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diff --git a/old/56323-0.txt b/old/56323-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 989484f..0000000 --- a/old/56323-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3633 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Motor Transports in War, by Horace Wyatt - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Motor Transports in War - -Author: Horace Wyatt - -Release Date: January 6, 2018 [EBook #56323] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOTOR TRANSPORTS IN WAR *** - - - - -Produced by Brian Coe, David E. Brown, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -The Daily Telegraph - -WAR BOOKS - - - - -MOTOR TRANSPORTS IN WAR - - - - - The Daily Telegraph - - WAR BOOKS - - Cloth - 1/- net - each - - Post - free - 1/3 - each - - HOW THE WAR BEGAN - By W. L. COURTNEY, LL.D., and J. M. KENNEDY - - THE FLEETS AT WAR - By ARCHIBALD HURD - - THE CAMPAIGN OF SEDAN - By GEORGE HOOPER - - THE CAMPAIGN ROUND LIEGE - By J. M. KENNEDY - - IN THE FIRING LINE - Battle Stories told by British Soldiers at the Front. - By A. ST. JOHN ADCOCK - - GREAT BATTLES OF THE WORLD - By STEPHEN CRANE - Author of “The Red Badge of Courage.” - - BRITISH REGIMENTS AT THE FRONT - The glorious story of their Battle Honours. - - THE RED CROSS IN WAR - By M. F. BILLINGTON - - FORTY YEARS AFTER - The Story of the Franco-German War. By H. C. BAILEY. - With an Introduction by W. L. COURTNEY, LL.D. - - A SCRAP OF PAPER - The Inner History of German Diplomacy. - By E. J. DILLON - - HOW THE NATIONS WAGED WAR - A companion volume to “How the War Began,” telling how the world faced - Armageddon and how the British Army answered the call to arms. - By J. M. KENNEDY - - AIR-CRAFT IN WAR - By ERIC STUART BRUCE - - HACKING THROUGH BELGIUM - By EDMUND DANE - - FAMOUS FIGHTS OF INDIAN NATIVE REGIMENTS - By REGINALD HODDER - - THE RETREAT TO PARIS - By ROGER INGPEN - - THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE - By MARR MURRAY - - THE SUBMARINE IN WAR - By C. W. DOMVILLE-FIFE - - MOTOR TRANSPORTS IN WAR - By HORACE WYATT - - THE SLAV NATIONS - - - - - MOTOR TRANSPORTS - IN WAR - - BY - - HORACE WYATT - - ADVISOR ON HEAVY MOTORS TO “THE AUTOCAR”; - CONSULTING EDITOR OF “MOTOR TRACTION”; - HON. SEC. OF THE IMPERIAL MOTOR TRANSPORT COUNCIL, ETC. - - _ILLUSTRATED_ - - HODDER AND STOUGHTON - - LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO - - MCMXIV - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 7 - -CHAPTER - - I. THE SCOPE OF THE MOTOR VEHICLE 11 - - II. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MILITARY MOTOR 26 - - III. TRIALS AND MANOEUVRES 41 - - IV. EXPERIENCES OF MOTORS IN ACTIVE SERVICE 59 - - V. MOTOR AMBULANCE WORK 77 - - VI. THE TRANSPORT OF AMMUNITION AND ARTILLERY 94 - - VII. ARMOURED CARS AND OTHER MILITARY MOTORS 102 - - VIII. THE PROVISION OF MILITARY MOTOR TRANSPORT 117 - - IX. A COMPARISON OF NATIONAL CONDITIONS 132 - - X. BRITISH SUBSIDY TYPE MOTORS 148 - - XI. TRANSPORT MOTORS OF CONTINENTAL ARMIES 166 - - XII. EMERGENCY MEASURES ON THE OUTBREAK OF WAR 182 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - -BY THE EDITOR OF “THE AUTOCAR” - - -We have been told, and rightly, many times within the last few weeks -that the present war is unique, not merely on account of the vastness -of the contending armies, but also on account of the power of the -weapons employed. In fact, the war has very properly been described -as an engineer’s war, and such, indeed, it is, as the engineer is -wholly responsible for the tremendous development in every warlike -instrument which has taken place since 1870. He is responsible, too, -not merely for the development, but for the invention of wholly new -methods of offence and defence. But his influence does not end here, -and it is not merely in the firing line that one sees the influence -of the engineer: even as this war is the first occasion on which -modern weapons, explosives and projectiles have been tested on the -grand scale, so, too, is it even more emphatically the first occasion -on which motor transport has been thoroughly tested at all. While the -recent Balkan war provided a practical test of many of the weapons -used in the great war to-day, motor transport played only a very small -part in it; and it is very extraordinary that an innovation of this -kind should be truly tested for the first time upon such a stupendous -scale. It is the motor car, the motor van and the motor lorry which -have rendered the rapid movements of the present war possible; it is -not yet realised to the full how great have been the services of motor -transport in the supply of ammunition and food to the troops, and in -the rapid conveyance of the wounded to the hospitals. No one is better -qualified than Mr. Horace Wyatt to deal with this new and important -branch of modern warfare. In his capacity formerly as Editor and now as -Consulting Editor of _Motor Traction_ he has studied the question from -its inception: from its small beginnings in British army manoeuvres -many years ago right up to the present time he has followed the subject -with the closest attention. Not only so: he has personally investigated -the work performed by motor transport in the _grandes manoeuvres_ on -the Continent. I have had the good fortune to work closely with him for -many years, and it puts me in a position to say that his knowledge of -the subject is unique both in detail and in general, so that readers -of the present volume may rest assured that facts and facts alone are -dealt with in its pages. - - H. W. STANER, - Editor of _The Autocar_. - - Coventry, - _October, 1914_. - - - - -MOTOR TRANSPORTS IN WAR - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE SCOPE OF THE MOTOR VEHICLE - - Early History--The Industrial Motor--The Motor ’Bus and Motor - Cab--Steam Lorries and Tractors--Petrol-Electric Vehicles--Daily - Mileages and Fuel Consumption. - - -When we remember that the motor vehicle as we know it to-day is the -result of a development not more than a quarter of a century old, its -enormous influence upon the character of modern warfare must indeed be -regarded as remarkable. Especially is this so in view of the fact that -progress has not in the main been dictated by military considerations, -but almost entirely by the requirements of private individuals and of -peaceful trading concerns. The case is very different from that of the -aeroplane and the airship, which from the very moment that they began -to appear as practical possibilities, were recognised as having far -greater potentialities in connection with warfare than in any other -sphere. The whole science of flight has been studied to a great extent -from this point of view, and the Government Departments concerned, in -all civilised countries, have recognised the necessity of keeping in -touch with and encouraging the movement, and have realised all along -the nature of the work to be done by the flying corps. - -On the other hand, the use of the motor vehicle was extended in -the first instance mainly as a sport, and as a new occupation for -well-to-do individuals of a mechanical turn of mind. There is an -attraction about speed in all forms, and consequently, it was on this -point that attention was for many years concentrated. Furthermore, -developments were influenced to no slight extent by changes of fashion, -and the need of satisfying the requirements of people who were not -necessarily qualified to direct progress into the best possible -channels. The motor vehicle was used as a luxury, and exploited as -a means of bringing into being new forms of sport, for many years -before it acquired sufficient reliability or worked with sufficient -economy to justify its employment on economic grounds. The industrial -motor industry is, in fact, at the present day only about ten years -old. In the first instance, one of the principal factors in securing -the occasional use of motor vans was the advertisement value of a -rather unusual type of vehicle, which naturally attracted considerable -attention wherever it went. A little later mechanical transport was -adopted by a limited number of firms, not on account of any superiority -in economy or reliability over old systems of delivery, but rather with -a view to extending the area embraced, and so gaining an advantage -over competing concerns more than sufficient to balance the increased -cost involved by the employment of vehicles by no means cheap either -as regards first cost or operating expenses. Once the industry was -established, however, its rapid growth was inevitable, since it was -found possible to construct vehicles the employment of which was more -than justified on purely economic grounds. The line of least resistance -was found in connection with public services and hackney carriages -for the conveyance of passengers, while in the carriage of goods the -new means of transport had to compete with cheap if slow systems -of delivery by horsed vehicle, and with the railways which, if not -offering a direct method, at least offered a very cheap one when a -large volume of traffic had to be handled. - -In the other sphere, competition was limited chiefly to the horsed -’bus, the horsed cab and the tram car, and the last named was under -a disadvantage in some quarters, since conditions exist in parts of -London and in various other cities extremely unfavourable to the -complete employment of railed transport on the roads. The motor cab -was assisted in driving the horse cab off the streets by the stupid -conservatism of the old-fashioned cab driver, who refused point-blank -to employ the taximeter, and so to forego the advantage which he had -obtained by keeping his fare in a certain amount of ignorance as to the -proper legal charges to which he was entitled. The promoters of the -early motor-cab companies took advantage of this state of affairs, and -introduced the motor cab and the taximeter simultaneously. The vehicle -itself had the attraction of novelty and the advantage of greater -speed, while its early popularity was still more directly due to the -taximeter giving an accurate check of the amount payable on every -journey. In this sphere, consequently, the victory of mechanical over -horse transport was rapid and inevitable. Simultaneously, the motor -omnibus made steady, if not quite such speedy, progress. Its advantage -in speed over the horse ’bus was at first the determining factor, but -after improvements in the mechanism, giving increased comfort and -reliability, it was able to get the better also of the electric tram -in spite of the advantage possessed by the railed vehicle of larger -carrying capacity, which of course tends towards reduced operating -costs per passenger carried. The inflexible nature of a tramway system -has been the principal factor in securing the popularity of a free -road vehicle, and at the present moment the motor omnibus is able to -compete directly with great success against the electric tram car. So -it came about that passenger transport was very rapidly converted to -mechanical power. If London is taken as an example, we find that at -the present moment over 95 per cent. of passenger transport is carried -on by mechanical vehicles, while certainly not more than 15 per cent. -of goods transport has yet been similarly diverted. Nevertheless, -the motor vehicle for the carriage of goods has made great progress, -particularly in this country. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF MOTORS IN THE SERVICE OF THE FLYING CORPS AT -A RECENT REVIEW IN FRANCE.] - -Throughout its history, it has been greatly helped by the prior -existence of the steam traction engine. From these heavy and slow -machines, suitable only for limited use in particular spheres, have -been developed two very useful classes of lighter steam-propelled -machines coming under the provisions of the Motor Car Acts. The -first is the steam tractor, which is merely a small edition of the -traction engine, able, on account of its lighter weight, to travel -at considerably higher speeds. The other is the steam lorry, which -is an extremely valuable machine for the carriage of anything up to -about six tons of goods at speeds of about five miles per hour. From -the five-ton steam lorry there has more recently developed a lighter -type of steam vehicle in the shape of the three-ton lorry, generally -running on rubber tyres, and so entitled legally to travel at much -higher speeds. The great economy of steam motors made it absolutely -necessary for the makers of internal combustion industrial vehicles to -study every possibility of reducing operating costs. They had on their -side advantages as regards higher speed possibilities and more complete -independence of fuel supplies. The steam motor of ordinary type cannot -be conveniently designed to carry with it fuel and water supplies -adequate for very long journeys. On the other hand, the steamer has the -great advantage of being able to exert tremendous power at low road -speeds. The steam engine is more flexible and more capable of standing -a heavy overload than the internal combustion engine. Even if it is -brought almost to a standstill, it can go on applying the full steam -pressure behind its piston during every stroke. Given adequate supplies -of fuel and water, it is an admirable and very economical machine for -all sorts of rough and heavy work. Curiously enough, the steam lorry -and the steam tractor have been essentially British developments, and -as such they have done much to bring the British industrial petrol -vehicle up to its present high standard of perfection. - -The essential differences between a tractor and a lorry should here be -noted. The tractor is designed merely to haul a load, while the lorry -is primarily intended to carry its load. In the first case, the engine -and the load-carrying vehicle are two separate units coupled together; -in the second, they form one unit. The latter is the more convenient -arrangement so far as manoeuvring in enclosed spaces is concerned, -since a good deal of skill is needed to back a tractor train with -accuracy. Also, the steam lorry uses its load to increase the adhesive -power of its driving wheels. On the other hand, the steam tractor can -itself be doing useful work, while some of its load-carrying vehicles -or trailers are being loaded or unloaded. By providing two sets of -trailers, it can be kept usefully employed and need not waste time at -its terminal points. Moreover, if it is required to work under very -difficult conditions, it is a great advantage to be able to unhitch the -engine from the trailer. If, for example, the bed of a river has to be -crossed and the wheels sink into loose sand, the tractor is unhitched -and run through without its load until it reaches solid ground. When it -is brought to a standstill, its engine is employed through the medium -of wire rope gear to drag the loaded trailer slowly but very surely -out of its difficulty. Thus, for cross-country work, the tractor has -much to recommend it, and it is not surprising that the success of the -five-ton steamer has led to systematic endeavours to perfect internal -combustion tractors possessing all the same advantages, and also -self-contained for long journeys as regards fuel and water supplies. - -Mention has already been made of the fact that, when a tractor is used, -the load does not assist the adhesion of the wheels. This constitutes, -as it were, an artificial limit to the tractive power, and has -naturally caused some designers to consider methods by which the engine -power of a tractor could be applied not only to one pair of wheels but -to all the wheels, so that the whole weight of the engine itself can be -used to secure adhesion. - -The four-wheel drive is not common in commercial service, as it has -only been found necessary under a limited number of very severe -conditions. A good deal has been done, however, in this direction, -particularly in France. The resulting vehicle need not be purely a -tractor. In fact, we often find heavy lorries employed not only to -carry a substantial load, but to haul an additional lighter load in -a trailer. As a rule, these trailers have iron-tyred wheels, but for -service in which economy of engine power is more important than economy -of money, rubber tyres are usually fitted, since they have the effect -of reducing the power absorbed in hauling the trailer by about 25 per -cent. - -Another development which is due mainly to the difficulties of adopting -the internal combustion engine for the haulage of heavy loads without -shock, is the petrol-electric system. In this system the power of the -car engine is used to drive an electric dynamo. This dynamo generates -current which is either supplied direct to electric motors or else -stored in a battery of accumulators, the former method being the -better and more likely to survive. Sometimes one electric motor is -used, taking the place of an ordinary gear box, and driving the back -wheels through a universally jointed shaft and a differential gear. In -other cases, two balanced electric motors are employed in or near the -driving wheels. In others again, two motors are used, each driving -through shaft and differential gear to one axle of the vehicle, and -so providing an electric four-wheel drive. Another arrangement is the -provision of four electric motors, one for each wheel. The vehicle is -controlled through the medium of a “controller”; that is to say, an -apparatus which, by the movement of a handle, varies the electrical -connections and so makes the installation suitable for providing either -a big torque at low speeds, or a comparatively light torque at high -speeds. Electrical machinery is also in a sense self-regulating, and -consequently a well-designed petrol-electric transmission is tantamount -to the provision of an infinitely variable change speed gear. One of -the strongest arguments against the petrol-electric method is that, -when the machine is running fairly light and fast, the electrical -machinery involves certain unnecessary power losses. Consequently, -systems have been devised in which mechanical and electrical drive -are combined, the latter only operating the vehicle under conditions -equivalent to an increase of load on the engine. - -Efforts have been made for many years past to evolve a satisfactory -internal combustion engine using paraffin or some other heavy and -comparatively cheap oil in place of petrol. While these attempts have -by no means failed, the practical results are up to the present more or -less limited to the use of paraffin fuel in tropical or semi-tropical -countries, where the higher temperature facilitates its employment. -Among the disadvantages of paraffin are difficulties in starting up, -a tendency to soot up the sparking plugs, the need of more frequent -cleaning of cylinders, and a certain amount of disagreeable smell, -partly due to the creeping of the liquid through every available -crevice. - -So far as the ordinary petrol van or lorry is concerned, various types -have been developed to meet a variety of commercial needs. A certain -number of light vans are run on pneumatic tyres, but the solid tyre is -preferred wherever economy is more important than speed. It of course -goes without saying that, if a chassis is to run on solid tyres, it -must be of substantial construction, and so designed that its mechanism -will not be injured by the fact that the solid tyre is not so capable -as the pneumatic of absorbing small vibrations. - -A very popular type of motor van is designed to carry about 25 or 30 -cwt. These machines are capable of speeds up to about 25 or even 30 -miles per hour in emergency, and can average comfortably 14 to 16 -miles. Under reasonable conditions, they can cover daily journeys of -100 to 120 miles. Among larger types the 3-tonner predominates. This -class of machine can be generally used for daily journeys of 70 to 90 -miles, averaging perhaps 11 or 12 miles per hour. It usually consumes -petrol at the rate of about 1 gallon to 8 miles, though better results -are obtainable under good conditions. There are also a large number of -5-ton petrol lorries in commercial service. These can be advantageously -used to cover 60 or 70 miles a day, consuming about 1 gallon of petrol -to every 6 miles run. The motor cab runs about 20 to 25 miles on a -gallon of petrol, and the motor omnibus about 7 to 10 miles. This -question of fuel consumption is, of course, distinctly important in -military service, when adequate supplies are only maintained at the -right points with considerable difficulty. - -In later chapters some account is given of the attempts made by various -governments to influence the development of motor traction into the -directions dictated by their military needs, but this brief sketch of -the general trend of events will be sufficient to indicate the present -position, and to provide the necessary knowledge for the appreciation -of the facts and considerations to which we shall now turn. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MILITARY MOTOR - - The Opinions of German and British Military Experts--The Old and - New Methods of Transport and Supply--How Troops in the Field are - Fed. - - -Although we, in Great Britain, have developed the industrial -motor vehicle almost entirely with a view to the improvement of -communications in time of peace, various circumstances, which will -be referred to in more detail in a later chapter, have led other -countries to fasten their attention more firmly on to the application -of mechanical power to military needs. Very considerable sums of money -have been expended during the past five or six years with this end in -view, and such expenditure could only have been justified if a full -study of the probable course of a great war under modern conditions -had led to the conclusion that the motor is something more than an -accessory and convenience, but is rather one of the prime essentials of -success. In order to prove that this view is, in fact, held by those -who have devoted their whole time to the study of modern warfare, one -need go no further than the now famous or notorious book on _Germany -and the Next War_ by General F. von Bernhardi: - - “In a future European war ‘masses’ will be employed to an extent - unprecedented in any previous one. Weapons will be used whose - deadliness will exceed all previous experience. More effective and - varied means of communication will be available than were known in - earlier wars. These three momentous factors will mark the war of - the future.” - -From this statement it is clear that, even if only improvement in -means of communication is considered, the motor vehicle forms one of -the three greatest factors in moulding the course of modern warfare. -Railways have been available in many previous wars, and there can be -no doubt that the reference to more effective and varied means of -communication is occasioned almost entirely by the development of -motor vehicles suitable for use in the transport and supply columns. -Simultaneously, both of the other prime factors are affected by the -introduction of motor vehicles. Road motors can assist materially in -massing men rapidly at any desired point, and mechanical power is -absolutely essential for the transport of guns of enormous calibre, the -employment of which in the field is only in this way rendered possible. - -Quoting again from the same authority we get an idea of the bearing of -our subject upon a military theory now universally accepted as true. - - “The commander who can carry out all operations quicker than - the enemy, and can concentrate and employ greater masses in a - narrow space than they can, will always be in a position to - collect a numerically superior force in the decisive direction; - if he controls the more effective troops he will gain decisive - successes against one part of the hostile army, and will be able - to exploit them against other divisions of it before the enemy - can gain equivalent advantages in other parts of the field.... If - the assailant can advance in the decisive direction with superior - numbers, and can win the day, because the enemy cannot utilise - his numerical superiority, there is a possibility of an ultimate - victory over the arithmetically stronger army.” - -Taking this statement in conjunction with the well-known German theory -that safety only lies in offensive warfare, we realise immediately the -incalculable importance of the introduction of any new system which -will give to large bodies of men the powers of more free and more rapid -movement. When armies are increased beyond certain numerical limits, -it becomes absolutely necessary for them to depend upon supplies -brought up regularly from the rear, and not upon the uncertainties of -living upon the country. - - “Improved means of communication facilitate the handling and - feeding of large masses, but tie them down to railway systems and - main roads, and must, if they fail or break down in the course of - a campaign, aggravate the difficulties, because the troops were - accustomed to their use, and the commanders counted upon them.” - -We have here a complete recognition of two most important points. The -first is, that the use of motors in the transport and supply columns, -if successfully carried on, represents an enormous advantage, which may -even allow ultimate victory to come to a numerically inferior army. In -the second place, we have the acknowledgment that any breakdown in the -service for which the motor vehicles are responsible, will be fatal to -success. - -A military correspondent of the _Daily Telegraph_ has recently -emphasised the same point. He has pointed out that hitherto the massing -of an army of about a quarter of a million men has represented the -probable limit of possibilities, and that even then such numbers could -only be massed for a short period. The Russo-Japanese war, in which -larger numbers were engaged, has by no means disproved this theory, -since it partook of the nature of a siege rather than that of a field -campaign. At the present moment, the enormous numbers dealt with -envolve certain limitations in movement, the scope of which is dictated -by the distribution of railways and of roads. Without motor transport, -the rate of movement of huge armies would be necessarily very slow, the -radius of action from railhead would be small, and the daily movement -of the troops would be strictly circumscribed for more reasons than -one. The effect of the introduction of motor transport is somewhat -similar to that which would be obtained if the railway could, in a few -hours, be extended in any direction along any made road for a distance -of about forty or fifty miles. The delivery of supplies, as it were in -retail, to the troops must still be carried out by horse transport, -since motor lorries are not suitable for continuous use where made -roads do not exist. The comparatively slow movement of horsed vehicles -even now affects the rate of progress of an army. When huge bodies of -men are in motion, the depth from the front to the rear of the army is -very considerable, and at the end of the day the supplies have to be -brought up from the rear to the front in time to enable the whole force -to be fed. - -[Illustration: PART OF BIG FLEET OF “ALBION” LORRIES PURCHASED BY THE -BRITISH WAR OFFICE.] - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF BRITISH “BERNA” LORRIES TAKEN OVER BY THE WAR -DEPARTMENT.] - -[Illustration: A FLEET OF “THORNYCROFT” LORRIES REQUISITIONED FOR -SERVICE.] - -[Illustration: A FLEET OF “HALLFORD” LORRIES CALLED UP IMMEDIATELY ON -THE OUTBREAK OF WAR.] - -The use of transport and supply motors does not amount merely to the -employment of a large number of these machines for miscellaneous -duties, but rather corresponds to bringing into existence a new link -in the chain of the main system of supply. The existence of railways -behind the army is assumed. At some safe point along the railway is -formed the base, and from this base stores are brought up to a point -known as “railhead,” This is the point where, for the time -being, military rail traffic ceases. It is evident that railhead is -a variable quantity, liable to move forward or backward from day to -day. The main accumulation of stores is at the base, and the stock at -railhead at any moment consists only of sufficient to meet one day’s -requirements. Before the introduction of motor transport, the whole -of the supplies from railhead had to be taken by horsed vehicle, and -subsequently distributed in the same way among the troops. Under the -new method, motor lorries carry the supplies up to a place called -“re-filling point,” which is a movable point situated from day to day -in the most convenient position possible to arrange, with a view to the -distribution of supplies by horsed vehicle to the army. - -In the old system, the transport vehicles worked in _echelons_. The -first of these, with the baggage and supplies for a day, followed so -closely behind the troops as to be able to join them every night. -The next, half a day’s march behind, carried supplies sufficient to -replenish the first column daily. Further back again were other -_echelons_ carrying on the same scheme. This meant that the whole of -the roads for enormous distances behind the forces were encumbered -by transport. Between railhead and the army there were many links -involving endless possibilities of confusion, and consequently shortage -in supplies. Moreover, food came up to the troops very slowly from the -base, and it was impossible to supply a regular stock of fresh meat and -bread. - -The advantage of the new system is based on the speed capacity of the -motor vehicle, a supplementary point being an enormous reduction in -the length of a column carrying a given quantity of supplies. It is, -however, the higher speed of the motor which has the greatest effect, -since it enables many columns to be replaced by one. In the words of -Colonel Paul: “One _echelon_ of mechanical transport can do the work -of five _echelons_ of horse transport, and one column will suffice to -connect the horse transport immediately behind the troops with the -railway.” - -The result is to facilitate operations of troops up to a distance from -railhead represented by half of a full day’s work for the motors. The -simplest way of appreciating the result obtained is to take an actual -example. Under the new system, on, let us say, Tuesday evening, the -soldier at the front is provided with a hot meal of fresh meat, cooked -by the regimental travelling kitchens on the march. This food had been -handed over to the kitchens on Monday evening by the distributing -horsed vehicles, which had received it sometime during Monday at the -re-filling point a few miles back from the motor supply column, which -had left railhead perhaps 50 miles from the front in the small hours of -Monday morning. Previously, the supplies had been brought down by rail -from the base, and in this way the food which the soldiers are eating -on Tuesday night, was probably to be found in the neighbourhood of the -base on Sunday afternoon in the shape of live animals. - -Working out the scheme from a rather different point of view, the -soldier on the Tuesday night is in possession of Wednesday’s supply -of bread and cheese, and an emergency ration of preserved meat in -case of any delays or breakdown in the transport service. The horsed -vehicles are at the time empty, and are returning to meet the motors -at re-filling point. The motors by this time are back at railhead -waiting for Wednesday’s supplies to be discharged from the railway -trains. At about three o’clock on Wednesday morning the motors will be -loaded and ready to start. Their speed capacity will enable them easily -to catch up with the distributing horsed vehicles before the end of -Wednesday’s march, and to tranship their supplies at re-filling point -for distribution on Wednesday evening. - -The whole system is, in reality, very simple, and it enables large -armies in the field to be supplied daily with fresh meat and bread -instead of being dependent on food brought up slowly and in many -stages, and for that reason necessarily of a character less nutritious, -and much more liable in the long run to cause illness among the men. -At the same time, the big carrying capacity of the motor has served -to clear the roads behind the army of an enormous block of vehicles -essential in the past, but now no longer necessary. In connection with -this point, Colonel R. H. Ewart, D.S.O., representing the Indian Office -at the Imperial Motor Transport Conference of 1913, gave some very -interesting figures, which may be quoted as an extreme case: - - “Up to 1910 the reports show that there were nearly - five-and-a-half million bullock carts in British India alone, and - in all our wars up to date, we have had to mobilise a very large - number of these carts for our line of communication work. We find - that when moving in large bodies, the utmost speed we can rely upon - is about one-and-a-half miles an hour. We have worked out that it - takes six bullock carts to move in eighty days what one 2-ton lorry - can transport in ten. The bullock carts take up twice the room on - the road for a given load, and in the matter of establishment--a - question which you will all realise in the time of war is a very - serious one--it takes thirty-five men, drivers, artificers and - supervisors to look after what one man could do with a lorry.” - -From these figures it will be seen what an enormous saving is effected -by the use of motors, even if we only take the point of view of the -feeding, maintenance and payment of the men actually employed in the -transport columns themselves. - -The impossibility of imposing upon horsed vehicles the necessity for -gaining fifty or even thirty miles in the course of a day, in order to -catch up by the evening with an advancing army after leaving railhead -in the morning, is perfectly obvious. The truth of the statement -already made that the use of motors for transport and supply work is -a necessity and not merely a convenience in modern warfare, is thus -made clear, and under the circumstances, readers who are perhaps more -attracted by the more showy, but less essential, uses of motors in -war, will understand that a consideration of the subject of this book -must necessarily be devoted very largely to the organisation and -_matériel_ of the supply columns. - -The class of vehicle most commonly favoured for the work of feeding -troops in the field is the 3-ton petrol lorry, capable of covering -eighty or ninety miles in a day, and if need be of travelling under -fairly favourable conditions at twenty miles an hour. Behind very -mobile troops, such as cavalry, preference is sometimes given to -lighter lorries rated to carry 30 cwt. or 2 tons, and capable of -rather higher rates of speed and rather bigger daily mileages. Some -European Powers favour for general work lorries carrying 4 or 5 tons, -and in addition capable of drawing an extra 2 tons or so upon a -trailer. In every case, the internal combustion vehicle is preferred on -account of its independence upon frequent renewals of fuel and water -supplies. However, steam tractors are often used for various classes -of specially heavy work, as, for example, for drawing the travelling -workshops which have to be established at the movable base of the -supply columns at railhead. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -TRIALS AND MANOEUVRES - - Early Tests of Steam Lorries--Lord Kitchener’s Views on Motors in - the South African War--British W. D. Tractor Trials--The Carriage - of Troops by Car--The Army Manoeuvres of 1912--Recent Trials in - England, France, and Germany. - - -Naturally, the motor vehicle could not be entrusted with work of the -first importance in time of war without previously going through a -period of encouragement and probation. Some fourteen years ago, motor -cars and cycles began to be used in small numbers during military -manoeuvres in Great Britain and elsewhere. - -In the French manoeuvres of 1901, cars and motor tricycles were -employed for transporting staff officers, and for scouting work. The -motorists who lent the cars were entrusted with the duty of driving -them, and were granted certain privileges on that account. Results -were on the whole satisfactory. - -In the same year, the British War Office, as a result of experience -gained in South Africa, were encouraged to conduct trials of motor -lorries. The entrants were five in number. Four of these were steam -lorries, the makes represented being the Foden, Straker, and two types -of Thornycroft. There was only one entrant of an internal combustion -engined machine. This was a Milnes-Daimler modelled on the German -Daimler cars, and having a four-cylinder engine rated at 25 h.p., with -ignition by low-tension magneto. Fuel was supplied by pressure of the -exhaust, and the car had a channel steel frame and large built-up steel -wheels. Even at that comparatively early date, the Foden lorry was, in -general appearance, very similar to the standard steam lorry of to-day. -It was, of course, fitted with a locomotive-type boiler, this being -a practice which has since been adopted by almost all manufacturers -of this class of machine. The Thornycroft lorries had vertical -boilers, and the one type was representative of standard practice, -the other being rather a peculiar machine driven from the rear. The -Foden and standard Thornycroft were most successful in carrying out -the very arduous road tests imposed, which involved a large number of -particularly steep hills. The Foden was by far the most economical in -water and fuel. The trials ended by cross-country tests in the Long -Valley at Aldershot, and during these the Foden was unfortunately -driven by accident into a deep ditch, with the result that its front -axle was broken. Consequently, the standard Thornycroft received the -first award and the benefit of subsequent small orders from the War -Department, although at the time there was a rather strong feeling that -the Foden ought also to have been recognised. - -It was not until about two years later that, in the publication of -evidence given before the commission appointed to inquire into the -conduct of the South African war, the opinion of Lord Kitchener on the -utility of motor transport in its then state of development was made -public. His views were expressed as follows: - - “We had (in South Africa) about forty-five steam road transport - trains. As a rule they did useful work, but questions of weather, - roads, water and coal distinctly limited their employment as - compared with animal transport, to which they can only be regarded - as supplementary. The motor lorries sent to South Africa did - well. Thornycrofts are the best. They will in the future be found - superior to steam road trains as field transport.” - -From this it will be seen that the main result of South African -experience was to indicate the superiority of the comparatively light -self-contained motor vehicle over the heavy traction engine. - -In 1903, a considerable number of cars and cycles supplied by members -of the Motor Volunteer Corps were used in the British manoeuvres. The -cars employed numbered forty-three, and averaged about 12 h.p. They -were used mainly for staff work, and were very fairly effective. -The attempts to use them for the carriage of searchlights were not -very successful. Some thirty motor cycles were employed for carrying -despatches, and behaved on the whole splendidly. Mr. J. F. Ochs, in -describing, during a lecture at the Royal Automobile Club, the results -obtained, made a somewhat prophetic statement in his remark that, “If -Mr. Marconi could perfect his invention, how useful a car fitted with -it would be.” - -While the undoubted utility of motors for staff work and for scouting -was recognised at least as a certainty of the future, progress in -comparatively heavy military transport was for some years after -this limited. The military authorities were averse to the use of -petrol-driven cars, on account of the supposed danger of employing so -inflammable a fuel. Efforts were made to use paraffin, but results -were not particularly satisfactory. The Mechanical Transport Companies -at Aldershot went on experimenting with and developing the use of -steam vehicles, and particularly of steam tractors, which came to -be regarded as, on the whole, more suitable for rough work than -self-contained lorries. By 1906, the mechanical transport sections -were in possession of adequate tractor-drawn workshops, to support -the varied fleet of mechanical vehicles available for a variety of -purposes, as well as the staff cars, a limited number of which had been -purchased by the War Department. - -Arrangements had also been made for giving the drivers and mechanics -some theoretical as well as practical knowledge, and the movement had -in fact formed itself into the nucleus of what it was then supposed -would be required; namely, an organisation providing for military -service a large number of 5-ton steam tractors, and a limited number of -cars and motor cycles for staff and scouting duty. - -For some time, efforts to procure for army service some really reliable -internal combustion tractors running on paraffin were continued. In -February, 1909, trials were held at Aldershot, in connection with -which a considerable premium and valuable prospective orders were -offered as an inducement to manufacturers to turn their attention to -this class of machine. The entrants, however, only numbered three. -One of these was a substantial four-cylinder Thornycroft paraffin -tractor, which performed well throughout and was ultimately successful -in obtaining an award, though it does not appear that the type has -since been adopted in any quantity. A very singular machine which did -wonderful work for its power was a Broom and Wade single-cylinder -paraffin tractor of about 20 h.p. The work of hauling a heavy -military trailer with a load of about 6 tons was, on occasions, too -much for this machine under the sometimes very arduous conditions -under which the trials were carried out. The third entry hardly came -within the scope of what the War Department wished to encourage. It -was a Stewart-Crosbie steam tractor with a two-cylinder compound -double-acting engine giving 40 b.h.p. at 600 r.p.m. It was able to meet -the stipulations as to capacity for carrying fuel and water supplies, -since the boiler was of the vertical central-fired water-tube type -working at 200 lbs. pressure, and supplying to the engine superheated -steam which had been passed through coiled tubes in the furnace. - -During the greater part of the trials the roads round Aldershot were -covered with a thick coating of snow, which constituted a serious -difficulty for iron-tyred tractors when using public thoroughfares in -time of peace. In emergency, it would of course have been possible to -fit spikes, or grips of some kind, to the wheels to prevent skidding -and slipping, but this could only be done at the risk of great injury -to the roads which did not appear justifiable under the circumstances. -All three tractors were provided with means for employing their engine -power through the medium of a wire rope, and this had to be utilised -in some cases to get the loads up some of the very steep gradients -encountered. The trials terminated in an extraordinarily difficult -test across the Long Valley. Here much loose sand was negotiated -successfully, and afterwards the engines were required to get their -loads across a deep swamp. The Thornycroft was the most successful, -but even the little Broom & Wade machine managed to carry out the work -by means of a system of pulleys applied to its wire rope gear. It was -curious to watch this little engine dragging its big load in a trailer -which had sunk almost to the wheel tops in mud and water. Occasionally, -turf and mud had to be dug away from the front of the trailer, and when -it was in motion the wheels were actually rotating slowly in the wrong -direction under the influence of the pressure of a continuous supply of -weed-bound mud surging over their tops. - -These trials, if not satisfactory in attaining their main object, at -least helped to demonstrate that practically nothing is impossible to -a soundly constructed motor vehicle, if properly equipped for rough -work. Intermittently, experiments have been made at Aldershot with -various machines of more or less peculiar construction. Among these may -be remembered the Pedrail tractor, the wheels of which carry a number -of articulated feet which, as the machine progresses, plant themselves -one after another squarely upon the ground. The necessary mechanism -was, however, too complex to render anything of the sort suitable for -extensive military use, and the same trouble probably applies to the -Caterpillar type of tractor, in which the wheels are surrounded by a -track in the form of a sort of endless chain, which lays itself as the -machine moves upon the ground, and distributes the weight over a large -area. Passing over rough country, a tractor of this sort rolls like -a ship at sea, but is very seldom in any real difficulty, even when -traversing ditches or fairly low hedges. Steering has to be effected by -allowing the wheels on one side to over-run those upon the other, with -the result that the engine turns with a sort of skidding motion. - -An interesting test of the value of the motor car in war was carried -out by the Automobile Association on March 17th, 1909. The Association -made an offer to Lord Haldane, then Secretary of State for War, to -transport a battalion by motor vehicles to any coast town that the -War Office might consider a possible scene of invasion. The point -ultimately selected was Hastings. For the purpose of the scheme it was -assumed that a sudden concentration of troops at Hastings had become -necessary, and that a battalion of the Guards was about to entrain in -London, when information was received that a portion of the railway -line had been destroyed by spies or agents working on behalf of the -enemy. Under such circumstances, the battalion could only be sent by -road. On the date named, a battalion of infantry at full war strength, -over 1,000 officers and men, with machine guns, ammunition, medical -stores, tools, food, water, baggage, blankets, and other impedimenta -amounting to some 30 tons, was distributed among 286 touring cars and -about 50 motor lorries. - -The cars were lent and driven by members of the Automobile Association, -and several manufacturers of heavy motor vehicles provided the -necessary number of lorries for carrying the guns and stores. - -The battalion was a composite one, consisting of officers and men -of the Grenadier and Scots Guards from Chelsea Barracks, Wellington -Barracks, and the Tower. The programme, which entailed picking up the -men at their respective barracks, joining up the three columns at the -Crystal Palace at 10 a.m. and arriving at Hastings soon after 1 p.m. -was carried through successfully, and within half an hour of arrival -the battalion with its full equipment was marched along the sea-front. - -The experiment aroused considerable interest in military circles in -this country and abroad, particularly so in Germany, where a number of -newspapers published full particulars and a plan of the route taken. - -In 1908 the German Army Department adopted the scheme which it has -since enforced for securing military transport, and from that time -onwards annual trials have been held, generally in the late autumn, -and over heavy and mountainous roads. In this they have differed from -the majority of the annual trials held in France, first of all under -the auspices of the Automobile Club of France, and later directly by -the military authorities. Our neighbours have shown a tendency to -make the routes selected somewhat easy, and not to test the vehicles -over unduly severe gradients. The German scheme was re-considered at -the end of 1912 as a result of the experience obtained up to that -time. The trials of 1912 were over a distance of about 1,300 miles, -including roads through the mountains of central Germany. The distance -covered each day by the 4-ton lorries drawing additional 2-ton loads -on trailers was about 60 miles. Subsequently, the newer regulations -prescribed more strict limits of axle weight, in view of uncertainty -as to the strength of the roads and bridges which would have to be -negotiated. A minimum engine power of 35 h.p. was prescribed, and -gradients of one in seven had to be taken with full load and equipment. -An interesting point of the new German regulations is the provision -of a belt pulley somewhere on the driving shaft for the purpose of -operating machine tools. Another point is the stipulation that the -brakes of the trailing vehicle shall be capable of being operated from -the driving seat of the lorry. A certain degree of standardisation was -at the same time introduced. - -In the same year, a big step towards the proper utilisation of motor -transport for military work was taken by an extensive experiment made -in this direction during the British Army manoeuvres. The use of -mechanical transport was subsequently referred to by the King as one -of the special features on that occasion, and the opinion was very -generally expressed that the rather sudden and early termination of -the manoeuvres was due to the unexpected effect of motor transport -in increasing the mobility of the troops, and bringing the opposing -forces into contact with one another with startling rapidity. Even -so late as 1912, a certain number of military authorities were still -very doubtful as to the advisability of relying on the motor vehicle -in active service, but the manoeuvres in question undoubtedly proved -the case, although the difficulties of operating mechanical transport -for the first time on an extensive scale were increased by the fact -that the machines available were of all sorts of makes and types, no -attempts at standardisation having been possible. Many of the machines -hired for the occasion were in very poor condition, and did not compare -favourably with those owned by the Government. Consequently, the -difficulties of working in convoy at short intervals were accentuated. -All the motor transport was concentrated on one side, and the armies -dependent upon it were kept well supplied daily with fresh meat, the -opposing forces being dependent on horsed transport and chilled meat. -Motor buses were on one or two occasions during the manoeuvres utilised -with great success for the rapid movement of fairly large bodies of -men. These manoeuvres probably represented the last appearance of -traction engines for any military use other than the haulage of very -heavy guns, or other kinds of quite abnormal work, not forming any part -of the regular system of supply and transport. - -During the last few years trials have been held at irregular intervals -by the War Department for the purpose of testing the suitability of -various specially constructed motor lorries for recognition under the -subsidy scheme, the nature of which is explained in detail in a later -chapter. The last trials of this kind took place early in 1914. An -official report published in June stated that results had been very -successful as regards both the number of entrants, and the general -standard of excellence of the vehicles submitted. The average speeds -both on easy and on hilly routes were well above those specified. -Radiators were found to be amply large to be effective even in the -hottest weather. The Mechanical Transport Committee reiterated their -opinion that one of the two systems of brakes should act upon the -propeller shaft. The average fuel consumption of the competing cars -was exceedingly good, working out at 52 gross ton miles per gallon. -The best result was about 63 gross ton miles per gallon over a distance -of about 200 miles. On the whole, it is evident that the cars were -very satisfactory, since it was stated that there appeared to be no -necessity to make any serious alterations in specifying for future -requirements. - -The most recent French trials were hardly completed when war broke out. -They were as usual well patronised, but not calculated on the whole to -try the machines to the utmost. It was intended in subsequent years -to introduce new and more stringent regulations, but the opinion was -fairly generally expressed among manufacturers that the Government in -doing so were differentiating their own needs too far from ordinary -business requirements, and that it would be impossible to find a market -for the types indicated. Early in the year, another series of trials -of considerable importance was held in France, for the purpose of -testing new types of four-wheel driven tractors. These machines are -needed particularly for the haulage of artillery, and further reference -to them will therefore be deferred until that subject comes up for -consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -EXPERIENCES OF MOTORS IN ACTIVE SERVICE - - The South African War--The Italian Transport in Tripoli--The Balkan - Campaigns. - - -Although mechanical transport was employed during the South African -war, the experiences then gained must not be applied with too much -rigidity to the conditions of the conflict taking place in Europe. -In South Africa, a considerable number of traction engines were put -into service, while steam motor lorries were also used. Colonel R. E. -Crompton, C.B., who was in charge of the British transport columns, has -described how “De Wet, knowing the country, destroyed bridge after -bridge until the roads and the railways were only islands, disconnected -by things called ‘deviations’--horrible places, full of dead animals, -horse transport, animal transport of all kinds, which had died there, -simply because there was practically no road.... The fact that we -were able, even though we had broken engines, to repair them from our -spares, so that the dead engines became live engines, so impressed -Lord Roberts that he felt that we were at the birth of real, practical -mechanical military transport with all the advantages it gives.” - -There can be no doubt that the experience obtained during the South -African war pointed directly to the use in the first case of steam -tractors, and later--when they could be sufficiently perfected--of -internal combustion tractors with a bigger radius of action. These -conclusions resulted not only from the inherent conditions of military -service, but also from the local conditions of the country in which -this particular war took place. - -Reviewing the possibilities of South Africa in times of peace, Mr. W. -W. Hoy, the General Manager of the Government Railways and Harbours, -while approving of the use of light passenger and goods vehicles -up to 2 or 3 tons capacity, lays stress on the desirability of the -light paraffin tractor for easy services on good roads, and the heavy -paraffin tractor for cross-country work with trains of trailers each -carrying from 12 to 25 tons of goods. If we admit that a country in -which these represent the main normal requirement cannot be safely -taken as indicating accurately even the war requirements of other -countries, we are reduced for practical experience to the Italian -campaign in Tripoli and the recent wars in the Balkans. Italy is -one of those countries in which commercial motor transport has not, -owing to unfavourable local conditions, made any great progress. As -a result the war was begun without any provision having been made in -this direction, and the authorities were at first very sceptical as -regards the desirability of employing motors at all in connection with -the operations of the army. After much discussion, two light lorries, -fitted with twin pneumatic tyres on the back wheels, were sent out on -trial. These served very rapidly to convince the staff officers of the -superiority of the system over horse transport. Consequently, thirty -more light Fiat lorries were sent out as promptly as possible, and -these were followed by larger consignments, bringing the whole fleet in -use up to the number of about 200. Arrived at Tripoli, the cars were -slung off the transport ships on to big pontoons, and towed to the -quay. From that point they were immediately employed for the transport -of all kinds of war material, as well as provisions and forage. They -were further utilised for the conveyance of large bodies of troops to -the front, and for carrying wounded to the hospitals and dead to the -improvised cemeteries. Most of the country over which they operated -was entirely devoid of roads, and consisted chiefly of rough loose -desert strewn with rocks and treacherous sandy hills. These peculiar -conditions account for the type of vehicle selected for employment. -Heavier lorries on solid tyres would no doubt have experienced even -greater difficulties in negotiating country of this class. - -The following extract, from a full account published by the -manufacturers of the uses to which their vehicles were put, will serve -to give an idea of the varied employment of military motors: - - “At the battle of Zanzur, on June 8th, 1912, fifty-four vehicles - took part and were divided into four columns under the personal - command of Capt. Corazzi. Ten were under the command of an officer - at the disposal of the Medical Corps; a second column, under - the command of Lieut. Milani, carried a load of barbed wire and - netting, sand bags and shovels; a third column, in Lieut. Bosio’s - charge, carried also 800 spades, 600 shovels, sand bags, and - barbed wire; and a fourth column of fourteen lorries, under Lieut. - Marocco, took a large quantity of dynamite and other explosives in - addition to pioneers’ tools. - - “The first column to move were the ambulances, which left Tripoli - at two o’clock, and at 3.30 came out of the outer redoubt at - Gargaresh to follow the fighting column and to work under the - instructions of a surgeon-captain. The other columns left Tripoli - about three o’clock, and at 4.15 at Gargaresh, about 5-1/2 miles - from Tripoli, they formed up in a square about 350 yards in front - of the redoubt under cover of a hill, waiting for orders. At 5.30 - they advanced, and leaving cover of the hills, moved forward - about 2-1/2 miles beyond the batteries. The nature of the ground - changed as the columns approached a sandbank, which had until - then protected them from the enemy’s fire. The passage over this - sand dune was extremely difficult, as the cars had to proceed in - single file at walking pace, exposed to a violent rifle fire. - Proceeding round the extreme north of the Arabo-Turkish trenches - the columns reached the Marabotto of Abd-el-Gelil shortly after the - arrival of the third battalion of the Fortieth Fusiliers, mountain - artillery, and a company of pioneers, and proceeded with the work - of fortification. When the columns returned to Gargaresh, and while - the Rainaldi Brigade was engaged against overwhelming forces of - the enemy, one of the motor columns, acting under Lieut. Milani, - was ordered to load provisions, whilst the other two were told off - to join the ambulance section. In the very line of fire the motors - brought succour to the wounded, conveyed some seventy disabled - soldiers to the temporary hospital at Gargaresh, and carried forty - dead to the cemetery. At Gargaresh the order arrived to convey to - Marabut the provisions and luggage of the 6th and 40th regiments of - the line. The three motor columns therefore re-formed, one going to - Tripoli to load provisions and returning to Marabut, the other two - being loaded up with luggage. The three columns then returned to - Tripoli.” - -After two years of incessant service, and notwithstanding the “emery” -effect of the fine sand which was carried in clouds by the wind and -penetrated everywhere, it is generally understood that the Italian -military motor fleet maintained reliable services throughout the -war, and that the individual machines were in surprisingly good -condition when their service was completed. Results were, at any rate, -sufficiently satisfactory to justify the Italian Government in placing -considerable further orders, with a view to increasing their motor -columns. This war was probably the first event which enabled the motor -vehicle to prove itself in practice absolutely essential as a military -implement. A Tripoli newspaper summed up the value of the experience -obtained: - - “Many people will have asked themselves how it was possible for - the Lequio Division to live, march, fight, and win with a base - of operations distant from 70 to 200 miles, with rapid and long - deviations which were almost of daily occurrence, in a country so - barren and inhospitable that man and beast would perish if they - were left for only two or three days without provisions.... The - motor lorry provided the solution of the problem; by its use in a - few hours provisions were brought from the stores and bases to the - fighting column, having been conveyed possibly hundreds of miles, - and, further, by its means not one day passed without the troops - having bread, wine, and coffee. The motor lorry was ubiquitous; it - transported ammunition or succoured the wounded, fetched fodder for - the horses and other animals, or money for the troops and for the - Arabs; it brought new boots for the soldiers or delivered urgent - messages, as well as being used for the transport of troops from - the various bases right up to the first fighting line in battle. - Only the advent of the autocar rendered possible many of the - daring moves of this war, as it solved the difficulties of desert - transport.” - -As regards the uses of motors during the various Balkan campaigns, the -only reliable and available information appears to be that contained in -a series of articles contributed by Capt. A. H. Trapmann of the _Daily -Telegraph_ to the columns of _Motor Traction_. At the commencement -of the war in 1912, there were less than 100 motor vehicles in -Greece, and some sixty of these--the property of Greek subjects--were -immediately commandeered. The machines formed a fleet very far from -ideal, representing cars of all makes and sizes, many of them suffering -from negligent treatment or unskilful handling, and some very near the -termination of a chequered career. The officers entrusted with the duty -of purchasing the machines were completely ignorant of their value or -qualities, and the drivers into whose hands they were subsequently -put consisted mainly of people who could, or said they could, drive a -motor car, though the great majority did not profess to possess any -knowledge over and above that required for travelling with reasonable -safety and certainty, assuming the mechanism of the cars to give no -trouble at all. The better machines were chiefly allotted to the -various generals and their staff officers, while some of the worst were -fitted up with lorry bodies for the transport of goods. - -After the fall of Salonica, the Greek objective was Janina, connected -with the port of Preveza by an excellent road about sixty-three miles -long. Directly Preveza fell into Greek hands, the authorities were -faced with the problem of provisioning an army, in the first instance -consisting of 15,000 men and gradually augmented to 60,000, operating -against a fortified town in a totally barren country intersected by -huge mountain ranges. The front of the army extended for about a -hundred miles, and only one good road was available from the base to -the centre of the advanced positions. Under these conditions, the -authorities realised the possibilities of motor transport, and about -thirty motor lorries, mainly obtained from Italy, were shipped to -Preveza and put into service. It was found that each lorry could, -in three hours, carry to the front about enough food for 1,000 men. -This, however, was not the only problem. The army was absorbing on -the average one ton of ammunition per day for every thousand men. The -lorries were only capable at the best of handling 2-ton loads, and -consequently were kept more than fully occupied. Moreover, the road, -though good in certain portions, was in others particularly dangerous, -being very winding and hewn for the most part out of the side of a -precipice. Heavy traffic and heavy rains contributed to make the -conditions yet worse, and under the circumstances, it is not surprising -that very serious accidents occurred, and that by the end of the first -six weeks only nine out of the original thirty lorries were still upon -the road. It then became necessary to replenish the supply, which was -managed in one way or another, and the service was maintained with -enormous difficulty under conditions of false economy, which dictated -considerable purchases of unreliable secondhand machines. Even so, -the results served completely to convince Captain Trapmann that motor -transport was the only solution of the supply problem in warfare. - -It seems that a similar opinion was forced upon the Greek military -authorities, since one of the first moves when the second campaign -became inevitable in 1913, was the purchase of one hundred motor -lorries. This step, while good in itself, was inadequate, since no real -provision was made for the supply of competent and responsible drivers, -for adequate supervision, or for completely equipped workshops. Many -of the drivers were well-to-do enthusiasts who had volunteered for -service, and who very soon came to regret that they had done so. -It is one thing to drive a good touring car and to fall back upon -professional assistance whenever trouble occurs, but quite another to -handle and maintain a heavy motor lorry without competent backing and -under thoroughly bad conditions of service. Some 50 per cent. of the -motor fleet was usually out of commission, and the staff of the repair -shops were so incompetent that it was seldom that a car once taken to -pieces was ever fit for the road again. The following extract from -Capt. Trapmann’s account gives some idea of the difficulties which had -to be overcome: - - “The strategy and tactics of the campaign against Bulgaria landed - the Greek headquarters at Doyrani on July 8th, and there nearly - two-thirds of the Greek motor service was concentrated on July - 10th. Greek headquarters decided to move sixty miles west to Hadji - Beylik along the railway, and the vital question was how the cars - for the service of the staff, and the lorries for the army service - were to accomplish the journey. The single-line railway track was - impossible on account of unbridged gaps, and also because the - railway was in urgent demand for transport. The only semblance of - a road was a mule track two feet wide, which led for the most - part through a tangle of vegetation, and occasionally amidst a - wilderness of rocks and stones. Eventually it was decided literally - to force a road by sheer weight. The lorries took turns at leading, - raced full speed for twenty yards, and then bashed their way - through the jungle. After fifty yards or less the lorry would be - brought to a standstill by the accumulation of rubbish piled up in - front. This would be cleared away, the car would back, then start - on a fresh charge. When a lorry got seriously damaged it would - be replaced by another and taken in tow by a third. Sometimes - explosives had to be used, and small rivers were bridged by the - simple expedient of placing tree trunks in them until a car could - cross. It was bumpy work. - - “In Macedonia a road of any sort was a luxury, the best roads - could not compare as regards surface with a fourth-class English - roadway, whilst as often as not the motors had to make their own - road as they went along. It must be remembered, also, that driving - in war time is very different from under peace conditions. Bridges - and culverts have usually been destroyed, telegraph lines sag - across the road, and at night time are apt to get entangled in the - driver’s neck with dire results. I, myself, have seen a goodly - number of motor smashes, one when a temporary bridge gave way - under an overloaded lorry, another when a contact mine exploded. - The worst accident I remember, however, took place soon after the - fall of Janina. A very old and depreciated lorry was being used to - convey passengers down to Preveza, a distance of sixty-three miles, - by a mountain road which for half its length was cut on the edge of - a precipice. At one of the awkward places on the road the steering - gear broke, and the car with its human freight dashed over the - cliff and fell into the river.” - -The conclusions reached by Captain Trapmann as a result of very -exceptional opportunities of observing military motor transport -under active service conditions should be of considerable value. His -catalogue of desirable features is as follows: - - (1) Clearance from ground in order to enable a car to pass over - rock-strewn stretches. - - (2) An adjustable cow-catcher in front for use at night on good - stretches of road, on which, however, dead or wounded horses or men - may be lying. - - (3) An inclined bullet shield of light steel to protect the front - of the radiator from casual sniping. - - (4) A stout iron hook or ring in front and behind for towing - purposes, especially when a river has to be negotiated, the bridge - over which has been destroyed. - - (5) Solid tyres with a set of non-skid chains which can be fitted - when occasion arises. - - (6) A wire grappler to preserve the driver from the danger of - sagging telegraph wires hanging across the road. - -While the experiences detailed in this chapter are, comparatively -speaking, on a very small scale, and consequently results cannot -confidently be applied in anticipation to a war of immensely greater -magnitude, they have at least served to show that even unavoidable lack -of experience, or avoidable lack of competence, cannot prevent the -motor vehicle from being a very valuable asset behind an army in the -field. The Tripoli and Balkan campaigns proved not only the necessity -of employing motors for the work of the transport and supply columns, -but also the possibility in so doing of saving the lives of very -many wounded men who, when dependence was placed on slower methods, -frequently died from exposure on their way down from the front to the -base. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -MOTOR AMBULANCE WORK - - Considerations of Design of Emergency Ambulances--Points to - be borne in Mind--Some Examples of Practical Designs now in - Service--The Work of Motor Ambulances at the Front--Scouring the - Battlefields--How the British Red Cross Society gets its Fleet. - - -Among military uses of motor vehicles, the motor ambulance probably -comes next in order of importance after the transport and supply -waggons. Evidently with the motor ambulance must be grouped cars -suitable for use in carrying wounded men who are not obliged to be -transported in a recumbent position, and even ordinary touring cars -when employed, as they are being somewhat extensively at the present -moment, for taking convalescent men on health-giving motor trips. This -last is a quite useful class of work in which even those motorists -can participate who are only able to offer their services and those of -their cars in the vicinity of their own homes and at specified hours. - -In times of peace, the motor ambulance proper is, so far as its chassis -is concerned, more akin to an industrial vehicle than to a touring car. -The heavier examples, in some cases, run on solid rubber tyres, and -in others on twin pneumatics, while the lighter types are fitted with -single pneumatics of heavy section. In detail, the chassis is simple -and strong, and well adapted to be put under the charge of a driver -of only average mechanical ability. The principal points are that the -vehicles should be silent in running, not liable to derangement and -extremely well sprung. Owing to the first consideration, worm-driven -chassis are particularly suitable for this class of work, and owing to -the second a slightly modified light van chassis is generally to be -preferred to the highly-refined but more complicated touring car. - -[Illustration: AMBULANCE DRILL OF THE CITY OF LONDON BRANCH OF THE -BRITISH RED CROSS SOCIETY, USING CARS FITTED WITH THE B.H.S. SPRING -STRETCHER-SUSPENSION. - -LIFTING THE STRETCHER.] - -[Illustration: LOADING THE STRETCHER INTO THE CAR BODY. IT IS -AFTERWARDS RAISED FORE AND AFT AND ATTACHED BY STRAPS TO THE SPRING -HOOKS PROVIDED. NOTE THE MEN RUNNING TO THE FRONT TO LIFT THE FORWARD -HANDLES.] - -[Illustration: A TOURING CAR EQUIPPED WITH A FOUR-STRETCHER AMBULANCE -BODY BY MESSRS. BROWN, HUGHES AND STRACHAN, TO THE ORDER OF THE DUCHESS -OF WESTMINSTER.] - -In time of war, the ambulance chassis is, roughly speaking, anything -big enough and sufficiently reliable that can be made available. For -example, motor omnibuses can be without much difficulty adapted to -this class of work, while touring cars are often quite suitable. The -qualifications in the latter instance are fairly ample engine power, -thorough reliability and strength for working over rough road surfaces, -very strong springs and ample wheelbase, so that the ambulance body -shall not overhang the rear of the chassis to too great an extent. -To form the complete vehicle, what is wanted at such times is not -necessarily a luxuriously-equipped conveyance, but is rather a quite -light and simple body sensibly constructed to bear its load, and -capable of standing any amount of jolting without either its component -parts shaking loose among themselves, or the body as a whole becoming -insecure in its connections with the chassis. - -As regards the interior equipments, in most instances all that is -needed is provision for readily fixing in place two or four stretchers -as the case may be, and also for loading the stretchers on to and -unloading them off the body without difficulty, and without unnecessary -discomfort to the patient. The standard types of ambulance body -approved by the British Red Cross Society consist of simple but stout -wooden frameworks with all the joints reinforced by angle irons held -by bolts through the wooden members, and not merely by wood screws, -which are liable to work loose. Over this framework is stretched a -cover of waterproof canvas that has been treated with rubber, while the -front and back of the vehicles are covered in by waterproof curtains -of similar material, capable of being drawn aside or raised quite -easily so as to enable attendants, with the minimum of difficulty, to -lift the loaded stretchers into the vehicles. Medical experts who have -experience in the carriage of wounded men do not appear to be entirely -in agreement as to whether the stretchers in a motor ambulance should -be rigidly secured to the vehicle body, or should be carried by some -form of springing supplementary to that of the car itself. In some -examples of ambulances in regular use in this country, additional -springing is provided by suspending the body from the chassis by means -of semi-elliptical or complete elliptical springs. In many others, no -springing other than that of the vehicle itself is interposed between -the stretcher and the ground. One point at least on which there is -universal agreement is that on no account must any rolling motion of -the stretcher relative to the vehicle body be permitted, as motion of -this kind causes acute discomfort to the patient, and often leads to -physical effects similar to those occasioned by the rolling of a vessel -at sea. - -Probably side loading is the ideal method of getting stretchers on to -an ambulance car, but it is difficult to realise the ideal in the case -of a simple and fairly cheaply constructed body. Consequently, the -system of end loading is far more common. In this case, the stretcher -is generally slipped in along the floor of the vehicle, and when right -inside the car, is raised to the necessary elevation to allow it to -be secured in position. The lower stretchers are afterwards slipped -in and similarly secured. A design in which this is possible is more -convenient than one in which the upper stretchers have to be raised to -their full height before the operation of sliding them into the car can -be attempted. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -A FRENCH MILITARY SEARCHLIGHT MOTOR. THE SEARCHLIGHT IS CARRIED ON AN -UNDERFRAME, WHICH CAN BE LET DOWN IN THE MANNER SHOWN. THE ELECTRICITY -IS SUPPLIED FROM THE MOTIVE POWER OF THE CAR.] - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -AN OPEN TOURING CAR CONVERTED INTO A MOTOR AMBULANCE.] - -A type of fitting which has been adopted for some of the two-stretcher -ambulances of the British Red Cross Society is that known as the L.X.R. -It consists of a simple steel-tubed framework, the corner members -of which are slotted to take the ball ends of cross bars from which -the stretchers are slung by very short ropes and straps. When in -position in the slots, the cross bar ends bear on the tops of strong -spiral springs which relieve the stretcher of a certain amount of -vibration but at the same time, not being free to move other than in -the vertical, do not set up any rolling motion. When these fittings, -which are manufactured by Messrs. Simonis, are used, no weight is -carried from any portion of the ambulance body except the floor. -Consequently, the remainder of the construction can be very light and -merely designed to support the waterproof covering. For four-stretcher -bodies the British Red Cross Society have at the time of writing been -employing two main types. In one of these, the stretchers merely slide -in, the upper ones on to shelves and the lower ones along the floor, -and are secured quite rigidly in position. In the other type, a system -of spring suspension has been adopted. This latter system--evolved -for the Society by Messrs. Brown, Hughes and Strachan--adapts itself -to the construction of a simple, strong, but quite inexpensive body, -to the main members of which are bolted iron arms which can be easily -arranged so that they can be swung to one side while the car is being -loaded, if it is considered that there is any risk of their interfering -with the ease of the operation. Each of these iron arms has a flattened -end, bored to take a vertical iron rod, the lower portion of which is -formed into a hook, while the upper portion carries a heavy spiral -spring concealed in a neat casing. The stretchers are carried from the -hooks by means of quite short leather straps, connecting the hooks -with the stretcher handles. It will be noted that the springs allow -of no movement other than one in a purely vertical direction, and -consequently that practically no rolling should result from the use of -this system, which has the advantage of giving an additional spring -suspension at a very small increase in the cost of the complete body. A -very considerable number of ambulances built on these lines have been -supplied by the makers to the Red Cross Society. - -It is impossible to lay too much emphasis on the desirability of using -for ambulances, chassis with long wheelbase, in which the stretchers -are as far as possible carried between the wheels, and the patients -thereby protected from direct road shock. It is not to be expected -that short wheel-based chassis carrying ambulance bodies with a big -overhang at the rear, will prove durable over the broken roads of the -countries in which war is taking place. If wheelbase is not sufficient -to allow of the fitting of a four-stretcher body without these grave -disadvantages, the only thing to do is to put up with the smaller -accommodation of a two-stretcher body. The usual arrangement in this -case is to extend the body right forward towards the dash on the left -of the driver, and so to push the stretchers a couple of feet further -forward, the space inside the body behind the driver serving for the -carriage of luggage, for an attendant, or for one or two wounded men -who are not very seriously injured. One of the great dangers in this -arrangement is that of obstructing the view of the driver towards his -left. This is particularly serious when the car is for use in countries -where the rule of the road is the reverse to our own, and where traffic -in the opposite direction has to pass on the side upon which a free -view is obscured. A possibility is to take in the space below the -driver’s seat and that alongside of it, and to run in the patients -on their stretchers, feet first, alongside of one another on the -floor of the conveyance. In this way, about a foot of length can be -economised, and with a two-stretcher body of this type it is of course -not necessary for the super-structure to be either strong or high. - -Another important point, if the cars are to go abroad and to be used -under bad conditions of road surface, is that any ordinary simple -method of attaching the body to the chassis must be very carefully -examined before it is approved. Something more than average security is -needed. - -A fair number of touring cars are being changed into motor ambulances, -not by replacement of the body but by its adaptation. This method has -the disadvantage that it renders the old body subsequently useless for -other purposes. Further, it is likely to cause delay, since every case -has to be considered on its individual merits. Also, unless the chassis -is a long one, the adaptation will almost certainly involve a big -overhang. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” illustration._ - -A TYPE OF EXTEMPORISED MOTOR AMBULANCE FAVOURED BY THE FRENCH AND -BELGIANS.] - -These notes will serve to give the necessary information to those who -may wish to equip motor ambulances for any kind of use during the -war, and there does not appear to be any need to go into details of -all the various other varieties of ambulance body, many of them very -beautifully fitted and designed, but also very expensive. One other -type may, however, be mentioned, since it is being employed extensively -by the French and Belgian Governments. This consists essentially of a -stout floor carrying two iron frameworks of inverted V shape. Between -these two and stretching fore and aft is an arrangement similar in -principle to a squirrel cage, or to a water-wheel with four floats. The -place of each float is taken by the necessary apparatus for the support -of a stretcher, provision being made that all the four stretchers -retain their horizontal position whatever the position of the framework -supporting them. The stretchers can be loaded in from the side to the -bottom position, and the apparatus swung round so that this operation -is continued, the stretchers after being loaded being subsequently -raised by the rotation of the frame. It is stated that in Antwerp and -elsewhere this type of ambulance has been used extensively, and is -found to be very comfortable and very easy to construct. - -Turning to the work for which the ambulances are being employed, much -of this is of an obvious character. Ambulance services are evidently -needed both at the military hospitals, and also further back at the -big base hospitals of the Red Cross Society on the Continent. They are -wanted again at all the various hospitals in this country to which -wounded men are brought. They are employed, for example, in London, to -meet the hospital trains and carry from the stations those men who are -not able to be conveyed in ordinary cars. - -The requirement of motor ambulances nearer the front is almost -limitless. In the system of the R.A.M.C. in service, wounded men are -first removed by regimental stretcher-bearers to the “aid post,” where -medical attention is first given to them. Thence, they are carried by -the bearer sections of the field ambulance--and possibly, if roads -permit, by motor ambulances--to the advance dressing stations, whence -after treatment they are taken by the military ambulance waggons to -meet conveyances from the clearing hospital, which is usually situated -somewhere near the railhead. Upon this hospital falls the duty of -avoiding all overcrowding nearer the front, and this must be done by -employing all available means of transport. Evidently, motor ambulances -are the most suitable kind of conveyance for this work, since they -afford a reasonable degree of comfort to the patient, and even if their -speed capacities cannot be utilised to any great extent while they are -carrying wounded men, advantage can be taken of them while returning -empty towards the front for further load. Once the patients have been -taken as far back as the field hospital at railhead, their subsequent -conveyance to the Red Cross hospitals, or any other required points, -can be carried out by train supplemented by local motor ambulance -services from the termini to the hospitals. - -Another and less obvious type of service is that which involves -thorough patrolling of all those districts in which battles have taken -place, with a view to ascertaining whether any wounded men are still -remaining in the villages and along the country-side, where they may be -given thoroughly kind, but possibly somewhat unskilled, attention by -the civilian inhabitants. Another duty of the drivers of the ambulances -carrying out this work is that of setting on foot minute inquiries with -a view to finding out whether any men killed in battle have been buried -by civilians without any record having become available which would -serve as a basis for certain information which can never be so terrible -as an almost hopeless state of suspense. This class of work, of course, -has to be carried out over roads which have in many cases been badly -broken up by heavy military traffic, and possibly even intentionally -destroyed by a retreating enemy. Consequently, it puts a very severe -strain on every portion of the chassis and body of the ambulance, -and makes the fact that the whole of the motor vehicles at present -employed by the Society have been freely given or lent by their owners -without reservation and without charge all the more noteworthy. - -For some time past, the Society has been shipping ambulance cars, and -also touring cars, to the Continent as rapidly as means of transit have -permitted. The requirement seems to be enormous, but even so there does -not appear to be any likelihood of the supply falling short of it. -Many motorists have placed not only their cars, but their own services -ungrudgingly at the disposal of the Society. The usual practice is for -the Society, after accepting a car for service, to undertake to have a -suitable ambulance body put upon it in place of its own. In some cases, -however, motorists have even taken this charge upon themselves, and -whatever may be the disadvantages of dependence upon volunteer service, -it can at least be said that in this case such dependence has served in -some measure to show how many men, unable for one reason or another to -take up military duties, are only too anxious to expend their energies -and their money on any object of national value in connection with -which they are able to be of use. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE TRANSPORT OF AMMUNITION AND ARTILLERY - - The System of Ammunition Supply--The Traction Engine--French - Four-Wheeled Tractors for Hauling Guns--German Gun-Carrying - Motors. - - -The system of maintaining ammunition supplies for troops in the field -is very similar to that already described in connection with the supply -of food. Stocks of ammunition are kept at depôts of the Army Ordnance -Corps at various points between the base and railhead, to which they -are forwarded as required. From railhead they are brought forward daily -by the motor lorries of the divisional ammunition parks to a convenient -re-filling point, where they are transhipped on to horsed ammunition -carts for distribution in detail. With the troops entirely dependent -on the motor vehicle for the maintenance of their supplies both of food -and of ammunition, there is no need to labour the enormous importance -of mechanical transport in modern warfare, or the terrible consequences -which would follow anything approaching a general failure in the -reliability of the machines used. - -For the haulage of very heavy guns some form of engine power is of -course essential, and the ordinary steam traction engine provides the -most obvious solution, since it is to be assumed that if the roads -and bridges to be traversed are sufficiently strong to bear the gun -itself, they will also bear the engines which haul it. The big traction -engine is a very British product, and it is interesting, if not quite -satisfactory, to note that the huge siege guns of the German army are -stated to be hauled by engines of British origin. For lighter guns, -the steam tractor, or small traction engine, can be employed, but very -many efforts have been made to dispense with its service in favour of -an internal combustion tractor, less dependent on constant renewal of -fuel and water supplies. - -[Illustration: A BRITISH “MARSHALL” INTERNAL COMBUSTION TRACTOR -SUITABLE FOR THE HAULAGE OF ARTILLERY.] - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -A FRENCH PETROL-ELECTRIC FOUR-WHEEL-DRIVE TRACTOR, THE WHEELS OF WHICH -ARE SPECIALLY SHOD TO FACILITATE TRAVELLING OVER ROUGH GROUND.] - -In the brief sketch already given of the principal trials and -manoeuvres in which motor transport has figured, some indication has -been afforded of the attempts made by the British Government in this -direction. The most consistent, and probably the most successful, -efforts have however been made by our neighbours, the French, who -have for this special purpose given much encouragement to the -development of internal combustion tractors driving all four wheels. -The movement dates back about three years, and owes its origin to the -need for hauling 155 m/m siege guns along roads and across country. -The first type of tractor produced to meet the requirement was the -Chatillon-Panhard. The weight of the first type with full load was -in the neighbourhood of 22 tons, and more recently efforts have -been made to evolve lighter types weighing about 14 tons with their -load, the belief being that these rather smaller machines would be -of great general utility. Some very important trials in this -connection took place in France early in 1914, four types of tractor -participating, namely, the Latil, the Schneider, the Chatillon-Panhard -and the Renault. The first-named is a development of the Latil type of -lorry, in which the engines drive the front wheels, and the whole power -plant is concentrated on to the fore carriage, the back wheels and the -platform being really nothing more in principle than a two-wheeled -trailing vehicle. An extension of this system involves the use of three -differential gears, one for each pair of wheels, and a third as a -balance gear half way along the vehicle from which the drive is taken -fore and aft through longitudinal shafts and worm gearing. All four -wheels are steered as well as driven. - -In the Schneider, the drive is taken from a gear box containing -two sets of sliding gears through cardan shafts to the front and -back axles, and alternatively, when required, to a capstan enabling -the engine to haul through the medium of a wire rope. In the -Chatillon-Panhard, the transmission is so arranged as to involve no -universal joints, and only one differential gear. This is mounted on a -transverse countershaft, and the power is taken to the wheels through -bevel gears at the ends of the countershaft, and four diagonal shafts -driving in their turn auxiliary shafts upon which are bevels engaging -with similar bevels on the wheels. The Renault is a very simple machine -of its type. The drive is taken fore and aft from the gear box by -cardan shafts leading to differential gears on the front and back axle. -Either one of the differentials can be locked when desired to help -the machine to find its way out of difficult positions. Yet another -machine which is available to the French Government, though it did not -take part in the trials mentioned, employs electrical machinery in -place of the usual mechanical transmission gear. The engine drives an -electric dynamo, which supplies current to four electric motors, one -for each wheel. On the whole, the French four-wheel driven tractors -have performed very well under severe tests, and it is stated that -approximately 300 tractors of one or other of the types mentioned -are available for military service, though it is possible that this -estimate is somewhat exaggerated. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” illustration._ - -A KRUPP MOTOR GUN-CARRYING LORRY, SHOWING THE RAMPS UP WHICH THE GUN -HAS BEEN HAULED SERVING ALSO THE PURPOSE OF HOLDING IT SECURELY IN -POSITION.] - -For the rapid transport of light artillery various special machines -have been devised, providing either for the carriage of a gun upon the -platform of a motor lorry, or for the construction of a gun-carrying -vehicle forming one complete unit. In this branch of development the -Germans have shown the most initiative, and Krupps have got out several -interesting designs. In all of these strong motor lorry chassis are -used. A usual system is to fit, by hinging to the back of the chassis, -strong ramps up which the gun may be hauled, either by the power of the -motor engine or by other means. When on the platform, the gun wheels -sink into depressions formed to take them and also bear up against -shaped vertical stops. When the gun is in place the ramps are swung -over, and are so designed that their ends can then be conveniently -attached rigidly to the vertical stops, the ramps themselves also -bearing against the gun wheels and holding them quite secure; or in an -alternative method, the ramps are arranged to grip the axle of the gun -carriage. - -Special designs are for motor vehicles capable of a good turn of speed, -and arranged to carry guns especially intended for fighting against -aeroplanes or airships, and consequently so arranged as to allow of -their muzzles being swung up until the gun assumes a vertical position. - -Other special arrangements of motor vehicles are those providing for -the carriage of machine guns, but this type perhaps comes more properly -under the title of an armoured motor car. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ARMOURED CARS AND OTHER MILITARY MOTORS - - The Utility of the Armoured Car--Improvised and Other Types--The - Uses of Touring Cars and Motor Cycles--Specially Equipped Military - Motors. - - -While everyone was aware that the heavy motor would play a very -important part in the great war in connection with the transport of -supplies and artillery, and that touring cars would be largely used -for staff purposes, the enormous extent to which the armoured car -has been employed has probably come as something of a surprise. We -were, of course, aware of the existence of such machines, but up to -the present there had been no real proof of their utility. The German -military authorities had evidently, prior to the war, come to their -own conclusions on the matter, and the Belgians, whether they were -prepared in advance or not, were at least very prompt in following -suit. It is doubtful whether, when the war broke out, our own War -Department was in possession of a single armoured car, but fortunately -this is a type of machine in connection with which deficiencies can -be very rapidly made up, and at the time of writing, while no certain -quantitative information is available, we are at least aware of the -existence of British armoured cars on the Continent, and we know that, -for example, London motor omnibuses have been equipped for this class -of duty. In this, and in most cases, the improvised armoured car is -merely an ordinary vehicle with some simple form of body covered over -by armour plating, and with the more vital portions of its mechanism -to some degree similarly protected. Thus, some protection is provided -for the radiator and steering gear. The dash is covered by steel -plating extending upwards to protect the driver, while the platform -or body behind is protected by vertical or sloping steel plates. -Certain examples of German armoured cars that have been captured -answer sufficiently well to this description, but naturally enough -in a country where the supply of industrial vehicles is more or less -inadequate, the touring car has been selected for adaptation. It has, -of course, the advantage of extra speed, and the disadvantage of the -vulnerability of pneumatic tyres. Some of these improvised armoured -cars merely carry men armed with rifles, while others are equipped with -light machine guns. In many instances, searchlights, or very strong -head lamps, are fitted. The latter can, of course, be operated by the -now familiar electric system, a small dynamo and a battery of cells -being carried upon the car. The most convenient arrangement for a more -powerful searchlight is to be found in the use of a petrol-electric -vehicle in which the ordinary change-speed gears are dispensed with, -and their place taken by electric machines. The car engine drives -a dynamo which generates electric current. This is supplied to an -electric motor from which the power is transmitted to the rear -wheels. The arrangement is tantamount to an infinitely variable change -speed gear, and the important point in connection with the subject -under consideration is that the whole or part of the engine power can -be used for generating electric current, which can be easily applied to -a searchlight on the car. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” illustration._ - -A “CHARRON” ARMOURED CAR WITH MACHINE GUN.] - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” illustration._ - -A “SCHNEIDER” ARMOURED CAR WITH QUICK-FIRING GUN.] - -Armoured cars carrying powerful lights are no doubt very effective -for reconnoitring during the night. The lights can be switched on -quite suddenly and some damage inflicted upon an enemy, and the light -switched off again before there is time for fire to be returned or the -machine to be located effectively. The car can then be moved rapidly to -some other point, and the manoeuvre repeated. In general, the armoured -car has been used as a kind of advance guard in front of the screen -of cavalry which performs the double duty of concealing the movement -of its own infantry and locating the forces of the enemy. Just as the -Germans employed cavalry for this purpose to an unprecedented extent in -the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, and so gained an enormous advantage -over their opponents, so the attempt has been made on this occasion -to utilise a still more rapid and effective means towards the same -ends. As already suggested, any advantage that may have accrued from -the utilisation of a new method of this kind need only be a purely -temporary one, since any desired quantity of the enormous number of -available machines can--if it appears desirable--be converted into -armoured cars for our own use or that of our allies at very short -notice. One would imagine that events will prove that the armoured -motor is valuable as an irritant rather than as a means of locating -hostile forces or screening one’s own, since both these latter ends are -very much affected by the use of aeroplanes, which make it practically -impossible to move large bodies of men secure from observation, and -correspondingly easy to gather fairly accurate information as to the -whereabouts and strength of the enemy. - -So far we have touched only upon extemporised armoured vehicles as -distinct from those actually designed in the first instance for -this specific duty. The first armoured car was produced as long ago -as 1896. The design was published in _The Autocar_ only a week after -the Act which permitted a motor car to exceed four miles an hour on -British roads, and to dispense with the man walking in front with -a red flag, came into force. The suggestion emanated from the late -Mr. E. J. Pennington, and the machine, the mechanism of which was -necessarily somewhat primitive, was arranged to carry two small machine -guns the cranks of which were to be driven by the car engine with a -view to increasing the rapidity of fire. In those days, the machine -gun was usually hand-cranked. At intervals since that time various -designs had been brought out, the general principle being to employ -a completely armoured car, the driver of which would in most cases -be in considerable danger of accident, owing to the way in which the -protection provided for him obscured the view of the road on either -side. In the majority of cases, the vehicle was designed to carry one -machine gun mounted in a turret above the roof. Thus, in a design -got out by the Charron Company some time back, the machine gun was -contained in a rotating turret a little way forward of the rear axle. -The joint between this turret and the roof of the car involved a flange -and a thick rubber ring. The turret rotated on a central vertical -shaft, and on this shaft was a screw wheel. The effect of turning this -wheel was to raise or lower the turret. When the machine gun had been -drawn into the right position with the turret raised, the wheel was -turned bringing the turret down hard against the rubber ring which held -it securely, and prevented it from shaking about while the gun was -being fired. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” illustration._ - -AN ITALIAN DESIGN FOR A MOTOR BATTERY OF QUICK-FIRING GUNS. THE SIDES -SWIVEL ROUND TO FACE IN ANY DESIRED POSITION.] - -In another design, coming from the Creusot Works of Messrs. Schneider, -provision was made for a larger machine gun, carried in a substantial -turret projecting from the car roof, and mounted upon rollers running -on an inwardly projecting ring on the lower fixed portion of the -turret. This ring was toothed on its inner side and engaged with a -gear wheel enabling the turret, and with it the gun, to be swung round -into the desired position. The gun itself carried a seat, and the -gear for rotating the turret was connected with pedals, so that a man -sitting on the gun could rotate it and the turret by the action of his -feet, keeping his hands free for the refinements of aiming and working -the weapon. - -Reference may be made to one more design for which an Italian officer -was responsible. In this case, the vehicle formed a kind of moving -battery of machine guns, mounted so as normally to point out of the -sides of the car. Each half of the body, however, was capable of -being swung round on hinges either at the back or at the front, and -castors were provided to facilitate its motion. Thus, when the car was -stationary, it was possible to swing round the whole of its armament so -as to face the front, rear, or either side. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -A “MINERVA” ARMOURED CAR WITH MACHINE GUN.] - -If the general conclusion as to the utility of armoured motor cars -bears out the impressions formed in the earlier portions of the war, -there can be little doubt that these more comprehensive designs will -receive in the near future consideration which has been denied to them -in the past, and that types of armoured car will be evolved as much -more effective than the extemporised patterns as our armoured cruisers -are when compared with converted merchant ships. - -Without devoting too much space to the consideration of machines -which are as yet merely proposals and not actualities, brief mention -may be made of a design recently got out by a British engineer, and -representing in a sense the last word in armoured cars, since it is -in no sense a make-shift, and provides for the complete protection of -the driver and every item of the mechanism. The car is, of course, -completely enclosed, and from its roof projects an armoured turret -containing two machine guns. The driver gets his view of the road only -through louvres in front and in the side doors. The lines of the car -consist of a series of curves which are preferred to flat surfaces, -in order to increase to a maximum the possibility of deflecting any -bullets which strike the vehicle. Even the radiator and the tyres are -armoured. The former is situated against the dashboard, and has above -it a cover in the shape of a cupola through which the air is drawn down -by a fan round the vertical tubes. Each wheel is built up of two steel -discs, one inside the other, and an air tube covered by strong fabric -is placed between the two. The outer disc is allowed sufficient freedom -of movement to enable the arrangement to approximate the pneumatic tyre -in effect, while being completely protected from puncture from any -cause. - -It is reasonable to suppose that the near future will see considerable -developments in the armoured motor car in two directions, namely, in -the direction of the vehicle designed and constructed throughout for -a specific purpose, and also in the direction of the lightly armoured -fast touring car available for staff and scouting purposes. - -This last brings us to the subject of a very valuable sphere of -activity of motors in warfare. There is, however, but little to be -written on this point, since the general use of cars by staff officers -from the commander-in-chief downwards may be taken for granted, and the -employment of fast vehicles for scouting purposes and by officers of -the Intelligence Department is equally self-evident. For the carrying -of dispatches and other such work, the motor cycle is being found -extremely useful. This, the lightest class of motor vehicle, is also -used in conjunction with its heavier relations. Motor cyclists, who -are usually skilled mechanics, are attached to all the heavy motor -transport columns, their duties being to scout ahead, to keep the units -of the column together, and also to assist in the event of any roadside -trouble. - -Motors of all kinds are extensively used in connection with the flying -corps. To each squadron of aeroplanes a number of motors are attached -for various duties. Some may act as first-aid machines, and for the -carriage of spare parts. Other larger and heavier motors are employed -for the carriage of partially dismantled aeroplanes. Others, again, are -fitted up as workshops to help in the important work of repairing and -keeping in tune the engines and mechanisms of the aeroplanes. - -As regards other important uses of motors in warfare, brief mention -should at least be made of the cars fitted with wireless telegraphy -equipments, and portable searchlights, and also of motor field -kitchens. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE PROVISION OF MILITARY MOTOR TRANSPORT - - Systems of Direct Purchase and Subvention Compared--The Advantages - of the Latter--The Importance of Standardisation and Workshop - Equipment--The Limitations of the Subsidy Scheme. - - -Having decided definitely that a complete system of motor transport -must be employed primarily in order to secure greater efficiency and -freedom of movement of troops in the field, the next step is to decide -upon the best means of securing the availability of the necessary -number of suitable vehicles in time of war. Evidently, the simplest -procedure would be to depend solely and entirely upon the power of the -Government to commandeer or requisition the required supplies. - -At first sight it may appear that nothing more is needed, but any such -conclusion would be highly erroneous. If we were to examine the fleet -of any large motor omnibus, motor cab, or motor haulage concern, we -should almost inevitably find that the vehicles employed were almost -all of one make and commonly of one type. If an operating company has -in the first instance decided to adopt a particular make of vehicle, -and if subsequent improvement in design reduces the efficiency of the -original type as compared with others of the market, then the natural -move is not to change from one manufacturer to another, but to increase -or partially renew the fleet by the purchase of new vehicles of the -same make but of a more modern model. The change from the old to the -new type does not involve alterations in by any means every part of -the mechanism, but only in those parts which have in any way shown -themselves capable of improvement. In the event of renewals being -required, it is not then necessary to stock an entirely new set of -spare parts for all portions of the car, but only to get in spares for -those parts, the design of which has been changed and improved. In this -way, the necessary stock of spare parts is so far as possible reduced, -and the work of maintaining the cars is in a similar degree simplified. -Almost every type of motor vehicle has its own peculiarities, and it -is evidently easier for a mechanic to undertake the maintenance of a -certain number of machines all of one make than to keep in running -order a similar number of miscellaneous vehicles varying essentially -from one another. - -Then again, the standardisation of one make is an advantage, because -for purposes of maintenance the number of workshop appliances required -is reduced to a minimum, and it is possible in some cases to obtain -machines specially adapted for turning out in quantity some particular -part which figures largely in the maintenance of the fleet. - -Yet another advantage is that the driver of any one car can, without -danger or loss of efficiency, be put on to any other car, if his own -is undergoing repair or overhaul, while the work of those departments -concerned with the storing and issuing of parts is greatly simplified, -and the accommodation required for the efficient operation of the whole -concern is reduced. - -If these arguments apply to an industrial organisation working under -normal conditions, they apply still more strongly to a hastily enlarged -temporary organisation evolved in time of war. Moreover, in the latter -case the unreliable running of a fleet of cars does not represent -merely a temporary financial loss or a diminution in prestige. Its -result must inevitably be to cause, among the troops behind which -the motor column is working, a lack of necessities either in respect -of food or of warlike materials. In either case, the result is -immeasureable and the consequences may well prove fatal. - -Then again, military motor vehicles are required to work under -peculiarly arduous and trying conditions. The very nature of their -service implies frequent long runs under the worst possible conditions -of weather and road surface. They may have to employ lanes or bye-ways -or even routes which can hardly be described as roads at all, and added -to this is the almost certain fact that the tracks over which they work -will have been materially injured intentionally or otherwise. - -Those who live in the vicinity of any important military centre must -be well aware of the damaging effect that heavy military traffic has -upon the roads, even if well-constructed, in view of the inevitable -nature of the traffic. When plying on country roads never intended -for such use, the transport motors themselves will soon break up the -road surface. These considerations serve to show that the liability -to breakdown is much greater in military than in civilian transport, -and coupled with this is the certainty that the facilities for -conveniently carrying out repairs and overhauls must necessarily be -extremely limited. The transport columns are supported at their base by -travelling workshops manned by skilled mechanics and containing small -selections of those tools likely to be of the most general service. The -equipment of these workshops must be reduced to a minimum in order to -secure their portability, and it is highly important, if possible, to -prevent jobs coming in which cannot be satisfactorily tackled with the -machinery at the disposal of the mechanical staff. - -It will thus be seen that everything points to the extreme -inadvisability of depending upon motor transport and supply columns -formed of a miscellaneous collection of vehicles of all types, all -makes and all ages. Looking at the other side of the question, the -ideal conditions are reached when every vehicle of the column is -identical and represents the very best make and type, and when all -the drivers are thoroughly acquainted with the idiosyncrasies of this -particular type of vehicle, and the mechanics responsible for repairs -equally experienced as regards every feature of the mechanism of the -machines. - -To secure something approaching true standardisation in a fleet of -transport vehicles, either one or two alternative methods may be -adopted. The first and most obvious is that of direct purchase by -Government. At the moment of writing, this system is being extensively -adopted in Great Britain, and doubtless also in all other belligerent -countries in which it has been possible to keep suitable motor -manufacturing works in operation. Such steps are, however, being -taken, in order to meet a great emergency which has arisen before -alternative schemes have had time fully to mature. The establishment -of an army in time of peace is very much less than it is in war time, -and in time of war an army must be far more self-supporting than it -is in time of peace, when considerable quantities of supplies can be -brought regularly by civilian contractors to depôts where the troops -are stationed, and the military authorities require only to secure -the distribution of such supplies in detail. In time of war the whole -of the supplies must be delivered in bulk to a very limited number of -points, and from that time onwards the military authorities must be -responsible for what may be described as their wholesale as well as -their retail distribution. - -Added to this are a number of other considerations, as, for example, -the fact that when on active service the scale of rations of the men -is increased, and supplies of warlike stores are rapidly expended and -have to be perpetually renewed. It is clear, then, that if the method -of direct purchase alone is depended upon, either the supply of motor -vehicles will be immensely greater than the useful requirement in times -of peace, or else facilities must be created for increasing their -supply instantaneously when mobilisation occurs, or the organisation of -new armies becomes essential. - -Now, as in the present instance, it is possible after a war has -begun to provide for a steady and considerable supply of transport -motors to be handed over to the military authorities week by week, -provided always that the process of manufacturing is not seriously -interfered with either by the propinquity of military operations, or -by the need of drafting men in excessive numbers from the works to -the active forces. In our own case, it is quite within the bounds of -possibility to produce motors for the transport columns of new armies -just as rapidly as it is possible to make the personnel of those new -armies effective. This fact, however, does not cover the difficulty -occasioned by the necessary increase in transport facilities for the -standing army directly war breaks out. It has been suggested that the -difficulty might be overcome if the War Department were to purchase -large numbers of suitable motor lorries, and to employ the greater -part of them in time of peace for the carriage of general goods. This -scheme has the advantage that it not only provides the necessary fleet, -but simultaneously trains the necessary drivers; nevertheless, it has -the grave drawback that profitable employment of the kind required -could not be found unless the Government were to enter into serious -competition with haulage and delivery companies. It has been proposed -also that numbers of suitable motors might be used normally in the -service of the Post Office, and transferred on emergency to the War -Department, but this again is open to objection. The Post Office -fleets would have to be renewed hurriedly and under difficulties, and -a certain amount of disorganisation would almost certainly result. -Furthermore, the number of vehicles which could be usefully kept in -service by the postal authorities is small compared with the increased -military requirements occasioned by the outbreak of war. - -We may take it, then, that the principle of maintaining in the -possession of the War Department in time of peace sufficient motor -vehicles to fill the whole of the needs in time of war is unworkable -except at enormous cost, since the majority of the vehicles could be -put to no useful work and would merely deteriorate and become obsolete -and, therefore, comparatively speaking, valueless were they to stand -idle. The whole of such a fleet would have to be replaced every three -or four years, and if this were not done an enemy equipped with more -modern vehicles would possess a marked advantage, since--though the -motor industry has now assumed enormous proportions--it is still so -young that progress in design is by no means stationary. - -We now come to the question of whether it is possible to maintain -in time of peace only the number of vehicles actually required, and -to fill up the requirement in excess of this number as promptly as -possible, but nevertheless with some delay, when war breaks out. -On this point, Captain A. E. Davidson, R.E., a former Secretary of -the Mechanical Transport Committee of the War Office, has given the -following very definite opinion in a paper read by him at the Imperial -Motor Transport Conference, in his official capacity as representative -of the War Department: - - “Emphasis must be laid on the necessity for obtaining the - transport immediately. The army which can mobilise in the shortest - space of time gains an immense advantage by being able to take - the initiative before the opposing armies are prepared, and the - army which mobilises most rapidly will be able to gain a decisive - advantage. This question has now been so carefully worked out in - detail that the complete mobilisation of an army can be arranged - for within a period that is reckoned in hours.” - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -A FRENCH MOTOR WORKSHOP, ESPECIALLY EQUIPPED FOR THE SERVICE OF THE -FLYING CORPS.] - -[Illustration: A GERMAN WORKSHOP CAR, CLOSED TO TAKE THE ROAD.] - -[Illustration: TWO VIEWS OF PARTS OF THE BRITISH “KARRIER” SUBVENTION -TYPE LORRY, INDICATING THE EFFORTS MADE TO FACILITATE INSPECTION AND -REPLACEMENTS. - -THE ENGINE VALVES WITH INSPECTION COVER REMOVED.] - -[Illustration: HOW THE AXLE SHAFTS CAN BE WITHDRAWN. BY REMOVING THE -TOP AND BOTTOM CASING, THE WHOLE OF THE FINAL GEARING, INCLUDING THE -DIFFERENTIAL, CAN BE REMOVED WITHOUT JACKING UP THE VEHICLE OR TAKING -OFF THE LOAD.] - -To meet this requirement, the additional motor transport columns must -also be capable of being mobilised with similar rapidity, and we are -forced back either on to the last resort of commandeering any vehicle -that comes handy, or else on to the preparation of a scheme which will -provide a substantial reserve of vehicles of approved make and type, -able to be made available at any instant at a few hours’ notice. Such a -scheme evidently involves the payment to the owners of these vehicles -of some sum intended to make up to them such loss as may result from -their liability to have their vehicles immediately commandeered. These -payments, moreover, must provide that the War Department shall have -the right of periodical inspection of the cars, so that they may -be well informed as to their condition, and may have certain knowledge -as to whether they are being properly driven and maintained in such -a way as to make them useful units of a fleet on active service. A -scheme of this sort is called a “subvention” or “subsidy” scheme, and -it is very generally admitted that such a scheme forms an essential -part of the organisation of transport and supply in every country -in which the civilian use of heavy motor vehicles is sufficiently -extensive to make the principle of subsidy applicable on a working -scale. Clearly, the amount of the subsidy which is offered to owners of -motor vehicles of a suitable type must depend, in the first instance, -on the conditions accompanying the payments. If--as to some extent in -the case of Great Britain--the subsidy scheme applies only to vehicles -of types which would not be employed for trade purposes were definite -encouragement not offered by the Government, the payments must be more -than sufficient to balance any disadvantages resulting from the use of -the subsidy type vehicle, as well as the inconvenience of undergoing -inspections. - -Again, if the War Department makes various stipulations as to features -to be embodied in the design of subsidy vehicles, it is more or less -certain that these stipulations will entail manufacturing expenditure -resulting in an increase in the sale price of the machines as compared -with the price of ordinary models of similar carrying capacity. -Thus, the subsidy must also be sufficient to cover any increase in -first cost to the user. If this increase is, let us say, £50, and -the inconveniences entailed by adopting the type result in a loss of -efficiency estimated, let us say, at £30 a year, the subsidy, if it -is to form any real inducement, must evidently amount to a payment on -purchase of about £60 at the least, followed by a payment of, let us -say, £40 a year for three or four years. - -In countries where heavy motor vehicles are not--unless some abnormal -encouragement is given--sufficiently extensively used for trade -purposes, the subsidy must of course be considerably higher. If the -conditions of service are so unfavourable to the use of mechanical -transport as to convince the trader that in changing, let us say, from -twenty horses and five waggons to a couple of 3-ton motor lorries, his -expenses will be increased by £100 or £200 a year, the scheme must take -this prospective loss into account. In that case, the scheme becomes -something more than mere subsidy, and partakes more of the nature of a -scheme designed artificially to encourage the use of a particular form -of transport solely on account of its utility to the Government in case -of war. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -A COMPARISON OF NATIONAL CONDITIONS - - The Fortunate Position of Great Britain--Causes of Rapid - Development of Motor Transport--The Big Influence of - London--Position of the Movement in European Countries. - - -In considering how far any form of subsidy scheme has been, or could -be, truly successful, we have to take into account first of all the -national and local conditions governing the use of motor vehicles in -ordinary commercial service, and it is satisfactory to be able to -record that a consideration of this subject leads to the conclusion -that the position of Great Britain is peculiarly advantageous, inasmuch -as the number of industrial motor vehicles in service is vastly in -excess of the total requirement of the British Army, a state of affairs -a parallel to which does not exist in any other European country. - -The economical use of motors in trade and industry depends in the -first case very largely upon the quality and quantity of the national -roads. Great Britain is fortunate in the possession of the finest road -system in the world. We are not limited as regards motor haulage by -the absence of thoroughfares between our industrial or residential -districts, and it is possible to deliver goods to practically every -house or even cottage in the kingdom, without having to traverse -anything worse than a short distance of rather rough country lane or -private track. - -There is no doubt that London has been very largely responsible for -the enormous development of motor transport within the British Isles. -It is generally considered that Paris represents the nearest approach -to London for purposes of comparison. Nevertheless, the population of -Paris is only about half that of London, and the area within which that -population is included is only about one quarter. In other words, the -density of population of Paris is double that of London, which means -that the average distance to be traversed in delivering goods to a -given number of people is much smaller in Paris than it is here. Now -the motor vehicle is able to show superior economy over horse-drawn -traffic mainly where it is able to make use of its capacity for speed -and its ability to cover, without tiring, long distances in the course -of a day. For house-to-house deliveries the motor is at a disadvantage, -since while it is standing waiting before a door it represents a larger -idle capital than the horsed cart, and the investment of this larger -capital can only be justified if it results in the vehicle performing -in a given time a far larger amount of work than would be possible if -horses were used. - -Taking, for example, the case of a 2-ton motor van capable of running -about 100 miles in the course of a working day, the ideal condition is -represented by a run under full load from the warehouse or store to -some point about 50 miles distant. Here the whole load is delivered, -and a complete return load is found. Such conditions are seldom -available in practice, but the nearer it is possible to approach to -them, the more likely is the motor to prove a profitable investment. -On the other hand, supposing the car to be used for house-to-house -work involving, let us say, 100 deliveries in the course of a day with -a total distance covered of only about 10 miles, the motor may cover -this distance in traffic in something like an hour, whereas a horsed -vehicle might take two hours. The saving in that case is comparatively -small, and represents, let us say, only an additional 10 deliveries or -an advantage of 10 per cent. extra in the work done in the day. On the -other hand, the cost of the motor is very much higher, and it is more -than likely that on economical grounds the operating concern would not -be justified in adopting mechanical transport. - -Applying these examples of extreme cases to the general proposition, -it is quite evident that both the larger population and the more -scattered distribution of population of London make the metropolis a -far more favourable nursery for the industrial motor than, let us say, -Paris, or, for that matter, Berlin or Vienna. The great London houses -have found that their conditions of delivery into outlying residential -districts have been on the whole very favourable to motor transport, -which they have consequently adopted extensively, favouring as a rule -vans carrying loads varying between 25 cwt. and 3 or 4 tons, according -to the nature of the goods to be handled. By establishing motor -services they have been able in many instances to dispense with local -distributing depôts in the environs of London, and they have found it -possible greatly to extend their areas of direct delivery. One of the -consequences has been that people resident 20, 30 or even 40 miles out -of town are now able to place orders at big London houses, and to have -the goods delivered direct to their own doors the same day, or at the -latest on the following day. This delivery is effected without any -unnecessary handling, and without any of that delay which must result -if the railway is used as an intermediary. - -By thus extending their field of operations, the big London houses -have come directly into competition with the larger trading concerns -centred in towns some distance from London. These local concerns have -found that they were losing business to the London houses, and have -been compelled in the interests of self-preservation to endeavour to -retain that business by offering equally good and prompt facilities -for delivery. Even so, some portion of their trade is necessarily lost -to them, and they are compelled to seek new fields. In order to do -this and to resist competition so far as may be, they are practically -forced to adopt motor transport, and in their turn to extend their -area until it embraces other towns and villages at a greater distance -from the metropolis. Thus, the influence of London steadily spreads -outwards encouraging the adoption of motor transport in other towns. -A similar phenomenon takes place in a smaller degree round all of our -very numerous big industrial cities, with the result that the motor van -and the motor lorry have become familiar objects in every part of the -country, and have, so to speak, acted as a moving advertisement of -their own utility. - -This process, coupled with the comparative excellence of our roads, -has favoured the general adoption of motor haulage by traders of all -classes throughout the country. The railways have in consequence -felt the effects of the competition of the motor vehicle, and have -retaliated by putting themselves into possession of considerable -fleets, in order to secure the rapid distribution of the goods -entrusted to them for delivery. In some instances, railway companies -have established services in country districts to act as feeders to -their branch or main lines. Simultaneously, the general development, -initiated in the first case by private enterprise, has become so marked -and has proved so conclusively the reliability of the heavy motor, that -Government Departments--notably the General Post Office--have been -impressed with the great possibilities of the new transport, and have -adopted motor vans for long distance services as well as for local -distribution of mails in great cities, as being more direct as well -as more economical than the old arrangements with the railways. This -applies particularly to the carriage of parcels. - -Side by side with this development has come the astonishing progress -of the passenger motor vehicle. Here again, London has been the big -moving influence. The greatest city in the world has grown from small -beginnings according to its own sweet will. It has not been laid out, -as have younger towns, with any clear scheme in view for meeting the -growth of traffic requirements. Here again, the nearest parallel is to -be found in Paris. Portions of that city are still similar to, or even -worse than, London in this respect, and are traversed only by narrow -and winding roads laid out on no intelligible scheme. Paris, however, -has the advantage that for the past one hundred years definite methods -of improvement have been pushed. Control has remained vested in the -same departments, and the policy has been continuous. Consequently, -the network of small streets has gradually become subordinate to an -admirable system of main thoroughfares of great width and beauty, at -the intersections of which are wide open places generally utilised for -the erection of some of those fine monuments so dear to the French -nation. - -Other and newer towns, of which Berlin may be taken as a fine typical -example, have been from the first almost wholly constructed in -accordance with a definite town planning scheme, and in all their later -developments the tramcar has been regarded as a necessity of passenger -transport, and every provision has been made to ensure that a complete -system of railed traffic should be in every way facilitated, and so -far as possible prevented from injuring the natural and architectural -beauties, which must at all cost be maintained in the interests of -trade prosperity as well as from æsthetic reasons. - -In such cases, the motor omnibus has from the start come into direct -competition with the electric tramcar, the latter being generally -supported by enormously influential vested interests, the strength of -which has been such as to cripple, or almost entirely prevent, the -introduction of public service motors. Both in Paris and in London, -conditions for one reason or another have opposed the universal -adoption of railed transport in the streets. So far as London is -concerned, the tramcar is useful and possible in suburban districts, -and as a means of bringing people to within a short distance of -the central areas. Beyond that point, its extension is probably -impracticable, and is certainly open to very grave opposition, which -has up to the present prevented the completion of anything approaching -a comprehensive tramway system from north to south or from east to -west. The central area a few years ago was served by the horsed -omnibus, and it was with this vehicle and not with the tramcar that the -motor omnibus in its early stages had to compete. Consequently, it was -given a good opportunity of proving its desirable qualities and was not -hopelessly handicapped by being set, when in very early and imperfect -stages of development, directly against a more or less perfected system -of passenger transport on rails. London has thus proved to be the -world’s biggest nursery of the motor omnibus. Its early imperfections -caused plenty of grumbling and a certain amount of inconvenience, but -it was realised all along that it was only a matter of time before it -would oust the horse omnibus from the streets. - -In Paris also, the motor omnibus has been given fair chances, and has -proved its worth. It has been employed partly on routes involving -narrow roads and stiff gradients where trams would be dangerous, and -partly on other routes the natural beauties of which are so pronounced -that it was generally felt that the laying of tramway lines, or the -creation of any permanent blots such as are occasioned by the erection -of standards and wires, would be altogether a desecration. - -The motor omnibus, after passing through its novitiate, has proved -in the most practicable possible way the advantages of road motor -transport to the general public. It has hit the short distance traffic -of railways very hard, and has compelled these latter in self-defence -to inaugurate motor services of their own, especially in country -districts not well fed by the railways themselves. It is impossible to -say to what a great extent the development of motor transport is the -result of the anomaly under which the road passenger traffic of London -is not controlled by the local governing authorities, who possess -in other cities licensing powers reserved in London to the Chief -Commissioner of Police. Other great British cities, as, for example, -Manchester and Birmingham, for many years refused to allow the motor -omnibus to prove its worth for fear of competition with tramways owned -by the municipality, which, being itself the licensing authority, could -refuse to give facilities under which any competition with its own -concern could come into existence. It is only lately that the prolonged -experience of London has proved to all these authorities the enormous -utility of the motor omnibus, and its spread to every great city has -either become an accomplished fact, or an inevitable development of -the near future. Paris, with its smaller fleet of motor omnibuses, has -not exerted a similar influence in anything approaching a similar -degree throughout the provincial towns in France; and Berlin, which has -very nearly tabooed the motor omnibus altogether, has done practically -nothing towards the encouragement of motor transport in Germany. It -is rather a curious fact that this policy should have been maintained -in Berlin for so long, seeing that for many years past the German -Government have been paying huge sums in the shape of subvention, with -the sole object of encouraging the national use of trade motors. In -all probabilities, the process of ocular demonstration on the streets -of the capital would have been more effective than the whole of the -expenditure that has been incurred. - -From what has gone before, it will be seen that circumstances have -all worked together to cause the development of motor transport of -Great Britain to be far more rapid than in other countries. Added to -this is the undoubted fact that the genius of the British engineer -is best expressed in something substantial and durable. The heavy -industrial motor is more typical of British tendencies than is the -light fast car. As regards the latter we may be good imitators, and -may be well able to keep on equality with competition. As regards the -former we can do more, and we have shown ourselves able to lead the -world and to produce finer industrial motors than can be obtained -in any other country. Even the progressive engineers of the United -States acknowledge that they must draw their inspirations in this -movement from Great Britain, and are not infrequently to be found in -this country studying what has been done, and learning lessons which -they will apply at home and which may serve to bring them into strong -competition with us, but are very unlikely to make them our superiors. - -The general result of all these influences has been, as already stated, -that Great Britain is the only European country in which the industrial -motor is, in times of peace, used in numbers greatly in excess of the -possible military requirements of our own forces. Consequently, the -problem before our War Office has not been to encourage the use of -heavy transport, but to direct the tendencies of design and popular -taste into the channels in which they could be made to fall into line -most completely with military requirements. - -Next after ourselves, France is fortunate in the possession of the best -road system of any European country, and this has helped industrial -motor development to progress with fair rapidity, though not at such -a speed as to enable the country to be self-supported as regards its -needs in military motor transport. Germany, with a less complete road -system, involving in many parts very severe gradients, has had more -difficulty still in filling its military requirements, while Austria -is in a position somewhat akin to that of Germany from this point of -view. Consequently, in all these three great countries, the subvention -scheme has had to be rather a scheme for encouraging the use of -motor transport of any kind than an attempt to direct designers into -any particular channels. Conditions in Belgium are somewhat akin to -those obtaining in France; and, generally speaking, other European -countries are so badly served by roads and so unfavourably situated -as regards their requirements for the haulage and delivery of goods, -that the development of industrial motor transport on a large scale has -been out of the question, and consequently, the establishment of any -subvention scheme would have proved futile. We are now in a position, -with a fairly clear conception of the conditions obtaining in each -of the countries concerned, to consider in more detail the nature of -the schemes evolved in the interests of military transport, and to -ascertain how far those schemes have been brought to successful issues. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -BRITISH SUBSIDY TYPE MOTORS - - Early Subsidy Schemes--Amount of Subsidy--Standardisation of - Driving Control--Important Mechanical Features--Provision for - Working in Convoy--The “Chain-Drive” Controversy--The Present - Position. - - -In view of the peculiarly advantageous circumstances detailed in the -previous chapter, the British subsidy scheme is from the pecuniary -point of view less imposing, and from the practical point of view far -more comprehensive than any other scheme yet attempted elsewhere. The -British War Department favours in general the use of vehicles intended -to carry in active service useful loads of about three tons, but as the -machines also have to take four men and a considerable quantity of kit -and stores, they correspond to ordinary industrial vehicles of four -tons capacity. There is a parallel, but much smaller, requirement, for -30-cwt. vehicles corresponding to the ordinary commercial two tonner -and capable of higher speeds than are desirable with heavier machines. -These lighter cars are intended for use behind mobile and fast-moving -troops, while the heavier type are for the service of the infantry, -and for the carriage of ammunition supplies. In each case, the total -amount of subsidy paid is from £110 to £120. A portion of this takes -the form of a cash payment when the vehicle is accepted, while the -remainder is an annual payment spread over a period of three years, -and is conditional on periodical inspection revealing the satisfactory -condition of the machine subsidised. - -The agreement also provides that in the event of the War Department -desiring to commandeer the vehicle in time of war, a very liberal price -shall be paid to the owner, this price being of course dependent to -some extent on the age of the machine. The correct amount is arrived -at by deducting from the first cost of the car a certain regular -percentage intended to represent the depreciation in value during every -half year of normal service. After this deduction has been made, the -resulting figure is increased by an agreed percentage of itself, the -final result being that the price paid for any car under about two -years old is very near, if not quite equal, to the original first cost. - -The first move made in the direction of a subsidy scheme in Great -Britain dates back to 1908. At that time it was believed that light -steam tractors best filled military requirements, and a number of these -were registered, the nominal payment of £2 per annum being made to -their owners. The industrial petrol vehicle was at this time passing -out of its period of probation, and it was not long before the military -authorities came to the conclusion that it represented a more useful -type, in view of the nature of the particular emergencies against which -they were chiefly called upon to guard. The ordinary steam-propelled -vehicle was open to certain objections, the principle of which is the -fact that its carrying capacity of fuel and water is limited, and the -latter must necessarily be replenished at fairly frequent intervals. -This is no great drawback in commercial work, but might be a very -serious matter indeed in times of war, when men and horses have a prior -claim on a possibly limited water supply. - -In 1911 a scheme of subsidy for transport and supply motors was -authorised, and in view of the fact that no such scheme could be -matured until it had been in force for several years, a provisional -scheme was temporarily adopted, under which total sums ranging from -£38 to £52 were paid to owners of vehicles generally of about three -tons capacity. The present subsidy scheme was finally put into force -in 1912 after the War Office experts had conferred on many occasions -with representatives of the leading manufacturing interests. The -main objects of the scheme are plainly stated in the War Office -specification as follows: - - (1) To make the manipulation and control of all vehicles the same: - and - - (2) To minimise the number of spare parts which must be carried - in the field, having regard to the number of different makes of - vehicles of which the transport columns of the army would be - composed. - -As to the first of these two stipulations, one would think that there -could hardly be two opinions, though in point of fact it has been -argued in some quarters that no standardisation of driving control is -in any way essential. Such a view one imagines can only be held by -those who are personally so fortunate as to have that mechanical knack -which allows a man to take charge of any car, however different it -may be from those to which he has been previously accustomed, and to -drive it with perfect safety and efficiency even at night-time and over -unknown and bad roads. We cannot assume that every transport driver -possesses this instinct, and we must therefore agree that the object -aimed at by the War Department is one which deserves every support. It -is, in fact, worth while to go into a little detail on this point, in -order to show what care has been taken to make everything as easy as -possible for the driver. - -First, as regards the hand control. The steering wheel must provide for -76° of movement of the front wheels of the car; that is to say, 38° of -lock from the normal position on either side. In reaching the maximum -lock, two complete turns of the steering wheel must be made. Thus, a -driver who is used to getting a certain effect by turning his wheel -through a certain distance, will find if he is put on to a subsidy car -of another make that the same effect is still produced by the same -amount of movement. This, of course, helps to make him immediately a -safe driver in traffic or at sharp corners. The four-speed change-speed -gear is operated by means of a lever in a gate. This gate must be -formed of two slots and two selectors, the reverse being a continuation -of the first speed slot. The hand-brake lever must be arranged to push -on, and must be well away from the change-speed lever and to the -right of it. Furthermore, the brake lever must be 6 inches longer, -and must have a plain cylindrical handle, whereas the change-speed -lever is finished off with a circular knob. Thus, any confusion -between these two levers in sudden emergency, or in the dark, is -completely prevented. The throttle and ignition levers must be placed -underneath and to the right of the steering wheel, their movement being -independent of any movement of the steering column. Increased engine -speed must in each case be produced by moving the levers forward. The -total movement must be 90°, and the handles must be at right angles -to the main axis of the vehicle when in the centre of their travel. -This, again, means that a driver who is accustomed to producing a -given effect upon his engine by a given movement of the ignition or -throttle is in no way confused by being put on to a different car. The -only point in which any variation in driving control is permitted is -in regard to the accelerator pedal, the presence of which is optional. -However, if a foot accelerator is provided, it must be so combined -with the hand throttle that on releasing the accelerator, the throttle -valve returns to the position set by the hand lever. The clutch- and -foot-brake pedals are marked C. and B. respectively, and the clutch -pedal must be on the left, the brake pedal on the right, the travel -in each case being about 3-1/2 inches. From these details it will -be seen how carefully every item in the driving control has been -considered, with a view to facilitating the work of drivers who may -have to be moved frequently from one machine to another. As to whether -the arrangement adopted is a good one, we have strong evidence of a -favourable character in the statement of Mr. J. E. Thornycroft, to the -effect that his firm has adopted the War Office system of control as a -standard for all their vehicles whether of subsidy model or not. - -At a rather later date it may be well worth while to consider whether -experience has not demonstrated the possibility of combining with -a full subsidy scheme a modified scheme insisting only on vehicles -of the right load capacity, and the adoption of all details of the -standard control. In this way, if the true subsidy model continues to -be somewhat unpopular amongst commercial users, a very fairly adequate -reserve will be brought into being without any considerable trouble. - -Turning now to the second of the two main points which the War -Department have attempted to cover, we find the fulfilment of the -scheme beset with much greater difficulties. Every attempt to -secure standardisation in the parts of vehicles of different makes -must necessarily entail expenditure by the manufacturers, both in -getting out new designs and also in arranging for economical workshop -processes. Such expenditure is only justified commercially if the sale -of the resulting products is sufficient to secure profitable trading. -Some allowance, of course, must be made for the added prestige accruing -to a firm licensed to build for the War Office, but this is in itself -insufficient encouragement. Consequently, every stipulation made with a -view to standardisation must be covered by subsidy grants, sufficient -to cover both manufacturer and user in respect of any additional cost -or disadvantages in operation. The War Department has recognised the -impossibility of asking for complete standardisation, and so killing -the individuality of different types of vehicle. The tendency of any -such process would be to throttle normal competition, and to prevent -progress. Consequently, standardisation can only be attempted in -certain respects where it appears for one reason or another to be -highly desirable. For example, radiators are notably liable to damage, -and consequently the connections of the radiator to the machine are -standardised to allow of ready replacement of this essential as a -whole. The radiators are mounted on trunnions, the bearings of which -are in halves, and the positions and dimensions of inlet and outlet -connections are definitely fixed. As an additional safeguard, a stout -cord in the form of a bar or tube has to be placed across the front -of the radiator. The engines are not standardised except in certain -details, as, for example, the method of fastening on and driving -the magnetos, which are arranged with a view to rapid removal and -replacement whole. No high degree of standardisation is possible -without incurring great expense and other disadvantages so far as -concerns the design of the clutch and the change-speed gear, though the -ratios of the latter are determined for reasons which will be explained -later. - -As regards final drive, some degree of standardisation is possible so -far as the axle arms and bushes are concerned. The bearings of the -front wheels are standardised so as to make the wheels interchangeable, -and the diameters of both the front and rear wheels are fixed. Makers -and users are left with a fairly free hand as regards the type of -body to be fitted to a subsidy machine, but in general this must be a -lorry body with detachable sides and ends at least two feet high, and -carrying a frame to take a complete overhead cover. Use is also found -for a certain number of box vans. - -Many provisions are made in the subsidy scheme with a special view -to making the vehicles suitable for working in convoy. In the first -place, it is stipulated that all engines shall be fitted with governors -which shall automatically control their speed to 1,000 revolutions -per minute. This prevents drivers from racing their engines and -over-speeding their cars when running light, and also determines a -definite top speed, which should be almost exactly equal for all -subsidy machines, as it were. Coupled with this, are the provisions as -regards change-speed gear. The engine governor having limited the speed -of the 3-ton type to 16 miles per hour, and the speed of the 30-cwt. -type to 20 miles per hour, the next step is to secure that, when road -conditions require the use of lower gears, the whole of the vehicles -in the convoy will need to change gear practically at the same point, -and when on lower gears will run practically at the same speeds. With -this object in view, it is stipulated that the ratio between top and -bottom gear shall be about five to one, giving bottom speeds of about -three and four miles per hour respectively for the two classes. This -provision, taken in conjunction with the stipulated engine dimensions, -should secure that every vehicle is capable of tackling a gradient of -one in six on normal road surface whether fully loaded or empty. It -will be seen that the point kept in view has been the desirability of -arranging everything so that drivers of a large number of machines -working in convoy--that is to say, running along the same road at short -intervals behind one another--shall not have any difficulty in keeping -their proper distance, and so in preventing any risk of collisions. -For similar reasons the fitting of a ground sprag is made compulsory. -The object of the sprag is to prevent a vehicle from running backward -if, for example, the driver misses his gear on a steep gradient. The -fitting is not necessary on ordinary commercial machines, since the -brakes will almost certainly hold the car before it has run more than -a few yards, but in the case of one vehicle in a long convoy, those -few yards may mean a collision with the following car, and a hopeless -muddle causing serious delay. In view of the possibility of some one -car failing, every chassis has to be fitted with towing hooks at -the ends of the side members of the frame fore and aft, so that each -machine can, if required, either be towed or tow another, and any “lame -duck” will not obstruct the whole convoy, but can be dragged along to -some point where it can be towed out of the way, and the rest can be -allowed to proceed. - -Other points in the scheme have in view particularly the fact that -the machines must be required to operate on very bad and possibly -on very hilly roads, and may even be needed to make detours across -country when roads are destroyed or entirely blocked. The chief points -in this connection are the provision of high ground clearance, which -must in no case be less than 12 inches, the stipulation as to size -of wheels, which are rather larger than usually found on commercial -vehicles, and various stipulations ensuring adequate protection of -the mechanism from mud and dust. Generally speaking, these provisions -constitute one of the principal difficulties in making the scheme -successful, principally for the reason that large wheels imply -a rather high loading platform, and this is objected to by many -commercial concerns on the ground that it makes loading and unloading -more difficult. On the other hand, larger wheels are better for the -roads, and consequently it is within the bounds of possibility that -trading concerns will presently be compelled by law to put up with -their disadvantages. From the point of view of motor users in the -Colonies, high ground clearance and large wheels are very valuable and -even essential features. Consequently, the subsidy scheme works in well -with many Colonial requirements, and manufacturers whose machines are -accepted by the War Department probably depend for success of the type -to no little extent upon the likelihood of orders from abroad. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -SAURER MOTOR FIELD KITCHEN.] - -In the interests of the proper guarding of the mechanism from mud and -dust, the experts of the War Department have considered it necessary to -stipulate that all cars must be driven on the live-axle system either -through bevel or worm gear. In the first instance, only the former was -accepted, but more recently the worm drive, as exemplified by the -products of its pioneers, Messrs. Dennis Bros., has met with approval. -The point to be noted is that the chain drive--which, in the opinion -of many manufacturers and also of many users both at home and abroad -is unequalled for heavy work--is definitely debarred. Considerable -antagonism to the scheme as a whole was thus created, and one is forced -to the conclusion that the reasons for refusing the chain drive were -not solely connected with the question of protecting from mud, but were -possibly more concerned with the fact that, while a chain drive is -probably quite as economical in maintenance as any live-axle drive, it -requires rather more frequent adjustments and attention, and possibly -small renewals. - -In commercial practice, this consideration carries little or no weight, -but on active service a breakdown is none the less serious because it -is caused merely by a breakage to one link in a chain and not by the -entire dislocation of the whole transmission gear. One gathers that, at -the present moment, chain-driven machines are in fact being used in -the service of the British Army, and in the interests of the success -of the scheme in the future, the hope may be expressed that practical -experience will show that any fears as to unreliability of this type -of transmission from the military standpoint will prove entirely -groundless. - -When the great war broke out, the position was briefly as follows. -The subsidy scheme had not been in force for a sufficient length of -time to secure through its means the complete fleet required. The War -Department itself owned upwards of one hundred lorries of subsidy -type, and a limited number were to be found in civilian service. Among -these, the Leyland, which was the first type accepted for subsidy, -was probably the most prominent. It has been necessary, therefore, to -depend not only on a supply of machines of subsidy type, but in the -first instance on the requisitioning of other cars of suitable load -capacity, and more lately on the steady purchase of new vehicles of -types which, if not according exactly to the subsidy requirement, -approximate to it sufficiently to secure reasonable facilities for the -easy repair and maintenance of the machines of the transport and supply -columns, both of our existing Expeditionary Force, and also of the new -armies now in course of formation. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -TRANSPORT MOTORS OF CONTINENTAL ARMIES. - - The French Scheme--Notes on French Vehicles--Benzol and Alcohol - Fuels--The German Scheme, Difficulties and Results--Austria, - Italy, and Russia. - - -The French subvention scheme, for reasons already explained, has to be -more comprehensive in its financial clauses than that in force in Great -Britain. Without going into details, it may be summed up in the general -statement that the subsidy paid in respect of a lorry of about 3 tons -capacity aggregates about £300, spread over a period of four years. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -A GERMAN LORRY FITTED FOR REPLENISHING THE SUPPLY OF GAS IN THE -ENVELOPES OF ZEPPELIN AIRSHIPS.] - -The French Government have specialised for many years past in machines -of this and somewhat lighter load-carrying capacity, and more recently -they have made serious and fairly successful efforts to encourage -the employment of powerful vehicles in which the engine power is -arranged to drive all four wheels, and which can be used either as -lorries or as tractors, or as a combination of the two. The genius of -the French motor engineer, in the opinion of the writer, expresses -itself better in the high-speed touring car than in the industrial -vehicle. There are excellent examples of the latter to be found, but -the average quality of the products of well-known manufacturers is -almost certainly not equal to that of corresponding British firms. A -comparison of the relative importance of the two national industries -was possible to those who had opportunities of visiting the Industrial -Vehicle Show in London in 1913, and subsequently of inspecting the -exhibits in the annexe of the Paris Motor Salon later in the same -year. On these occasions, as well as during previous opportunities -of watching French subvention vehicles undergoing trial, the writer -formed the opinion that in many cases the various features of design -in any particular vehicle of French origin are peculiarly unequal. In -some portions of the chassis we find adequate or even unnecessarily -great strength; in others, unduly light construction and a certain -disregard of details making for safety in operation. In many instances -the steering mechanism is unnecessarily exposed, and placed very far -forward so as to be liable to injury in the case of slight collision -or passage over any considerable obstruction. The chain drive is -very popular among French manufacturers. The chains are usually not -protected by cases, and in very many instances an attempt is made to -obtain through the medium of the chain a very large gear reduction, -resulting in the use of absurdly small chain pinions, which will -certainly need frequent renewal under the conditions of rough service. -In some instances again, the chains themselves are too light for -durability. There is also a certain disregard for accessibility of -the engine and clutch, and a tendency to employ pneumatic tyres on -vehicles designed for heavy loads which would be carried with far less -risk of roadside trouble on a rather more substantially constructed -solid-tyred vehicle with a good springing system. - -Admitting that the French Government could not stipulate any degree of -standardisation until they had first obtained a numerically adequate -supply of vehicles, one would have thought it possible at least to do -something towards standardising the driving control. In some French -subvention models, the hand-brake lever is nearer to the driver -than the change-speed lever; in others, the opposite arrangement -is adopted. Frequently, both levers are of equal length and almost -indistinguishable to the touch, which must make it far more dangerous -to put a new driver on to a subsidy car when required urgently for -night work. - -The French subvention trials have been held annually, usually in the -months of August and September, and have not been as a rule of a -very arduous character. While accompanying the competing vehicles, -the writer has been forced to the conclusion that the object of the -authorities was rather to pass for subvention any reasonably efficient -machine, than to weed out a considerable number and depend only on the -most durable. As a rule, during these trials, the competing lorries -are parked at Versailles, from which centre they run out daily over a -limited number of routes, generally of a very easy character so far -as gradients are concerned. An interesting and potentially valuable -feature of the annual French trials has been the compulsory use on -all the cars of a variety of fuels. On some days petrol has been -used, on others benzol, and on others again a half-and-half mixture -of benzol with denatured alcohol, which latter for practical purposes -may be regarded as the same thing as methylated spirits. In this way, -the French Government have endeavoured to make themselves at least -partially independent of any temporary stoppage in the imports of -petrol, though so far as we can see at present no such stoppage is in -the least degree likely during the present war. Benzol can of course be -produced in limited quantities in this country and in France, and if -the emergency arose, the supplies of benzol could be greatly increased -at the expense of simultaneously laying up stocks of other products not -at the moment marketable. - -As regards alcohol, a considerable quantity of beet is grown in -France, from which either sugar or alcohol can be produced. As a -rule, this beet is used mainly for sugar manufacture, since this is -the more profitable method of employing it, but in emergency it could -be utilised for the production of a very fair quantity of commercial -alcohol, thus, roughly speaking, doubling the available stock of -home-produced fuel. - -The results of these tests have been, on the whole, very interesting. -In almost every case, benzol has given better results than petrol, -while the benzol-alcohol mixture has given results in some cases rather -better than petrol, and in other cases not quite so good. On the -average, the mixture has shown itself approximately equal to petrol, -so far as consumption is concerned. By visiting Versailles in the -early hours of September mornings when the temperature was fairly -low, the writer satisfied himself that the use either of benzol or of -the mixture did not constitute any serious difficulty in the way of -starting up the engines. Moreover, the general absence of offensive -smell or smoke seemed to indicate satisfactory combustion of the fuels. - -As to the results of the French subvention scheme, the fact that -the regulations have recently been made more severe, and certain -restrictions as to horse-power, weight, etc., introduced, seems -to indicate that the number of vehicles available at the time of -the outbreak of war must have been at least approaching the number -estimated as required. The last series of trials were only just over -when war broke out. In these trials some sixty vehicles competed, -representative of a considerable variety of makes and types, including -a small number of Colonial lorries of special design, and one or two -tractors. On the whole, the vehicles went through the trials well, and -the opinions of experts who were present were all to the effect that -great improvement was noticeable in mechanical details as compared -with previous years. - -Incidentally, it may be mentioned that the big fleet of the Paris -General Omnibus Co. forms a very useful and conveniently concentrated -supply of substantial cars available either for the rapid carriage -of troops, or--by the substitution or conversion of bodies--for the -transport columns. Numerically, however, the Paris omnibus fleet falls -very far short of that of London, while from the mechanical point of -view the vehicles are of heavier construction, and one would imagine -less easily handled on narrow and winding country roads. - -In Germany, a motor transport subvention scheme was inaugurated in -1908. At that time a limited number of German manufacturers were -producing considerable quantities of heavy motor vehicles, more -especially for export, but it was becoming evident that some very -substantial encouragement would be needed to make the home market -sufficiently active to be of any real utility to the War Office. -Consequently, a scheme was got out which was openly stated to be -“a scheme for popularising the use of mechanical transport,” or, -in other words, a scheme for persuading business houses to adopt a -species of transport which, without Government aid, would represent -an uneconomical and consequently undesirable feature of an industrial -concern. The German Government decided in favour of heavy motor -lorries, capable of carrying 4 tons and hauling an additional 2 tons -on a trailer. These trailers, contrary to usual commercial practice, -are fitted with rubber tyres, since this addition is found to ease the -work of hauling by some 25 to 30 per cent. The total subsidy for a -subvention train consisting of a power lorry and rubber-tyred trailer -amounts to something in the neighbourhood of £450 spread over a period -of five years. The choice of a heavy type of vehicle was probably -justified by the need for limiting the length of the transport columns -destined to accompany enormous armies. At the same time consideration -has evidently shown that there are grave disadvantages to the use of -such heavy cars, and recent regulations have provided more stringent -stipulations as to maximum weight. - -When the subvention scheme had been in operation for five years, -figures were got out indicative of its results up to the end of March, -1913. During this period 825 army trains were subsidised, namely, -743 in Prussia and the other states whose armies are under Prussian -control, and 82 in Bavaria. In addition, some 400 lorries of very -similar types were sold in Germany outside the scheme, making about -1,200 trains available for use at that time. Allowing for increase in -the interval which has since elapsed, we may perhaps put the total -available at the outbreak of war at about 1,600. Captain Davidson -estimates that the German Army requires for transport purposes about -2,000 of its trains, but this figure presumably does not take into -account the needs of the whole of the Landwehr and Landsturm. It is -admitted that the normal British Expeditionary Force requires about -1,000 3-ton vehicles, which would correspond in capacity to about 500 -of the German trains. Consequently, 2,000 of the German trains would -apparently only be about sufficient for an army four times the size -of our Expeditionary Force. Similarly, the estimate that France needs -about 5,000 vehicles of the 3-ton type apparently does not take into -account the complete mobilisation of reserves. - -The manufacturing concerns which have figured most largely in the -German scheme are the German Daimler, the Büssing, the N.A.G., and -the Gaggenau. These four have all been participating in the scheme -from the start, and about ten other manufacturers have more recently -fallen into line, while in Bavaria only three manufacturers have been -building to official requirements. The states the industries of which -have enabled the strongest support to be given to the scheme are -Brandenburg, Saxony, the Rhine Province, Würtemberg, Westphalia, Baden, -and Alsace-Lorraine. No less than 41 per cent. of the total machines -enrolled are normally used in the brewing trade. In this connection, -an official report from Bavaria is rather instructive and amusing: - - “There are so many breweries in Bavaria, and these are so densely - distributed, that there is no need anywhere to convey beer for long - distances. Hence there are practically no vehicles employed.” - -This seriously expressed implication that beer is the only really -essential commodity seems to show that lack of humour which appears to -be a national characteristic of the German race. - -Next after the brewing interests, but far behind in their practical -support of the Government scheme, come concerns engaged in the -transport of goods for export, followed by those concerned in brick -transport, flour manufacture, carriage of building materials, -agricultural work, and haulage of iron and steel goods. - -In endeavouring to estimate how far the existing fleet meets the -requirements of the Germany Army, we have to remember that it consists, -at least partially, of machines that have been in service for several -years, and that consequently may not be equal to any long strain -under peculiarly difficult conditions. It must be presumed that the -German Government has made provision for the continued manufacture of -considerable numbers of heavy motor lorries throughout the war, and -has not permitted the leading motor works engaged in this class of -production to be too far denuded by the mobilisation of their men. - -The Austrian subsidy scheme is along the same lines as that in force -in Germany, but favours a lorry of slightly lower carrying capacity, -probably in view of the mountainous nature of many of the frontier -roads. The total amount of subsidy payable is in the neighbourhood of -£360 spread over a period of five years. The scheme was inaugurated -some time after those of France and Germany, the first trials being -held towards the end of 1911. Certain parts of Austria are well -provided with roads, so that there is a fair field for the commercial -use of motor transport. A large number of vehicles, not of subsidy -type, but no doubt capable of being made useful for light work in time -of war, are used for the carriage of mails in Hungary. In the Austrian -Tyrol, there are numbers of motor services for the carriage of mails -and passengers, but on the whole Austria is probably not very well -provided with mechanical transport. Her manufacturing industry is -limited, and she imports in fair numbers from her neighbour, Germany. - -Italy can only find very small use for heavy motor vehicles in -commercial service, and consequently it would be futile as yet for -the Government to depend upon anything in the nature of a subsidy -scheme. During the Tripoli campaign, a considerable number of rather -lightly built lorries were obtained by direct purchase and proved very -serviceable. Probably they are not of a type which would be by any -means ideal in a European war, though they were doubtless the right -thing for work over loose sandy tracks where heavier machines might -well have become inoperative. - -Russia also has no subsidy scheme on account of its comparatively -poor industrial development, and also the very inadequate quantity -and quality of its roads. For such vehicles as are used, the country -is dependent upon import, while the army must depend solely on direct -purchase from foreign manufacturers. It is rather interesting to note -that out of about 2,000 industrial motor vehicles exported by Germany -during the year 1913, no less than 25 per cent. went to Russia, -practically the whole of these being known to represent Government -orders. Russia has been buying motor lorries for military use from -British firms for many years past. An engineer who accompanied one of -the first vehicles supplied from this country, describes the roads over -which the car had to work during its official trials as follows: - - “The road was covered with fine sand, banked up a few feet above - the level of the surrounding country, in which the wheels of - peasants’ carts had cut ruts about 12 ins. to 14 ins. in depth. The - gauge of these ruts being narrow, it was necessary to drive with - one pair of wheels in the ruts, the other pair meanwhile cutting - ruts of their own. At intervals planked bridges had to be crossed. - These were old and unsafe; therefore, it became necessary to lay - down a temporary track of boards to distribute the weight over as - many planks as possible.” - -At first sight it would appear that under such conditions the purchase -of motor lorries by the Russian Government represents a waste of money, -but the facts are explained by a credible story circulated within a few -days of the outbreak of war to the effect that the Austrian military -attaché a day or so before leaving Petrograd expressed surprise that -so many motors were being mobilised. “Your roads are so bad,” he said. -“Yes,” was the reply, “but yours are good.” - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -EMERGENCY MEASURES ON THE OUTBREAK OF WAR - - The Work of the Chief Motoring Organisations--The Requisitioning - of Vehicles by the War Department--Arrangements for subsequent - Supplies. - - -A noteworthy feature in connection with the mobilisation of the British -Army on the outbreak of war was the energy with which the great -motoring organisations took up the duties of rendering the private -motorist, so far as might be possible, available for the service of -the Government. The Royal Automobile Club sent out a circular letter -to some sixty provincial Automobile Clubs affiliated to the parent -body, asking that their members owning motor cars should be requested -immediately to register them with the R.A.C. for the use of the War -Office and Admiralty, in case they should be wanted. This scheme was -simultaneously furthered by means of advertisements in the principal -organs of the London and provincial press, and posters were placed in -all the Club’s officially appointed hotels and garages throughout the -Kingdom. Registration forms asking for particulars of cars, and an -indication of the nature of the service for which they would be made -available, were rapidly prepared and widely distributed with admirable -results. These machines were placed at the disposal of the War Office -and Admiralty both for home and for foreign service, and in many cases -their owners made their own services available for facilitating or -accelerating the urgent business of the country by providing officials -with a ready means of rapid transit. - -In addition, the Club kept in constant communication with the British -Red Cross Society, and has put at the disposal of this Society -the use of the R.A.C. annexe at 83, Pall Mall, for office, store -and organisation purposes. As the need for the provision of motor -ambulances for foreign service became urgent, the Club gave invaluable -assistance to the Society by keeping up a constant flow of cars -unreservedly given or lent by their owners. Cars have been supplied -for this and other purposes through the R.A.C. organisation from -practically every county in England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. All -members and associates of the Club have been asked to assist the work -of recruiting by carrying on their cars cards urging prompt enlistment. - -The Automobile Association and Motor Union was equally energetic and -prompt. The Association immediately conveyed to the War Department an -offer to help the Government to the fullest extent of its resources, -and upon the acceptance of this proposal communicated at once with -its 92,000 members--owners of cars, light cars, cycle-cars and motor -cycles--inviting them to volunteer their services, and to that end to -forward the fullest possible particulars. The response to this appeal -resulted in the enrolment of the names of about 20,000 motor owners, -and within a few days large numbers of these were being utilised not -only by the War Office, but by municipal and other bodies all over -the country. The earliest mobilisation took place on the Doncaster -race-course, where about 150 cars assembled in a few hours in response -to telegrams. This fleet remained concentrated for some days, but -the eventuality against which it was intended to provide did not -materialise. Large numbers of the A.A. members were employed during the -first two or three weeks of the war to guard telephone and telegraph -lines and cables, until permanent arrangements could be made for this -service. Hundreds of motor cycle and car members undertook long spells -of duty by day or night under the supervision of the post office -officials. - -In connection with the conveyance of wounded, the Association placed -fleets of cars at the disposal of the chief military centres throughout -the country, its members holding themselves in readiness to go out at -any hour during the day or night, to carry wounded from the railway -stations to the hospitals. In a considerable number of cases, the -motorists so employed undertook, at their own expense, to convert their -cars into ambulances, and a large number of machines so transformed -were sent across the channel to work behind the firing line. Vehicles -were also forthcoming in plentiful numbers to meet refugees, and -take them to their temporary homes. Hundreds of motor cycle members -volunteered for dispatch-carrying work, and the committees of the -National Service League and other recruiting bodies in all parts of -the country were supported by cars, light cars, and motor cycles with -side cars, ready to pick up recruits and convey them to the enlisting -depôts. At normal times, the Association employs on the main roads -of the country over 500 road patrols, whose duties involve continual -cycling over their appointed beats from daybreak until dark. These men -were evidently ideal recruits for the cyclists’ battalions required -for scouting work. Over 250 of them enlisted in various regiments, or -rejoined their old regiments, while a picked body, over 100 strong, -was formed into the first two companies of the 8th Essex (Cyclist) -Battalion, under the command of the Secretary of the Association, -Captain Stenson Cooke, who was formerly a member of the London Rifle -Brigade. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -ONE OF A FLEET OF “MAUDSLAY” MOTOR BUSES COMMANDEERED BY THE WAR -DEPARTMENT, AND FITTED WITH LORRY BODIES.] - -The Commercial Motor Users’ Association undertook the enrolment of -men competent to serve as motor transport drivers, and also formed -on behalf of its own members a kind of transport exchange. A similar -scheme on rather broader lines was handled by the Imperial Motor -Transport Council, the idea being that while some business concerns -would experience difficulties in effecting deliveries owing to their -horses being requisitioned, others--owing to the disorganisation of -trade--would have suitable facilities standing idle. In that event -considerable trouble might be saved by bringing into existence some -machinery capable of establishing contact between the two groups. - -The Council also undertook work in assistance of the Motor Ambulance -Department of the British Red Cross Society, and circularised its -oversea members with a view to assisting the maintenance of British -export trade in motor vehicles. - -At the outbreak of war, steps were immediately taken by the War -Department to secure for service all the motor lorries of subvention -type working for commercial houses. These not being numerically -sufficient for the whole needs of the army, several thousand other -motor lorries of approximately the same carrying capacity, but of -varying types, were requisitioned somewhat hastily. The quality of -the fleets thus formed was variable, even though a process of weeding -out at the ports of embarkation did something towards securing -uniformity. In the same way the urgent need of employing many thousands -of transport drivers naturally led to the enlistment of men of -varying capabilities. Drivers handling lorries or ’buses are in some -instances required to be fairly capable mechanics. In others, any -interference with the mechanism of their machines is discouraged, and -they are taught to be entirely dependent on the mechanical staff at -their headquarters. Such men, while thoroughly skilled in handling a -vehicle, are not really fully qualified for the business of a motor -transport driver in active service. - -Very considerable numbers of London motor omnibuses were taken off the -streets and converted into ambulances or lorries, and similar vehicles -have also been used for the transport of troops and other purposes. - -As soon as matters had had a little time in which to settle down, it -became apparent that the Government did not intend to rely on the -system of requisitioning to make up the wastage of their fleet in -service, or to provide transport for Indian and Colonial troops, or for -the new armies in course of formation. For this purpose large regular -orders were placed with many of the leading manufacturers, and in some -instances these orders amounted to taking over practically the entire -output. No exact figures are available as to the rate at which, during -the early stages of the war, the Government took delivery of new motor -lorries, but there is little doubt that the weekly supply ran into -three figures, and that a continuance of very substantial orders will -be necessary right up to the conclusion of hostilities. - -In European countries, the comparative shortage of industrial -motor vehicles rendered necessary a more wholesale programme of -requisitioning. Thus, for example, Paris was promptly denuded of the -whole of its fleet of motor omnibuses, about 1,100 in number. A few -years ago, the old double-deck type of motor omnibus, at one time used -in Paris, was discarded in favour of a long-bodied single-decker, -capable of carrying up to about forty passengers. These machines are -so designed to the requirement of the Government as to be capable of -being transformed rapidly into waggons for the carriage of meat. The -windows are replaced by wire-gauze screens, the seats removed and the -handrails fitted with hooks. Alternatively, the ’buses can be equally -easily adapted for the carriage of wounded, by simple fittings from -which stretchers or hammocks can be slung. - -[Illustration: _“The Autocar” photograph._ - -A LARGE NUMBER OF DAIMLER LORRIES HAVE BEEN TAKEN OVER BY THE MILITARY -AUTHORITIES. THE EXAMPLE SHOWN IS FITTED WITH A SHIELD CONTAINING A -SHEET OF TRIPLEX GLASS WHICH WILL STOP A RIFLE BULLED AT 100 YARDS.] - -During mobilisation, numbers of motor vehicles were employed in -France to transport troops, and, moreover, those of the Paris ’bus -type are of undoubted utility for this purpose whenever it may become -necessary to transfer moderately large bodies of men rapidly from one -point to another, where convenient railway communication does not exist. - -All the Continental countries involved in the war made strict provision -against the export of motor vehicles of any kind, while even in Great -Britain an order was, for a period, in force, prohibiting the export -of heavy industrial vehicles. It was, in fact, realised in advance in -all quarters that a war of such magnitude and involving the employment -of such huge numbers of men, could not conceivably be fought along the -lines anticipated and subsequently realised, unless full dependence -were placed upon motor transport in the first case for the provision -of food supplies, and as a corollary for a similar service of warlike -stores, for the carriage of wounded, for scouting, and for enabling -commanders and staff officers to travel with sufficient rapidity -and freedom to make it possible for them to realise with sufficient -accuracy the essential facts with which they were called upon to deal. - - -_Wyman & Sons Ltd., Printers, London and Reading._ - - - - -TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES: - - Text in italics is surrounded by underscores: _italics_. - - Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized. - - Archaic spelling that may have been in use at the time of publication - has been retained. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Motor Transports in War, by Horace Wyatt - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOTOR TRANSPORTS IN WAR *** - -***** This file should be named 56323-0.txt or 56323-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/3/2/56323/ - -Produced by Brian Coe, David E. 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