c.; Hartlaub and Finsch on Birds of +Pacific Islands; Sclater on Birds of Sandwich Islands; papers by Haast, +Hutton, Meyer, Salvin, Schlegel, Sclater, Travers, Lord Walden and the +Author. + +_Reptiles._--Krefft, Catalogue of Snakes; Gunther, List of Lizards in +_Voyage of Erebus and Terror_ (1875); and numerous papers. + + +{468}TABLE I. + +_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show families which are peculiar to the region. + + Names inclosed thus (...) show families which only just enter the region, + and are not considered properly to belong to it. + + Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV. + + ---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- + | Sub-regions | + | 1=Austro-Malaya. | + Order and Family | 2=Australia. | Range beyond the Region. + | 3=Polynesia. | + | 4=New Zealand. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | + ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- + | | | | | + MAMMALIA. | | | | | + PRIMATES. | | | | | + 3. Cynopithecidæ | -- | | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + | | | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | | | + 9. Pteropidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian + 11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere + 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 13. Noctilionidæ | | | | -- |All tropical regions + | | | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | | | + 25. (Viverridæ) | -- | | | |Oriental + 33. Otariidæ | | -- | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones + 35. Phocidæ | | -- | | -- |N. and S. temperate zones + | | | | | + CETACEA. | | | | | + 36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic + | | | | | + SIRENIA. | | | | | + 42. Manatidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, Oriental + | | | | | + UNGULATA. | | | | | + 47. Suidæ | -- | | | |All other regions but Nearctic + 50. (Cervidæ) | -- | | | |All other regions but Ethiopian + 52. (Bovidæ) | -- | | | |All other regions but + | | | | | Neotropical + | | | | | + RODENTIA. | | | | | + 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | | |All other regions + 61. (Scuiridæ) | -- | | | |All other regions + | | | | | + MARSUPIALIA. | | | | | + 77. _Dasyuridæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 78. _Myrmecobiidæ_ | | -- | | | + 79. _Peramelidæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 80. _Macropodidæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 81. _Phalangistidæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 82. _Phascolomyidæ_ | | -- | | | + | | | | | + MONOTREMATA. | | | | | + 83._Ornithorhynchidæ_| | -- | | | + 84. _Echidnidæ_ | | -- | | | + | | | | | + BIRDS. | | | | | + PASSERES. | | | | | + 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite + 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Oriental family + 5. Cinclidæ | -- | | | | + 8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | | | + 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | | -- | + 10. Paridæ | | -- | | -- | + 13. Pycnonotidæ | -- | | | |Oriental family + 14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 15. Campephagidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian + 16. Dicruridæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 17. Muscicapidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |The Old World + 18. _Pachycephalidæ_| -- | -- | -- | |Almost peculiar to region + 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | |The Old World + 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite + 21. _Paradiseidæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 22. _Meliphagidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | + 23. Nectariniidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 24. Dicæidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental and Ethiopian + 25. _Drepanididæ_ | | | -- | | + 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 34. Ploceidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental, Ethiopian + 35. Sturnidæ | -- | | -- | -- |The Old World + 36. Artamidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Oriental + 37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | | |The Old World and N. America + 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | | -- |The Old World + 47. Pittidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian + 49. _Menuridæ_ | | -- | | |Peculiar to Australia + 50. _Atrichiidæ_ | | -- | | |Peculiar to Australia + | | | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | | | + 51. Picidæ | -- | | | |All other regions + 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 68. Bucerotidæ | -- | | | |Oriental and Ethiopian + 71. Podargidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental + 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite + 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + PSITTACI. | | | | | + 76. _Cacatuidæ_ | -- | -- | | |Philippine Islands + 77. _Platycercidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | + 78. Palæornithidæ | -- | | | |Oriental + 79. _Trichoglossidæ_| -- | -- | -- | | + 82. _Nestoridæ_ | -- | | | -- | + 83. _Stringopidæ_ | | | | -- | + | | | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | | | + 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 84a. _Didunculidæ_ | | | -- | | + | | | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | | | + 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Old World and N. America + 88. (Phasianidæ) | -- | | | |Oriental + 89. Turnicidæ | -- | -- | | |The Old World + 90. _Megapodiidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | + | | | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | | | + 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + GRALLÆ. | | | | | + 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 103. Parridæ | -- | -- | | |Tropical + 104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere + 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 106. Otididæ | | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere + 107. Gruidæ | | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere + 112. _Rhinochetidæ_ | | | -- | | + 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite + 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | | |Widely distributed + | | | | | + ANSERES. | | | | | + 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 122. Spheniscidæ | | -- | | -- |S. temperate regions + 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + STRUTHIONES. | | | | | + 127. _Casuariidæ_ | -- | -- | | | + 128. _Apterygidæ_ | | | | -- | + 129. _Dinornithidæ_ | | | | -- |Extinct + 130. _Palapterygidæ_ | | | | -- |Extinct + | | | | | + REPTILIA. | | | | | + OPHIDIA. | | | | | + 1. Typhlopidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Nearctic + 2. Tortricidæ | -- | | | |Oriental, S. America, + | | | | | California + 3. Xenopeltidæ | -- | | | |Oriental + 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | | |All warm countries + 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite + 8. Homalopsidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, and all other regions + 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 12. Dryiophidæ | -- | | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 13. Dipsadidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Ethiopian, + | | | | | Neotropical + 15. Lycodontidæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian and Oriental + 16. Amblycephalidæ | | -- | | |Oriental, Neotropical + 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, California + 19. Acrochordidæ | -- | | | |Oriental + 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Tropical regions, Japan, + | | | | | S. Carolina + 23. Hydrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Madagascar, Panama + | | | | | + LACERTILIA. | | | | | + 30. Varanidæ | -- | -- | | |Oriental, Africa + 33. Lacertidæ | | -- | | |The Eastern Hemisphere + 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Neotropical, Ethiopian, + | | | | | Palæarctic + 42. _Pygopodidæ_ | | -- | | | + 43. _Aprasiadæ_ | | -- | | | + 44. _Lialidæ_ | | -- | | | + 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite + 48. Acontiadæ | -- | | | |Ethiopian, Oriental + 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost cosmopolite + 50. Iguanidæ | | | -- | |N. and S. America + 51. Agamidæ | -- | -- | -- | |The Eastern Hemisphere + | | | | | + RHYNCOCEPHALINA. | | | | | + 53._Rhyncocephalidæ_ | | | | -- | + | | | | | + CROCODILIA. | | | | | + 54. Gavialidæ | -- | | | |Oriental + 55. Crocodilidæ | -- | -- | | |Tropical regions + | | | | | + CHELONIA. | | | | | + 57. Testudinidæ | -- | | | |All other regions + 58. Chelydidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical + 60. Cheloniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Marine + | | | | | + AMPHIBIA. | | | | | + ANOURA. | | | | | + 7. Phryniscidæ | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Malayan, Neotropical + 9. Bufonidæ | -- | | | |All other regions + 10. _Xenorhinidæ_ | -- | | | | + 11. Engystomidæ | | -- | | |All regions but Palæarctic + 12. Bombinatoridæ | | | | -- |Neotropical, Palæarctic + 14. Alytidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Oriental + 15. Pelodryadæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical + 16. Hylidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Ethiopian + 17. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All the regions + 18. Ranidæ | -- | -- | | |Almost cosmopolite + 19. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | | |All regions but Nearctic + | | | | | + FISHES (FRESH-WATER).| | | | | + ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | + 11. Trachinidæ | | -- | | |Patagonia (? marine) + 35. Labyrinthici | -- | | | |Oriental, S. Africa + 37. Atherinidæ | | -- | | |Europe, America + 38. Mugillidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Neotropical + | | | | | + ANACANTHINI. | | | | | + 53. _Gadopsidæ_ | | -- | | | + | | | | | + PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | + 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions + 61. Haplochitonidæ | | -- | | |Temperate S. America + 65. Salmonidæ | | | | -- |Palæarctic, Nearctic + 67. Galaxidæ | | -- | | -- |Temperate S. America + 78. Osteoglossidæ | | -- | | |All tropical regions + 85. (Symbranchidæ) | | -- | | |Oriental, Neotropical + | | | | | + DIPNOI. | | | | | + 92. Sirenoidei | | -- | | |Ethiopian, Neotropical + | | | | | + INSECTS. | | | | | + LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | + DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | + 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions, and to Canada + 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 3. Elymniidæ | -- | | | |Oriental, Ethiopian + 4. Morphidæ | -- | | -- | |Oriental, Neotropical + 6. Acræidæ | -- | -- | | |All tropical regions + 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 9. Libytheidæ | -- | | | |All the other regions + 10. Nemeobeidæ | -- | | | |All other regions but Nearctic + 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + | | | | | + SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | + 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + 18. Castniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical + 19. Agaristidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian + 20. Uraniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All tropical regions + 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite + + +TABLE II. + +_GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN +REGION._ + +EXPLANATION. + + Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region. + + Names enclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but + are not considered properly to belong to it. + + Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. + + +_MAMMALIA._ + + + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond + Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. + -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- + | | | + PRIMATES. | | | + CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Macacus | 1 |Lombok to Timor) |Oriental genus + 1. Cynopithecus | 1 |Celebes and Batchian |Philippines? + | | | + LEMURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Tarsius | 1 |Celebes) |Indo-Malayan genus + | | | + CHIROPTERA. | | | + PTEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 2. Pteropus | 15 |The whole reg. except |Tropics of E. Hemisp. + | | New Zeal. | + 3. Xantharpyia | 1 |Moluccas and Timor |Oriental, + | | | S. Palæarctic + 4. Cynopterus | 1 |Morty Island |Oriental + 5. Macroglossus | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Indo-Malaya + | | Timor | + 6. Harpyia | 1 |Celebes and Moluccas |Philippines + 7. _Hypoderma_ | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, and | + | | Timor | + 8. _Notopteris_ | 1 |Fiji Islands | + | | | + RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 9. Rhinolophus | 7 |Moluccas, Timor, |Warmer pts. of + | | Australia | E. Hemis. + 10. Hipposideros | 5 |Moluccas and Aru |Oriental + | | Islands | + 11. Phyllorhina | 2 |Moluccas and Timor |Indo-Malaya + 12. Asellia | 1 |Amboyna |Indo-Malaya + 13. Megaderma | 1 |Ternate |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | | + VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 14. Scotophilus | 8 |Moluccas, Timor, |Oriental + | | Australia | + 15. Vespertilio | 2 |Australia |Cosmopolite + 16. Miniopteris | 3 |Moluccas, Timor, and |Indo-Malaya, S. Africa + | | Australia | + 17. Taphozous | 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Orien., Ethiop., + | | N. Australia | Neotrop. + 18. Plecotus | 1 |Timor |N. India, + | | | S. Palæarctic + 19. Nyctophilus | 5 |Australia and Tasmania |India + | | | + NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 20. Molossus | 1 |Australia |Neotrop., Ethiop., + | | | S. Pal. + 21. _Mystacina_ | 1 |New Zealand | + | | | + INSECTIVORA. | | | + SORICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 22. Sorex | 2 |Moluccas and Timor |The E. Hemis. & + | | | N. Amer. + | | | + CARNIVORA. | | | + VIVERRIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Viverra | 1 |Celebes and Moluccas) |Oriental genus + (Paradoxurus | 1 |Timor, Ke Islands, ? |Oriental genus + | | introduced) | + | | | + OTARIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 23. Arctocephalus | 1 |S. Australia, |S. Temperate shores + | | New Zealand | + 24. Zalophus | 1 |Australia |North Pacific + | | | + PHOCIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 25. Stenorhynchus | 1 |New Zealand |Antarctic shores + | | | + SIRENIA. | | | + MANATIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 26. Halicore | 1 |N. Australia |Oriental Ethiopian + | | | + UNGULATA. | | | + SUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 27. Sus | 4 |Celebes to New Guinea |Palæarctic, Oriental + 28. _Babirusa_ | 1 |Celebes, Bouru | + | | | + CERVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Cervus | 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Oriental genus + | | Timor) | + | | | + BOVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 29. _Anoa_ | 1 |Celebes | + | | | + RODENTIA. | | | + SCIURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Sciurus | 5 |Celebes) |All the other regions + | | | + MURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 30. Mus | 13 |Australia, Celebes, |The Western Hemisphere + | | Papua | + 31. _Pseudomys_ | 1 |Australia | + 32. _Hapalotis_ | 13 |Australia | + 33. _Hydromys_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | + 34. _Acanthomys_ | 1 |N. Australia | + 35. _Echiothrix_ | 1 |Australia | + | | | + MARSUPIALIA. | | | + DASYURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 36. _Phascogale_ | 3 |New Guinea and | + | | Australia | + 37. _Antechinomys_ | 1 |S. Australia (interior)| + 38. _Antechinus_ | 12 |Aru Ids. Australia and | + | | Tasmania | + 39. _Chætocercus_ | 1 |S. Australia | + 40. _Dactylopsila_ | 1 |Aru Islands and | + | | N. Australia | + 41. _Podabrus_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | + 42. _Myoictis_ | 1 |Aru Islands | + 43. _Sarcophilus_ | 1 |Tasmania | + 44. _Dasyurus_ | 4 |Australia | + 45. _Thylacinus_ | 1 |Tasmania | + | | | + MYRMECOBIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 45. _Myrmecobius_ | 1 |S. and W. Australia | + | | | + PERAMELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 47. _Perameles_ | 8 |N. Guinea, Aru Ids., | + | |Australia, and Tasmania| + 48. _Peragalea_ | 1 |W. Australia | + 49. _Chæropus_ | 1 |S. E. and W. Australia | + | | | + MACROPODIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 50. _Macropus_ | 4 |Australia and Tasmania | + 51. _Osphranter_ | 5 |All Australia | + 52. _Halmaturus_ | 18 |Australia and Tasmania | + 53. _Petrogale_ | 7 |All Australia | + 54. _Dendrolagus_ | 2 |New Guinea | + 55. _Dorcopsis_ | 2 |Aru, Mysol, and | + | | N. Guinea | + 56. _Onychogalea_ | 3 |Central Australia | + 57. _Lagorchestes_ | 5 |N., W., and S. | + | | Australia | + 58. _Bettongia_ | 6 |W., S., and E. | + | | Australia and Tasmania| + 59. _Hypsiprymnus_ | 4 |W. and E. Australia & | + | | Tasmania | + | | | + PHALANIGISTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 60. _Phascolarctos_ | 1 |E. Australia | + 61. _Phalangista_ | 5 |E., S., and W. | + | | Australia and Tasmania| + 62. _Cuscus_ | 8 |Celebes to N. Guinea, | + | | Timor & N. Australia | + 63. _Petaurista_ | 1 |E. Australia | + 64. _Belideus_ | 5 |S., E., & N. Austral., | + | |N. Guinea, and Moluccas| + 65. _Acrobata_ | 1 |S. and E. Australia | + 66. _Dromicia_ | 5 |W. & E. Australia & | + | | Tasmania | + 67. _Tarsipes_ | 1 |W. Australia | + | | | + PHASCOLOMYIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 63. _Phascolomys_ | 1 |S. E. Australia and | + | | Tasmania | + | | | + MONOTREMATA. | | | + ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 69._Ornithorhynchus_| 1 |S. and E. Australia & | + | | Tasmania | + | | | + ECHIDNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 70. _Echidna_ | 2 |S. & E. Australia, & | + | | Tasmania | + + _BIRDS._ + + | | | + PASSERES. | | | + TURDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 1. Turdus | 6 |Timor, Austral., New |Cosmopolite + | | Caledonia, Norfolk | + | | Island, Lord Howe's | + | | and Samoan Islands | + 2. Oreocincla | 1 |S. E. Australia and |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | Tasmania | + 3. Geocichla | 4 |Celebes, Lombok, Timor,|Oriental + | | Austral. | + (Monticola | 1 |Gilolo, Celebes) |Palæarctic and + | | | Oriental + (Zoothera | 1 |Lombok) |Oriental genus + | | | + SYLVIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 4. Cisticola | 7 |Celebes, Bouru, Timor, |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | Australia | + 5. Sphenæacus | 4 |Australia, N. Zealand, |Ethiopian + | | Chatham Islands | + 6. Megalurus | 1 |Timor |Oriental + 7. _Poodytes_ | 2 |Australia | + 8. _Amytis_ | 3 |Australia | + 9. _Sphenura_ | 4 |Australia | + 10. _Stipiturus_ | 1 |Australia, Tasmania | + 11. _Malurus_ | 16 |Australia, Tasmania, & | + | | N. Guinea | + 12. _Hylacola_ | 3 |Australia | + 13. _Calamanthus_ | 2 |Australia and Tasmania | + 14. Acrocephalus | 7 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Palæarc., Orien., + | | Australia, Caroline | Ethiop. + | | Islands | + 15. _Tatare_ | 2 |Samoan to Marquesas | + | | Islands | + 16. Hypolais | 1 |Moluccas |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Ethiop. + 17. _Sericornis_ | 7 |Australia and Tasmania | + 18. _Acanthiza_ | 14 |Austral., Tasmania, | + | | N. Caledonia | + 19. _Gerygone_ | 24 |The whole region, excl.|Philippines + | | Moluccas | + 20. _Drymodes_ | 2 |Australia | + 21. Oreicola | 4 |Lombok to Timor |Burmah ? + (Pratincola | 1 |Celebes to Timor) |Oriental, Palæarctic + 22. _Epthianura_ | 3 |Australia | + 23. _Petroica_ | 18 |Papua to Samoan Ids., | + | | Australia | + 24. _Myiomoira_ | 3 |N. Zealand | + 25. _Lamprolia_ | 1 |Fiji Islands | + 26. _Miro_ | 3 |New Zealand | + 27._Cinclorhamphus_| 2 |Australia | + 28. _Origma_ | 1 |Australia | + 29. _Orthonyx_ | 5 |N. Guinea, Austral., | + | | New Zeald. | + | | | + TIMALIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 30. Pomatorhinus | 5 |N. Guinea and Australia|Oriental + 31. _Cinclosoma_ | 4 |Australia and Tasmania | + 32. _Turnagra_ | 3 |New Zealand | + 33. _Psophodes_ | 2 |S. E. and W. Australia | + 34. Alcippe | 3 |New Guinea |Oriental + (Trichastoma | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus + 35. Drymocataphus | 1 |Timor |Oriental + 36. _Struthidea_ | 1 |N. and E. Australia | + | | | + CINCLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 37. Eupetes | 2 |New Guinea |Malayan + | | | + CERTHIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 38. _Climacteris_ | 8 |Australia and N. Guinea| + | | | + SITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 39. _Sittella_ | 5 |Australia and N. Guinea| + 40. _Acanthisitta_ | 1 |New Zealand | + 41. _Xenicus_ | 3 |New Zealand | + | | | + PARIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 42. _Certhiparus_ | 2 |New Zealand | + 43. _Sphenostoma_ | 2 |E. and S. Australia | + | | | + PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 44. Criniger | 5 |Moluccas, and small |Oriental + | | islands E. of Celebes| + | | | + ORIOLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 45. _Sphecotheres_ | 3 |Timor and Australia | + 46. Oriolus | 3 |Celebes, Sulla Ids., |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | Lombok and Flores | + 47. _Mimeta_ | 10 |Moluccas, N. Guinea, | + | | Timor, & Australia | + | | | + CAMPEPHAGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Pericrocotus | 1 |Lombok) |Oriental genus + 48. Graucalus | 20 |Celebes to New Hebrides|Oriental + | | and N. Zealand | + 49. _Artamides_ | 1 |Celebes | + 50. _Pteropodocys_ | 1 |Australia | + 51. Campephaga | 12 |Celebes to Timor & |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | New Guinea | + 52. Lalage | 15 |Celebes to Australia & |Malayan + | | Samoan Ids. | + 53. _Symmorphus_ | 1 |E. Australia and | + | | Norfolk Id. | + | | | + DICRURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 54. Dicrurus | 11 |Celebes to N. Ireland &|Oriental, Ethiopian + | | Austral. | + 55. _Chætorhynchus_| 1 |New Guinea | + | | | + MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 56. _Peltops_ | 1 |Papuan Islands | + 57. _Monarcha_ | 30 |The whole region (excl.| + | |Celebes and N. Zealand)| + 58. _Leucophantes_ | |N. Guinea | + (Butalis | 1 |Moluccas and Celebes) |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Ethiop. + 59. _Micræca_ | 6 |Timor, N. Guinea, | + | | Australia | + 60. Cyornis | 2 |Celebes and Timor |Oriental + 61. Siphia | 1 |Timor |Oriental + 62. _Seisura_ | 5 |Moluccas to N. Ireland,| + | | Austral. | + 63. _Myiagra_ | 15 |Moluccas to Samoan Ids.| + | | Austral. | + (Hypothymis | 2 |Celebes) |Oriental + 64._Machærirhynchus_ 4 |Papuan Ids. and | + | | N. Australia | + 65. Rhipidura | 32 |The region to Samoan |Oriental + | | Ids. and N. Zealand | + (Myialestes | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus + (Tchitrea | 1 |Flores) |Orien. & Ethiop. + | | | genus + 66. _Todopsis_ | 5 |Papuan Islands | + 67. _Chasiempis_ | 2 |Sandwich Islands | + | | | + PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 68. _Oreoeca_ | 1 |Temperate Australia | + 69. _Falcunculus_ | 2 |Temperate Australia | + 70. _Pachycephala_ | 45 |Moluccas to Tonga Ids. | + | | and Tasmania | + 71. Hylocharis | 2 |Celebes and Timor |Oriental + 72. _Eopsaltria_ | 10 |Australia to New | + | | Hebrides | + | | | + LANIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 73. _Colluricincla_| 4 |Australia and Tasmania | + 74. _Rectes_ | 18 |Papuan to Fiji Ids., | + | | N. Austral. | + (Lanius | 1 |Lombok) |Northern Hemisphere + | | | + CORVIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 75. _Strepera_ | 4 |Australia and Tasmania | + 76. _Barita_ | 3 |Australia and Tasmania | + 77. _Cracticus_ | 9 |Papuan Ids. to Tasmania| + 78. _Grallina_ | 1 |Australia | + 79. _Streptocitta_ | 2 |Celebes | + 80. _Charitornis_ | 1 |Sulla Islands (Celebes | + | | group) | + 81. Corvus | 8 |The whole region, excl.|Almost Cosmopolite + | | N. Zeal. | + 82. _Gymnocorvus_ | 2 |Papuan Islands | + 83. _Corcorax_ | 1 |Australia | + 84. _Lycocorax_ | 3 |Moluccas | + | | | + PARADISEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 85. _Paradisea_ | 4 |Papuan Islands | + 86. _Manucodia_ | 3 |Papuan Ids. and | + | | N. Australia | + 87. _Astrapia_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 88. _Parotia_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 89. _Lophorina_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 90. _Diphyllodes_ | 3 |Papuan Islands | + 91. _Xanthomelus_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 92. _Cicinnurus_ | 1 |Papuan Islands | + 93. _Paradigalla_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 94. _Semioptera_ | 1 |Gilolo and Batchian | + 95. _Epimachus_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 96. _Drepanornis_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 97. _Seleucides_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 98. _Ptilorhis_ | 4 |New Guinea and | + | | N. Australia | + 99. _Sericulus_ | 1 |E. Australia | + 100. _Ptilorhynchus_| 1 |E. Australia | + 101. _Chlamydodera_ | 4 |N. and E. Australia | + 102. _Æluredus_ | 3 |Papuan Islands and | + | | E. Australia | + 103. _Amblyornis_ | 1 |New Guinea | + | | | + MELIPHAGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 104. _Myzomela_ | 20 |The region; excl. | + | | N. Zealand | + 105. _Entomophila_ | 4 |Papuan Islands and | + | | Australia | + 106. _Gliciphila_ | 10 |Papuan Ids. Timor, | + | |Australia, N. Caledonia| + 107._Acanthorhynchus_ 2 |Australia and Tasmania | + 108. _Meliphaga_ | 1 |East and S. Australia | + 109. _Ptilotis_ | 43 |Lombok and Gilolo to |(Baly) + | | Tasmania and | + | | Samoan Ids. | + 110. _Meliornis_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | + 111. _Prosthemadera_| 1 |New Zealand | + 112. _Anthornis_ | 4 |New Zealand and | + | | Chatham Ids. | + 113. _Anthochæra_ | 10 |New Guinea to Tasmania | + | | and Samoan Ids., | + | | N. Zealand | + 114. _Pogonornis_ | 1 |New Zealand | + 115. _Philemon_ | 18 |Lombok to N. Guinea, | + | | N. Caledonia, | + | |Australia | + 116. _Enicmiza_ | 2 |Australia | + 117. _Manorhina_ | 5 |Australia and Tasmania | + 118. _Melithreptus_ | 8 |N. Guinea, Australia, | + | | Tasmania | + 119. _Euthyrhynchus_| 3 |N. Guinea | + 120._Melirrhophetes_| 2 |N. Guinea | + 121. _Melidectes_ | 1 |N. Guinea | + 122. _Melipotes_ | 1 |N. Guinea | + 123. _Moho_ | 3 |Sandwich Islands | + 124. _Chætoptila_ | 1 |Sandwich Islands | + | | | + NECTARINIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 125. _Cosmetira_ | 1 |Papuan Islands | + (Æthopyga | 1 |N. Celebes) |Oriental genus + 126. Chalcostetha | 5 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Malaya + | | Papuan Ids. | + 127. Arachnecthra | 5 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental + | | N. Australia | + (Nectarophila | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus + Anthreptes | 1 |Celebes and Sulla |Malayan genus + | | Islands | + 128. Arachnothera | 1 |Papuan Islands, Lombok |Oriental + | | | + DICÆIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 129. Zosterops | 28 |The region to Fiji Ids.|Oriental, Ethiopian + | | & N. Zeal. | + 130. Dicæum | 12 |Celebes to Solomon Ids.|Oriental + | | & Austral. | + 131. Pachyglossa ? | 1 |N. Celebes |Himalayas + 132. Piprisoma | 1 |Timor |India, Ceylon + 133. _Pardalotus_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania,| + | | Timor | + 134. Prionochilus | |Papuan Islands |Malaya + | | | + DREPANIDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 135. _Drepanis_ | 3 |Sandwich Islands | + 136. _Hemignathus_ | 3 |Sandwich Islands | + 137. _Loxops_ | 1 |Sandwich Islands | + 138. _Psittirostra_ | 1 |Sandwich Islands | + | | | + HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 139. Hirundo | 7 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 140. Atticora | 1 |Australia |Neotropical + | | | + PLOCEIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 141. Estrilda | 4 |Flores, Timor, |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | Australia | + 142. _Emblema_ | 1 |N. W. Australia | + 143. Munia | 6 |Celebes to N. Guinea |Oriental + | | and N. Australia | + 144. _Donacola_ | 3 |Australia | + 145. _Poephila_ | 6 |Australia | + 146. Amadina | 9 |Flores to Tasmania and |Ethiopian + | | Samoan Islands | + 147. Erythrura | 7 |Moluccas to Caroline |Java, Sumatra + | | and Fiji Islands, | + | | Timor, N. Caledonia | + | | | + STURNIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 148. Eulabes | 4 |Sumbawa, Flores, Papuan|Oriental + | | and Solomon Islands | + 149. _Basilornis_ | 2 |Celebes and Ceram | + (Acridotheres | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus + 150. _Creadion_ | 2 |N. Zealand | + 151. _Heterolocha_ | 1 |N. Zealand | + 152. _Callæas_ | 2 |N. Zealand | + 153. _Aplonis_ | 8 |N. Caledonia to Tonga | + | | Islands | + 154. Calornis | 13 |Celebes to Solomon |Malaya + | | Islands and | + | | N. Australia | + 155. _Enodes_ | 1 |Celebes | + 156. _Scissirostrum_| 1 |Celebes | + | | | + ARTAMIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 157. Artamus | 15 |Celebes to Fiji Ids. |Oriental + | | and Tasmania | + | | | + ALAUDIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 158. Mirafra | 2 |Flores and Australia |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | | + MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 159. Budytes | 11 |Moluccas, Timor, |Palc., Ethiopian, x + | | Australia | Australia + 160. Corydalla | 5 |Lombok and Moluccas to |Palæarctic, Oriental + | | N. Zealand | + | | | + PITTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 161. Pitta | 12 |Celebes and Lombok to |Oriental + | |N. Guinea and Australia| + 162. Hydrornis | 1 |Gilolo, Batchian |Himalayas to Java + 163. _Melampitta_ | 1 |N. Guinea | + | | | + MENURIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 164. _Menura_ | 2 |E. Australia | + | | | + ATRICHIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 165. _Atrichia_ | 2 |W. Australia and | + | | Queensland | + | | | + PICARIÆ. | | | + PICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 166. Yungipicus | 2 |Celebes, Lombok, and |Oriental + | | Flores | + (Mulleripicus | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus + | | | + CUCULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 167. _Rhamphococcyx_| 1 |Celebes | + 168. Centropus | 13 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | Australia | + 169. Cuculus | 5 |Austro-Malaya and |Palc., Orien., + | | Australia | Ethiopian + 170. _Caliechthrus_ | 1 |Papuan Islands | + 171. Cacomantis | 10 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental + | | Australia | + 172. Chrysococcyx | 5 |Austro-Malaya to Fiji |Oriental, Ethiopian + | | Islands and N. Zealand| + (Hierococcyx | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental genus + 173. Eudynamis | 6 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental + | | Sandwich Islands | + 174. _Scythrops_ | 1 |Celebes, Moluccas, and | + | | Australia | + | | | + CORACIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Coracias | 1 |Celebes) |Oriental and Ethiopian + 175. Eurystomus | 4 |Austro-Malaya and |Oriental and Ethiopian + | | Australia | + | | | + MEROPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 176. _Meropogon_ | 1 |Celebes | + 177. Merops | 2 |Austro-Malaya and |Palc., Orien., + | | Australia | Ethiopian + | | | + ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 178. Alcedo | 4 |Celebes to New Ireland |Palc., Orien., + | | | Ethiopian + 179. _Alcyone_ | 6 |Batchian to Tasmania |Philippines + 180. Pelargopsis | 2 |Celebes, Flores |Oriental + 181. Ceyx | 7 |Celebes to New Guinea |Oriental + 182. _Ceycopsis_ | 1 |Celebes | + 183. _Syma_ | 2 |Papuan Islands and | + | | N. Australia | + 184. Halcyon | 19 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental, Ethiopian + | | Sandwich Islands | + 185. _Todirhamphus_ | 3 |Central Pacific and | + | | Sandwich Ids. | + 186. _Dacelo_ | 6 |Papuan Islands and | + | | Australia | + 187. _Monachalcyon_ | 1 |Celebes | + 188. _Caridonax_ | 1 |Lombok and Flores | + 189. _Tanysiptera_ | 14 |Batchian to N. Guinea | + | | and N. Australia | + 190. _Cittura_ | 2 |Celebes and Sanguir | + | | Islands | + 191. _Melidora_ | 1 |New Guinea | + | | | + BUCEROTIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 192. Hydrocissa? | 1 |Celebes |Oriental + 193. Calao | 1 |Moluccas to Solomon |Malayan + | | Islands | + 194. Cranorrhinus? | 1 |Celebes |Malayan + | | | + PODARGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 195. _Podargus_ | 10 |Papuan Islands to | + | | Tasmania | + 196. Batrachostomus | 2 |Moluccas |Oriental + 197. _Ægotheles_ | 5 |Papuan Islands to | + | | Tasmania | + | | | + CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 198. Caprimulgus | 4 |Lombok to Australia, |Palc., Ethiopian, + | | N. Guinea to Pelew | Orien. + | | Islands | + 199. _Eurostopodus_ | 2 |Aru Islands and |Oriental genus + | | Australia | + (Lyncornis | 1 |Celebes) | + | | | + CYPSELIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 200. Dendrochelidon | 2 |Celebes to N. Guinea |Oriental + 201. Collocalia | 4 |Celebes to Pacific |Oriental + | | Islands | + 202. Cypselus | 1 |Australia |Palc., Orien., + | | | Ethiopian + 203. Chætura | 2 |Celebes, Australia |Ethio., Orien., + | | | American + | | | + PSITTACI. | | | + CACATUIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 204. _Cacatua_ | 17 |Celebes and Lombok, to |Philippines + | | Solomon Islands and | + | | Tasmania | + 205. _Calopsitta_ | 1 |Australia | + 206._Calyptorhynchus_ 8 |Australia and Tasmania | + 207. _Microglossus_ | 2 |Papuan Islands and | + | | N. Austral. | + 208. _Licmetis_ | 3 |Austr., Solmn. Ids., & | + | | N. Guin. ? | + 209. _Nasiterna_ | 3 |Papuan and Solomon | + | | Islands | + | | | + PLATYCERCIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 210. _Platycercus_ | 14 |Austral., Tasmania, | + | | Norfolk Id. | + 211. _Psephotus_ | 6 |Australia | + 212. _Polytelis_ | 3 |Australia | + 213. _Nymphicus_ | 1 |Australia and | + | | N. Caledonia | + 214. _Aprosmictus_ | 6 |Moluccas, Timor, Papuan| + | | Islands, Australia | + 215. _Pyrrhulopsis_ | 3 |Tonga to Fiji Islands | + 216. _Cyanoramphus_ | 14 |N. Zealand, Norfolk | + | | Island, N. Caledonia,| + | | Society Islands | + 217. _Melopsittacus_| 1 |Australia | + 218. _Euphema_ | 7 |Australia | + 219. _Pezoporus_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | + 220. _Geopsittacus_ | 1 |W. Australia | + | | | + PALÆORNITHIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 221. _Prioniturus_ | 2 |Celebes |Philippines + 222. _Geoffroyus_ | 5 |Borneo to Timor & | + | | Solomon Ids. | + 223. _Tanygnathus_ | 4 |Celebes to New Guinea |Philippines + 224. _Eclectus_ | 8 |Moluccas and Papuan | + | | Islands | + 225. _Cyclopsitta_ | 7 |Papuan Ids. and N. E. |Philippines + | | Austral. | + 226. Loriculus | 7 |Celebes to Mysol, |Oriental + | | Flores | + 227. _Trichoglossus_| 29 |The whole region, excl.| + | | Sandwich Islands, and| + | | N. Zealand | + 228. _Nanodes_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | + 229. _Charmosyna_ | 1 |New Guinea | + 230. _Eos_ | 9 |Sanguir Ids. and | + | | Moluccas to | + | | Solomon Ids. | + 231. _Lorius_ | 23 |Bouru and Gilolo to | + | | Solomon Ids. | + 232. _Coriphilus_ | 4 |Samoan to Marquesas | + | | Islands | + | | | + NESTORIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 233. _Nestor_ | 5 |New Zealand and | + | | Norfolk Ids. | + 234. _Dasyptilus_ | 1 |New Guinea | + | | | + STRINGOPIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 235. _Stringops_ | 1 |N. Zealand, Chatham | + | | Islands? | + | | | + COLUMBÆ. | | | + COLUMBIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 236. Treron | 5 |Celebes, Bouru, and |Oriental, Ethiopian + | |Ceram, Flores and Timor| + 237. Ptilopus | 50 |The whole region; excl.|Indo-Malaya + | | N. Zealand | + 238. Carpophaga | 40 |The whole region |Oriental + 239. Ianthænas | 6 |Gilolo, Timor, Papuan |Japan, Philippines, + | | Ids. to Samoan Islands| Andaman Islands + 240. _Leucomeloena_ | 1 |Australia | + 241. _Lopholæmus_ | 1 |Australia | + 242. Geopelia | 5 |Lombok to Tasmania |Malaya, China + 243. Macropygia | 6 |Austro-Malaya, |Indo-Malaya + | | Australia | + 244. _Turacoena_ | 3 |Celebes, Timor, Solomon| + | | Ids. | + 245._Reinwardtoenas_| 1 |Celebes to New Guinea | + 246. Turtur | 2 |Austro-Malaya |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Ethiop. + 247. _Ocyphaps_ | 1 |Australia | + 248. _Petrophassa_ | 1 |N. W. Australia | + 249. Chalcophaps | 4 |Austro-Malaya, |Oriental + | | Australia | + 250. _Trugon_ | 1 |N. Guinea | + 251. _Henicophaps_ | 1 |Papuan Islands | + 252. _Phaps_ | 3 |Australia and Tasmania | + 253. _Leucosarcia_ | 1 |Australia | + 254. _Geophaps_ | 2 |Australia | + 255. _Lophophaps_ | 3 |Australia | + 256. _Caloenas_ | 1 |Austro-Malaya |Indo-Malaya + 257. _Otidiphaps_ | 1 |N. Guinea | + 258. Phlogoenas | 7 |Celebes, N. Guinea to |Philippine Islands + | | Madagascar | + 259. _Goura_ | 3 |Papuan Islands | + | | | + DIDUNCULIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 260. _Didunculus_ | 1 |Samoan Islands | + | | | + GALLINÆ. | | | + | | | + TETRAONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 261. _Coturnix_ | 9 |Celebes, Timor, |Palæarc., Orien., + | | Australia, N. Zealand| Ethiop. + | | | + PHASIANIDÆ. | | | + | | | + (Gallus | 2 |Celebes to Timor) |Oriental genus + | | | + TURNICIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 262. Turnix | 9 |Celebes & Moluccas to |Palæarc., Orien., + | | Tasmania | Ethiop. + | | | + MEGAPODIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 263. _Talegallus_ | 3 |Papuan Islands and | + | | Australia | + 264. _Megacephalon_ | 1 |Celebes | + 265. _Lipoa_ | 1 |S. Australia | + 266. _Megapodius_ | 12 |Celebes to Austral. & |Philippines, + | | Samoan Ids. | Nicobar Ids. + | | | + ACCIPITRES. | | | + FALCONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 267. Circus | 2 |Celebes, S. and E. |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Austral | + 265. Astur | 20 |The region, to Fiji |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Islands | + 269. Accipiter | 6 |The whole region, to |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Fiji Islands | + 270. _Urospiza_ | 1 |Australia | + 271. _Uroaëtus_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | + 272. Nisaëtus | 1 |Australia |S. Palæarc., + | | | Ethiopian, Oriental + 273. Neopus | 1 |Celebes and Ternate |Oriental + 274. Spizaëtus | 2 |Celebes and N. Guinea |Neotrop., Ethiop., + | | | Orien. + 275. Circaëtus | 1 |Timor and Flores |Palæarc., Ethiop., + | | | Orien. + (Spilornis | 2 |Celebes and Sulla |Oriental genus + | | Islands) | + 276. Butastur | 1 |Celebes to New Guinea |Oriental, N. E. Africa + 277. Haliæetus | 1 |The whole region |Cosmop., excl. + | | | Neotrop. region + 278. Haliastur | 2 |Australia and |Oriental + | | N. Caledonia | + 279. Milvus | 1 |Celebes to Australia |Palæarc., Orien., + | | | Ethiop. + 280. _Lophoictinia_ | 1 |Australia | + 281. _Gypoictinia_ | 1 |Australia | + 282. Elanus | 3 |Celebes and Australia |Oriental, Ethiopian + 283. _Henicopernis_ | 1 |Papuan Islands | + (Pernis | 1 |Celebes) |Palæarctic, Oriental, + | | | and Ethiopian + 284. Baza | 4 |Moluccas and Australia |Oriental + 285. _Harpa_ | 1 |N. Zealand and | + | | Auckland Ids. | + 286. Falco | 6 |Austro-Malaya and |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Australia | + 287. _Hieracidea_ | 2 |Australia and Tasmania | + 288. Cerchneis | 2 |Austro-Malaya and |Almost Cosmopolite + | | Australia | + | | | + PANDIONIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 289. Pandion | 1 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + 290. Polioaëtus | 1 |Celebes and Sandwich |Oriental + | | Islands | + | | | + STRIGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 291. Athene | 21 |The whole reg., excl. |Palæarc., Orien., + | | Pacific Ids. | Ethiop. + 292. Scops | 6 |Celebes, Moluccas, |Almost Cosmopolite + | | N. Zealand | + (Asio | 1 |Sandwich Islands) |Almost Cosmopolite, + | | | excl. Australian + | | | region + 293. Strix | 7 |The whole region |Cosmopolite + + _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._ + + GRALLÆ. | | | + RALLIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Ocydromus_ | 5 |New Zealand | + _Cabalus_ | 1 |Chatham Islands | + _Notornis_ | 2 |New Zealand, Norfolk | + | |and Lord Howe's Islands| + _Tribonyx_ | 4 |Australia and | + | | N. Zealand | + _Habroptila_ | 1 |Moluccas | + Rallina | 6 |Austro-Malaya |Oriental + _Pareudiastes_ | 1 |Samoan Islands | + | | | + SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Cladorhynchus_ | 1 |Australia | + | | | + CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Esacus | 1 |Austro-Malaya, |Oriental + | | Australia | + _Erythrogonys_ | 1 |Australia | + _Thinornis_ | 2 |New Zealand | + _Anarhynchus_ | 1 |New Zealand | + _Pedionomus_ | 1 |Australia | + | | | + RHINOCHETIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Rhinochetus_ | 1 |New Caledonia | + | | | + ANATIDÆ. | | | + | | | + _Nesonetta_ | 1 |Auckland Islands | + _Malacorhynchus_| 1 |Australia | + _Hymenolæmus_ | 1 |New Zealand | + _Biziura_ | 1 |Australia | + _Anseranas_ | 1 |Australia | + _Cereopsis_ | 1 |Australia and Tasmania | + | | | + PROCELLARIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Prion | 6 |New Zealand |Antarctic Seas + | | | + SPHENISCIDÆ. | | | + | | | + Eudyptes | 4 |Australia and |Antarctic shores + | | N. Zealand | + | | | + STRUTHIONES. | | | + CASUARIIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 294. _Dromæus_ | 2 |Australia | + 295. _Casuarius_ | 9 |Ceram to New Britain, | + | | N. Austrl. | + | | | + APTERYGIDÆ. | | | + | | | + 296. _Apteryx_ | 4 |New Zealand | + | | | + DINORNITHIDÆ. | |(Extinct) | + | | | + 297. _Dinornis_ | 5 |N. Zealand | + 298. _Mionornis_ | 2 |N. Zealand | + | | | + PALAPTERYGIDÆ. | |(Extinct) | + | | | + 299. _Palapteryx_ | 2 |N. Zealand | + 300. _Euryapteryx_ | 2 |N. Zealand | + +{489}INDEX TO VOL. I. + + +NOTE.--In this Index the names in Italics all refer to fossil genera or +families mentioned in Part II. The systematic names of genera and families +occurring in almost every page of Part III. are not given, as they would +unnecessarily swell the Index; but they can be readily referred to by the +Class or Order, or by the Geographical Division (Region or Sub-region) +under which they occur. They will, however, all be found in the General +Index, with a reference to the page (in Vol. II., Part IV.) where a +systematic account of their distribution is given. + + + A. + + Aardvark of East Africa, figure of, 261 + + _Accipitres_, European Eocene, 163 + + Accipitres, classification of, 97 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 248 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 312 + range of Oriental genera of, 385 + range of Australian genera of, 484 + + _Acerotherium_, European Miocene, 119 + N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Achænodon_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Acotherium_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Adapis_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Ælurogale_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Æpyornis_, of Madagascar, 164 + + _Æshna_, from the Lias, 167 + + _Agnopterus_, European Eocene, 163 + + _Agriochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Agrion_, from the Lias, 167 + + _Alcephalus_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, 289 + + _Aletornis_, N. American Eocene, 163 + + Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, 111 + + Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, 61 + objections to his system of circumpolar zones, 67 + objections to his zoo-geographical nomenclature, 68 + + Altai mountains, fossils in caves, 111 + + _Amblyrhiza_, Pliocene of Antilles, 148 + + America, recent separation of North and South, 40 + extinct mammalia of, 129 + North, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 129 + + _Amomys_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Amphechinus_, European Miocene, 117 + + Amphibia, means of dispersal of, 28 + classification of, 100 + peculiar to Palæarctic region, 186 + of Central Europe, 196 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 + of Siberian sub-region, 220 + + Amphibia, of the Manchurian sub-region, 226 + table of Palæarctic families of, 237 + of the Ethiopian region, 255 + of West Africa, 264 + South African, 268 + of Madagascar, 280 + table of Ethiopian families of, 298 + of the Oriental region, 317 + of the Indian sub-region, 326 + of Ceylon, 327 + of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340 + table of Oriental families of, 369 + of the Australian region, 397 + resemblances of Australian and South-American, 400 + of New Guinea, 416 + of New Zealand, 457 + + _Amphibos_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Amphicyon_, European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Amphimericidæ_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Amphimoschus_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Amphisorex_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Amphitragulus_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Anastoma_, European Tertiary, 169 + + _Anchilophus_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Anchippodus_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Anchippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Anchitheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Anchitherium_, European Miocene, 119 + European Eocene, 125 + N. American Tertiary, 135 + + Ancient fauna of New Zealand, 459 + + _Ancylotherium_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 121 + + Andaman Islands, zoology of, 333 + probable past history of, 334 + + _Andreas_, European Miocene, 165 + + Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, 85 + + Animals, development of, affecting distribution, 7 + dispersal and migration of, 10 + rapid multiplication of, 10 {490} + + _Anisacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428 + + _Anoplotheriidæ_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Anoplotherium_, European Miocene, 119 + European Eocene, 126 + S. American Eocene, 148 + + Anseres, arrangement of, 98 + peculiar Palæarctic genera, 250 + peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 313 + peculiar Australian genera of, 485 + + Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, 122 + birthplace and migrations of, 155 + Palæarctic, 182 + + _Antelotherium_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Anthracotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Anthracotherium_, European Miocene, 110 + + _Antiacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + Antilles, Pliocene Mammalia of, 148 + + _Antilope_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Antiquity of the genera of insects, 166 + of the genera of land and freshwater shells, 168 + + _Aphanapteryx_ of Mauritius, 164 + + _Aphelotherium_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Aquila_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Archæopteryx_, Bavarian Oolite, 163 + + Arctic zone not a separate region, 68 + + _Arctocyon_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Arctodus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + _Arctomys_, European Pliocene, 113 + + _Arctotherium_ in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + Argus pheasant, figure of, 339 + peculiarity, in display of plumage, and confirmation of Mr. Darwin's + views, 340 + + _Artiodactyla_, European Eocene, 126 + N. American Tertiary, 137 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Arvicola_, European Pliocene, 113 + in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + S. American Eocene, 148 + + _Auchena_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + Auckland Islands, birds of, 455 + + Australia, physical features of, 387 + + Australia and S. America, supposed land connection between, 398 + + Australian region, description of, 387 + zoological characteristics of, 390 + mammalia of, 390 + birds of, 391 + reptiles of, 396 + amphibia of, 397 + fresh-water fish of, 397 + summary of vertebrata of, 397 + supposed land-connection of with S. America, 398 + insects of, 403 + lepidoptera of, 404 + coleoptera of, 405 + land shells of, 407 + sub-regions of, 408 + early history of, 465 + + Australian sub-region, mammalia of, 438 + illustration of mammalia of, 439 + birds of, 440 + illustration of fauna of, 441 + + Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features of, 388 + zoology of, 409 + + Aye-aye, figure of, 278 + + Azores, visited by European birds, 17 + birds of, 207 + butterflies of, 207 + beetles of, 207, 209 + peculiarly modified birds of, 207 + stragglers to, 208 + how stocked with animal life, 208 + + B. + + Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428 + + Badger, figure of, 195 + + _Balæna_, European Pliocene, 112 + + _Balænodon_, European Pliocene, 112 + + Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, 230 + + Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a problem in distribution, + 356 + + Barriers, as affecting distribution, 6 + permanence of, as affecting distribution, 7 + to the dispersal of birds, 17 + + Bates, Mr., on Carabidæ of Japan, 228 + on Longicorns of Japan, 230 + + _Bathmodon_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Bathrodon_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Batrachia_, Tertiary, 165 + + Bats, powers of flight of, 15 + classification of, 87 + of New Zealand, 450 + + Bears, probable cause of absence of, from tropical Africa, 291 + + Beaver, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + Beetles, families selected for study, 103 + from the Lias, 167 + of Azores, 207 + of Japan, 228 + + _Belemnoziphius_, European Pliocene, 112 + + Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake during the glacial epoch, + 218 + on change of climate caused by diminution of obliquity of ecliptic, 466 + + Birds, means of dispersal of, 15 + dispersal of by winds, 16 + American, found in Europe, 16 + reaching the Azores, 17 + barriers to dispersal of, 17 + limited by forests, 17 + classification of, 93 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + extinct, 160 + fossil of Palæarctic region, 161 + European of Miocene period, 161 + Eocene of Europe, 162 + relations of, 162 + extinct of North America, 163 + recently extinct in New Zealand, 164 + Cretaceous of N. America, 164 + remains of in Brazilian caves, 164 + recently extinct in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, 164 + cosmopolitan groups of, 176 + numerous genera, Palæarctic, 183 + of the European sub-region, 193 + northern range of in Europe, 193 + of the zone of pine forests, 194 + of Iceland, 198 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 203 + of Malta, 206 (_note_) + of Azores, 207 + of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 + of Siberian sub-region, 219 + Oriental found in Siberia, 219 + extreme northern Asiatic, 219 + of northern Asiatic forests, 220 + of the Manchurian sub-region, 223 + Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 224 + Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 224 {491} + characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, 226 + table of Palæarctic families of, 235 + of West Africa, 243 + list of Palæarctic genera of, 243 + of the Ethiopian region, 253 + of the East African sub-region, 260 + S. African, 267 + genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, 275 + common to Madagascar and Oriental or Ethiopian regions, 276 + species common to Madagascar and Africa or Asia, 277 + table of Ethiopian families of, 295 + table of Ethiopian genera of, 306 + of the Oriental region, 316 + of the Indian sub-region, 323 + Oriental genera of in Central India, 324 + Palæarctic and Ethiopian genera in Central India, 325 + of Ceylon, 327 + of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 330 + of Indo-Malayan sub-region, 337 + illustration of peculiar Malayan, 339 + of the Philippine Islands, 346 + table of Oriental families of, 366 + table of Oriental genera of, 375 + of Australian region, 391 + specially organized Australian families of, 392 + of the Papuan Islands, 410 + peculiarities of, 413 + brilliant colours of, 413 + remarkable forms of, 414 + of the Moluccas, 418 + peculiarities of, 421 + of Timor group, 423 + of Celebes, 428 + of Australia, 440 + of New Zealand, 451 + peculiar to New Zealand, 452 + of Norfolk Island, 453 + of Lord Howe's Island, 453 + of the Chatham Islands, 454 + of the Auckland Islands, 455 + table of families of Australian, 471 + table of genera of Australian, 478 + + Black ape of Celebes, 427 + + Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the "Indian" region, 60 + on relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, 321 + + _Blapsidium_, Oolitic insect, 167 + + Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, 60 + on the relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, 321 + + Borneo, probable recent changes in, 357 + + _Bos_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + Indian Miocene, 122 + + Bourbon, zoology of, 280 + reptiles of, 281 + + _Bovidæ_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Brachymys_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Bramatherium_, Miocene of Perim Island, 122 + + Brazilian cave-fauna, 143 + remarks on, 145 + + _Breyeria borinensis_, carboniferous insect, 168 + + Britain, peculiar species in, 197 + + British Isles, zoology of, 197 + + Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, 340 + + _Brontotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Brontotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Bubo_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Bulimus_, Eocene, 169 + + _Bunælurus_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Buprestidium_, Oolitic insect, 167 + + Butterflies, arrangement of, 103 + Palæarctic, 187 + of Central Europe, 196 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 + of Azores, 207 + peculiar to Siberian sub-region, 220 + of Japan and North China, 227 + of the Ethiopian region, 255 + number of Ethiopian species, 256 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 342 + of the Australian region, 404 + of the Austro-Malay sub-region, 404 + of the Moluccas, 419 + of Celebes, peculiarities of, 434 + of New Zealand, 457 + + C. + + _Cadurcotherium_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Cælodon_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Cælogenys_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Cænopithecus_, European Eocene, 124 + + _Cainotherium_, European Miocene, 120 + European Eocene, 126 + + _Calamodon_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Callithrix_ in Brazilian caves, 184 + + Canaries, birds of, 208 + beetles of, 209 + + _Canidæ_, European Miocene, 118 + European Eocene, 125 + N. American Tertiary, 134 + remarkable S. African, 267 + + _Canis_, European Pliocene, 112 + Post-Pliocene, 112 + European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + European Eocene, 125 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 + N. American Tertiary, 134, 135 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, 122 + birth-place and migrations of, 155 + Palæarctic, 182 + + _Camelidæ_, essentially extra-tropical, 112 + N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Camelopardalis_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Camelotherium_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and of, 266 + + Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, 214 + + Cape-hare, S. African, 267 + + _Cardiodus_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Cariama_, Brazilian caves, 164 + + _Carnivora_ of European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + European Eocene, 125 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 + N. American Tertiary, 134 + of Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + Carnivora, classification of, 88 + antiquity of, 153 + of the Palæarctic region, 182 + list of Palæarctic genera of, 240 + list of Ethiopian genera of, 302 + range of Oriental genera of, 373 + list of Australian genera of, 476 + + Caroline Islands, birds of, 444 + + _Carterodon_ in Brazilian caves, 145 + + Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of animals, 85 {492} + Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, 88 + + _Castor_, European Pliocene, 113 + European Miocene, 120 + + _Casoryx_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Cathartes_, Brazilian caves, 164 + + Cave-fauna of Brazil, 143 + + _Cavia_, European Miocene, 121 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Cebochoerus_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Cebus_ in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Celebes, physical features of, 389 + mammalia of, 426 + birds of, 428 + insects of, 434 + origin of fauna of, 436 + + _Centetidæ_, European Miocene, 118 + + Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, 397 + + _Cercolabes_ in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Cercopithecus_ in European Pliocene, 112 + + _Cervidæ_, European Miocene, 120 + birth-place and migrations of, 155 + + _Cervus_, European Pliocene, 113 + Indian Pliocene and Miocene, 122 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 138 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Cetacea_, European Pliocene, 112 + European Miocene, 119 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 140 + + Cetacea, classification of, 89 + range of Oriental genus, 374 + + Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, 327 + + Ceylonese sub-region, 326 + mammalia of, 327 + birds of, 327 + reptiles of, 327 + amphibia of, 327 + insects of, 327 + past history of, as indicated by its fauna, 328 + + _Chalicomys_, European Pliocene, 113 + + _Chalicotherium_, European Miocene, 119 + Indian Miocene, 122 + fossil in N. China, 123 + + _Chamæleo_, N. American Eocene, 165 + + Chamois, figure of, 195 + + Chatham Islands, birds of, 454 + + Chelonia, classification of, 100 + + _Chelydra_, European Pliocene, 165 + + Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, 336 + + Chili should not be placed in the Palæarctic or Nearctic regions, 63 + + China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of Indian and European + Miocene, 362 + North, mammalia of, 222 + + _Chinchillidæ_ in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + Pliocene of Antilles, 148 + + Chiroptera, classification of, 87 + list of Palæarctic genera of, 239 + list of Ethiopian genera of, 300 + range of Oriental genera of, 371 + list of Australian genera of, 475 + + _Chiroptera_, European Eocene, 125 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Chlamydotherium_ in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Choeromorus_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Choeropotamus_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Choerotherium_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Choneziphius_, European Pliocene, 112 + + Chough, Alpine, figure of, 195 + + Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, 67 + + Classification as affecting the study of distribution, 83 + + _Clausilia_, Eocene, 169 + + Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia, 11 + gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, 41 + + Coleoptera, families selected for study, 103 + Palæarctic, 188 + number of Palæarctic species, 189 + of Central Europe, 196 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 + of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 + of the Ethiopian region, 256 + S. African, 268 + of Madagascar, 282, 283 + of the Oriental region, 319 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 342 + of the Australian region, 405 + affinity of Australian and South American, 406, 407 + of Celebes, 435 + of New Zealand, 457 + + _Collocalia_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Colobus_, European Miocene, 117 + + _Colonoceras_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Colossochelys_ of Indian Miocene, 123, 165 + + Columbæ, classification of, 96 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 248 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 + range of Oriental genera of, 384 + range of Australian genera of, 485 + + Comoro islands, zoology of, 281 + + Continents, distribution of, 37 + recent changes of, 38 + + Continental extension in Mesozoic times, 156 + + _Corvus_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Coryphodon_, European Eocene, 126 + + Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, 175 + + _Cricetodon_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Cricetus_, European Pliocene, 113 + + Crocodiles, Eocene, 165 + + Crocodilia, classification of, 100 + + Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, 456 + + Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, 209 + + Crowned-pigeon, figure of, 415 + + _Cryptornis_, European Eocene, 163 + + _Ctenomys_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Cuba, extinct mammalia of, 148 + + _Curculionidium_, Oolitic insect, 167 + + _Cyclostoma_, Eocene, 169 + + _Cyllo sepulta_, European Cretaceous, 167 + + _Cynælurus_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, 427 + + _Cyotherium_, European Eocene, 125 + + D. + + _Daptophilus_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of the abundance of apterous + insects in Madeira, 211 + on the relation of flowers and insects, 463 + + _Dasyprocta_, European Miocene, 121 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Dasypus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Dasyurus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + David, Père, his researches in China and Thibet, 221, 222 + on birds of N. China, 226 + + Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary formations, 138 {493} + Palæarctic, 182 + probable cause of absence of from tropical Africa, 291 + + _Delphinus_, European Pliocene, 112 + + _Dendrocygna_, European Miocene, 162 + + Desman of S. Russia, figure of, 219 + + _Diceratherium_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Dichobune_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Dicotyles_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 137 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + birthplace and migrations of, 155 + + _Dicrocerus_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Didelphys_, European Eocene, 126 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Dididæ_, 164 + + _Dinocerata_, N. American Tertiary, 139 + + _Dinoceras_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Dinornis_, allied form in European Eocene, 163 + of New Zealand and Australia, 164 + + _Dinornithidæ_ of New Zealand, 164 + + _Dinotherium_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + Miocene of Perim Island, 123 + + _Dinyctis_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Dinylus_, European Miocene, 117 + + _Diplacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Diprotodon_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + Dispersal of animals, 10 + of mammalia, 10 + of reptiles and amphibia, 28 + + Distribution, affected by climate, 5 + affected by physical features, 5 + contrasts of, in similar climates, 5 + similarities of, in diverse climates, 6 + barriers as affecting, 6 + study of, dependent on a good classification, 83 + of animals an adjunct to geology, 8 + of animals requires certain preliminary studies, 8 + of animals dependent on physical geography, 35 + of animals, as affected by the glacial epoch, 40 + of animals, as affected by changes of vegetation, 43 + of animals, as affected by organic changes, 44 + of animals, hypothetical illustration of, 46 + of animals, complexity of the causes affecting the, 49 + of animals, problems in, 51 + of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch, 42 + + Dodo of Mauritius, 282 + + _Dolichopterus_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Dommina_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Dorcatherium_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Dremotherium_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + + Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of European birds, 193 + + _Dromatherium_, N. American Triassic, 134 + oldest American mammal, 160 + + Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, 340 + _opithecus_, European Miocene, 117 + + E. + + East Africa, geographical features of, 258 + wide range of genera and species over, 259 + few special types in, 260 + + East African sub-region, description of, 258 + genera and species ranging over the whole of, 259 + mammalia of, 260 + birds of, 260 + reptiles of, 260 + amphibia and fishes of, 260 + insects of, 260 + few peculiar types in, 260 + illustration of zoology of, 261 + + East Australia, peculiar birds of, 440 + + East Thibet, mammalia of, 222 + + Eaton, Rev. A. E., on insects of Kerguelen Island, 211 + + _Echimyidæ_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Echinogale_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Ectognathus_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Edentata_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 121 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Pliocene, 140 + of Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Edentata, classification of, 90 + probable birthplace of, 155 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 305 + range of Oriental genus of, 375 + + Elephants, fossil of Indian Miocene, 123 + fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene formations, 130 + birthplace and migrations of, 155 + + Elephant shrews, S. African, 267 + + _Elephas_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + fossil in N. China, 123 + N. American Tertiary, 138 + + Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of paradise, 415 + + _Elornis_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Elotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 137, 139 + + Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, 204 + on true relations of the birds of Central India, 323 + + _Embasis_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + Emu, figure of, 441 + + _Emys_, Indian Miocene, 123 + Miocene and Eocene, 165 + + _Emydida_, Indian Miocene, 123 + + _Enhydrion_, Indian Miocene, 121 + + _Eobasileus_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + Eocene period, 124 + fauna of S. America, 148 + + _Ephemera_, from the Lias, 167 + + _Eporeodon_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Equidæ_, European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Eocene, 125 + + _Equus_, European Pliocene, 112 + Post-Pliocene, 112 + Indian Miocene, 121 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 135 + Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Ereptodon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + _Erinaceus_, European Miocene, 117 + + _Erythromachus_ of Rodriguez, 164 + + _Esthonyx_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, 63 + defined, 73 + subdivisions of, 73 + general features of, 251 {494} + zoological characteristics of, 252 + mammalia of, 253 + great speciality of, 253 + birds of, 253 + reptiles of, 254 + amphibia of, 255 + fresh-water fish of, 255 + summary of vertebrates of, 255 + insects of, 255 + coleoptera of, 256 + terrestrial mollusca of, 257 + sub-regions of, 258 + Atlantic islands of, 269 + the probable past history of, 285 + tables of distribution of animals of, 293 + + _Eumys_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + _Euphractus_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, 39 + Miocene fauna of Central, 117 + Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa, + 124 + + European sub-region, description of, 191 + forests of, 192 + mammalia of, 192 + birds of, 193 + reptiles and amphibia of, 195 + fresh-water fish of, 196 + insects of, 196 + islands of, 197 + + Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, 278 + + _Eurydon_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Eurytherium_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Eutatus_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Eutelodon_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Eutemnodus_, S. American Eocene, 148 + + Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, 126 + mammalia of N. America and Europe, comparison of, 140 + mammalia of the Antilles, 148 + mammalia of Old and New Worlds, general remarks on, 148 + fauna of New Zealand, 459 + + Extinction of large animals, causes of, 158 + + F. + + Fauna of Japan, general character and affinities of, 230 + of Palæarctic region, general conclusions as to, 231 + extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, 282 + Malayan, probable origin of, 359 + Moluccan, peculiarities of, 419 + Timorese, origin of, 422 + of Celebes, origin of, 436 + of New Zealand, origin of, 460 + + _Felis spelæa_, 110 + + _Felis_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Fernando Po, zoological features of, 265 + + Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, 443 + + Fishes, means of dispersal of, 29 + classification of, 101 + cosmopolitan groups of, 176 + of the Palæarctic region, 186 + of the European sub-region, 196 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 + of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 + fresh-water, table of Palæarctic families of, 227 + of the Ethiopian region, 255 + of South Africa, 268 + fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, 298 + fresh-water, of the Oriental region, 318 + of the Indo-Malay sub-region, 341 + fresh-water, table of Oriental families of, 369 + fresh-water, of the Australian region, 397 + fresh-water, resemblance of Australian and S. American, 400 + how the transmission may have taken place, 401 + fresh-water, of New Zealand, 457 + + Flamingoes, European Miocene, 162 + + Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, 462 + fossil, of Australia, 467 + + Flower, Professor, on classification of mammalia, 85 + classification of carnivora, 87 + + Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, 337 + + Flying Opossum, figure of, 442 + + Formosa, zoology of, 332 + + Forests, essential to existence of many European animals, 192 + Siberian, greatest extent of, 216 + + G. + + Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, 463 + + _Galecynus_, in European Pliocene, 112 + + _Galera_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + _Galeospalax_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Galeotherium_, Post-Pliocene, 111 + + _Galethylax_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Galictis_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Gallinæ, classification of, 96 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 248 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 + range of Oriental genera of, 384 + range of Australian genera of, 485 + + _Gallus_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + + _Gallus bravardi_, European Pliocene, 161 + + _Gastornis_, European Eocene, 163 + + Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, 132 + + Geological history of Oriental region, 362 + + Gibraltar, cave fauna of, 114 + + Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, 40 + as a cause of the great change in the fauna of the temperate zones, + since Pliocene times, 151 + probably simultaneous in both hemispheres, 151 + causing a general subsidence of the ocean, 152 + + _Glandina_, Eocene, 169 + + _Glossotherium_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Glyptodon_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Gnathopsis_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Goats, Palæarctic, 182 + + Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, 207 + + Golden Moles, S. African, 267 + + _Graculavus_, N. American Cretaceous, 164 + + Grallæ, arrangement of, 97 + peculiar or characteristic Palæarctic genera, 249 + peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 313 + peculiar Oriental genera of, 386 {495} + peculiar Australian genera of, 484 + + Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, 88 + + Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, 115 + summary of Miocene fauna of, 116 + + Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, 184 + + Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidæ of the Sandwich Islands, 446 + + Günther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, 98 + his classification of fishes, 101 + on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, 289 + on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, 329 + + H. + + Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, 460 + + Habitat, definition of, 4 + + Hainan, zoology of, 334 + + _Halcyornis_, European Eocene, 103 + + _Halitherium_, European Pliocene, 112 + European Miocene, 119 + + _Helladotherium_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + + Hatteria of New Zealand, 456 + + Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, 331 + + _Helix_, Eocene, 169 + + _Hemibos_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Hemicyon_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Herpetotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Hesperomys_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Hesperornis_, N. American Cretaceous, 164 + + _Heterodon_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Hexaprotodon_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinction of large animals, 158 + + Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, 329, 333 + + _Hipparion_, European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 119 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Hippopotamus_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + Europe in Pliocene, 113 + Indian Pliocene, 122 + + _Hipposyus_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Hippotherium_, European Miocene, 119 + Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Hippotragus_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Homalodontotherium_, S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Homalophus_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Homocamelus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to Australia, 392 + + Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, 464 + + _Hoplocetus_, European Pliocene, 112 + + _Hoplophoneus_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, 121 + perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, 136 + probable birthplace of, 154 + + Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand fauna, 461 + + Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, 59 + division of animal kingdom by, 85 + + _Hyæna_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + fossil in N. China, 123 + + _Hyænarctos_ in European Pliocene, 112 + European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Hyænictis_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + + _Hyænidæ_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Hyænodon_, European Miocene, 118 + European Eocene, 125 + N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Hyænodontidæ_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Hydrochoerus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + _Hydrornis_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Hyohippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Hyomoschus_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Hyopotamus_, European Miocene, 119 + N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Hyopsodus_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Hyotherium_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Hypertragulus_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Hypisodus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Hypsiprymnus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + _Hyrachyus_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Hyracodon_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Hyracoidea_, classification of, 90 + Palæarctic, 242 + Ethiopian, 304 + + _Hyracotherium_, supposed, in European Eocene, 125 + European Eocene, 126 + + _Hystrix_, European Pliocene, 113 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + N. American Tertiary, 140 + + I. + + _Ibidipodia_, European Miocene, 162 + + Ibidorhynchus, figure of, 331 + + Iceland, zoology of, 198 + + _Icthyornis_, N. American Cretaceous, 164 + + _Icticyon_ in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Ictitherium_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + + _Ictops_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, 123 + geological features of, 328 + + Indian, sub-region, description of, 321 + supposed relation to Ethiopian region, 321 + mammalia of, 322 + birds of, 323 + reptiles and amphibia of, 326 + + Indo-Chinese, sub-region, description of, 329 + zoological characteristics of, 330 + illustration of, 331 + reptiles of, 331 + amphibia of, 331 + insects of, 332 + islands belonging to, 333 + + Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, 334 + mammalia of, 336 + illustrations of, 336, 339 + birds of, 337 + remote geographical relations of, 339 + reptiles and amphibia of, 340 + fishes of, 341 + insects of, 341 + coleoptera of, 342 + terrestrial mollusca of, 343 + zoological relations of islands of, 345 + recent geographical changes in, 357 + probable origin of fauna of, 359 + + Insects, means of dispersal of, 32 + tenacity of life of, 33 {496} + adapted to special conditions, 33 + groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, 102 + antiquity of the genera of, 166 + fossil of European Miocene, 166 + European Cretaceous, 167 + European Wealden, 167 + Palæozoic, 168 + Palæarctic, 187 + of Central Europe, 196 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 + of the Siberian sub-region, 220 + of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 + of the Ethiopian region, 255 + of the East African sub-region, 260 + of West Africa, 265 + S. African, 268 + of Madagascar, 282 + general remarks on, 284 + of tropical Africa and America, probable cause of similarities in, 291 + of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 332 + of the Oriental region, 318 + of Ceylon, 327 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 341 + statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay + Archipelago, 343 + of the Australian region, 403 + of New Guinea, 417 + of the Moluccas, 420 + of Timor group, 426 + of Celebes, 454 + of New Zealand, 458 + scarcity of, in New Zealand, 462 + influence of, on the flora, 463 + + _Insectivora_, European Miocene, 117 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 + N. American Tertiary, 133 + + Insectivora, classification of, 87 + of the Palæarctic region, 181 + of N. China and E. Thibet, 222 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 239 + of Madagascar, 273 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 301 + of the Oriental region, 315 + range of Oriental genera of, 372 + range of Australian genera of, 476 + + _Isacis_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Ischyromys_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + Islands, N. European, zoology of, 197 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 206 + of the West African sub-region, 265 + of Ethiopian region, 269 + Mascarene, 280 + of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, 333 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 345 + Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, 443 + Society and Marquesas, 444 + New Caledonia and New Hebrides, 445 + Sandwich, 446 + of New Zealand sub-region, 453 + Norfolk, 453 + Lord Howe's, 454 + Chatham, 454 + Auckland, 455 + + _Issiodromys_, European Pliocene, 113 + + J. + + _Jacchus_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Japan and North China, physical features of, 221 + southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, 226 + general character of the fauna of, 230 + former land-connexions of, 231 + + Java, mammalia of, 349 + productions of, well known, 350 + birds of, 351 + representative species of birds in, 352 + origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, 352 + Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological + peculiarities explained, 357 + + _Junonia_, European Miocene, 167 + + K. + + Kakapoe, of New Zealand, 455 + + Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, 157 + + Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, 211 (_note_) + + _Kerodon_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + King-fisher, racquet tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, 415 + + Kiwi of New Zealand, 455 + + Koodoo antelope, figure of, 261 + + L. + + Lacertilia, classification of, 99 + + Ladrone Islands, birds of, 444 + + _Lagomys_, European Pliocene, 113 + European Miocene, 120 + + _Lagostomus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Lake Baikal, seals of, 218 + + Land and water, proportions of, 35 + + Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, 168 + + Land-shells, Palæozoic, 169 + Palæarctic, 190 + of Madeira, 209 + of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 + of the Ethiopian region, 257 + of W. Africa, 265 + of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, 285 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 344 + of the Australian region, 407 + of Sandwich Islands, 446 + of New Zealand, 459 + + _Lanius_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Laopithecus_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Laornis_, N. American Cretaceous, 164 + + Lemuria, a hypothetical land, 76 + + _Lamuravidæ_, 133 + + _Lemuravus_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Lemuridæ_, European Eocene, 124 + + Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, 300 + range of Oriental genera of, 371 + + _Lepictis_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, 177 + table of Palæarctic families of, 238 + S. African, 268 + table of Ethiopian families of, 299 + of the Oriental region, 318 + table of Oriental families of, 369 + of the Australian region, 404 + table of Australian families of, 472 + + _Leptarchus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Leptauchenia_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Leptochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Leptodon_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + + _Leptomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Leptoptilus_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Leptosomus_, allied form in European Eocene, 168 {497} + + Leptosomus of Madagascar, 278 + figure of, 279 + + _Leptotherium_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Lepus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Lestodon_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, 228 + + _Lebellula_, from the Lias, 167 + + Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, 90 + + _Limnæa_, Eocene, 169 + European Secondary, 169 + + _Limnatornis_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Limnocyon_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Limnohyus_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Limnotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Limnotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Listriodon_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Lithomys_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Lithornis_, European Eocene, 163 + + Lizards, classification of, 99 + Tertiary, 165 + wide range of a species in Polynesia, 448 + + _Loncheres_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Lonchophorus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Lophiodon_, European Eocene, 125 + N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Lophiotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + Lord Howe's Island, birds of, 453 + + _Loxomylus_, Pliocene of Antilles, 148 + + Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, 143 + + _Lutra_, European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + + _Lycæna_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + + Lyre bird, figure of, 441 + + M. + + _Macacus_, European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + Indian Miocene, 121 + supposed in European Eocene, 125 + + _Machairodus_, 110, 111 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + Indian Miocene, 121 + N. American Tertiary, 134 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Macrauchenia_, S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Macrotherium_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 121 + + Madagascar, extinct birds of, 164 + description of, 272 + mammalia of, 272 + birds of, 274 + reptiles of, 279 + amphibia of, 280 + extinct fauna of, 282 + general remarks on insect fauna of, 284 + + Madeira, birds of, 208 + land shells of, 208 + beetles of, 210 + wingless insects numerous in, 211 + how stocked with animals, 213 + + Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological unity of, 353 + comparison of mammalia, 354 + of birds, 355 + + Malagasy sub-region, description of, 272 + mammalia of, 272 + birds of, 274 + illustration of zoology of, 278 + reptiles of, 279 + amphibia of, 280 + extinct fauna of, 282, 289 + insects of, 282 + early history of, 286 + + Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, 345 (_note_) + + Malayan forms of life reappearing in West Africa, 263 + fauna, probable origin of, 359 + resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, 361 + + Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 114 + formerly joined to Africa, 201 + fossil elephants of, 201 + birds of, 206 (_note_) + + Mammalia, means of dispersal of, 10 + as limited by climate, 11 + as limited by rivers, 12 + how far limited by the sea, 13 + dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, 14 + means of dispersal of aquatic, 15 + of most importance in determining zoological regions, 57 + classification of, 85 + birthplace and migrations of some families of, 142, 153 + cosmopolitan groups of, 176 + of the Palæarctic region, 181 + of the European sub-region, 192 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 202 + of the Siberian sub-region, 217 + characteristic of Western Tartary, 218 + of the Manchurian sub-region, 222 + Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, 222 + Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, 223 + peculiar to Japan, 223 + characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, 226 + table of Palæarctic families of, 234 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 239 + of the Ethiopian region, 253 + absence of certain important groups, 253 + of the East African sub-region, 260 + of West Africa, 262 + of S. Africa, 267 + of Madagascar, 272 + table of Ethiopian families of, 294 + table of Ethiopian genera of, 300 + of the Oriental region, 315 + range of the genera inhabiting the Indian sub-region, 322 + of Ceylon, 327 + of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, 330 + of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, 336 + illustration of characteristic Malayan, 336 + of the Philippine Islands, 345 + table of Oriental families of, 365 + table of Oriental genera of, 371 + of Australian region, 390 + of the Papuan Islands, 410 + of the Moluccas, 417 + of Timor group, 422 + of Celebes, 427 + of Australia, 439 + illustration of, 439 + of New Zealand, 450 + table of families of Australian, 470 + table of genera of Australian, 475 + + _Mammal_, the most ancient American, 134 + + _Mammalia_, extinct, of Old World, 107 + extinct, of historic period, 110 + extinct, comparative age of in Europe, 127 + extinct, of the New World, 129 {498} + extinct, of N. America and Europe, compared, 141 + original birth-place of some families and genera, 142, 153 + of the secondary period, 160 + + _Manatus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + Manchurian sub-region, description of, 220 + mammalia of, 222 + birds of, 223 + reptiles and amphibia of, 227 + fresh-water fish of, 227 + insects of, 227 + coleoptera of, 228 + + Marquesas Islands, birds of, 443 + + Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and African deserts, 200 + on camels and goats as destructive to vegetation, 200 + + Marsupials, classification of, 91 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + European Miocene, 121 + first migration to America, 155 + diversified forms of, 391 + of America prove no connexion with Australia, 399 + list of Australian genera of, 476 + + _Martes_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + Mascarene Islands, zoology of, 280 + extinct fauna of, 282 + gigantic land-tortoises of, 289 + + _Mastodon_, European Pliocene, 113 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + Indian Miocene, 123 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 138 + + Mauritius, zoology of, 280 + reptiles of, 281 + + McCoy, Professor, on Palæontology of Victoria, 466 + + Mediterranean, recent changes in, 39 + sub-region, description of, 199 + mammalia of, 202 + birds of, 203 + reptiles and amphibia of, 204 + fresh-water fish of, 205 + insects of, 205 + islands of, 206 + sea not separating distinct faunas, 201 + + _Megacerops_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Megalomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Megalocnus_, fossil in Cuba, 148 + + _Megalonyx_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Megalostoma_, Eocene, 169 + + _Megamys_, S. American Eocene, 148 + + _Megaspira_, European Tertiary, 169 + + _Megatheridæ_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Megatherium_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Melania_, European secondary, 169 + + _Meleagris_, N. American Miocene, 163 + + _Mellivora_, Indian Miocene, 121 + + _Melolonthidium_, Oolitic insect, 167 + + _Meniscotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Menotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Mephitis_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Merychus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Merychippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Merychochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Merycodus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Merycopotamus_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + _Merycotherium_ of Siberian drift, 112 + + _Mesacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Mesohippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Mesonyx_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Mesopithecus_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + + Meyer, Dr. A. B., on reptiles and amphibia of New Guinea, 415 + + _Microlestes_, oldest European mammal, 160 + + _Micromeryx_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Microsyops_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Microtherium_, European Miocene, 120 + + Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, 219 + + Migrating birds, in which region to be placed, 185 + + Migration of animals, 10 + general phenomena of, 18 + of birds, 19 + of birds in Europe, 19 + probable origin of, 22 + of birds in India and China, 23 + of birds in N. America, 23 + changes in extent of, 24 + of birds in S. Temperate America, 25 + general remarks on, 25 + + _Milvus_, European Miocene, 162 + + Miocene fauna of the Old World, 114 + fauna of Greece, 115 + fauna of Greece, summary of, 116 + fauna of Central Europe, 117 + deposits of Siwalik Hills, 121 + faunas of Europe and Asia, general observations on, 123 + + _Miohippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + Mivart, Professor, on classification of primates, 86 + on classification of insectivora, 87 + on classification of amphibia, 101 + + Moles almost wholly Palæarctic, 181 + + Mole-rat, of W. Tartary, 218 + + Mollusca, means of dispersal of, 30 + classification of, 104 + groups selected for study, 104 + + Moluccas, zoology of, 417 + birds of, 419 + reptiles of, 420 + insects of, 420 + peculiarities of fauna of, 421 + + Monkeys on the high Himalayas, 12 + fossil in N. American Miocene + in E. Thibet, 222 + abundance of in the Oriental region, 315 + + Monotremata, classification of, 91 + list of Australian genera of, 477 + + "More-pork" of Australia, figure of, 442 + + _Morotherium_, N. American Pliocene, 140 + + _Motacilla_, European Miocene, 161 + + Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, 393 + + Moupin, position and zoology of, 221 + + _Muridæ_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region, 60 + + _Mustela_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + _Mustelidæ_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Mylodon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Myogale_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Myomorphus_, fossil in Cuba + + _Myopotamus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Myoxus_, European Miocene, 120 + European Eocene, 126 + + _Mysarachne_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Mysops_, N. American Eocene, 140 + + _Myxophagus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + N. {499} + + _Nanohyus_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Nasua_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Nearctic region, defined, 79 + subdivisions of, 80 + distinct from Palæarctic, 79 + + _Necrornis_, European Miocene, 161 + + Neotropical region, defined, 78 + subdivisions of, 78 + relations of W. African sub-region with, 265 + + _Nesodon_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Newton, Professor, on position of _Menuridæ_ and _Atrichiidæ_, 95 + on birds of Iceland, 198 + + New Caledonia, birds of, 444 + + New Guinea, zoology of, 409 + mammalia of, 410 + birds of, 411 + peculiarities of its ornithology, 413 + illustration of ornithology of, 414 + reptiles and amphibia of, 415 + insects of, 416 + + New Zealand, objections to making a primary zoological region, 62 + extinct birds of, 164 + sub-region, description of, 449 + compared with British Isles, 449 + mammalia of, 451 + islets of, 453 + illustration of ornithology of, 455 + reptiles of, 456 + amphibia of, 457 + fresh-water fish of, 457 + insects of, 458 + Longicorns of, 458 + Myriapoda of, 458 + land-shells of, 459 + ancient fauna of, 460 + origin of fauna of, 460 + poverty of insects in, 462 + relations of insect-fauna and flora, 472 + + Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, 332 + + Nightingale, migration of the, 21 + + Norfolk Island, birds of, 453 + + North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene fauna of, 130 + Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from S. America, 131 + extinct birds of, 163 + + North Africa, zoological relations of, 202 + + _Notharctos_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + Notornis of New Zealand, 455 + + _Nototherium_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + O. + + _Ochotherium_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Octodontidæ_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Ophidia, classification of, 99 + + _Opisthocomus_, Brazilian caves, 164 + + _Opossum_, extinct, in European Miocene, 121 + + _Oreodon_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Oreodontidæ_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + Oriental region, defined, 75 + subdivisions of, 75 + description of, 314 + zoological features of, 315 + mammalia of, 315 + birds of, 316 + reptiles of, 317 + amphibia of, 317 + fresh-water fishes of, 318 + summary of vertebrata, 318 + insects of, 318 + sub-regions of, 321 + concluding remarks on, 362 + tables of distribution of animals of, 364 + + Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, 265 + + Oriental and Palæarctic faunas once identical, 362 + + Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their resemblances, 363 + + _Orohippus_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Ostrich_, Miocene of N. India, 162 + + _Otaria_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Ovibos_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + Oxen, birthplace and migrations of, 155 + Palæarctic, 182 + + _Oxyæna_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Oxygomphus_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Oxymycterus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + P. + + _Pachyæna_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Pachynolophus_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Pachytherium_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + Palæarctic region, defined, 71 + subdivisions of, 71 + general features of, 180 + zoological characteristics of, 181 + has few peculiar families, 181 + mammalia of, 181 + birds of, 182 + high degree of speciality of, 184 + reptiles and amphibia of, 186 + fresh-water fish of, 186 + summary of vertebrata of, 186 + insects of, 186 + coleoptera of, 187 + number of coleoptera of, 189 + land-shells of, 190 + sub-regions of, 190 + general conclusions on the fauna of, 231 + tables of distribution of animals of, 233 + + _Palæacodon_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Palæetus_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Palægithalus_, European Eocene, 162 + + _Palælodus_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Palæocastor_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + _Palæocercus_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Palæochoeus_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Palæohierax_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Palæolagus_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + _Palæolama_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Palæomephitis_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Palæomeryx_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Palæomys_, European Miocene, 121 + + _Palæontina oolitica_, Oolitic insect, 167 + + Palæontology, 107 + how best studied in its bearing on geographical distribution, 168 + as an introduction to the study of geographical distribution, + concluding remarks on, 169 + + _Palæonyctis_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Palæoperdix_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Palæophrynus_, European Miocene, 166 + + _Palæoreas_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + + _Palæortyx_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Palæoryx_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + + _Palæospalax_, 111 + European Miocene, 117 + + _Palæosyops_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Palæotheridæ_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Palæotherium_, European Eocene, 125 + S. American Eocene, 148 + + _Palæotragus_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + + _Palæotringa_, N. American Cretaceous, 164 + + _Palapterygidæ_ of New Zealand, 164 {500} + + Palestine, birds of, 203 + + _Paloplotherium_, European Miocene, 119 + European Eocene, 125 + + _Paludina_, Eocene, 169 + European Secondary, 169 + + Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, 146 + + Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, 222 + Himalayan, figure of, 331 + + _Panolax_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + Papuan Islands, zoology of, 409 + + Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, 414 + + _Parahippus_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + _Paramys_, N. American Eocene, 140 + + Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, 415 + + Parrots, classification of, 96 + + Passeres, arrangement of, 94 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 243 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 306 + range of Oriental genera of, 375 + range of Australian genera of, 478 + + _Patriofelis_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + Peculiar groups, geographically, how defined, 184 + + _Pelagornis_, European Miocene, 162 + + _Pelonax_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Peratherium_, European Miocene, 121 + European Eocene, 126 + + _Perchoerus_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, 122 + probable southern limit of old Palæarctic land, 362 + + _Perissodactyla_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + Persia, birds of, 204 + + _Phascolomys_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + _Phasianus_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Post-Pliocene, 161 + + Pheasants, in European Miocene, 161 + golden, of N. China, 226 + eared, of Mongolia, 226 + + _Phenacodus_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + Philippine Islands, mammals of, 345 + birds of, 346 + origin of peculiar fauna of, 348 + + _Phocidæ_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + _Phyllomys_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Phyllostomidæ_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Physical changes affecting distribution, 7 + + _Physeter_, European Pliocene, 112 + + Picariæ, arrangement of, 95 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 247 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 309 + range of Oriental genera of, 381 + range of Australian genera of, 482 + + _Picus_, European Miocene, 161 + + Pigeons, classification of, 96 + remarkable development of, in the Australian region, 395 + crested, of Australia, figure of, 441 + + Pigs, power of swimming, 13 + + Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, 115 + + Pittidæ, abundant in Borneo, 355 + + _Plagiolophus_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Planorbis_, European Secondary, 169 + Eocene, 169 + + _Platycercidæ_, gorgeously-coloured Australian parrots, 394 + + _Platygonus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + _Plesiarctomys_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Plesiomeryx_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Plesiosorex_, European Miocene, 118 + + Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, 112 + + Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas, of Europe, general conclusions from, + 113 + of N. America, 132 + of S. America, 146 + of Australia, 157 + + _Pliohippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Pliolophus_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Pliopithecus_, European Miocene, 117 + + _Poebrotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + Polynesian sub-region, description of, 442 + birds of, 443 + reptiles of, 447 + + Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, 110 + remains imply changes of physical geography in Europe, 111 + fauna of N. America, 129 + fauna of N. America, remarks on, 130 + + Potamogale of West Africa, figure of, 264 + + _Potamotherium_, European Miocene, 118 + + Potto of West Africa, figure of, 264 + + _Praotherium_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + Primates, classification of, 86 + probable birthplace of, 153 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 239 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 300 + range of Oriental genera of, 371 + range of Australian genera of, 475 + + _Primates_, European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 117 + Indian Miocene, 121 + European Eocene, 124 + N. American Tertiary, 132 + of Brazilian caves, 144 + + Prince's Island, birds of, 266 + + _Prionidium_, Oolitic insects, 167 + + _Pristiphoca_, in European Pliocene, 112 + + Proboscidea, classification of, 90 + range of Ethiopian genus, 303 + range of Oriental genus, 374 + + _Proboscidea_, European Pliocene, 113 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + Indian Miocene, 122 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 138 + of Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Procamelus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Procyon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + _Procyonidæ_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Promephitis_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + + Promerops of East Africa, figure of, 261 + + _Propalæotherium_, European Eocene, 126 + + _Protemnodon_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + _Protohippus_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + _Protomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, 138 + + _Protopithecus_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Prototomus_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Protornis_, European Eocene, 162 + + _Pseudælurus_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Pseudocyon_, European Miocene, 118 + + Psittaci, classification of, 96 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 + range of Oriental genera of, 383 + range of Australian genera of, 484 + + _Psittacus_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Pterocles_, European Miocene, 161 + + _Pterodon_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Pupa_, Eocene, 169 + + _Pupa vetusta_, Palæozoic, 169 + + _Pythonidæ_, European Miocene, 165 + + R. + + Racoon-dog of N. China, 226 + + _Rana_, European Miocene, 166 + + Region, the best term for the primary zoological divisions, 68 {501} + Arctic, why not adopted, 69 + Palæarctic, defined, 71 + Palæarctic, subdivisions of, 71 + Ethiopian, defined, 73 + Ethiopian, subdivisions of, 73 + Oriental, defined, 75 + Oriental, subdivisions of, 75 + Australian, defined, 77 + Australian, subdivisions of, 77 + Neotropical, defined, 78 + Neotropical, subdivisions of, 78 + Nearctic, defined, 79 + Nearctic, distinct from Palæarctic, 79 + Nearctic, subdivisions of, 80 + + Regions, zoological, 50 + zoological, how they should be formed, 53 + zoological, may be defined by negative or positive characters, 54 + zoological, by what class of animals best determined, 56 + for each class of animals, not advisable, 58 + zoological, proposed since 1857, 58 + zoological, Mr. Sclater's, 59 + zoological, discussion of those proposed by various authors, 61 + zoological, proportionate richness of, 64 + temperate and tropical, well marked in northern hemisphere, 65 + and zones, table of, 66 + comparative richness of, 81 + and sub-regions, table of, 81 + order of succession of the, 173 + + Representative species, 4 + + Reptiles, means of dispersal of, 28 + classification of, 98 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + of Indian Miocene deposits, 123 + extinct Tertiary, 165 + cosmopolitan groups of, 176 + peculiar to Palæarctic region, 186 + of Central Europe, 195 + of the Mediterranean sub-region, 204 + of Siberian sub-region, 220 + of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 + table of Palæarctic families of, 236 + of the Ethiopian region, 254 + of the East African sub-region, 260 + of West Africa, 264 + S. African, 268 + of Madagascar, 279 + table of Ethiopian families of, 297 + of the Oriental region, 317 + of the Indian sub-region, 326 + of Ceylon, 327 + of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331 + of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340 + table of Oriental families of, 368 + of the Australian region, 396 + of New Guinea, 415 + of the Moluccas, 420 + of the Polynesian sub-region, 447 + of New Zealand, 456 + table of Australian families of, 472 + + _Rhea_, in Brazilian caves, 164 + + _Rhinoceros_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + European Pliocene, 113 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + Indian Miocene, 122 + fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation in Thibet, 122 + fossil in N. China, 123 + N. American Tertiary, 136 + + Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, 339 + + _Rhinocerotidæ_, N. American Tertiary, 136 + + River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, 264 + of Madagascar, figure of, 278 + + Rivers, limiting the range of mammalia, 12 + limiting the range of birds, 17 + + River-scene, in West Africa, 264 + + Rodentia, classification of, 90 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 242 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 304 + range of Oriental genera of, 374 + range of Australian genera of, 476 + + _Rodentia_, European Pliocene, 113 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + European Eocene, 126 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 139 + of Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + of S. American Eocene, 148 + + Ruff, figure of, 195 + + S. + + Sahara, a debatable land, 251 + + Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, 218 + + Samoa Islands, birds of, 443 + + Sandwich Islands, birds of, 445 + probable past history of, 446 + mountain plants of, 446 + depth of ocean around, 447 + + Sand grouse, Pallas, of Mongolia, 226 + + _Satyrites Reynesii_, European Cretaceous insect, 167 + + Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidæ of Japan, 229 + + _Scelidotherium_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Schistopleurum_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Central Africa, 252 + on limits of W. African sub-region, 262 (_note_) + + _Sciurus_, European Miocene, 120 + European Eocene, 126 + + _Sciuravus_, N. American Eocene, 140 + + Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, 59 + why his six regions are adopted, 63 + on birds of Sandwich Islands, 445 + + Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, 13 + + Seals, fossil in European Miocene, 118 + of Lake Baikal, 218 + + Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, 159 + + Secretary-bird of Africa, figure of, 261 + + _Semnopithecus_, European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 117 + Indian Miocene, 121 + + Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, 345 + + _Serpentarius_, European Miocene, 162 + + Seychelle Islands, zoology of, 281 + amphibia of, 281 + + Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, 229 + + Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Accipitres, 97 + on birds of Cape Verd Islands, 215 + + Sheep, Palæarctic, 182 + + Siberia, climate of, 217 + + Siberian sub-region, description of, 216 + mammalia of, 217 + birds of, 219 + reptiles and amphibia of, 220 + insects of, 220 + + _Simocyon_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + + _Sinopa_, N. American Tertiary, 134 {502} + + Sirenia, classification of, 89 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 303 + range of Oriental genus, 374 + range of Australian genus of, 476 + + _Sirenia_, European Pliocene, 112 + European Miocene, 119 + + _Sivatherium_, Indian Miocene, 122 + + Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, 121 + + Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of Japan, 230 + + Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, 220 + + Snakes, classification of, 99 + Eocene, 165 + large proportion of venomous species in Australia, 396 + of New Zealand, 457 + + Society Islands, birds of, 443 + + _Soricictis_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Soricidæ_, European Miocene, 118 + + South African sub-region, description of, 266 + mammalia of, 267 + birds of, 267 + reptiles of, 268 + amphibia of, 268 + fresh-water fish of, 268 + butterflies of, 268 + coleoptera of, 268 + summary of its zoology, 269 + + South America, fossil fauna of, 143 + Pliocene deposits of, 146 + supposed land connection with Australia, 398 + + South Australia, peculiar birds of, 441 + + Species, representative, 4 + + _Speothos_, in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Spermophilus_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Sphenodon_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Sphinx_, in European Oolite, 167 + + St. Helena, zoological features of, 269 + coleoptera of, 270 + landshells of, 271 + + St. Thomas' Island, birds of, 266 + + Stations, definition of, 4 + + _Steneofiber_, European Miocene, 120 + + _Sthenurus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + _Strix_, European Miocene, 162 + + Struthiones, arrangement of, 98 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 313 + range of Australian genera of, 485 + + Struthious birds, probable origin of, 287 + + _Stylinodontidæ_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Stylinodontia_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + Sub-regions, on what principle formed, 80 + Palæarctic, 191 + Ethiopian, 258 + Oriental, 321 + Australian, 408 + + _Suidæ_, European Miocene, 119 + + Sula Islands, fauna of, 433 + + _Sus_, European Pliocene, 113 + Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 119 + Indian Miocene, 122 + + Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, 332 + + _Symborodon_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Synaphodus_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Synoplotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + T. + + Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, 177 + + _Talpa_, European Miocene, 117 + + _Tapir_, fossil in N. China, 123 + + Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, 154 + + Tapir, Malayan, figure of, 337 + + _Tapiridæ_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Tapirus_, European Pliocene, 113 + Indian Miocene, 122 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + + Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, 337 + + Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, 441 + + _Taxodon_, European Miocene, 118 + + _Telmatobius_, N. American Cretaceous, 164 + + _Telmatolestes_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Testudo_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + Indian Miocene, 123 + + Testudo, great antiquity of the genus, 289 + + _Tetrachus_, European Miocene, 117 + + _Tetrao albus_, in Italian caverns, 161 + + _Thalassictis_, Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 118 + + _Theridomys_, European Miocene, 126 + European Eocene, 126 + S. American Eocene, 148 + + _Thinohyus_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Thinolestes_, N. American Tertiary, 133 + + _Thylacinus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + _Thylacoleo_, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 + + _Tillodontia_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Tillotheridæ_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Tillotherium_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + Timor, physical features of, 389 + group, mammalia of, 422 + birds of, 422 + origin of fauna of, 424 + insects of, 426 + + _Tinoceras_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Titanomys_, European Miocene, 121 + + _Titanotherium_, N. American Tertiary, 137 + + _Tomarctos_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + + Tonga Islands, birds of, 443 + + Tortoises, classification of, 100 + of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, 289 + + Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, 264 + + _Toxodon_, S. American Pliocene, 137 + + _Toxodontidæ_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + _Trachytherium_, European Miocene, 119 + + _Tragocerus_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + European Miocene, 120 + + Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, 331 + + Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, 337 + + Tree-kangaroo, figure of, 415 + + _Trichechus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + + Trichoglossidæ, birds specially adapted to Australia, 393 + + _Trionyx_, Indian Miocene, 123 + Miocene and Eocene, 165 + + Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, 271 + + Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, 203 + + Trogon, European Miocene, 161 + + _Trogontherium_, Post-Pliocene of Europe, 111 + + _Trucijelis_, N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 + + Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, 216 + + _Tupaiidæ_, European Miocene, 118 + + Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, 90 + + _Tylodon_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Typotherium_, S. American Pliocene, 147 + + U. + + _Uintacyon_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + _Uintatherium_, N. American Eocene, 139 + + _Uintornis_, N. American Eocene, 163 + + _Unio_, European Secondary, 169 + + Ungulata, classification of, 89 + antiquity of, 151 {503} + of the Palæarctic region, 182 + range of Palæarctic genera of, 241 + range of Ethiopian genera of, 303 + range of Oriental genera of, 374 + range of Australian genera of, 476 + + _Ungulata_, European Pliocene, 112 + Miocene of Greece, 115 + European Miocene, 119 + Indian Miocene, 121 + European Eocene, 125 + N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 + N. American Tertiary, 135 + of Brazilian caves, 144 + S. American Pliocene, 146 + + Urania of Madagascar, 282 + + _Ursidæ_, N. American Tertiary, 135 + in Brazilian caves, 144 + + _Ursitaxus_, Indian Miocene, 121 + + _Ursus_, Post-Pliocene, 112 + Indian Miocene, 121 + + V. + + Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, 278 + + _Varanus_, Miocene of Greece, 116 + Indian Miocene, 123 + + Vertebrata, summary of Palæarctic, 186 + summary of Ethiopian, 255 + summary of Oriental, 318 + summary of Australian, 397 + + _Vespertilio_, European Eocene, 125 + + _Viperus_, European Miocene, 165 + + _Viverra_, European Pliocene, 112 + European Miocene, 118 + + _Viverridæ_, European Miocene, 118 + European Eocene, 125 + + W. + + Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine Islands, 346 + on birds of Celebes, 428 + + _Washakius_, N. American Tertiary, 134 + + Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, 90 + on classification of marsupials, 91 + + West African sub-region, description of, 262 + mammalia of, 262 + birds of, 262 + Oriental or Malayan element in, 263 + river scene with characteristic animals, 264 + reptiles of, 264 + amphibia of, 264 + Oriental and Neotropical relations of, 265 + insects of, 265 + land-shells of, 265 + islands of, 265 + + West Australia, peculiar birds of, 441 + + Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, 264 + + Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, 209 + on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, 211 + on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, 214 + on coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 + on beetles of St. Helena, 270 + + X. + + _Xenurus_, in Brazilian caves, 145 + + _Xiphodontidæ_, European Miocene, 119 + + Z. + + _Zeuglodontidæ_, N. American Tertiary, 140 + + _Zonites priscus_, Palæozoic, 169 + + Zoological characteristics of Palæarctic region, 181 + Ethiopian region, 252 + Oriental region, 315 + Australian region, 390 + + Zoological regions, discussion on, 50 + + +END OF VOL. I. + + +LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL. + + + +Notes + + [1] Marcel de Serres states this as a general fact for wading and swimming + birds. He says that the old birds arrive in the extreme north almost + alone, the young remaining on the shores of the Baltic, or on the + lakes of Austria, Hungary, and Russia. See his prize essay, _Des + Causes des Migrations_, &c. 2nd. ed., Paris, 1845, p. 121. + + [2] Quoted in Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ (11th ed. vol. ii. p. 374), + from _Amoen. Acad. Essay 75_. + + [3] This estimate has been made for me by Mr. Stanford from the materials + used in delineating the contours of the ocean-bed on our general map. + It embodies the result of all the soundings of the _Challenger_, + _Tuscarora_, and other vessels, obtainable up to August, 1875. + + [4] Mr. John Hickman of Desborough. + + [5] _Trans. Zool. Soc. of London_, vol. viii. p. 381. + + [6] Malta is interesting as forming a resting-place for migratory birds, + while crossing the Mediterranean. It has only eight land and three + aquatic birds which are permanent residents; yet no less than 278 + species have been recorded by Mr. E. A. Wright as visiting or passing + over it, comprising a large proportion of the European migratory + birds. The following are the permanent residents: _Cerchneis + tinnunculus_, _Strix flammea_, _Passer salicicola_, _Emberiza + miliaria_, _Corvus monedula_, _Monticola cyanea_, _Sylvia + conspicillata_, _Columba livia_, _Puffinus cinereus_, _P. anglorum_, + _Thalassidroma pelagica_. + + [7] A remarkable confirmation of this theory, is furnished in the Report + to the Royal Society of the naturalist to the Kerguelen Island, + "Transit Expedition"--the Rev. A. E. Eaton. Insects were assiduously + collected, and it was found that almost all were either completely + apterous, or had greatly abbreviated wings. The only moth found, + several flies, and numerous beetles, were alike incapable of flight. + As this island is subject to violent, and almost perpetual gales, even + in the finest season, the meaning of the extraordinary loss of wings + in almost all the insects, can, in this case, hardly be misunderstood. + + [8] The facts on which these statements rest, will be found more fully + detailed in the Author's Presidential Address to the Entomological + Society of London for the year 1871. + + [9] _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, 1874, p. 494. + +[10] Dr. Schweinfurth has accurately determined the limits of the + sub-region at the point where he crossed the watershed between the + Nile tributaries and those of the Shari, in 4½° N. Lat. and 28½° E. + Long. He describes a sudden change in the character of the vegetation, + which to the southward of this point assumes a West-African character. + Here also the chimpanzee and grey parrot first appear, and certain + species of plants only known elsewhere in Western Africa. + +[11] There are also some special resemblances between the plants of + Madagascar and South Africa, according to Dr. Kirk. + +[12] As so many typical Malay groups are absent only from the Philippines, + I have adopted the term "Malaya," to show the distribution of these, + using the term "Indo-Malaya" when the range of the group includes the + Philippines. This must be remembered when consulting the tables of + distribution at the end of this chapter. + +[13] See _Ann. Nat. Hist._, 1873, p. 418, where the species is said to + inhabit the Aru Islands and Celebes, which renders it not improbable + that it may have been carried to the former islands from the latter. + +[14] I also find about this proportion in my Amazonian collections, even + counting all the humming-birds, parrots, and toucans as handsome + birds. + +[15] The general form of the skull agrees best with that of _Cynocephalus + mormon_, the largest and most typical of the African baboons; while + the position of the nostrils brings it nearer the macaques. + +[16] A new genus of Beetles (_Apterocyclus_) of the family Lucanidæ, has + recently been described from the Sandwich Islands, and it is said to + be most nearly related to a group inhabiting Chili,--an indication + either of the great antiquity of the fauna, or of the varied + accidental migrations from which it has had its origin. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geographical Distribution of +Animals, Volume I, by Alfred Russel Wallace + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 56506 *** |