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diff --git a/old/56321-0.txt b/old/56321-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 519281c..0000000 --- a/old/56321-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11243 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Tour Through South America, by -A. S. (Archibald Stevenson) Forrest - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A Tour Through South America - -Author: A. S. (Archibald Stevenson) Forrest - -Release Date: January 6, 2018 [EBook #56321] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TOUR THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - A TOUR THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA - - [Illustration: CARTAGENA] - - - - - A TOUR THROUGH - SOUTH AMERICA - - :: BY A. S. FORREST :: - - [Illustration] - - WITH 145 ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR - - LONDON: STANLEY PAUL & CO. - 31 ESSEX STREET, STRAND, W.C. - - - _First published in 1913_ - - - THIS BOOK IS BY KIND PERMISSION - DEDICATED TO - SIR OWEN PHILIPPS, K.C.M.G. - TO WHOSE NAME NO TRAVELLER TO SOUTH AMERICA - NEEDS INTRODUCTION - THE AUTHOR FEELS THAT THIS SLIGHT TRIBUTE - IS DUE TO ONE WHO HAS DONE AND IS - STILL DOING MUCH TO LINK UP - THE OLD WORLD WITH THE VAST TERRITORIES - DEALT WITH IN THE ENSUING PAGES - - - - -CONTENTS - - -CHAPTER PAGE - - I. EARLY ADVENTURERS AND DISCOVERIES 17 - - II. THE SIGHTING OF THE PACIFIC 26 - - III. THE BUCCANEERS 34 - - IV. ON THE WAY TO THE SOUTHERN CONTINENT 48 - - V. OF THE LABOURERS ON THE ISTHMUS 60 - - VI. CANAL PROJECTS: OLD AND NEW 72 - - VII. PANAMA 97 - - VIII. THE PANAMANIANS 104 - - IX. COLOMBIA AND CARTAGENA 117 - - X. ECUADOR 127 - - XI. “THE CITY OF THE KINGS” 131 - - XII. PERU--“THE COUNTRY OF MARVELS” 138 - - XIII. “THE GATEWAY TO AN IMPRISONED LAND” 149 - - XIV. “THE LAND OF NITRATES” 157 - - XV. ARGENTINA 167 - - XVI. THE CAMP 180 - - XVII. A LIVE INDUSTRY 197 - - XVIII. ON THE ROAD TO PARAGUAY 208 - - XIX. ASUNCION 226 - - XX. A SOUTH AMERICAN DICTATOR 240 - - XXI. MORE MODERN TIMES IN PARAGUAY 244 - - XXII. A GLANCE AT BRAZILIAN HISTORY 249 - - XXIII. “A CITY OF PARADISE” 263 - - XXIV. VIANNA 278 - - XXV. SOME EXCURSIONS FROM RIO 286 - - XXVI. SÃO PAULO 299 - - XXVII. A SOURCE OF LIGHT AND POWER 319 - -XXVIII. COFFEE 327 - - XXIX. THE FOREST 338 - -INDEX 351 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - -Cartagena _Frontispiece_ - - PAGE - -An Old Map of the Isthmus 16 - -“Caribs” in Terra Firma 19 - -Gold Nose Ring 21 - -Ancient Gold Nose Ring 21 - -“A Dream in Living Bronze is She.”--A native of the Isthmus of -Darien 23 - -Ancient Indian Pottery found in the Graves on the Isthmus 24 - -Pottery from the Graves in Chirique 27 - -The Pacific, from a Peak in Darien 29 - -Huts near the Ancient City of Panama 31 - -The Pirate “L’Ollonois” 35 - -Sir Henry Morgan.--From an old print 37 - -Fort Lorenzo 39 - -Old Sentry Tower on the Chagres River 41 - -The Old Church Tower, Old Panama 46 - -The Ramparts, Fort Lorenzo 47 - -Old Wharves, Colon 49 - -A Family Party, Colon 51 - -A Camp at Balboa 53 - -The First Labour Camp, Gatum 56 - -The Old Church on the Island of Tobago, off Panama 58 - -A Labour Camp (Evening), Canal Zone 61 - -A Toilet on the Zone 65 - -A Street in the Old Quarters, Panama 69 - -Water-babies by a River-side 70 - -An Old Church and Buildings, Panama 73 - -A Stretch of the Chagres River 77 - -Interior of a Shack on the Isthmus 79 - -The Old Panama Railway Track 81 - -Jamaican Labourer on the Zone 84 - -Barbadian Labourer on the Zone 85 - -Map of Republic of Panama 89 - -The Church at Chagres 92 - -Outside a Church on Christmas Eve, Panama 98 - -The Flat Arch of St. Dominic 100 - -Old Houses on the Sea Wall, Panama 102 - -Panama from Ancon 105 - -A Bit of the Old Town 108 - -The Plaza, Panama 110 - -An Interior, Cartagena 112 - -In the Market, Panama 116 - -A Colombian Mother 118 - -A Colombian Village 122 - -On the Banks of the Magdalena River 124 - -Map of Peru and Bolivia 126 - -A Dwelling by a River-side, Ecuador 129 - -A Peruvian Girl 133 - -The Cathedral, Lima 135 - -A Milkmaid, Lima 136 - -The Arid Coast of Peru 139 - -A Llama in Gold, made by the Incas 141 - -Inca Portraiture on a piece of Old Pottery 143 - -A Reduced Human Head 145 - -An Inca Mask in Gold 147 - -Pre-Inca Monoliths in Bolivia 148 - -A Fruit-Stall at Mollendo 150 - -The Jesuit Church on the Site of the Inca “Temple of the Sun” 152 - -A Bolivian Woman 153 - -Sailing on Lake Titicaca 154 - -Balsas on Lake Titicaca 155 - -A Chilian Farmer 158 - -An Araucanian Family 159 - -An Araucanian Indian 161 - -Araucanian Girls 163 - -On the Guano Deposits 165 - -Map of Argentine 169 - -The Lemon-shaped Dome of the Capital 171 - -Desolation 173 - -Landscape near Mendoza 175 - -The Bridge of the Inca 176 - -Crossing the Hills 177 - -A Glimpse of Aconcagua 178 - -Travellers by a River-side 179 - -Chasing Rheas 181 - -A “Pulperia” 184 - -Morning: Going to Work 186 - -Evening 187 - -Pegging out Hides 189 - -An “Estancia” 191 - -Gaucho Preparing a Meal 193 - -A Gaucho 195 - -The Lonely Camp 196 - -A Prize Hereford Bull 199 - -Colon 201 - -The Village of Frey Bentos 204 - -On the Parana 208 - -Frey Bentos 209 - -A Paraguayan Lady 211 - -Shepherds and Cowboys, Corrientes 215 - -Igeasu Falls on the Alto Parana 217 - -Old Houses in Corrientes 218 - -A “Posada,” Corrientes 219 - -Sharp’s Map of South America 221 - -Travellers on the Steamer 223 - -The Custom-house, Asuncion 227 - -The Dome of the Oratoire de Lopez 230 - -A Street in Asuncion 233 - -Paraguayan Savages 235 - -Crossing the Paraguay 238 - -A Paraguayan Gentleman 245 - -Map of Brazil 250 - -Beauties at Pernambuco 252 - -Near Rio 253 - -The Railway up to Corcovada 256 - -Coming down from Corcovada 257 - -The Church of the Candeliera, Rio 259 - -The Falls of Tombos in the State of Rio 262 - -Entrance to Rio Harbour 264 - -The Summit of Corcovada, Rio 266 - -“The Silent Bay” 267 - -A Suburban Street, Rio 269 - -Avenida Beira-Mar, Rio 271 - -The Sugar-Loaf by Night, Rio 273 - -A Bit of Rio Harbour 274 - -The Gavea, Rio 275 - -The Botanical Gardens 277 - -End of Santa Cruz 279 - -An Old Church near Rio 280 - -The Shore, Santa Cruz 281 - -Santa Cruz 282 - -Santa Cruz 283 - -Santa Cruz 285 - -At the Back of the Organ Mountains 287 - -A Road amongst the Hills, Petropolis 288 - -The Square of Tiradentes, Ouro Preto 289 - -Near the San Francisco River 290 - -Above the Falls at Tombos.--The Carangola River about 4300 miles -from Rio 291 - -Waterfall near Matilde, on the Line to Victoria Espirito Santo 292 - -The Rapids at Pirapora, on San Francisco River 293 - -Old Houses, Bahia 294 - -The Baras de Aquino.--The curious winding track of the Leopoldina -Railway 296 - -The Railway over the Confluence of the Paquequr and Parahyba Rivers 297 - -The Road to São Paulo from Rio 301 - -The Approach to Santos 303 - -Government Buildings in the Largo de Palacio 305 - -The National Museum at Ypiranga 307 - -The Theatre of S. Paulo 309 - -The Penteado Technical College 311 - -The Villa Penteado 312 - -Officers of the São Paulo Army 314 - -A Waterfall near São Paulo 315 - -The Wharves of Santos 316 - -The Docks of Santos 317 - -The Power Station 321 - -The Falls of Parnahyba 325 - -A Fazenda 329 - -A Coffee Fazendiero 331 - -Colonists’ Houses at Martino Prado 333 - -The Prado Mansion House, São Paulo 336 - -Harvey 341 - -Sebastian 347 - - - - -FOREWORD - - -The artist or the writer who visits South America to-day finds it as a -diamond of a hundred facets, and his main difficulty is to select those -points upon which to concentrate his gaze. So vast is the subject, so -full of romance, glamour, pulsating life, and world possibilities that -not one book but many must be written upon it before the reader can form -the barest idea of the well-nigh illimitable nature of the theme. Hence -an author who offers any contribution to so vast a study has no need to -excuse himself for his apparent temerity, provided he sets on record -some new point of view or chronicles his impressions of paths not too -well known. - -Even if he fails in either or both these aims his work is justified if -it contains individual conceptions of the myriad wonders which the -continent discloses to the seeing eye. For this far-reaching stretch of -earth is the last to be really explored and civilised by Western man. -Compared with many portions of it, the forests of Central Africa, the -plateaus of Middle Asia, and the deserts of Australia, are as open -books. It is only South America to-day, or, to be more correct, a great -part of it that is “a field enclosed, a fountain sealed.” - -Consequently any contribution which aims at familiarising stay-at-home -folk with the marvellous cities, the impressive scenery, the rich -products, and the limitless resources of this mighty territory has -surely a title to consideration. - -The present writer claims to be neither an explorer nor a political -theorist, nor, although profoundly impressed with the magnificence of -South America’s destiny, has he attempted to forecast the lines along -which that destiny will shape itself. - -His aim has been far less ambitious, much more simple. Whatever he saw -in the country or amongst the people that interested him he has -endeavoured to transcribe with interest for the benefit of others. Even -so he submits that the ensuing pages will give the general reader a fair -conspectus of the rise and development of South America from those -far-off days when it was discovered, subjugated, and colonised by -Spanish and Portuguese conquistadores to the present day, where a dozen -independent Republics have their seats of government in cities where -once the flags of the conquerors waved. - -The history of each State has been lightly touched upon and space has -been devoted to a consideration of the men of light and leading who have -helped to direct the fortunes of the continent from the earliest -beginnings of its modern history. The romantic adventures of Pizarro are -told in one chapter; in another the exploits of the sinister Dr. Francia -of Paraguay are recorded; and the reader will not set down the book -until he has learned what General O’Higgins and Lord Cochrane did for -the independence of Chili, and how San Martin, the Galahad of South -America, laid as though on a rock the foundations of that thriving State -now known as the Argentine Republic. Moreover, the part played by Simon -Bolivar in liberating the northern half of the continent from the -Spanish yoke is, the writer trusts, set forth with a due sense of -proportion. - -Mighty men these, and more or less so because their dramas were enacted -on a remote stage of the world-theatre. - -But, like the age of chivalry, the days of romance have passed and the -author has deemed it a necessary part of his scheme to deal with more -prosaic matters, things which impress the work-a-day world quite as much -as the sanguinary progresses of Spanish conquerors and the marvellous -civilisation of the Peruvian Incas. Something will be found in the book -concerning many of the resources of the country. - -The imminent opening to universal traffic of the Panama Canal arrests -the attention of the entire civilised world. It has been the lot of the -author to spend a longer time on the Zone than is generally done by -persons not connected with the undertaking. Consequently he has had -abundant opportunities of studying, at first hand, not only its -constructive arts but also the character of the people living on the -isthmus. - -His impressions are embodied in the early chapters of the volume. - -The completion of this great waterway will make much of this enchanted -land as easy of access to us moderns as it was difficult to those old -Spanish mariners who dreamed that they were voyaging to an actual El -Dorado or to the fabled land of Ophir. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - A TOUR THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA - - - - -CHAPTER I - -_Early Adventurers and Discoveries_ - - -The history of the Isthmus of Panama, which was the point of departure -for the whole of those notable conquests which placed nearly all South -America under the heel of Spain, began with its discovery by Alonzo de -Ojeda in 1499. - -The great name of Columbus figures prominently in this period, for in -the course of his fourth voyage he spent much time in sailing backwards -and forwards from east to west along the coast of Terra Firma in a vain -search for a passage through which his ships might pass to the land of -the Grand Khan. - -But it was not ordained that the great navigator should add this laurel -to his crown, albeit his enterprise made the way easier for those who -were to follow. - -Baffled by contrary winds and other adverse factors he had eventually to -retire from what in his chagrin he termed “the Coast of Contradictions” -and return to Spain, never to sail from its ports again. - -The reports of Columbus as to the plentifulness of gold in the region of -the isthmus sent many other adventurous mariners and captains to the -Spanish Main, and soon the history of the time resolved itself into -intrigues, jealousies, and savage conflicts between the Indians and the -intruders, the latter enduring all kinds of privations in the hope of -reaching that rumoured land which overflowed with gold. Dramatic -developments began to ensue under an expedition which set out from -Hispaniola under the leadership of Enciso, a wealthy notary. On board -the ship in which he embarked was a mysterious barrel sent from a farm -situated on the seashore, and no sooner was the vessel well out to sea -than there emerged from this cask a tall muscular man in the prime of -life. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who had devised this means of escaping from -his creditors, proved in the end to be a valuable addition to the -expedition, though the commander’s first impulse and threat was to -maroon the stowaway on the first uninhabited island they might come -across. They landed at Cartagena and were menaced by the natives, who -hovered around them, doubtless remembering previous invasions and the -outrages they had suffered. By pacific measures, however, the newcomers -conciliated the Indians, at whose hands they then received valuable -assistance and supplies of such provisions as the country had to offer. -Balboa soon assumed a prominence in the discussions and deliberations of -the expedition. He recommended strongly the attractions of an Indian -village which he had come across when sailing some years before with -Bastides. It lay upon the banks of a river called Darien, and the -country all around was not only fertile, but abounded in gold, whilst -the natives, although warlike, never made use of the dreaded poisoned -arrow. With such enthusiasm did Balboa urge the claims of this region -that Enciso determined to follow his advice, and they set sail thither -and arrived and founded the town or city of Santa Maria de la Antigua -del Darien. The natives of the existing village they put to the sword, -having robbed them of all the golden ornaments they wore and the food -supplies collected in their huts. - -Enciso immediately entered upon his duties as alcalde and lieutenant of -the absent Governor Ojeda, but discontent soon broke out amongst the -men, who, hoping for rich gains, had begun to get alarmed at the -attitude Enciso took with regard to the golden treasure they had -captured. Balboa’s chance had now come, and, taking advantage of this -discontent, he sought to gather around him a faction strong enough to -dethrone Enciso from his position of command, recollecting doubtless the -latter’s threat to maroon him and availing himself of this opportunity -for revenge. The legal aspect of the case aided in upsetting the -pretensions of Enciso to rule on a territory which lay on the west side -of the Gulf of Darien, for by the royal command it was clearly under the -jurisdiction of Nicuesa, a rival adventurer. - -[Illustration: “CARIBS” IN TERRA FIRMA.] - -The deposition of Enciso was accomplished, and Balboa and one Tzemudio -were appointed alcaldes by the colony with a cavalier named Valdivia as -Regidor. This arrangement, however, was not satisfactory, the general -opinion being that the sole authority should be vested in one -individual, and it was while the dispute concerning this matter was -going on that two ships arrived commanded by Colmenares who, with -provisions, was in search of Nicuesa. This man claimed that Nicuesa was -the legitimate governor of the province, and that, in his absence, he, -Colmenares, was the proper person to command. Balboa could hardly -controvert this, and his authority having been acknowledged, Colmenares -set out along the coast in pursuance of his search for the missing -governor, whom he found at Nombre de Dios. - -There ensued a long duel between Balboa and Nicuesa for the supreme -authority, and eventually the former won, Nicuesa being placed on a -wretched vessel and driven out to sea, nothing further ever being heard -of him or his crew. - -The rival claims of Enciso and Balboa for the vacant governorship of the -community led to its division into two factions, and the high favour in -which Balboa was held by the majority was such that, unable with all his -eloquence to prevail against him, the erudite and skilful Enciso was -put into prison and his property confiscated, after a trial which had -but the merest semblance of legality, on a charge of having usurped the -office of alcalde in a territory which did not come under his -jurisdiction. - -When at length, through the intercession of his friends, he regained his -liberty he received permission to return to Spain. Balboa took the -precaution of sending in the same vessel one of his most intimate -followers, to prevent the deposed Enciso from gaining too much sympathy -at court, and to answer the charges which would doubtless be preferred -by him. Further, Balboa sent a handsome present in gold to the royal -treasurer of Hispaniola to impress him with the richness of the new -country and obtain what he knew to be a powerful influence with the -King. - -After the departure of the _caravel_ with his predecessor on board, -Balboa set about organising an expedition into the interior, to discover -and obtain as much of the precious metal as he could, for he wisely -foresaw that if he provided the royal treasury at home with an abundance -of the much-coveted gold, any irregularities in his late proceedings -would be overlooked by the avaricious Ferdinand. - -He sent Pizarro and a band on one such errand into a province called -Coyba, but on their setting out they were assailed by the Indians of -Darien led by their native lord or cacique, Zemaco, and after a fierce -encounter the Spaniards were forced to retreat. Balboa despatched two -vessels to Nombre de Dios to bring away the remnant of Nicuesa’s -followers who had been left there. While coasting the shores of the -isthmus these vessels picked up two Spaniards, painted like the Indians -with whom they had been living. These men had been well treated by -Careta the cacique of Coyba and repaid his kindness by instigating their -countrymen to attack this friendly native and rob him of his wealth and -treasure. They carried back to Balboa the news of their discovery at -Careta, and he, pleased with the intelligence, set out with a strongly -armed force to carry out this base design. On his arrival the -unsuspecting chief received him with all the hospitality his savage -customs could supply, but even this was not sufficient to deter Balboa -from using strategy to overcome resistance and plunder the village, -making captives of Careta, his wives and children and many of his -people, and taking them back as prisoners to Santa Maria. - -The poor outraged chieftain pleaded with his captor to be released, -offering to become his ally and show him the realms where gold and -riches abounded, and as a pledge of his good faith to give his daughter -as a wife to the Spanish Governor, who, seeing all the advantages that -would accrue from the friendship of the natives, and not unmoved by the -youth and beauty of the proffered wife, accepted the alliance. After -impressing his new allies with the power of the Spanish armaments, and -astonishing them with the sight of the war horses which were strange to -them, he allowed them to depart loaded with presents, but leaving the -chief’s daughter, who willingly remained as the so-called wife of the -future discoverer of the Pacific. - -[Illustration: GOLD NOSE RING.] - -[Illustration: ANCIENT GOLD NOSE RING.] - -Balboa, with eighty men, once more made his way to Coyba and assisted -Careta in invading the territories of one of his enemies, who were -compelled to retreat and take shelter in the mountain fastnesses. -Continuing their invasion, the combined forces ravaged the lands, sacked -villages, putting the inhabitants to the sword and securing much booty. -They then visited the province of another cacique, Comagre by name, who -was indeed one of the most formidable in the whole country, having at -his command three thousand fighting men, and living in what was for -these parts a very palace, built of stone and wood and containing many -apartments. There was in this palace a great hall in which the chieftain -preserved the bodies of his ancestors, dried by fire and wrapped in -mantles of cotton richly wrought and interwoven with pearls and jewels -of gold. Among the sons of this cacique was one who was of a lofty and -generous spirit and superior sagacity. He it was who struck the scales -and scattered the gold which the Spaniards were weighing out and -quarrelling over. Disdainful and disgusted at their sordid spirit, he -asked them why they quarrelled over such a trifle, and said that, from -the lofty hills in front of them, he would show them a mighty sea -navigated by people who had vessels almost as large as their own, adding -that on the shores of this great sea dwelt kings who ate and drank out -of golden vessels, and ruled over lands in which gold was as plentiful -as iron was amongst the Spaniards. - -Imagine the eagerness with which Balboa plied this youthful Indian with -questions regarding the means of arriving at such opulent regions, and -how his imagination must have been stirred at the intimation of the sea -he was shortly to discover. - -The difficulties to be overcome, the fierce resistance which he was -assured would be offered to his advance through the country he must -traverse, only stimulated his ambition to be the first to sail upon the -unknown sea. Henceforward all his plans were laid with the one idea of -reaching it, and he sent off envoys in great haste to Hispaniola laden -with much of the treasure he had already obtained, hoping thus to arouse -the interest of his King to such a pitch that he should be furnished -with a sufficient force of arms and men to enable him to accomplish a -mighty discovery. As some time would elapse before an answer to his -request could reach him, Balboa with his followers made incursions into -the country round their settlement, exploring the river and its -tributaries, but always meeting with a steady opposition from the -natives. - -Of the hundreds of adventures they must here have met with history -records but few, and although they discovered much booty and captured -many slaves, they also lost much in their endeavours to transport it to -their capital. - -Many of the natives lived in huts built like nests in the branches of -the trees and reached by ladders, which the inmates drew up at night or -when suddenly attacked. These arboreal homes, built of light woodwork -and thatched with leaves, were many of them large enough to hold -good-sized families, and when other means of overcoming these -nest-dwellers failed, the Spaniards would compel them to descend by -threatening to fell the trees or set fire to them. And this all for -gold. Gold was the object of their search, and no cruelty was too great -for them to inflict on any who kept them from their booty. One golden -temple, whose renown had reached them, was for many years to come the -object of a restless enterprise on the part of the Spaniards. Hundreds -of lives were lost in search of it, but never was its whereabouts -discovered, clans and tribes joining in confederacy to resist the -advances of their enemies. - -[Illustration: “A DREAM IN LIVING BRONZE IS SHE.” - -A native of the Isthmus of Darien.] - -Balboa at last constructed a fortress round the town to resist the -attacks of and guard against surprise by his wily enemies. Weary of -waiting for the reinforcements he had sent for, his followers grew -impatient, and anxious and distressed at the non-arrival of help, he -determined to go in person back to Spain and urge his claims for -assistance to accomplish what he now looked upon as his mission. His -followers, however, dissuaded him from leaving them in what was still a -dangerous position, for they relied upon their leader to counsel and -protect them. Other envoys were found and despatched with letters full -of enthusiastic accounts of the wealth of the country, a portion of the -gold obtained being also sent, each man giving some of his private hoard -to swell the general amount. Surely the King on receiving this evidence -of the wealth and resources of his new possessions would not fail to -furnish means of extending and developing them. - -It was while awaiting the issue of this second mission that the weary -and discontented colony of adventurers grew troublesome, and it required -all the resourceful ingenuity and sagacity of Balboa to prevent civil -war from breaking out. Order had hardly been re-established when two -ships arrived from Hispaniola with supplies and men and a commission for -Balboa, which although not from the source of royal power itself at -least gave a semblance of legal status to his governorship, coming as it -did from the hands of the King’s treasurer, Miguel de Pasamonte, to whom -the present sent had proved acceptable. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT INDIAN POTTERY FOUND IN THE GRAVES ON THE -ISTHMUS.] - -These were the events which led up to the great discovery, and Balboa -was just congratulating himself on the security of his position and the -hopefulness of his prospects when he received news from the colleague he -had sent home that Enciso had succeeded in arousing the King’s -resentment and indignation against Balboa, who was shortly to be -summoned back to Spain to answer most serious charges on account of his -harsh treatment of Nicuesa. The only comfort left to Balboa was the fact -that the information he now received was private and that no definite -order had yet reached him from the King. Desperate as he felt the -enterprise to be without reinforcements, he yet determined to risk all -upon the venture of crossing the isthmus before the King’s commands -could reach him. Choosing one hundred and ninety of the most reckless -and daring of the wild adventurers that composed his colony, and arming -them in such a manner as he thought fitting for the occasion, taking -with him several of the Darien Indians whom he won to his side by -kindness, and a number of dogs, amongst them his famous hound Leonico, -he set out on this perilous undertaking. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -_The Sighting of the Pacific_ - - -With his wild crew Balboa sailed from Santa Maria up the coast to Coyba, -where he left half his men to guard the brigantine and canoes, and -started out, after offering up fervent prayers to God to grant him -success in his mission. Through a country which might have caused dismay -to the boldest of adventurers, struggling through pathless bush which -seemed almost impenetrable, over steep rocks with the sun blazing down -upon them, encumbered with their heavy armour, and with supplies for -only two days, they pushed their way, until they reached a forsaken -Indian village, where almost overcome by their exertions they were -compelled to rest for a time. Many of the band had fallen sick, and -after recovering somewhat, were compelled to return to the boats. Fresh -guides had to be procured who knew the country through which they were -now to pass, and on the twentieth of September, 1513, they started off -again through a country covered with a dense growth of forest, streams -and water-courses often barring their path. - -So slow was their progress that it took four days to go ten leagues. -Hunger and thirst consumed them, but they kept on, until they arrived in -the province of a warlike cacique who contested their progress. But when -the Indians found their companions falling around them, shot down by the -fire-arms of the invaders, they were terrified. Guns were new to them; -in their ignorance they looked upon them as strange demons who threw out -fire and thunder, and when the dogs were loosened on them they turned -and fled. Many were overtaken and torn to pieces by the half-famished -hounds, others were cut down by the sword, till over six hundred lay -dead upon the field. - -The conquerors marched into the village and gathered their spoil, gold -and jewels, rested themselves from fatigue and tended - -[Illustration: POTTERY FROM THE GRAVES IN CHIRIQUE.] - -their wounded. The village lay at the foot of a high mountain, and on -the following morning, conducted by guides selected from among the -prisoners, Balboa leaving his wounded behind him, started the ascent, -with his remaining followers. When they had nearly reached the summit -the leader gave orders to his men to halt, and forbade any man to stir. -Then all alone he climbed and reached the topmost peak, from whence he -was able to discern the ocean he had passed through such trials to -behold. Often during the long and tedious journey doubts must have -passed through his mind regarding the existence of the sea now lying in -front of him, but all the strange tales and rumours which for years had -been whispered amongst mariners were, after all, true, and he was the -first European to know it! This bold adventurer, accustomed to bloodshed -and wild disaster, knelt down and gave thanks to God for having -privileged him to make this great discovery. Then, calling his men to -ascend and share his vision, he addressed them. “Behold, my friends, -that glorious sight which we have so much desired. Let us give thanks to -God that He has granted us this great honour and advantage. Let us pray -to Him to guide us and aid us to conquer the sea and land which we have -discovered, and which Christian has never entered to preach the holy -doctrine of the evangelists. As to yourselves, be, as you have hitherto -been, faithful and true to me, and, by the favour of Christ, you will -become the richest Spaniards that have ever come to the Indies. You will -render the greatest services to your King that ever vassal rendered to -his lord, and you will have the eternal glory and advantage of all that -is here discovered, conquered, and converted to our Holy Catholic -Faith.” - -This perfervid utterance, the incongruity of which strikes us to-day as -almost blasphemous, aroused enthusiasm in his followers, who swore to -stand by their intrepid leader and follow him to the death in pursuit of -their new prospects. They all knelt down, and led by de Vara the priest, -who accompanied them, lustily chanted the “_Te Deum_.” Speculation ran -high as to the possibilities that lay before them, but they were all -convinced that they were at length on the right road to become -possessors of the riches of the Indies. Summoning the notary of the -expedition, Balboa called all present to witness that he took possession -of all the sea, its islands and surrounding hills, in the name of the -Sovereigns of Castile, and had a deed prepared to that effect, which -those of his followers who were present signed. The curious ceremonies -of piety and plunder were not completed until a tree had been cut down, -formed into a cross, and erected on the spot from which Balboa had first -viewed the ocean, the names of Ferdinand and Isabella being roughly -carved on the trees surrounding the spot. The band then made their way -down the hillside, and after massacring another tribe of hostile -Indians, and forcing into their service fresh guides, they came to the -domain of the warlike cacique, named Choapes, who, after a short -resistance, was induced by the arguments of fire-arms and bloodhounds to -submit. It is recorded that Balboa, doubtless softened by his religious -exercises on the mountain, enjoined his followers to refrain from -needless slaughter. - -Meanwhile, Balboa sent out scouting parties to discover the best route -to the coast, and when the successful one returned, they related how -they had reached the ocean and found canoes, into one of which Alonzo -Martin had stepped, calling on his companions to bear witness that he -was the first European to embark on the newly discovered sea. - -Balboa and his men went forward, and on coming to the border of a great -bay gave it the name of San Miguel. As the tide was far out, they waited -under the shade of the trees until it should flow in. When it did Balboa -arose, and, taking a banner on which were painted the arms of Castile -and Leon, he, with his sword drawn, waded into the water until it was -above his knees, and in a loud voice took possession, in the names of -Don Ferdinand and Donna Isabella, of all the seas and lands and coasts -and ports and islands of the South, kingdoms and provinces, and, in -fact, everything he could think of naming. - -[Illustration: THE PACIFIC, FROM A PEAK IN DARIEN.] - -The exaggerated accounts which reached Spain of the wealth and riches of -the new colony, of the gold which was to be found lying on the surface -of the ground or taken from the rivers in nets, inspired Ferdinand with -such enthusiastic pride in his new possessions that he christened them -“Golden Castile.” Santa Maria was honoured by being made the capital -city, and a bishop was appointed and sent out with all the necessary -equipment of friars and other ecclesiastical paraphernalia. - -A new Governor was sent out in the person of Don Pedrarias Davilla, with -a magnificently furnished expedition to fittingly equip the new capital -with all the pomp and pageantry so dear to the Spanish heart. Many -youthful caballeros of high descent but low in funds were allured by the -prospects of the new land, and flocked to join the expedition in such -numbers that only the most favoured and influential could obtain a -passage. - -Hardly had this magnificent fleet set sail when news arrived of Balboa’s -latest discovery, and the revulsion of feeling in his favour would have -prevented the King giving such high powers to Pedrarias had the tidings -only reached him in time. On the arrival of the new Governor at Santa -Maria he was met by Balboa, who had returned from the Pacific shores, -with every courtesy, and entertained in the palm-thatched habitation -which served the latter as a palace. - -Pedrarias contrived to hide behind a mask of friendship his real -intentions regarding the new province, and through dissimulation gained -as complete a knowledge as possible of all things pertaining to the -country and the discoveries of Balboa, who, off his guard, was anxious -enough to put the new Governor in possession of all the information he -had gathered. But no sooner did Pedrarias feel that he had no more to -learn from the pioneer of the Isthmian route than his attitude -completely changed, and he ordered a judicial inquiry into the previous -conduct of Balboa. The result of the trial was the acquittal of the -accused, much to the chagrin of the new Governor, who from the first -seems to have been determined to get rid at all costs of the man who, he -felt, overshadowed and threatened his prospects in the colony. - -Later news which came from the court of Spain, announced Balboa’s -promotion to be Governor of the South Seas and the Province of Panama, -and Pedrarias, fearful lest Balboa’s influence and popularity should -again place him in the ascendancy, and in order to keep a hold over him -and join their interests, proposed an alliance between his daughter and -the Adelantado; the marriage settlements were drawn up, but before the -young lady could arrive from Spain events happened which prevented the -union. - -The interest of Balboa having been secured to him, Pedrarias was now -willing and anxious that further discoveries should be added to the -already formidable list, and that more treasure should flow into the -insatiable coffers of Spain, and to this end he permitted and assisted -Balboa to fit out a new expedition to make further discoveries in the -South Seas. - -Acla, established and built by Balboa as a settlement near Careta, - -[Illustration: HUTS NEAR THE ANCIENT CITY OF PANAMA.] - -was now fixed upon as the port best adapted as a starting-point for this -expedition, one of the boldest and most considerable yet attempted by -the Spaniards in Terra Firma. The plan was to carry from this port all -necessary materials for the building of four brigantines upon the -Pacific shore. The transporting of stores and materials over a country -which, when traversed previously by Balboa, unencumbered with -superfluous baggage, had presented serious enough difficulties, was a -task of almost overwhelming magnitude; yet these hardy Spaniards under -the leadership of the intrepid Balboa accomplished it. They were -assisted by the more friendly Indians and negroes, but many lives were -lost ere the first two brigantines were successfully launched on the -River Balsas, which flows into the Pacific. - -Their first cruise was to the Pearl Islands, and but for contrary winds, -the discovery of Peru might have been added to the list of Balboa’s -achievements, but he was anxious to complete the building of the other -two brigantines which he had provided material for, and returned to -proceed with the work. Whilst busy upon it, he heard rumours that a new -Governor was expected to arrive from Spain, to displace Pedrarias, and -apprehensive lest a new ruler should be opposed to the schemes he had in -hand, he sent a trusted messenger back to Acla, to watch events and -report, but was very unfortunate in selecting Garabito, upon whose -loyalty he relied, but who ultimately betrayed him. - -On his arrival at Acla, Garabito, learning that Pedrarias was still in -command at Santa Maria, was indiscreet enough to arouse the suspicions -of the colonists, who arrested him, and sent all his papers and letters -to the Governor, whilst, under threats of punishment, they obtained from -him a confession of the secret of his mission. - -The antipathy and distrust of Pedrarias were deepened by the slanders he -was only too willing to believe, and he ordered the absent Adelantado -back to Acla, ostensibly to talk over the new expedition, but really to -stand his trial. Balboa, on his arrival, was cast into prison, where he -was visited by Pedrarias, who, with characteristic dissimulation, avowed -friendship, and said that the proceedings which he had instigated were -merely formal and necessary to clear Balboa’s character of the slanders -and charges which had been brought against it. - -The charge made was that of treasonable conspiracy to cast off all -allegiance to the Crown, under a determination to sail, operate, and -trade in the South Seas entirely for private benefit. The evidence -rested largely on the testimony of the traitorous Garabito, and -eavesdroppers, who stated that they had overheard Balboa and his -officers planning to sail on their own account and ignore the authority -of the Governor. In vain Balboa indignantly pointed out the flimsiness -of the accusation, maintaining that, were there the slightest truth in -the charges made, it was very unlikely he would have returned and put -himself in the power of the Governor, when he could easily have sailed -away in the ships he now had on the Pacific and found a land or island -to supply him and his men with safe subsistence, far away from the -chances of interference from the power it was alleged he was anxious to -cast off. - -The trial dragged along for many days, and the verdict of guilty was -accompanied by a recommendation to mercy, on account of the prisoner’s -great services, while the hope was expressed that permission would be -granted to him to appeal to a higher tribunal in Spain. - -Pedrarias, glad of the opportunity of clearing from his path a man of -whom he was inordinately jealous, would listen to no entreaties from the -many advocates of the claims of the prisoner to consideration, and the -day following the verdict Balboa, with three of his principal officers, -preceded by the public crier, walked in chains to meet his fate at the -block erected in the Public Square; and for days afterwards his gory -head, stuck on the end of a pole, met the gaze of the sorrowing -inhabitants of the town of Acla. - -Pedrarias soon found out the futility of attempting to maintain a -prosperous colony at Santa Maria, for the implacable hostility of the -Indians and the depredations in his ranks by sickness, combined with the -disappointment of his expectations of finding the treasure he sought, -drove him to shift his headquarters to a more advantageous spot. - -Having got rid of the Governor of Panama, in the person of Balboa, he -proceeded to establish himself within that territory, and fixing a site -upon the bay in which are situated the Pearl Islands, he there founded a -city to which he gave the name of Panama, and thither he transferred the -seat of government, so that it became the capital of Terra Firma. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER III - -_The Buccaneers_ - - -The short-sighted policy of the Spaniards in exterminating the natives -of the countries which they conquered, necessitated the importation of -the negro from Africa, and led to the development of a huge traffic in -slaves, in which England, France, and Portugal played an important part. - -The men engaged in this trade were naturally a ruffianly set who soon -became familiar with the operations in the newly acquired Spanish -territories, and were quick to take advantage of the knowledge which -they thus acquired. - -Lucrative as the slave trade undoubtedly was, those engaged in it could -not but be tempted by the untold wealth which they saw in the countries -they visited and which passed them in the galleons crossing the sea; and -the growing jealousy on the part of the other European nations of the -power and opulence of Spain encouraged the more lawless and daring to -organise attacks upon the wealth and treasure in course of transit. - -Many of these hardy ruffians, the off-scourings of their own countries, -conceived the idea of acquiring territory in the West Indian Islands, -and were encouraged by their respective Governments. - -A number of them possessed themselves of the small island of Tortuga, -which lies to the north-west of Hayti, and from here roved the whole -Caribbean Sea making war upon the Spaniards both on sea and land. - -They had learned from the Indians the art of curing the flesh of animals -killed in hunting so that it would keep for almost any length of time. -The method adopted was to lay the meat upon a wooden grill placed over a -smouldering fire composed of leaves, into which--to give a flavour to -the meat--they cast the skins of the slaughtered animals. The meat thus -smoked was called “Boucan,” and ultimately this name was also given to -the place where it was cooked, and those who had adopted the preparing -of meat in this way were called “buccaneers.” - -This name came to be generally applied to the motley collection of -characters from all Europe who settled in these parts, every type of -social Ishmaelite of the period let loose on the world to fight and -struggle for existence as best they could. - -Some among them from England had started on their roving life from very -exuberance of good spirits and love of adventure. Others were driven to -this lawless existence by necessity, or by some trivial violation of the -stringent laws then existing in their own country. - -[Illustration: THE PIRATE “L’OLLONOIS.”] - -Whenever a successful fleet of these desperadoes arrived in Port Royal -or Tortuga, it was the signal to the populace that festive times were at -hand--such times as make the head dizzy to think of, lasting not only -till the money was all spent, but until credit was gone as well. - -The tavern keepers would give credit according to the faith they had in -their customers’ ability to redeem their pledges. Doubtless their faith -often received rude shocks, for the risks were many, but taking it on -the whole their profits were immense, as the larger part of the ship’s -plunder was spent with them. - -Lawless as the buccaneers were, they yet had laws which regulated the -conduct of each adventure they embarked upon. True these were liable to -be changed by a successful majority, but, as a rule, all obeyed them, -probably because sufficient inducement was offered or coercion used. - -During the three distinct epochs of the history of these piratical -adventurers the types were constant. From the time when they first -forsook their wild calling in Hispaniola and took to hunting men for -their treasure instead of animals for their flesh--up to the period when -Morgan stood out as a hero who commanded the consideration if not the -respect of all the inhabitants of the New World, they were unhampered by -the interference of Government. - -From 1671 to 1685 they extended the sphere of their operations, and -ranged the whole of the Pacific Coast of America from California to -Chili, and this has been called the second period. - -The third extends from 1685 onwards, and marks the decline of their -power, a degeneration in their methods, and a lessening of their -numbers. - -There is a glamour about their adventures which appeals to most persons, -the fine courage and persistent daring which was undaunted by the -terrible hardships and sufferings they underwent, giving a touch of -heroism to their doings in spite of the inhuman butcheries and cruelties -they perpetrated. - -Outstanding names of buccaneers are familiar to everyone, Mansvelt, -L’Ollonois, Morgan, Dampier, Kidd, Sharp, being a few of the more -prominent. Round each of these romances have been written, and although -there may be some deeds of valour credited to them, the glory of which -they are not entitled to, and some atrocities, the gruesomeness of which -they were guiltless of, yet it cannot be said that authentic details of -their lives and enterprises do not furnish parallel instances. - -Their callous indifference to the sufferings of their own companions -prepares us for the studied fiendishness with which they treated their -enemies, and their fanatical hatred of the Spaniards overmastered every -consideration of humanity. - -That the buccaneers had courage and daring is well borne out by the life -of Henry Morgan, the son of a respectable Welsh farmer. He appears to -have found his way to Jamaica, and there fallen in with Mansvelt, then -the most notorious of the freebooters. - -After serving a sort of apprenticeship with this redoubtable pirate, -Morgan, on the death of Mansvelt was promoted to the command. - -Using Jamaica as his headquarters he made excursions in the -neighbourhood of Cuba which added to his reputation. His next venture -was against Porto Bello, one of the best fortified ports in the West -Indies. - -[Illustration: SIR HENRY MORGAN. - -From an old print.] - -Morgan’s profession and attention were directed to this spot by the -knowledge he had of its containing the large storehouses, in which the -treasure from the Spanish colonies in the South awaited the arrival of -the fleet of royal galleons which sailed with it annually to Spain. - -As formerly in Nombre de Dios, so here an annual fair was held, and the -merchants who had business came over from Panama with their treasure of -gold and silver from the mines of Peru, attended by an escort of Spanish -troops. - -Ships belonging to the West Indian Company arrived from Africa with -cargoes of slaves, and the whole town was, while the fair lasted, a -scene of great animation. - -Porto Bello at this period was not considered quite a health resort, so -that in the off seasons the population decreased. Morgan, who had four -hundred and sixty men in his expedition, kept his plans secret, and, -only telling his companions that he expected to make a big haul, he -landed by night at a short distance from the city. Guided by an -Englishman who had been a prisoner in these parts, they marched on to -the town, capturing on their way one of the sentinels, whom they bound -and carried in front of them. They surrounded one of the castles which -stood near the town, and called upon the inmates to surrender, but the -only reply was a volley which alarmed the town. After a brief but -gallant defence the fortress was forced to surrender, and the pirates, -thrusting the vanquished inside, blew both garrison and castle into the -air. The Governor of the city and a number of the more influential -merchants, had taken shelter in the remaining castle, against the walls -of which the pirates now placed broad scaling ladders constructed -hastily for this purpose. Up these ladders Morgan forced friars and nuns -whom he had taken prisoners to ascend as a cover to his men following -close behind, but in thinking the besieged would not risk harming -members of their religious orders he was mistaken, for pious and pirates -were alike killed by the inmates of the castle, who used all means they -could to prevent the assault being successful. - -After a long and determined resistance the defenders at length threw -down their arms and surrendered, but the Governor fought to the last, -killing many of the pirates, and even despatching some of his own men -for not standing to their arms. He would accept no quarter in spite of -the pleading of his wife and daughter who, on their knees, begged him to -give in; and he fell fighting. - -The pirates took possession of the castle, shutting up all the -prisoners, men and women together. The wounded were placed in an -apartment by themselves, “that their complaints might be a cure of their -diseases, for no other was afforded them.” - -This done, the buccaneers gave themselves up to a wild debauch which -lasted well into the night. Next morning the prisoners were brought out -and tortured till they should reveal the hiding-places of their -treasure. - -For fifteen days looting and carousing fully occupied the time of the -marauders, and before departing Morgan fixed the ransom of the city at -one hundred thousand pieces of eight, threatening to burn the town and -blow up the castles if this were not procured at once. - -Messengers were sent with this demand to Panama, and the Governor of -that city, having got a force together, set out for Porto Bello. - -The pirates, hearing of this, went out to meet him at a narrow gorge -through which he was bound to pass, and a hundred of them were -sufficient to check the approach of the bold men from Panama. - -From a safe distance the Governor then sent word to Morgan, threatening -him that if he did not retire at once it would go hard with him, to -which the implacable buccaneer replied that all he wanted was the money, -and when he got it he would leave, but not before. Persuaded that he was -in earnest the Governor rode back to Panama, leaving the distressed -citizens of Porto Bello to get out of their difficulties as best they -could. - -The ransom was raised and the demands of Morgan were satisfied. - -So astonished was the Governor of Panama at the fall of so strong a city -before such a handful of men, that he sent to Morgan to ask him for a -pattern of the weapons with which he had accomplished so great a feat. -Not without humour Morgan gave a pistol and some bullets to the envoy to -take back, with instructions to his master to keep the same for a year, -when the sender would come in person to Panama and claim them. - -[Illustration: FORT LORENZO.] - -The Governor, thinking this was no joke, returned the proffered loan, -assuring Morgan that he had no need of such weapons. At the same time he -sent a ring of gold and the message “that he desired him not to give -himself the labour of coming to Panama as he had done to Porto Bello, -for he did assure him he should not speed so well there as he had done -there.” - -In July, 1670, a treaty was concluded between Great Britain and Spain -with the object of putting an end to the depredations of the -buccaneers, and bringing about peace and a settled state of affairs in -the West Indian Islands. On the publication of this treaty, the -buccaneers determined on a great expedition; fearing, doubtless, that -the chances for their professional operations would be curtailed after -the treaty had been put into force and was well established. - -Morgan, therefore, made preparations and gathered around him men and -ships for what was to be his greatest undertaking. The rewards to be -given on this voyage, and the rules for the conduct of the enterprise, -were all written out, agreed upon, and signed by each of the pirate -crews. Morgan himself was to take one hundredth part of the booty, and -the captain of each ship was to draw the shares of eight men over and -above his own, for the expenses of his vessel. - -The surgeons were allowed two hundred pieces of eight, besides their -pay, for chests of medicines. The compensations for the loss of limbs or -eyes were very liberal, the payment being made in money or slaves -according to the sufferers’ choice. An extra reward was held out to the -pirate who should, in any engagement, be the first to haul down the -enemies’ colours, enter a castle or perform some similar act of daring. - -Panama had been decided upon, by general consent, as being the richest -of the three cities from which a selection was to be made, the other two -being Cartagena and Vera Cruz. - -The pirates sailed first to the island of St. Catherine or Old -Providence to obtain guides from among the bandit outlaws from Panama -who were banished to that place. - -When they arrived at this penal settlement, which was strongly -fortified, Morgan, with the connivance of the Governor of the island, -put up a sham fight in order to give the appearance that force had been -used in obtaining what he wanted. - -Having obtained a plentiful supply of provisions and three bandits, who -were acquainted with the route from Porto Bello to Panama and who were -promised their liberty and a share of the plunder, should the -undertaking prove successful, Morgan sent four ships and one boat well -equipped to Chagres to take the castle there, while he remained at St. -Catherine’s with the bulk of the expedition awaiting the result of this -preliminary venture, and to avoid giving the alarm to the Spaniards as -to his real design. The castle of Chagres or San Lorenzo, situated on -the summit of a steep hill at the entrance of the river, was surrounded -by high palisades filled in with earth, a formidable place almost -impregnable in those days, yet notwithstanding the strong position it -occupied and the extraordinarily brilliant defence which the Spanish -untiringly maintained it fell at last into the hands of the enemy. - -[Illustration: AN OLD SENTRY TOWER ON THE CHAGRES.] - -On receiving news of the capture of Chagres, Morgan sailed thither with -the main portion of his expedition and repaired the castle, establishing -a garrison there. Besides this garrison he left a number of his men in -charge of the ships, and on the 18th January, 1671, with one thousand -two hundred men, thirty-two canoes, and five boats laden with artillery -started up the Chagres River _en route_ for Panama. - -The next evening they arrived at Cruz de Juan Jallego, where the river -was so dry, and the way blocked by so many fallen trees, that they were -obliged to leave the boats in charge of one hundred and sixty men who -were ordered not to desert their post upon pain of death. - -Some of the party continued the journey in canoes, and with great -difficulty reached Cedro Bueno, the canoes returning for the rest of the -party, and all were assembled that same night, hoping in vain to fall in -with Spaniards or Indians from whom they might obtain food, as they were -well-nigh exhausted from hunger. - -On the fourth day most of the party marched by land, the remainder still -keeping to the canoes, both parties being conducted by guides, whilst -scouts sent on ahead took care to examine the sides of the track and to -prevent surprise from any lurking enemies. - -About noon they arrived at a point where the guide accompanying the -canoes gave the alarm that he had perceived an ambuscade. Overjoyed at -the good news the pirates hastened to the spot where the enemy were -supposed to be lurking, but were disappointed when they discovered that -the Spaniards had fled, taking with them everything of an edible nature, -and leaving nothing but a few empty leathern bags. The enraged -buccaneers set fire to the huts, and fell to and ate the leathern bags, -so keen had their appetite become. The leather after being stripped of -the hair was pounded between stones and then cut into small pieces and -broiled, quarrels ensuing over the sizes of the portions allotted. - -On the fifth day they arrived at a village where they found traces of -recent occupation, and diligent search being made for some kind of -animal or fruit on which to feed the army, they discovered a cave in -which were stored some sacks of maize, two jars of wine and a few -plantains. - -On the seventh day they cleaned their arms and tried their firelocks, -before crossing the river and arriving at Cruces. The sight of smoke -issuing from the village raised their hopes, and caused them to hurry -forward. Perspiring and out of breath they reached the spot only to find -it deserted and nothing but the fires, of which they had no need, to -welcome them. - -They revenged themselves by setting fire to the huts, and eating the few -cats and dogs that lingered round the village. - -In what were called the King’s stables they found some wine and a large -leathern sack with bread in it, but so ill did those who drank this wine -become, that they jumped to the conclusion it had been poisoned. But -their sickness was after all only the effect of the good wine upon their -empty stomachs. - -As Cruces was the last point in ascending the river to which their -canoes could be brought their further progress had to be made entirely -on foot. Before they set out on their march some of the pirates made -rigorous search in the surrounding district for victuals of some kind -wherewith to appease their gnawing hunger, but surprised by the late -inhabitants of the town, who were in hiding in the bush, the buccaneers -were compelled to retreat. - -Morgan now sent two hundred men in advance of the main body to detect -any ambuscade that might exist, and to discover the way to Panama. - -On the eighth day after ten hours’ marching, the entire force reached a -place called Quebrada Obscura, where they were suddenly assailed by a -flight of thousands of arrows shot by some hidden foes, and from this -point onward they were continually harassed by straggling parties of -Indians commanded by Spaniards. - -The ninth day had barely dawned when an early start was made to take -advantage of the cool morning air, and after an hour’s march they -ascended a high hill from which they could see the ocean and discern the -ships and boats lying in the bay. - -Their troubles were almost forgotten when, on descending to the plain -below, they came upon a herd of cattle, and they were not long in -killing and roasting a sufficient number of these, on which they gorged -themselves in a most ravenous manner. - -Filling their satchels with the remains of the feast, they continued -their march, always preceded by a detachment of scouts who were now on -the look-out--not only for ambuscades--but for any native they might -come across from whom they could obtain information as to the position -and strength of the defences of the city. - -Before nightfall they descried the high cathedral tower, and soon camped -for the night within sight of the city itself. - -So eager and excited were they that it was with the greatest impatience -they awaited the morrow, which they felt confident would see them in -possession of the much-coveted treasure. - -All night long the inmates of the threatened city kept up an incessant -fire with their big guns, in a vain endeavour to reach the camp of the -pirates, who indulged in revels and feasted on the remains of their -morning’s meal. - -When the eagerly expected dawn broke the camp was all astir, and Morgan -marshalled his now enthusiastic followers, and with drums and trumpets -sounding set out towards the city. - -They kept to the woods as affording them cover, and the Governor of the -city, unprepared for this change of route, came out with a strong band -of followers to check the advances of the buccaneers. He had one novel -regiment, composed of wild cattle driven and directed by the herdsmen. - -So formidable did the Spanish army appear that many of the buccaneers -were overawed, and had it been possible would have refused the -encounter. - -But Morgan urged them forward, and, dividing the troops into three -divisions, ordered two hundred of his best marksmen to advance to the -attack. - -The Spanish cavalry, whose movements were much impeded by the soft -nature of the ground, advanced to meet them, and the fight began in grim -earnest. Very soon the horsemen were compelled to retreat before the -deadly fire of the sharpshooters, and after making one final effort to -disorganise the pirates by driving the wild bulls on to them from -behind, the attacking defenders fled in all directions. Those who fell -into the hands of the pirates received no quarter; and even friars, who -pleaded hard for mercy, had but short shrift. - -Before despatching them, Morgan learned from some of the prisoners he -had taken that the whole force of the garrison was 400 horse and 2400 -foot, not counting the Indians and slaves who were engaged to drive the -2000 wild bulls, the employment of which had proved so futile. - -The loss of life on both sides had been great; but the pirates had more -dangers to encounter before the city was completely in their hands. Guns -which had been mounted in hastily constructed batteries directed a -fierce fire upon them as they marched towards the walls, and many more -were killed before they got through the gates and began to pillage the -town. - -For some reason that has never been properly understood or accounted -for, Morgan set fire to the place, and all attempts to stay the -progress of the flames were unavailing. Richly decorated buildings -filled with fine tapestries and pictures were, with few exceptions, -reduced to ashes. The fire, it has been stated, lasted for a whole -month, and hundreds of slaves who had hidden in the buildings perished -in the flames. - -Only one of the churches escaped the fire, and the pirates used it as a -hospital. - -The main body of the marauders encamped at night outside the city, but -all day long were busy within its walls ransacking the rich warehouses -and dwellings before the fire should reach them. - -There was one large warehouse in the city in which the Genoese conducted -their slave market, two thousand magnificent houses filled with riches -of every description, besides five thousand smaller dwellings and two -hundred warehouses, and from these the plunderers obtained a very -considerable amount of booty. But by far the most valuable treasure in -the city was lost to the pirates, for the King’s plate and royal -treasure, together with the gold and silver plate and jewelled vestments -of the churches and monasteries, had been put on board a huge galleon -and taken out to sea. - -It has always been known that much of the treasure that escaped the -buccaneers, as well as a large amount of the booty which they captured -and hid in various retreats, has never been discovered or reclaimed, and -for years many and varied expeditions have been fitted out with the -object of seeking and finding these lost riches. - -Morgan and his gang had, however, done very well out of their expedition -to Panama, from whence they returned to Chagres laden with spoil. - -As part of a deep-laid scheme which had matured in his own mind, Morgan, -when half-way from Cruces to Chagres, ordered all the pirates to be -thoroughly searched, in spite of the usual solemn oath which every one -of them had taken, that they would conceal no treasure. He even -permitted himself to be subjected to the same indignity in order to -prevent the resentment which this unusual order might provoke. - -But resentment and suspicion were expressed in murmurings and complaints -when the spoil was divided on their reaching Chagres, for it was thought -and alleged that the commander had kept the best jewels to himself. The -grumbling reached such a pitch that it caused Morgan no little -apprehension, but he had already determined on his plan of playing a -dastardly trick upon his companions. - -[Illustration: THE OLD CHURCH TOWER, OLD PANAMA.] - -After demolishing the fort at Chagres, and setting fire to the principal -buildings in the town, he surreptitiously crept on board the vessel -which contained the treasure and provisions, taking with him a few of -his chosen companions, and, in the early hours of the morning, while the -remainder of the band were in a deep sleep, he sailed away for Jamaica -with all the plunder captured by the expedition, a rich store of the -treasures which formed the staple commerce between the Old World and the -New. - -[Illustration: THE RAMPARTS. FORT LORENZO.] - -The resentment and fury of the deserted robbers knew no bounds, for -surely in all the annals of their history there was no parallel to such -treachery. The English pirates who were thus basely treated by their -countryman set out in one of the remaining vessels in hot but unavailing -pursuit, and the Frenchmen who had joined the bold enterprise with -confidence now made their way back to Tortuga to brood over their wrongs -and plan fresh expeditions, vowing vengeance on the lustful bully who -had robbed them of their spoil. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -_On the Way to the Southern Continent_ - - -After leaving Kingston, Jamaica, one has an opportunity of observing -some of the many types who journey to the isthmus of Panama. - -The steamer is crowded and its comfort impaired by the numerous -obstacles such as luggage and deck chairs, which prevent promenading and -the taking of the usual form of exercise on board ship. On the fore -deck, huddled together in endless confusion, are labourers from the -island just left; behind their “household gods”--parrots, monkeys, -poultry, and dogs--enjoying in many cases more comfort than their -owners. - -In the dim shadows cast by the awning spread to protect them from the -glare of the burning sun, or the torrential rain which might at any -moment descend; reclining upon chairs, hammocks or bedding spread upon -the deck, men and women of varying age, colour and costume, seek -oblivion in sleep from the nausea occasioned by the monotonous rolling -of the ship. - -On the afternoon of the third day, through the haze of a tropical -downpour, Colon is sighted. Though the rain falls in sheets, the eye can -trace through the silvery mists the faint outline of the coast and -contour of the hills; whilst away across the bay, at its western -extremity, the Toro Lighthouse is dimly visible. - -This island of Manzanilla, upon which Colon is built, was passed and -repassed many times by Columbus, when, on his fourth and last voyage, he -searched so diligently for the Straits which he believed existed. His -objective was to reach India, the land of the Grand Khan, and it was -only after his ships had been reduced to mere leaking hulks, that he -abandoned the search for the opening which he imagined must be there. -Four hundred eventful years have passed, yet men’s minds have never -ceased from - -[Illustration: OLD WHARVES, COLON.] - -dwelling upon the idea of making a waterway through the narrow neck of -land that connects two great continents and divides two vast seas. From -the beginning of the eighteenth century, plans have been put forward for -the accomplishment of this task; but it was not until the railway across -the isthmus was completed in 1854 that any serious thought was given by -responsible persons to such projects. The building of the Panama Railway -was brought about by the discovery of gold in California in 1849, when -hundreds of adventurers from every part of the globe found this the -shortest and quickest route to the western El Dorado. The history of how -Aspinwall and Stevens accomplished their task of completing this short -railway across a fetid tropical country, is one of the finest records of -human endurance and perseverance. Sickness and disease thinned the ranks -of their labourers, and the graves of hundreds of workers who perished -in this enterprise are scattered profusely across the isthmus. There is -a legend current in Panama that every tie on the railroad represents a -human life. (That this is an exaggeration, anyone who reflects will -readily perceive; for it would mean that 150,000 deaths had occurred in -the five years, a number ten times greater than the whole population of -the isthmus at that period.) Trains carrying thousands of passengers, -and tons of goods across the forty-seven miles of track, have never been -able to cope with the enormous and increasing traffic. That a canal, -through which the largest ships might pass from the Atlantic to the -Pacific, would eventually be constructed, few people doubted; and when -De Lesseps, fresh from winning his laurels at Suez, undertook to -construct a waterway, his enthusiasm quickly spread to thousands of his -countrymen, and a French company was formed to carry out his schemes. -The history of the French Canal Company is sad reading, and is now -almost forgotten. The Panama scandals and the trial of the De Lesseps, -father and son, with many others connected with the affair, are things -of the past: the United States Government have taken over the assets of -the derelict company, and innumerable American citizens are carried -annually to the scene of the great undertaking. From the moment the ship -leaves New York, all the talk on board is of the isthmus and the canal, -and those who have never visited the narrow belt of land look forward -eagerly to catching their first glimpse of this much-talked-of country. - -But the unfamiliar light that is frequently diffused over all, producing -ever-changing and delicate tints of grey, purple, and blue, veils the -landscape in indistinctness, so that expectations of beholding a land on -which the sun pours down its burning rays, are unrealised, for a deluge -of rain almost invariably welcomes the visitor. - -Directly the vessel is berthed, the formalities attendant upon landing -attract the attention. All the passengers are ordered into the saloon, -and are medically examined by the officer of health for the port. Those -unable to produce evidence of recent vaccination are promptly operated -upon, and negroes and negresses reappear upon deck with crimson stains -upon their long black arms, testifying to the work of the lancet. - -Frightened mothers and terrified children are sobbing all around, adding -to the general din that arises with the arrival of a steamer. The rain -still pours from the leaden sky, which seems as if it could never -exhaust its weeping grief, and even in the short distance from the shed -upon the wharf to a ramshackle bus or cab, the exposure is sufficient to -ensure a thorough drenching. - -The main street, and indeed all of Colon, has undergone great -improvements of recent years. A short drive and Christobal is reached, a -kind of suburb of Colon, now within the territory called Canal Zone, -owned by the American Government. - -[Illustration: A FAMILY PARTY, COLON.] - -It was in one of the many wooden bungalows built in the time of De -Lesseps, and facing Limon Bay, that I took up my first quarters on the -isthmus. The house is quite typical of hundreds throughout the Zone -occupied by the more responsible workers on the canal, and in every way -possible the comfort of the occupants is considered, and the -accommodation is ample for all ordinary purposes. - -The verandahs surrounding the houses are securely screened with -fine-meshed copper gauze to prevent the intrusion of the fever-bearing -stegomyia mosquito and of the thousand other noxious insects which are -the pests of this tropical country. - -Every window is covered in the same manner, the doors which open from -the verandahs being furnished with a strong spring, ensuring their being -kept shut. The water cisterns are all covered, as are the rain-water -tubs placed around the buildings, and there is no possibility of any -insect finding a suitable breeding ground. During the whole of my stay -on the isthmus I seldom encountered a mosquito, and it is no -exaggeration to say that this insect runs serious risk of sharing the -fate of the dodo. - -The first work that the Americans undertook upon taking possession of -their new territory, was to put into operation all means conceivable for -the destruction of the mosquitoes, a work that would have been -impossible if the Commission had not possessed the power to direct the -sanitary and health measures in the towns of Panama and Colon, which -both lie outside of the Canal Zone, but are so intimately connected with -it as to be sources of danger, in case of epidemics. The maintenance of -law and order is also vested in the United States, in the event of the -Republic of Panama proving unable to cope with it. - -For the greatest difficulty the Americans have had to contend with has -been the climatic conditions so fatal to the workers during the -construction of the Panama Railway in 1850, and throughout the -operations of the two ill-fated French Canal Companies. - -The careful attention which the Health Department of the Canal -Commission has given to the sanitation and purification of their new -territory, as well as of the towns of Colon and Panama, has amply -justified the enormous expense by the wonderful results obtained. When -one considers that yellow fever has always been regarded by tropical -Americans as indigenous to their climate, it is indeed surprising that -this disease has been practically exterminated from the isthmus of -Panama in so short a time. - -Houses have been entered, cleansed and fumigated; marshes drained, -stagnant water treated with petroleum and the bush and scrub around all -dwelling houses cut away, until haunt and breeding ground are alike -denied to the germ-bearing mosquito. - -Everywhere one comes across members of the Sanitary Corps, either lowly -negroes and half-bred Indians with cans of petroleum from which they -drop a small quantity of oil on any stray pool or puddle that they come -to; or the doctors ever vigilant in their inspections of the most -out-of-the-way holes and corners in which dirt or disease might lurk. - -[Illustration: A CAMP AT BALBOA.] - -The large hospital at Colon, built upon piles over the seashore, was -erected originally by the French, but has been improved and modernised -until it is as well equipped as any similar institution. There has not -been a case of yellow fever within its walls for some years now, and the -many screens that formerly were placed around the beds have all been -stored away, except one, left as a specimen to show visitors the methods -employed in isolating patients suffering from the dread disease. - -Colon has changed very much during the last ten years. The fires of 1885 -and 1890 destroyed a great many of the wooden buildings of which it was -formerly composed; and the only old buildings of any pretensions to -durability are the railway station and offices, and a church which was -built by the pioneers of the isthmian route in the middle of the last -century. Reorganised and rebuilt for the purposes of the Atlantic -terminus of the canal, the most prominent features of the town to-day -are the large wharves and warehouses for the reception of the materials -and supplies for the vast project. Laundries, bakeries, schools, -court-houses and administration buildings, dwellings for employees, -hotels, stores and machine shops, have been erected on this erstwhile -mangrove swamp, an undertaking in itself of great magnitude. - -A new railway terminus has been built. The trains which run each way, -three times daily, across the isthmus to Panama, carry passengers and -baggage to that city and to the numerous wayside stations along the -route. They are always crowded with employees of the Canal Commission, -and travellers on their way, via the Pacific port, to countries on the -western side of South America. - -Along the route of the canal, which follows closely the line of the -railway, a busy scene of activity is presented. Only those who have -travelled backwards and forwards over the line many times, and have -branched off along the numerous side tracks that have been laid to carry -the excavated earth to convenient or necessary dumping grounds, can be -properly impressed with the magnitude and difficulty of the operations, -as evidenced not only by the existing works, but by continual reminders -of the French enterprise, in hundreds of disused and obsolete trucks, -engines and dredgers which lie half-sunk in deep morasses or overgrown -with dense vegetation. - -The towns and villages that have sprung up along the line of the canal -have grown rapidly during the last two or three years, for although the -French had erected over two thousand buildings during their occupation, -the new owners have added so largely to that number that such towns as -Empire, Culebra, Las Cascadas, and Gatum are quite important and -considerable centres of industry, with schools, hotels, court-houses and -large dwelling houses scattered through them. - -The headquarters of the Canal Commission are at Culebra, and it is here -also that the largest excavation work is going on. The hill of Culebra -(which means a “serpent”) is about thirty-six miles from Colon and ten -from Panama, and it was at this point that the two French companies -concentrated their efforts. The canal in course of construction, and now -nearing completion, is a high-level one, the amount of excavation being -considerably less than that required if De Lesseps’ original plan of a -sea-level route had been adhered to. - -Thousands of persons every year visit this famous cutting, for in it the -majority of the great steam shovels are at work. The progress being made -is apparent, for on the long terraces the positions of the steam shovels -are always altering. Every now and then a great cloud of smoke and dust, -followed by a deafening roar, intimates that blasting operations are in -full swing. Dumpcars of the latest pattern have superseded the old -French ones; and the trains are now composed of a series of new trucks, -coupled together, one side of each car being left open with a movable -iron plate connecting it with its neighbour. A large truck at on end of -the train contains a powerful engine, which pulls a steel plough along -the trucks, emptying them of rock and dirt when the desired dumping -ground is reached. All day these long trains filled with spoil move -backwards and forwards through the cutting, at the different levels made -for them by the steam shovels. Gangs of labourers are kept busy laying -the tracks to enable the shovels to carve their way into the huge rocky -hill. The problem of keeping up a supply of men, fit to stand the -climate, has been solved by importing on to the scene Spaniards, -Portuguese, Italians, and West Indians, and they have endured the -climate surprisingly. It is astonishing that in a shade temperature of -from 89-91 so much energy can be displayed. In the rainy season the -conditions become very difficult to contend against. The River Chagres -rises and carries away long tracks of the railway, putting a stop to -operations for days at a time. The rainfall amounts on an average to -about one hundred and forty inches per annum, most of it falling from -September to May. Yet the work proceeds rapidly in spite of the rain. -The houses built for the labourers are all supplied with drying rooms, -which are very necessary adjuncts to any dwelling on the isthmus, for -otherwise it would be impossible to have any dry clothing. - -But for the bad climatic and health conditions, the Panama Canal would -have been finished long ere this, and had the De Lesseps company had the -advantages of modern sanitary methods, the history of the canal might be -different. In England it has been customary to hear exaggerated accounts -of wasted money and material in Panama until the very name is almost -synonymous with fraud and deceit. But on the spot the American engineers -have discovered many evidences of the enormous amount of genuine work -accomplished by the early companies, under depressing circumstances and -difficulties. Much that they did has been utilised, houses, hospitals, -and hotels have been put into order, and have proved of great assistance -to the present owners. The task of keeping up a working force of thirty -thousand men, feeding, housing, and caring for them, can only be -appreciated by those who are acquainted with the tropics. As all -nationalities are to be found in the vast army at work, this means that -the labour camps to accommodate them have to be kept separate and the -food supplies carefully chosen, in accordance with the various tastes of -different nations. The world at large is the market in which the -authorities buy their provisions. It is bewildering to the layman, and -impossible for him to understand the numerous engineering problems into -which the work is divided. The rival schemes of high level, low level, -and sea level, have been subjected to the criticism of the world’s most -expert engineers for over a quarter of a century, and although the -original plan of a sea level waterway was abandoned by De Lesseps, it is -still held by many experts to be the only satisfactory one. The canal -scheme that is at present proceeding is one of locks. The River Chagres, -which rises in the surrounding hills, is subject to enormous floods, and -in the rainy season great tracts of country on the Atlantic side of the -isthmus are under water. Villages and workshops are swamped, the railway -tracks swept away and disorganisation sets in. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST LABOUR CAMP, GATUM.] - -The control of this river has been the subject of much anxious thought -and the experts’ opinion on it would fill volumes. The present plan -entailed the building of the great dam at Gatum, about seven miles from -the Atlantic terminus of the canal. This is now nearly completed and -fills a gap between two ranges of hills, and much of the excavated -material from the Culebra cutting (thirty miles distant) was dumped -here. As the dam is about a mile and a quarter in length and half a mile -in thickness, over two million cubic yards of material have been used -for its construction. It has great controlling water sluices and locks, -and completes the range of high ground, which will enclose an immense -lake eighty-five feet above the sea level, having an area of over one -hundred and seventy square miles. Towns and villages at present existing -in the territory that extends from Gatum to Culebra will disappear when -the great dam is finished, and the water is already being allowed to -collect to form the great lake. Double sets of locks have been built at -Gatum to raise ships up from the canal, a height of eighty-five feet. -Vessels of one thousand feet in length and one hundred feet beam have -been anticipated, and there will be accommodation for such boats when -they shall be built and present themselves for entrance to the canal. -The navigation channel through the great Gatum Lake will have a depth of -at least forty-five feet and a width at bottom of one thousand feet -until the Culebra cutting is reached, where the width will be diminished -to two hundred feet. About ten miles from the Pacific terminus of the -canal, at Pedro Miguel, the summit level will cease, at a series of -locks which will lower vessels thirty feet, into a channel five hundred -feet in width and about one mile in length. Two more locks at Miraflores -will lower vessels to the Pacific sea level. The channel from Miraflores -to Balboa (the Pacific terminus) will have a width of five hundred feet -right to the open sea. Dredging operations are being carried on for the -purpose of deepening and widening the channels at the Pacific and -Atlantic entrances. Large wharves for the reception of steamers have -been erected at Balboa, and dry docks for repairing have been -constructed. In Panama itself, although the city does not belong to the -United States Government, much money and time have been spent in putting -it into a proper sanitary condition, for by treaty with the Panamanian -Government the Canal Commission have jurisdiction over all matters -connected with health. This ancient Spanish city has now been properly -drained and a good water supply laid on, streets which were formerly -quagmires in the rainy season, have been transformed by stone pavements -thoroughly well laid by the Commission, but charged up to the Panamanian -Government. - -[Illustration: THE OLD CHURCH ON THE ISLAND OF TOBAGO, OFF PANAMA.] - -There are over five thousand white employees on the work. Police, -magistrates, school officers, medical men, mining engineers, surveyors, -train conductors, hotel managers, overseers, foremen, clerks, -dispensers, judges, mechanics, detectives, chemists, teachers, indeed -quite a state has grown up upon this tropical belt, which but for the -work in hand would be unexplored bush. The engineering shops at Matachin -have grown under the commission to four times the size of the original -French buildings, and are capable of accommodating for repairs and -putting together over twenty large locomotives at one time. Steam -shovels, cranes, trucks, ploughs, and rolling stock generally undergo -repairs in these shops. Everywhere along the line improved, modern, -up-to-date buildings are occupied as fast as they can be erected, and -the social side of life is highly developed. Dances, concerts, and -amateur theatricals are always going forward, while of out-of-door -sports the national game of baseball is easily first favourite. -Everything is done by the authorities to make life on the isthmus as -pleasant and enjoyable as possible, and very different from the early -days when necessities were difficult to obtain and luxuries impossible. -Ice is delivered to all the houses on the Canal Zone daily at a small -charge, and bread, vegetables, meat, everything in fact that a dainty -mortal can desire, is easily obtainable at the Commission’s Stores, so -that in this land of “Perpetual Thirst” there is little of hardship and -much of pleasure for the workers who have to live exiled from home. - -The Commission has made a rule that every white employee shall take an -annual holiday and spend it in the United States, so that there is much -coming and going between the States and Panama. In fact, very few stay -for long and the ranks are being continually reinforced with fresh -recruits. The Commission have also a splendid sanatorium situated on the -island of Tobago, a few miles south of Panama. Here, amidst perfect -surroundings, the convalescents are nursed back to health and strength -and tended with the utmost care. Even strangers who are not in any way -connected with the canal, avail themselves of this retreat, and many -Panamanians make it a holiday resort. At the foot of Ancon Hill, just -outside the city of Panama, the Canal Commission have built a -magnificent hotel capable of accommodating over three hundred -first-class guests. It was opened in time to receive President Roosevelt -when he paid his memorable visit to the isthmus in November, 1906, and -since then has housed many other distinguished visitors. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -_Of the Labourers on the Isthmus_ - - -The most difficult problem that has to be faced by undertakers of -transit and construction schemes in South America is that of labour. The -natives of the tropical latitudes have little inclination or incentive -to give their time and strength to the furthering of projects that are -introduced into their countries, and it has always been necessary to any -enterprise on the isthmus requiring a large labour force to import men -from other places. - -The first experiment was made many years ago by the early Spanish -settlers, who found it impossible in many places to subdue the native -Indians. Negroes from Africa were imported, but many of them contrived -to escape from the tasks set them by their enterprising masters, and -found their way into the country districts and gradually mixed with -Indians they fell in with, and so introduced new blood into the original -stock of the country. An attempt to introduce labour on to the isthmus -of Panama was made by the promoters and builders of the railway with -disastrous results. - -The Chinese, who prove so efficient as labourers in nearly every other -part of the world, were a great disappointment, and although they are to -be found to-day on the isthmus in large numbers, they are not employed -in any calling that requires great strength and endurance. - -The negroes who were imported proved to be the best available labour, -and ever since the railway was established the islands in the Caribbean -Sea have furnished much of the labour for Panama. - -When the first French company started its operations, Jamaicans, tempted -by the high wages offered, flocked on to the scene, and when the work -was brought to a standstill in 1901 many of them were left stranded upon -the isthmus, and those unable to obtain other employment were shipped -back to their island at its expense. Many, however, remained and settled -upon small patches of unclaimed land and lived in a primitive fashion -without much difficulty, in a country which furnishes abundant -subsistence to the cultivator. - -[Illustration: A LABOUR CAMP (EVENING), CANAL ZONE.] - -The demand for labour again arose when the U.S.A. Government restarted -operations, and numerous sources were tapped to supply sufficient -numbers of efficient pick-and-shovel men. - -Naturally attention was turned in the negro’s direction, for he is -indispensable when such work is forward. Those who urge his expulsion -_en masse_ from the Northern States overlook the firm hold which he has -got on the plantations of the South. However high racial prejudice may -occasionally rise against him, he has made himself absolutely necessary -to the Southern planter, who would be ruined if black labour were -withdrawn. Besides, it is not a particularly easy task to expel ten -millions of people. - -It is interesting to note that the nigger is far more appreciated in -South America than he is in the northern part of the continent. In -Anglo-Saxon colonies the laws against the blacks have always been more -stringent and oppressive than those of Spain, Portugal, and France. So -much is the negro valued in Latin America that many of the Republics -were unwilling to allow their black labour to be recruited for the -canal. Only recently the Argentine Consul in Panama sent word to his -Government that fifteen thousand of the workmen on the Zone were -disposed to transfer themselves to the wheatfields of the South. - -Through the action of a Governor of Jamaica in refusing to allow negroes -from that island to go to the isthmus (unless upon terms to which the -Canal Commission found it impossible to agree) other countries were -tried, to make up for the loss of Jamaica as a recruiting ground. Cuba, -whence many of the Spanish settlers were brought, suggested to the -labour department that Spain would be a likely place from which to -obtain labourers, and many were imported on to the work, and proved the -wisdom of the choice. Italians also were brought, while the Jamaicans -arrived in great numbers, although not under any form of contract. -Barbadians, Martiniquians, and Trinidadians flocked in, but all of the -negro labourers who are on the work are liable to take a holiday -frequently and return to their native countries to spend, in -ostentatious display, the money they have earned. - -These negroes of the different islands exhibit such lack of sympathy -with one another, that the authorities are compelled to house them in -separated camps. - -The Barbadians predominate on the isthmus, probably because theirs is -the most densely populated island, and they have rapidly made themselves -acquainted with the conditions on the Zone, settling down as if it were -their native land. - -The British West Indian negro has a great contempt for and prejudice -against those of his own colour who speak the French, Dutch, or Spanish -language, and whenever an altercation or argument arises between negroes -of the different nationalities, reference is frequently made to the -prowess and prestige or weakness and decadence of the rival nations. -This characteristic is set out by the old joke which probably originated -on the West Coast of Africa, but has of recent years been told of the -West Indians. “Yah, you big, black, ugly Frenchman!” a huge Barbadian -yelled at a Martinique gentleman of colour who was getting the better of -him in argument. “What we give you at Waterloo, eh?” - -The Barbadian has generally appropriated a name illustrious by the -achievements of its original owner. A Mr. Horatio Nelson introduced -himself to me one day near Gorgona, and when I suggested that his was a -strange name, he assured me that it was quite a well-known one in -England, and that one of his ancestors had made it famous. And on my -still professing ignorance of it, he was very hurt and said, “You must -be Frenchmans.” - -The labourer from Barbados is a big, strong, impudent fellow, and has -not got the same good name for honesty as his Jamaican cousin, although -he is undoubtedly the better workman. But the negroes who have swarmed -in hordes to the isthmus are reluctant to put forth all their strength -and energy in profitable labour. - -They will employ their hours of leisure in dancing till they stream with -perspiration, but they are true artists in avoiding real work. Yet the -strength which they undoubtedly possess is often shown in their moments -of forgetfulness. - -A gang of negroes were engaged in removing long, heavy lengths of timber -a distance of about two hundred yards. After they had all gazed for some -time at the stack, they were cajoled by the foreman into making a start, -which was not accomplished without considerable palaver, the point of -discussion being as to whether three men were sufficient to carry each -beam. - -Two of the gang, having lifted a heavy beam between them, returned to -the discussion carrying it on their shoulders apparently little -inconvenienced by its weight, and stood for fully ten minutes thus -burdened continuing the argument. After a short acquaintance with them, -their indolent ways and casual manner become so familiar as to excite -little notice. - -The quarters in which they are housed are shut during working hours, and -none are permitted to enter the premises at night until they have -produced evidence that they have put in a day’s work. Should they be -unwell, they are examined by the doctor at the nearest dispensary and -treated for their complaint. If only slightly indisposed and requiring a -little more rest, they are placed in a building set apart for the -purpose and allowed to loll about, read, smoke, or sleep until -pronounced fit to resume their labours. In serious cases, of course, the -patients are at once removed to hospital either at Colon or Ancon. - -The accommodation provided for the labourers in the camps all along the -canal work have been very severely criticised by a coloured journalist -who lives in Jamaica, and who has paid brief visits to the isthmus in -order to discover if his fellow countrymen were receiving that attention -and care which he considered their due. - -Any evidence of labourers’ habitations in Jamaica half as good as those -provided by the Canal Commission would be difficult to obtain, for the -miserable dirty yards which for the most part form the dwellings of the -West Indian negroes in their own islands, with the disgusting huddling -together of animals and human beings, cannot for a moment be compared -with the cleanly large dormitories fitted with iron-framed bunks which -are provided for them on the Zone. - -Due regard is given to cubic air space by the Health Department, which -insists on five hundred feet for each occupant, whilst the old tin cans -and heterogeneous rubbish which the nigger is so fond of collecting and -hoarding are rigorously excluded from the dormitories, only reasonable -belongings which will not offend against the comfort and health of the -inmates being admitted. - -The buildings are raised on pillars about five or six feet from the -ground, and the large space underneath has to be carefully inspected by -the health officers, for, under the pretence of utilising this shelter -as a store for odds and ends, there is a great danger of its becoming a -heaving rubbish heap. - -Sidewalks and drains have been laid all through the labour camps, and -little could be done to improve or better the majority of them. In the -married quarters, placed at a distance from those occupied by single -men, it is more difficult to prevent the tenants from indulging in their -extraordinary propensity for hoarding up a miscellaneous pile of -articles of no possible use or value. If left to themselves, the -labouring negroes neglect to give much care and attention to their -dwellings, notwithstanding that many of them appear in public on high -days and holidays dressed in the latest fashions, displaying spotless -white linen, and giving the impression to casual beholders that they are -neat and cleanly in their habits. - -The picturesque costumes which are worn by the women from Martinique are -reminiscent of the fashions that were in vogue in Paris fifty years ago, -while the slight Oriental touch which the brightly coloured -handkerchiefs tied round their heads impart is picturesque and -attractive. The material of which their gowns are composed has weird -patterns and in few other communities is there a variety of quaintly -coloured prints to equal those worn by the women who hail from -Martinique. - -[Illustration: A TOILET ON THE ZONE.] - -All these Martiniquian women appear to be very tall, their thin lithe -bodies, and small heads accentuating the effect, and the gracefulness of -their erect carriage and walk is aided by the long ample folds of their -walking skirts, when gathered up and thrown negligently over their arms. - -There was a great deal of talk some little time back about the presence -of these women on the Zone, and allegations were freely made that the -United States Government were paying their expenses to the isthmus, and -that the purpose for which they were brought was one that no Government -could officially sanction. After a great deal of investigation, much -evidence was collected, which went to prove that the women whose moral -character had been called in question were quite respectable, and were -meritoriously engaged as domestic servants and washerwomen, earning -wages far in excess of those obtainable in their island home. Their -presence on the Zone is doubtless appreciated by many of their fellow -countrymen, and keeps them from growing homesick, for the dancings and -rejoicings which they amuse themselves with on holidays and Sundays help -to encourage a spirit of contentment. - -Over a hundred and sixty affidavits were made by Martinique women upon -the isthmus at the beginning of the year 1906, for the purpose of -refuting the charges which were brought against them by newspapers in -the United States, and the Governor of the Canal Zone at the time, C. E. -Magoon, in a letter to the Secretary of War, stated that many of the -women were much alarmed when questioned about the articles that had -appeared against them, and were apprehensive lest they should be -deported back to Martinique. They most willingly gave evidence as to -their occupation. They were well satisfied with the wages they were -earning and the conditions under which they lived, and all of them -protested strongly against the statement that they were “living in sin.” -The marriage customs among all the West Indian Islands differ from those -obtaining in more civilised communities, and to rigid moralists of -northern latitudes may seem rather lax and casual. Few of the women who -subscribed to the affidavits put forward were able to write, only -twenty-seven out of the whole number being able to sign their -testimonies, the other hundred and forty all making a cross. All the -names betrayed, as one would expect, the French origin of their owners. -Some of them were ingeniously fanciful and almost ludicrous. - -Such names as “Susering Johnabatist,” “Danshale Alptired,” “Catherine -Maxemen,” “Vuss Marie,” sound rather odd, and the alliteration of names -like “Pauline S’Paul,” “Dennis Denir,” “Philomen Philibert,” “Alcina -Alcide,” is doubtless intentional, whilst a few like “Gabriel Paralo,” -“Fluce Bernadette,” “Eleonore” have a romantic and not unpleasant sound. - -But the Martiniquians are not alone in possessing extraordinary names. I -remember looking through the register, kept in an official’s office in -one of the West Indian islands, and was amazed at the extraordinary -names written in it. I asked how it was possible for such inappropriate -appellations to have been selected by negroes who surely could hardly -have seen them before. The official produced a large old-fashioned -dictionary, and explained that when parties came to register the birth -of a child and were at a loss for a name, he would read out a list of -long words, the most unsuitable of which was sure to be selected by the -parents, regardless of absurdity. Fancy a small black child with little -clothing or dignity having to support such a name as “Bathybius -Johnston.” Luckily, the registered name is forgotten in a day or two, -and unless a copy is written out the child usually grows up accustomed -to hear itself called by some commonplace and familiar nickname. - -During the year 1906-7 there were over twenty-four thousand labourers -employed upon the isthmus by the Canal Commission, and most of these -were imported from the neighbouring West Indian Islands and Italy and -Spain, as it was found difficult to obtain the necessary labour from -among the natives. - -The country life of Panama is simple, and it requires little effort to -supply the necessities of life. The poorer classes of Panamanians who -dwell in the country are a mixture of Spanish, Indians, and negroes--all -living a more or less primitive life. Marriages are very rare amongst -this class, for the women prefer to remain independent of their mates, -dreading the ill treatment which is usually meted out by the lords of -creation to wives who cannot escape from their bondage. The more common -form of family life is one in which the man and woman form a -partnership, which can easily be terminated by mutual agreement, and -when a parting occurs a division of the household belongings and assets -takes place even down to the children. - -Their houses are of the simplest construction, consisting of a few trees -stuck into the ground roofed over with palm or other suitable leaves. -Some of the huts constructed in this manner have an extra room in the -roof, which is approached by a roughly constructed ladder. The sides or -walls of the huts are made of bamboo split and woven into a kind of -rough matting, although some have walls made of the bamboos placed side -by side, the intervening spaces being filled in with clay. Partitions -devised in the same way are made inside some of the dwellings. As one -would imagine, the furniture contained in most of these houses is of the -simplest and most elementary description. - -Hammocks are used instead of beds for sleeping in, and stumps of trees -serve for tables and chairs. The food consists of frigoles, (a kind of -bean), bananas, plantains, and yams--which form the vegetable and -fruitarian portion of their repasts, while for meats they have so large -a variety to choose from that there is no need for them to complain of -the monotony of their fare. Monkeys and the large lizard, the iguana, -make favourite dishes. Wild turkeys, ducks, red deer, the wild hog or -peccary all find a place on their menus, and they have the art which all -countries seem to possess of brewing intoxicating beverages, the kind -they make being fermented from the sap of a species of the palm. This -custom dates from a very early time, long before the Spaniard first set -foot upon these shores. Tobacco has been in use among the Indians of -America for ages (the followers of Columbus were astonished to see the -natives puffing out clouds of smoke from their mouths), and the leaf of -the soothing weed grows around them at every turn. A little skill in -hunting and hardly any in cultivating are all that is necessary to -maintain existence in this fertile country, and until the native is -convinced that there are things in life worth possessing which at -present he has not got, he will never see the advantage of toiling and -sweating to earn money he knows not how to spend, or to live a life he -could not enjoy. - -Thus he spends his days in a country that is to him - - “A fair Utopian mead - Where his throat is never dusty, - And tobacco grows a weed.” - -The negroes from the West Indian Islands have been so long in contact -with the higher forms of civilisation that they have acquired some of -the habits which belong to the white races, and although there is not in -any of the countries which they hail from the compelling force of hunger -to make them work, the customs of dress and living which they have -acquired induce them to labour, in order to secure the artificial -embellishments they have come to consider necessary to existence. The -isthmus and the canal work have been a happy hunting ground for the -negro who wished to enrich himself; and ever since the French Canal -Company started operations, it has been almost a habit with many of the -Jamaicans and Barbadians to go there and work for a time to earn high -wages. - -The negroes on the isthmus noticed with increasing alarm the gradual -importation of peons from other countries--Spain and Italy in -particular--and felt that they were quickly losing the secure position -hitherto occupied. I have watched a group of nigger labourers standing -outside the wharves at Colon when five hundred Spanish labourers were -disembarking from a Royal Mail steamer, and although their faces were as -impassive as statues their conversation betrayed their apprehensions. - -The labourers recruited from all parts of Spain have settled down upon -the isthmus; many of them are at work in the - -[Illustration: A STREET IN THE OLD QUARTERS, PANAMA.] - -Culebra cut and elsewhere. There can be no two opinions as to their -superiority to the negro as pick-and-shovel men, and the foremen have no -trouble in keeping them at their tasks, as these men have a little -common sense and intelligence, as well as brute strength. - -[Illustration: WATER-BABIES BY A RIVER-SIDE.] - -They are employed in clearing away the bush, cutting down undergrowth, -laying railway tracks, and attending upon the clearing of the dump -trains, and it is surprising how quickly they get accustomed to their -new surroundings. At first there was a little difficulty in supplying -them with the kind of food they desired and were used to, and the negro -cooks who waited upon them were apt to steal some of the rations served -out and give them short measure. I remember seeing a body of about forty -Spaniards advance to the headquarters office at Culebra to lodge a -complaint about their food. - -The two ringleaders had with them an old tin can containing water that -was very dirty and a piece of meat that was certainly far from being -choice. They had come about five miles to see someone in authority and -air their grievance. It was pointed out to them that because they were -in possession of some stagnant water and putrid beef it was no evidence -that it had been served to them as food, and they were sent back with a -promise that their camp should be properly inspected. It turned out that -the deputation had been organised with the express purpose of getting -rid of a Barbadian cook against whom they had a grudge. They had hunted -round the district for the dirtiest water they could find, and had been -fortunate in coming across a piece of stinking meat that had been thrown -out of some wayside shack. So much regard for their comfort had been -displayed by the officials that there was a tendency on the part of -these Spanish labourers to presume upon it by bringing all their natural -cunning into play. - -On Sundays and holidays groups of the Spaniards congregate in Panama. -They look very picturesque with their great balloon-like trousers and -shirts of many colours, and their habit of carrying their coats and -jackets on their shoulders like a mantle. They have not yet adopted the -lighter styles of clothing usually worn in the tropics, but they do not -seem to suffer unduly from the heat. Many of them have very fierce, -villainous expressions, and it may well be that the Spanish Government -spends less in support of its jails and prisons since so many of its -subjects have found employment upon the isthmus. - -There is a disposition on the part of these native recruits to the -labour forces of the Zone to settle, and not a few of them send home for -their wives and families. It does not seem at all unreasonable to -suppose that the example of their forefathers will be followed by many -of them, and it certainly would not be an undesirable thing to have a -fresh influx of new blood. - -The rapid increase of private building operations in Panama and Colon, -and in the many smaller towns along the line, has given the labourer -opportunities for selling his services to a variety of employers, and -for years to come there will be a large demand for skilled workmen as -well. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -_Canal Projects: Old and New_ - - -The transcendent egotist who declared that had he planned the universe -he would have made health and not disease infectious, would also surely -have included in his schemes the omission of the narrow neck of land -which joins the two American continents. For ever since its discovery, -the isthmus of Darien has been but an obstacle that men have wished to -overcome by cutting through it a waterway to connect the two oceans -which it divides. Whether Cortez ever penetrated so far south as Darien -or no, certain it is that he searched diligently for a passage to the -Pacific, declaring this to be the one thing above all others he was most -desirous of meeting with. - -For the best of all reasons, the persistent attempts to discover what -was called the “The Secret of the Straits” proved unsuccessful, and it -remained for human energy and ingenuity to create what nature had failed -to provide. - -As far back as the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the newly -founded city of Panama was fast becoming a flourishing emporium for -Pacific trade, a proposition was put forward by Angel Saavedra for a -canal across the isthmus, and thirty years later Antonio Galvao was -suggesting no fewer than four different canal routes. - -Spain was, however, jealously guarding her new colonies and any -information concerning them, fearing an awakened interest on the part of -other powers. To such an extent did this policy prevail that, according -to one authority, the mere proposal to open up navigation between the -two oceans, or to explore the River Atrato with that object, was -punishable with death. The Spaniards themselves possessed neither the -skill nor the perseverance to carry out such a work as the excavation of -a canal, and dreaded the undertaking of such a project by some more -enterprising nation. - -[Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH AND BUILDINGS, PANAMA.] - -They relied upon ignorance as a means of prevention, and appealed to the -superstition of the age by declaring that the disturbing of what was a -design of nature would undoubtedly result in the vengeance of Heaven on -anyone attempting such a work. - -The reports of the gold to be found in this region attracted the -buccaneers, and led to their exploring the country to no small extent. - -It can readily be understood that the fame of their exploits and their -success in acquiring rich treasure by no means accorded with the policy -of His Majesty of Spain who, in 1685, closed down, by royal decree, the -gold mines on account of their being such an attraction to the pirates, -inducing them to undertake the transit from the sea of the north to the -sea of the south, to the prejudice of the public cause. - -When, however, the power of Spain began to decline and her hold over her -colonies gradually relaxed, a quickened interest arose in the Panama -trade route, whilst the ever-increasing wealth pouring across the -isthmus on mules’ backs or men’s shoulders, continually emphasised the -necessity for better facilities of transit. By the end of the eighteenth -century it had come to be recognised on all sides that the interests of -international commerce demanded the opening up of a line of -communication across this strip of land; and the construction of other -canals such as the Caledonian and the Forth and Clyde, gave an impetus -to the idea of a waterway from the Atlantic to the Pacific at a -favourable point. - -The early years of the next century saw the first of a number of -explorations with the object of determining the most favourable point, -and in 1827 Bolivar, the liberator of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru from -the yoke of Spain, commissioned Captain Lloyd and M. Falmarc to survey -the isthmus. It seems but natural that these two explorers should start -from Panama and follow the old road to Cruces. From that point they -worked their way down the River Chagres to within a few miles of where -it empties itself into the Atlantic. - -Their observations led them to the opinion that a canal scheme was -premature, and for immediate purposes they recommended a combined rail -and water route, by means of a short canal from Limon Bay to the Chagres -River, and the use of its tributary the Trinidad, to a spot favourable -for a junction whence a railway could be established to the Pacific -coast either at Panama or Chorrera. It is curious how subsequent events -have endorsed the ideas of these two men, and that developments have -followed so closely upon the lines they suggested, by the construction, -in the first instance, of a railway the whole distance from Limon Bay to -Panama, and then by the present undertaking of a canal to follow almost -the same route. - -Whether Bolivar purposed carrying out the ideas of the pioneers he sent -forth, or was merely calculating possibilities, was never known; for by -one of those frequent internal rearrangements which afflict South -American republics, New Granada separated from Colombia and formed -itself into an independent state. - -Thirty years before Bolivar had instigated a survey for canal purposes -in the Central American isthmus, Napoleon I had ordered a survey of the -Isthmus of Suez with the idea of connecting by canal the Red Sea and the -Mediterranean. Possibly this was the origin of the fascination which -canal building seems ever since to have exercised over certain minds in -France. - -The New Granada State had not been long in existence as a separate -national entity, ere a French company succeeded in obtaining from its -Government a concession for the construction of highways, railroads, or -canals, from Panama to the Atlantic coast. - -The surveys and plans made by this company during the following years -were characteristically optimistic and included a claim to have -discovered a route which at no point would reach a higher altitude than -thirty-seven feet above the mean level of the Pacific Ocean. Such was -the interest aroused in France by this alleged discovery, that M. -Guizot, at that time Minister of Foreign Affairs, despatched Napoleon -Garella to verify the company’s statements by an independent survey. His -survey and report thereon were so much at variance with the statements -of the Salomon Company, and his inability to discover the pass through -the divide (which they asserted to exist) had such an effect on the -prospects of the company as led to its dissolution. - -Garella, however, agreed largely with Lloyd’s conclusions, particularly -as to the desirability of making Limon Bay the Atlantic terminus of a -canal; and his proposition was for a summit level waterway, reached on -either side by a series of locks. - -Lloyd’s observations had also been proved reliable by the confirmation -of Mr. Wheelwright, whose survey was made on behalf of the Pacific Steam -Navigation Company trading between Panama and the ports on the Pacific -coast. At this time the Atlantic port of the isthmus was Chagres, at the -mouth of the river of the same name, to and from which the trade was -conducted by the vessels of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, who -reopened a line of communication which had been practically abandoned -since the Spanish occupation of the isthmus. Anxious to improve their -route and add security to the transit of merchandise across the isthmus, -this company instructed their colonial superintendent, Captain Liot, -R.N., “to obtain such information as might be useful in guiding the -directors to a sound opinion as to the practicability of influencing the -transit of passengers, specie, etc., between Europe, North America, and -the Pacific, making the same pass through the Isthmus of Panama instead -of by the route round Cape Horn.” - -Captain Liot spent a month in exploring the isthmus in company with Mr. -McGeachy, the Crown Surveyor of Jamaica. On his return to England he was -deputed by a number of commercial magnates in the City of London to -ascertain whether the British Government of the day were willing to -afford such guarantees and immunities as would secure a transit company -against undue risk, should such a corporation decide to establish a -macadamised carriage road, or railroad, from Porto Bello to Panama. The -Government discouraged the idea, and the project was abandoned; but -Captain Liot subsequently published his manuscript containing his -impressions and views, and these are interesting reading, were it only -for his striking prediction that, for at least half a century to come, a -railway or carriage road were the only two propositions that would pay. -The interest aroused at this time in the idea of inter-oceanic -communication is evidenced by the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty of 1850, by -which the Governments of Great Britain and the United States pledged -themselves to do all in their power to facilitate the construction of a -canal, and to maintain its neutrality when constructed. During the early -fifties the attention of American engineers was more particularly -directed to two canal routes farther north, one of which was across the -Isthmus of Tehuantepec, by way of the Coatzacoalcas River. - -Not unknown to Cortez, this route had been surveyed in 1842 by Moro, -under the direction of José de Garay, whose scheme for a canal in this -district involved a waterway of one hundred and fifty miles in length. - -As the maximum altitude to be reached was estimated at 656 feet (De -Lesseps says 975 feet) above sea-level, Garay’s plan necessitated the -construction of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty locks, and it -was calculated that the passage from sea to sea would occupy a period of -twelve days to accomplish. Within the last few years the Tehuantepec -Railway has been constructed, and is now open for traffic. Should this -prove as successful as is anticipated, there is little likelihood that -anything more will be heard of a canal scheme here to compete with the -one approaching completion in Panama. The other route, in the northern -part of the American isthmus, was by way of Lake Nicaragua, and had been -investigated as early as 1779 by Manuel Galisteo, who passed an opinion -unfavourable to a canal project in this locality. However, some British -agents at Belize, who accompanied Galisteo’s expedition in a private -capacity, sent home glowing accounts to their Government; creating such -an impression that when, a year later, war broke out between England and -Spain, Captain Horatio Nelson organised an expedition to acquire -possession of the Nicaraguan territory. - -Although he was successful as far as the Spaniards were concerned, the -climate proved an irresistible enemy, and few of the expedition -survived to return to Jamaica. Nelson himself only escaped with life, -after a long and severe illness. - -[Illustration: A STRETCH OF THE CHAGRES RIVER.] - -Forty years afterwards John Bailey, sent out by an English corporation, -surveyed the Nicaragua route, and made an able report, in which he -projected a canal by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, to -the River Lajas, and thence to San Juan del Sur on the Pacific coast. - -The Americans have always looked with favour on a scheme for a canal -here, owing to the fact that Lake Nicaragua, which is one hundred and -ten miles long by thirty-five miles broad, offers navigation for a -considerable portion of the route to be traversed. This lake, situated -some hundred and twenty-five feet above the level of the sea, is fed by -about forty different streams, and empties itself by means of the River -San Juan into the Gulf of Mexico. - -Difficulties, however, exist in the cataracts by which the course of -this river is broken. Strangely enough one of these is the handiwork of -those inhabitants of the country who, to block the river against -incursions by the buccaneers, sank vessels in it and threw in fallen -trees and masses of rock to form a barrier. To canalise the San Juan -would involve the construction of seven or eight locks, and this was -part of the proposal of Colonel Childs, who in 1852 surveyed the route -for the purposes of a canal. - -In addition to the utilisation of this river and the fifty-five miles of -available navigation on the lake, he estimated that a cutting would have -to be made for a distance of forty-seven miles, the total length of the -route being one hundred and ninety-four miles, and the time occupied in -traversing it being from four to six days. Further locks, to the number -of twenty-eight, were embodied in his scheme, together with piers and -embankments at each end of the lake, and finally the creation of -harbours both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. - -So little was realised of the extent to which shipbuilding would develop -that this proposed canal was only to be of a depth of from seventeen to -twenty feet, and capable of accommodating vessels of under 1999 tons -burden. - -At the same time that Colonel Childs was carrying on his survey in -Nicaragua, an expedition under Mr. Lionel Gisborne was traversing the -Darien in the neighbourhood of the Savana River, to verify, on behalf of -an English syndicate, the observations and representations of Dr. Edward -Cullen, an enthusiast who urged the construction of a canal from the -Gulf of San Miguel, by way of the Savana River, to Caledonia Bay, the -site of the ill-fated Scottish colony. - -Between the undoubtedly excellent natural harbours, which exist both at -the Pacific and Atlantic ends of this route, the distance across the -isthmus is but thirty-nine miles, and only about thirty miles of actual -cutting would be necessary. - -According to Gisborne’s report, no engineering difficulties stood in the -way of making a cut of sufficient capacity to form an uninterrupted -navigation free from locks from sea to sea. - -The course of the projected canal was a perfectly straight one, and the -greatest depth of cutting required was estimated to be about 150 feet -for a distance of two miles. It was claimed that no dredging or -deepening of the River Savana would be required, or any other work, such -as the construction of dams or locks, be necessary. - -A concession from the Government of New Granada was obtained, and a -company formed and provisionally registered. There was nothing to be -done but to make a simple cut some twenty-five or thirty miles long, -thirty feet deep and one hundred and forty feet wide at bottom, and all -at an estimated cost of only £12,000,000; and yet the scheme fell -through. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A SHACK ON THE ISTHMUS.] - -The glowing accounts of both Cullen and Gisborne as to the suitableness -of the locality, and the absence of difficulty in the carrying out of -the work, cause considerable wonder as to the reason for the abandonment -of the scheme; for not till twenty years later did Commander Selfridge -prove the statements of Cullen and Gisborne to be erroneous, when in the -course of an able survey of this region, he showed that a canal through -it would necessitate a tunnel of ten miles in length. At least there was -no lack of public interest in the question of piercing the isthmus, for -farther south in the Darien three particular routes were being -investigated. The first of these, by the way of the rivers Atrato and -San Juan, had aroused hope on account of a report common amongst the -natives that there was in the divide, between these two rivers, a low -depression which the Indians used as a portage for their canoes when -travelling from sea to sea. - -Indeed there was a tradition of a waterway having been cut through the -short distance separating the higher reaches of these two rivers, but -this was never verified. A second Atrato route was by using that river -in conjunction with the River Bando, whilst still a third proposed to -cross from the Bay of Cupica to the River Atrato. - -A further contribution to the possibilities of the Darien region in -respect of a canal was the discovery in 1865, by M. de Lacharme, of a -passage from the Rio Paya, an affluent of the Tuyra, to the Rio Caquiri, -which flows into the Atrato; and his consequent survey of the rivers -Tuyra and Paya. But it would be difficult even to mention the numerous -surveys, plans, and projects that evidenced the eager desire which -existed to gain the immense advantages that would accrue to the -commercial world by the opening of ship canal communication between the -Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. - -In a report by Admiral Davis of the U.S. Navy, made in 1867, he -enumerates no fewer than nineteen separate canal projects, besides seven -proposed railroads, in the isthmus between Tehuantepec and the Atrato -River. But the question of the location for a canal was most naturally -settled by the construction of the Panama Railway, which, in spite of -extreme difficulties, was completed in 1855 and opened for goods and -passenger traffic between Colon and Panama. - -I have described elsewhere the construction of this line and the -immediate causes which contributed thereto. The facilities for transit -which it offers could not but render its route the most fitting one for -the making of a canal across the isthmus; but the railway had been in -operation for sixteen years before recent developments with regard to -canal construction began with a series of international geographical -congresses, the first of which was held in Antwerp in the year 1871. - -The question of a ship canal across the American isthmus was discussed -at this congress, and the project recommended to the attention of the -great maritime powers and of the scientific societies throughout the -world. - -Four years later, at a second Congress in Paris, the question again came -up for consideration. At the sittings of this Congress there was present -Ferdinand de Lesseps, who was then at the height of his reputation, -having a few years previously, in spite of difficulties and oppositions, -fulfilled all his predictions and carried to a successful issue his -scheme for a canal from Suez to Port Said. Little wonder that his -eloquence had great weight! He told the Congress how all the authors of -the various projects for connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific had, -up to that time, made the mistake of committing themselves to a canal -with locks of fresh water. - -[Illustration: THE OLD PANAMA RAILWAY TRACK.] - -Arguing from his triumph at Suez, he declared that none but a sea-level -canal should be attempted, and that such a canal was alone likely to -meet the wants of international commerce. - -Again a resolution was passed, urging that facilities should be given -for the construction of a canal in this part of the world; but -resolutions, being merely expressions of opinion, somewhat resemble good -intentions in vagueness of destination. However, an active step forward -was taken by the appointment of a committee to further the project. - -As a result of the enthusiasm that had been aroused, a syndicate at once -sprang into existence for the purpose of carrying on exploration in -Central America, ostensibly with the view of discovering the most -suitable route, but no doubt with the prime object of making as much -profit as possible from any concessions it might acquire there. - -Lieutenant Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse (whose name was surely enough -to ruin any enterprise) was despatched to the isthmus, and landed there -in 1876. He was brother-in-law to General Turr, who controlled the -syndicate, and seems to have thoroughly understood the object of his -mission, for he not only made a survey, but also an estimate of the cost -of a canal. - -Whether the survey was in any way a reliable one is open to question, -but there can be no doubt that the estimate was very wide of the mark, -although he confidently claimed that his figures would be found to be -within ten per cent of the actual cost, which alas! has not yet been -ascertained. - -But most important of all doubtless from the syndicate’s standpoint, he -succeeded in obtaining, from the Government of what had by this time -become the United States of Colombia, a concession granting the -exclusive privilege of constructing a canal between the two oceans -through the territory of that republic; reserving always the neutrality -of such canal and its terminal ports, and respecting the rights of the -Panama Railroad Company. - -Thus did the “giving of facilities,” urged by the resolution of the -Congress of 1875, degenerate into the “granting of an exclusive -monopoly” to a speculative syndicate three years later. In the following -year the International Congress again met in Paris to consider proposals -for an interoceanic canal. - -M. de Lesseps presided at this Congress, and five different schemes were -discussed; these being the proposals for canals at Tehuantepec, -Nicaragua, Panama, San Blas and Atrato, already described. - -The three last-named all fell within the scope of the “exclusive rights” -granted to the Turr Syndicate, and from the first the Congress favoured -the scheme of Lieutenant Wyse, which, at their request, he modified so -as to substitute a cutting for the proposed tunnel at the divide. The -Panama scheme was now the only one before the Congress which provided -for a canal without a tunnel and without locks, and by a majority of -seventy-eight votes against eight (twelve delegates abstaining from -voting) it was affirmed that: - -“The cutting of an interoceanic canal of uniform level, a work so -desirable in the interest of commerce and navigation, is practicable, -and the maritime canal, in order to meet the indispensable facilities of -access and utilisation which ought to be offered by a passage of this -kind, should be made from the Gulf of Limon to the Bay of Panama.” - -As was most natural, De Lesseps was urged to undertake the direction of -the work, and, although at his advanced age he might fairly have rested -on his laurels won at Suez, this veteran agreed to conduct another -enterprise, fraught with international advantage and blessings to -posterity. - -That he underestimated the difficulties attending the task has been -abundantly demonstrated, but nothing should lessen our admiration for -the courage and enthusiasm with which he assumed the responsibility, and -the untiring energy he displayed. To whomsoever may ultimately belong -the honour of completing the canal, to Ferdinand de Lesseps will always -be due the credit of having initiated the work. - -Following upon the report of the Congress, there was issued on 23 July, -1879, the prospectus of a company called “La Compagnie Universelle du -Canal Interoceanique de Panama,” but more generally and conveniently -known as the Panama Canal Company. - -The suggested capital was 400,000,000 francs, or £16,000,000, to consist -of 800,000 shares of 500 francs or £20 each. Of these 790,000 were to be -issued to the public, whilst 10,000 were reserved for the original -concessionaires. It was proposed to call up only 125 francs (£5) per -share at first, and interest at the rate of 5 per cent per annum was to -be paid during construction on the actual money received. - -Even an estimated revenue of 90,000,000 francs annually from the canal -when completed was not sufficient inducement to the public, and the -issue failed; only about one-tenth of the capital offered being -subscribed for. - -M. de Lesseps, accompanied by a technical commission of engineers, one -of whom was Heer J. Dircks, of the Amsterdam Canal, visited the isthmus; -and their opinion was that the canal could be constructed for about -thirty-four millions sterling and be completed in eight years. -Subsequently De Lesseps undertook a tour through the United States, -England, Holland, and Belgium, and a number of towns in France, -lecturing on behalf of his scheme; and it is difficult to doubt the -_bona fides_ of this indefatigable octogenarian, or his implicit faith -in the achievement of his design, especially when it is remembered that -he is said to have sunk 309,000 francs of private fortune in the -venture. - -The assistance of journalists and financial groups was called in, or -perhaps it would be more correct to say bought in, and such enthusiasm -was worked up that when next offered the capital asked for was -subscribed more than twice over. - -But a false step had been taken, and henceforth, instead of selfish and -ambitious considerations being secondary to the grand ideal of cutting -from ocean to ocean a highway of nations for the benefit of the commerce -of the world at large, a sordid profit-grasping spirit seems to have -possessed the promoters and the public to whom they so successfully -appealed. - -Early in January of the year 1881 a party of engineers left Paris, and -by the end of February were at work on the scene of operations. - -The canal planned by the De Lesseps company followed very closely the -route of the existing railway between Colon and Panama, and was to be -about fifty-four miles in length. - -[Illustration: JAMAICAN LABOURER ON THE ZONE] - -It was to be constructed on a sea-level plan, with the bottom 28 feet -below the mean level of the oceans. At the bottom the width of the canal -was to be 72 feet, and at the surface of the water 160 feet, except in -the section through the divide at Culebra, where, although with depth of -29-1/2 feet and a width at bottom of nearly 79 feet, the surface width -narrowed almost to one-half and would be only 92 feet. The two great -difficulties of an engineering nature which confronted the undertaking -were the excavation of the cut through the divide at Culebra and the -control of the Chagres River with its tributaries, which during the -rainy season are subject to extraordinary floods, the waters having been -known to rise as much as 38 feet in as many hours. - -For the control of this river the French company proposed to construct a -huge reservoir at Gamboa, the dam being so designed as to retain the -floods of the river and allow the water to escape gradually. From the -start the management of the whole undertaking was characterised by -unnecessary expenditure and extravagance. Not only does this apply to -the financial operations in Paris, but also to the work carried on in -the isthmus itself. - -An artificial peninsula was constructed at Colon, on which were erected -expensive residences. The Director-General maintained a state that was -almost regal, receiving the handsome salary of £10,000 a year, with £10 -per day for travelling expenses. - -All the officials were highly paid, and lived in residences which were -surrounded by spacious ornamental grounds laid out at superfluous -expense. - -But the labourers imported from Jamaica and other West Indian islands -were, on the other hand, housed so badly and with such lack of all -proper sanitary precautions that sickness and disease quickly devastated -their ranks. - -The Panama Railway had been acquired at almost three times its market -price. The defence afterwards made for this was that an understanding -with the railway company was essential, as the shares were held in few -hands, and the proprietors of these were becoming exorbitant. - -[Illustration: BARBADIAN LABOURER ON THE ZONE] - -Losses occurred in September, 1882, when the railway and works were -partly destroyed by earthquake, whilst three years later, in a rebellion -which broke out, Colon suffered severe damage by fire. - -At the end of 1884 little of the actual work of excavation had been -accomplished, but the preliminary plans had been prepared and soundings -taken. The line of route had also been cleared of tropical vegetation, -dwellings and barracks erected for the employees, hospitals built, and -large supplies of materials of all kinds were at command. - -Twenty contracting firms had the work pieced out amongst them. At this -time the Panama Canal Company had raised and received close upon -£19,000,000, of which sum it had expended about £14,750,000, too heavy a -proportion of which had gone in preliminary expenses. A further sum of -£5,500,000 was raised by the issue of 4 per cent bonds, but a year later -only about one-tenth of the actual work of excavation had been -accomplished. - -This state of affairs gave rise to a great deal of adverse criticism, -and the adoption of a high-level canal with locks began to be thought of -as a less costly and more expeditious scheme--for it had now become so -extremely difficult for the company to raise money, that successive -reductions had to be made in the amount of proposed excavation work. It -was even seriously proposed to build a lock-level canal, with a -summit-level of one hundred and ten feet above mean ocean-level; and it -was only on the reorganisation of the enterprise and the extension of -the time limit that a modification was made to a plan with a -summit-level of sixty-one feet. But the slow progress of the work and -the continual alteration of the plans and details, combined with the -enormous sums of money already swallowed up, had shaken public -confidence. Financial aid from at least two large banking institutions -and from syndicates formed for the purpose was obtained at a ruinous -price. By the end of 1887 the funds of the company had again sunk very -low, and it was estimated that a further £12,000,000 would be required -within a year. - -De Lesseps, who had paid another visit to the isthmus and sailed three -miles up the Chagres River, still declared that the work would be -ultimately completed, and obtained the sanction of the French Parliament -for the issue of lottery bonds. This sanction was not obtained without -considerable expenditure; one Cabinet Minister stipulating for a million -francs, half to be paid when he introduced the Bill, and the balance -when the Bill passed. - -The originator of the lottery idea received three million francs, -chiefly because he was a big speculator on the Bourse and his hostility -would have been mischievous. The necessary amount of subscriptions for -the lottery bonds not being forthcoming, the company suspended payment -on 14 December, 1888. - -Although not unexpected, the news caused a severe shock in Paris, and -the whole situation became so serious that a meeting of the French -Cabinet was held to consider the best course to be adopted. In order to -gain time and to prevent wild speculation it was proposed to permit the -company to suspend for three months only, and a Bill for this purpose -was introduced, but was rejected by 256 votes to 181. - -M. de Lesseps immediately resigned and proposed liquidation. The -excitement in Paris was intense, and strangely enough, in spite of the -fact that millions of pounds had been lost and thousands of shareholders -ruined, the anger of the crowds vented itself, not on De Lesseps, but on -the Government of the day. The Boulangists seized upon the opportunity -to attempt a political revolution, and the cheers of the populace were -divided between De Lesseps and Boulanger. - -At a great meeting of shareholders which was held it was agreed to -forego the payments of coupons and annuities until the opening of the -canal and the raising of more capital. A resolution professing continued -confidence in the veteran De Lesseps was also passed. - -But the attempt to form a new company for the completion of the canal -failed, owing to the lack of subscriptions, and the Panama Canal Company -went into liquidation, the work being gradually suspended. - -The Panama Canal Bill, to promote the continuance of the work, was now -passed by both chambers, and a Commission of Inquiry was appointed. - -The Commission, which visited the isthmus with De Lesseps in 1880, had -estimated that the canal could be completed at a cost of 843 millions of -francs, whilst up to the time of the suspension of the company no less a -sum than 1329 millions of francs was expended. The report of the -Commission of Inquiry, when issued, stated that a further sum of 900 -millions of francs would be required to complete the canal. - -Meanwhile a great fire occurred at Colon, in which the railway buildings -and a large part of the town were destroyed, and although an arrangement -was come to with the Colombian Government for an extension by ten years -of the time in which the canal might be completed, the scheme totally -collapsed and a legal investigation was proposed. - -In consequence of the official liquidator’s report and the painful -disclosures which took place at the sittings of the Committee of -Inquiry, a prosecution was commenced against M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, -his son Charles de Lesseps and other directors, for bribery and -corruption. After a trial lasting nearly a month, during which the -speech of the counsel for the defence occupied four whole days, M. de -Lesseps and his son were sentenced to five years’ imprisonment, whilst -the other directors were fined and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. -The news of the sentence caused a great sensation, many thinking it -savoured of harshness. Ferdinand de Lesseps was lying ill at his country -house during the whole of the trial, and although the news of the -verdict was telegraphed to Madame de Lesseps, it was carefully kept from -the aged invalid. Two days afterwards Charles de Lesseps paid a visit to -his father and had a most affecting interview with him. On his son’s -departure the old man relapsed into a condition of unconscious stupor. -He never regained vigour or recovered from the shock which the failure -of his plans and the scandals attached to that failure occasioned. Great -care had to be taken lest news from the outside world of the second -trial of his son and his colleagues (resulting in fines and -imprisonment) should reach the enfeebled intellect and shattered frame -and snap life’s thread; and it is said that the papers of the previous -years recounting the progress of the work on the isthmus were read to -him as if of current issue. Through two years of careful nursing and -watching his life was prolonged till on 7 December, 1894, in his -ninetieth year, there passed away one who, in spite of the clouds that -overshadowed the close of his career, remains one of the most -illustrious of Frenchmen. He was neither an engineer nor a financier, -but had such magnetic personality and persuasive eloquence as enabled -him to enlist the co-operation of practical men whom he inspired with -his own enthusiasm, and his reputation outlives the jealousy and -intrigue that brought about his ruin, for his name is indelibly -inscribed on the roll of fame. - -The Official Receiver appointed to administer the affairs of the Panama -Canal Company was faced with a grave responsibility. It was his -paramount duty to safeguard, as far as possible, the interests of the -shareholders by saving from the wreck anything that might remain of -their investment. The principal asset, however, was the work already -accomplished at so great a cost, and the value of this was necessarily -contingent on the completion of the enterprise. On the other hand the -experience of the company, with regard to health and labour -difficulties, the ever-varying estimates as to cost and time for -completion, the continual alterations as to the detail of the work, and -the particular level at which it was best to construct the canal; and - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA] - -above all the enormous amount of money absorbed for apparently so little -return, all tended to prevent the public from further financial venture -in the scheme. By the aid of special legislation, and by dint of -dexterous compromise, most of the lawsuits which had been instigated -against the company were settled, and the claims of a number of its -creditors and bondholders successfully resisted. But none of the persons -shown to have made large pickings out of Panama money evinced any -inclination to refund, although an ex-Minister of the French Government -is understood to have shed tears in confessing to a bribe of 375,000 -francs. - -The Republic of Colombia granted an extension of time for the purpose of -the organisation of a new company and the completion of the canal, and, -although on a very reduced scale, the work was still carried on. - -Towards the close of the year 1894 a new company was formed upon -entirely commercial lines and having no connection, alliance, or -relation whatever with any Government except such as were established by -the concession held from the Republic of Colombia. The board of -directors was an entirely new one and was composed of gentlemen having -no official relation with the old Panama Company. - -Pursuant to judicial sale authorised by the French Court, the new -company became the sole owner of all the canal works, plant, material, -concessions and other property of the old company. Deciding not to be -bound by the conclusions arrived at from the surveys of the old company, -the new board of directors resolved to examine and study anew all the -questions involved, the most recent improvements in material and the -advances made in engineering. - -They therefore appointed an International Technical Commission, composed -of fourteen members, seven of whom were eminent French engineers, and of -the other seven (experts of different nationalities) four had been -particularly connected with well-known canal undertakings. The -investigations of this Commission were carried on during many months, -and the question was studied in all its details--technical, climatic, -physical, geological and economic. - -It was not till 1898 that their report was issued, and in it they -suggested a canal of forty-six miles in length from ocean to ocean, with -a system of locks, four on each slope of the divide. All the locks were -to have a rock foundation and double lock-chambers, and the time of -passage from ocean to ocean was to be less than a day. They maintained -that nothing in the physical conditions on the isthmus would prevent a -change to a sea-level canal should such be deemed desirable in the -future. - -They found that two-fifths of the work on the canal had been actually -constructed, and that the remaining three-fifths was in a fair way to -completion, as, during the last few years, three or four thousand -workmen on an average had been employed in working on the canal. - -The existence and operation of the railroad greatly facilitated the work -of construction, and, whilst the two greatest difficulties were the -control of the Chagres River and the excavation of the Culebra cut, -nothing had been planned that was not fully justified by practical -experience. - -For the control of the floods of the Chagres River it was proposed to -construct two great artificial lakes, one at Bohio and the other at -Alhajuela, and not at Gamboa, the site selected for a dam by the old -company. With regard to the cutting at Culebra, the difficulty lies -principally in transporting the excavated material to the dumps, and in -effecting the transportation as rapidly as will keep pace with the -efficiency of the excavating machines. - -About the time that the report of this Technical Commission made its -appearance, public sentiment in America had been greatly aroused in -favour of an interoceanic canal under American control, and general -opinion favoured the Nicaragua route. In anxiety lest a rival scheme -should be initiated just at the time when the New Panama Company was -about to appeal to the great financiers of the world for monetary -support, the board of directors sent to the President of the United -States the report of their Commission and a letter drawing his attention -to the state of the work and the prospects of the new company. It was -fully realised that should the American Government decide to construct a -waterway, investors would be deterred from backing a private enterprise -which could not commercially compete with a national undertaking, and, -further, should a Government undertaking be commenced, the Panama Canal -would be greatly retarded if not prevented by the difficulty of securing -the requisite labour. - -The American Senate being engaged in considering the advisability of -supporting the Maritime Canal Company in its Nicaragua project, the New -Panama Canal Company managed to secure a hearing, at which its position -was fully explained and an offer made to re-incorporate the company -under American law. - -The upshot was that the President was authorised to make a thorough -investigation as to the best route for a canal which should be under the -control of the United States and the absolute property of that nation. - -[Illustration: THE CHURCH AT CHAGRES.] - -This led to the appointment of the first Isthmian Canal Commission, who -proceeded to ascertain upon what terms the property and rights of the -New Panama Canal Company might be acquired by the United States. The -company could hardly submit a definite figure to a body which had no -authority either to accept or reject its offer, but submitted a -tentative proposal to sell and transfer its canal property to the United -States for $109,141,500. The Commission promptly assessed the value at -$40,000,000 and submitted a report favouring the Nicaragua route. On -this becoming known in Paris the directors of the company at once -resigned, and at a general meeting of stockholders it was resolved to -accept the Commission’s estimate. - -This surrender was practically forced upon the company by the American -Government, as the threat to construct a canal at Nicaragua meant death -to any hopes of raising sufficient extra capital for the completion of -the Panama Canal. A telegram was sent, offering to sell out all assets, -rights, and interests to the only possible purchaser at that purchaser’s -own figure of $40,000,000. At once the Commission issued a supplementary -report, that under the altered conditions the most feasible and -practical route for an isthmian canal under the control, management and -ownership of the United States was the Panama route. - -The scheme for beating down the New Panama Canal Company in its price -having proved successful, Congress passed what is commonly known as the -Spooner Act, which authorised the President to acquire the property of -the Canal Company for a sum not exceeding forty millions of dollars, to -acquire the necessary territory from the Republic of Colombia, and to -proceed with the excavation, construction, and completion of the canal. - -The same Act, however, authorised the President to proceed with the -Nicaraguan scheme should he fail in acquiring the Panama property. - -At the same time the Hay-Herran Treaty was negotiated with the Republic -of Colombia, its object being to secure to the United States the -privilege of constructing a canal through the Isthmus of Panama. The -Colombian Government failed to ratify this treaty, and, at the -instigation of some person or persons unknown, a bloodless revolution -was accomplished whereby Panama became an independent republic. This -having occurred, the United States immediately concluded with the new -State the Hay-Varilla Treaty, by which the United States guaranteed to -maintain the independence of the new Republic of Panama, receiving in -return the concessions necessary for the construction, maintenance, -operation, sanitation and protection of the canal, also a zone of -territory ten miles in width, extending five miles on either side of the -centre line of the canal, and a group of small islands in the Bay of -Panama. The price of the concession was $10,000,000 gold to be paid -down, and an annual payment of $250,000 gold beginning nine years after -the date of the ratification of the treaty. - -The way was now clear for the acquisition of the Canal Company’s -property. Three-fourths of the purchase money was transmitted by gold -shipments, and it took two months to accomplish this prudently and -safely and without disturbing financial conditions. The other fourth was -conveyed through the ordinary medium of exchange, but all the documents -were delivered and possession given the moment the United States -Government paid over the money to the bankers in New York who had -undertaken to effect the transmission. - -The canal is to be ready for traffic in 1915, although rumours are -afloat that the official opening may take place at an earlier date. Much -depends, however, upon causes over which even the resourcefulness of a -great nation has no control. Slides in the Culebra Cut have worried both -the French and American engineers, and have given much extra labour. -There are twenty-seven in all, and an area of one hundred and fifty -acres is affected. The Cucaracha slide has necessitated the removal of -an extra two million cubic yards of “dirt,” and it is still active. -Altogether over nine million yards of extra excavation have been caused -by these natural movements. - -The Isthmus of Panama lies in the earthquake zone, and within the last -one hundred years many shocks have been experienced. It is always -pointed out, however, by engineers that as the flat arch in the old -church of Santo Dominic has stood for two hundred and fifty years -without being affected, the severity of the earthquake shocks of the -past could not have been serious, and no trouble is anticipated from -seismic tremors. Industry, patience, and money have accomplished much, -and there is no doubt that the canal is nearing completion. Great -developments are expected when it is opened, and many that are quite -unexpected are certain to take place. It is the intention of the Canal -Commission to Americanise the Canal Zone. The majority of workers at -present in the district will no longer be welcome when the work is -completed. At present there seems to be an impression abroad that the -authorities intend to repatriate labourers brought there under contract -as soon as their task is done, and that foreigners will be deported as -soon as their services can be dispensed with. These will be the -preliminary steps towards the establishment of an American Colony. This -strikes one as rather drastic treatment at first, but on second thoughts -it is clear that the American Government cannot tolerate an idle lot of -bush-squatters along their territory; for one thing, the expense of -keeping the health conditions good would be too great. The undesired -labourers will have to seek other quarters. It is probable that the West -Indies will get a large number of them; others may find an opening for -their services in Colombia and the other republics further south, who -can all do with them. The Zone will be a military reservation, and the -canal will be fortified. This was made clear by Mr. Roosevelt at Omaha -in September, 1910, when he stated that in his opinion the canal would -be opened in January, 1915, at latest, and perhaps by the end of 1913. -With regard to the fortifications, he said that the United States -Government were bound in honour to fortify their great work so as -effectively to guarantee its neutrality and to prevent its being used -against them. To refuse to fortify it he asserted would mean the -abandonment of the Monroe doctrine. He also pointed out that one of the -national advantages the United States gained by the waterway was the -doubling of the strength of their navy. Forts are already in course of -construction on the islands lying at the mouth of the Pacific entrance -and on the shores of Limon Bay. When schemes of great magnitude are -accomplished certain interests are bound to suffer. The greatest -sufferer in the present instance is likely to be the Tehuantepec -Railway. The railways of America may also “feel the draught,” and will -no doubt actively oppose the raising of capital for steamship companies. -The fixing of canal dues has yet to be done, and the shipping world is -looking forward with keen interest to the arrangements that will be -made. The passing by the Senate of the Panama Canal Bill in August, -1912, with its clauses giving favoured treatment to America coastal -shipping has aroused a chorus of protest from foreign countries, and -even in the States difficult points remain to be settled, and until they -are the interests of different shipping and railway companies are -naturally rather anxious. In nearly all maritime countries preparations -are being advanced to take advantage of the new highway, and American -shippers in particular are awaking to a sense of the importance of the -markets made more accessible. The American Hawaiian Company, now using -eighteen ships between Hawaii and New York, has ordered five large -freight steamers to the island via Panama Canal. A new company, the -“Atlantic and Pacific,” proposes fifteen vessels as a start. The Royal -Mail steamers from Southampton to Colon and the Pacific Steam Navigation -Company will be in a strong position for obtaining a large proportion of -the South American trade. The Hamburg-American are reported to be -looking for docks at San Francisco. The Ward and other American lines -will become patrons of the canal, and it is estimated that one hundred -new American vessels will soon be under construction in national yards, -and that will make nearly one hundred and fifty of that nation ready for -the canal. Other countries are not idle. Japan has boats in course of -construction; Denmark contemplates a service between Copenhagen and San -Francisco and other Pacific ports; the Holland-American line of -Rotterdam and the French Transatlantic will also enter into the Pacific -trade. The Hamburg-American line projects carrying emigrants to the -Pacific coast (Peru, etc.) from Hamburg, Antwerp, Cherbourg, Plymouth, -Genoa, and Naples at the same rate as to New York plus canal dues. That -the whole course of commerce will be changed there can be no two -opinions, and that the Pacific seaboard of South America will benefit is -also a foregone conclusion. Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo and Arica and -Valparaiso will be brought nearer to their markets by direct steamship -service, and the closer intercourse will undoubtedly bring about large -increases in their commerce. Ships sailing from the Eastern and Western -coasts of the United States will save a distance of from seven to eight -thousand miles, and European shipping to Pacific ports will reduce their -voyages by about the same number. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -_Panama_ - - -When the present city of Panama was founded in 1673, its architects and -builders in laying out the new town fixed its location up the rocky -peninsula which juts out into the sea at the foot of Ancon hill. They -had a vivid recollection of the fate that had overtaken the old city, -and were determined that the new one should offer a more formidable -front to any invading foe, and so strongly fortified was the new city -that with the exception of Cartagena it was the most impregnable -fortress in the whole of South America. Shortly after the city was -founded it became the capital of Terra Firma, and it was hoped by the -founders that the surrounding provinces of Panama, Darien, and Veragua -would contribute largely to its importance and support. But the Indians -of the Darien province, regaining their independence, became -uncontrollable, and the gold mines in the other provinces proved, after -extended trials, to be unremunerative, so that the new city was -dependent chiefly upon the pearl fisheries, which are to this day of -considerable importance to it. The pearls of Panama are of fine quality -and remarkable size, and although the fashions of different ages have -undergone changes with regard to jewels, the fisheries have, in spite of -the increasing popularity of diamonds, been able to hold their own by -opening up new markets in Peru and Southern America. The real reason, -however, of the importance of the new city was the unique position it -occupied. It rapidly became the market for the products of the rich -countries on the Pacific coast, and fleets of small sailing craft were -ever arriving at the port laden with valuable merchandise. Great stores -were built for the reception of the goods until the mule trains were -ready to convey them across the isthmus, _en route_ for Spain. Many of -the older buildings are now in ruins, but what - -[Illustration: OUTSIDE A CHURCH ON CHRISTMAS EVE, PANAMA.] - -remains affords ample evidence of the city’s former splendour. With the -decay of piracy the necessity of keeping up the earlier standards of -resistance ceased and many of the older buildings were allowed to fall -into decay. Even the old city wall has dwindled until only a portion -about a quarter of a mile in length remains. This is a favourite -playground of the children, and when the sun is setting, the older -people of the poorer classes rest upon the worn-out benches that project -from the stone parapets, enjoying the cooling breezes that evening -brings. Legend has it that Philip V of Spain was observed by his -courtiers gazing into the distance that lay in the direction of the new -colonies, and when one of his ministers asked him what he strained his -eyes to behold, the King, with a merry twinkle in his eye, replied that -“he was trying to discern the walls of Panama, for they had cost so -much, that surely they must be visible even from Spain.” The whole of -the old town is built of stone quarried from the volcanic rocks in the -vicinity; the walls of most of the buildings are from three to four feet -in thickness, with the windows placed high up from the ground; the thick -doors are plentifully studded with huge nails, and bound by stout iron -bands. The cathedrals and churches are massive and liberally supplied -with heavy buttresses; in fact, they look more like fortresses than -places of worship; and there are so many of them that one might easily -fall into the error of believing that the founders of the city and early -inhabitants were a very religious community. There is one church in the -Calle San José that I visited frequently during the heat of the day, the -cool shade it afforded was a welcome contrast to the hot glare of the -streets; and although I have been in it many times, I never saw more -than two or, at the most, three persons in it at the same time. It has -an earthy smell, and is damp, cool, and fusty. Round the edifice altars -stand out in harsh relief from the austere whitewashed walls. Carved -figures of saints draped in dusty raiment that was once brilliant gave -the place an aspect of a cheap waxworks. The small windows high up in -the walls let in a silvery light that diffused itself through the -interior. The pews or forms arranged down the centre of the aisle were -in the last stages of decay, so frail and rotten that they could not -support any substantial weight. Occasionally a negress with a -bright-coloured turban and long, trailing gown would sail into the gloom -and glide noiselessly up to one of the many altars, in front of which -she would kneel and stare about as if bewildered. But I was generally -alone in the great building, sometimes catching glimpses of the aged -priest, who, with robes tucked up, was occupied in sweeping the damp, -stone floor, a pathetic reminder of the waning power of Holy Church in -the city. At Christmas time there is created in this church a huge - -[Illustration: THE FLAT ARCH OF ST. DOMINIC.] - -toy-like representation of the Nativity, with small dolls crudely -suggesting the shepherds and the Magi visiting the manger. A great array -of candles are set in front and all around the tawdry show, and all day -long crowds of the poorer classes stand gazing spellbound at the marvel. -All the other churches in the city have some similar exhibition during -Christmas week, and the crowds go from one to another, eager to see all -they can for nothing. The church of La Merced, which stands in the Calle -Real, in what used to be the extreme limit of the city, is built from -the materials gathered at the ruins of the old church of the same name -that stood in the ancient city of Panama. The church stands at a street -corner, and on the left of the main entrance, occupying the corner of -the building, is a small chapel, some sixteen feet square, with a door -from either street. At all times some worshipper is to be found inside -this little sanctuary, for so conveniently situated is it that -passers-by have only to step a few feet out of their way to be within -its walls. Women with great bundles on their heads step in, cross -themselves, mutter a word or two, and are not detained more than a few -seconds by their devotions; whilst the man of business and small urchins -rush through one door and out at the other, to save the turning at the -corner of the street. The oldest church in the city, that of San Felipi -Nevi, has the date “1688” carved on a shield above its entrance, but the -more modern buildings that have sprung up around it almost hide it from -view. Its walls are about five feet in thickness, which doubtless -accounts for it still standing. The cathedral in the Central Plaza, the -largest building in the city, is in a very good state of repair, and is -generally well attended. It has two lofty towers surmounted with conical -domes covered with oyster-shells, which glisten and sparkle in the sun. -The front of the church is richly moulded and faced with flat, fluted, -and engaged columns. In the niches sculptured figures representing the -twelve apostles are placed, while at the top, in the centre, is placed -an effigy of the Virgin. The whole building is painted over with a -disagreeable colour-wash of saffron hue, an act of vandalism that could -only occur in a country that pays little or no regard to the upkeep of -its public buildings. Another instance of the scant attention and regard -for ancient monuments can be seen in the ruins of the once noble church -of St. Dominic. The roof of this large building has long since -disappeared, probably during one of the numerous fires that have played -such havoc in the city. There remains, however, in this church a most -extraordinary specimen of building construction--a large arch of over -sixty feet span, near the principal entrance, has caused much discussion -amongst engineers and architects. It is practically flat, having no -other support than its terminal columns. How it has survived the -earthquake shocks that have from time to time visited the city is a -mystery. Some experts have pointed to it as evidence that no very -serious tremors can ever have taken place since it was built. But, -however this may be, it is certainly an ingenious piece of construction, -probably unique. A legend obtains currency amongst the better informed -natives to the effect that before success attended the labours of the -builders three failures befell them. On the last occasion the designer -of the arch - -[Illustration: OLD HOUSES ON THE SEA WALL, PANAMA.] - -stood underneath it and proclaimed it to be a sound piece of -construction if it did not fall upon him. It hardly needed the pious -architect to point out that something was indeed seriously wrong with -the work if it did fall and kill him. But silly legends abound in Latin -America as well as in other parts of the globe. The church of St. -Dominic must have had an imposing appearance in its early youth, for -even the ravages of time and weather have failed to rob it of -distinction, and the thick, tropical vegetation that now runs wild over -its crumbling walls suggests forcibly that nature is more anxious to -hide decay than man is to prevent it. The city has undergone many -changes since its birth, and the regular symmetrical design that was in -earlier times adhered to by its builders has been so modified and -altered by subsequent designers that it is with difficulty that we can -form an idea of its earlier aspect. Whenever fire and time have -destroyed buildings, no effort has been made to rebuild in the -substantial early manner. The old fortifications have nearly all -disappeared, and the city has grown far beyond the limits which they set -to its extension. Flimsy structures are now erected of timber framework -covered with plaster, and treated with a coat of whitewash. The sham is -rampant. How the shade of Ruskin would writhe in agony should it chance -in its wanderings to visit Panama, where stucco masquerades as stone. A -month or two at most of the varying climatic conditions of alternate -dry and damp heat and the most pretentious mansions present a -disreputable aspect. The colour schemes which are attempted by the -decorators are novel and discordant. The half-formed, undeveloped, -æsthetic sense of the Latin American is more amazing than the crudest -efforts in art of the rudest savages. A striking instance of perverted -colour sense was displayed by a prominent citizen during the memorable -visit of President Roosevelt. In honour of the unique occasion, this -enterprising gentleman caused the exterior of his house to be covered -with a hideous magenta water-wash, ornamental parts being picked out in -a canary yellow. The originality of this scheme attracted much -attention; and although the few judicious grieved, the masses were -delighted. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -_The Panamanians_ - - -The difficulties that beset the early travellers across the Isthmus of -Panama over two hundred years ago still remain, and confront the -explorer in these regions at every turn. Very little has been done to -cultivate the rich lands which are capable of rapidly yielding in great -abundance every kind of tropical fruit. - -Few roads exist, and until some attempts are made thus to open up the -country, little or no change will ever take place in the condition of -the interior. The activity on the isthmus to-day is confined to the -Canal Zone, but there are indications that in the near future the -systematic cultivation of this hitherto neglected country will yield a -harvest richer than any ever reaped by the gold seekers of Pizarro’s -day. - -The average Panamanian of the present day, true to the traditions of his -race, has little inclination or no taste for husbandry, and is well -content to occupy some trivial government position which brings him in a -sure if small income, whilst putting no tax upon his intelligence. He -has leisure to live a life of social gaiety in the capital, and spend -his time in enjoying the intercourse with strangers passing over the -highway to the Pacific coast. With the Spaniard’s love of an indolent -life accentuated by a tropical climate, the only violent exercise they -ever take is vehement talking by the hour, at all times and in all -places on affairs of government. Panamanians are a strange mixture of -many races. Spanish by descent, with an infusion of more or less Indian, -negro, German, English, Dutch, and French blood, some of them claim that -they are pure Indians, and therefore true Americans, and proudly point -out that the inhabitants of the United States have not the same -authority to call themselves American as the real descendants of the -aborigines of the two continents. - -[Illustration: PANAMA FROM ANCON.] - -But they are very amiable, these Panamanians, ever ready with a smile or -salute as you pass them on the street, and with an infinite capacity for -making acquaintances, if not for forming friendships. - -Late in the afternoon you can see many of them astride prancing steeds, -neat, round-bellied little animals, with finely-arched necks, tapering -legs clattering along the newly paved streets, their small feet making a -strange music like castanets. The saddles used are of the Mexican type, -and the large leathern protections which surround the front portion of -the stirrups give the riders a somewhat grotesque appearance. About the -same hour a continuous procession of carriages drives along the Savannah -road, many of them of smart appearance. The black coachmen are all more -or less disfigured with tall, shining hats and brass-buttoned coats, but -the occupants reclining behind them look beautiful and cool in -bright-coloured gowns of amazing cuts. There are only two roads leading -out of Panama over which carriages can pass, and consequently the -drivers in the neighbourhood of the city are limited to them. One of -these--that leading to Balboa--passes the cemeteries of the city. Until -very recently a custom obtained in Panama with regard to the burial of -the dead which was so repellent it is almost incredible that it could -have existed even in a savage country. A concession was granted by the -Government to one of its prominent citizens who let out graves on lease -and collected rents from the relatives. Should they fall in arrears with -the rent, the stony-hearted concessioner had little compunction in -ordering his men to remove the remains from the vault in which they -rested, and cast them into a waste bit of ground near by. Other -cemeteries separated by walls from one another are provided for the -interment of different religious bodies. Jews, Mohammedans, Chinese, -Roman Catholics, and Protestants are each buried among their -co-religionists. - -The United States Government, with a sentimental regard for the feelings -of its citizens, has, through the Canal Commission, made a rule that, -should any citizen of the United States in the employ of the Commission -die while on the isthmus, his body shall be embalmed and conveyed at the -Government’s expense to any part of the United States that the relatives -may desire. - -That a reform of the burial system in Panama from a sanitary point of -view was necessary and should have impressed itself upon the health -authorities is not to be wondered at, but it only could have been -brought about in this instance by the United States having full power -over the health and sanitation of the country which adjoins their strip -of territory. In the country districts there are, of course, no special -burial grounds, but the small wooden crosses and cairns that are -scattered up and down serve to mark the spots chosen for the interment -of the dead. - -There is one other cemetery about two miles from Colon called Mount -Hope, better known on the isthmus as “Monkey Hill.” The graves marked -with wooden crosses contain the remains of representatives of nearly -every country in the world. The monuments erected are of the most flimsy -materials, so that any indications of the last resting-place of -thousands of the makers of the isthmian route will inevitably disappear. -So accustomed were the inhabitants of Colon to the procession of the -funeral train, that they became quite callous to the fate of the many -who had been stricken with the deadly fevers so rampant in the place, -and funerals going along the streets are usually followed by mourners -engaged in lively conversation and smoking big cigars. - -Close contact with these melancholy scenes is unavoidable in the small -area in which the inhabitants of the towns of Colon and Panama dwell, -and the high death-rate which both have suffered from has made their -populations familiar with the trappings of woe. - -The road that leads out of the city to the Savannahs, where the summer -residences of the better class merchants are situated, is good, as it -comes within the canal strip ceded to the States. It is mostly used by -the gentry of Panama, and it has lately been extended right out to the -ruins of the earliest Latin city in America, “old Panama,” which was -destroyed by Morgan in his famous raid. Very little remains of the city -which was known to its contemporaries as the “Golden cup of the West.” -Its churches with rich altars, and houses filled with priceless -tapestries, its richly furnished mansions, its opulent warehouses and -wealthy inhabitants, belong to the past. The ruined tower and walls, all -overgrown with jungle, that lie near the shore, are all that remain of -the cathedral church of St. Anastasius. A couple of narrow masonry -bridges near the city indicate where the famous “gold road” led into the -town. Over this road, the Cruces trail which led from Panama on the -Pacific to Porto Bello on the Atlantic, travelled the famous mule trains -with their precious freights of gold and silver from Peru. The road can -still be followed, a track of huge, irregular stones marking the course -it took, and in some places fair-sized patches of the pavement are still -intact. There is little interesting about the ruined city except its -associations with the past. It is dead, and nature is striving hard to -inter it decently beneath a luxuriant pall of green. One can only visit -the spot to stir the imagination and call up its wondrous past. On this -spot Pizarro banded his followers together, and from the now overgrown -harbour walls his little fleet set sail on one of the most momentous -voyages on record. The happenings in “old Panama” make the first page in -the voluminous history of the great sub-continent. - -Of the saloons and restaurants, with imposing names and uninviting -aspect, much might be said. Even the best of them could be improved with -little difficulty, but they serve well enough the uncritical tastes of -their patrons. The better class cafés or bars in Colon and Panama are -generally attached to hotels; and in the time when the French Company’s -headquarters were in the Plaza at Panama the cafés and saloons were -filled with exuberant life, until the early morning hours, and the -larger and more important bars were the most popular places in the - -[Illustration: A BIT OF THE OLD TOWN.] - -city. But to-day the clubs have taken the places of saloons, as far as -the higher officials are concerned, while the spread of the canal -offices all along the route has greatly affected the business of the -saloons. Still on Saturdays and Sundays many of the gold employees on -the Zone (clerks, steam-shovel men, engineers, foremen, supervisors, -timekeepers, and others, whose occupation it would be difficult to -discover) flock into Panama, to witness the baseball games and meet -their friends. At such times the saloons and bars enjoy once more a -taste of their almost forgotten popularity. The most important saloon is -that attached to the Hotel Central in the Plaza. If you sit in it from -early morning till late in the evening, you will be certain to meet with -every important person in the city. Some you would see very often, -others but seldom. Their merry chatter and hilarity make the place -lively, and their almost unquenchable thirst keeps the bar-tender busy. -Always parched and thirsty themselves, they are obsessed with the -opinion that everybody they meet is suffering from the same complaint. -Before dinner-time, about half-past six in the evening, the crowd in the -saloon of the “Central” gathers, and each small round table is the -centre of a noisy group of companions who order cocktails, “high bulls,” -and other cheering concoctions. Meanwhile small boys shout the evening -paper, a miserable little sheet that never contains any news -sufficiently important to cause comment, for all the information it -prints has been discussed hours before. Nevertheless, many copies are -sold, for the Panamanian, ever anxious to keep abreast with the manners -and customs of civilised communities, generally buys a copy. Old women -with lottery tickets do quite a large business at this hour, for after -the twentieth cocktail even the most accomplished drinker becomes a -little regardless and throws his money about recklessly. But for all -that, great care is taken in choosing with a becoming semblance of sober -judgment a number that the purchaser has some very particular fancy for. -Once a ticket has been sold, the demands of others, always ready to -emulate the plunging of a good sportsman, keep the vendor of chances -busy. Two or three of the roysterers will join together and purchase a -ticket between them. The division into shares and complex allotments of -the ticket invested entail the making of illegible notes and memoranda -which serve to give a business-like air to the transactions. More small -boys, wearing a grin that makes up for the scantiness of their clothing, -dart in and out through the open doors with paper bags containing -pea-nuts, and soon dispose of their entire stock. Piles of these nuts -lie on each of the little tables, and the cracking and munching sounds -as they disappear make up for breaks in the conversation. The stone -floor soon assumes the aspect of a newly gravelled pavement, and the -parties begin to separate and make their ways to dinner. Thus early in -the evening is the “Central” saloon deserted, and should the visitor be -desirous of being in the crowd after this hour, he must seek some other -resort. At the numerous gatherings and entertainments which take place -in Panama a great variety and odd assortment of types from every quarter -of the globe are encountered. Quite apart from the casual gatherings of -transients at the hotels, there are many opportunities for those who -appreciate gaiety to indulge their taste to the full. Scarce a week -passes but there are two or three balls, receptions given by members of -clubs or private residents, and visitors to the city generally receive -invitations. - -[Illustration: THE PLAZA, PANAMA.] - -The weekly reception by the President is usually well attended by the -Panamanians and visitors, while many of the Canal Commission officials -put in an appearance, and with their white uniforms lighten the scene. -The official residence of the President guarded by about twenty -lounging, diminutive policemen, is alive with bustling movement, and -carriages in all stages of decay line the street outside. After leaving -your hat with a very unofficial-looking servant at the entrance, you -pass into a large _salon_, and are introduced to the President, who -stands near the door. Many of the leaders of fashion and society are -assembled in the room, and you soon discover that a free and easy air -entirely devoid of anything like formality pervades the apartment. -Puzzle games that long ago were sold by the vendors of cheap novelties -on the streets of big cities lie around on tables in heaps to amuse the -guests, while at circular tables, placed at one end of the room, -elderly, stout persons sit playing at the game of puff-ball. The room, -about one hundred feet long by thirty feet wide, is furnished with -gilded chairs and lounges and tables, and along the top of the walls, -doing duty as a frieze, are a series of poorly painted portraits. - -These pictures are painted on the surface of the wall, and round each is -an oval frame or wreath, also painted in yellow colours, to represent -gilding. - -Past Governors and patriots and statesmen all glare down on their -successors in the game of politics. For whom they all were intended, and -what names the originals bore, it is doubtful if any of the present -generation could tell, for all the South American republics have scores -of heroes whose reputations and fame have long been forgotten, and there -are few who have sufficient interest in the past to keep green the -records of the illustrious dead. The living specimens of “patriots,” who -with perfervid zeal talk of their country’s rights and wrongs, its -present and its future, are certainly a better-looking lot than their -predecessors, but it may be that the artists who limned the features of -the latter have not done the originals justice. - -The ladies of Colombia are proverbial for their good looks, and those of -Panama are no exception. The popular conception of the jealousy of -Spanish husbands, who are commonly supposed to be rather ready with the -knife and stiletto, is quite erroneous, at least as far as Panama and -Colombia are concerned. - -The ladies of Colombia affect the fashions of Europe and Paris, and in -Panama one sees but few of the older picturesque fashions that still -obtain in many of the cities and towns of the interior. Some of the -poorer classes still wear their thick, black hair in two long plaits -hanging over their shoulders, and a few of the costumes are rather -original, consisting of black silk skirts cut sufficiently close to show -the form, a large kerchief thrown over the head, and falling in long -folds down to the waist. The mantilla is worn by some, but newer -fashions are fast ousting every kind of national dress. In Cartagena and -Bogota are seen more of the older, picturesque forms, but it is only -amongst the lower orders - -[Illustration: AN INTERIOR, CARTAGENA.] - -in Panama that frills and flounces still linger. Smoking is quite common -amongst the women all over Latin America, and the fair sex in Colombia -are no exceptions. Their cigars are often carried in their hair. In -Panama the ladies have a freedom that is quite notorious; far from being -confined behind iron gratings, they are allowed the diversions of balls, -dances, supper parties, and receptions, without any fear of the control -of their husbands, who are not always in attendance. The Panamanian -_señoras_ are extremely good-natured, and their bright smiles and -dangerous glances are bestowed with a careless freedom that would shock -their fair sisters in Buenos Ayres. The education of women in South -America generally is not so far advanced as it is in the northern -continent or in Europe, though they are generally proficient, and -frequently excel in musical accomplishments. They are perhaps no worse -than the women of other lands in their love of gossiping and scandal, -and, accustomed to flattery from their earliest years, and with -interests narrowed down to a limited range of subjects, it is little -wonder that they are incapable of conversing long or interestedly upon -any topic save love, and that when it gives out they should fall back -upon scandal. They weary over books, and turn over the pages with but a -languid interest, and to any exercise save dancing they are naturally -averse. Their conversation is rather free and unrestrained, and they -talk glibly of the secret lovers of their dearest friends. Their beauty -is but skin deep and wears rather badly; their indolent habits cause -them soon to assume a bulkiness of form quite inconsistent with grace or -comeliness, and it is only their passionate devotion to dancing that -prevents them from becoming positively unwieldy. - -Ministers and Consuls from other republics abound at the receptions and -balls, and the many fashions in whiskers, beards, and moustaches provoke -much comment and many smiles. Merchants, shopkeepers, doctors, lawyers, -concessioners, their wives and daughters, all jostle one another in the -crush. The rooms get stiflingly hot as the evening wears on; the balcony -outside is invitingly cool, and the quiet beauty of the night contrasts -strongly with the noise and glitter of the saloons. Across the bay lie -the undulating hills, all but lost in a translucent opal pall; the -myriads of stars overhead shine with a glory that evokes ejaculations of -admiration, the more brilliant of them are reflected with many a tremor -in the placid sea beneath. Lights on distant boats bob up and down, -while the murmur of the waves as they break gently on the shore makes a -music that can be heard above the sound made of all human speech that -floats out of the open doors from the _salon_. - -At supper parties it is quite a usual thing for speeches proposing -toasts to be made, and when once they are started there is no stopping -the flow of oratory. They love long-worded speeches almost as much as -the Brazilians, and will listen to themselves and others for hours, and -it must be admitted that they have a ready if a simple wit on all -occasions. I have heard a Panamanian after dinner make an impromptu -speech, in which he felicitously described all the guests around the -table, and if his incisive humour was at times a little grotesque and -his satire biting, the subject of his jest was as delighted as the rest -of his audience at his sallies. - -On the last day of the old year I had an opportunity of seeing the -Panamanians really enjoying and proving their capacity for entertaining -themselves. A ball was given by one of the clubs on 31 December, and as -their new president entered on his duties the moment the numerous clocks -in the city should cease striking twelve, a fine occasion for a speech -presented itself. All the company assembled in the ballroom about ten -minutes before the dying year yielded up its last gasp of time. The -ladies were seated on two long rows of chairs facing each other, while -their attendant cavaliers stood immediately behind them. Each held a -brimming glass, awaiting patiently till the time should arrive for the -toast. At the last stroke of midnight the new president of the club -stepped forward and addressed the assembly. As he went on speaking -eloquently of the high honour of the office to which he had been -elected, the duties of which he was now entering upon, expatiating on -the dignity of the position and the halo it spread round the holder, it -seemed probable that all the spirit, as well as the sparkle, would -evaporate from the generous wine before any of the guests would have a -chance of capturing it. When at last he made an end, after having been -actively engaged upon his new duties for full half an hour, all raised -their glasses and drank, not New Year’s wishes to one another, but to -the success of the club and the health of its new president. - -Dancing was resumed when the glasses had been drained and wishes -exchanged for prosperity and happiness during the coming year, but it -was not until a late or, rather, early hour and after all the ladies had -been served with supper that the men settled down to the enjoyment of a -long-deferred repast. Bottle after bottle was emptied, and each one -round the festive table made a gallant effort to vie with his neighbour -in inventing some new toast. Every nationality represented at the board -was the recipient of lengthy adulation, and if the good feeling voiced -by all present could only be extended to the courts and Governments of -the world, little business would be left for Peace Congresses to -transact. - -The whole of the first of January was devoted to a round of festivities, -and the powers of endurance displayed by many were amazing. - -Hard or even moderate drinking is said to be a dangerous habit in hot -countries, and the medical profession is almost unanimous in condemning -the use of alcohol, whilst the old theory that it is a necessity in hot -climates has been exploded by scientific investigation, for the enlarged -liver which is so common in the torrid zone is no doubt contributed to -by the alcoholic habit. - -But it is a notorious fact that inhabitants of countries subject to -earthquakes and volcanoes get inured to all idea of danger, and walk on -the very brink of disaster with a light and merry heart, indifferent to -the lessons of experience or the fate of their predecessors, and on that -New Year’s Day the orgies of the Buccaneers were equalled, if not -excelled, by many of the inhabitants. - - “Where the longitude’s mean and the latitude’s low, - Where the hot winds of summer perennially blow, - Where the mercury chokes the thermometer’s throat, - And the dust is as thick as the hair on a goat, - Where one’s mouth is as dry as a mummy accurst, - There lieth the Land of Perpetual Thirst.” - -At midday the bandstand in the Plaza was occupied by many of the leading -citizens, who with musical instruments, upon which they were incapable -of performing, were making an unearthly din, and had attracted a crowd -of the common people around them. Tables laden with champagne bottles -and glasses were placed between the groups of performers, who were not -less ardent in their attentions to the glass than to the instruments of -music which they converted into engines of torture. Whenever their -confused vision was capable of distinguishing friends amongst the -passers-by, an effort was made to strengthen their forces by a capture, -and wise persons kept in the background, and witnessed their descent -upon the unwary. Every now and then a scuffle would ensue, and those who -fell during its progress were content to remain in the positions they -had assumed, to the amusement of the spectators. - -It is a custom to make good resolutions on New Year’s Day, and to turn -over a new leaf. On the following morning, although a trifle belated, -many resolves were made, and the penitents heartily swore that nothing -on earth should tempt them from their vows. The fervour with which they -denounced the cheering cup, and their repugnance to it, was a strong -illustration of the proverb, “Familiarity breeds contempt”; but by the -end of a week all traces of their exertions had disappeared, and most of -them were as ready as ever to face manfully any other duty in the way of -celebration that occasion might present. - -[Illustration: IN THE MARKET, PANAMA.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -_Colombia and Cartagena_ - - -If in the matter of details the history of Colombia--the republic in the -extreme north-west corner of the South American continent--has been more -lurid than some of its neighbours, in general outline that history has -followed the course with which students of Spanish-American affairs are -so familiar. There was, first, the discovery of the territory away back -in the fifteenth century by Spanish mariners, and its subsequent -settlement by colonists from the mother country. Spain always started -this work with magnificent enthusiasm, but the feeling of rapture over -the possession of new dominions soon wore off, and the annals of these -colonies during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries make drab and -uninteresting reading. Colombia’s history is no exception to the general -rule. All its existing cities were founded during the early rule of the -conquistadores, and the type of slavery imposed upon the Indian -population was given its enduring shape. No great developments or -changes occurred in the country until the Spanish rule ended and -independence was declared. - -Being next-door neighbour to Venezuela, Colombia was naturally one of -the first states drawn into the ambitious operations of Bolivar, and for -a time it looked as though its capital, Bogota, would assume a -predominant importance in the southern continent, but the liberator -underestimated the strong sense of nationality which had developed in -the different sections of the vast country, and when his influence died -down Colombia retained her individuality just as Venezuela preserved -hers. Not only did the Spanish sovereignty entirely disappear from the -State, but the name, New Granada, given to it by the early conquerors, -in honour of the province in the mother country, was changed for the -more American substitute, Colombia. At first it was known as the -“United States of Colombia,” but in 1886 a reform in the direction of -centralisation was brought about, and the country is now called “the -Republic.” - -[Illustration: A COLOMBIAN MOTHER.] - -The mania for revolution which has infected the inhabitants of South -America has found in Colombia very amenable material to work upon. For -years during the last century stable government was a thing unknown; -rival factions were always springing at each other’s throats, drenching -the country in blood, decimating its population, crippling its -prosperity, and embarrassing its finances. Where so many other states -have indulged in revolutions, it is dangerous to use the superlative -degree; but it is fairly safe to say that Colombia has been _facile -princeps_ in the insensate and sanguinary game. Since the establishment -of the constitution in 1886, however, events have tended a little -towards tranquillity and security; but it would be much too sanguine to -dream that the rival parties, the Clericals and the Liberals, have -become sufficiently reconciled to play the game in a constitutional -manner, although their volcanic passions are for the moment lying -dormant. Now that the United States have such important interests in the -adjacent Isthmus of Panama, the firebrands of Colombia have to be on -their better behaviour, for the “big stick” is a menace which they are -bound to recognise. The efforts of the Government to render the country -less liable to disturbances are praiseworthy, but the material they have -to handle is not very promising, and development is slow. Railways are -very gradually connecting up places in the interior. The army is badly -equipped, and lack of funds prevents many of its most urgent needs from -being satisfied. The navy cannot be said to exist, although the -necessity for coast defence agitates the mind of the Government. - -A slight improvement is, however, manifest in the latest budgets of the -country, but the task of making “both ends meet” is a difficult one. If -the republic in many of its features cannot compare for sheer interest -with its neighbours, it has yet a commanding claim to the attention of -antiquarians, for it possesses the city of Cartagena, which was the most -ancient and strongest of the Spanish power in South America. The renown -of the city’s prototype in Spain, itself inheriting the name of the -still more ancient and famous colony, Carthage, was transplanted to the -New World, and for two centuries it enjoyed the esteem of the whole -maritime world. Its sun-bleached walls still endure, stern relics of the -power of Spain. Belonging entirely to the past, it has escaped unharmed -the vandal hand of progress. Surrounded on all sides with walls, it gave -shelter to the great “plate” ships and their convoys which anchored -within its land-locked waters. There are three harbours, which together -extend for some nine miles from north to south, and have a surface of -nearly forty thousand acres. The situation was well chosen, for although -the waters of the Caribbean form the western boundary of the city, great -rocks protect it from the approach of ships; and of the two entrances -to the harbour, the Boca Grande and Boca Chica, only the latter is of -sufficient depth to allow the passage of vessels of any size. The middle -harbour is protected by two forts, and the narrow entrance to the -shallow waters of the inner harbour was an additional protection to the -city which lies within. To the east of the city, standing upon a -formidable hill, is the fort of San Lazar, whilst on another hill about -a mile away stands an ancient convent. Although the city stands upon -flat ground, it has a magnificent panorama of undulating hills spread -before it. Innumerable islets, bays, and capes fill the great harbour, -and as the steamer makes its way across the smooth waters it passes many -of the loveliest bits of tropical scenery to be found anywhere. -Cartagena formerly possessed untold wealth; rich and powerful merchants -prospered within its protecting walls. Its fame was world-wide, and -attracted the unwelcome attentions of the pirates, adventurers, and -privateers of the sixteenth century. Sir Francis Drake captured the city -by one of the most daring assaults recorded in the annals of piracy, and -the very defences thrown up by the garrison proved helpful to his -purpose. As the Spaniards retreated from the hard-pressing invaders, -they fell upon the poisoned stakes they had driven into the ground, and -their bodies made a soft foothold for the English. The Cartagenians, -dismayed and demoralised, fled in all directions, and the city fell into -the hands of Drake, who profited by the adventure to the tune of one -hundred thousand ducats, which added to the store of gold and glory he -had already acquired upon the Spanish Main. The wealth of Cartagena had -an irresistible attraction to all kinds of enemies which even its strong -fortifications could not dispel. Ten years after it was founded by -Heredia it was captured by the French. In 1586 Drake, fresh from -humbling the Spanish pride at Vigo and San Domingo, here repeated his -successes. Again, at the end of the seventeenth century the French took -the city and obtained over a million of money. The power of the mother -country was rapidly declining during the following century. Her home and -foreign policy had so aroused the bitter antagonism of England that -peace between the two countries was impossible. The war of “Jenkins’s -ear” arose ostensibly over the treatment meted out to smugglers by the -Spanish coastguards. The story told by Jenkins of his having his ear cut -off fanned the smouldering indignation of the English people into a -flame, and Walpole was reluctantly compelled by the popular clamour to -declare war. In October, 1739, the operations were entrusted to Admiral -Vernon, a fiery old sailor who gloried in his motto, “No peace with -Spain.” Old Grog, as he was familiarly called by his contemporaries, was -a gallant enough seaman, although a little given to bragging and -blustering. He pledged himself to take Porto Bello; and when he -accomplished this feat with the small loss of seven men, medals were -struck in honour of him and his victory. - -Popular enthusiasm hailed him as a hero, and the public hero was -returned to Parliament by a large majority. In the following year, with -a larger squadron under his command, he set sail for Cartagena, -confident in his power to take the city. He met with a stubborn -resistance, however, and although he succeeded in capturing Fort San -Fernando that guards the Boca Chica, his further advances were repulsed. -General Wentworth, who accompanied the fleet in charge of the land -forces, had serious differences with “Old Grog,” and these were not -calculated to help matters. A company of soldiers were landed to take -Fort San Lazar, but they were obliged to retreat, leaving two hundred -dead and having over four hundred wounded. To add to the discomfiture of -the English, yellow fever broke out and wrought great havoc, and the -last attempt to capture the city proving unavailing, the fleet gave up -the enterprise, retired from the harbour, and made their way to Jamaica, -glad to escape the warmth of their reception and the enervating heat of -the bay. - -Cartagena is one of the most picturesque, if one of the most -insalubrious cities, in South America. It is Spanish throughout, and -contains few modern buildings of any importance. The atmosphere of -bygone centuries hangs over it; time and the elements have imparted a -richness to its walls that constitutes its only charm. It is like an old -painting by a master hand, mellow and sedate. In the joints and cracks -of its discoloured walls, creepers, weeds, and mosses find root-hold and -nourishment. The buttresses, bastions, battlements, and sentry towers -that strengthen and equip the ramparts, all give evidence of the -important part the city was designed to play in the colonial system of -Spain. The entrance to the city from the little harbour is through a -gateway of three arches of imposing proportions. The larger central -archway is for mules, horses, and vehicular - -[Illustration: A COLOMBIAN VILLAGE.] - -traffic, the two smaller ones for pedestrians. The Plaza de los Coches, -the square to which the gateway gives immediate entrance, is surrounded -by an arched colonnade that gives a deep shade to the pavement, shops, -and stores. A stream of dark, swarthy, and yellow humanity flows through -the open space. The bright dresses of the negresses blazing in the -sunlight stand out vividly from the dark shadows of the arches and -doorways. The white dust of the streets dazzles the eye, and the gloom -of the narrow streets that lead in all directions is intensified by the -sharp contrast. The streets are fairly well paved, but very unclean and -evil smelling. Quaint balconies overhang the pavements, and through the -lattices dark, sleepy eyes gaze languidly at the passers-by. The heat is -almost unendurable during the summer months, and the inhabitants are to -be excused if they lack energy and indulge themselves freely in the use -of hammocks and easy rocking-chairs. The fine white dust that covers the -streets in the dry season becomes a kind of mud-like mortar when the -torrential rains descend, and the tatterdemalion shoeblacks reap their -harvests. Most of the houses in the narrow streets are of two stories, -and are painted with vivid primary colours so dear to Spanish eyes. When -fresh applied these colours are blinding in their intensity, -particularly when the sunlight falls upon them, but when faded and -weather-stained they become really beautiful. The red of the pantiles on -the roofs, the vivid greens and blues of balconies and doors, give a -sparkle to this otherwise grey city. The windows of the lower floors are -grilled with the usual iron or wooden bars, and the interiors are but -poorly furnished, with one or two chairs and tables. Through open doors, -green patios are seen filled with plants and palms, which cover much of -the accumulated dirt, rubbish, and garbage. It is amidst these -surroundings that families sit and take their siestas or oily smelling -repasts. The rooms are dirty and the kitchens full of smoke or odours, -so that with the freely circulating air the patio is the most desirable -part of the house. A French writer of the last century who visited the -city said of the town, that it contained “skilful jewellers, good -carpenters, excellent shoemakers, tolerable tailors, indifferent -joiners, black rather than white smiths, masons destitute of ideas of -proportion, bad painters, but impassioned musicians.” If this was true -of the inhabitants of one hundred years ago, it might with considerable -aptness be applied to their descendants to-day. The arts and crafts are -in a poor way, but they still love music. The population of the whole of -Colombia has a lot of black blood running through its veins; and as is -the case elsewhere where the same mixture exists, it is rare to find -much culture or refinement. The women of Cartagena, the half-breeds, -mulattoes, and octoroons, are tall and lithe, often very handsome, -resembling the types of Martinique more than those of the English -islands of the Caribbean. The whites so called and coloured people mix -freely with one another, and no defined colour-line seems to exist. In -Cartagena the old order is loath to give place to the new, although in -many cases new uses have been found for old buildings. Erstwhile forts -are now common dwellings; stately buildings have been turned into shops -and warehouses, churches and chapels into stables. The cathedral, an -imposing building with a magnificent altar-piece and many curious relics -of the past, stands out conspicuously from the other buildings in the -town. In its dark vaults are great piles of human skulls and bones, the -crumbling remains of victims of the Inquisition, which exercised its -terrible power in the early days of the city. These mouldering bones -have little respect shown them by the verger of the church, who turns -them over with his foot to pick out specimens to show to visitors, and -anyone who cares can possess a souvenir. There is a cemetery on a flat, -sandy site, a little way out of the city, surrounded by white walls. The -enclosed space - -[Illustration: ON THE BANKS OF THE MAGDALENA RIVER.] - -is a field of soft yielding sand, which the wind drives about so that -graves are covered and uncovered from time to time, and often the tops -of the iron crosses that mark the graves are barely visible above the -yellow dust. Around the walls are a series of oven-like vaults, three -deep, some sealed with bricks or plaster, others, although containing -coffins, left open to the view. A more revolting, unsanitary -burial-place could hardly be imagined. Yet in spite of the terrible -epidemics of yellow fever and smallpox to which the inhabitants are -inured, they regard this plague spot with perfect equanimity. Cartagena -was for many years the starting-point from the northern coast for -Bogota, the capital, but Barranquilla has taken its place in this -respect. The journey up the Magdalena River is made in small steamers, -although much of the merchandise is carried still in large canoes about -thirty feet long. “Piraguas,” as these craft are locally called, have -generally two masts which carry large, square sails, and are manned by a -crew who can take an oar when the wind fails. The navigation of the -river is not free from danger, and often the journey up to Bogota takes -about four weeks. The roads in the country are bad, where they do exist, -so that the river is the principal highway. The country people cultivate -a little cotton, maize, and indigo, but the agriculture of the country -is generally in a very backward state. Isolated dwellings are pitched by -the banks of the river, and the inmates live a short if sad life, -weaving a few mats for household use, nets for hammocks and for fishing. -Their houses, mostly of reeds and bamboos, afford but the slightest -protection from the heavy torrential rains. Cartagena, far removed from -the capital, is a listless, almost lifeless city, and the foreigner who -tries to make business headway amongst the people is doomed to cultivate -patience, if he intends to remain in one of the most backward of the -cities on the southern continent. - -[Illustration: PERU & BOLIVIA.] - - - - -CHAPTER X - -_Ecuador_ - - -From Panama the steamers of the Pacific mail start on their voyage down -the long Pacific coast. That they should carry a curious medley of -passengers is only natural, seeing that they stop at the ports of four -republics. So numerous are these ports that some of the steamers have to -miss many of them, and smaller coastal vessels serve the needs of the -few voyagers who visit the smaller and more insignificant places; but -still there are enough stoppages to enable the voyager to see something -of the curious coast towns, even if he has no time to penetrate into the -interior of all the republics. The changes in the character of the coast -from the tropical mountain-slopes of the north to the dry-aired coast of -the mid-continent are the distinguishing features of the voyage. -Travellers from Valparaiso are filled with admiration and delight when -their eyes rest upon the sea-board of Ecuador and Colombia, for after -the arid monotony of the Chilian and Peruvian coast-lines, where -scarcely ever a drop of rain falls to freshen the verdure, the change is -to a tropical paradise. The expanse of glorious greenery refreshes the -vision--an exhilarating exchange from the dun-coloured vistas which have -been left behind. Guayaquil, the principal port of Ecuador, is one of -the best situated on the whole of the Pacific littoral, but, -unfortunately, is perhaps the most unhealthy. It lies on the bank of the -Guayas River, nearly thirty miles from the bar. The city is large for a -South American port, and has a population of over sixty thousand, and a -railway connects it with the capital of the republic, Quito. The city of -Guayaquil is badly drained, insanitary, and swarms with the germs of -disease. Its authorities do little or nothing to improve the health -conditions, and the recent decision of the United States Government to -insist upon drastic improvements being carried out will be hailed by all -who have traffic with this port. When the Panama Canal is opened, it is -only natural that Guayaquil will assume a new maritime importance, and -it is obviously impossible for such a pestilential hole to continue so -near to the great connecting link between the Atlantic and the Pacific. - -The history of Ecuador runs on parallel lines with that of the other -South American republics, and its fortunes have been closely interwoven -with those of its neighbours, Peru and Colombia. Its aboriginal -inhabitants--Indians of a very low order--were, so the legendary history -runs, subjugated early in the Christian Era by a superior race named the -Caras, who in their turn were reduced to subjection by those aristocrats -of South America, the Incas of Peru. Ecuador was part of the disputed -territory which led to the sanguinary struggle between Atahualpa and his -brother Huascar, a struggle which gave Pizarro his opportunity of -conquering Peru. The conquistadores enslaved the Indians of Ecuador, and -found them more docile and complacent than those of any of the allied -tribes in South America. The Roman Catholic priesthood established -churches, schools, and seminaries, scattering these institutions about -with such a lavish hand that Quito, the capital, has been aptly called -“The City of Convents.” The natives accepted the Spanish yoke, and -toiled as hard as they were obliged to satisfy the exactions of the -alien governors. They were among the very last to feel the revolutionary -impulses which were born when the power of Spain was broken, and it was -not until the Argentine General San Martin, and after him Bolivar, had -kindled the torch of liberty, that Ecuador made any attempt to break -away from its old allegiance. It was too near to many other insurgent -areas to stand aloof from the movement, and it has the distinction of -being the second South American republic whose independence was formerly -recognised by Spain. Its history since then has been turbulent, but few -of the men who have been thrown up by the seething mass of successive -revolutions have been of outstanding calibre. The bulk of them have been -self-seekers, degraded of character and mean of intellect. Advancement -has striven with reaction, and the victory has generally been to the -latter, with the result that Ecuador is the worst governed and most -backward of all the South American countries. Of course, a few men stand -out as having something approaching statesmanlike qualities. It would be -strange if it - -[Illustration: A DWELLING BY A RIVER-SIDE, ECUADOR.] - -were otherwise, for nearly a hundred years have passed since Ecuador was -left to work out its own salvation. On the liberal side, Rocafuerte, the -first President, has some claims to be remembered, for he did much to -establish the constitution by which the country is governed, and to -found institutions modelled on those existing in more enlightened -countries. Moreno, who seized the supreme power in 1860 and held it for -fifteen years, is the greatest figure on the reactionary side. Although -he had little or no conception of individual liberty, he proved himself -a capable administrator, and since his assassination at the instigation -of the revolting liberals, Ecuador has not produced the article which -she so badly requires, “the still strong man in a blatant land.” It is -the case of an unceasing see-saw between the contending parties or -factions, but always the liberal regime is short-lived, for the -reactionaries or clericals have a strong hold upon the people. At the -moment reaction reigns supreme, and the events of January, 1912, tidings -of which have leaked out from Quito and Guayaquil by way of the Madrid -journals, reveal an exhibition of savagery which is almost incredible. -The Generals, Alfano and Montero, who headed the latest liberal revolt, -were hopelessly defeated by the Government forces, and then the -authorities set about devising fitting punishments for them. We read -that Montero, the President of the dissolved revolutionary Junta, was -dragged out of prison and taken to a public street. A huge fire, already -lit, awaited him, and the General was flung into it despite his -desperate resistance and cries of horror. When he was already half burnt -alive, he was fished out of the fire and flung into a vat of water to -cool. He was again dragged forth and thrown back into the fire, and -before the end came his martyrdom had lasted an hour. This was at -Guayaquil. At Quito, the capital, hidden away on the slopes of a -volcanic mountain, 200 miles from the sea-board, even worse horrors were -perpetrated. The favourite torture was cutting out the victims’ tongues -and then taunting them to make a speech. The newspaper correspondents, -even those representing the Ecuadorian Government journals, confessed -themselves horrified at the barbarities they had to witness. One of them -remarked, “If the events which we were condemned to witness yesterday -happened once in twenty or once in ten years, we should feel compelled -to emigrate from this country.” These well-nigh incredible happenings -occurred in January, 1912, and are not a lurid excerpt from a page of -the history of the Dark Ages. The only hope for Ecuador’s salvation lies -in its proximity to Panama. If the United States in 1898 put an end to -Spanish misgovernment in Cuba on the pretext that they could not allow -butcheries to go on at their door, there is all the stronger reason that -a vigilant eye should be kept on affairs in Ecuador, which lies so close -to the great highway, in itself a symbol of modern civilisation, and all -that it entails in the way of order, justice, and good government. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -“_The City of the Kings_” - - -About 1500 miles down the coast from Panama lies Callao, the principal -port of Peru, a large and busy town, by far the most imposing upon the -seaboard of that country. The first town, which stood about a mile from -the present one, was destroyed by an unusually violent earthquake shock -in 1746. The port of to-day is fast adopting modern improvements, and -most of the old mud and wickerwork houses have been replaced by -substantial modern dwellings, and the docks and shipping facilities have -grown to meet the increasing needs of the country. An electric tramway -line connects Callao with the capital, running over a beautiful, richly -cultivated plain. The road is wide and straight, and lined on either -side with walls constructed with great adobe bricks. Cattle and -husbandmen populate the fields, which are irrigated by many streams. “La -Ciudad de las Reyes” was the name bestowed by Pizarro on the city that -is to-day called “Lima,” a corruption of the Indian word “Rimac,” the -name of the river upon which the capital stands. Lima retains more than -any other city in Spanish America the subtle melancholy dignity so -characteristic of the towns of Andalusia. The whole atmosphere is -Spanish, and even the influence which the indigenous art of the -conquered race had upon most of the architecture that arose in other -cities after the conquest failed to make itself felt in “La Ciudad de -las Reyes.” Time has not wrought many changes in the city, and it still -preserves its ancient aspect. Even the architects of new buildings that -have arisen have not been able to escape entirely from the old -traditions, and they adopt timidly the cosmopolitan styles which have -been so largely made use of in such cities as Valparaiso, Buenos Ayres, -Rio, and São Paulo. The central and most important square in the city, -the Plaza de Armas, is full of the old atmosphere. The long, solid -building which occupies one side of the square continues to be the seat -of the Republican Government, as it was formerly that of the Viceroy of -Spain. The square is well shaded by leafy palms, which, in spite of the -scarcity of rain, have a freshness that is astonishing, and can only be -accounted for by the moist atmosphere which hovers over the city. Some -years ago all the trees and shrubs in this square were cut down by order -of nervous officials, who doubtless having in their minds the great -tragedy enacted on this spot when Pizarro fell a victim to the -conspiracy of his fellow-countrymen, saw a danger in the sheltering -trees which might conceal armed assassins and conspirators against the -Government. The cathedral, with its two towers and richly ornate façade, -occupies the eastern side of the Plaza. It is the oldest church in the -New World. The shocks of earthquakes and revolutions have failed to -shake its strong foundations or massive walls. Inside the spacious -aisles divided by plain and solid columns convey a sense of mysterious -dignity and strength which highly gilded and ornamental interiors lack. -A strong smell of burning incense pervades the silent building, and -brown-robed monks glide noiselessly through the gloom. One of the -brotherhood, a German, piloted me through the building, and showed with -pride the fine choir stalls, whose rich carving so excited the -admiration of an American millionaire that, according to my informant, -one was sold to him for a hundred dollars, an act of vandalism which it -is to be hoped will never be repeated, although my guide seemed to think -it was good business. An old illuminated Psalter of the late sixteenth -or early seventeenth century standing on the reading-desk in front of -the choir was pointed out, its leaves all scribbled over with the -sprawling autographs of tourists, and anyone wishing to add his name -could doubtless have done so without any remonstrance from the priest. -Of all the relics this ancient edifice contains, perhaps the most -extraordinary is the actual body of Pizarro, contained in a glass case, -which permits the visitor to inspect the very bones of the illustrious -founder of the city. - -Churches, monasteries, convents, and other religious houses abound in -Lima. Monks and nuns attached to the different orders promenade its -streets, which are lined with solidly built houses, through the -wide-open doorways of which interesting - -[Illustration: A PERUVIAN GIRL.] - -patios are visible, many of them surrounded by little galleries, -supported by turned and carved wooden pillars, whilst the fronts of some -are enriched with projecting wooden balconies, after the Moorish style, -only more substantially constructed, and having heavy tiled roofs and -buttressed sides; these features, together with the strong doors studded -with iron bosses and spikes, and the windows railed with solid bars, -betray an Eastern origin. The city is full of ancient houses and palaces -which have been converted into tenements, each doorway in the patio -giving entrance to a separate household. The city has a population of -about 140,000, and their wants are supplied by four market-places, where -a large variety of meats, birds, fish, vegetables, and fruits are for -sale. Electric cars run through the ancient streets, and brush past mule -trains, with their heavy loads and picturesque trappings, whilst the -milkwomen, who sit perched up between great shining tins slung across -the backs of their horses, have hardly recovered from the shock of -seeing motor-cars whir past them. The capital contains the oldest -university, as well as the oldest cathedral in South America, and for -over three centuries it has been the centre of learning and education. -The development of the latter in many of its branches has been steady, -if slow, and the establishment of the National Institute of Peru and the -Museum is doing much to further the study of the anthropology and -archæology of the country. In the museum, a handsome building lying at -the extreme south of the city, a collection of Inca curios has been -brought together. Mummies, swathed in vicuna cloth and highly decorated, -looking like a row of “Aunt Sallies,” occupy a prominent place, and the -well-preserved remains of bodies found in the nitrate fields are -interesting, although a little gruesome. Ancient fabrics with archaic -designs, probably hieroglyphics, pan-pipes, earthenware pots, gold -ornaments, all telling of vanished civilisation. The costumes of the -country since the conquest, bizarre and curious, whilst the finely -wrought specimens of vicuna gloves and masks used by travellers crossing -the cold heights of the mountains are very ingenious. The picture -gallery contains many portraits of illustrious Peruvians and historical -tableaux, but these are of more archæological than artistic value. The -National Library, which has been established about a hundred years, -contained originally many rare and valuable manuscripts and books, many -of which had been - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, LIMA.] - -obtained from the monasteries in the country; but this nucleus of a fine -national collection was stolen by the Chilian army when they invaded the -capital in 1881, many items finding their way down to Santiago, the rest -being sold at upset prices to the shopkeepers in the capital. Nothing -daunted by this, the people of Lima started afresh to form the present -collection of over 50,000 works, all of the available portions of the -original library having been repurchased to restore in some measure the -unique character of the collection. The environs of Lima are very -pleasant. The vast plain upon which the city stands is well cultivated, -and sowing goes on for nine months of the year. Little villages and -hamlets with unpretentious houses and huts. The walls of the houses, -like those which divide the fields, have a very solid and antique -appearance. The brown mud colour is a feature which at once suggests the -dominant characteristic of the old Moorish cities. - -[Illustration: A MILKMAID, LIMA.] - -Peru is unfortunate in having much of her territory inaccessible from -the Pacific or from the capital, and the difficulties of administering -her wild forest lands on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera have led -to the rubber scandals recently brought to light. The difficulty of -communicating with the heart of their country is common to all the South -American republics. Brazil has her Matto Grosso and Acre territories; -Argentina and Chili the great desolate pampas of the south; and -Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, the same problems with regard to much of -their territory. Great tracts of the vast continent are still unknown -and unexplored; and even when they are, many of them will offer little -or no inducement for civilised settlement. Undreamt-of mysteries may -exist hidden in the depths of the almost impenetrable forests. Explorers -are busy in the country delimiting boundaries and investigating -untrodden regions, and the difficulties they encounter all point to the -almost impossibility of bringing many of the large tracts under the -influences of modern civilisation. The early conquistadors were -unrestrained by scruples in their treatment of native races, but the -modern Governments have the eyes of a more humane and censorious world -upon them. Immigrants are eagerly desired by the Peruvian Government to -develop the vast agricultural lands for the production of sugar, cotton, -linseed, rice, tobacco, coffee, vines, fruits, and vegetables. On the -high lands, where cattle can be raised, there is a great demand for -suitable labour. Indeed, from the north of the continent to the south -the cry is for workers. Nature having done her share to enrich the race, -now only waits for mankind to avail themselves of her bounty. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -_Peru--“The Country of Marvels”_ - - -From Tumbez to Callao, the country presents a most arid and uninviting -appearance. The high, steep hills near to the shore extend in an almost -unbroken line of dull greyish brown, as the sun-baked clay, with here -and there patches of dirty white indicating guano deposits. I must -confess to a feeling of disappointment on first gazing upon the -inhospitable shores of Peru. For my mind treasured recollections of all -the glamour and romance that gather round the land and the history of -the wonderful Incas. - -The world’s records contain few more fairy-like narratives than the well -attested story of a civilisation equal in many of its aspects to any the -world has known. - -Inland, many types are encountered, easily traceable to those “Children -of the Sun” who migrated from the north to the interior highlands of the -country and established at Cuzco the centre and capital of a great -empire. Originally, their very contrast with surrounding tribes gave -them a remarkable distinction, whilst their civilisation was full of -sound and humane elements. Its keynote was an intelligent socialism, for -the citizen had to supply the needs of the aged and infirm, the widow -and the orphan, and the soldier on active service, before supplying his -own. The person of the Emperor was regarded as divine, and he wielded -supreme authority over his realm. In this enlightened society, hidden -away for centuries from the eyes of the rest of the world, poverty was a -thing unknown, for communism, tempered by an almost extravagant regard -for authority, attained during the regime of the Incas an ideal height -never achieved before or since. - -The Peruvians of those bygone times have left little doubt that they -excelled as agriculturalists and shepherds; their mountains were -cultivated almost to the snow-line; irrigation on thoroughly sound lines -was known and practised; aqueducts and bridges abounded, and adequate -roads connected town with town and with the sea. Moreover, the people -had advanced sufficiently far along the path of civilisation to have -tamed wild animals such as the llama and alpaca for domestic use. - -[Illustration: THE ARID COAST OF PERU.] - -On a higher plane than this, they had evolved a religion full of sound -rules for individual and social conduct and performed with a wealth of -ritual. Its central feature was Sun-worship, which relates it somewhat -to the Zoroastrianism of the Persians, but it is clear that, in -addition, the Incas and their subjects had an exalted conception of a -Supreme Being--the fount and origin of the Universe. His greatest -temple, which filled one side of the square at Cuzco, was richly -ornamented and decorated, its walls and shrines being overlaid with pure -gold, in the working of which metal the ancient Peruvians were highly -proficient. - -Truly, here was a people widely differentiated from the ruck of South -American natives--those squalid Indians with whom the Spanish -adventurers came into contact. Possessed of sufficient enterprise to -establish an empire which, from north to south, extended from Quito in -Ecuador to the River Maule in Chili, they were a noble and withal -peaceful race; and the inexplicable manner in which this fabric of -civilisation arose can only be compared in sheer wonder with the sudden -manner of its fall. Although nothing definite seems to have been known -in Europe of the empire of the Incas, such an Eldorado had been -adumbrated by dreamers and sung of by poets, and the outpourings of -these men of fancy fired the hearts of adventurers in quest of a land -rich in treasure beyond the dreams of avarice. - -The splendid dominion of the Incas fell a prey to the greatest of all -the Spanish adventurers--Francisco Pizarro, who outshone his fellows in -ability, daring, resourcefulness, and, alas! treachery. The illegitimate -offspring of a gentleman and a woman of the people, Pizarro, although -lacking in education, proved himself more than a match for the proudest -sons of Spain who had received careful training in the schools of arms -and diplomacy. - -In 1524, we find him settled in Panama with two companions, Almagro and -Luque, the trio eager to discover that rich country which everyone was -persuaded had other than imaginary existence. Having obtained permission -from Pedrarias, the Governor of Panama, Pizarro set sail in a small -vessel with 112 men, but after many privations was compelled to retire. -Urged on, however, by the persistence of his comrades Almagro and Luque, -and undeterred by the defections of his men, spent and weary after a -sojourn on an inhospitable island in sight of a swampy shore, Pizarro at -length landed at Tumbez on the Peruvian coast, where his eyes feasted -for the first time upon the opulence of the Incas. Eldorado was -discovered at last! - -Pizarro came and saw, but did not conquer, at any rate, not then, and -that for the very good reason that he had with him a mere handful of -followers. But he lost no time in collecting what he could of the spoil, -and taking it as a sample to Spain, where he succeeded in inducing the -court to aid and abet his surprising adventure. - -He returned to Peru and arrived on the scene at the psychological -moment. The last Inca monarch, Huayna Capac, had divided his kingdom -between his two sons--Huascar, the rightful heir, and Atahualpa, the old -king’s son by an Ecuadorian mother. These two sons began to squabble -over territorial questions, and at length Atahualpa endeavoured to -appropriate the whole country to himself. This was Pizarro’s opportunity -and he was quick to take advantage of it. - -The meeting between the Spanish conquistadors and the last of the great -Incas was surely one of the most remarkable in history, resembling -somewhat the splendours of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. On the -surface at least, amity prevailed on both sides, Pizarro being lavish in -his professions of good intentions, and Atahualpa child-like in his -belief of them. - -[Illustration: A LLAMA IN GOLD, MADE BY THE INCAS.] - -The Inca king was carried to the meeting-place on a throne or couch -adorned with plumes of various colours, and almost covered with plates -of gold and silver embellished with precious stones. Following him were -the chief officers of his court carried in a similar manner, singers and -dancers accompanying the procession, whilst the plain was covered with -countless troops. - -Pizarro could make no such gorgeous display, being attended merely by a -small band of soldiers and a priest. As always, this latter accompanied -the Spanish adventurers to furnish a religious excuse for any excesses -that might be deemed necessary. As the royal procession approached, the -priest, Valverde by name, holding a crucifix in one hand and a breviary -in the other, called upon the Inca to embrace the Christian faith, which -he expounded at some length, and to acknowledge as his lawful sovereign -the King of Castile, to whom the Pope, God’s viceregent on earth, had -granted all the regions of the New World. Little understanding the badly -translated harangue, the monarch indignantly refused to comply with the -impudent demand, and this was the cue for one of the most remarkable -exploits that even Pizarro ever carried out. - -The signal was given to fire, and for the first time in their existence -the Peruvians were made acquainted with the deadly effect of firearms. -In this unprovoked attack, more than four thousand of them were slain, -and Atahualpa, rudely dragged from his throne by Pizarro’s own hand, was -cast into prison. - -Although bent on the Inca’s destruction, Pizarro for a time, played with -him with catlike cruelty. When there came a talk of liberty, Atahualpa -offered to fill the room in which he was confined with vessels of gold -as high as he could reach, provided he were allowed to go free. Pizarro -jumped at so tempting a bargain, and the treasure was duly delivered, -but the Inca was not given his liberty, and eventually the Spaniard had -him strangled. Many pretexts were given for the crime, one being that he -had ordered the death of his brother Huascar; another that he kept a -great many concubines! But neither of these reasons nor any of the -others cited revealed the dark motive in Pizarro’s soul. He was astute -enough to perceive that so long as there was a single Inca alive a -superstitious reverence would cling round his personality, and the -domination of Spain would never be secure. - -So perished the last of the Incas, and thereafter the great edifice of -civilisation which they had erected crumbled into ruins. There was now a -profuse distribution of gold and other treasure, some of which went to -the Spanish court, a goodly proportion being reserved for Pizarro and -his men. - -It was only Almagro who did not get his just due, and Almagro must never -be forgotten in the telling of this turbulent tale; for he played a big -part in the events that preceded and followed the overthrow of the last -Inca. Pizarro showed all through the piece that he was an implacable -enemy and a treacherous friend, and his treatment of his comrade in arms -exposes his character in the very worst light possible. While he -rewarded the priestly Luque--ecclesiastical honours being outside the -province of his own ambitions--he failed to fulfil hardly a single -obligation to Almagro, who in those early Panama days had borne with him -the burden and brunt of the battle. - -[Illustration: INCA PORTRAITURE ON A PIECE OF OLD POTTERY.] - -For some years after, the history of Peru resolves itself into a duel -between the two conquistadors, Almagro usually showing himself as the -man of honour, Pizarro as the perjured schemer. But virtue did not avail -men much in those days, and when Almagro at last fell into his rival’s -hands it was plain that the game was up. He was sentenced to death, and -bore his fate with fortitude. - -For a little time after that, Pizarro remains the dominant figure in the -picture, his rule, for he had long since thrown to the winds all -pretence of obedience to Spain, being practically absolute. But the -friends and supporters of Almagro had not forgotten the foul way in -which their hero had been done to death, and they bided their time. - -Their chance was not long in coming. On June 26th, 1541, Pizarro met his -doom. A desperate band of conspirators burst into the palace in the -square of Lima, broke down the resistance of the guard, and surprised -the dictator just after he had risen from dinner. It may be said of him -as it was said of Charles I, that nothing became him so much in life as -his manner of leaving it. Armed with nothing more than a sword and -buckler, he fought with all the vigour of his youthful days; but his -courage was unavailing, for the conspirators were numerous and -well-armed. Pizarro received a deadly thrust full in his throat, sank to -the ground, and expired. - -After these picturesque, though lurid happenings, the history of Peru, -like that of all the other South American Republics, becomes -monotonous. The colonial period resolves itself into a record of -oppressive taxation, rigidly exacted, and patiently borne; and events do -not begin to move again until the declaration of independence in the -early part of the nineteenth century. For the establishment of its -freedom, Peru has much to thank the great Bolivar, and that modern -Peruvians have not forgotten the invaluable services which the Liberator -rendered their fathers the fine equestrian statue of him in the square -at Lima testifies. - -But Peru has much to show the rambler in addition to the relics of its -impressive past. As already intimated, it is a country of marvels, and -not all of them are supplied by Incan civilisation. The Indians who -preceded that regime were also possessed of quaint and curious -knowledge. Amongst other things, they knew how to reduce the human head -from its natural size to about four inches. The object of this strange -craft was obvious. Just as the Indian of North America carried the -scalps of his foes at his belt, so the Indian of North Peru carried the -reduced heads of his victims strung together to show his warlike -prowess. - -The _modus operandi_ of this gruesome process was as follows: The -severed head was boiled in an infusion of forest plants, so as to soften -the bones, which were then taken out. The head was afterwards hung up, -and hot pebbles constantly placed inside until the skin was dried and -the required size attained. - -The custom is not confined to Peru, but is practised by savage tribes in -other parts of northern South America. There is in the British Museum a -reduced head from Venezuela, which was presented by Mr. Fagan, British -Minister in Caracas. The human likeness of the features in these -miniature heads is wonderfully retained and has a most weird appearance. -It is not only savage heads that are treated in this barbarous fashion. -At least one of the preserved heads which have been brought to Europe -bears unmistakable evidence of its having belonged to a white -man--probably some wretched adventurer who lost his way in the forest -and perished at the hands of these fiendishly ingenious savages. - -Railways rise steadily from sea-level with an average grade of about -four per cent, clinging to, or boring through, solid rock throughout -almost the entire distance, to the highest point at Ticlio, 15,665 feet. -The short branch from Ticlio to the mining camp of Morococha, beautiful -with its many lakes and glaciers, crosses the range at the stupendous -altitude of 15,865 feet above sea-level, which is somewhat higher than -the summit of Mont Blanc. The Central Railway of Peru is, therefore, the -highest railway in the world. It need hardly be said that the intrepid -builders of this unique mountain railway surmounted some of the greatest -obstacles ever encountered in the history of engineering. - -[Illustration: A REDUCED HUMAN HEAD.] - -To revert to politics, the sore feeling engendered by the war between -Chili and Peru has been much embittered by the conduct of Chili in the -case of the Tacna and Arica provinces. - -It has often been said that treaties between nations are only made to be -torn up, and this is evidently how Chili regards them. By the Treaty of -Ancon, which was signed after the war on October 20th, 1883, the -province of Tarapaca, which is extremely rich in nitrates, was ceded to -Chili, while the provinces of Tacna and Arica were to remain in the -possession of Chili for ten years as from the date of the treaty. At the -end of that time, a plebiscite of the inhabitants of the provinces was -to be taken on the point whether they preferred the territory to remain -under the sovereignty of Chili. The clause in the treaty concludes: “The -country in whose favour the provinces be annexed shall pay to the other -the sum of £1,000,000.” Although twenty-nine years have passed since the -signing of that treaty no plebiscite has yet been taken, and Peru -charges her neighbours with always raising technical difficulties -whenever the question of taking the vote is mooted. She prefers an even -more serious charge than this, alleging that, as the time when the -plebiscite must, owing to international pressure, be taken draws nearer, -Chili is making it so hot for the Peruvians in the two provinces under -dispute that they are unable to live there. The object of this is, of -course, that the plebiscite shall have only one result, and that in -favour of Chili. - -In this country of marvels, a word must be given to coca, that wonderful -plant which grows in the warm valleys of Peru and Bolivia, and will not -flourish anywhere else. It grows in the form of a shrub, and seldom -exceeds six feet in height. For centuries past the Peruvian Indians have -recognised its dietetic value. It is at once refreshing and stimulating; -it must be nutritious also, for a native can work for an extreme length -of time without troubling about any other form of food. The local way of -taking it is by chewing, generally with the admixture of a little lime. -When infused, it makes a very refreshing beverage. Its value in medicine -is also great, for it is the source of that indispensable alkaloid -cocaine. - -The collection of the coca leaves involves much care, as they have to be -gathered one by one for fear of injuring the plant. The person who has -charge of this operation places a mantle alongside each plant and throws -into this the leaves which he gathers. The preservation of the leaves is -also a difficult matter; if too dry they become reduced to powder; if -too damp they decompose. - -In the countries to which they are exported, the coca leaves, in the -dried form, are used for making wines, tonics, and medicinal syrups. - -It will be seen from the foregoing description that coca is a very -wonderful and unique product. In countless directions fortune has been -kind to South America, showering distinctive gifts upon her with a -lavish hand. It would really seem that nature believed in the principle -of monopoly, for certainly the coca of Peru and Bolivia and the maté tea -of Paraguay flourish on no other soil. With these two products may be -bracketed the coffee of Brazil. The three things combined suggest, in -the old Doctor’s phrase, “the potentiality of growing rich beyond the -dreams of avarice,” and even when the gold, which tempted the cupidity -of the Spaniard to the exclusion of everything else, is exhausted the -continent will find (indeed, already is finding) a larger, a more -regular, and a more constant source of wealth in its indigenous crops. - -The sustaining powers of coca, attested by centuries of use, as well as -by the fact that it is daily consumed by eight millions of people in -Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Rio Negro, who require little food -of any other kind, constitute a strong argument for its extended -employment in the future. If it is such a good friend to the South -American Indian, it should be equally serviceable to the soldier on the -march; and already the army authorities of several countries are -considering the advisability of including it in their commissariat. The -present value of the crop--about £200,000 annually--is therefore as -nothing to the wealth it may yield in the future. - -[Illustration: AN INCA MASK IN GOLD.] - -[Illustration: PRE-INCA MONOLITHS IN BOLIVIA.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -_“The Gateway to an Imprisoned Land”_ - - -Mollendo, the port for Arequipa, Cuzco, La Paz, is anything but an -inviting place. It is a dismal town like Iquique, Arica, Paita, and many -others on the rainless coast that stretches for hundreds of weary miles -down the Pacific. The port is unsheltered and strong south-westerly -winds prevail, making the landing in small boats a matter of no little -difficulty. The landing-stage or mole belonging to the Peruvian -Corporation is the most important feature of the dusty town, for from it -all the rich products of the far-distant interior are shipped into the -barges which carry them out to the steamers that anchor in the -roadstead. The exports are alpaca and sheep’s wool, hides, coca leaves, -Peruvian bark, silver, tin, and iron ores. The town itself is built upon -steep, rising ground, the roads of which are carpeted with thick layers -of ruddy dust, which the wind drives about to the inconvenience of the -visitors, although it does not apparently annoy the dirty-looking -inhabitants. There are two hotels in the town that offer little choice, -and it is a toss-up which is the more deserving of patronage. The houses -are all built of wood and painted with colours that soon lose their -original hues, for the sun, unmasked by clouds, beats down on them with -relentless fury and, combined with the efforts of the dust, contrives to -reduce them to a uniform tint of bleached dismalness. The shops expose -cheap goods of German manufacture, for all along the Pacific seaboard -the irrepressible Teuton is fast obtaining a strong and tenacious -foothold. The native market exudes such unmistakable evidences of its -contents that only persons with strong stomachs dare venture to make a -visual inspection of the wares. Swarthy Indians, enveloped in -brilliantly coloured ponchos, lounge on the wharves or in the shade -cast by the buildings. The church, built of wood and corrugated iron, in -a style absolutely unsuitable to the materials, has two towers -surmounted by conical caps that are quite original and absurd. Women sit -at little stalls in the gutters or on the pavements, and above their -heads little square sunshades stuck on poles give some protection to the -medley of fruit in the baskets in front of them. The whole place looks -temporary, and one would not be surprised to learn that the authorities -were only waiting for funds to lay out a more habitable town. The place -has only about 5000 inhabitants, who deserve the sympathy of all -right-feeling people. But Mollendo is only a seaport, and the doorway to -vast and interesting regions in the interior, many of which are -unexplored, and one of which, Bolivia, is still waiting for a proper -recognition of its vast resources. The railway to Arequipa and Puno on -the Peruvian shore of the highest navigable lake in the world, and to -Cuzco, the ancient city of the Incas, has brought these hitherto -little-visited centres into closer touch with outside civilisation. - -[Illustration: A FRUIT-STALL AT MOLLENDO.] - -The first part of the journey to Arequipa is through a succession of -sand dunes, desolate and bare, stretching away into the distance on all -sides. These dunes, crescent-shaped, are in a state of slow motion, -moving in the direction of their horns at the rate of about 100 feet in -the course of a year, so that they could give a glacier a few thousand -years’ start in a race. Towards Arequipa, which is approached through -fertile and cultivated land upon which maize and sugar-cane grow, cattle -graze, or, driven by natives, tread out the corn. The city is about 122 -kilometres from the coast, and lies in a beautiful valley, green and -luscious. The elevation of the city at 7600 feet ensures a cooler clime -than that left behind in the baked and roasted coast. - -Away in the distance the great snow-clad mountain peaks of Misti, -Pichupichu, and Charehani tower into the blue vault above. The city in -the valley is built largely of the brown lava thrown up by a volcano in -the vicinity. With an almost cynical indifference to the terrible forces -of nature, the builders of the city have utilised the product of the -volcano to protect themselves from the devastating earthquakes to which -the whole Pacific slope of the Cordillera is subject. The architecture -of Arequipa and Cuzco differs in many respects from that of Lima, for in -both the former cities there are many traces of the strong influences -that the indigenous art of the country had upon that of the conquerors. -The heavy carvings on the façades and doorways of the many churches and -convents in Arequipa betray the influence more than the general design, -and many ornamental forms are introduced that belong entirely to the New -World. The railway from Arequipa crosses the Cordillera at the altitude -of 14,600 feet above the sea, and from the Crucero Alto descends through -rich pasture lands upon which great flocks of llamas, sheep, alpacas, -and the wild vicuna graze. - -At the junction Juliaca the line branches, the northern route leading to -the ancient Inca capital. This city Cuzco lies between two streams at an -altitude of 12,000 feet, and is a great favourite with tourists from the -United States, who go in great numbers to see the many interesting -remains of the old civilisation. Although much of the old Temple of the -Sun which aroused the cupidity of the Spanish invaders has given place -to a Jesuit convent, there are still many buildings that retain the -massive walls built by the conquered race. The lower portions of most of -the houses are good specimens of the fine masonry for which the old -builders are distinguished. The lighter construction of the upper -stories is of the Spanish period, with many of its characteristic -architectural features. The other line, that branches south from -Juliaca, leads to Puno, which lies on the shores of Lake Titicaca, where -a steamer completes the connection with the Bolivian shore at Guaqui, -from whence trains depart for La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. Named -after the great Liberator, Simon Bolivar, Bolivia is a large country -covering about 597,000 square miles, bounded on the north, south, and -east by Brazil, Paraguay, and the Argentine Republic, and shut away from -the Pacific seaboard on the west by Peru and Chili. Prior to the -assertion of its independence it was known as Upper Peru, and in its -early years it was virtually a part of a neighbouring State, from which -it derived its name. The country is naturally divided into two portions, -the high lands to the westward and the grean plains that roll away to -the east. The centre of the country is a fertile plateau which is -capable of supporting vast herds of sheep and cattle, and raising all -kinds of crops. The mineral wealth of the country is rich, copper and -gold being found in considerable quantities. But the staple mineral -product is silver, for Bolivia is the third largest producer of silver, -and in the mines of Potosi, which have been worked for centuries, there -would seem to be a practically inexhaustible supply of that precious -metal. - -[Illustration: THE JESUIT CHURCH ON THE SITE OF THE INCA “TEMPLE OF THE -SUN.”] - -Like so many other of the South American republics, Bolivia possesses -undreamt of potentialities for development, but her industry and her -commerce with the outside world are sadly hampered for want of a port on -the Pacific. Bolivians live in hopes that they will get it one day, not -by force of arms, but through the good offices of Chili. Already an -arrangement has been arrived at with Brazil under which Bolivia has a -better outlet for her products from the north-west. One of her greatest -desiderata is to despatch as promptly and cheaply as possible her large -and valuable supplies of rubber for shipment to the port of Para. - -[Illustration: A BOLIVIAN WOMAN.] - -Bolivia has been called the cradle of civilisation, and long before the -Incas in the neighbouring State of Peru founded their kingdom it was -inhabited by a cultivated race, who have left behind monuments of their -skill in the shape of statues and buildings strongly wrought of carved -stone. Whatever the warlike prowess of this primitive folk may have -been, it was not sufficiently developed to resist the invasion of the -Incas, and when the Spaniards, under the redoubtable Pizarro, entered -the country, they found it under the domination of the latter race. - -Bolivia may also make the unique boast that on its soil was struck the -last blow for South American independence. The victory of Ayacusho, -achieved in December, 1824, proved the death-blow to Spanish domination -in the sub-continent, and it is therefore a landmark not only in the -history of South America, but of the world. - -[Illustration: SAILING ON LAKE TITICACA.] - -Bolivia may also be proud--if nations should be proud of such -things--that she has had more revolutions than any other State even in -that part of the globe where revolutions are a favourite pastime. - -The Bolivians resemble a certain king in one of Browning’s poems, they -have favourites manifold, and shift their ministry - -[Illustration: BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA.] - -some once a month. The obvious result of this is that the later history -of the country makes confused and rather weary reading. One dictator -followed another after the collapse of Bolivar’s ambitious dream of -establishing a Central South American dictatorship for himself, with the -heads of all the other communities subject to his authority. Some of -these men, to their credit be it recorded, tried to assume the mantle of -the wise ruler, but others were bloodthirsty tyrants. Few of them stand -out in bold relief like Francia in Paraguay or Bolivar in New Granada. -One of the most celebrated of the bunch was Melgarejo, who in the -sixties of the last century abandoned all pretence of governing by any -sanction except that of brute force and terror. Although the lives of -Bolivians were very insecure, for none of them ever knew when they would -be charged with conspiracy against the State and sent to execution, -Melgarejo’s regime was not one of undiluted evil. The best points in his -rule were exemplified in the application of funds for public purposes, -and before his overthrow in 1871 silver production had enormously -increased, foreign capital had flowed freely into the country, and the -Mollendo Railroad, extending to the head of Lake Titicaca, had been -opened. - -The war with Chili, in which she joined forces with Peru, ended -disastrously for Bolivia, for it entailed the loss of her nitrate -territory, and cut her off entirely from the Pacific Ocean. - -It is in the retrieving of that highway to the sea that her prosperity -in the future lies. - -The highlands of Bolivia have been compared with Thibet, the roof of the -world, but whilst the Asian tableland consists merely of mountain -pastures, that of South America supports towns and populous cities, and -affords food for numerous herds of cattle, llamas, vicunas, and sheep, -and is covered with harvests of cereals. The mineral wealth of Bolivia -lies principally in the western districts, which are consequently the -most populous and settled, containing the chief centres of trade at La -Paz, Cochabamba, Sucre, Potosi, and Oruro. The eastern provinces of Beni -and Santa Cruz cannot as yet point to more than their possibilities, -which are vividly suggested in the description of a traveller from the -United States, who declared that “the few scattered inhabitants gaze -upon a wealth sufficient to pay the national debts of the world.” - -The population of the country is something just under three millions. -The trade is principally in the hands of Germany and England, but the -former country is making far greater headway in the Bolivian markets -than are our own merchants and manufacturers. The reason doubtless is -that Germany and also France in a lesser degree are taking the trouble -to find out what the foreign public really requires. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -“_The Land of Nitrates_” - - -Valparaiso is the principal seaport of the most remarkably shaped -country in the world. A narrow strip of land, lying between the Andes -and the Pacific, having a length of two thousand eight hundred miles, -and a width varying from forty to one hundred and sixty miles, it has -not inaptly been compared to a serpent couched on the south-western -verge of the continent. When you have voyaged down the coast from -Panama, and have experienced the changes from the tropical verdure of -the Ecuadorian coast to the arid monotony of the Peruvian seaboard and -the dusty, dry melancholy of such Chilian seaports as Iquique, -Antofagasta, Tattal, and Coquimbo, the soft grey atmosphere of -Valparaiso comes as a welcome relief. One might almost imagine that an -English climate had found its way down south, as well as English trade, -manners, and customs. Valparaiso--the “Vale of Paradise”--hardly -justifies its presumptuous title, for although trees and verdure are -plentiful enough, the bay cannot for a moment be compared for beauty -with the magnificence of Rio de Janeiro on the other side of the -continent. The impressions received are entirely different from any -others to be obtained in other parts of South America. - -The languorousness of equatorial regions is left behind, and on every -hand a virile activity is apparent. This note of virility, which is -quite unusual in Latin-American communities, at first excites surprise, -and many theories have been advanced to account for the phenomenon. If -climate and environment have a great influence on the moulding of racial -character, it is not unnatural to suppose that the exceptional -characteristics of Chili have had their due effect upon the inhabitants. -The Chilians have been called the “English of South America,” and it has -been put forward that they derive their origin from the natives of -Northern Spain, whereas other South American States were colonised by -adventurers from the southern part of the Peninsula. But the precise -localities from which the early conquistadors came are lost in the mists -of antiquity, and it is therefore much safer to attribute the -extraordinary energy and enterprise of the Chilian to his environment, -to the harsh experiences he has undergone, and to the strain of -Araucanian blood which runs through the whole people. The Spanish -colonists from Peru who effected the conquest of the country, had a much -tougher proposition to deal with than their compatriots in other parts -of the continent, for the natives they found in possession of the soil -were not the usual docile type of Indian, but a race of hardy fighters, -who were prepared to contest the advance of the invader to the last -ditch, as it were. The Araucanian Indians were the most valorous of all -the South American aborigines, and it cannot be said with truth that -they were ever entirely subjugated, a portion of independent territory -being granted them, on honourable terms, after a long struggle. -Intermarriage with the Araucanians undoubtedly did much to stiffen the -Spanish fibre, and many of the best families in the country to-day are -proud to claim descent from this dominant and manly race. - -[Illustration: A CHILIAN FARMER.] - -In Valparaiso, and in Santiago the capital, which lies about fifty miles -inland as the crow flies, but over double that distance by rail, the -Englishman finds himself very much at home. In nearly all the shops he -can hear his native tongue spoken, and at the social functions many of -the fashions and customs of his country - -[Illustration: AN ARAUCANIAN FAMILY.] - -are followed and observed. At the watering-places Vina do Mar and -Miramar, not far from Valparaiso, the beach scenes might well be likened -to those on the shores of retiring English watering-places, whilst the -sturdy children who romp upon the sands display a healthy vitality that -only temperate climates seem to develop. Valparaiso is a busy town, -where the inhabitants are all on business bent; and although they live -upon an earthquake zone, they have expressions free from the anxiety -which one might expect to see upon their faces. Many of the buildings, -both in the city and suburbs, have many scars and cracks, received -during the great upheaval of 1906, and nervous persons prefer to live in -structures that are light and low, than to trust to the higher though -solidly built buildings that offer little chances of escape in the -terrible moments of a shock. - -Horses are cheap in Chili; and the beautifully situated racecourse, near -Vina do Mar, is well patronised by all classes. Though not so imposing -or so ostentatious as the famous course at Buenos Ayres, it is more -fortunate in its setting, and the beauty of the surrounding scenery, -with the great background of the Cordillera towering into the sky, gives -it a character which many race-courses lack. In some respects it might -be compared with the one at Rio, but, if anything, it has a more -distinguished loveliness. Many tennis courts and a golf course are well -patronised by both sexes, and riding is an almost universal form of -exercise. In Santiago the government classes make the society more -brilliant in its display, and although the city still retains many -characteristically Spanish buildings, its inhabitants are cosmopolitan -in their tastes and education. The Alameda, an avenue over five miles in -length and lined with beautiful trees, is a promenade much affected by -the fashion of the capital, and the horses and carriages are only -exceeded in elegance and beauty by the women, who are as beautiful as -their distant cousins in Argentina. In the evenings the Plaza is a blaze -of light and life, and no one can dispute the Chilians’ capacity for -social enjoyment. Public monuments to illustrious natives are numerous, -and one to O’Higgins, seated on his prancing steed and flourishing his -sword, is strongly reminiscent of the numerous replicas of the San -Martin monuments which are scattered through the neighbouring republic -of Argentina. - -These two men had a large share in the emancipating of the continent -from the degenerate government of Spain, and their deeds of valour, ever -fresh in the minds of their countrymen, continue to animate the spirit -of independence. - -[Illustration: AN ARAUCANIAN INDIAN.] - -When the Spaniards first set foot in Chili they found a large portion of -the country under the sway of the Incas, for although that dynasty is -generally associated with Peru, at the height of its power it exercised -domination over Ecuador and Chili in addition. Almagro, the gallant -General who fell a victim to the insatiable ambition of his former -comrade Pizarro, was the first of the conquerors to enter the country, -but his stay was not prolonged, for the climate was inhospitable, and -there was no gold to be had for the seeking. It remained for Valdivia, -a lieutenant of Pizarro’s, to carry on the work which Almagro had -attempted in a half-hearted fashion. He found the task a particularly -perilous one, and before he could complete it he was captured by the -Araucanians and slain by the war club of an old chief. Spain, however, -persisted in her project, and her eventual conquest of Chili certainly -makes one of the proudest records in the variegated page of her exploits -in the New World. In the early years of the nineteenth century Chili -went through an experience which was common to every other South -American country--it battled for its independence. The struggle was long -and desperate. The resemblance of the Chilians to the English has -already been noted, and it was therefore appropriate that two men of -British descent should have lent incalculable aid to Chili in securing -her enfranchisement. The names of Bernardo O’Higgins and Lord Thomas -Cochrane are deservedly honoured in the country to-day. - -O’Higgins was the natural son of an Irish Captain-General, who under the -old Spanish regime had played a part in the making of modern Chili, thus -illustrating yet once more the statement that there has never been a -conflict in modern times but an Irishman has taken part in it. A gallant -fighter, a consummate strategist, his exploits on Chilian soil have -quite eclipsed those of his father. He outwitted the Spanish generals, -harried their forces, and did more than anyone else, with the exception -of San Martin, to break the power of Spain in that corner of the globe. -He subsequently became dictator of the new republic, but his record as a -statesman is by no means so clean or so brilliant as his career as a -soldier. His own rapacity and his ministers’ corruption led to his -downfall in 1823. Lord Thomas Cochrane was one of those sailors of -fortune in which the British Navy has been so prolific. He was almost as -great a terror to the Spanish captains as Drake had been some hundreds -of years before. His daring bombardment of Valdivia, and subsequent -rushing of the forts, demoralised the Spaniards and led to the surrender -of the city, and deprived Spain of her last base of operations on the -Chilian mainland. Chili has been called “the school of arms” for South -America, and, judging from the number of conflicts which have taken -place on her soil, the name is more than justified. - -The war with Peru and Bolivia, in which Chili came out the undoubted -victor, and the civil war, out of which José Balmaceda - -[Illustration: ARAUCANIAN GIRLS.] - -emerges a romantic and heroic figure, are events of more recent -occurrence, but sufficient time has elapsed to bring the character of -Balmaceda into clearer relief. There is no doubt that his motives were -pure and high, and under his administration Chili grew and prospered. A -thorough democrat in every fibre of his being, he hated the Church party -because he believed it to be the inveterate foe of enlightenment and -progress. - -His great mistake was in imagining that he and his ministers could rule -a fretful realm without the co-operation of Congress, a mistake also -made by Charles I, and with similar results. This it was that led to the -civil war which brought along Balmaceda’s defeat, and culminated in his -dramatic suicide in the residence of the Argentine minister in August, -1890. Since then the country has been comparatively quiet, for luckily -the dispute with Argentina over territory on their respective frontiers -has been amicably settled by arbitration. Thus out of much stress and -turmoil the Chilians have developed into a prosperous and dominant -nation, with a sea power which gives them the command of the Pacific -coast of the whole sub-continent. - -Not only concerned with war, they have brought the industries of -agriculture to a high level of perfection. The Chilian farmers are among -the most prosperous in the world, and have been likened to “feudal -barons, with hacienda in lieu of castle, with broad acreage, and -thousands of sheep, cattle, and horses.” - -Nitrate is the chief source of Chili’s prosperity, and the deposits of -this invaluable product are found in the great plains of Tamarugal in -the two northern provinces. The salty earth called “caliche” which -contains the nitrates is found some three to six feet below the surface, -and all the principal “oficinas” lie upon a plateau at an altitude of -about two thousand feet. The railway which connects these “oficinas” -with the coast runs from Iquique and Pisagua, and these two towns are -the great shipping ports for the product. The exportation of commercial -nitrate known as “Chilian nitre” began in 1830, when something less than -nine thousand gross tons were shipped. The quantity has steadily risen -until now over two million gross tons are exported annually, the figures -for 1911 being over two million three hundred thousand tons. Of this -quantity approximately seventy-five per cent is used for fertiliser -purposes. The “oficinas,” which are situated on the Pampas, are busy -centres of industry, - -[Illustration: ON THE GUANO DEPOSITS.] - -employing many men who live in the villages belonging to the works--and -stores, schools, and other useful institutions exist to make life upon -these bare plains endurable. The “caliche” is worked locally in these -factories, where it is first crushed, then dissolved in boiling water, -the insoluble matter precipitated, the solution containing the nitre -being allowed to crystallise, and the product after being roughly dried -is exported in bags. Curious remains of birds and animals and human -beings are frequently discovered in the “caliche” deposits, all well -preserved, and many of these specimens of the earlier fauna of the -country are found in the museum at Lima and elsewhere. The deposits of -“caliche” are of course limited, and there is great difference of -opinion as to when the beds will be exhausted. But some time ago the -Collector of Customs at Valparaiso estimated that thirty-five million -metric tons remain at present in private properties--and about thirty -million metric tons in the Government properties--and, in his opinion, -by 1923 the remaining deposits upon private properties will have been -exhausted, whilst the Government properties may last fifteen years -longer. Although the Government receive a large revenue from the sale of -their stock of this valuable deposit, by the time it is exhausted other -sources of wealth will have been developed, for the agricultural -possibilities are practically unlimited. Chili also possesses the -largest guano deposits in the world, and here is another source of -wealth. The material, which consists of the droppings of pelicans, is -the most valuable manure known. It is found along the hills that lie -near the seashore, and helps to give those weird effects of dirty snow -lying on brown earth. Precisely when its use was first discovered is not -known, but there is evidence to show that its value was understood by -the subjects of the Incas, and it helped to give them that expertness in -agriculture which so astonished the Spaniards in the sixteenth century. -Humboldt introduced it into Europe early in the nineteenth century, and -since then its employment has increased among farmers everywhere, and -has been greatly fostered by the improvements which chemists and -inventors have brought about in the methods of preparing it for use. -Unlike nitrates, there is little possibility of the supplies of this -fertiliser ever becoming exhausted. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -_Argentina_ - - -To countless people South America is little or nothing more than a -geographical expression, and to such the Argentine Republic is the -representative State, typical of all the rest. There could be no greater -error, for the natives of the great southern continent are sharply -differentiated, alike in many traits of character, the vocations which -they pursue, and the physiography of the territory which they inhabit. -There are, it is true, certain ties between them all; they all boast a -common ancestry in the Iberian Peninsula, and they are also united by a -common religion, and, to a lesser extent, a common language. Still, the -uninitiated person does not go so very far wrong in supposing that the -Argentine dwarfs all its neighbours. It would be a veritable Triton -among the minnows were it not for the juxtaposition of Brazil, which -vastly exceeds it in the matter of size, if not in prosperity. The -rivalry between the two countries is of long standing, but even -Brazilians have to reluctantly admit that their neighbours are easily -first both in the development of their resources and the extent of their -commerce. There is yet another factor which gives the Argentina -pre-eminence. In its capital, Buenos Ayres, it has the largest city -south of the Equator, and, next to Paris, the largest Latin city in the -world. The noise of its fame has reached the ears of thousands of people -to whom Rio de Janeiro and Lima are mere abstractions. Nor is that -predominant fame undeserved. Buenos Ayres is a mighty place of -habitation boasting avenues and architecture which would grace any city -in the Old World. The progress has been almost incredibly rapid. From an -ill-paved, wretched settlement on the flat banks of the muddy River -Plate, a splendid city has arisen. There is no “Colonial” atmosphere -about it; it has instead all the impress of a European city, and in -this respect it stands apart from every other town in South America. - -The traveller who approaches Buenos Ayres, after having seen Rio and -Montevideo, will probably experience a little disappointment, when he -first catches sight of the city, for its fame far transcends its -appearance when viewed from the deck of an incoming steamer. The journey -up the muddy river is uninteresting, and, but for the buoys that mark -the fourteen miles of dredged channel, has no features to distinguish it -from the English Channel on a calm day. At night, when lit up by its -innumerable lights, the city presents a more imposing spectacle from the -river, for the vast area that it covers is then apparent. In the daytime -the low-lying metropolis is relieved by only a few outstanding -buildings, the lemon-shaped dome of the Congress Buildings being the -most conspicuous. Its straight streets are set at right angles, and -through the centre of the city runs the magnificent Avenida de Mayo, -lined with magnificent buildings of many styles, shaded by tall trees, -and at night brilliantly lighted by electric standards. It is in the -“Avenida” that you receive the best impression of the city’s importance. -Stand at any point of this great boulevard, your mind receives the -impression that you have reached the centre of a State which has in a -remarkably short space of time risen to be one of the most important -countries of the New World. - -But the majority of the streets of this vast city are still the long, -narrow lanes which the early designers laid out, and they offer dreary -vistas of interminable length. Although most of the buildings that line -them are new and stately, and have fronts which betoken the wealth of -the builders, they are rather ostentatious, and become wearying after a -short time. But there are many notable buildings in the city which are -worthy of the city’s importance. The Government buildings in the Plaza -de Mayo, the Houses of Congress, the numerous hotels, the Cathedral, the -Bolsu, and the sumptuous quarters of the Jockey Club compare favourably -with similar institutions in other parts of the world. Moreover, the -homes of the wealthy landowners, merchants, are veritable palaces, -sumptuously furnished, and even persons of lesser estate reside in -houses of great beauty and luxury. Clubs are plentiful, and provide for -the various nationalities who form colonies in the city. When one -considers the fact - -[Illustration] - -that the city has a population of about one million, which is about a -fifth of the entire population of the country, it is not surprising to -find that there are many places of entertainment, which are run upon -similar lines to those in Paris, London, and New York. Companies from -Europe tour South America, and Rio, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso are -favoured with the best talent the world possesses. The opera house at -Buenos Ayres is quite a sight on gala nights, and the toilets of the -beauties of fashion are not less extravagant or tasteful than those of -the fairest Parisiennes. The women of Argentina are famous for their -beauty, and although they begin at an early age to put on flesh, they -long retain their good complexions and love of showy dress. The men are -not far behind the womenfolk in their love of display, good looks, and -luxuriant habits, although of late there is a disposition among the -younger men to go in for the sports and pastimes generally associated -with Englishmen and Americans. The Jockey Club owns and runs the -racecourse, and its enormous wealth is derived largely from that -institution. Horses and motor-cars are the passions of the rich, as the -long line of automobiles of latest types that line the boulevard outside -the racecourse testify. There are many horses on the streets of the city -that must arrest the attention of the visitors, not on account of their -beauty, but of their sorry appearance. The cab horses in particular are -badly treated by their drivers, and it is one of the stains upon this -city, that has in so many respects emulated the ways of northern -capitals, that its authorities allow the brutes who ill use the poor -beasts to go unpunished. So far as its maritime situation is concerned, -Buenos Ayres is not very fortunate, for the channel of the estuary being -so shallow has, notwithstanding the many improvements that have been -made in the docks of recent years, forced much of the shipping to other -ports more accessible. Rosario has been growing in importance as a grain -exporting town, and being well placed in the Parana, large vessels can -go alongside and load much of the grain grown in the fertile province of -Santa Fé. Bahia Blanca has even a greater importance, and is growing so -rapidly that it has not inaptly been called the “Liverpool of the -South.” Magnificent graving docks have been built, as well as harbour -works, and the Government, recognising the strategical value of its -position on the Atlantic, have made it a military and naval depot. - -The growth of Rosario and Bahia Blanca is a good thing for the country, -for it helps to counteract the tendency towards concentration in the -capital, which is about the only real menace to the republic’s continued -and increased prosperity. La Plata, the other port which lies about -fifteen miles farther down the estuary of the Plate than the capital, -has proved a dismal failure. Much money has been wasted in the attempt -to make a port for the capital at this spot; but, in spite of its wide -streets and imposing buildings, the city has a neglected, desolate -aspect, few persons cross its grass-grown streets, and the whole place -is a good instance of the Nemesis which overtakes extravagant hopes. The -projectors of the city showed a singular lack of foresight in imagining -that there was need for another grand city within such easy distance of -the capital. The museum at La Plata is a magnificent building, with much -to interest the anthropologist, but it proves rather gruesome to the -average visitor, who is rather appalled by the enormous collection of -skulls and skeletons of American Indians that occupies many rooms and -hundreds of cases. - -[Illustration: THE LEMON-SHAPED DOME OF THE CAPITAL.] - -La Plata has its parks with muddy little ponds and lakes, gardens with -beautiful trees, an avenue of giant eucalyptus trees, and its zoological -gardens, with a few specimens, that give signs of life that the city -could ill spare. - -With the exception of Belgrano and Palermo, which are filled with -superbly appointed mansions, the suburbs of Buenos Ayres are depressing -and sordid. As the town fades into the camp, the houses become poorer -and poorer, streets are like quagmires, and old tin cans are utilised -for building the shacks occupied by the squalid poor, for, like all -great cities, Buenos Ayres has them in great abundance, a mixed lot of -the unfit of European and native races. - -But the cities are only the small part of Argentina. They are the -exchanges rather than the creators of its wealth, a wealth which lies in -the far-spreading Pampas, which form the natural feature of the -republic. Much has been written upon them, and nearly everyone who has -undertaken the task has set on record their two salient characteristics, -their apparent limitlessness and their deadly monotony. The first hour’s -journey on any of the railways that run from Buenos Ayres is over an -unbroken, expansive sea of green, the second hour is the same, and if -you go travelling on until sundown, the same landscape will meet the -eye. With certain necessary variations, Swinburne’s lines on the North -Sea might be applied to the Pampas of the Argentine: - - “Miles and miles, and miles of desolation! - Leagues on leagues on leagues without a change! - Sign or token of some oldest nation, - Here would make the strange land not so strange”; - -or, as another poet has phrased it, the vast prairie seems: - - “Almost as limitless as the unbounded sea, but without its changing smile.” - -But the dweller in cities will not be depressed by this changelessness -of landscape. He will rather welcome the escape from the congested -haunts of man, drinking in with gusto the fresh clean air that has blown -over countless leagues of grassland, and revel in the sense of liberty -which comes when one stands in the great open spaces and vast solitudes -of nature. If the unending sweep of green and the herds of innumerable -cattle become oppressive, the eye can seek relief in following flights -of hawks and other birds, or in searching for a clump - -[Illustration: DESOLATION.] - -of stunted trees, or the round head of a wind-pump, the sweep of a small -stream, the occasional hut of a shepherd, or the more imposing -“estancia,” as the Argentina farmhouse is called. Cattle, horses, and -sheep are never long out of the line of a traveller’s vision, and with -them the herdsmen of the plains, the “gauchos.” Although the Pampas form -so large a part of the territory, they do not occupy it all, for the -country is so long that it boasts all sorts of climates, from the -tropical to the arctic. To the north subtropical forests abound; to the -west the plains fade away into the mighty Andes, which tower 23,000 feet -towards the sky; while to the south lie the bleak hills and arid plains -of Patagonia. Cattle-raising, horse-breeding, wheat-growing, and meal -preparation, although the staple industries of the Argentine, do not -exhaust the list. Mendoza, situated at a point where the Pampas merge -into the foot-hills of the Andes, is celebrated for its vineyards. -Poplar trees give shelter from the cold mountain winds, and the scene -might almost be laid in the Rhone valley. Woods, streams, and lakes give -a diversity which is welcome to the traveller who comes from across the -plains. Mendoza has plenty of wide streets and low one-story houses. -Shady trees line the roads, and streams of water run down the gutters -all day long. In the hot dusty weather an army of boys and men, equipped -with buckets attached to long poles, sprinkle the streets with water -from the runnels. Little bridges of planks are formed across the -gutters where they are too wide to step across. In the dark and smoky -interiors of the workmen’s cafés and wineshops merry little groups of -bronzed and grizzly bearded peons sit round heavy, old-fashioned tables, -sipping wine out of great flagons, smoking big black cigars, gambling, -and playing cards. Women, with jet-black eyes, and mantillas, move -leisurely about the streets, seeking always the shady side, or sit upon -stiff wooden chairs placed outside the entrances to their homes, plying -their fans vigorously to keep themselves cool, and the flies from -settling. The town is laid out with rigid symmetry; the streets are wide -and straight, as if drawn with a ruler, and cross one another at right -angles. New buildings have sprung up in the principal street, which lies -at the lower end of the town, and all the architectural fads and fancies -of recent years are represented. Buenos Ayres has set the fashion for -all the newer and progressive towns and cities in the republic, and an -effort is made in Mendoza to emulate the outside cafés that crowd upon -the pavements of the Avenida in the capital. Round the tables, under the -awnings, a crowd of the youth of the city congregate before breakfast -and dinner, and all the latest styles in clothes are to be seen, and the -very latest gossip heard. The Grand Hotel, which occupies a large -portion of one side of the Plaza, is an old-fashioned but very -comfortable caravansary with flowery patios and lofty rooms, and a fore -court in front, which is used as an open-air dining space. As rain -seldom, if ever, falls upon this town, it is always safe to take a seat -and a meal in this pleasant spot. The popularity of the courtyard is -contributed to in the evenings by the cinema pictures which are thrown -on to a screen stretched on one side. Crowds gather round the tables to -witness the free show, and visitors have opportunities of mixing with -the better class inhabitants. The evenings are very hot during the -summer months, but the days are stifling. Dust is wafted about in great -clouds, and adds to the general discomfort of the sweltering heat, and -the noonday siesta is the only refuge for those fortunate enough to -indulge in this custom of the country. A public park has recently been -laid out on the rising ground on the outskirts of the town. The -fertility of the soil, assisted by artificial irrigation, has produced a -fine shady spot, surrounded by rich green foliage. Firs, poplars, palms, -and smaller plants of many varieties flourish on this beautiful - -[Illustration: LANDSCAPE NEAR MENDOZA.] - -site. The great Cordillera forms a background of surpassing beauty to -these gardens, as well as an almost impregnable barrier between the -republics of Argentine and Chili. In a corner of the park, which is -dotted with pools of muddy water, meant for lakes, there is a small -collection of animals and birds, hardly large enough to be called a -“Zoo.” The best specimens it possesses are the giant condors, which are -found upon the surrounding heights of the Andes. These great birds are -formidable enemies to travellers on the hills, and many stories are told -of their prowess. That they attack sheep and even men can readily be -credited, for their outstretched wings frequently measure from eight to -ten feet across, while their beaks and talons are equally strong and -powerful. A flock of these aerial monsters, sailing near a narrow -mountain pass, would scare the nerves of any traveller, for an encounter -with them on the edge of a precipice is rather a one-sided affair, in -which the odds are all in favour of the birds. The other exhibits in the -gardens are mostly native fauna, and there is plenty of room for future -extensions. The vineyards round the town and in the surrounding -districts are shaded by tall poplar trees, and irrigated by small -canals, for nature is all - -[Illustration: THE BRIDGE OF THE INCA.] - -too sparing of the “gentle rain” in this sunny region. The water for -these canals is derived from mountain streams, formed by the melted -snow, and there is no limit to quantities available. The dry air of -Mendoza and the altitude (it is 2700 feet above sea-level) render it a -most desirable place of residence for persons troubled with pulmonary -complaints, and the perpetual sunshine which covers the landscape makes -for cheerfulness, in spite of the heat. The wine of this district is -much appreciated locally, although the bulk of it finds its market in -the provinces of Buenos Ayres and Santa Fé. The best qualities are -really good, although they might not tempt the connoisseur accustomed to -the wines of France to forsake his vintage. Mendoza is an important -station on the Trans-Andean Railway route, and many passengers from -Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso find it a pleasant resting-place on the long -and trying journey. After nearly twenty-four hours in the train which -crosses the monotonous plains, a day’s or a night’s rest at Mendoza acts -as a pick-me-up of which delicate people should always avail themselves. -Although the railway across or through the summit of the Andes is now -completed, and is available for passengers nearly the whole year round, -the summer months from November to April are the best for making this -trip. Until quite recently the seven-hour journey by coach or muleback, -from Las Cuevas to Salado, deterred many from making the journey, but -now that the trains run backwards and forwards through the tunnel at the -summit, no one considers the journey - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE HILLS.] - -in the light of an undertaking. The scenery is grand. Majestic and -rugged mountain tops covered with dazzling white snow lie round on all -sides, and as the train winds round the slopes, over valleys and -ravines, an endless succession of strange rocky forms are passed. Just -before coming to Las Cuevas the train stops at a little station, where -there is a small hotel patronised by mountaineers and excursionists who -desire to spend a day or two among the rugged peaks. It is nearly nine -thousand feet above sea-level, and quite near to the railway track--a -curious compact mass of stones and gravel forms a natural bridge over a -small river. This bridge gives its name to the station--Punta del Inca. -Many passages in the journey are awe-inspiring, and as the route follows -that taken by San Martin on his famous march into Chili a good idea can -be formed of the difficult nature of his undertaking. Great brown hills, -destitute of vegetation, rocky and sandy, predominate. Immense boulders, -which threaten to fall at any moment, hang menacingly over the track, -which is protected in many places by stout iron sheds. Fallen boulders -and rocks brought down by storms and the melting snows lie scattered in -wild disorder over the valleys. The scenes are full of a melancholy -which even the bright sunlight reflected from the snowy peaks cannot -dispel. The distant peak of Aconcagua rising to the enormous height of -nearly twenty-three thousand feet, comes into view from time to time as -the train winds around its tortuous course. At the highest points -reached by the line many of the passengers suffer from the “mountain -sickness,” but only a few resolve to brave the “Straits” in future -rather than repeat the Andean journey. At Soldado, the frontier station, -the customs examine the baggage, and at Los Andes carriages are -changed, and the journey down to Santiago and Valparaiso, through richly -wooded slopes, is accomplished in about four hours. The traffic between -Chili and Argentina is steadily increasing, and the establishment of the -Trans-Andean Railway has done much to bring about a more intimate -friendship between the two nations. - -[Illustration: A GLIMPSE OF ACONCAGUA.] - -The history of the Argentine nation has followed similar lines to those -of its sister republics. The conquest by the Spaniards was followed by a -long colonial period, which came to an end when the people, after a -desperate struggle, won their independence. Since then it has had its -wars with neighbouring States, and, like all the rest of the republics, -innumerable internecine quarrels. But of late years more peaceful -counsels have prevailed, and the settlement of the boundary dispute with -Chili, through the more sensible medium of arbitration, is a good augury -for the future. Out of the war for independence a great and commanding -personality emerges. General San Martin might almost be called the -Brutus of South America--the noblest of them all. The Argentines -recognise this, and have expressed their admiration and gratitude by -erecting a statue to him in the public square of every town in the -country, an act which though admirable is apt to bore the traveller. -Brave, patriotic, able in warfare, and unselfish are the qualities which -can be ascribed in all fairness to San Martin. In many respects he may -be overshadowed by Bolivar, but he had none of the latter’s weakness, -none of his faults or crimes. His sole aim was to drive the oppressor -out of his native land, and he not only succeeded in doing this, but -also materially assisted in breaking the power of Spain in Chili and -Peru. When his great task was accomplished he retired quietly from the -scene of conflict, disdaining to compete for power with self-seeking, -unscrupulous politicians. His was a mind utterly incapable of intrigue, -so he was content to leave the wily Bolivar to his desperate devices and -his colossal dreams of empire. - -[Illustration: TRAVELLERS BY A RIVER-SIDE.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -_The Camp_ - - -To a European the farms of South America offer such contrasts to those -he is familiar with in his own country that he finds it difficult to -become accustomed to the immense areas of treeless plains that -constitute the estancias of the New World. Everything is on a large -scale there. A vast territory, now gently rolling like a heaving sea, -now flat as an unruffled lake, with few objects to break the eternal -straightness of the distant horizon. The atmosphere and the many -illusions it creates offer the greatest variety, however, and as day -succeeds day with ceaseless regularity ever changing effects of light -and colour diversify the aspect of the landscape. The roads through -these unbounded plains are wide-extended tracks, fenced in from the -private pastures of the estancias, going generally straight for scores -of miles. Driving along these tracks behind four horses in a light -covered trap the stranger’s ear is open to receive the softest sound, -and eyes to note the slightest variations presented. The silence is -broken by the fluttering flight of parrots, pigeons, and small brown -owls disturbed from their solemn doze by the approaching team, moving on -from perch to perch, always settling ahead to be disturbed again. The -lowing of the cattle, the swift stampede of groups of wild horses, and -the vast hum of insects break faintly upon the ear. Along the track and -in the adjacent fields the whitening bones of animals stare out from the -rich verdure that has not quite enwrapped them. These pathetic reminders -of the fate that overtakes many of the herd are very plentiful, for -whenever an animal dies in the camp, the skin only is removed by the -gaucho or cowboy, who comes across it in his daily round, and the -carcase is left for the hawks and other carrion-eaters, who lose no time -in stripping it of flesh, time and the elements slowly completing the -dissolution, and eventually removing the last vestiges of the animal’s -existence. - -[Illustration: CHASING RHEAS.] - -From the beginning to the end of a journey tall rheas flit across the -scene. These birds, the ostriches of South America, abound in many -districts. They formerly had a geographical range extending from -Southern Brazil and Uruguay to as far south as the Rio Negro in distant -Patagonia. But the incursions of man, who slew thousands of them for -their feathers, have cleared the more cultivated districts, and now they -are mostly found on the camps of Uruguay, and the provinces of -Corrientes and Missiones, and Paraguay. The _Rhea americana_ resembles -its distant relative in South Africa in general appearance, but differs -widely when inspected closely. It boasts three toes, and thus goes one -better than the ostrich. It is true its plumage cannot compete with that -of the latter bird, for it lacks the beautiful curly wing and tail -feathers. This is perhaps an advantage to the bird, although a loss to -the country. The feathers of the head and neck are a dingy white, those -on the crown of the head are of a brownish hue, while the under feathers -of the belly and thigh are white, the body feathers being a grey-brown -colour. These feathers can only serve the useful purpose of making -brushes, and have no claims to be promoted to the high office of -adorning ladies’ bonnets. The rhea is a polygamous bird, and the male so -thoroughly domesticated that he performs the duty of hatching out the -eggs of several of his wives. Their nests of dried grass are easily -found, for they have no protection save the long grass that grows around -them. On the approach of danger the parent birds sitting upon the nests -rise and take to flight, running with rapid strides and outstretched -wings, and soon are lost to sight in the airy distance of the plains. On -most of the camps the chasing of the birds is forbidden, although -instructions are given to destroy their eggs. The race between bird and -mounted pursuer disturbs the herds, and does more harm to the live stock -than would be compensated for by the feathers that may be plucked. On -some native estancias the practice obtains of leasing out the right to -capture the birds and pluck them. This is accomplished by throwing three -heavy balls attached to the end of a long line round the legs of the -running birds. The horseman chases the bird, and swinging the balls -round, lets fly with the captive shots, which, if the aim is true, wind -the rope round the victim’s legs and quickly bring him to earth. The -desired feathers are plucked, and the denuded bird allowed to escape. It -is no uncommon thing, however, to see a few gauchos for pure sport -surreptitiously chasing these birds. The excitement of the chase appeals -to men who live in the saddle, and who love to show off the fleetness of -their steeds, and even a chance spectator who witnesses the wild rush of -bird and horse across country cannot help catching some of the -enthusiasm, and strains his vision to its utmost to witness the finish -of a race. There is no shelter for the bird, no way of escaping the -unwelcome attentions of his pursuer except by sheer fleetness and -endurance. The illimitable camp stretches around for hundreds of miles, -and the essential qualities of bird and horse have a fair field and no -favour. The rhea is a sociable bird, and is generally found in untrodden -regions of the continent, grazing with the llamas and wild cattle in -close proximity to or on the estancias that are under man’s control, -along with the great herds of sheep and cattle. In this he is like the -ostrich, who accepts the companionship of the antelope and zebra of his -native land. There is plenty of room on the great plains for all, and -they live at peace with neighbours who offer no competition in the -struggle for existence. Another curiosity of the camp is the little -“armadillo.” It is true one has to search for them, for they are -nocturnal in their habits, and not often encountered in the daytime. -They are well protected with a hard, strong shell which covers their -backs, and when in danger they can move very quickly on their short, -strong legs, or can bury themselves underground until the danger that -threatens them is past. Night is the best time to catch them, and dogs -are used in the pursuit. The armadillo is found all over South America, -and in the lone caves of Brazil the fossil remains of gigantic ancestors -of this creature as large as the rhino of Africa have frequently been -discovered. The armadillos generally feed on roots, worms, and insects, -and they assist the hawks and other carrion-eaters to dispose of the -putrefying carcases of cattle, sheep, and horses that strew the camp. -The flesh of this armour-plated animal is eaten, and is considered a -delicacy by the natives all over the country from north to south. It is -generally roasted or smoked in its shell, and the Indians of the Guiana -will gorge themselves upon this dish whenever they have an opportunity. - -The great distances that separate many of the estancias from the -stations or ports give employment to thousands of horses, and the usual -method of travelling is either by riding or driving in light covered -carts drawn by four horses. If the journey is very long, eight horses -are taken, half of them drawing the carriage, the other half being -driven on in front, and harnessed at some half-way point, an estancia or -“pulperia,” where the first team is released and allowed to rest until -the return of the conveyance from its destination. These pulperia or -native stores are very primitive affairs. A few sticks mud-plastered -form the walls, mother earth the floor, while reeds and grasses thatch -the roof. When the traveller arrives at one of these he generally finds -a few horses, with fore feet hobbled, dozing under the shade cast by a -few trees that are planted round the huts, swishing their tails to keep -away the flies. Inside the hut or store two or three gauchos squat on -boxes, bags, or barrels, and in the intervals of drinking their native -spirit, “bolichi” (a fiery, untamed brand), chat with the “bolichero” or -publican. The talk is all of the - -[Illustration: A “PULPERIA.”] - -camp, for the outside world of civilisation is only a name to them, and -the echoes of its doings fall but faintly upon their ears. Horses, -cattle, the doings of the neighbouring estancias are discussed with the -dark-bearded host, who is the newsvendor to the country-side. Shepherds -from far outlying “puestos,” who live in solitary isolation from even -the other gauchos of the estancias, find their visits to these wayside -inns the principal excitement of their lives. Long journeys of scores of -miles, that would be an expedition to an English horseman, are nothing -to them. They are as much at home and at their ease in their great -saddles, as a club man is in a smoking-room chair, and they can sleep in -them as easily as in their beds. The gaucho and his horse are one, -inseparable, and if the animal is his own and not one belonging to the -estancia, he takes extravagant care of it. With his poncho to keep off -the rain, his cigar or cigarette, his “maté” to make his tea in, the -gaucho is equipped for any emergency. In some of the “pulperias” there -are small billiard tables, not too level; for they rest upon the soft -earthen floor, and when not in play are often as not used for seats by -the gossips who may happen to forgather. Primitive, yet affording much -of the luxury the gaucho finds in his hard life, here also he can -replenish his wardrobe and his larder, for belts, knives, “alpagatos” -(shoes with rope soles and canvas tops), ponchos, hang all round, and in -sacks upon the ground manioca or meal lies ready for a purchaser. The -goods retailed are of the cheapest description, most of them of German -origin, and especially made to suit the gauchos’ requirements. Primitive -ideas obtain amongst these people, and many superstitions too. In one of -these “pulperias” I noticed a small pup of only a few days old, lying -upon the floor whining piteously for its mother; and on my noticing it, -the bolichero explained that it was in transit to a native woman who was -suffering from a too liberal secretion of milk. The dress of the gauchos -of Uruguay and in the northern provinces of Argentina is strongly -reminiscent of the quaint costumes worn by the old-fashioned residents -in the island of Marken in the Zuyder Zee. The great baggy trousers -called “bombachos” are the feature of the dress common to both, and are -so distinctive that one wonders if there can be any connection between -them. At all events, they are well suited for riding in a hot climate, -for they permit the air to circulate freely about the nether limbs. -Apart from the bombachos, the dress of the gaucho has but little in -common with the old-time Dutchman, unless it be the tight waistcoats and -close-fitting sleeves of the shirts affected by many of them. - -They are fond of a touch of colour, however, and although the material -out of which their bombachos are made is generally of natural tints, -their socks will vie with the most glaring necktie of a Brazilian -gentleman. Emerald-green, sky-blue, chrome-yellow, and scarlet-vermilion -fresh placed upon a palette are not more striking, and all these are -generally selected to enhance - -[Illustration: MORNING: GOING TO WORK.] - -the beauty of their ponchos. The poncho is an overall, a gigantic -fore-and-aft bib, sleeveless, but an admirable protection from the heat -and rain. Hanging loosely from the shoulders, it covers the arms in its -ample folds, and, like the “bombachos,” allows the air to blow round the -heated body. This narrow sheet, with a slit in the middle, is found all -over South America and in Mexico, and it has many advantages to -recommend it over a sleeved garment. In Chili and Peru the better ones -are made out of the llama wool, so fine and hard that they are almost -impervious to rain, while their lightness is such that their weight is -hardly felt. A good poncho in Chili or Peru often costs as much as £20, -but those worn by the gauchos of Argentine and Uruguay are quite cheap -and tawdry in comparison. The gaucho takes a great pride in the -accoutrements of his horse, and he spends considerable time and pains to -have his best Sunday or holiday saddle and bridle replete with a -collection of old Spanish coins nailed on to the leather wherever -opportunity offers. Brilliant red plush or dyed sheepskin is placed over -the saddle, and when he is mounted wearing his best “poncho” and -“bombachos,” and broad sombrero hat, he cuts a brave figure to go -courting. On the camp his life is one of simple monotony, one continuous -round of hard riding and attending to the cattle, searching the herds -for sickness or rounding them up into “rodeo” to separate those that are -ready for the journey to the “saladero,” “frigorifico,” or meat factory, -branding the young cattle with the mark of the estancia, either by -slitting their ears or puncturing them, or with the hot iron burning in -a distinctive number upon the haunch. He rises at daylight, generally -about five o’clock, and in the common, soot-stained kitchen--the -“cocina” cuts a great hunk of roasted beef, takes a small handful of -farina, and washes this down with draughts of yerba sucked through the -“bombilla” (a little tube of metal - -[Illustration: EVENING.] - -with a bulbous strainer) from the little scooped-out gourd or maté which -he always carries with him. Then his day’s work begins. After harnessing -his horse, he mounts and separates from his companions, each of whom -takes a different direction--riding out to the particular paddock -allotted to his care. In his long, lonely patrol he keeps his eye ever -on the alert to discover any sick or dead animals that may be lying in -the long grass. His keen and practised eye watches the flight of the -carrion-birds, and when he sees these greedy scavengers gathering -together he knows their quarry is not far off. With these to guide him, -he searches till he finds the carcase, which he carefully inspects to -ascertain the cause of death. If it is of a malignant nature, he gathers -together dried grass and scrub with branches of trees, which he often -has to go miles to discover, and placing them round the carcase, sets -fire to it, to prevent infection from spreading to the herds. If the -cause of death is not of this nature he quickly removes the hide, ties -it upon his saddle, and continues on his round of inspection. It is six -or seven hours before he returns to the estancia, where he pegs out the -hides he has brought with him before sitting down to his “almuerzo,” or -midday meal. This eleven o’clock repast varies slightly from the one he -partook of in the early morning, consisting as it does of “puchero,” or -boiled meat instead of roasted. The meal finished, there are duties -about the steading to be seen to, and in the heat of the day the siesta -to be indulged in. At three o’clock he has another meal, consisting of -maté alone, before going out again to the camp; and on his return at -seven in the evening he talks over the details of the day’s doings with -his fellows over another meal of the boiled beef, “maté,” and farina. -After a smoke, a little music from a banjo or guitar played with an -untutored skill by one of the party, they seek their beds--simple -pallets of canvas stretched between collapsible trestles, something like -exaggerated camp-stools. Next day the same round of duties awaits him, -except for the variations that arise at special seasons when -sheep-shearing, cattle-branding, calf-gelding, horse-breaking are going -forward. Large numbers of horses run and breed practically in a wild -state upon the estancias, and the task of breaking them in falls to the -gauchos. This is an art and a pastime that they revel in, and as they -are paid extra for every colt that they render fit for riding, there is -no dearth of volunteers for this necessary part of the estancia work. A -herd of horses is driven up by a bunch of horsemen into a corral. The -colt or filly to be broken is singled out and lassoed by one of the men, -who drags it out into the open. More lassoes are fastened round the fore -and hind legs, and the animal is brought to earth. After a raw-hide bit -is fastened round its lower jaw, the frightened creature is allowed to -regain a standing position, and is hitched up to a post. One man covers -its eyes, whilst a great bundle of soft sheepskins is being fastened -securely on its back. All this time the fore legs are kept firmly tied -together. When all is ready, the man who is to break it in grasps the -raw-hide bridle, and jumps lightly on its back. Then the struggle -between man and brute commences in grim earnest. With a powerful whip -the man belabours the struggling steed, and with a horseman riding on -either side to guide the wild beast, the trio gallop off across the -plain at a break-neck pace. Before this mad race is started, the untamed -one struggles and bucks to rid himself of the unnatural encumbrance. He -rolls on the - -[Illustration: PEGGING OUT HIDES.] - -ground, lowers his head, and throws his unshod heels high into the air, -and then finding that all his efforts are vain, he tears off in a wild -fury, hoping to get relief. The race continues until the brute’s -strength weakens, and he is turned by the accompanying riders, for he -does not yet understand, nor if he could, would he yield to the guidance -of the bridle. When the trio return to the “corral,” where a crowd of -gauchos have stood witnessing the fun, the exhausted animal is relieved -of man, saddle, and bridle, and is turned loose amongst his fellows in -the corral. Then they are all set at liberty to roam the paddock till -the next day, when the operation is repeated. It takes many lessons to -break in a horse, and the sudden change from the completest freedom to -the fastest bondage is no doubt very irksome to the animal. After about -three or four weeks of training, however, the horse’s lesson is learnt, -and the man’s reward is earned. There still exists on some estancias the -primitive custom of branding the cattle in almost as rough a fashion as -the breaking in of the horses. The herds are rounded up by the horseman -into a great bunch, called a rodeo. The unbranded are lassoed by the -head and horns, and dragged out of the bellowing crowd. Another lasso is -thrown and captures the hind legs, and the animal, then completely -overcome, is thrown on its side and the branding iron applied. In modern -camps an easier method is employed. The cattle are “corralled” and -driven through a long spar-railed passage in which gates are arranged -for the purpose of dividing the cattle into different groups, so that as -the animals move along, and one is required to go one way, a gate is -opened, allowing it to pass out, the gate closing behind it, and leaving -the passage free for the next to move into another division if desired. -The branding is performed in this passage. One man grasps the animal’s -tail and pulls it through the open fence of the “race” or passage, -whilst another catches the horns and holds the head firmly against the -opposite side. If the brand is to be applied to the rump, the position -is in every way favourable for performing that operation; should the -brand of the estancia be an ear-mark, the head is in an equally -advantageous position. - -Branding is a very necessary precaution against cattle-stealing. When an -“estanciero” parts with his cattle, he duplicates the brand and the new -owner applies his, so that the animal has three brands upon it. This -prevents stealing, for if an animal has only one brand of its original -owner, it is obvious to the authorities that it has not been -legitimately acquired. A brand in duplicate upon an animal is evidence -that it is no longer in the possession of the owner of that brand. -Should he, however, repurchase one of his former stock, it will have -four brands upon it, the two original ones and the two added by the last -owner. Transactions, however, of this kind are not of frequent -occurrence. Ear-marking is a form of branding that in some instances -looks very unsightly, as, for instance, when both ears are slit down, -giving the animal the appearance of having four ears. - -[Illustration: AN “ESTANCIA.”] - -The sheep and cattle dips which are necessary to rid the herds of ticks -and other insects, form landmarks on the camps, as do the iron-frame -windmills which pump up the water for the stock. There has been much -discussion recently as to what is the coat of arms of the Argentine -Republic, and this nice question in heraldry has not yet been settled. -To a stranger the matter seems simple enough, for nothing could be more -suitable than a windmill revolving against an azure sky, or a herd -romping on a “field vert.” - -The “corrals” and runs upon the estancia are used for many purposes, -such as dividing the old from the young, the bulls and heifers from the -cows, the animals that are to be sold from their brothers and sisters -that are not yet ready for disposal. Other “runs” are used for dipping -purposes. In these the floor of the “runs” gradually descends into a -long trough through which the animals have to swim, their heads being -pushed under by men armed with long poles, who are stationed on the -fences at either side. Sheep are handled in the same way. The dipping -corrals are situated on different parts of the estancia in selected -positions, and when these are at a long distance from the farmhouse the -men, when employed there, cook their meals of great lumps of beef over a -blaze of crackling sticks. The meat is hooked on to a long iron bar -which is stuck upright in the ground, and the savoury smell of the -roasting, crackling meat fills the air. When it is ready the spit is -removed from the fire and stuck in the ground a little distance off, and -the men gather round, and with their knives hack off great chunks -weighing three or four pounds, and set to with the meat in one hand and -the knife in the other, satisfying their healthy appetites. There is -great waste at all these meals; the joint is not nearly consumed, and -what is left is thrown into the long grass or into the dying embers of -the fire. A kettle is always carried by one or other of the men to make -the “maté” tea which washes down every meal. Yerba has a great -reputation, and is largely consumed all over the southern parts of -Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine, and even further south. To Europeans -it is generally known by the name of Paraguayan tea, for, although it -grows in Brazil, Corrientes, and the Chaco, its real home is in -Paraguay, where it flourishes in great abundance, and its cultivation -and collection form one of the principal industries. It is simply the -dried leaves of a shrub that very much resembles the common holly bush. -It has been in use by the Indians for centuries, although it was due to -the untiring agricultural efforts of the Jesuits that its cultivation -was first introduced. The plantations they made in Paraguay, Missiones, -and Rio Grande de Sul are still to the fore, and from these cultivated -shrubs the best tea is obtained even at the present time, and it -sometimes goes by the name of “Jesuits’” or “Missiones tea.” - -The collecting and preparation of the leaves of this shrub are generally -performed by the Guarani Indians of the surrounding districts. The -old-fashioned and native method of preparing the maté or yerba is quite -primitive. A group of semi-nomadic Indians will search for a “Yerbula” -or natural - -[Illustration: GAUCHO PREPARING A MEAL.] - -wood where the supply is plentiful, and after forming a small camp of -brush huts, proceed to collect and prepare the leaves for market. They -clear a space of ground which they beat hard until it resembles a dark -cemented floor, and upon this they pile the leafy branches of the tree. -A fire is lit around this, care being taken not to ignite the branches -and leaves, which undergo by this means a primitive process of roasting. -The dried leaves are then reduced to powder in rough mortars formed by -making holes in the ground, the surfaces of which are rammed hard by -wooden mallets. The dusty mass is then packed and conveyed to the river -banks, where it is shipped to a central market. A more improved method -of roasting or drying the maté is practised, however, in Paraguay, where -large iron pans are used for drying, and machinery is used for reducing -the leaves, from which the central rib of the leaf has been removed, to -a fine powder. The word maté, which is generally used to designate the -tea, applies really to the gourd in which it is brewed, and is an old -French word for “calabash.” It still is used in that sense, although -very generally applied to the tea. The consumption of maté or yerba[1] -throughout South America is very large, and is on the increase. It takes -the place of China tea, and is supposed to have many virtues which -neither tea nor coffee possesses. That it is sustaining there is every -reason to believe; that it has a less injurious effect than tea or -coffee on the system does not seem to be demonstrated; but the fact -remains that the people believe in it, and have acquired a taste for it, -which is largely contributed to by its cheapness. It is not agreeable to -the taste of a novice, and when the “maté” is handed to the visitor, it -is generally too hot for his unaccustomed palate. The addition of a -little sugar helps to render it more pleasing to some judgments, but the -gauchos on the camp do entirely without this addition. After a long -journey there is no doubt that “maté” acts as a wonderful restorative, -and the Governments of maté-producing States are endeavouring to bring -about its adoption in the armies of Continental Europe. - -A few days spent in camp are full of interest, but a prolonged residence -is only for those who are either compelled by their occupation or held -by their interests or inclinations to remain upon the solemn prairies. -The utter loneliness would, without the occupations that pertain to the -animal and agricultural life, turn the brain of one whose life has grown -up amongst the life of cities, amidst the society of a variety of his -fellows. It is almost as lonely as the great oceans. The dweller upon -camps must of necessity be a student of the ever changing sky, of all -its moods from sad to gay, stern to smiling, threatening to promising, a -beauty ever various and full of an abstract fascination. At times clouds -of brown dust swirl up in great curling volumes, - -[Illustration: A GAUCHO.] - -to obscure and tone down the brilliant displays of sunset colour upon -the distant clouds. Even this phenomenon has an interest, and helps to -break the tiring sameness of the plains. The flights of the innumerable -feathered tribe against the sky--ducks, geese, pigeons, parrots, hawks, -plovers, storks, flamingoes, herons, scissor birds, and red birds an -infinite variety--help to divert the mind. It requires a long residence -on the plains and an unerring intuition for direction and locality, to -acquire a familiarity with all these forms of life. Landmarks that the -unpractised eye would overlook become live, bold and full of meaning to -a gaucho and his horse, who have been acquainted with their surroundings -from their birth. - -[Illustration: THE LONELY CAMP.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -_A Live Industry_ - - -The rapid strides of progress made by the Argentine Republic have been -accelerated by the increasing consumption in the United States of the -products of her own Western cattle lands. Every year, as the population -of the world increases, the heavy demands made upon cattle-producing -countries bring newer fields into use. From the middle of the nineteenth -until the beginning of the present century, the vast prairies of the -Western States produced more than enough meat to supply their own needs -and a large export canning business rapidly came into existence, whilst -even live cattle were sent yearly to England (the largest consumer) and -turned out to fatten on her rich pastures and meadow lands. But the -enormous growth of the packing business and the increased home -consumption in the States has put an end to the export of live stock or -even of frozen meat. This changed situation was Argentina’s golden -opportunity, and her entry into the world’s market was well described by -General Bartolomé Mitre,[2] who towards the end of the last century -wrote as follows: - -“The natural pastures [of Argentina] allured the inhabitants towards the -pastoral industry. Its vast littoral placed it in contact with the rest -of the world by means of fluvial and maritime navigation. Its healthy -and mild climate made life more enjoyable and labour more productive. -Thus it was a country prepared for live stock breeding, appointed to -prosper through commerce, and predestined to be stocked by the -acclimatisation of all the breeds of the earth. So it is seen that the -occupation of the soil began to be carried out by means of the cattle -brought overland from Peru and Brazil, that the commercial activities -of the interior are converging little by little towards the River Plate, -abundance and prosperity are diffused by this means, and that the first -foreign operation of the colonists after the foundation of Buenos Aires -in 1580, was the exportation of a cargo of produce of their own labour -(hides and tallow) that led up to the import business and induced -immigration.” - -The author of these words saw the sound basis upon which future -developments and progress might be securely founded, for the natural -advantages of the country were such as to justify the most sanguine -hopes, the Republic being destined to become a great, wealthy, and -civilised nation. The cattle which were brought down from Peru and -Southern Brazil, where they had been introduced by the early Spanish -settlers, prospered well upon the great plains of the South; plains -favoured with such fertile soil and mild climatic conditions, that a -rich supply of nourishing grasses is their natural inheritance. The -early part of the last century saw the growth of the dry-salting -industry and the beginning of a large export trade in salted meats, -hides, and tallow, and the “Saladeros” of the Argentine and of the -countries immediately contiguous to its northern border enjoyed a period -of rich prosperity, supplying the markets of the northern states with -large quantities of “jerked” or salted beef. But although they still -have a standing in the country, these Saladeros are rapidly being -supplanted by the modern methods of meat preserving carried on by the -great freezing establishments, and in the province of Buenos Ayres these -freezing factories or “Frigorificos” consume so much live stock that the -Saladeros find difficulty in existing alongside of them. - -The “jerked” beef of the Saladeros, unappetising to the senses of both -sight and smell, is found in the stores throughout South America, and a -large quantity finds its way into the islands of the Caribbean Sea. The -strong odour of this meat proclaims its proximity, and its would-be -purchasers need only follow their noses in almost any village to -discover the commodity. The method of its preparation is both ancient -and simple, the carcase of the slaughtered animal being cut into pieces, -and the bones, fat, and tendons removed. The pieces of meat are then -powdered with salt and maize and placed in the sun until they become -shrivelled and nearly black in colour. Sometimes the meat is subjected -to a smoke-curing treatment in addition, and in any case requires to be -well soaked in water before being cooked, and even then it is far from -tender, but soups made from it, although highly flavoured, are said to -be very nutritious. - -This trade, however, is now almost entirely dependent on cattle from the -northern plains of Corrientes, Missiones, Uruguay and Paraguay, and the -southernmost states of Brazil, for the introduction of better breeds of -cattle into the Argentine, which has been going on for over fifty years, -has made it more profitable to export the higher grade beef to more -remote markets in a superior form. - -[Illustration: A PRIZE HEREFORD BULL.] - -This became possible to an almost unlimited extent since the -establishment of the “frigorificos,” seeing that the better prices -brought about by the increasing demand induced capital to be employed in -the grading up of the cattle and the improving of the breeds until they -yield the greatest possible quantities of beef of the highest quality. -The “creolia” or native cattle are rather thin and scraggy animals, -although they are hardy and well fitted to survive without care or -attention, but so great is the tendency to replace them by better -breeds, that in time they are likely to disappear altogether. The -“Saladeros” confine their attention to the “creolia” cattle and the -establishments are generally primitive and dilapidated, the owners -caring little about appearances, but compelled by the Government -inspectors to keep their premises from becoming insanitary or too -unclean. In the grounds which surround the buildings, rows of rough -wooden fences are erected, upon which the beef is hung to dry in the -sun, whilst the hides are pegged out flat upon the ground and dry-salted -for export. In every part of the cattle area the presence of these -hides, stretched out upon the ground or hanging over fences, proclaims -the national industry, and even at the smallest hut or wayside shed one -or two hides are sure to be in evidence. The banks of the Parana and -Uruguay rivers are the true home of the “Saladero,” for in early times -the sailing vessels that traded between Montevideo and Spain and the -West Indies took cargoes of the “jerked” beef to the Brazilian ports and -Cuba, there to be exchanged for the commodities that furnished freight -for the homeward voyage. Montevideo became the most important port for -these vessels, and the ease with which cargoes could be floated down the -rivers to the port led to the establishment of hundreds of factories -along the banks of the Uruguay and Parana rivers. In the Southern -Brazilian State of Rio Grande, the “Saladeros,” protected by a high -tariff, still flourish, but they have not enough cattle to supply the -needs of their own country, although they slaughter an increasing number -every year, and at the present time are not far behind Uruguay in their -output. Argentina, on the other hand, is falling off in her output of -“jerked” beef owing to the demand made by her “Frigorificos” for grazing -land upon which to pasture cattle of a higher grade. In all, about one -and a half million animals pass through the “Saladeros” of the three -States every year, this large figure not including the cattle -consumption of the factories engaged in the extract manufacture and -canning business. This latter is another form of utilising the native -cattle which are unsuitable for the freezing establishments, as well as -the improved breeds which are constantly being introduced, and the -industry has attained a very solid and world-wide reputation through the -operations of the Liebig Extract of Meat Company, which was the pioneer -of the extract and concentrated meat trade, and established the first -factory for this purpose in South America. - -Their business is so extensive that they now slaughter about two hundred -thousand head of cattle annually at their factories on the banks of the -River Uruguay, where they prepare their extracts--Lemco, Oxo, -Concentrated Soups, Preserved Beef, Tongues, Beef Meal, and Canned Meat. -No rivals come anywhere near them in output, for they utilise many times -the number of animals disposed of by all their competitors put together. - -Their factories at Frey Bentos and Colon are most extensive and -adequately equipped, and are models of what such places should be, and -very different from the native “Saladero.” Going through the various -departments of these two factories, the visitor would not be surprised -if told that he was in an engineering, joinery, or almost any kind of -industrial establishment; for all branches of the modern workshop are -carried on in different parts of the premises. Nearly everything -required for upkeep and packing is made upon the spot in the foundries, -machine shops, carpenters’ shops and the marvellous tin can factory with -its elaborate machinery that is almost human. Here tins of various sizes -are cut out, shaped and soldered for the packing of preserved meats, -tongues, etc., whilst in another department the machinery for filling -and hermetically sealing these tins is equally ingenious and -interesting. Large coopers’ shops turn out hundreds of barrels for -packing the by-products, such as hides, fat, and tallow. Boilers -(mechanically fed), engines, pumps, and electric plant for light and -power, occupy their allotted places, and the wharves in front, busy with -steamers, sailing vessels, and barges, give the place the appearance of -a town of no mean importance. - -[Illustration: COLON.] - -The appointments of the slaughtering and flaying beds offer a marked -contrast to the old-fashioned methods, and the equipment of the factory -for boiling and evaporation is the outcome of experience and the highest -engineering skill in its thousand and one details, so complicated as to -be bewildering to the mere layman. - -During the six months of the year when the cattle are coming in, the -factories are in full swing, and the animals pour into the corrals by -the thousand, to be driven through the “drives” or “races” into the -small corral, where each one in turn is lassoed. The rope is then given -a turn round the drum of a small electric motor, and the animal drawn -firmly into a small box, the floor of which is a movable truck. The -fatal stab is given just behind the hard ridge where the horns grow from -the head, the executioner despatching the animals at the rate of two per -minute. The blow is sudden, swift and sure, for the men who perform this -task are skilful and their services well paid. It is no uncommon thing -for one of them to earn as much as £200 during the six months of the -year that the killing goes on, and still less uncommon for him to spend -it all in the six off months, returning the following season practically -penniless. - -The animal having been despatched, the carcase is flayed upon the -cemented beds which slope slightly to the channel which conducts the -blood to a central tank. The meat is then cut up and the bones removed, -the flesh being hung in a large, dark, funereal chamber, the walls of -which are painted black. This, I was told, was to keep the flies away, -for flies, it seems, detest darkness, although their deeds are evil. - -Every part of the animal is used; nothing is wasted. The flesh being -cared for, the fat goes one way, the hides another; the offals a third -and the blood a fourth. Some of the bones are boiled with the meat to -make a particular kind of extract; whilst portions of the meat are -boiled alone for tinning, other portions are cut up fine by machinery, -and made into extract. The bones are carefully sorted and exported for -the making of combs and knife handles. The horns are sold to -manufacturers in Europe, who split them up, and by processes of their -own turn them into such articles as combs, brush handles, boxes, etc., -so closely imitating tortoise-shell that an innocent and -indiscriminating public mistakes them for the genuine article. Such -parts of the animals as are good for nothing else are made into manure. - -It need hardly be said that the Liebig Company’s organisation has by no -means overlooked the needs of the large number of work-people engaged at -their factories, and the settlements both at Colon and Frey Bentos -provide accommodation far superior to any to be found in any of the -villages in the country-side. The houses and plots of ground allotted to -the workers at Frey Bentos form quite a rural settlement, whilst Colon, -a more recent and very inviting colony, is a town built upon approved -modern lines. The houses, which are all kept painted white, are built in -squares, their backs looking on to a large courtyard. This keeps all the -fronts free from the unsightly domestic pots and pans and other -paraphernalia usually to be seen crowding the fronts of village houses -and shacks. Stores, schools, and a doctor’s shop are provided, and each -household has its own plot of ground for the growing of vegetables and -flowers, and is also provided with the very necessary baths which the -architects and builders of the peons’ houses (generally the owners -themselves) invariably forget. - -Large recreation rooms and club houses are provided, and the company -give an annual feast to their workers, a feast unlimited as to beef and -wine, and followed by dancing and singing to the accompaniment of an -instrumental band also provided by the employers. There is also -available land for those of the workers who care to go in for -cattle-raising and farming on their own account; indeed, everything is -done to induce and encourage them in such effort, and there is an -attractiveness about these colonies which keeps them well populated. A -more varied and pleasing life is held out here than that offered by a -residence on the great distant melancholy camps, where social -intercourse is necessarily restricted, and where the monotony of -existence is only broken by the arrival of some chance visitor from a -neighbouring camp or an occasional excursion to one of the “pulperias” -for a glass of “boliche” and a gossip with similarly situated -companions. - -In addition to being big consumers of cattle, the Liebig Company are -themselves land-holders and stock-raisers on a large scale, their farms -or estancias in Uruguay, Corrientes, and Missiones being typical of each -of the states, although all managed from headquarters at the two -factories. In the Republic of Uruguay they own six estancias and rent -two, comprising in all 252,871 acres, whilst in the Argentine province -of Corrientes they control 329,941 acres, and in Paraguay 118,584 -acres, making a total of about 700,000 acres, upon which close upon -200,000 head of cattle are maintained. - -[Illustration: THE VILLAGE OF FREY BENTOS.] - -No less than from three to six hundred tons of extract of beef are -annually exported from their factories, in addition to the tongues, -soups, and preserved meats for which they are noted. If one takes in the -whole of the River Plate littoral, the dry-salting and meat extract -business consumes about half a million animals yearly, a figure which is -destined to grow larger year by year. This consumption of cattle is -quite apart from that of the freezing trade, which is on a still larger -scale, and in which a capital of nearly four million pounds sterling is -invested, much of the money coming from Britain and the United States. - -The first shipments of frozen meat from the Argentine were made in 1877, -and so successful was the experiment, that within eight years the first -large freezing establishment was erected in Buenos Ayres. Others -followed in rapid succession, and the combined turnover of the -“Frigorificos,” as they are called, has reached the enormous sum of -twelve million pounds sterling per annum. - -These “Frigorificos” having been for the most part built during recent -years, their builders have been able to take advantage of all the -experiments and improvements made by hygienic science, and no pains are -spared to keep the reputation of Argentine meat above suspicion. The -stock slaughtered for foreign markets undergoes a careful examination by -veterinary inspectors, the animals being subjected to a severe scrutiny -before they are permitted to leave the paddocks and pens adjoining the -factories, and allowed to pass along the “race” to the slaughterhouse. -In not a few of the factories the “race” has a long, deep trough of -water in it, through which the animals pass to cool and cleanse their -bodies before they reach the narrow box in which they receive the _coup -de grâce_. Directly this has been given, the truck-like floor of the box -is wheeled quickly out, and placed in a favourable position to allow of -the carcase being hoisted by the hind legs to a transport rail. The -bleeding takes place over a channel which conducts the blood into a -large underground tank, and the carcase is then placed upon the flaying -beds alongside. Very rapidly the hide is removed by highly skilled and -well-paid operators, who are fined for every flaw made by them in the -skins they remove. The carcase is next opened up in the presence of the -Government inspector, who pronounces his verdict as to the soundness or -otherwise of the animal. Having been thoroughly cleaned, the meat is -sawn in halves and each side hauled up on to a transport rail and run -along to another shed where the trimming is completed before it enters -the chilling or freezing chamber, as the case may be. For twenty-four -hours the meat is subjected to the freezing process, and then each side -is quartered, covered first with a cotton wrapper and then with a -stouter one of jute, and the quarters, thus protected from dust and -dirt, are shipped into the cold chambers of barges which deliver them to -the specially fitted steamers bound for Europe. - -As the killing goes on day after day, a seemingly endless procession of -“sides” is hurried along the transport rails to the great freezing -chambers, which are filled and emptied day in and day out all the year -round. The only disagreeable parts of the whole operation are the -killing pens and the flaying beds, and the visitor to the Frigorifico, -if at all squeamish, will do well to give these a very casual inspection -as he makes his tour. - -The hides, wet-salted and packed in barrels, are shipped to the -tanneries in England, the United States, and Germany; but London is the -principal market for the frozen meat of the Argentine, its consumption -of home-killed and foreign frozen meat exceeding one and a half million -tons annually. - -The Argentine has attained her present enviable position at the head of -the list of beef exporting countries by giving an intelligent attention -to the improvement of her herds of cattle. As far back as 1848 the -importation of the best stock from England was commenced, and since then -hundreds of prize animals from the British shows have been shipped to -the grazing lands of the republic. In 1857 the first live-stock show was -held in Buenos Ayres, and in 1875 the Rural Society of the Argentine -held the first of the series which has continued annually since that -date. The Rural Society has done much to justify its existence, -organising, holding together and encouraging the stock-raising interest. -Every well-known class of stock is exhibited at its shows, sheep of the -Lincoln, Rambouillet, Blacknose, and other varieties, and cattle of the -Shorthorn, Durham, Hereford, and Polled Angus breeds. The keen -competition amongst exhibitors has led to a high standard of exhibits, -of which there is always an abundant entry. This is equally true with -regard to the horses which are now bred in the Argentine, the breeders -being justly proud of the fine animals they can produce. The same care -has been exercised in the choice of sires and mares which have been -purchased in England and on the continent of Europe, with the object of -obtaining the best breed possible. The thoroughbred race-horse is -particularly popular, and many famous race winners have been purchased -by the Argentine dealers, sportsmen, and breeders. “Diamond Jubilee” was -purchased from the late King Edward for 30,000 guineas, “Val d’Or” from -the French breeder, Edmond Blanc, for £12,000. It has been estimated -that 400 thoroughbred stallions and 3000 brood mares are in service in -Argentina, producing about 1500 foals annually. In the last fifteen -years the sales of young stock have increased from 90 animals in 1895, -realising on the average £126 apiece, to 483 animals in 1910, yielding -an average price of £639. This gives some idea of the importance and -growth of the industry of horse-breeding in the republic, and a glance -at the list of well-known horses which have been produced, several of -them winners of tens of thousands of pounds in prize money, indicates -the excellence of the results attained and the profitableness of the -occupation. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -_On the Road to Paraguay_ - - -[Illustration: ON THE PARANA.] - -Paraguay is most easily reached by river. The long overland journeys -from either Brazil or Bolivia are both of a nature to deter tourists, -and the voyage up either the Uruguay or the Parana rivers is preferable -to the long dusty train journey from Buenos Ayres to Corrientes. The -steamship service of the Mihanovich line which plies upon the River -Plate, as well as along the Argentine coast, is one of the best in South -America. The vessels are large and adequately fitted for the tropical -regions through which they pass. Leaving Buenos Ayres in the early -morning, the River Uruguay is reached in about four hours. Great masses -of green foliage float down the swiftly running stream, and low-lying -islands clad with rich vegetation are passed. Strings of cattle boats or -barges laden with their living freight and towed by strong steam tugs -appear upon the scene, whilst the white sails of craft of all sizes, and -many shapes, flutter over the broad, smooth waters. The river, which is -both wide and deep, is the highway to a great many of the most -prosperous - -[Illustration: FREY BENTOS.] - -districts in the republics of Uruguay and Argentina. The towns upon -either side of the river are small, and removed from one another by -great distances. Small villages and insignificant collections of huts -peep out from the luxuriant foliage, and glimpses of the life of the -inhabitants are caught from time to time. Agricultural pursuits occupy -the attention of the people, the raising and tending of cattle and live -stock being by far the most important industry. Frey Bentos and Colon -are both well-known ports upon this river, at which the steamer comes to -anchor. At the numerous stopping places small tenders, row boats, and -canoes come alongside, and put on or take off passengers and their -baggage, small freight, and mails, very little time being occupied by -the operations. Paysandu, famous for its ox tongues, is a small town -opposite to Colon, and a railway connects it to the central Uruguay -system, thus bringing it into direct communication with Montevideo. -Colon is entirely occupied by the factories of the celebrated Liebig’s -Extract of Meat Co., and the small villages that have sprung up around -it amidst pastoral surroundings are inhabited by the factory workers. -Concordia and Salto are the end of the journey as far as the Uruguay -River is concerned, the further passage being closed to navigation by -falls and rapids. These two towns are typical specimens of Spanish -colonial settlements, and present very much the same appearance to-day -as they did a century ago. Sleepy would describe them at ordinary times, -but at midday the passenger landing from the steamer finds them -veritable cities of the dead, for the streets are deserted, and even -hotel-keepers are difficult to awaken. Concordia has wide streets but -low houses, with roofs either flat or sloping away from the front to the -back, so that a straight, unbroken sky-line is presented to the eye. The -Plaza or principal square of the town possesses a church with two -towers, which, although of comparatively recent date, has, owing to the -unfinished brickwork, the aspect of an ancient building. The towers, -covered with small green slates, are typical of the church architecture -that prevails over nearly the whole of South America. Inside, the church -has a plain barrel roof supported by engaged fluted columns of the -Corinthian order, the floor is tiled, and highly coloured statues and -images adorn the walls; much of the great altar is painted to imitate -marble, and a profusion of gilding testifies to the native love of the -gaudy. Seen at night its effect is rich enough, when the garishness of -the decorations is softened by the mellow candlelight. During the -services in honour of the Virgin crowds of women and girls are seated in -the front seats of the nave, and notices are placed upon the pillars and -in other conspicuous places, intimating that men and boys are forbidden -to trespass on the part reserved for the women, while, to enforce a due -observance of the order, policemen, in white helmets and brown holland -clothes, are in attendance, and the crowds of amorous youths are -restrained with some little difficulty from gaining a point of vantage -from which to observe the fair. Processions of little girls clad in -white pass through the building singing “Ave Marias”; a black-robed -priest beating time and marshalling the regiment. Bouquets of flowers -are thrown upon the altar steps by the children as they pass--a pretty -ceremony enthusiastically observed. The service over, the congregation -slowly disperse into the Plaza, and the straw-hatted beaux form up in - -[Illustration: A PARAGUAYAN LADY.] - -line to gaze upon the fair beauties of the community. Ladies, young and -middle-aged, attended by their duennas, linger under the lights of the -lamps, conscious of and not ill pleased with the attentions of the human -moths fluttering around them. There is no doubt that the ladies of the -country towns and cities of Argentina enjoy a greater freedom than do -their sisters in Buenos Ayres. In Concordia they play tennis and other -outdoor games, and there is a growing disposition on the part of the -“society” señoritas to become acquainted with the English tongue. - -The buildings in the Plaza are more modern in style than the cathedral -or church, and have ornamental fronts generally painted white. Green -“pariso” trees shade the square, and in the centre stands the equestrian -statue of San Martin. Replicas of this statue are placed in every town -of any importance in the Argentine, the only variations being the -pedestals, which have local peculiarities of design, workmanship, and -material. The statue is rather a poor affair, stiff and conventional in -pose and action, but it serves its turn to commemorate the great general -and hero of the republic. The inscription on the front records the names -of the famous battles of - - SAN LORENZO ... MAIPU ... CHACABUCO - -and a dedication to the army of the Andes, who gloried in that they -could say, “In twenty-four hours we have made the campaign, crossing the -highest Cordilleras in the world, disposing of tyrants and liberating -Chili.” The whole square, which is typical of many others in Argentina, -is made up or bounded by houses for the most part of one story, with -blinds to keep the fierce rays of the sun from penetrating windows and -doors. A few cabs covered with cracked leather hoods and harnessed to -scraggy horses are lined up round the pavements of the square. A -bandstand railed in with a stucco imitation of rustic woodwork has its -appropriate place in the general make-up of the Plaza. During the months -from November to March inclusive the siesta hours are from half-past -eleven till two, and during these hours the city sleeps. Banks, business -houses, shops, and factories all obey the call. The shade temperature -during the summer months is high, and although 114° is rarely -registered, 100° to 104° are very common. In the winter from March to -October the business hours are longer, and midday rest is limited to -one hour and a half, from twelve to one-thirty. - -Concordia is an important centre for wool and cattle. Sheep do well in -the province of Entre Rios, in spite of the heat, and the cattle, -although not perhaps so pleasing to the eye as the improved breeds that -flourish farther south, are hardy and useful animals. Grapes are -cultivated and extensive vineyards surround the town. The wines made in -the bodegas of Entre Rios and Mendoza are sent down to Buenos Ayres, -where ingenious dealers and merchants are expert in the art of blending -them with the imported brands from Europe, so that they can pass them on -to the public as the real “Simon Pure.” The roads round the town are -badly made, so sandy and yielding that driving is hard work for the -horses. The lanes through the vineyards are very pleasant, shaded by the -“pariso” and lime trees, and perfumed by the scent of oranges and -lemons. The ground is gently undulating, in marked contrast to the low, -flat plains farther south and north, and from many vantage points -extensive views are obtained of the surrounding country. The town of -Salto, on the other side of the river, in the Republic of Uruguay, lies -white like a Moorish city, the shipping at the wharves by the river side -lending animation to the scene. In the suburbs of these towns are many -shacks and huts built of mud or old tin cans, a common method all -through the country. The dwelling-houses in the town are of the common -Spanish type, and one gets accustomed to the pleasant little pictures of -family life seen through open doorways. The patio is the living-room of -these houses, and the flowers, vines, and creepers make cheerful wall -decorations. The rooms leading off are dingy and ill-ventilated, for the -shuttered windows are often kept closed for days. They are cool and free -from the plague of flies, but, unless for sleeping in, they are -depressing and gloomy. During the hot evenings the inhabitants take -their chairs and stools out into the streets, and little groups of -relatives and friends block the narrow pavements. All the windows to the -houses are barred either with iron or wooden rails, giving a gloomy -expression to the house fronts. - -Although a small tramway drawn by horses has lately been installed in -the town, the automobile has hardly got farther than the showrooms. The -drivers of these cars have little horns or trumpets, upon which they -perform with gusto, very much in the same way as do the pedlars in Rio -upon their primitive instruments. Horses are ridden by all classes, for -horseflesh is cheap, and during the making of a call, or shopping, the -animals are hobbled by the fore legs and left in the streets, sometimes -for hours together. There is no theatre in the town, but a travelling -circus sometimes puts in an appearance, and receives the active -patronage of the rank and fashion, as well as of the masses. Some of -these shows are well equipped, carrying with them their own electric -light plant, and, in case this should break down or give out during a -performance, an extra plant for the illuminating of the tent by -acetylene gas is in readiness. The performance is of the well-known -circus type--elephants and trained horses, clowns and acrobats occupy -the ring in turns, and cinema pictures wind up the evening’s -performance. For a provincial town in South America, Concordia has many -things to recommend it--a club with fine premises, a show ground for the -annual cattle display, and, for those who desire further diversion, -there is the café with its cinema, where, to the accompaniment of music, -wine, and tobacco smoke, the evenings may be passed. From Concordia the -steamer returns to Buenos Ayres, as the higher river is unnavigable. -Trains from the town convey passengers to Posadas, on the Alto Parana, -or to Corrientes, on the Paraguay River. The journey across country is -hot, dusty, and uncomfortable, and after the river travel very -undesirable. The natives who board the train at the various stations -through the province are yellow-skinned Indians, with little or no -Spanish blood in them. They are dull and sleepy-looking, with dirty -habits and forbidding expressions. The landscape is flat and -uninteresting for the greater part of the journey, pools of water and -marshy swamps being the principal breaks in the monotony of the plains, -and the estancias which dot the surface at long intervals make the only -landmarks. Herds of cattle, horses, sheep, and ostriches graze upon the -plains; a few goats are also found in certain districts, half-wild -animals that start away in wild stampedes at the approach of trains. -Huts of mud and thatch are grouped around the camp stations, and a few -lonely and poverty-stricken-looking shacks, the residences of shepherds -and cowboys, appear at intervals in the dreary landscape. Many of the -“peons” or native working-classes bear striking resemblances to -Chinamen, and the absence of the negro type throughout this province is - -[Illustration: SHEPHERDS AND COWBOYS, CORRIENTES.] - -note-worthy. Mounted police, with great sun helmets and white drill -clothes, are in evidence at the railway stations, and, although -uniformed and bearing swords and revolvers, they seldom wear socks or -boots, but content themselves with the simple alpagatos or straw shoes -which are common throughout the country. The poncho is very popular with -most of the inhabitants of the plains, a really serviceable and sensible -form of covering. - -At Mercedes a few sun-bleached coaches betray the existence of some -important town in the vicinity, although it is not visible from the -railway station. Trains laden with hot, uncomfortable cattle and sheep -are drawn up in sidings to permit the passenger trains to pass. Carts -drawn by oxen and horses lumber along the dusty roads. Much of the -country in the north of Corrientes is swampy, and an abundance of bird -life clusters around the margin of the shallow lakes. Storks wade -through the pools, plover, snipe, pigeon, and rooks hover in the air, -and palm trees grow here and there in little clumps, giving a tropical -touch to a landscape which but for them has no special feature, save -that of monotony. When violent storms of wind, rain, and lightning visit -these camps--and their terrific force is indescribable--the whole -horizon from east to west is lit up by flashes of blinding intensity, -following one another in such rapid succession that they merge together -and form long periods of illumination, varied at intervals by streaks of -forked lightning which stab the earth with destructive force. Deaths -from lightning are not uncommon in this quarter of the continent, the -continual roll of loud thunder is deafening, like the near report of a -battery of heavy ordnance--the rain descends in torrents, an -awe-inspiring deluge, which converts great tracts of the low-lying land -into shallow lakes. - -Corrientes, the capital of the State, could hardly be described as a -fine city or town. It is undergoing some improvements, which will render -it a little less destructive to carriage springs and trying to weak -ankles. The streets until recently were frightful, one mass of rugged -boulders that would baffle the ingenuity of the sure-footed mule to -negotiate. The authorities are at work, endeavouring to make the roads -and streets passable, but during the operations, which have been started -all over the town simultaneously, confusion reigns. The town lies on the -western bank of the Parana River, a little below the point where it -meets the - -[Illustration: IGEASU FALLS ON THE ALTO PARANA.] - -Paraguay; and during the summer months heat, dullness, and sand are its -principal attractions. Almost every other house bears a brass plate -signifying that a lawyer or doctor resides within, surely an -unpropitious omen for the peace and happiness of the inhabitants. Very -few shops of any importance enliven the dismal solitude of the streets, -and the business houses and warehouses have unpretentious exteriors, and -even before and after the siesta hours from eleven to two they are -anything but animated. There is a considerable trade passing through the -port, however, which makes the river front the liveliest portion of the -town. In the Plaza there is the prescribed statue of San Martin, the -cathedral, bandstand, and ornamental garden. One ancient building takes -up almost the entire side of the square. It is weather-stained, faded, -and worn, its dilapidated front bears evidence of antiquity, and -tradition says that it is contemporaneous with the foundation of the -city. The general decay which has spread over most of the neighbouring -buildings is more apparent on this ancient residence of the Governor of -the State. Its strongly barred windows suggest a prison rather than a -palace, but in days gone by Governors were not the most popular persons -in the Spanish colonies, and they needed a strong protection from the -disaffected. The Government buildings in the Plaza are in the modern -French Renaissance style, their high mansard roofs and delicate plaster -ornamentations incongruously placed amidst the heavier and less fanciful -styles of the early colonial architecture. The cathedral, which is of -the usual type, is lit by the modern electric light, although the -priests who administer to the religious needs, and light up the -spiritual darkness of the population, still array themselves in the -rough brown robes of their order. At one corner of the Plaza stands a -large house of one story, with a richly ornamented front in the -classical style; through its open door a glimpse is caught of a -beautiful patio filled with palms, vines, and plants. These patios are -the only bright spots in the city, and even the most forbidding and -dirty-looking habitations are rich in the possession of these cheery, -verdant bowers. Some of the “posadas” or inns are picturesque enough to -look at, particularly if they are regarded from the point of view of a -lover of ruins, but as hostelries they do not offer much attraction, for -their tottering walls threaten to engulf the inmates, particularly when -a good storm is raging. Under the verandahs groups of women sit -gossiping and smoking big cigars, which they puff with real enjoyment. A -strange medley of animals lies around--dogs, cats, monkeys, pigs, and -the curious carpincha, whilst through the turned wooden bars that screen -the windows handsome young faces framed with brightly covered scarves -peep out at the few passers-by. - -[Illustration: OLD HOUSES IN CORRIENTES.] - -When leaving Corrientes by the steamer it is wise to engage the services -of one of the peons who are attached to the landing-stage. These -watermen, who are always to be found upon the wharf, keep their -attention riveted upon the river, and as the hour at which the steamers -arrive is rather uncertain, the advantages of having a watchman who will -give timely warning to intending voyagers is apparent. At any hour of -the twenty-four the vessel may arrive, and as it remains only a few -minutes alongside the quay, it is well for passengers to be at hand. - -[Illustration: A “POSADA,” CORRIENTES.] - -The journey up the river from Corrientes to Asuncion has plenty of -incident to enliven it, particularly when one of the periodical -revolutions of the little republic of Paraguay is in progress, for then -the uncertainty of finding villages still inhabited, the prospect of -encountering tramp steamers converted into “battleships,” and small -troops of armed men parading the river banks only adds to the -fascination the romantic country already possesses. Ascending and -descending the river one meets with travellers of many nationalities, -army officers from the republics of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, -merchants and traders, commercial travellers, tourists, and sportsmen. -The increasing numbers who journey up these rivers testify to the -growing interest that the vast territories in the heart of South -America have created, for the Parana is the only practical highway to -the State of Matto Grosso, the high central tableland of the continent. -Corumba is the busy little shipping port for a vast territory with which -it does a thriving trade, and from it travellers to the State capital of -Cuyaba embark upon the smaller steamers which navigate the São -Lourenco. This branch of the Paraguay is perhaps one of the most -characteristically tropical in South America, the vegetation on its -banks growing with a profuse abundance. The State of Matto Grosso is an -almost unexplored territory, and although containing a wealth of -minerals, hardwoods, and rubber, only a fraction has been gathered and -exported. When the half-million square miles that constitute the area of -this State are contrasted with the total exports, to the value of about -the same number of pounds sterling, the possibilities of enormous -developments are apparent. The name of the State, “Matto Grosso” (dense -forest), gives some indication of the character of the country, and it -is not surprising that rubber should be one of its most important -products. Gold is found in many of the rivers and hills, and alluvial -workings have been carried on ever since the Jesuits, three hundred -years ago, discovered them to be profitable. After heavy showers of rain -it is said that gold is washed down the streets of the capital. -Diamonds, copper, silver, and lead have also been found, and each year -sees more enterprises developing some of the immeasurable resources. In -the rainy season, when the rivers break through and overflow their -normal banks, it is possible for a canoe or small boat to voyage from -the Amazon to the mouth of the River Plate, and many projects have been -put forward to permanently connect the two rivers by canals. The old -maps of the continent show that a waterway was known to the earliest -explorers. Captain Sharp’s map, published in the seventeenth century, -indicates a great waterway connecting the Amazon with the River Plate, -and on it the territory of Brazil and Uruguay are shown as a huge island -quite separate from the rest of the continent, and although the map is -rough and primitive, the fact that a river route between the points -mentioned existed, is insisted upon with a decision indicative of -definite knowledge. Railways are now in course of construction which -will connect Corumba with São Paulo, and Cuyaba with Goyaz and the -federal capital of Brazil, and then the journey from the seaports of -Brazil to the farthest - -[Illustration] - -outposts of the republic will be accomplished in about three or four -days, instead of twelve or more, as at present. A few travellers, either -to gain experience or from necessity, have made the fatiguing journey -from Corumba to La Paz, in Bolivia, and vice versa. From all the -accounts they give, it is not one which has many attractions to -compensate for the many discomforts and even hardships that are certain -to be encountered. From Corumba the traveller proceeds on muleback -across a dry, desolate plain, with no shelter and little water for -eighteen days, and encounters only a few Indians, friendly enough -inclined, but possessed of nothing to offer in the way of hospitality to -strangers. Arrived at Sucre, a halt can be made, and a short rest taken -before proceeding to La Paz through Cochabamba and Oruro. The whole -journey on muleback occupies about forty days, and can be recommended to -robust and hardy persons who, tired of luxury and the easy comforts of -civilised life, are anxious for a change. - -To return to the river. The heat during the summer months is intense, -the thermometer usually registering about 90° in the shade. The river -continues wide and winding as it passes the Grand Chaco on the one side -and the wooded plains on the other. The banks in places are straight as -an even wall, and from the steamer look like embankments of masonry. The -continual wash from the traffic that plies upon the river has its -effect, however, shown by the gaps formed by slides and erosions. -Endless swamps stretch for miles during the rainy season, and the many -trees are only saved from complete submersion by the twisted cables of -lianas which hold them firmly together. Flocks of small aquatic birds -amidst the network of creepers and branches are silently alert, fishing -for a meal. In many places fantastic and exaggerated tree trunks grow -from the water’s edge, and grassy plains, barely rising above the -river’s surface, extend for miles. Close by the shores alligators bask, -with their ugly snouts just above the water, disappearing immediately -they are disturbed by the wash from the passing steamers or the approach -of small boats and canoes. On both sides of the river, cattle, horses, -and ostriches graze in wild freedom upon the meadowland. Mud huts appear -at intervals, and natives in dirty white, ragged garments loll under the -shade of thatched verandahs. Many of the huts, constructed with the -sides and ends of old kerosene tins and bits of packing cases, add a -variety to the architectural styles - -[Illustration: TRAVELLERS ON THE STEAMER.] - -of these primitive habitations. Canoes with blunt prows and rounded -sterns ply from shore to shore, and surround the steamers that come to -anchor at a “port.” They carry odd cargoes, curious passengers and their -belongings, bundles of many colours, old iron bedsteads and chairs, pots -and pans, and household goods and chattels; domestic pets, monkeys, -parrots, and dogs, all form part of their mixed freight. Trestle beds -are the inseparable impedimenta of the German, Italian, and Spanish -labourers, who move about from place to place with the characteristic -restlessness of born travellers. These beds serve a double purpose, and -are used as holdalls for all their owners’ baggage by day, and as their -couches by night, when the fore deck of the steamer is transformed into -an open-air dormitory. At Formosa, an important though small town on the -Argentine side of the river, a large crowd assembles to witness the -arrival and departure of the steamer. Cabs and wagonettes convey the -passengers to and from the town, which lies at a little distance from -the river bank, and the habitual quietude of the port is disturbed for a -few hours or so. - -During a voyage I made up the river a revolution was in progress, and -the town of Villetta was in the hands of the insurgents; an armed -steamer lay off the town, its decks swarming with men in khaki uniforms. -There were Englishmen and other Europeans on board, members of the great -army of soldiers of fortune who always contrive to get mixed up with -South American revolutions. On the decks of the innocent-looking tramp -steamer which had been re-named the _Constituccion_, quick-firing and -other small armaments glistened in the sunlight, whilst a wireless -installation and searchlights testified to the resourcefulness of the -insurgents. All along the Paraguayan banks of the river we encountered -little bands of the rebels and many deserted villages. Passengers were -landed upon the banks near the latter, and surrounded by their -belongings were left quite contented, if not happy, with no one to -welcome or receive them. In some of the villages a few women and -children were left in charge, the men and youths having fled across the -river to the Argentine. The women would come down to the water’s edge -and exchange news with our passengers in half-amused, half-frightened -tones, and many of the aspects of the revolution had an irresistibly -comic side to them. Farther up the river more primitive methods of life -and commerce prevail, and half-amphibious dwellings lie on the borders -of the great “esteros” or marsh lands that stretch away from the river. -In the rainy season these lands become vast lakes, the thick, stiff, -clayey soil forming an impervious bottom. In the dry season the water -evaporates, and leaves behind a grey, dusty soil of great gaping cracks, -and a strong, wiry grass and stunted shrubs growing in many patches. The -dreary malarious wastes extend far beyond the limits of the river’s -bank, and on these placid, stagnant areas the mosquito finds a congenial -breeding ground. On these swamps numerous aquatic plants grow, and the -camalote and many varieties of white and blue lilies, whilst the -_Victoria regia_ spreads out its broad, green leaves and snowy flowers. -On the higher lands farther to the north the landscape becomes bolder -and more picturesque. Vast woods, dense and almost impenetrable, abound, -and harbour a wealth of animal life. Beautifully marked jaguars, tiger -cats, and ocelots make their lairs in the dark recesses of these gloomy -forests, monkeys chatter amongst the trees, whilst snakes and lizards -glide and dart through the confused matted undergrowth. The carpincha, -the largest of existent rodents, wallows in the muddy margins of the -swamps; a droll-looking animal, rapid though clumsy in its movements, -possessing a ludicrous truncated face that would provoke a smile from an -anchorite. The whole country is a sportsman’s paradise, for it harbours -a plentiful variety of large and fierce quadrupeds, and teems with -feathered game. The stately heron and gaunt stork haunt the river banks, -as do innumerable water birds, ducks and geese of many native varieties. -Pheasants, partridge, snipe, and pigeon fly over land and water, great -flocks of parrots, with harsh, strident cries, break the silence of the -evening calm. At sunset, when the dying hues of the sun incarnadine the -expansive waters, the prevailing tone of greyness comes as a welcome -relief, after the blinding glare of the daytime, when from a myriad -diamond points the reflected light dances upon the rippling waters. The -western sky is diffused with a golden or ruddy glow, and forms a mellow -background to the rich, mysterious greens of the tree-clad banks. -Cormorants, kingfishers, and storks sail above the surface of the water -in search of prey, and when the brief period of twilight ceases the -starry swarms of the heavens shine from the blue vault overhead with an -amazing brilliance. The long-drawn reflections of the night-lights of -the sky in the river form streaks of opal light, which move ever forward -with the ship’s advance like dancing will-o’-the-wisps, the rare beauty -of the tropical night is deeply impressive, and, in the silence, ideas -of space are magnified by many reflections, nature becomes more -mysterious, the passing hour more trivial, and man and all his efforts -shrink into insignificance. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -_Asuncion_ - - -The sun was just beginning to dispel the white morning mists when we -came alongside the Aduana or custom-house of Asuncion. Our -fellow-passengers were all anxious to learn the latest developments of -the revolution in progress, and to discover if it was wise for them to -trust themselves on shore, for it is proverbial that Paraguay is like a -mouse-trap, easy enough of entrance, but difficult of exit. Alongside of -the wharf or quay of the Aduana lay a small steam trawler, which, upon -closer inspection, proved to be the Government battleship, its deck -swarming with a dirty, ill-clad, frightened crew, who were confused by -the conflicting orders shouted at them from time to time by youthful -officers, barely out of their teens. - -The restlessness of the crew of the _Liberdad_ extended to the small -tender that rushed about with noisy, feverish haste on various errands, -and to the small row-boats manned by crews of mere boys whose faces were -smacked and punched by the officers in charge whenever they missed a -stroke or pulled out of time. - -Upon the wharf soldiers, with bayonets fixed to their loaded rifles, -lounged and smoked in the company of dark-eyed market women, who also -puffed and pulled at fat cigars rolled between their protruding lips -with an easy familiarity. - -At the bottom of the flight of steps which led down to the water’s edge -a noisy crowd of boatmen wrangled with their fares or contended with one -another for favourable positions. One of these boats was occupied by an -old man whose face and dress vividly recalled the well-known prints of -the patriot Garibaldi, and that he was conscious of the likeness he bore -to the distinguished Italian hero was obvious, for, in bright yellow -letters, the name “Garibaldi” was painted upon the green stern of his -tiny craft. Further inquiry elicited the fact that the owner of the -likeness and the boat was one of the family of Italy’s wandering sons. - -Two battleships lay far out in the river, one flying the Argentine and -the other the Brazilian flag, and the crews’ weekly washing. Small -launches kept coming and going from and to these fourth-rate river -cruisers, giving an air of warlike activity to the port. - -[Illustration: THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, ASUNCION.] - -There was no difficulty in going ashore; and, although passengers bound -for stations in the interior found that the railway station was closed -and under charge of an old watchman and a few old women who were resting -upon the seats of the deserted terminus, they had no difficulty in -obtaining rooms in the ill-kept and expensive hotels of the city. - -There is little life in the rugged streets of Asuncion at any hour of -the day in normal times, but during the early mornings, when a -revolution is in progress, a few dogs, cats, and fowls have undisturbed -possession of the thoroughfares. - -The town is well enough laid out, and follows a regular plan; but the -low, one-story buildings which line many of the streets, and the absence -of many tall buildings, prevent the city from having an imposing aspect. -The roads are bad, and the high pavements, which serve in most cases as -balconies to the houses, often compel the pedestrian to use the rough -roadways, which, however, are not quite so bad as those of Corrientes. -In wet weather many of the roads are converted into rivulets, only to be -negotiated by stepping from one to the other of the large stones which -lie like boulders across the stream. The older houses are all built with -“adobes” or sun-dried bricks, having substantial walls of more than a -yard in thickness. The roofs are covered with double layers of red tiles -of the “roman” pattern, and many of the external walls are panelled and -framed in by columns or pilasters in low relief, the whole front being -colour-washed in some fanciful shade, according to the owner’s taste. -Blues, yellows, purples, greens, and buffs give a kaleidoscopic aspect -to the streets, additional variety being lent by the heavy, massive -doors and shutters of the entrances and windows, the former opening into -vestibules which lead to the pillared and grassy patios beyond. - -The kitchens are dark and sooty apartments, full of a heavy atmosphere, -and the pungent smell of garlic and cooking fat; but lofty rooms with -heavy rafters made from palm-tree trunks are to be found in many of the -houses, timber being so plentiful that even the jerry-builders of the -country have no temptation to substitute two-by-three joists and -rafters. The majority of the houses boast of broad piazzas with heavy -pillars and shady upper galleries, which recall the styles of Morocco -and Algiers. - -The newer buildings in the town, however, display evidence that the -modern utilitarian craze for cheapness, with its almost inevitable -nastiness, has spread to Paraguay. - -They are flimsy and cheaply ornate, with thinner walls and more hastily -contrived and executed doors and windows, the woodwork of which is a sad -departure from the ideals inculcated by the stern Francia, whose passion -for thoroughness in all things called forth the enthusiastic praise of -the “philosopher of Chelsea.” - -The Dictator of Paraguay permitted no citizen to slur or scamp his work, -but demanded the best from every man, exacting a high standard of -workmanship, and enforcing the same by the erection of that -extraordinary institution known as the “workman’s gallows,” which -promptly ended the career of negligent and deceitful craftsmen. All the -windows, too, of the older houses in this strange city have heavier iron -bars than those commonly found in Spanish dwellings, and this also may -be the result of the stern Dictator’s decrees. - -For it was under the auspices of the “Grand Old Man” of Paraguay that -most of the city was built. When he took up the reins of government he -found Asuncion in disorder, its streets irregular, and its houses built -without system or plan. Tropical vegetation ran riot in its roadways, -which were unpaved and unworthy of the name. When the visitor to-day -feels inclined to criticise adversely the streets and roads of the city -as he finds them, he should pause and reflect upon its state a hundred -years ago, and bless, even if reluctantly, the name of Francia, who -remodelled and paved the town, straightened the crooked ways, and -brought about some measure of order. - -It has been alleged by the Doctor’s traducers that his real purpose in -bringing about so many drastic changes was his own convenience and -safety, fearing that the dense thickets that grew throughout and around -the city might harbour and conceal designing assassins. - -Of the few buildings of any great importance, the cathedral, although -large, is dwarfed by a high colonnade which rises up to the roof of the -deserted and ill-kept edifice, whose walls are discoloured and faded by -the action of rain and sun. - -One of the few outstanding features of the place is the huge dome which -towers above all the other buildings, but the visitor is disappointed -when, on closer inspection, he discovers that it is neither old nor new, -but merely a monument to the childish and unstable zeal of the tyrant -Lopez, who, with a feverish energy, undertook many ambitious building -schemes, which, through lack of means or waning enthusiasm, he never -completed. - -This dome is constructed of dull red adobe bricks, and is imposing and -dignified enough in appearance; but the interior is now utilised as a -store, and the inhabitants who use it seem to have little idea as to who -built it, or for what it was originally intended. - -A few buildings in the main street of the city rise to two, three, - -[Illustration: THE DOME OF THE ORATOIRE DE LOPEZ.] - -and even four stories. One of these, the Spanish-American Hotel, is an -old stone building, with a lofty piazza surrounded by heavy pillars, -whilst quaint, lugubrious staircases wind round this patio, and lead to -the upper floors, which are all of stone. In this hotel, travellers to -the city obtain solid food and strongly fortified accommodation, and -must not be surprised if they find that the charges are proportionately -heavy. The place reminded me of many of the old hotels upon the Spanish -Main in Cuba, Mexico, and Colombia, where the same free and easy -attendance was given to the guests, and the same highly seasoned dishes -were set in front of them. A travelling theatrical company happened to -be staying in this hotel during my sojourn, but the presence of the -fashionable ladies of the footlights attracted but little attention in -the city, which was in a highly strung condition, owing to the disturbed -state of the country. Few of the beaux of the town dared venture out; -many of them were already either in the ranks of the Government or the -insurgents, and those who were not were lying low, fearful of being -pressed into service. - -Only in the market-place were the ordinary scenes of daily routine to be -witnessed, and that because the whole of the business is carried on by -the womenfolk. The long and terrible war which was waged by the younger -Lopez for six years very nearly exterminated the male portion of the -community, so that to-day the women far outnumber the men. - -This market is a real live place, with its crowds of dark-haired women -and children, the former clad in white or brightly coloured dresses and -wearing graceful mantillas or shawls of varied hues, squatting upon the -ground, surrounded by a medley of wares in the shape of fruits, meats, -sweets, and vegetables. Many of the groups that wear the black mantillas -over their heads and falling in long, graceful folds around their -shoulders, reminded me very much of the funeral parties that mourn round -the coffins outside the country churches in Mexico; but the bright -colours of the fruits and flowers, and the blue of the sky, seemed to -gain in intensity from these little touches of funereal black. Here and -there patient kine stand waiting to yield up their supply of milk to -passing customers, whilst their muzzled calves strive in vain to obtain -their rightful nourishment. Panniered donkeys and mules are ranged in -rows along the railings that surround the inner square, women of all -ages pass gracefully to and fro amidst the crowd, their purchases or -wares poised easily upon their heads, and altogether the scene presents -an animation that is in strong contrast with the listlessness of the -rest of the town. - -Not a few of the young girls and maidens are very pretty, with slender, -graceful figures, jet-black hair, and lustrous eyes, fringed with long -lashes, their complexions ranging from light saffron to darkest olive -shades, although a few of them possess a really European appearance. -Their costumes are simple and inexpensive, although many of the poorest -wear ornaments in the way of earrings and necklaces, of native -workmanship, made of silver and often of gold. I noticed, however, that -some were wearing the cheaper forms of jewellery of foreign manufacture, -and that the cut and fashions of modern modes were obtaining popularity -amongst the better-to-do market women. - -Young children of both sexes run about in a perfectly nude state, even -in the town, and in the country this is practically a universal custom. -The Paraguayans are all rather short, but strongly knit and wiry. They -betray little evidence of Spanish blood, and although there must be in -the towns many whose origin is Indo-Spanish, the Indo predominates. The -language spoken by the masses is the Guarani, an Indian dialect which is -common over a large district in the heart of the continent. The upper -classes betray a marked Spanish origin, both in their appearance and -speech, and are a little better educated; but most of the people of real -Spanish descent were killed during the war, and few, if any, remain -to-day who can boast a purely European origin, excepting always the -small number of foreigners, English, Italians, Germans, Portuguese, and -Spaniards, who have found their way into the country during the last -century, and settled there, and those who continue to flow in year after -year from many climes, making their new homes in this beautiful country. - -Smoking is a universal habit amongst the women in the market-place, and -when the thick black rolls of tobacco leaf are laid aside, mouths are -generally closed over “bombillas,” through which they suck the steaming -“yerba.” Vendors of the beautiful native lace wander up and down, -carrying over their arms baskets filled with a large assortment of the -delicate handiwork. The visitor is quickly singled out for attention, -and invited to inspect the goods, and on his displaying the slightest -curiosity is importuned to accompany the dame to one of the shops which -surround the market square, where, without “by your leave” to its owner, -the goods are spread out upon a table or counter, and a sale is sure to -be effected. The proprietor of the shop looks calmly on with apparently -no interest in the business, but it is more than likely that some -understanding with the itinerant vendor exists, and that when the -purchaser has departed the shopkeeper will get a commission for the use -of his premises. The lace is very handsome, and although small pieces -can be purchased for about half a sovereign, the larger articles, with -more intricate workmanship, cost as much as thirty and forty pounds. One -small basket, the contents of which I inspected, must have contained a -stock worth two or three hundred pounds, if the price asked for the -various examples was realised by the merry, middle-aged lady who hawked -it round the square. - -[Illustration: A STREET IN ASUNCION.] - -The Plaza is surrounded by houses of a single story, which have mostly -been converted into shops. The high pavement in front of these, reached -by steps, is covered by deeply projecting tile-covered eaves forming a -kind of verandah, under which groups of women sit amidst their piled-up -wares, indolently smoking, expectorating, chattering, and laughing. - -Few market-places in the Old or New World have more distinctly unique -characteristics than this of Asuncion, none that I have ever seen are so -completely in the hands of the fair sex or so free from the intrusion of -men. - -The city is built on a gradual slope, which rises from the river and -extends southwards for a mile or more, its grass-grown streets having -different levels, many of them descending with a startling suddenness. -In order to progress in a straight line it will be found necessary to -continually ascend or descend flights of steps, the difference of level -being sometimes as much as twenty feet. The outlying streets are full of -interesting little domestic scenes, women with their ubiquitous cigars -busy at the wash-tub or hanging out the clothes to dry in the burning -sun, culinary operations carried on in the open air under the shade of -overhanging eaves or leafy trees. A black-draped doorway here and there -intimates to the passers-by that the Great Avenger has paid his dire -visit, and through the opening the mourners may be seen sitting beside -their dead, and receiving the condolences of friends and relatives, a -scene made gloomier by contrast with the brilliant sky against which -tall palms nod their leafy crowns, gorgeously plumaged birds wing their -joyous flight, and snow-white, fleecy clouds chase one another in -endless succession. - -At midday, when the sunshine beats warm upon the sleeping town, the -shops are closed, the market-place deserted, and desolation reigns in -street and square, where the heat from the ground is visible by the -quivering motion of the air. The glowing richness of the country roads -is refreshing, after these dry, parched, city streets, and the boundless -expanse of green hill and valley which stretches around is broken only -by the bright silvery light of the river that winds through many and -varied scenes northwards, amidst remote, unknown tropical fastnesses, -and southwards towards the largest city south of the Equator. - -The aboriginal inhabitants of South America are always referred to by -the Spanish historians and writers under the generic name of Indians, -and very many tribes more or less differentiated by customs, manners, -appearance, and language still inhabit the continent. The Guarani -peoples who are found to-day in Paraguay are distributed over a large -area, extending from the main waters of the Amazon and Madeira rivers -through the heart of the continent. Amidst the forests and in the dense -chaco of the Paraguay and Parana rivers many still wander in a primitive -condition, whilst others but little higher in the scale of civilisation -who have come under the influence of the Jesuit missionaries, occupy -villages and towns scattered throughout the country. - -The early European invaders of the continent were relentless - -[Illustration: PARAGUAYAN SAVAGES.] - -in their treatment of the natives with whom they came in contact, for -with the utmost rapacity and cruelty they enslaved or slaughtered such -of the ignorant and defenceless creatures as were unable to escape into -the bush. The country has witnessed countless scenes of brutality and -bloodshed, enacted frequently in the name of religion, and in some -instances with the sanction and countenance of the priests of Rome, who -accompanied the expeditions. The Jesuit missionaries who began their -humane and truly great work in Paraguay in 1586 must, however, be -acquitted of the charge of cruelty and barbarity, displaying, as they -did, a wisdom and self-sacrifice that will ever be memorable in the -annals of the race, and the advent of these truly brave-hearted men is -one of the brightest spots in the whole of Paraguayan history. The sons -of all the nations of Europe contributed their share to the -establishment of the mission stations among the Indians, and laboured to -teach the primitive savages the principles of the Christian religion and -the industrial arts of peace. Churches were built, many of which remain -standing to-day, the trackless wilds and forests were penetrated by the -faithful band whose unyielding opposition to the grasping avarice and -barbarous cruelties of the Spanish settlers has earned for them the high -place in the regard of subsequent ages which is their just reward. - -Finding that the colonial authorities were careless of the trust reposed -in them, the Jesuits advocated the cause of the natives to the very -steps of the throne of Spain, and had the satisfaction of receiving the -King’s approval of their efforts and his sanction to their further -enterprise. - -Unlike the generality of religious bodies of the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries, the Jesuits, instead of leading lives of -seclusion, pursued an absolutely reverse method, adopting a policy of -practical helpfulness towards the masses of mankind, irrespective of -colour, nationality, or creed. Their ranks, comprising some of the -cleverest and most business-like brains of the time, were under the able -generalship of men who were statesmen, politicians, or fighters, as -occasion required, who adapted their methods to the countries in which -and the peoples amongst whom they worked, whilst their firmness of -character and mobility of action were admirably suited to the great task -which they set themselves. - -Under their able guidance and stern rule many tribes were arrested from -pursuing the aimless, idle existence of nomads, and were collected into -villages, where church and clergy ministered to their spiritual and -temporal wants. Individual members of these tribes were raised to -positions of trust and authority in each village or settlement, native -“regidors” and “alcaldes” administered law and maintained order; the -assistant clergy managed all the secular matters connected with the -communities, instructing the people in arts and industries, directing -the agricultural labour upon the land, teaching the young, and caring -for the aged and infirm. - -No private property existed in these Arcadian settlements, and the -produce of nature’s harvests and men’s labour was stored for common use, -the surplus being sold or exchanged to pay the King of Spain taxes and -to supply the community with such manufactured articles as they required -but were unable to make for themselves. The system evolved by the -missionaries proved, whilst it lasted, one of the best ever adopted for -governing native races and presented so many points of similarity to the -plan introduced and perfected by the Incas on the Western Cordillera, -that it is probable the Jesuit fathers moulded their government upon -that of the ancient Peruvian theocracy. - -The simple South American natives were easily led and their respect won -by the efforts of the handful of Jesuits whose superior wisdom, strong -character, and benign sympathy admirably fitted them for such work. - -To these pioneers of a just appreciation of the rights of the natives, -the country owes much, and it is unfortunate that the priests who have -succeeded them have not lived and acted up to the high example set by -the early fathers. The falling away is pitiful and the results -deplorable, although, perhaps, the present state of affairs is an -improvement upon that existing in the middle of last century, when a -foreign resident in the city of Asuncion accused the priests of crass -ignorance and gross immorality, adding that they were “great -cock-fighters and gamblers, possessing a vast influence over women, a -power which they turn to the basest of purposes, but they are little -respected by the men.” - -During my visit to Paraguay I met with persons who still believe the -stories of a wild tribe still extant who flee from the approach of -strangers, and who roam the woods and wander along the banks of remote -rivers in a state of complete nudity. This tribe is thought by some to -be the degenerate result of close inter-breeding, and it is said that -the children who have been left behind and captured when the tribe was -suddenly surprised have been found to be incapable of learning to talk. -The ape-like characteristics of these tribes have been much commented -upon, and the other natives regard them as so low in the scale of -creation that they have no compunction in shooting them down at sight, -looking upon them as little better than thieving monkeys. These “Guaqui” -Indians are reputed to have no houses or huts of any description, no -clothes or ornaments, no knowledge of the use of fire, and no articulate -language, facts which, if correct, would seem to class them as the -lowest and most primitive human beings at present existing upon the -earth’s surface. - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE PARAGUAY.] - -The history of every country is to a great extent moulded by the -character of its inhabitants, and in the case of Paraguay it is not -difficult to understand the causes of the interminable and -ever-recurrent revolutions which are almost synonymous with the name of -the republic. Nature is in one of her bountiful moods in the heart of -South America, and does not invite to strenuous toil, for existence is -easy and the development of its rich resources makes no appeal whatever -to the indolent aborigines of the country. - -The swelling rivers Parana and Paraguay irrigate the fertile plains, and -the warm, healthy climate stimulates vegetation to a wild profusion. The -whole aspect of the country gives a feeling of repose, and especially -is this true of the rivers, with their similarity of scenery and -comparative absence of human habitations; whilst a journey up these in -flood time is one through absolutely desolate regions. - -Even after three centuries of contact with virile settlers from Europe, -the towns scattered throughout the country preserve the appearance of -ancient centres of civilisation long abandoned. Paraguay is a country -that does not change outwardly, whatever political upheavals may disturb -the routine of the life of its inhabitants. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -_A South American Dictator_ - - -The early history of Paraguay is almost identical with that of other -South American States. Spain, its conqueror and coloniser, chose a -psychological moment for the work--that enchanted period in the history -of mankind when the world was opening grand visions to poets and -inspiring warlike adventurers on mighty quests through uncharted seas -and in lands unmarked by the footsteps of civilisation. It would have -been well for the honour and glory of Spain had these adventurous -mariners and soldiers been inspired with the spirit of Arthur’s knights, -for then the history of Paraguay would not have begun amidst scenes of -brutality and bloodshed. - -The earliest Spanish settlement in Paraguay was at Asuncion, under the -leadership of Dominges Irala, and the treatment which he and his -followers meted out to the Indians was similar to that which the -luckless natives experienced at the hands of the colonists throughout -the continent. The Indians were reduced practically to a state of -slavery by their taskmasters, whose relationships with the tribal women -were of none too scrupulous a character, so that when the Jesuit -missionaries arrived they found many abuses, which they did their best -to abolish. The long period during which the fathers administered the -country was one of comparative peace, and it was only when the religious -order was banished from the country that discord and strife arose. - -Paraguay was separated from the province of Buenos Ayres in 1620, -although the government of both States was administered from Lima, the -Peruvian capital. When the spirit of liberation began to stir the -colonies to rebellion against the Spanish government, the enthusiasm of -Bolivar, the Liberator, quickly spread through the length and breadth -of the land, and the mother country, with her national spirit exhausted -and her exchequer depleted by the costly Napoleonic Wars, was incapable -of preventing the secession of her oversea dominions. One by one the -countries, which are all independent republics to-day, broke away from -her rule, and in the year 1811 the autonomy of Paraguay was proclaimed -after a bloodless revolution. This State was the last to join in the -general movement, and then only after having refused the proffered -assistance of the La Plata provinces, even going the length of repulsing -by force the advance of General Belgrano, who came to invite their -co-operation against the Spanish rule. - -A few months afterwards, however, they changed their attitude, and -followed the example of the other States. Velasco, the Spanish Viceroy -of the province, made little or no resistance and was allowed to occupy -a position in the new Government. - -This first revolution was but the precursor of a long series, not yet -ended, the initial independent Government being soon displaced by -another revolt, bloodless like the first, and a wealthy gaucho--Don -Fulgencio Yegros--became President, occupying the position for a short -period, with Dr. Francia as his adviser. In the following year another -change took place, and Francia became First Consul. For a period of -nearly thirty years this strange personality guided the destinies of the -new State entirely single handed. - -Little is known of his origin and early history, but his reign of terror -is remembered to this day, and was a period of much meaning in the -history of the country. - -Francia seems to have been of French or Portuguese extraction, and was -educated at Cordova, in Tucuman. His original intention appears to have -been to enter the Church, but he exchanged his theological studies for -those of the law, and on his return to Asuncion soon acquired a -reputation as an upright and honest lawyer, a hater of injustice, and a -hermit. He became one of the chief advisers during the formation of the -republic, and soon rose to the position of the head of the State, -successively styling himself Consul, Dictator, and finally Supreme and -Perpetual Dictator. In this position Francia soon gave evidence of his -remarkable personality, one of his first acts of policy being to isolate -Paraguay from the rest of the world. Erecting guardhouses along its -frontiers and forts upon its rivers, he succeeded in keeping the State -“a field enclosed” all through his long reign. Not a single native was -allowed to leave the country, and the few foreigners who succeeded in -entering had the greatest difficulty in leaving. A few trading vessels -were permitted to enter the river ports, but only when provided with the -Dictator’s licence, and under the most drastic restrictions and -supervision. As the years wore on Francia grew more and more despotic, -retiring within himself and eschewing company until he was as completely -isolated from the rest of his kind as his country was from the rest of -the world. - -The masses of the people accepted his fearful rule with docility and -complaisance, but the more educated classes, whose opposition and -political intrigues endangered the tyrant’s supremacy, were treated with -the greatest severity, wholesale executions being of frequent -occurrence. - -But against such excesses towards the political classes must be set the -many beneficent measures he inaugurated for preserving the peace and -increasing the prosperity of his country. Obtaining arms from abroad, he -disciplined his soldiers and struck terror into the hearts of the -bandits and highwaymen who infested the territory. He went about the -city making personal surveys, and taking levels in connection with the -improvements he undertook. - -Since the expulsion of the Jesuits the Church had sadly deteriorated and -fallen low in its influence for good upon the population, and his -efforts were untiring in endeavouring to arouse the clergy to a proper -sense of their secular duties. He himself held advanced and enlightened -views which inspired him with contempt for the supine Church and its -sensual, indolent priesthood. He never attended Mass, and consistently -refused to profess adherence to a faith in which he had no belief, but -his absolute honesty and devotion to the best interests of his people -were unquestionable, and his methods saved the country from many years -of anarchy. Purging the State of dishonest servants, he set an example -which other republics might follow with advantage, and his benevolence -to the poor and weak was only equalled by his severity towards the rich -and strong. - -In appearance this singular man was lean, tall, saturnine, and -forbidding, whilst his qualities were a blend of those associated with -Cromwell, Napoleon, and Robespierre. He filled his subjects with an -abiding dread, and they almost feared to mention his awful name. During -his lifetime he was “El Supremo,” and during the years immediately after -his death he was referred to as “El Defuncto.” Few save his bodyguard -dared to approach him, and when he passed through the streets he ordered -the people to retire within their houses and close all doors and windows -upon pain of death, whilst anyone found loitering in the road leading -from the palace to the barracks of San Francisco, almost the only one he -traversed, was severely beaten by the soldiers. He frustrated numerous -plots made for his assassination, and many weird stories are told of him -and his peculiar relations with his subjects. One old lady used to -relate how when a child she was sent one day to the market-place to buy -oranges, and was returning with her apron filled with them when hastily -turning a corner she came unexpectedly upon the dreaded Dictator. She -immediately fell upon her knees and begged for her life, the oranges -meanwhile scattering in all directions. Francia smiled, and gently said, -“Go, my daughter, you have done no wrong,” then rode upon his way. - -On another occasion a funeral procession crossed the road as he -approached, and the bearers immediately dropped the bier, priests and -mourners hiding themselves behind the hedge at the roadside until he had -passed. - -When in the year 1820 a plague of locusts (a common scourge of the -country) destroyed all the crops and ruin and starvation stared the -people in the face, the Dictator issued orders to the agriculturists to -at once sow fresh patches of land, enforcing his decree with the threat -of heavy penalties, with the result that a fairly good harvest was -secured, and the discovery made that the country was capable of yielding -two good harvests in each year. - -It was only when the hand of death relieved Paraguay from the rule of -the Dictator and tyrant that the people breathed more freely. His body -was interred in the “Iglesia de la Incarnacion” in Asuncion, but the -following day it was discovered that vandal hands had scattered the -bricks of the tomb and removed the remains. What became of them still -remains a mystery, but the explanation of the priests, “that the evil -one had carried them away,” has long ceased to be regarded as -satisfactory. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -_More Modern Times in Paraguay_ - - -The close of Francia’s career opened a fresh chapter in the history of -Paraguay. The position occupied for three decades by an outstanding -personality was not easily filled, and for a time two men, Carlos Lopez -and Mariano Alonzo, ruled as joint Consuls, until the stronger of the -two, Lopez, took the reins of government into his own hands, and secured -for himself the position of President. - -His rule was as absolute as that of his great predecessor; but although -he made no drastic changes in the rigorous laws of Francia, he -administered them with more indulgence, and the twenty years during -which he held sway were comparatively uneventful. At his death, in 1862, -it was found that by his will he provided that the government should be -carried on by a triumvirate, which was to include his son Francesco, and -when the presidential election was held the result was a foregone -conclusion, for all the machinery was controlled by the man who was -necessarily successful. It is almost impossible, even at this time of -day, to write with any restraint of Francesco Lopez, a bloodthirsty -monster who had no redeeming quality save, perhaps, his affection for -his mistress, Madame Lynch, and the children she bore him. His exploits -recall the wildest excesses of Tamburlaine or the Spanish despots of the -Dark Ages, and his overweening ambition, fostered by his mistress, -translated itself into a fierce desire to become a leading factor in -South America, and landed his little country into a war which lasted for -nearly six years, and well-nigh wiped out the whole of the male -population of Paraguay. - -It is almost incredible, until its many fine natural defences are -considered, that so small a State could hold out for so long against -the combined efforts of three such powerful allies as Brazil, Argentine, -and Uruguay. Had national liberty been the object, the struggle would -have been magnificent, but being undertaken, as it was, to gratify the -caprice of a single man, it was a reprehensible blunder which came -within an ace of losing for Paraguay her independence. - -The disputes and dissensions which arose in 1863 between Brazil, -Argentine, and Uruguay with reference to a revolution then in progress -in the latter country, were seized upon by Lopez as an excuse to offer -his services as mediator between the contending parties. This offer was -declined on all hands, for the name of Paraguay was not popular in the -“Plate” at this time, owing to the policy of the former country in -excluding foreigners, and badly treating those who did manage to get in. - -[Illustration: A PARAGUAYAN GENTLEMAN.] - -Lopez, thus repulsed, seized a Brazilian steamer passing up the river -from Montevideo to Matto Grosso, and converted it into a gunboat for his -own use. His next step was the invasion of Matto Grosso, where -defenceless towns and villages were ruthlessly sacked and burnt. The -details of the long war that followed, the many battles, skirmishes, and -bombardments all sink into insignificance before the conduct of -Francesco Lopez himself. The thin veneer of civilisation he acquired -during his stay in Paris soon wore off, and the traits of the Indian -savage, inherited from his Guycuru ancestors, were displayed in all -their nakedness. - -The catalogue of his crimes includes the execution of one of his -brothers and two of his brothers-in-law. Their wives and his own -sisters were imprisoned in cages and covered bullock-carts for months, -being fed through an aperture, as if they were wild beasts, whilst one -of them was stripped nude and driven thus through the streets. His most -intimate friends and best generals were tortured and shot, and the wife -of one general who had surrendered to the enemy was speared by his -orders. He forced his mother, aged seventy, to swear before the altar -that she recognised him only as her child, compelling her to curse the -rest of her children as rebels and traitors. He flouted the nations with -impunity and subjected foreigners, including English and Americans, -living in his capital to the most excruciating tortures. This monster -was killed by the thrust of a lance after his few remaining troops had -been defeated and the country reduced to utter helplessness. - -The three allies, Argentine, Brazil, and Uruguay, had by a treaty signed -in 1865 bound themselves to respect and guarantee for a period of five -years the independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of -Paraguay, and the new Government which arose from out the ruins -undertook to pay a war indemnity of nearly fifty million pounds -sterling, a debt, it is almost needless to say, that has not been -discharged up to the present time. The jealousies of these erstwhile -allies are the best guarantee of the continued independence of Paraguay, -and even the continual dislocation of business occasioned by the -incessant revolutions in the country does not tempt outsiders to -interfere. - -The last two or three years would have been prosperous ones for the -country but for the political unrest which makes it almost impossible -for any development to take place. - -In 1910 Señor Gondra was elected President, and formed his ministry; but -he was unfortunate in his choice of Albino Jara for the portfolio of -war. Jara headed a revolution to depose his chief, and in January, 1911, -succeeded in usurping the presidential chair. In a month Gondra started -a counter revolution to regain his lost position, and a fight took -place, in which six or seven hundred Paraguayans, who could ill be -spared, lost their lives. The revolt was unsuccessful, and the chief -officer of Gondra’s party was taken prisoner and shot. Albino Jara does -not seem to have inspired his followers with much attachment, although -he is alleged to have increased the pay of the army, and in July, 1911, -they revolted against his petty tyranny, and he was either persuaded to -leave or was shipped out of the country with a pension and the title of -general. The president of the senate was called upon to fill the place -of President until a new one should be elected, but the role so appealed -to him that he resigned the occupancy of both positions in order to -offer himself as a candidate for a term of the Presidency. - -Having secured both nomination and election, Liberado M. Rogas was -installed for the term which ends in November, 1914, but Gondra and his -followers, men of means and position, obtained possession of boats, -guns, and men, and having the sympathy of the best citizens, succeeded -in November, 1911, in obtaining the upper hand. The country was in the -thick of this revolt during my visit, and I saw enough in the short time -I was there to convince me that the lot of the average Paraguayan is far -from enviable, despite his romantic and Arcadian surroundings, where the -sun is always shining and the women have no vote but do all the hard -work. On all hands one heard complaints of the dislocation of trade, -whilst timid folk who were unable to escape out of the country did their -best to hide themselves. - -Foreigners in the city had to display the greatest caution in their -relations with the natives. One Englishman, whose son was lying -dangerously ill with typhoid fever, being seen in conversation with the -doctor who was attending the case, was immediately warned by the -authorities not to mix himself up with politics. - -Soldiers were posted at the corners of the deserted streets ever ready -to pounce upon likely recruits, and so desperate was the need of the -Government for men that even foreigners were in danger of being pressed -into the service. I met a youth of Italian extraction a few minutes -after he had escaped from the clutches of the Army Board. He had been -stopped in the street by a couple of soldiers and carried off to the -barracks, where he found many acquaintances who had been similarly -captured. He was closely questioned, in Guarani, regarding himself, and -had the presence of mind to feign complete ignorance of that language -and to employ the Spanish in demanding the reason of his detention. A -proficiency in Guarani would have been taken as practical proof that the -speaker was a native. Fortunately this young Italian was provided with -military papers which proved his nationality, and after an irksome and -searching inquiry he was released. - -I continually met in the streets detachments of civilians under close -guard on their way to the barracks, and found that shops were closed, -cafés deserted, whilst the population, nervous and apprehensive, kept -themselves in the background. The wharves bristled with armed men, whose -wretched physique and poor clothing gave them anything but a military -appearance, and they seemed more anxious to keep out of harm’s way than -to run any risk of encounter with an enemy. - -When the steamers were leaving the port a number of officials went on -board and carefully scrutinised the passengers, who had all to be -provided with passports to enable them to leave the country, and it was -not until the city was left far behind and the town of Villeta safely -passed that the apprehensions of many passengers and fugitives were -dispelled. - -This magnificent and rich country is still a wilderness awaiting -development, for its progress during the last fifty years has been so -slow that much remains to be done to bring it into line with the general -advance made by the surrounding republics. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -_A Glance at Brazilian History_ - - -If geographical extent, length of seaboard, variety of resources, number -of cities, constitute the importance of a country, then Brazil may -fairly claim to be the most important State in South America. - -It is 2600 miles from north to south, and 2500 miles from east to west, -and has a seaboard extending for 3700 miles. In square mileage it is -exceeded only by the British Empire, Russia, China, and the United -States. It occupies 33 per cent of the whole continent of South America, -for it contains within its borders 3,291,416 square miles. It is the -proud boast of Brazilian authors that their country is in one sense the -most remarkable on the globe, because it is peopled by a single nation, -and not by a heterogeneous medley of races, a contention which is -perhaps not strictly justified, for even in Brazil many different -nationalities go to swell its population, which is quite small for the -tremendous area it occupies. To-day it does not contain more than -eighteen or nineteen millions of inhabitants. Each year sees an -increasing emigration to it, and the nationalities of the new-comers are -over thirty in number. Some become naturalised, many refrain from -bothering about a formality which bestows few advantages and many -obligations. The Brazilian people is made up of three distinct races, -Europeans mostly of Latin origin, indigenous Indians and negroes -imported from Africa. These different races have mixed and bred, and to -some extent have intermarried, and the numerous half-breeds which now -inhabit the country are the result. Half whites and half Indians are -called “Caboclos,” white and Indian “Mameluco,” white and negro -“Mulattos,” the descendants of Mulatto parents “Cascos.” The -full-blooded negro is termed “Creolo,” the cross between them and the -Indians - -[Illustration] - -“Carboreto.” These are only a few of the many results of these strange -alliances, for there are hundreds of variations resulting from further -matrimonial complications. Yet the Brazilian claims them all as -comprising one nation. Further, there are to-day many strong and settled -colonies of Germans, Italians, and Spaniards in different localities, -particularly in the south, which are at present entirely free from the -admixture of the diverse strains that run all through the central and -northern States. All over Brazil pure negroes still exist, as well as -undiluted Indians, and they have the same rights and privileges as their -lighter-skinned neighbours, and mix with them with a freedom that is -scarcely found in any other country. There is no colour question in -Brazil, no antagonism as in the United States of the north, and it seems -extremely likely that the merging of the diverse races will go on -uninterruptedly until a new type is evolved. When one looks back and -considers the problems that confronted the mere handful of adventurous -Portuguese pioneers who first settled upon this vast continent, it does -not seem at all remarkable that they should have mingled with the races -they found and with the slave women they imported. The rough adventurers -of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries went out to seek their -fortunes in wild countries, and they would hesitate to take their -womenfolk, even if the latter were not loath to go. This led to their -alliances with native and foreign races, and to the population which was -destined to hold, if not to develop, the vast country which lay around -them. The negro, who has a reputation for laziness, has not transmitted -to his descendants any remarkable qualities for activity, unless it be -the irrepressible emotionalism which is characteristic of many of the -inhabitants of Brazil. Nor has the Indian who for such long ages lived -in the most primeval fashion transmitted much initiative. So that what -there is of activity and progress in the race to-day must come from the -Portuguese and other European ancestry. It is an interesting study, full -of suggestion, this of pedigree, even if the student is unsuccessful in -arriving at any definite conclusion. The resources of the country are -enormous, diverse, and practically inexhaustible, but they have been -lying for all the ages hardly touched and generally inadequately worked. -The mixed inhabitants are settled upon lands which shelve down from the -mountains to the Atlantic coast, or along the banks of the mighty -rivers which flow through the impenetrable forests out to sea. There are -vast districts of virgin forest and trackless wild where white man has -never penetrated, and where the aboriginal Indian is just as savage and -untamed as were his ancestors upwards of four centuries ago when -European mariners first landed on their shores. Brazil, as we know it -to-day, or at least the civilised portion of it, was created by -Portugal, and it was one of the distinguished sons of that little nation -who had the honour of being its discoverer. In the year 1500 Pedro -Alvarez Cabral, sailing from Lisbon ostensibly to make an all-sea voyage -to India, diverted his course off the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to -the south-west. Forty-two days after leaving Portugal the eyes of the -adventurous seaman rested upon Mount Paschoal in the State of Bahia. - -[Illustration: BEAUTIES AT PERNAMBUCO.] - -The event was momentous and the hour propitious, for everything favoured -Portuguese expansion. The independence of the little kingdom was an -accomplished fact, and the possibility of absorption of it by Spain was -a remote contingency. The Moors, driven out of the Iberian Peninsula and -hurled back to their native Africa, were no longer a menace. In addition -to this the Portuguese were quick to perceive that a new era was dawning -upon the world, and they were determined to have a hand in the shaping -and controlling the future destinies of the newly discovered continent. -The conquest and colonisation of Brazil were a national corollary to the -earlier discoveries of Portuguese navigators. Cabral, with his -companions, was at first inclined to believe that they had struck upon -another island similar to those recently discovered in the Caribbean -seas by their Spanish rivals, and he christened it, after the fashion of -the period, “The Island of the True Cross,” and it was only when the -geographical error was realised that the name was altered to Brazil. -This name had been used long before, for a western island of the Azores -was named “De Brazi,” being derived from the red dye woods which grow so -plentifully in tropical latitudes. - -[Illustration: NEAR RIO.] - -Following immediately upon the discovery of “Brazil” by Cabral and the -nominal possession of it by the Crown of Portugal, expeditions were -sent, and in two of these the celebrated Amerigo Vespucci took part. He -built a fort at Cape Frio, and was so struck by the loveliness of the -surrounding country that he thought he was in the region of an earthly -paradise. Voyagers on their way to the Indies began to touch upon the -Brazilian coast, and it soon became explored by navigators of different -nationalities. Portugal, jealous of her rights, had to protect it from -the traders of France, who were beginning to have dealings with the -natives upon its shores, and in 1527 a post was established for the -protection of Portuguese interests. This fort or garrison at Pernambuco -was the scene of one or two raids by both French and English seamen, -and which hastened the Portuguese Crown to take serious steps to occupy -the new territory in a more imposing manner. In 1531 Martin Affonso, -with a fleet and about 300 colonists, landed at Pernambuco, and coasted -down in the Bay of Rio, and to the mouth of the bay where Santos now -stands. On behalf of the Crown he divided the land out into sections, -running from the coast into the interior indefinitely, and these were -granted to nobles of the Court, who were so unsuccessful in developing -their concessions that they were allowed to revert to the Crown. The -Portuguese, unlike their Spanish rivals, made no great expeditions into -the hinterland of their new colony, and were slow to bring the Indians -under their rule. The vastness of the country, and the ease with which -the natives could withdraw from the invaders, made it necessary for the -governors who were planted up and down the coast to have recourse to the -importation of negro slaves from Africa to the northern provinces. -Gradually the traders made journeys into the interior, generally along -the rivers, to trade with natives, and villages took root; but the -greater part of the population settled upon the coasts in such towns as -Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio, Espirito Santo, São Paulo, etc. - -Of course there were rapacious traders who tried to exact too much from -the natives, but a salutary check against their tyranny was soon -provided by the Jesuits. These enthusiastic and energetic followers of -Loyola have left a deep and abiding mark on nearly all the South -American communities. They built churches, founded schools, and taught -the Indians the arts of agriculture, and all that they asked in return -was obedience and conformity with the rites of the Church. The -“Paulistas,” as the lay settlers were termed, saw in Jesuit influence an -obstacle to their own domination over the supply of native labour, and -conflicts between the religious and secular powers lasted for more than -a century, the mother country sometimes siding with one faction and -sometimes with the other. But the priests persisted with that zeal which -is the traditional mark of their order, and suffered persecution, -privation, and even death, rather than relinquish their mission. -Vestiges of their work are still to be found in many parts of Brazil and -neighbouring States, notably in the place-names, which are often derived -from the saints, symbols, and sacraments of the Church. - -In the welter of South American politics Brazil has suffered those -frequent changes of government which have been the fate of every -republic existing in the sub-continent to-day. The first European -country to contest the claim of Portugal to this vast territory was -France. But although an island in the Bay of Rio was occupied by some -French troops in 1515, the danger of permanent French rule was never a -strong probability, and it was not long before the invaders were -dislodged. A more serious phase of its history was when, in the year -1581, Philip II of Spain united the two kingdoms in the Peninsula, and -the affairs of the Brazilian colony were directed from headquarters at -Madrid. - -It was the Dutch who next had a shot for the prize of supremacy in -Brazil, and a very successful shot it was. Spain had by this time passed -the zenith of her prosperity, and was “hasting to her setting.” Holland -was becoming a predominant maritime power in Europe, and her companies -and adventurers were resolutely determined to establish empires both in -the Orient and the Western Hemisphere, and some of the settlements which -they founded in those vigorous years own allegiance to the Dutch flag -to-day. - -Holland sent her best sailors to Brazil, and for a time it looked as if -the dominion not only of Spain but of Portugal also was ended in that -quarter of the globe. For a time the Dutch were practically complete -masters of many of the principal provinces. But the Brazilians had a -spirit of their own, and never at any time showed a disposition to -submit tamely to the encroachments of the Dutch. When the successful -revolution in Portugal threw off the Spanish domination in 1640, and the -Duke of Braganza was proclaimed King of Portugal, under the title of Dom -João IV, and was recognised as the rightful sovereign to all the -Portuguese possessions not under Dutch control, an armistice was signed -between Holland and Portugal. But that did not affect the Brazilians -overmuch; they continued their strenuous attempts to get rid of the -Dutch. The people of Maranhão rose in revolt in 1642, and the -Pernambucans followed suit in 1645. The battles that followed were -adverse to the Dutch arms, and finally the commander, General van -Schoppe, had to capitulate, all the fortresses still occupied by the -Dutch being turned over to the King of Portugal. - -It is perhaps as well for both countries that Holland had to relax her -hold, for the Brazilians were separated from their Dutch conquerors by -the differences of language, and the still more vital differences of -religion. Protestantism is not understood in the South American -republics, and therefore any attempts by Holland to make the Brazilians -conform to the tenets of the Reformed Church could only have ended in -signal failure. The fierce Latin spirit was well manifested by the great -leader of the Brazilian revolt, Juan Fernandez Vievia, when at the -battle of Tabocas he urged his troops against the alien invaders with -the words, “Portuguese! At the heretics! God is with us!” - -[Illustration: THE RAILWAY UP TO CORCOVADA.] - -Out of this victorious struggle with the Dutch, Brazil emerged a nation, -though it was not for some time yet that she was to forswear the -suzerainty of Portugal and declare her own autonomy. - -The next stage in her variegated history is a quiet one. During the -remainder of the seventeenth and the whole of the eighteenth century the -connection with Portugal was maintained undisturbed, and the period of -calm was occupied by the colonists to penetrate farther and farther -into the interior, spreading agriculture, increasing existing crops and -raising new ones. - -[Illustration: COMING DOWN FROM CORCOVADA.] - -A big development came during the early years of the nineteenth century. -The Napoleonic wars had caused all kinds of disruptions and -complications, and naturally Portugal, which was in the thick of the -struggle, could not escape them. The Prince Regent, Dom João VI, began -to find Lisbon too hot to hold him, and he transferred the Court to Rio -de Janeiro in 1808. The Brazilians received him well, but his reign -there was not happy. When affairs in the home country became more quiet -the monarch’s counsellors in Lisbon urged his return, and with that -request he complied, his son, Dom Pedro, remaining at Rio as Prince -Regent. Signs were abundantly evident that the spirit of nationhood had -established itself very firmly in the hearts of the Brazilian people, -and that they were not prepared to brook interference from the Court in -Lisbon, which was constantly acting in a high-handed and arbitrary -manner. Many national leaders of eminence arose, and it was not long -before a declaration of independence was made, and Portugal did little -or nothing to prevent the severance. But Dom Pedro, who, whatever his -faults may have been, had a national resilience of mind, determined to -stop with the reformers, and his reward came when he was promoted to the -headship of the State under the imposing title of Emperor. - -A digression may be made here touching the strain of insanity which -characterised this particular Royal line. One action of Dom João’s is -almost as incredible as it is gruesome. He ordered that his mother, who -had started her career by marrying her uncle and ended it in an asylum -in Brazil, should not be buried for six years. - -If the body had been embalmed that would have been nothing unusual, but -the Portuguese law prescribes such treatment only for males of the Royal -house. When João found himself back in Lisbon he gave orders for his -mother’s body to be brought from Brazil and buried with state ceremony; -the Queen, be it noted, had been six years dead! - -Here is an eye-witness’s account of the awful spectacle: “The next day -the Church of the Estrella overflowed with spectators, and the corpse -was exposed in full court dress, while the nobility came successively to -kiss the hand!... Two of the young princesses were appointed by the King -to the high honour of presiding, and four ladies-in-waiting performed -the enviable office of tire-women to the corpse. It had been brought -over from Brazil enclosed in three coffins, the inner one of lead, where -it was laid, surrounded by aromatic herbs, gems, and essences.... One of -the princesses fainted twice, and was too ill to reappear; but her -sister was obliged to remain, while the ladies raised the body and -completely reclothed it in a black robe, a dress cap, gloves, shoes, and -stockings, and adorned it with four splendid orders upon the heart.” -This throws a lurid light on the attitude still shown to the dead in -some Latin-American countries. The bodies of the rich are treated with -garish pomp; the bodies of the poor with shameful neglect, if not with -contumely. - -[Illustration: THE CHURCH OF THE CANDELIERA, RIO.] - -Dom Pedro I was a daring, dashing monarch, with mercurial blood running -in his veins. His attempts to establish absolutism irritated the -Brazilians, who had now advanced too far along the path of political -freedom to tolerate that sort of thing; so, in the struggle between -people and ruler, the ruler got the worst of it. In 1831, cowed by the -determined front which the troops and civilians presented, Pedro I -abdicated in favour of his infant son, Dom Pedro de Atcantara. His was a -curious type of character, and the most that can be said of him is that -he made a showy figure on the South American stage, where showy figures -have in the past been so abundant. His faults were not only political; -in his private life he was far from being a paragon. - -Pedro II was only five years old when he succeeded to the throne of -Brazil, and for ten years the country was governed by a regency of three -members elected by the legislative chambers, and latterly by one chosen -by the electors. As might be surmised, things did not go smoothly, and -many risings, revolts, and intrigues embarrassed the Government, which, -however, was successful in quelling them for the time being. In 1840, -the King being fifteen years of age, he was declared to be of legal age, -and he started on his long and popular reign. Two political parties -represented the people, the Liberals and Conservatives, and alternately -they obtained the ascendancy and grasped the ruling power. The civil -wars which raged and distracted the country in the southern State of Rio -Grande were followed by the terrible struggle with Paraguay, which was -not concluded till 1872. The agitation for the abolition of the slave -trade in 1850 was but the precursor of the total abolition of slavery -itself nearly forty years afterwards. For years the voices of the -abolitionists were raised in the Houses of Congress, with the result -that first the trade was abolished (1857), next the declaration that -slave-born children were free (1871), and finally all slaves were given -their absolute liberty (1888). These drastic changes in the economical -conditions of labour in the country were not brought about without much -opposition. Great losses were incurred by the planters and -slave-owners,[3] who, bitterly opposed to the liberation, turned hostile -to the Emperor when he signed the decree, and opposed the claims they -urged for compensation. The loss of the support of this wealthy and -influential class was an important factor in the overthrow of the -monarchy. But the spirit of republicanism which had been engendered by -the French Revolution was growing in Brazil and two or three attempts -had already been made to establish free institutions in the country. The -Republican party had been organised for some years, and an opportunity -occurred, and the combination of the anti-monarchists brought about the -declaration of the republic in 1889. The feeble old Emperor recognised -the strength of the forces arrayed against him, and, powerless to resist -the trend of circumstances, he took his congé gracefully. In reply to -the communication of the Marshal Deodoro du Fonseca, which informed the -Emperor of the intention of the new republic and of his dismissal, he -wrote: “Yielding to the imperiousness of circumstances I have resolved -to set out with my family to-morrow for Europe, leaving this country so -dear to us all, and to which I have endeavoured to give constant proof -of my love during the nearly half a century in which I have discharged -the office of chief of State: while thus leaving with my whole family I -shall ever retain for Brazil the most heartfelt affection and ardent -good wishes for her prosperity.” - -The new republic with Marshal Deodoro at its head soon got to work, and -a constitutional Assembly was organised to compile the constitution of -the republic. This was published in the early part of 1891, and in the -latter part of the same year the first President was obliged to resign -owing to the trouble that arose over his arbitrary unconstitutional -closing of the Congress. The army and navy were against the “dictator,” -and the States threatened revolt, and peace was only restored when the -Vice-President, Floriano Peixoto, took the Presidency. More conspiracies -and revolts followed in several of the States, and the navy openly -defied the Government, Admiral de Mello demanding the President’s -resignation and surrender. Rio and Nictheroy were in a state of siege, -and the army placed in positions to defend and keep open the entrance to -the harbours. Rio was bombarded, and general disorder prevailed, and -civil war raged all over the republic. The “Iron Marshal,” as Peixoto is -sometimes called, succeeded eventually in quelling the revolting -factors, and owing to the general desire he relinquished the reins of -office to Dr. Prudente de Morales, a President who was acceptable to all -classes, and who was elected without opposition in 1894. There have been -eight Presidents since the republic was inaugurated, and under each the -country, in spite of many internal dissensions, has made great strides. - -Brazil is destined to assume in the future a far greater importance in -the comity of nations than it can boast at present. Its people have no -mean record behind them; they have shown a passion for independence and -an increasing capacity for government, which argues well for the -building up of that great edifice which is certain sooner or later to -arise in South America. That they are capable of military valour was -demonstrated many times over during the war with Paraguay. The chief -need of the country is population, and when the other States emulate the -example of São Paulo and invite and encourage emigration Brazil will -advance with more rapid strides to the great goal that awaits her. - -[Illustration: THE FALLS OF TOMBOS IN THE STATE OF RIO.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -“_A City of Paradise_” - - -Rio has one of the most enviable positions in the world. The only other -site occupied by a city of any magnitude that can compare to it is that -of Sydney, in New South Wales. But Rio harbour has perhaps superior -claims to loveliness than that of Sydney by reason of the endless -mountain peaks that encompass its vast waters. The innumerable islands -that rise up out of the rippled surface are richly clad with all the -varieties of a tropical vegetation. The views are endless, each seeming -to challenge comparison with any rival. Language almost fails to -describe the beauty of the scenery. The infinite variety of the shapes -and contours of its bays and islands as seen from the summit of -Corcovada is an ever fruitful source of charm. Ships are but mere dots -upon its surface when viewed from the distant heights of the surrounding -hills, battleships but tiny specks and smaller craft invisible to the -naked eye. The harbour is one of the largest and safest in the world, -with an entrance nearly a mile in width. This entrance lies between a -rugged mountain chain that encircles all the bay and two forts, the São -Joã and the Sante Cruz, guard the passage into these bewitching waters. -All around are the eternal hills, grotesque and strangely shaped, and -covered with the lively greens of tropical verdure. No artist’s eye is -required to appreciate the concentrated splendour under the changing -lights and shadows, the marvellous panorama is veritably superb, and the -islets in the great bay might well be those imagined by Tennyson, -“Summer isles of Eden lying in dark purple spheres of sea.” The -landscapes could only possibly be properly delineated by a panorama on a -gigantic scale, but even the most perfect would fail to excite the mind -in any degree approximating to the actuality. The subtle aspects of -exotic - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO RIO HARBOUR.] - -growth and vegetation, the wild, disordered beauty of nature’s -arrangements, the rich-growing wilderness of tropical greenery that -springs up everywhere is past belief. When examined closer, the -vegetation upon the islands and the mountain slopes is bewildering in -its profusion. The colour of all nature, under the tropical sun which -shines through the misty haze of the moist heated atmosphere, is full of -mystery and charm. The forms that the giant trees assume, with -innumerable parasites clinging to them, are indescribable. Tall palms, -feathery bamboos wafted by the gentlest breezes, give a sense of life -even on the calmest days. Rio is a fitting mistress for an exuberant -poet, for he could never weary of versing her charms, extolling her -exceeding beauty, or revelling in her enchantment. Its shores and its -mountain slopes, the fascination of their varied aspects, provoke his -enthusiasm at every turn. They possess wonders that can never stale, -charms that can never tire. Even if this world-famed harbour is entered -when night has hidden the wonders of its mountains from view, the scene -is most impressive; the countless lights from the houses that twinkle -like ground stars along the shores of Rio and Nictheroy, up the -hill-sides and from the hundreds of boats that lie scattered in the bay, -form an arrangement of singular loveliness. The lights on the shore -follow the lines of the new esplanade, Avenida Beira-mar, from the city -right out to Botofogo, and on the other side of the bay, those of -Nictheroy twinkle back to them. Small steam launches, distinguishable -only by their lights, rush about, and the air is filled with the -shrieking of their whistles and sirens. The arrival of a mail steamer at -night is the occasion for this nocturnal activity on the part of boatmen -ever on the look-out to pick up a good fare, and as the mail steamers -lie far out from the landing stage, passengers have no choice but to -avail themselves of these harbour pirates, whose craft flock round the -gangways as soon as the ship comes to anchor. Fire balloons float in the -air, and rockets hiss and leave their trail of sparks behind them, as -they rush on their upward flight. - -It was on New Year’s Day, 1502, that Goncalo Coelho and his crew sailed -into this silent bay. Theirs were not the first eyes to behold its -wonders, for they found its shores peopled by a wild, savage race, who -lived in their rude villages set amongst the fairest of surroundings. -The bay was christened by the Portuguese “Rio de Janeiro,” or “River of -January.” This name, which is in no way applicable to the bay, which has -no river near it, is a matter for some surprise. The investigations of -the Portuguese must have been of a very cursory nature, for they do not -seem to have remained long enough to grasp the extent of the harbour -they had discovered. They named it, however, and the name has stuck, and -even the natives of Rio to-day are called “Fluminenses,” after the river -that does not exist. The flat ground which winds round the foot of the -hills, and upon which the city now stands, was formerly a mangrove -swamp, of which nothing remains to-day. The city now covers an area of -eight to nine square miles, and has nearly a million inhabitants. For -centuries almost, indeed, until the beginning of the present one, the -city, although in such beautiful surroundings, was extremely dirty and -badly laid out. The streets were mean and shabby, for even the -fashionable and prosperous Rua do Ouvidor is a mere alley. During the -early part of the last century the city was proverbial for its -filthiness, but it - -[Illustration: THE SUMMIT OF CORCOVADA, RIO.] - -gradually emerged from its grime and squalor, its streets were paved, -and its sanitation improved. But it was not until the beginning of the -present century that the Government and people awoke and with a feverish -energy set about rebuilding and beautifying their city, until it was -transformed out of all recognition. Hundreds of narrow, dirty streets -have been pulled down, to make way for the Avenida Central, a long -avenue of fine buildings which would grace any of the great cities of -the modern world. Many of the worst streets in the city have been swept -away, and in their place broad thoroughfares full of fine, if somewhat -ornate buildings, have been laid down. To-day there are miles of -spacious boulevards and shaded avenues, with well-paved asphalt roads -and walks, all lit by electricity. The magnificent Avenida Beira-mar, -which runs from the southern end of the Avenida Central to Botofogo, a -distance of nearly five miles, has few equals in the world. Along its -asphalt track countless motor-cars race at a breakneck speed. Fine -residences have been erected along this avenue, the “art nouveau” styles -of France and Germany being the most popular. The modern houses in the -suburbs of Rio make up in depth what they lack in width, and they have -fine suites of rooms tastefully decorated and furnished with the latest -fashions. The - -[Illustration: “THE SILENT BAY.”] - -extravagantly ornamental frontages evince the Brazilian taste for show -and showy things. The town is very straggling and winding, on account of -the many hills that break into the plateau on which the city stands. But -the vistas and views that the irregularity of the plan introduces are an -ample compensation for the detours round the buttresses of the mountain -range. At the end of the Avenida stands a very graceful white building, -the Monroe Palace, in which the Pan-American Congress was held in 1906, -and a little further down the magnificent Municipal Theatre, modelled -somewhat on the lines of the Paris Opera House. The best companies from -Paris and the Continent find in it a stage and auditorium equal to -anything they have been accustomed to. Unfortunately, the municipal -authorities have not equipped their expensively built Opera Palace with -scenery to match. The stage properties are exceedingly inadequate and -inappropriate for such a theatre, and the companies who sometimes -perform in it. The stage is enormous, and the actors’ dressing and -retiring rooms lofty and well devised. The interior is handsomely -decorated although it is hardly equal to the new theatre in São Paulo, -which is the finest theatre in South America. At the other side of the -Avenida Central stands the new National Library, which contains a -quarter of a million volumes, and next to it the Palace of Fine Arts, -both imposing buildings. In the latter there is plenty of room for more -works of art. There are in the Avenida many handsome buildings and many -styles; the newspaper offices are conspicuous, those of _La Paiz_, _The -Journal do Commercio_, and the _Journal do Brazil_ stand out -prominently from other buildings. The large classic building with -gilded capitals at the northern extremity of this avenue, is the -Treasury, which was built to hold the gold bullion, held as guarantee -against the paper currency of the republic. The “Ouvidor,” which, -although renamed, still goes by its original appellation, is a narrow, -crowded thoroughfare. Its shops are among the best in the city, however, -and the fashionable inhabitants throng its pavements in the afternoons. -It holds much the same position in Rio as the “Florida” does in Buenos -Ayres, although it is not so extensive as the latter. Perhaps the most -striking feature in both of these streets is the enormous prices charged -for their wares. The fashions from Paris find a ready sale in Rio, and -the more daring they are the greater are their chances of success. -Nothing in a French mode would shock a “Fluminense,” but they are very -particular in seeing that their wives and daughters are properly -escorted when they go abroad. A young lady would never dream of walking -or even talking in public to a male friend of the family unless a proper -chaperon were present. The old, almost Oriental, customs of Portugal and -Spain still persist, even in their emancipated colonies. Until women are -treated with more respect and less suspicion they will never have the -influence upon the country that they undoubtedly possess in other -civilised lands. The social functions in Rio are many and varied. During -the winter months of June, July, and August many dances and receptions -are given by the different clubs, such as the “Naval,” “Military,” and -“Engineers,” as well as by the legations and by private persons. These -functions are attended by all the notables, and form the principal -entertainments of the city. Every night the social Brazilian butterflies -of fashion have somewhere to go, and the gatherings are very largely -attended by foreigners and visitors. Birthday parties are really -popular, and at these crushes the host is usually overwhelmed with -embraces and gifts, the latter compensating in some measure for the -trying ordeal of standing for hours receiving speeches and replying to -them. The Brazilian inherits from his Latin ancestors the gifts of a -fluent speaker, and is very ready to give a free play to this talent, -which the slightest occasion will provoke him to display. At the private -theatricals, plays and playlets are generally given in French and -children are pushed forward to show their skill, which - -[Illustration: A SUBURBAN STREET, RIO.] - -is warmly appreciated by their elders. Enthusiastic and unstinted praise -is lavished upon their efforts. Art, literature, music, and the sciences -find many devotees in Brazilian society, and even the driest of lectures -is patiently listened to by large audiences of both sexes. Music they -love, but poetry is their passion. There are few amongst the educated -classes in Rio who do not at some time or other in their lives compose -odes, sonnets, or lyrics, and feel prouder of their poetic achievements -than of any other. Almost every man of the better classes is a Dr., and -foreigners above the rank of labourers and artisans are generally -accepted as possessing this distinction at least. It may be that it is -only politeness and not ignorance that bestows this title upon -strangers, and it should be looked upon as an intended compliment. The -Brazilian is warm-hearted, generous, punctilious in the observances of -the most formal etiquette, and although he can unbend with the freedom -of a schoolboy, care must always be taken not to trespass upon this -characteristic, or to wound his inordinate vanity. Many of them who have -travelled and had the advantages of superior education through -intercourse with the public men and leaders of society of other -countries, have a greater dignity and wider sympathies, and are less -likely to make the mistakes of their less fortunate fellow-countrymen, -who cannot see their limitations or realise their national defects. The -rapid realisation of the wealth of the enormous States of Brazil shows -to most advantage in Rio, for the moneyed classes, governors, and -politicians of all the vast territory forgather in the capital. The -Brazilians are impetuous, and very ready to embark upon great -undertakings, many of which are only practicable in their fervid -imaginations. They have been held back by the long, unprogressive policy -of their mother country Portugal and the severe handicap of slavery. -Even under the Empire small progress was made, considering the size of -their country and the extensiveness of their resources. But since the -establishment of the republic, although there have been many ups and -downs and serious difficulties to encounter, they have contrived to make -great headway. The rejuvenation of Rio in the short space of ten years -is sufficient to demonstrate what can be done by a determined people, -and it is little wonder that when they regard the revolution they have -already wrought, they should let their imaginations run to flights that -make an ordinary mind giddy. The governing classes have a population of -half-breeds to deal with, and bring into line with modern progress, and -with such material it is difficult to rapidly accomplish great things. -The importation of European labour may help them to carry many of their -cherished schemes into effect, but it will take years ere the immense -stretches of unexplored territory are brought to yield to the world one -tittle of their indisputable riches. The practical difficulties that the -republic has to face are many, and the very vastness of its sparsely -populated territory is not the least. The Federal Government and those -of the autonomous States do not always see eye to eye, and the needs and -interests of the outlying States are so diversified that it requires -great governmental wisdom to hold them all together. That the Federal -capital should be the seat of political intrigue is only natural, and -States that are largely settled with colonists from every part of Europe -are faced with the conflicting interests and desires of neighbours with -whom they have little in common. Politics enter largely into the life of -the Federal capital. Ever since the first Brazilian Parliament - -[Illustration: AVENIDA BEIRA-MAR, RIO.] - -met there in 1826, under the Empire of Pedro I, Liberal ideas emanating -from the Parliaments of the world have met with the approval of the best -intellects of the capital. Republican tendencies were fostered by men -whose eyes were turned upon the trend of politics in Europe and the -United States, and the newly forming republics of South America. -Revolutions and revolts occurred in the different States with an -alarming frequency. Wars with neighbouring republics cost the Federal -exchequer many millions, and held back industrial progress. The -emancipation of the slaves was no more popular with the planters and -agriculturists in Brazil than it was with the same classes in the -Southern States of North America, or in the West Indian Islands, and it -took time to bring about such a drastic economic change. The Chamber of -Deputies was formerly the old palace of the Emperor, and stands near the -Caes Pharoux. It is not a pretentious building, nor are the appointments -such as might be expected, but a new Parliament House is projected. The -entrance or antechamber is at the top of an old mahogany staircase, and -the walls are covered with photographs more or less faded of deputies -past and present. An old-fashioned carpet covers the floor of this -landing, which gives entrance to the chamber and to the “Cabinete do -Presidente.” The deputies pass through a small cloak-room to the floor -of the House, a square chamber with seats and benches arranged in a -semicircle. Upon a raised platform facing the deputies sits the -President of the chamber, a brilliant green curtain trimmed with yellow, -the national colours, forming a background. Electric fans whir on either -side. Dark-coloured porters and messengers walk in and out, and seem at -times to outnumber the deputies. Outside in another antechamber, crowds -of citizens wait patiently to interview the deputies on different -subjects, but generally to obtain some favour. The eloquence of the -deputies is their strong point, and the speeches are long, and delivered -with great vehemence. Men of all grades of colour sit cheek by jowl, -very reminiscent of some country court house in a West Indian Island. -The Senate Chamber is situated some distance away on one side of the -beautiful “Praca Republica,” the finest garden in this lovely city. The -palace of the President, formerly the Palacite do Friburgo, stands in a -broad thoroughfare, Rua Cattete, to the north of the city, and although -it has a beautiful garden at the side and back of it, it is not very -imposing. On the balustrade at the top are four stone eagles with -outstretched wings, otherwise the building offers no particular -features. Inside the waiting-rooms are crowded on audience days with -every class of the inhabitants, who patiently wait their turn and -chances to interview the head of the Government. The ancient palace of -Itamarity, where the Minister of Foreign Affairs resides when in Rio, is -modest and unattractive externally, and does not indicate in any way the -magnificence of the interior, admirably fitted for the reception and -entertainment of distinguished diplomats and visitors. It contains a -ballroom decorated with hangings and upholsteries of emerald-green and -gold, a reception-room carried out in yellow, another in rose colour, -whilst a corridor running along the outside of the fine library -overlooks a garden where palms and exotic flowers abound. The late Baron -do Rio Branco had in this palace many and valuable souvenirs of his -travels and illustrious acquaintances, amongst them a large seascape -painted by the unfortunate King Carlos of Portugal, who presented it to -the “Baron.” The Baron de Rio Branco was for many years an idol of the -people of Rio, and enjoyed the reputation amongst them of being a great -authority upon all matters pertaining to foreign affairs. He was perhaps -one of the few men of his time who looked his part to perfection, -bearing a slight physical resemblance to the famous Bismarck. He held -aloof from the internal politics of his country, and for twelve years -held his office in spite of changes of Government and Presidents. His -aloofness from the mob of politicians, whose clamourings and wranglings -he seemed to despise, placed him in a peculiar position, whilst his -efforts to enlarge his country’s dominions and strengthen her army won -him the admiration and gratitude of all classes. He tried to establish a -“German military mission” to Brazil, and although he was unsuccessful, -his advocacy of German instructors for the army may still bear fruit. -That the army and navy of Brazil require to be imbued with a stronger -sense of military duty than they at present possess is amply exemplified -by the many acts of insubordination they have been guilty of in recent -years. - -[Illustration: THE SUGAR-LOAF BY NIGHT, RIO.] - -The notable improvements in the Federal capital were carried out under -President Penna. He was fortunate in having some - -[Illustration: A BIT OF RIO HARBOUR.] - -of the ablest men in Brazil in his ministry, who, with the assistance of -the best engineers and architects in the country, set about the -reconstruction of the city. Dr. Lauro Muller (the present Minister for -Foreign Affairs) was responsible for the general plan of the -improvements, and his scheme was worked out in detail by Dr. Paul de -Frontin, one of the most talented and all-round engineers in the -republic, and at present the General Manager of the Central Railway, the -largest in Brazil. Dr. Frontin has had a career crowded with many -successes, and he still finds time to fill the professional chair of -mechanics and astronomy in the National Gymnasium. He has been -associated with nearly all the big engineering schemes in the republic -of recent years, and has built canals, railways, bridges, waterworks, -and docks, as well as opening out the avenues of the capital, which -necessitated the removal of hills that to many would have been -mountains. He has done much to make the new Rio almost worthy of its -magnificent setting. In Rio the automobile has almost supplanted the -“Tilburies,” those curious, old-fashioned gigs, capable of holding only -one passenger, who sits beside the - -[Illustration: THE GAVEA, RIO.] - -driver, a few specimens of which may still be seen plying for hire. -Electric tramways (called, curiously enough, the “Bond,” by the natives, -who associate them with the bonds that were issued for the capital of -the first companies) run through the winding city and distant suburbs. -These tramways are run by the Rio de Janeiro Light and Power Company, -which owns extensive concessions and properties throughout the State, -including some twenty-two miles of territory on either bank of the -Parahyba River, seventy-five miles distant from the city of Rio, and an -installation fifty miles from the capital, where the Lages River passes -through a narrow ravine about three hundred feet wide, betwixt solid -rock. Here a dam has been constructed, so that the waters above are -formed into a lake fifteen miles long by some seven or eight miles wide. -From this huge reservoir the water is conducted a distance of one and a -half miles through steel tubes to a power-house some thousand feet -below in elevation, providing an enormous power for the generation of -electricity both for motor and lighting purposes in the city. - -The cars run out to the Botanical Gardens, among the most beautiful in -the world, and much favoured by climate. As they are approached tall -palms are seen that mark their boundary near the border of the great -Lake Rodrigo do Frietas, a curious piece of water separated from the -Atlantic by a narrow strip of land over which great billows break during -a storm. The gardens cover two thousand acres. The avenue of royal palms -is half a mile in length, and gives a strongly marked character to these -gardens. Fountains and arbours, rustic bridges and ponds, rivulets and -waterfalls add to the charm of this sylvan spot. At the foot of the hill -grow great clumps of bamboos, whose trembling leaves bend down the -pliant stems till they meet and form an arch overhead. The bases of -these stems have grown to great proportions, and are so close together -that they form an almost solid mass. Narrow shafts of light stream -through the roof of leaves, and pattern the path with many curious -forms. An infinite variety of ferns abound of lovely shades of green and -beautiful design. But for the incessant buzzings of mosquitoes and flies -the spot would be perfect. Lizards dart across the ground and birds flit -twittering through the trees, and in the sparkling sunlight, brilliantly -coloured humming-birds flutter round strange flowers. Butterflies soar -high and so rapidly that they can easily be mistaken for birds. Near by -a small waterfall that makes rippling music stands a tall palm protected -by railings; it is the parent of all the palms in Rio, and sprang from a -seed planted in 1808 by João VI, whose bust stands on a pedestal in -close proximity. - -Another favourite car ride takes one to Tijuca, a suburb situated six -miles distant on a beautifully wooded hill, from which extensive views -of the city and harbour are obtainable. This suburb contains many summer -residences, and abounds with beautiful walks and sylvan paths twining -amidst cascades that sparkle in the sunlight. - -Other suburbs, Copacabana, Ipanema, and Leme, outside the harbour and on -the Atlantic seaboard, are also connected by car routes with the centre -of the city, and are popular holiday resorts. - -[Illustration: THE BOTANICAL GARDENS.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -_Vianna_ - - -Amongst the hundreds of islands in the Bay of Rio, there are two which -have special claims upon the attention of visitors to Rio, as well as on -the gratitude of all good Brazilians. - -Vianna and Santa Cruz are two islands lying in the north-west corner of -the bay, about an hour’s run from the Caes Pharoux, the picturesque -landing-stage and promenade of Rio. The journey across the bay is full -of interest; indeed there is not a nook, corner, or islet of the great -harbour that does not call forth some expression of admiration, -surprise, or pleasure. The surrounding hills are ever changing in -expression, and give a sense of security and protection to the shipping, -large and small, that can never crowd the vast waters. Past the Islas de -Cobras, with its naval barracks perched high up on a rocky base of -grass-grown rock, the town grows smaller and smaller, until its wharves -and buildings are lost in the distant haze. When the island of Vianna is -reached, further surprise is in store for the visitor. Its owner, Senr. -Antonio Lage, is the descendant of a French family, and calls himself a -Brazilian, but he is really a cosmopolitan who can speak perfectly at -least three languages, and who has relationships with distinguished -foreigners in many lands. His life story is a Brazilian romance. His -grandfather bought the island of Vianna in the harbour in 1856, to -obtain the stone to build up warehouses on another island, Enxadas, -which he had acquired in 1836 from the friars, whose convent still -exists upon the island. In the warehouses he built, his son carried on -the business of bonded warehouseman. Owing to the failure of a banking -firm in 1864 the warehouse business was involved, and but for the -intervention of an English house, Stephen Busk and Co., the Lages’ -business must have ceased. - -[Illustration: END OF SANTA CRUZ.] - -Through this assistance they were able to carry on. They rented the -island and kept the business going until 1881. In the following year the -company of Lage Bros. was formed, and they came over to Vianna, their -former quarry, and started operations. That was thirty years ago. At -first the island was used as a coal depot and bonded warehouse, and -although some changes were made, it was not until after the declaration -of the republic that things began to move. The constitution of the -United States of Brazil, in Article 13 of the first title, enacts that -“the rights of legislation on the part of the Union and of the States in -regard to railways and the navigation of inland waters shall be -regulated by Federal enactment” and that “the coastwise trade shall be -carried on in national bottoms only.” Lage Bros, entered into -negotiations with Lamport and Holt, who at that time had a fleet of -coastal steamers running in the Brazils, and purchased their steamers. A -company was formed, which began navigating on a small scale. They -started with four steamers, and when the revolution broke out in 1893 -their fleet had increased to eighteen, two of which were express -steamers, which ran between Rio and Rio Grande de Sul (Port Alegre), -making the journey in forty-eight hours. The new line was hardly -established when the political upheaval in 1893 disturbed all the -commercial activities of the new republic. The first President, General -Deodoro, was driven from power, and great unrest - -[Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH NEAR RIO.] - -prevailed in Rio. The next President, Floriano Peixoto, was in his turn -intrigued against, and the navy fell into the hands of the rebels, and -poor Rio had to endure the ignominy of a six months’ intermittent -bombardment. The Government, in order to prevent fresh sources of -strength falling into the hands of the rebels, ordered one of the Lage -express steamers, which was then lying in dry dock, to be burnt, and -purchased the other for transport purposes. During this trying time the -island of Vianna was not left unmolested by the rebel navy. They had -been accustomed to go to Vianna for repairs, and they knew how well the -warehouses upon it were stocked with stores and provisions for the -coastal service. They were not long in taking possession of it, and were -well set up with all they required to keep them going. The greatest -difficulty the revolutionaries had to contend against was the dearth of -fresh water. They were fortunate in getting possession of the -water-boats, and with - -[Illustration: THE SHORE, SANTA CRUZ.] - -these they stole up the bay, and refilled from the streams that trickle -down from the mountains. They next captured all the Lages’ steamers that -were in the bay, and found on them coal and further stores. In order to -displace the rebels from the island, which was now their base, guns were -taken up the heights of a mountain on the mainland opposite, and a fort -was established, which bombarded Vianna for nearly three months, the -rebels taking refuge behind the hill which stands upon the island. It -was not until the Government succeeded in placing guns upon all the -surrounding heights that the rebels were brought to bay in March, 1894. -Vianna suffered severely during the long struggle, and its owner nearly -as much, for it was not until September of the same year that he got -possession of his wrecked island, and found the machine shops, stores, -and dock smashed to pieces by shot and shell. He started immediately to -repair his loss, and the only compensation he received was the loan of -7000 contas of reis at 7 per cent interest from the Government. For -twelve months business had been at a standstill, and the fleet either in -the hands of the rebels or held up in distant ports, the expense of -paying the crews, port charges, running on all the time. - -[Illustration: SANTA CRUZ.] - -Such was the stormy, troubled sea that the new shipping company had to -weather. That they did so was due to the dogged persistence of Antonio -Lage, whose enterprise and ability have brought about the present -prosperity of the company. The line now possesses nineteen steamers, of -which four carry passengers as well as cargo, eight are cargo boats -only, while seven are new passenger boats of over 3000 tons, with all -the latest improvements, twin screw, freezing chambers, and having a -speed of over twelve knots. They are all fitted with Marconi apparatus, -and the many comforts which passengers travelling upon modern vessels -are accustomed to. Seven more ships of - -[Illustration: SANTA CRUZ.] - -this class are being built to continue the coastal trade right up the -Amazon to Manaos. From 1894 the rebuilding of the destroyed island has -gone steadily on. Each year additions have been made, and the great rock -which covered the larger part has been cut through to form a dry dock. -The material removed was utilised to extend the shore and circumference -of this island, and its contiguous neighbour, Santa Cruz, which Sen. -Lage purchased in 1902. Large and spacious stores have been erected, -with machine shops, bonded warehouses, foundries, boiler-makers’ shop, -electric power station, and shipbuilding yard, houses for the employees, -and all the buildings necessary for a growing shipbuilding and -repairing yard. The island of Santa Cruz is a little paradise, and is -now connected with the industrial Vianna by an imposing bridge. It has -been laid out as a large park, and upon it are beautiful houses which -its owner has built for the members of his family. These houses are in -the American colonial style, luxuriously appointed, and lacking in no -comfort which the furnishing world can supply. From the windows and -balconies magnificent views of the expansive bay are obtained, while the -surrounding grounds are filled with many varieties of exotic shrubs and -trees. Flowers, fruit, and kitchen gardens flourish on Santa Cruz in -ordered beauty, and from every spot upon the island vistas and views of -astonishing loveliness meet the eye. Nature and art combine to make an -entrancing island, unsurpassed by any, even in this silvery bay so -famous for the beauty of its shores. Birds, native and foreign, of many -brilliant hues, flit unmolested through its trees and along its shores; -their confidence in the protecting care lavished upon them holds them to -a spot where they find perfect freedom and plentiful provision for all -their needs. Upon gravelled paths, on lawns of softest green, water and -grain are daily spread for their repast by thoughtful hands. So tame are -many of these birds that they respond to the call of their master’s -voice, and even fly in through the open windows and perch on chairs and -tables. In the early morning the mingled song of myriad songsters -heralds the dawn. In the shade of leafy mango trees the woodpigeon coos -his tender notes. The air is alive with melody. The whir of wings, and -the rustling of the dew-drenched grass as the tame deer bounds along, -vary the sounds. The warm light of the new-risen sun tinges all objects -with the mellowest hues. The greens are softer in the morning light; the -thousand distant isles and hills lie veiled in the melting mists; the -colonial architecture of the dwellings on the island imparts an air of -homely comfort to the scene--an air that most tropical scenery generally -lacks. The trailing and climbing flowers that hang from the balconies -and walls call up thoughts of England. The gardeners who tend with care -the lawns and walks are early astir, and accomplish much of their day’s -work before the sun’s rays gain their full strength. The sound of voices -and the faint echoes of hundreds of busy hammers in the sheds upon the -neighbouring island blend with the music of the birds. Nature, art, and -industry are brought into closest contact upon the twin islets of -Vianna and Santa Cruz. Order, taste, and industry have transformed one -of them from an overgrown, chaotic, mangrove fringed wilderness into an -Eden. A Chinese writer who, centuries ago, in answer to the question -“What is it we seek in the possession of a pleasure garden?” said, “The -art of laying out gardens consists in an endeavour to combine -cheerfulness of aspect, luxuriance of growth, shade, solitude, and -repose, in such a manner that the senses may be deluded by an imitation -of nature. Diversity, which is the main advantage in a judicious choice -of soil, an alternation of chains of hills and valleys, gorges, brooks, -and lakes covered with aquatic plants. Symmetry is wearying, and ennui -and disgust will soon be excited in a garden where every part betrays -contrival art.” Had the writer of these lines seen Santa Cruz as it is -to-day he would have been satisfied that it fulfilled all the -requirements necessary to a perfect garden. - -[Illustration: SANTA CRUZ.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -_Some Excursions from Rio_ - - -The vast territories which amalgamated to form the United States of -Brazil suffer more than anything else from the lack of that railway -communication which has opened up the beauties and resources of the -country immediately surrounding the Federal capital. - -The first railway in Brazil was due to the enterprise of the Viscount de -Maua, and the line was originally named after him, as was the town at -the northern end of the Bay of Rio from which it started. Originally -this line extended only from Maua to the foot of the mountain below -Petropolis, but to-day it passes through that town, and extends far -beyond it, having developed into the vast railway system known as the -Leopoldina. No longer need intending passengers travel by boat across -the extreme length of the bay, for the line from Entroncamento to Maua -is now a mere branch of the main line which, starting from the capital -itself, extends northwards far into the interior. At a distance of about -thirty miles from the terminus in Rio and at an elevation of three -thousand feet above the sea-level but backed by higher hills and -mountains covered with dense woods, stands the picturesquely beautiful -city of Petropolis. Many years ago this place was a mere colony of -agricultural Germans, but its ideal situation marked it out as a summer -resort for the wealthiest Brazilians, and when the capital was ravaged -by continual epidemics of yellow fever it gained in popularity by the -permission granted to the foreign Legations by their home Governments to -take up their residence in this salubrious spot. Ever since for six -months of the year it has been the centre of the social life of the -republic, for society and fashion invariably follow the Diplomatic -Corps. The Emperor built himself a magnificent palace in the place, -setting an example which was speedily followed, until to-day it is a -collection of noble and imposing mansions, surrounded by the most -exquisite gardens and grounds. - -The route to this garden-like mountain city discloses a continual -panorama of tropical scenery, and the profusion of the vegetation on the -mountain slopes is indescribable. As the train climbs the steep -gradients, endless and ever changing prospects meet the eye, and the -comparatively short journey furnishes an excellent idea of the -characteristic scenery of the environs of the finest harbour in the -world. With the improved health conditions in Rio the season in -Petropolis is gradually becoming shorter and shorter, and there is a -probability that the Legations may again take up permanent residence in -the capital, but the mountain city will never fail to attract lovers of -the beautiful. Another important branch of the Leopoldina Railway has -its terminus in the State capital Nictheroy, on the opposite side of the -harbour from Rio. This line branches at Porto das Gaixas into two great -arms, which embrace the whole of the eastern portion of the State, and -connect it with Victoria, the capital of the adjoining State of Espirito -Santo. - -[Illustration: AT THE BACK OF THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS.] - -On one branch of this line is situated the important city of Nova -Friburgo, the oldest immigrant settlement in Brazil; for as far back as -the beginning of the last century this well-chosen spot was colonised by -a party of 1700 Swiss refugees from Fribourg. - -The town stands on the northern slope of the Mar mountain, known as the -Boa Vista, on account of the sweeping view which is obtained from this -point. Although not so elaborate as Petropolis in respect of buildings, -nor so favoured by the aristocratic element, Fribourg has, if anything, -a finer climate, and is blessed with a rich and fertile soil that has -brought it much prosperity. Again the difficulties of the steep ascents -have been overcome by enterprising engineering feats which have linked -up this coffee district with the capital some four thousand feet lower -in level. - -[Illustration: A ROAD AMONGST THE HILLS. PETROPOLIS.] - -Perhaps the most extraordinary enterprise of modern times is that -undertaken by the State of Minas-Geracs in the building of their new -capital of Bello Horizonte. The State of Minas is the greatest mineral -district in Brazil; it has been said of it that “what doesn’t hide gold -contains iron, what doesn’t - -[Illustration: THE SQUARE OF TIRADENTES, OURO PRETO.] - -contain coal spreads diamonds.” The journey through the country, which -is accomplished over the Great Central Railway, is singularly -interesting, and the nights spent in the sleeping cars are pleasantly -cool after the heat of the day. The hilly country is well covered with -trees and watered with rivers, and is admirably adapted for colonies of -European settlers. Gold and diamond mines have already yielded vast -riches, and with the increasing facilities for travelling that the -railway systems are opening up, still greater are in store for the -State. Ouro Preto, the old capital, the famous Villa Rica of former -times, lies on a hill-side at an elevation of one thousand feet above -sea-level. It is a picturesque, rambling old city, with tortuous streets -running down its steep inclines, and many old churches and convents -built in the old colonial style. In striking contrast with the ancient -capital is Bello - -[Illustration: NEAR THE SAN FRANCISCO RIVER.] - -Horizonte, the new one, planned, laid out, and built within the last few -years. The new capital is about a six-hours’ railway journey from Rio, -and is laid out on an ambitious scale on a beautiful site surrounded by -gently rising hills with broad avenues and streets, parks and gardens, -Senate Houses, Government buildings, a splendid presidential palace, a -fine theatre, hospitals, schools, and every possible requirement for a -prosperous and flourishing city. Rows of trees line the broad avenues. -Houses, mostly of one story, await the population that has not yet -arrived to occupy all the vast accommodation that has been provided. -Such is Bello Horizonte, the new capital of Minas-Geraes, a State which -occupies an area of over 220,000 square miles without a seaboard, but -which is perhaps greater in natural wealth than any other State in the -Brazilian Federation. Its development has been marked by all those -characteristics that pertain to the history of countries where the -discovery of the precious metals has attracted adventurous spirits upon -fortune bent. From the earliest days of Portuguese exploration -exaggerated rumours of the fabulous wealth of the interior of the South -American continent have been in circulation, and have stimulated the -organisation of expeditions for the purpose of exploring and -prospecting the high tableland which lies beyond the Serra do Mar. In -one respect the early history of Minas-Geraes resembles that of the -State of São Paulo, inasmuch as it is connected with the story of a -marooned sailor who penetrated to the interior, mated with the daughter -of an Indian chief, and reached high position and power in the tribe. - -[Illustration: ABOVE THE FALLS AT TOMBOS. - -The Carangola River about 4300 miles from Rio.] - -The Indians themselves set little store upon the gold and precious -stones, but finding they were so much prized by their white masters, did -not hesitate to please these latter by painting in most glowing terms -the richness of the country in these treasures. Further, their own -internal feuds prompted them to encourage the expeditions of the -new-comers, the native tribes thinking thereby to regain possession of -territories from which they - -[Illustration: WATERFALL NEAR MATILDE, ON THE LINE TO VICTORIA ESPIRITO -SANTO.] - -had been expelled by enemies, and little realising that they were merely -placing on their necks a fresh yoke, and paving the way to occupation of -their country by white invaders. One of the earliest organised -expeditions was that in 1674, under the leadership of Fernão Dias, who -had been rewarded in advance by the Portuguese Government by being -created Governor of a district which he was still to discover. Dias, of -Portuguese extraction and noble birth, had already distinguished himself -by conquering and subjecting as his slaves the Goianás, one of the most -powerful of the Indian tribes. Feared but not disliked by his slaves, he -could always command a large following, and set out from Taubaté with a -considerable army, crossing the Mantiqueira and establishing at Serra -Negra the first regular settlement in the territory, which was -afterwards to be known as Minas-Geraes. A second settlement was founded -at St. Anna; and pushing still further, in spite of difficulties and -dangers, this intrepid leader reached St. João do Sumidouro, which -became the central point for future operations. For three years he held -his own against opposition and intrigue, prospecting the region of Rio -das Vellias, where he ultimately succumbed to fever. But it was with the -discovery of gold at Ribeirãs Carmo and Ouro Preto that the real -development of the State commenced, and by the year 1700 a large number -of mines, the property of their discoverers, were in working order. The -system of - -[Illustration: THE RAPIDS AT PIRAPORA, ON SAN FRANCISCO RIVER.] - -mine-owning was now changed to that of claims, the objecting Paulistas -being promised that they should lose nothing by the change, and entrance -to the territory by way of Bahia was interdicted. This, however, only -led to the opening up of the new road from the coast by way of Espirito -Santo, and five years later the futile prohibition was withdrawn. By -this time the wealth of the territory had become known, and large -numbers of all classes, old and young, rich and poor, flocked in from -all parts of Brazil and from lands beyond the seas. Miners and their -following have never been a class easily governed, and the arrogant -claims of the Paulistas were resented by the rest of the community, who -united in opposing them, and thus commenced the welding together of the -elements which have gone to make up the population of the State as one -finds it to-day. But it was long ere anything like civilised order was -established, for the cruelty of the white taskmasters towards the -natives and the negroes imported from Africa led continually to bitter -feelings of unrest and revolt, whilst the ruling classes, unrestrained -by a licentious and unruly priesthood, were themselves demoralised and -dissolute, and stern, almost tyrannical, measures were necessary before - -[Illustration: OLD HOUSES, BAHIA.] - -the foundations of government were laid. Much of the State is still -unknown save to the wild Indians who roam its forests, but it is -gradually being opened up. In addition to the mining industry, which has -been carried on for over two hundred years, Minas does a considerable -trade in cattle, coffee, tobacco, and other agricultural products. The -dairy industry has recently become prominent, and offers a good field -for the investment of capital and experience, whilst a fresh source of -wealth exists in the manganese discovered in the State when a cutting -was being made for the Central Railway. This latter is not only the -means of direct communication with the Federal capital, but is pushing -out its branches and extensions in all directions. Known originally as -the Dom Pedro II Railway, this line is now a Government concern, and -aims at bringing all the States of the Union into direct communication -with the capital, linking up with other lines, and taking advantage of -river transit until inland connection shall be established even with the -Amazon, the greatest waterway in the world. - -If the traveller wishes for a more ambitious excursion, it will be quite -easy for him to voyage northwards towards Atlantic seaboard cities -almost as fair as Rio itself. But the selection of the steamship line is -of the greatest importance. The two lines to be recommended are the -Royal Mail Steamship Co. and the Lage Iramos, either of which is -preferable to the national line, Lloyd Brazileiro. The traveller will -find in Bahia or San Salvador a city of glamour and enchantment. It was -one of the earliest European settlements in Brazil, and it had for a -long time a chequered and turbulent history, what with Indian ravages -and the desperate conflicts between the Portuguese and the Dutch. But -to-day its lines are cast in more peaceful places; its inhabitants have -grown to 250,000, who, taking advantage of the lavish way in which -Nature yields her treasures in this district, seem quite contented and -prosperous. The city consists of an upper and a lower town, the former -of which is built on the cliffs. Here are the Governor’s palace, the -Senate building, the Public Library, and the cathedral. The last-named -edifice is one of the oldest buildings in South America, having been -founded as a Jesuit college away back in the sixteenth century. Its -interior, like the interior of all the other Bahian churches, is full of -florid embellishment, and exhibits the tendency of the Latin-American -people towards flamboyant expression in their architecture. Bahia is not -only one of the most picturesque of all the cities of Brazil; it is the -sea-gate of a large and fertile province, where the kindly fruits of the -earth grow and ripen with tropical rapidity. The palms of the district -yield a special form of nut, which is exported to the east. Tobacco is a -flourishing crop, and coffee cultivation an industry of prime -importance. Cotton is grown over an extensive area, and not all of it is -exported, for Bahia has many mills of its own. The State is also a great -producer of rubber, while the cultivation of cocoa increases year by -year. Cattle-raising forms yet another occupation of the Bahians. The -transport facilities are also good; several railway systems connect the -city with the producing districts, and fleets of coastwise vessels make -other ports on the Brazilian seaboard quite easy of access. A brisk -export trade is transacted with foreign countries, one of the best of -Bahia’s customers being the United Kingdom. - -[Illustration: THE BARAS DE AQUINO. - -The curious winding track of the Leopoldina Railway.] - -Further up the coast lies Pernambuco, and this likewise will be found a -most desirable halting-place. It is a conglomeration of four towns, -Recife, the commercial quarter, Santo Antonio, which contains the -Government offices; San José, where the public works and railway -stations are situated; and Boa Vista, the fashionable residential -quarter. The several townships are connected by handsome bridges, a -feature which gives Pernambuco a distinct character of its own, and has -earned for it the sobriquet of the “Brazilian Venice”; a coral reef -about five hundred feet from the shore runs along the entire front of -the city, and forms a natural protection to the magnificent harbour. -This reef marches with the coast from Bahia to Maranhão, a distance of -nearly a thousand miles. - -[Illustration: THE RAILWAY OVER THE CONFLUENCE OF THE PAQUEQUR AND -PARAHYBA RIVERS.] - -One is charmed with the aspect of Pernambuco long before one sets foot -upon its quay. The palm groves and the red roofs of the houses compose -into a really charming picture. The population of the city verges upon -two hundred thousand. Its docks are spacious and well managed, and its -importance as a commercial centre is demonstrated by the fact that no -fewer than ten cable lines link it up with the great outer world. -Several railways, of which the most important are the Great Western of -Brazil, the Recife and San Francisco, and the Alagoas, connect it with -the interior, and bring down to the port supplies of sugar, cotton, -rice, tobacco, indigo, cinnamon, pineapples, grapes, oranges, bananas, -and other commodities. The shippers of Pernambuco are favourably placed -for despatching their merchandise to its destination, for the port -occupies a point on the American seaboard nearer to Europe than any -other. - -If the traveller still pines for new worlds to conquer, the Lage Iramos -steamers will take him to the mouth of the mighty Amazon, known to every -schoolboy as the largest river in the world, and destined to become more -and more the great outlet for the trade of Brazil. The great estuary of -that stream is like a huge inland sea debouching into the ocean, for it -is not only the waters of the Amazon that are there discharged, but the -effluents of a dozen tributaries, many of them larger than any river -that Europe can boast. The trip up to Manáos, many miles inland, will be -more than sufficient to impress the voyager with the magnitude and -majesty of this noble stream. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -_São Paulo_ - - -Unlike most of the State capitals of Brazil, São Paulo lies some -distance inland, but in close touch with its port Santos, some -thirty-five miles distant. Many passengers travelling by the Royal Mail -steamers bound for the Argentine, disembark at Rio and take the train -from the Central Railway Station across country to São Paulo, rejoining -their steamer at Santos. This variation is not only a pleasant break in -the voyage, but affords the opportunity for viewing the most thriving -and prosperous city in South America. - -The journey by rail from Rio to São Paulo occupies about twelve hours in -a sleeping or observation car, equalling if not excelling anything of -the kind in Europe. The separate two-berth cabins provided with electric -light and fans will be appreciated by the most experienced railway -travellers accustomed to the latest improvements in the way of comfort. - -The first part of the journey is through a hilly country, with immense -woods and thick undergrowth of tropical vegetation, covering the earth -as with a vivid green mantle as far as the eye can reach. Numbers of -curious trees with fantastically twisted stems reaching to a height of -100 to 150 feet tower above the dense masses of tangled foliage, tall -palms of many varieties with fan-shaped leaves, and straight smooth -trunks, grow side by side with dwarfed bushy shrubs, over which great -banana leaves bend with their own weight, whilst magnificent flowers and -orchids of brilliant colour peep out from the dark recesses of the -woods, sparkling like jewels in a mass of lovely hair. - -As São Paulo is neared, the tropical luxuriance fades, and nature’s wild -and prolific garden is replaced by the ordered arrangements of man’s -industry, for this State is the best farmed as well as the most thickly -populated in all Brazil. Its staple industry produces at least one half -of all the coffee consumed in the world to-day, besides which its people -gather large harvests of sugar, cotton, grapes, tobacco, and several -kinds of cereals, principally rice and wheat. - -This agricultural prosperity is due to several causes: a kindly climate, -a regular rainfall, a natural system of irrigation, and an increasingly -industrious population from all parts of Europe. - -The workers in this State pursue their occupations amidst the fairest -surroundings, and in an environment well calculated to induce happiness -and contentment. The air is clear, the climate mild, the sun shines -brightly, the scenery is varied and cheerful, whilst the social element -so necessary to civilised beings is full of charming diversity. - -The capital of the State takes second place amongst the cities of -Brazil, and like the Federal capital has in recent years undergone many -changes. Much of it has been already rebuilt, and more is undergoing -alteration. New buildings, imposing and exhibiting the latest styles of -architecture, have largely replaced the old Portuguese colonial houses -which, although solid, were rather lugubrious and forbidding. - -The replanning of the city has the enthusiastic support of all the -inhabitants, and not a few of the more prosperous citizens have evinced -a public-spirited generosity in their contributions to the beautifying -of their city. The work that has already been done, and that still going -on, is worthy of the magnificent site which the city occupies between -two great mountain ranges, the Serra do Mar and the Mantiqueira, the -peaks of the latter rising from 2000 to 2500 feet above the level of the -sea. Two rivers take their rise in these hills, the Paranapanema which -flows in a westerly direction and forms the boundary between Parana and -São Paulo States, and the Tieté which in a north-westerly direction -flows right through the latter State. Both these large rivers are but -tributaries of the Parana, the great waterway of the interior of the -continent. - -The State extends over an area of more than 112,000 square miles, and -its climate varies in the different zones, which have strongly marked -and differing characteristics. - -The low-lying lands which border on the coast at the foot of the eastern -Serra are marshy swamps, a region of damp heat uncongenial to man but -excellent for the cultivation of rice. The humid, steamy air of the -littoral is in strong contrast to the agreeable conditions on the -plateau upon which the capital stands. The intermediate region of the -Serra do Mar is covered with dense vegetation, subject to heavy rains, -whilst mists continually envelop the hills, and the sun shines but -seldom through the thick vapours. Frost and hail are not uncommon on the -Serra, and even snow is not unknown. - -[Illustration: THE ROAD TO SÃO PAULO FROM RIO.] - -But it is the plateau between the Serra and the Parana that possesses -the most favourable climate, for although the temperature varies -slightly it is always agreeable and pleasant, being neither too hot nor -too cold. This plateau is perhaps the most fertile and productive in the -great continent, which abounds with favoured regions, and its great -prosperity gives some indication of its popularity with European -settlers. - -The early history of the State of São Paulo has a romance running -through its pages which can never cease to be of interest, and the -beginnings of its prosperity are traceable to the friendly relationships -established in the beginning of the sixteenth century between a -shipwrecked Portuguese sailor, João Ramalho, and Tybiricá, the chief of -the Guayanás, a tribe who dominated the country. - -Ramalho married the chief’s daughter, and this alliance cemented a -friendship with the chief and his tribe, over which the castaway soon -acquired so great an influence that when Martin Affonso arrived at the -head of an expedition he met with a friendly welcome. For his good -offices Ramalho was rewarded by the Portuguese Crown with a grant of the -lands which he and the tribe were occupying, the new-comers establishing -a settlement at St. Vincente, near Santos, and erecting a fort on the -island of St. Amaro at the entrance to the bay. From the union between -the Portuguese settlers and the Guayanás there sprang the race of -half-breeds known first as Mamelucos and later as Paulistas, a race that -accomplished much in the exploration and development of various parts of -Brazil. - -The village of St. Andre, where Ramalho and his father-in-law Tybiricá -lived, rapidly grew until in 1533 it was raised to the position of a -town, and these two settlements of St. Vincente and St. Andre were the -forerunners of the cities of Santos and São Paulo which afterwards arose -upon adjacent sites. - -The Jesuits, who arrived upon the scene in 1554, proved an important -factor in suppressing the invasions of savage tribes who threatened the -little colonies from time to time, and in organising the settlements by -the construction of a road connecting that at the coast with the mission -station which they established at São Paulo. This mission station grew -in power and importance until finally it usurped the position of St. -Andre, which was destroyed at the instigation of the priests. - -The history of the two succeeding centuries is filled with the contests -between the lay Paulistas and the Jesuits, their methods being in -constant opposition, for whilst the former desired native labour to -cultivate their lands and work their industries, they found that the -missions absorbed most if not all of the available natives. These were -gathered under the protection of the missions upon the communistic plan -so successfully practised under the Jesuits in other parts of the -continent, the natives meeting with fair and considerate treatment, -although practically reduced to the position of slaves working for the -common good. The laymen sought to bring the natives into the condition -of slaves for their own personal interest, and to treat them as property -to be used for their own aggrandisement, and professed to see little or -no difference in their doing individualistically what the Church did -communistically. - -The association of the whites and their half-Indian progeny with the -pure native Indians was also the cause of much dissension, and led to -numbers of the latter withdrawing from the settlements and forming new -ones antagonistic to the invaders. In all the quarrels Tybiricá stood -loyally by his son-in-law’s fellow-countrymen, and even fought against -his own brother when the latter led an attack upon São Paulo. - -[Illustration: THE APPROACH TO SANTOS.] - -As the Mamelucos grew in numbers their demands for native labour -increased, and its monopoly by the Jesuits came to be a grievance which -the laymen determined to redress. Raids upon the Indians of the interior -were consequently organised, and the adventurous Paulistas did not -hesitate to risk their lives in the pursuit of tribes as far as the -borders of Bolivia after the nearer districts had been cleared of -natives, and in these expeditions even the mission settlements of the -Guayaná were not spared. Immense numbers of natives were captured and -brought down to the markets of São Paulo for sale, many of them being -purchased to supply the demands of neighbouring States. - -As this slave hunting went on unrestrained, the Jesuits removed their -missions further west to escape the attentions of their enemies; but in -1641 a large party of the Paulistas invaded the Paraguayan missions and -bore away many natives as captives. These Paulistas had become -adventurous, and hardy, past belief, and were the most energetic race in -the whole continent, opening up much of the country in the course of -their expeditions--discovering diamonds in Minas, gold in Maranhão, and -laying the foundations of towns and villages wherever they went. - -When the emancipation of the Indian (not the negro) slaves was decreed -in 1758, the energies of this indefatigable people, checked in one -direction, were turned towards exploration for a period, and it was not -until the beginning of the nineteenth century, when their country was -opened up to the trade of the world, that they found fresh and congenial -outlets for their enterprise. - -During the whole of the last century immigration has flowed steadily -into the country, and its abundant agricultural wealth has been -developed with a steady persistence. The virile peoples from the Old -World, who have flocked into the State, have been rapidly absorbed by -the Paulistas, and a conglomerate race, made up of many elements, now -populates the country. The energy of the Paulista resembles that of the -American of the United States, and the activity in the city of São Paulo -is remarked by all who have compared it with Rio and other towns in -different parts of Brazil. - - * * * * * - -The city of São Paulo is full of pleasant surprises. Its three principal -streets, the Rua São Bento, Rua Quinze de Novembro, and Rua Direita, -form a triangle in the busiest part of the city, and are narrow, crowded -thoroughfares, the electric cars taking up the principal part of the -roadways, which in business hours become so congested that progress is -very slow, both for pedestrians and vehicular traffic. - -Many of the shops are fine, and contain a goodly display of wares, but -prices are high. Their harvest season is somewhat restricted, owing to -the large number of feast days or holidays throughout the year, in -addition to the Sundays, upon which - -[Illustration: GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS IN THE LARGO DE PALACIO.] - -the bulk of the shops are closed. In the case of tobacconists Sunday -closing is rigorously enforced, and the multitude of smokers have to lay -in their supplies for the week-end. It is on a Sunday or a festa day -that the crowds in the street are most interesting, for then the folk -come out in their gala clothes on pleasure and amusement bent. There is -no uniformity whatever in the costumes worn by either sex. Bare-headed -women wearing fur boas, men wearing overcoats, others clad in white -drill suits and straw hats or black felt head-gear, parade the streets -in an ever changing stream. The car conductors, in grey uniforms with -gold facings, are kept busy attending to the human freights, whilst -policemen, in black with red facings, direct the traffic with small, -white batons, as in Paris. Lottery ticket vendors yell their wares in -competition with purveyors of sweets, cakes, and pastries, whose yellow -delicacies tempt the flies and children who swarm around, the former -brushed off with large feather brushes, the latter encouraged by glowing -entreaties. Everything looks new here, even traditions and customs from -the Old World seeming to undergo a change. In the crowds at the street -corners the men are mostly garbed in black, but the women affect all the -colours of the rainbow. - -White dresses predominate, but blues, magentas, yellows, pinks, greens, -and faded vermilions are freely admixed, varied with yellow and red -kerchiefs and purple shawls. Here a group of four or five mules ridden -by bare-footed countrymen in blue trousers, there shaggy yellow ponies, -sun-faded and mud-stained, brush through and rub against the -holiday-making crowd. Yonder, on the steps leading up to the gardens, -sits an Italian, munching his midday meal of bread, cheese, and olives. -In these gardens, in front of the President’s palace, are many curious -and beautiful trees, amongst them two stately oaks with the freshest of -green leaves, soft and delicate, as in early summer. - -The palms and ferns, cut and cropped into fantastic shapes, mingle with -the cactus, which needs no such attention. In the shady bowers are -welcome resting-places, where the wearied sit in the patches of sunlight -that splash warm upon them through the branches, reading the papers in -French, Italian, and Portuguese, smoking eternally, conversing -frequently, and moving but seldom. Flower-sellers move here and there, -offering tempting bunches of the loveliest pansies, violets, and roses, -and add colour to the scene. The singing of birds, the tinkling of the -car bells, the hum of voices, the strident cries of the hawkers, all -mingle on the sunny Sunday morn, and a happier-looking city and people -it would be difficult to imagine. - -A favourite jaunt with the Sunday or holiday crowd--Italians, negroes, -Portuguese, Germans, Paulistas, and English--is a run on the car from -the Largo do Sé to the gardens and museum at Ypiranga. The journey -occupies about half an hour, and the route runs through the Square of -15th September, along the Rua do Gloria, with its small one-story -houses, past the abattoir, through boulevards planted on either side -with trees, to the suburbs, where building is going on in all -directions, the workmen busy at their jobs, although it is Sunday. -Outside the town are market gardens and fields with green grass and -rich, red soil, firs and pines on all sides, cattle browsing in the -meadowland, rose-covered villas and factories springing up amidst the -green fields. - -Most of the occupants of the cars descend at the gardens of the -Ypiranga, in the grounds of which are wide walks, raised terraces, lined -with cypress trees, and well laid out beds of flowers and shrubs of all -varieties. - -The museum is built upon the spot where the independence of Brazil was -proclaimed in 1822 by the Prince Dom Pedro, who, on learning of the -refusal of the Cortes at Lisbon to listen respectfully to the Brazilian -delegates, impetuously gave utterance to the famous cry, “Independence -or Death!” and was shortly afterwards proclaimed constitutional Emperor -of Brazil. - -[Illustration: THE NATIONAL MUSEUM AT YPIRANGA.] - -The museum, erected as a monument to commemorate this historic event, is -a well-designed and imposing building, containing fine staircases and -lofty galleries, in one of which is a huge picture illustrating the -“Independencia ou Morto” incident. - -The galleries are filled with collections of various objects of natural -and historical interest such as butterflies and birds, wasps and bees, -with their curious nests, old leather-covered furniture, sedan chairs, -cupboards, fourposter beds, and chests of the colonial period. - -Amongst the many curious and instructive objects gathered together are -pottery from all parts of the continent, including Colombian, Peruvian, -and Mexican; stuffed fish, weird in shape and marvellous in variety, -taken from the rivers; lizards, chameleons, turtles, alligators, and -snakes. Here, too, are specimens of the feathers and ornaments worn by -the savage Indian tribes of the State of São Paulo, head-dresses of -yellow feathers, necklaces of human teeth, collars of green parrot -feathers and beetles’ wings, and of beadwork mixed with feathers. - -The instruments, warlike and peaceful, of the native tribes are also -well represented, such as clubs, bows and arrows, stone hammers, -baskets, crudely made straw hats, a curious fire-making appliance -consisting of spindle revolving in a disc; native panpipes, calabashes, -and mats. - -Amongst the stuffed animals are such curiosities or freaks as a calf -with only two legs, and another with two heads. - -The Paulistas, imbued with the spirit of freedom, have bestowed upon -many of their streets and squares the names of patriots and public -benefactors, as witness the Avenue Tiradentes, which perpetuates the -name and fame of one of the ardent spirits of the eighteenth century, -who ever strove to rouse the nation to throw off the yoke of Portugal. - -Tiradentes, although not the leader of the conspiracy which failed, -nevertheless was a martyr to the cause and was beheaded, drawn, and -quartered, his head exposed to the public gaze in Ouro Preto, and his -house there burned to the ground. He was the first republican to shed -his blood in the cause of Brazilian independence, but not till a century -after his death was the aim accomplished. - -Throughout the city such names as Avenida Rangel Pestana and Rua -Visconda do Rio Branco testify to the esteem in which the inhabitants -hold their public men. - -In striking contrast to the narrower streets is the Viaducto Clia, a -broad avenue that leads to the new part of the city where everything is -on a magnificent scale, with squares and avenues of which any city might -well be proud. The valley which separates the old city from the new was -undergoing great alterations during my visit, vast business palaces -springing up on this beautiful - -[Illustration: THE THEATRE OF S. PAULO.] - -site. Overlooking this valley, which is being laid out tastefully as a -public garden, stands the Municipal Theatre, one of the finest buildings -in the country, built at a cost of nearly half a million sterling. It is -a fine monument to the wisdom, skill, and taste of its projectors, -engineers, and architects, and from its commanding position compares -more than favourably with its rival in Rio. The interior is elaborately -decorated. Marble staircases, handsome balustrades, gilded columns, -white and gold walls, and frescoed ceilings all enrich the imposing -vestibule. The foyer is a spacious apartment, seen at its best when a -dance is going forward. It was my good fortune to be present at a ball -given by its inhabitants in honour of its architect, Dr. Ramos de -Azevedo, and Señor Antonio Prado, who was Mayor of the city when the -theatre was commenced. Exquisite floral decorations were lavished upon -the staircase, corridors, and ballrooms, thousands of electric lamps -being dotted everywhere amidst the flowers. - -The brilliance of the ladies’ costumes set off with sparkling diamonds -gave an added animation to a scene which equalled if it did not surpass -the grand functions in Rio, where one is used to costly and elaborate -displays. - -The Largo do Palacio is a pleasing square which overlooks a great -stretch of the surrounding country, and is formed by the President’s -Palace and the administration buildings of Justice, Agriculture, and -Finance, an imposing and quiet retreat on the margin of the busiest part -of the city. But São Paulo is rich in fine buildings, schools, technical -colleges, and institutes testifying to the educational facilities -afforded to all classes of the community. Hospitals and asylums evince -care for the sick and mentally afflicted. Government enterprise in the -erection of these buildings has been ably seconded by private -munificence, and the Escola de Commerco Alvares Penteado is a good -example of the public spirit displayed by the citizens. This fine -building, presented to the town by the Condé de Penteado, occupies the -whole side of one of its squares, and its good and pleasant proportions -are in the style associated with the latest architectural movements on -the continent of Europe. The Condé has done much to embellish the city, -and his private residence, the Villa Penteado, in the suburb of -Hygienopolis, is one of the most notable of the hundreds of luxurious -mansions that adorn the surrounding avenues. - -This villa is in reality a palace quite in harmony with the progress of -the city. The design reflects modernity of taste down to its minutest -details, and the happy use that has been made of native woods in the -internal decorations and fittings is truly ingenious. Its owner, a -notable figure in São Paulo, has had much to do with the cultivation of -coffee, for, inheriting estates of growing importance, he was not -content to remain a “fazendero,” but entered into the field of industry -with all the keenness characteristic of the Paulistas, and inaugurated -one of the largest jute mills in Brazil. His son, the Condé Sylvia, -follows close in his father’s footsteps, being a thorough believer in -the Gospel of Work, and presents the rare spectacle of a young man of -fortune energetically forcing his way to the front as a captain of -industry. - -[Illustration: THE PENTEADO TECHNICAL COLLEGE.] - -The Paulistas have built and developed so many fine buildings and -institutions that there can be no doubt of their ability to give fitting -expression to their high ideals, whilst numerous beautiful residences -give ample evidence of their good taste, and would attract attention in -almost any city in the world. - -The Minister of Justice, Dr. Washington Luiz, has control of a -department of the State which is of the greatest importance to the -community. All vehicles, cars, carts, carriages, and wagons are licensed -under this department, and an efficient method of inspection is in -operation. Similarly porters, newsvendors, sellers of lottery tickets, -chauffeurs, and hawkers are all obliged to take out licences - -[Illustration: THE VILLA PENTEADO.] - -that are registered in the card catalogues of the department. The system -of identification cards, with photographs and fingerprints of the -owners, has been brought to a high state of perfection. All known -criminals are filed for reference in a separate register from that which -is kept for ordinary civilians who for purposes of travel desire to -possess a proper certificate of identification. Another card catalogue -kept up to date contains full particulars of all houses of business -occupied only during the daytime, and the private addresses where the -owners can be communicated with at once in the event of fire, burglary, -or other unusual occurrence. To aid the police a most wonderful -telephonic system has been installed throughout the city and suburbs, so -that every constable on beat can always put himself in communication -with headquarters should need arise. The street call stations are -attached to posts provided with alarum bells for use by day and electric -lamps that can be switched on at night, in order to call the attention -of the patrol and bring him to the receiver, which is enclosed in a -small box. Keys are provided throughout the force which fit these boxes, -so that whilst the instrument cannot be tampered with every police -officer has access to it, and outlying patrols can summon aid from -headquarters, or in turn be hailed whenever necessary. A tape machine at -headquarters automatically registers all calls that take place, noting -the minute, hour, and date by a series of punctures, thus keeping the -record and identification of calls from the various stations. - -Motor ambulances, prison vans, and fire-engines can be brought at the -shortest possible notice to any part of the town and district within a -mile radius, and the equipment of all the “public assistance” motor -vehicles is most efficient and up to date. The very latest models of -motor-drawn fire-engines, escapes, and wagonettes are held in readiness -at the fire-stations, all of which are in telephonic communication with -hundreds of call offices throughout the city; indeed, a finer system has -not been installed in any town of importance. Great attention is paid to -fire drill, a dummy wooden house of four stories being used at the -central station for the men to practise upon. - -The army of the State, officered and drilled by a French mission, is, -although small, one of the most efficient in the Union. The military -bearing of the men when on parade and their workmanlike evolutions in -camp and field compare more than favourably with those of the Federal -troops themselves. In the early morning companies in their canvas -working garb may be seen busy at drill in the fields around the city, -and the officers are justly proud of their men’s accomplishments. The -barracks or caserne is a large and commodious range of buildings, with -stabling attached for the mules and horses, a veterinary hospital, -fitting and repairing shops, riding school, fencing rooms, and -gymnasium, all kept up to a high standard, and but for the language -spoken by the men the visitor might easily imagine himself in the -“caserne” of a French town. - -The duty of preserving order devolves upon a police force which is -drilled upon the military system, which apparently well fits them for -the carrying out of their civil duties, and few cities in South America -can boast of public servants who are better trained or who exhibit as -much _esprit de corps_ as the soldiers, police, and firemen of São -Paulo. - -Another State department deserving of the highest praise is that of -agriculture, presided over by Dr. Padua Salles, a man of exceptional -ability and delightful personality, who has done much to enlarge the -influence and usefulness of the department under his charge. - -[Illustration: OFFICERS OF THE SÃO PAULO ARMY.] - -Under his direction the principal interest of the country, its -agricultural development, is well fostered and cared for. Much has been -accomplished in the exploration and development of the vast hinterland, -which it will take time and patience to cover fully. Maps and statistics -of the rivers Tieté, Ribeira de Iguape, Juqueryquerê, Feio, and -Aguapehy, have been drawn, compiled, and published by the -Commissao-Geographica E Geologica, and a splendid reference library and -publication department are at the free disposal of all desiring the -fullest information regarding the State and the opportunities it offers -to the investor. Its climate is inviting to Europeans, and is especially -popular with Italians, who flock thither in large numbers, and have -every provision made for their reception and encouragement. Hotels are -provided for the accommodation of immigrants until they have chosen -their location and settled therein. Schools and colleges for technical -and agricultural instruction abound. The Agricultural College at -Piracicaba, about 150 miles north-west of São Paulo, is one of the best -equipped of its kind; whilst the Fazenda Modelo, or model farm, covers -an area of 800 acres, upon which almost every useful and profitable crop -is grown with splendid results. - -[Illustration: A WATERFALL NEAR SÃO PAULO.] - -Besides the staple product, coffee, São Paulo produces plentiful crops -of corn, rice, beans, sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco, whilst manioc, or -cassava, Irish and sweet potatoes, arrowroot, oats, and field peas are -largely cultivated. Coffee however, is almost the only agricultural -product exported from the State, for the others barely supply the home -demand. Of the industries dependent upon the produce of the country -mention must be made of the distillation of “aguardiente,” or cane -whisky, and the manufacture of sugar, a number of factories existing for -the production of these commodities, as well as for cotton-weaving, the -supplying of rectified spirits from corn, and the utilising of textile -fibres in the making of bags, carpeting, and twine. Grape-growing has -been started and experiments made to ascertain the variety of grape -likely to yield the best result, and a vine has been produced specially -adapted for the prevailing climatic conditions and which resists all -vine diseases. - -[Illustration: THE WHARVES OF SANTOS.] - -São Paulo is especially fortunate in possessing in the waterfalls on its -rivers an abundant supply of power for the generating of electricity -wherewith to drive machinery, propel tramcars, and illuminate houses, -shops, factories, and streets, and this should prove a most potent -factor in the growing development of the State. - -When it is remembered that the most productive part of the State is -situated more than a hundred miles from the sea and, moreover, upon a -plateau or tableland which is from 1800 to 3000 feet above sea-level, -some conception can be formed - -[Illustration: THE DOCKS OF SANTOS.] - -of the difficulties which had to be overcome in connection with the -transport of produce for export from the port of Santos. These -difficulties have, however, been successfully overcome by the São Paulo -Railway, one of the most extraordinary in the world. It connects the -port of Santos with the town of Jundiahi, one hundred miles inland, and -the capital city São Paulo lies about midway between the termini. In -making the ascent of the Serro do Mar such steep gradients are -accomplished that a climb of 2600 feet is achieved within a distance of -five miles. This is effected by means of wire ropes wound upon -stationary engines, which pull the trains up and down over a distance of -six miles through extremely beautiful scenery. Over this short line -passes all the immense export of coffee and other produce which leaves -the State through its port of Santos. This port was, not longer than -twenty-five years ago, one of the worst in the world with regard to that -terrible scourge yellow fever, and shipowners dreaded to send their -vessels thither to have their crews oftentimes entirely carried off and -the ships delayed for months at a time, unable to obtain hands to man -them. But all that has passed away, thanks largely to the improvements -carried out by Gaffrée Guinle and Co., now the Santos Docks Company. -Although low-lying and steamy, Santos is to-day quite a healthy city of -some 30,000 inhabitants, and the largest coffee emporium in the world. -Situated in a fine harbour, its wharf front extends for nearly three -miles, and is provided with hydraulic and other machinery for -manipulating the freights of the ocean liners that lie alongside. The -city to-day has spread itself across wide, flat land at the foot of the -hills, and is well provided in the matter of water supply and -sanitation, whilst its broad, straight streets are well paved and -electrically lit. It is well furnished, too, in respect of schools and -institutions, churches, consulates, libraries, and clubs, and is, -moreover, in complete telegraphic communication with the interior of the -State and the rest of the world. After a stay in the State of São Paulo, -sufficiently prolonged to permit of an acquaintance with the industry -and enterprise of its citizens, the delightfulness of its climate, the -abundant fertility of its soil, and the beauty of its scenery, one sails -from the port of Santos with a feeling of regret at leaving so fair a -clime, and with a conviction that its prosperity will yet enhance and -carry it to a high position amongst the states of the world. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -_A Source of Light and Power_ - - -São Paulo is rich in the possession of an abnormal number of waterfalls -and rapids--in fact for its size it is in this respect the richest state -in the world. Much of the power that flows over these rapids has already -been utilised and does an enormous amount of work, and more is destined -in the future to be harnessed to supply the increasing demands of -industry. Rivers and streams rise in the great Serro do Mar, and flow -over a hilly country, encountering so many changes of level that -innumerable falls and rapids are the result. One of these rivers, the -Tieté, which rises in the hills not far from Santos, flows in a -north-westerly direction till it joins the Parana. There are many falls -in this river, sometimes situated so close together that in the course -of half a mile several may be counted. At one fall near the little -country village of Parnahyba, about twenty-two miles as the crow flies -from the capital, a power station has been erected, and at it sufficient -electric power is generated to run the extensive tramway and lighting -systems of the whole city. The plant belongs to the São Paulo Light and -Power Company--one of the largest business concerns in South America. -The Sorocabana Railway runs along the green banks of the river from São -Paulo, and passes a little wayside station called Baruery. Here all the -material and supplies for the power station are unloaded, and all life -that centres round the station is connected in some way with the Light -and Power Company. Goats, fowls, and children run wild round the trains -when they come to a standstill in the little station, although there are -but few habitations to give indications of a settlement. A long drive -over undulating dull red roads that wind round hills and alongside the -river brings the visitor to the power station, which is built in the -dry bed of the diverted river. Upon a beautifully wooded hill stands the -manager’s house, overlooking hills and valleys of rare beauty. - -The power house stands below a reservoir, which is connected by three -enormous iron pipes with the dam 2200 feet higher up the river. Two of -these pipes are twelve feet in diameter, the remaining one fifteen feet, -and through them the water rushes to feed the reservoir immediately -above the station. Short, thick pipes lead the water into the seven -large turbine generators which together develop over thirty thousand -horse-power. The current generated is received at a pressure of 2300 -volts and transformed to 40,000 for transmission across the twenty-two -miles of line to the city, where it is again transformed at the -distributing station to a voltage suitable to the requirements of -consumers. All along the river’s banks the natives were early taught by -the Jesuits to construct small water-mills for crushing their sugar -cane, and although these primitive “power stations” still exist in -considerable numbers, the owners of them are amazed that the power they -have used for so long should be able, by passing through the turbines, -to accomplish the mighty feat of driving 200 large cars over 100 miles -of streets at almost any speed, as well as turning the heavy machinery -of factories and mills many miles away. The numerous workshops for -repairing the machinery of the station employ a small army of nearly 200 -men, and the Brazilians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, who -form this staff are housed in the picturesque little village of -Parnahyba, which nestles on a hill-side about a quarter of a mile away. -A typical country church stands on the sloping village square, and is -the only building of any importance in it. It is fairly well built, but -decorated with the cheap, garish ornaments that attract the untrained -eye. In front of the high altar paper flowers, in inferior china vases, -and cheap candles embellish the shrines of the velvet-robed plaster -saints. Poor lithographs, all highly coloured, mark the stations of the -cross. Confessionals, open at the top and sides, barely conceal the -priests who listen to the recital of the villagers’ lapses from grace. -Outside, groups of orange trees grow round the little bamboo dwellings, -while further down the hill the river, released from its labour at the -power house, rushes past, making a cheerful music. The trees harbour -birds of myriad hues, the - -[Illustration: THE POWER STATION.] - -river teems with fish. Long canoes lie alongside the grassy banks, and -children play upon the shores happy and free from care. In the evenings -and on feast days the village is full of animation; men and women gather -in little groups and gossip, the latter smoking pipes, which are -considered effeminate by the men, who prefer cigars and cigarettes. -Horse and cattle kind are plentiful, and the men amuse themselves with -races upon a small scale. “Caipiras,” as the small farmers are called, -are experts on the course, and have much of the trickiness and low -cunning that long contact with horseflesh is believed by many to -engender. - -A racing story is told in the locality about an Englishman who owned a -horse he was eager to match against all comers. A day and course were -fixed upon, but, to the surprise of outsiders, the race was won by an -old “caipira,” whose steed was heavily backed by the punters on the -course. The crestfallen and astonished “Ingleze” did not discover till -long after his defeat that the winner was an old race-horse that had -been surreptitiously obtained from São Paulo for the purpose of taking -down his boastful pride. It was the last appearance of an English owner -on the Parnahyba race-course, and the natives chuckle to this day over -the way the old “caipira” soaked the “Ingleze.” A few days spent at the -manager’s house on the hill are full of interest, and the details of the -day’s work in connection with the station provide ample topics of -conversation. Watchful attention has to be given night and day to the -great installation, for lightning storms occur frequently, and may at -any moment cause a slight disturbance of the transmission, which, but -for the reserve steam power station in the city, would envelop the town -in darkness, bring the whole tramway service to a standstill, and stop -thousands of machines which are dependent upon the station for driving -power. Telephones connect the distributing with the power station, and -the latter with the manager’s house, and even his bedroom is provided -with an alarum which can rouse him at any moment from his slumber. The -Light and Power Company of São Paulo have acquired many concessions -along the Tieté, and other rivers and sites for future stations have -already been fixed upon--two at Pirapora, and one, where construction -has been going on for some time, at Sorocaba, about three miles distant -from Parnahyba. Surveyors and engineers are at work planning another -station at Pau d’Alho, so that the rapid developments which are taking -place in the State will not catch this enterprising company napping. At -Pirapora, not far from the village, there is a Roman Catholic convent -where a dozen priests under the direction of a bishop are housed. The -building itself is new, but the site was occupied by one of the earliest -Jesuit mission stations in the State. The church, Bom Jesus de Pirapora, -in the village of about 1500 inhabitants, has an extensive fame, not -only in the State of São Paulo, but in others lying at a great -distance, for it has a reputation for miraculous cures. It is the -Lourdes of Brazil. The great annual pilgrimage to this shrine attracts -thousands of afflicted persons, lame, halt, deformed, and blind, who -walk from great distances, enduring many hardships and suffering -privations with astonishing fortitude. Many die on the way, but the -thousands of photographs preserved in the church are evidence of the -numbers who have visited the spot, and these pictures of the cured, with -their crutches and bandages, serve to advertise the virtues of the -shrine. A legend exists in Pirapora to the effect that Christ rose from -out the river some years ago, and the authority of the church supports -and spreads the myth. At the annual gathering of the pilgrims, bishops -and priests from distant parishes are present in great numbers, -encouraging the patients with advice, and administering healing slaps on -the faces and bodies of the victims to accelerate the cures. Many of the -natives of Pirapora have never left the precincts of the little village, -and spend their lives in ignorance of the ways of the great city not -fifty miles away. The priests still exercise a powerful influence over -their lives, and girls and unmarried women are kept indoors and out of -the public gaze with Oriental strictness. A curious market is held -outside the church on Sunday mornings and on festa days. The priests -hold an auction, and horses, cattle, goats, pigs, chickens, flour, rice, -vegetables, fruit, furniture, and innumerable odds and ends are offered -for sale and knocked down to the highest bidder. The proceeds of these -sales go into the coffers of the church, and as the stock sold is the -gift of the people this is their way of supporting their religion. This -system is prevalent throughout the country, and in many districts it -becomes a sort of “fair,” at which all kinds of little stalls, covered -with bunting and adorned with flags, are set up to provide refreshment -to the holiday crowd. Firework displays wind up the day, and as all the -squibs, rockets, and roman candles are home-made, the uncertainty of the -behaviour of each separate piece gives an added zest to the spectators. -At the church auctions strange lots are sometimes offered to the public; -mysterious parcels, without any marks or signs to give indications of -their contents, occasionally fetch high prices, and on being opened -disclose some ludicrous object such as a baby’s feeding-bottle or -rattle. A bunch of wild flowers, gathered and given by some village -beauty, will generally cause excited bidding by her admirers, who -compete with extravagant bids against one another, until it is knocked -down at an absurdly high figure. There is plenty of sport to be had -along the river’s bank, and hunting parties make good bags of birds, -monkeys, carpincha, and occasional deer. Fishing is also a popular and -profitable sport with the natives, who are not too partial to strenuous -exertion. Most of the workers on the small farms own their land, and the -crops of maize, sugar, and rice provide a comfortable and easily -obtained livelihood. From the sugar juice a highly intoxicating liquor -called “pinga” is distilled, and sold in kegs to the small stores, who -retail it to the public at about 20 reis a glass (less than a farthing -English money), a price that brings it within the reach of all, and -contributes largely to its popularity. This fiery brand is responsible -for much of the crime that takes place in the country. A tragedy -attributable to pinga occurred some little time back at Parnahyba, which -for about a fortnight was full of speculation as to the cause. One of -the great gates that guard the entrance to the water conduits leading -from the upper dam to the reservoir had become jammed, and a diver was -sent down to ascertain the cause. It was noticed that he had taken a peg -or two of pinga before he donned his helmet, but little heed was given -at the time to this not unusual proceeding. He soon came up from his -first examination, and reported the position, which necessitated the -attachment of a strong wire rope to the damaged door, in order that it -might be pulled back into its proper place. The diver descended again, -taking the end of the stout rope with him, and for a long time the men -at the pump went on turning to supply him with air. After an hour had -gone by without a sign of the diver they grew alarmed, and pulled at the -communication cord without receiving any answering signal. Two more -divers were telegraphed for from Santos, and until they arrived the -following day the pump was kept going, in the hope that the unfortunate -man was alive, but perhaps entangled with some obstruction which -prevented him from coming to the surface or from replying to their -repeated signals. All that the newly arrived divers could discover, when -they descended, however, was that the air supply pipe to the missing man -led over the jammed gates into the great pipe, and that it was divided; -the victim must be somewhere in the long 2000 feet tube. Search was made -in the reservoir above the - -[Illustration: THE FALLS OF PARNAHYBA.] - -power station, but no sign of the missing man could be discovered. The -excitement in the village grew to fever pitch, and spread to the -inhabitants along the river’s bank. Endless suggestions and theories -were forthcoming as to what had happened and the means to be taken to -clear up the mystery, which puzzled the wisest and most expert opinion. -One theory set up and spread by the subtle-minded labourers was that the -missing man had slipped out of his suit underwater, and had, under cover -of the darkness, made his way to a distant part of the river, and there -he had climbed out and escaped, his object being to get compensation for -his widow and children. This theory spread, in spite of its absurdity, -for the simple folk recalled the case of a man who conspired to have his -effigy burnt in a fire that took place in another part of the country, -and whose supposed widow got insurance money, which the supposed victim -and his fellow-conspirators shared among them. Other theories, no less -ridiculous, were current, and the superstitions of the natives were -aroused, when one of the night watchmen refused further duty at the -tragic spot, alleging that he had seen the ghost of the diver emerge -from the water and hover round the spot, and it was only when the body -of the missing man floated to the surface of the reservoir, a fortnight -later, that an end was put to the endless surmises and stupid -conjectures that were the talk of the whole neighbourhood. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -_Coffee_ - - -From an obscure origin the habit of coffee-drinking has grown to be -almost universal. That the natural home of the plant itself is Abyssinia -or East Africa is generally known, but how its fruit came to be used in -the making of a beverage is the subject of many legends. One ancient -Mohammedan tradition tells how the superior of a monastery, observing -that goats eating the coffee berries became very wakeful and lively at -night, prepared a decoction of the berries, in order to keep his -dervishes awake when the religious services at the mosque demanded their -attention during the whole of the night. He proved the efficacy of the -beverage, and recommended it to his co-religionists, who, on discovering -that it was pleasant as well as useful, soon acquired the coffee habit, -and frequently refreshed themselves throughout the day with the dark -brown liquid. - -So popular did coffee-drinking become amongst the faithful that one -section endeavoured to put down the practice, which they looked upon as -an evil. They alleged that it was an intoxicant, and as such was -expressly forbidden by the Koran. Their religious zeal or bigotry was -not, however, so powerful as the hold which the coffee bean had acquired -over the people, and the custom of coffee-drinking, now time-honoured -throughout the East, has spread, not only over the whole of Europe, but -practically throughout the world. - -The first coffee-house or café was established in Constantinople early -in the sixteenth century, and its popularity was such as to arouse the -hostility of the priesthood, who saw in the attractions of the café a -serious menace to the attendances at the mosque. Thus that which -according to legend had originated as an aid to worship, came to be -regarded as an enemy to devotion, and a bitter feeling was aroused which -persisted for many years. - -For a century the habit was almost exclusively practised by the -Orientals, but in the middle of the seventeenth century it spread to -France and England. In the year 1652 a coffee-house was opened in -London, in St. Michael’s Alley, Cornhill, and was the forerunner of many -rival establishments that quickly opened throughout the capital. - -These houses came to be frequented more particularly by the political -and literary circles of the day, and in the reign of Charles II a royal -proclamation was issued against coffee-shops, alleging them to be the -rendezvous of disaffected persons; but this was not such an effective -check upon the spread of the habit as was the imposition of a heavy tax -upon the article. It is remarkable that although coffee, tea, and cocoa -were all introduced into Europe about the same time, the preference for -tea in England has been as steady as the predilection for coffee in -France. - -Until the end of the seventeenth century the chief source of the coffee -supply was Arabia, but in 1690 the plant was introduced into Java by the -Dutch, who also placed one specimen in the Botanical Gardens at -Amsterdam as a curiosity, from which plant seeds were afterwards planted -in Dutch Guiana. Indeed, from this one plant at Amsterdam the coffee -plantations of the New World may be said to have sprung. The islands of -the Caribbean Sea were soon supplied with seeds, and plantations were -laid out in many localities, which experience proved were the most -favourable for the production of the best crops. It is uncertain how the -coffee plant came to be introduced into Brazil. One story is that a -runaway from Cayenne took a few seeds to Para or Maranhão, somewhere -about the year 1761, and that some years later two or three plants were -conveyed from there to the city of Rio de Janeiro, where they were -cultivated in a private garden, probably by way of a novelty. Even at -the beginning of the nineteenth century the cultivation of coffee was -not looked upon by the Brazilians as deserving of any serious attention, -and they had not much use themselves, except as medicine, for the -beverage which to-day is hardly ever out of their mouths. - -The State of São Paulo was the first to give serious attention to the -cultivation of coffee, and as a result has reaped the reward of being -the most prosperous State in the whole of Brazil. The interior of São -Paulo (which lies between 20° and 25° S. latitude) possesses a rich and -productive soil, with a climate whose temperature and rainfall are -eminently suited for the cultivation of many kinds of agricultural -produce, and it was in the Campuias district that coffee was first -planted and developed on an extensive scale. From this district the -cultivation has spread all over the State, until São Paulo is almost -synonymous with the name of coffee. The rapid development of the -industry has placed Brazil in the forefront of coffee-producing -countries, and the annual output from its ports exceeds that of all -other ports put together. To-day there are over 361.572.12 alqueires of -land under coffee cultivation alone, whilst the prosperity of this -industry has given an impetus to agriculture generally, and the growing -of sugar, rice, maize, beans, tobacco, vine, and manioc, all engage the -attention of farmers in the State. - -[Illustration: A FAZENDA.] - -A large number of “fazendas” or farms are in the hands of Brazilians -themselves, and many more are worked and owned by persons of Italian, -Portuguese, German, English, French, and Spanish nationalities. These -coffee fazendas are all very much alike, and the traveller through the -country is quickly impressed by the high state of cultivation that this -profitable industry has developed. No visitor to São Paulo should depart -without seeing a fazenda, as the coffee plantation is called, and the -hospitality and kindness of the Paulistas to strangers make a visit -pleasurable as well as memorable. - -The estate of Senhor Antonio Prado, a Brazilian gentleman who has done -much for the beautifying of the capital, lies about 230 miles therefrom, -and the journey by rail is through a country full of interest and -beauty. The towns and villages that lie along the route are partially -hidden by the dense foliage of the tropical vegetation that bespeaks the -richness of the soil. The undulating hills through which the railway -winds offer a change of view at every moment of the journey. The rich -red earth accentuates and intensifies the green of the foliage, whilst -the stain of it tinges everything it touches. The railway carriages, -constructed on American models, are full of the fine red dust, and the -passengers have a ruddy hue when they descend from a journey through the -country. The whitewash of the buildings and cotton clothes of the -peasants are all more or less tinted with the eternal red of the soil. -The Prado fazenda, situated upon rising ground, is a low, one-story -building encircled with verandahs. Brilliant-coloured flowers grow in -front of it, luxurious creepers entwine themselves around the supports -of its verandahs, and tall palms nod their heads above its roofs. The -floors of broad, hard-wood planks are red with the stain of the -all-pervading earth. - -The “fazendiero” lives well, and his table groans under a plentiful -variety of meat, vegetables, rice, bread, and sweetmeats, to which -visitors and friends from neighbouring plantations are welcomed round -the board. From the verandahs the view is extensive, a waving sea of -green, except when the bloom is on the coffee plant, when the white -flakes of colour suggest fallen snow, very refreshing to the eye in the -intense heat. - -A ride through the coffee trees on this estate could be extended for -many miles, but the lanes and vistas are all very much alike, appealing -most strongly to the sense of distance and extent. - -Beyond the region planted lies the wild forest, thick woods almost -impenetrable, save where patches of land, full of gaunt, half-burnt -stumps, betoken clearings in process of being turned into -plantations--a preparation that takes no little time and much labour. - -[Illustration: A COFFEE FAZENDIERO.] - -The formation of a plantation occupies four years before the trees bear -fruit. The trees are raised from seed in the nurseries, and the young -shrubs planted out in regular rows from eight to nine feet apart, the -work being carried out by colonies of settlers who are of many -nationalities. These colonies are scattered up and down the estate, and -are housed in rows of neat dwellings, with tiled roofs and whitewashed -walls. They form tiny villages, each with its own type of inhabitants, -its own manners and customs according to the nationality of the -settlers. As a rule, a family have a certain number of trees to look -after, and their work of weeding, tending, and picking is confined to -one portion of the estate, upon which there are 2,300,000 trees, varying -from thirteen to thirty-three years of age. The work is divided amongst -eight colonies, comprising 360 families, in all about 2800 -souls--Italian, Swiss, Spanish, Austrian, Portuguese, Brazilians, and -about sixty Japanese. The trees are planted in squares of about 5000 -trees, and a man and his wife can look after about 4000 trees. The -picking of the berries commences in the month of May, and goes on till -October, whilst from October to May the work of cleaning the grounds of -weeds is in full swing. Harrows, drawn by mules and horses, are employed -upon the broader passages between the trees, but for the narrower -divisions the hoe is used. The long avenues stretch out in all -directions, lanes of red earth five and six miles long in straight, -unbroken lines from eight to twenty feet high on either side. These -trees are always green, and four times in the season beautiful pure -white flowers burst forth to relieve the monotony of colour. The first -flowers appear in July, and last for eight days, leaving behind a small -growing berry to develop and ripen. There are three other flowering -periods until the end of October, and the fruit or berries formed from -the flowers are in progressive stages of ripening during the picking -season. Thus there is a continual flowering and picking of the coffee -during the same months, and the pickers have to take care that they only -pull the ripened berries. This, however, is not difficult, as the young -and newly formed berries have a firmer attachment to the trees than the -older and ripened fruit. The crop of berries plucked at the beginning of -the season in May are black, being the fruit of the first flowers of the -preceding year. Red berries are the fruit of the second flowers, and -green berries of the third. The proper time for pulling is when the -green berries of the previous years are full. The hand is drawn along -the branch, which is thus stripped of all but the young berries of the -current year. Then the pulled berries are taken in carts drawn by mules -or oxen to the “lavadors” or washing tanks. - -There are several kinds of coffee cultivated upon this estate, a -practice quite common among the fazendieros of São Paulo. One variety, -the “Bourbon,” is an early and regular producer, and for this reason is -largely cultivated, since the fever of production seized the planters, -in consequence of the rise in the price of coffee. This variety does not -grow very high nor bear large-sized beans. Its life is shorter than many -other varieties, it is sensitive and delicate, its branches lacking in -flexibility, and it does not yield very large quantities of fruit. But -against all these disadvantages, the planters set the fact that it can -be grown rapidly, bringing a quick return to the owner. - -[Illustration: COLONISTS’ HOUSES AT MARTINO PRADO.] - -The common or native coffee tree has, however, most to commend it. It is -strong, hardy, and well acclimatised, and has a long life, while its -beans are large, and sell for the highest prices upon the market. Long -experience has determined that it is the plant best adapted for the -climate, and its flexible branches render the operation of gathering a -simple one, which does not render the tree liable to damage. Its only -drawback is the irregularity of its crop, which is good and poor in -alternating years. - -All the older plantations are stocked with this variety, and there is no -doubt that, in spite of other considerations, it is destined to remain -when the “Bourbon” variety shall have disappeared. - -The “Bomcatu” or “Amarello” is a variety very similar to the common -coffee, but has yellow berries, whilst the “Murta” is another variety -which is very little grown, having too great an abundance of foliage at -the expense of the fruit. - -At the “terrains” the gathered coffee is sorted by an ingenious process. - -The berries, black, red, and green all mixed together, are put into a -tank of water, and the black berries being the lightest, float to the -surface, and are run off along a cemented channel to a large concreted -terrace, where they are spread out to dry in the sun. - -The red and green berries left behind are floated down another cemented -channel to a machine which detaches the outer skins of the red berries, -leaving the beans, which are now separated from the green berries, still -intact, by a process of sifting in revolving perforated drums. These -beans are now spread out upon the terrain, as are also the green -berries, to be sun-dried in their turn. - -The time occupied in the drying process depends, of course, upon the -sun, the black fruit generally drying in from eight to ten days. The -beans of the red fruit, known as washed coffee, take time to colour, and -after three or four days are banked up, and covered from the rain, until -they assume the washed coffee colour. The green berries, in their turn, -take longer, generally about twenty days. - -When thoroughly dried, the berries and beans alike pass into a series of -chambers called the Machina de Beneficiar Café, where, by means of -elaborate machinery, the berries are decorticated and the beans sorted -in their various sizes. The husks and also the thin skins of the beans -which are removed by winnowing are blown through a long tube to a heap -outside, and preserved as manure, to be sprinkled between the trees and -ploughed into the ground. - -The beans, sorted into qualities of size and shape, are placed in sacks -and sent by railway (which comes right alongside the Machina) down to -Santos, the greatest shipping port for this product in the whole of -Brazil. - -The Martino Prado estate contributes about sixty thousand bags a year -towards the annual output of over ten million bags which are exported -from the State of São Paulo. - -As the productive life of a coffee tree may be estimated at about forty -years its cultivation is attended with much profit, and a law has been -enacted by the State to prevent too many estates being brought into -existence. Planting to replace dead or unfruitful trees is in no way -restricted, the aim being to keep the production of the commodity from -getting out of hand and to prevent the world’s markets being flooded -with more coffee than is ordinarily consumed. - -It was in 1906-1907 that the danger of over-production first attracted -the serious attention of the “faziendieros,” who became alarmed at the -prospect of a great lowering of prices. The season’s yield had been a -record one, and threatened to cause a fall in price that meant ruin to -many of the planters, and a serious crisis to the State of São Paulo, -whose capital and resources were largely bound up in coffee culture. The -Government had, in 1900, placed an almost prohibitive tax upon the -creation of new plantations in order to check production and save the -existing faziendieros from financial catastrophe, but were again faced -with a perplexing situation, which resulted in the scheme of -artificially upholding the price of coffee. With the assistance of the -neighbouring States of Rio de Janeiro and Minas-Geraes, the São Paulo -Government bought up the necessary number of sacks to relieve the -market, and by preserving the balance between supply and demand kept the -price at a figure remunerative to the planters. The credit to purchase -the overplus was effected by the three States already named, and was -guaranteed by an extra tax of one shilling and eightpence upon each sack -of coffee exported from Santos or Rio. By means of loans from foreign -banks the Governments were able to purchase and keep out of the market -eight million sacks of coffee already stored in different parts of the -world, and as coffee improves by age, the surplus thus bought up is -being gradually disposed of at an enhanced price. This operation has -been the subject of much controversy, many economists looking upon it as -initiating a dangerous policy, whilst others claim that it has been -amply justified by the good results that have followed to the State. - -There can be no doubt that had the exceptional yield of 1906-1907 -reached the market, a fall in prices, disastrous alike to the planters -and to the State, would have resulted. The smaller crops of the -succeeding years have favoured the release of the stored surplus without -any lowering of prices, and the bold experiment has so far been -successful. - -[Illustration: THE PRADO MANSION HOUSE, SÃO PAULO.] - -A succession of large crops, both in Brazil and other producing -countries of the world, would mean real disaster to São Paulo, but -experience goes to show that irregular crops are the general rule, and -that full years are inevitably followed by lean ones. - -The only developments that the State of São Paulo has had to watch -carefully are the increasing outputs of newer plantations in Mexico, the -West Indies, and the northern republics of South America, all of which -are gradually increasing the area under coffee cultivation. São Paulo -alone could produce all the coffee necessary to meet the world’s demand, -were all her available land allowed to be placed under cultivation, so -that the policy of restriction is almost forced upon her. The rapid -development of this State is one of the outstanding features of South -America, and is all the more remarkable when one considers the -comparatively short time that has elapsed since its staple industry was -first commenced. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -_The Forest_ - - -An excursion through the unexplored bush in South America is no light -undertaking, and after a few hours employed in making his way through -primeval forest the traveller obtains a fair idea of some of the -terrible ordeals which had to be passed through by the early Spanish -invaders and buccaneering marauders. Besides being hampered by heavy -armour and accoutrements, they were dependent for food on the wild -animals they killed or the roots and fruits they discovered, unless by -chance they encountered natives from whom they could obtain frugal -supplies. The uncertainty of obtaining subsistence, the dangers which -lay in wait for them from the poisoned arrows of the natives, and the -risks they ran of losing their way, all added to the perils of their -expeditions. For in most favourable circumstances a journey over hills -clad with the densest vegetation, and across streams and rivers -inhabited by obnoxious reptiles, is distinctly trying. At the invitation -of a friend I started out to visit a camp occupied by himself and his -fellow-surveyors situated on the hills lying to the west side of the -Chagres River. I prepared for this journey in a costume which in my -ignorance I thought suitable for the occasion, including heavy boots and -leggings, and a complete change of clothing in case of emergencies. At -the headquarters in the town from which we started it was politely -pointed out to me that I evidently did not understand the sort of -country we were to travel through, and if the rig-out I had assumed was -the best my wardrobe could furnish, my companion would endeavour to -supply me with a more suitable equipment. He produced a pair of breeches -which no self-respecting tramp would have rescued from a dust-bin, the -remainder of a shirt upon which moths had made many a hearty meal, a -thick pair of stockings that would have gladdened the heart of an -Arctic explorer, a pair of boots such as are affected by those who go -down into the bowels of the earth in sewers, and a hat so thickly coated -with mud and clay that it might easily have been mistaken for a crude -specimen of pottery. The fact that the breeches and shirt had been made -originally for a smaller man detracted somewhat from their comfort, -although the figure presented when arrayed in the garments would have -aroused the envy of a professional tramp. When we were well into the -forest the suitableness of this attire became apparent, and I owed a -debt of gratitude to my considerate companion for having saved a -respectable portion of my wardrobe from utter destruction. A change of -clothing was tied up in a piece of stout waterproof material and -consigned to the charge of one of the negroes who were to accompany us, -and so, armed with a long pole, we started. The party consisted of my -companion and myself, three negroes, and two half-bred Indians, who -carried between them fresh supplies and provisions for the camp. The -first part of the way lay through an old track, and offered no -difficulty. After traversing a distance of about a mile we came to a -muddy river, on the banks of which stood a small Indian village, -composed of rude huts and shacks. The human beings who inhabited these -patched-up, nondescript dwellings were about as mixed in breed as their -houses in construction, and as indolent and dirty as their domiciles -were foul and evil-smelling. We were detained for some time while search -was being made for the boatman whose services were required to paddle us -to the other side, and as we stood looking across the swiftly flowing, -muddy river, I had an opportunity of becoming more closely acquainted -with the camp-followers who accompanied us. A tall, middle-aged negro, -called Harvey, who with difficulty was balancing a bundle upon his head, -made himself conspicuous by his never-ceasing chatter. No threats from -my companion served to stop his garrulity, which was explained by the -fact that he had not recovered from the festivities of the previous day, -the anniversary of his King’s birthday. Like a true Britisher, this -Jamaican had indulged in royal toasts until he had almost assumed a -regal demeanour of independence; and when he was told that he was drunk -he denied it in so lofty a manner that it only confirmed the correctness -of our diagnosis. “Harvey,” said my companion sternly, “don’t you know -what the Bible says will happen to men who take too much strong drink?” -“Don’t kere what the Bible say ’bout strong drink, cap’n, but I should -like fin’ out what it say ’bout dem dam Indians what ain’t to be found -when dey’re wanted, keeping English and American gentlemen waitin’ about -in de burnin’ sun, ’bout near as hot as de hell fire he sure to go to.” - -“Shut up, Harvey, and don’t talk so much.” - -“What God give me tongue for, eh, massa, and what have I brains for if -not to use?” he asked plaintively. At last the missing boatman put in an -appearance, and we gingerly entered the long dug-out, which was very -leaky, and about one-third full of water, and pushed off for the -opposite bank. The Indian, who seated himself in either the bow or -stern, I fail to remember which, both ends seeming so exactly alike, -skilfully propelled the long, wobbly craft to the other side, and we -climbed up the steep, muddy bank, aided by the long lianas which hung -down from tall trees towering overhead. We were soaking wet, as it had -been necessary to sit down in the canoe to prevent overbalancing it; but -after a little experience of the trail we had now got to, I realised -that to be wet through was a normal condition to be in when travelling -through the bush. The first mile or so we kept by the bank of the river -along a trail which had been cleared by the ever useful machete. This -trail was narrow, and necessitated our walking in Indian file, and for a -part of the way I found myself in front of the loquacious Harvey, who, -slightly sobered by the recent exertion of climbing up the bank with his -load, continued babbling about Biblical subjects with ludicrous effect. -His mind was greatly exercised in trying to recollect what really was -the punishment to be meted out to rum-drinkers, and also as to what the -sin could be which admitted of no possible forgiveness. It was -marvellous how he managed to keep jabbering with his tongue while -occupied with balancing the great bundle on his head and evading the -pitfalls which beset his feet. When at last the trail led into the -gloomy forest, it was a welcome escape from the heat and glare of the -sun, the fierce rays of which had been pouring down upon us for over two -hours. Charles Kingsley says that the first feeling he had on entering -the primeval forest was one of helplessness, confusion, awe, and all but -terror. Most of these feelings did come over me in the course of the -journey, but the first emotion - -[Illustration: HARVEY.] - -was one of thankfulness for the deep shade. It is difficult to convey -any idea of the luxuriant growth we were now amongst. Trees of all -shapes and colours in profusion rose around us with a superabundant -wealth of foliage so dense that it was impossible to find one’s way -without a compass or a guide, and even the trail itself could only be -traced by experts. Tall trees with parasitical creepers inextricably -confused reaching upwards in long curving lines bewildered the eye. -Fan-shaped palms, giant tree ferns and sword-like cactus that would make -a small fortune for a florist at home grew all around. Strings of -wire-like stems lay across the path, and it required no small skill and -the utmost watchfulness to avoid being tripped up at every turn, and -when we stumbled and put out our hands to keep from falling they met -with prickly stems that stabbed like needles. Creepers twirled around -and in and out, crossing and recrossing one another, defying all efforts -to trace them to their source, bewildering as a ship’s rigging in a -storm all broken and loose and entangled past hope of straightening out. -Sedgy swamps, with long, sharp blades of leaves and fallen trees, often -blocked the path, while the light grew dimmer and dimmer the further we -penetrated into the forest fastnesses. At times we thought we must have -left the trail, so overgrown and dense it had become, and even the -guides who were supposed to know it were often puzzled, and frequently -the machete had to be resorted to in removing the vegetation that had -grown since the last traveller had passed that way. It is splendid -exercise walking or pushing your way through a jungle, for the exertion -the arms are called upon to put forth is nearly equal to that which the -legs have to perform. Loops and festoons threatened to lasso and hang us -at times, and whilst our eyes were engaged in watching for the dangers -threatening us above our feet would be caught in some vegetable snare -which the genii of the forest had spread for the intruder man. Orchids -grew high up out of reach, and everywhere exquisite and grotesque forms -presented themselves. Tiny humming-birds flitted past us, flashes of -iridescent colour, and giant butterflies hovered over flowers as -brilliant as themselves. Weird sounds from unseen monkeys, parrots, and -toucans, high, piercing notes of birds, and the hum of innumerable -insects confused the ears, as did the strange forms the eyes. We passed -many trees of enormous girth, the lower portions of their trunks -buttressed like Gothic cathedrals, and contrasting strangely with the -tall, slender proportions of others, that seemed like long lengths of -water-pipes set on end, through which a chimney-sweeper’s broom had been -pushed, the brush protruding at the top. Often we came to streams, -across which a few thin trees had been thrown to form a primitive -bridge, and the passage of these with boots thick with slippery clay was -quite an acrobatic feat, very much like walking the greasy pole. -Sometimes long poles were stuck into the mud at the bottom of the river -to assist the traveller across, but only occasionally did we meet with -this luxury, and when the sticks we carried proved too short to reach -the bottom we used them as a tight-rope walker does his balancing pole. -Once I fell, but the water only came up to my waist, so that I waded to -the opposite bank and climbed out. But the wading was not easy, for the -bottom of the stream was thickly padded with fallen leaves, which formed -a pulpy mass of decaying vegetation and prevented a firm foothold. We -could not help admiring the way the half-sober Harvey crossed these -bridges, his large feet turned out, his arms outstretched with pole in -one hand and machete in the other, and the huge bundle cleverly balanced -on his head. His performance would have evoked loud applause from the -critical audience of a modern variety show, but we refrained from -applauding lest we should swell his thick head. After stumbling, hot, -damp, and perspiring, along the greasy track, stepping through muddy -pools and morasses and wading through streams for hours, we came to a -large clearing in the forest that had been made by the surveying party. -It was the last camp they had occupied before proceeding to that which -we were on our way to visit. We sat down in the shelter of one of the -huts and rested. This was the first opportunity we had had of a seat, -for in the forest there are no grassy spots or convenient bowers for the -weary traveller to stretch himself and rest. Even when a fallen tree -appears to offer a seat, sharp, prickly thorns or venomous insects -prevent advantage being taken of it. Looking round at the now deserted -camp, we were much impressed by the ingenuity displayed by its builders, -for in the midst of the dense forest a circle about 300 feet in diameter -had been cleared. Huge trees had been felled, the thick undergrowth cut -down and burned, and from the smaller trees the huts or houses of the -camp had been constructed. No nails had been used, the uprights and -horizontals of the buildings being bound together by long withes. The -roofs were neatly thatched with palm leaves, and gave shelter from the -burning sun and heavy rains. Tables, benches, and beds were all -constructed out of thin trees tied together, and supported on shorter -lengths stuck into the ground. These were erected inside the huts, which -were about thirty feet long by six feet wide, and open at the ends and -sides. A large tree had been left as it fell, dividing the camp into two -parts, that for the native attendants being much larger than the one -reserved for the surveyors who employed them. My companion had been away -at the time this camp was abandoned, and was now on his way to rejoin -his companions in the new camp, about six miles distant in the forest. -The men who accompanied us all belonged to the new camp, and had only -left it a few days before to fetch provisions, supplies, newspapers, -periodicals, and letters from the nearest railway station. After a short -rest we started off again on a newer and more difficult trail, and as -little or no traffic had passed over it, the utmost vigilance was needed -on the part of the guides to detect the signs which marked it. The -bearers were further laden with three surveying rods, which had been -left at the old camp for them to bring along on their return. As the way -became more difficult, frequent digressions were made into the bush, -with the assistance of machetes, and often a halt was called and -consultations held as to whether we were on the trail or not. Darkness -was quickly falling, and we realised that it threatened to become a -serious matter should we fail to reach the camp before the light -completely faded. Harvey and one of the Indians lagged far behind, and -the three men who were with us displayed an anxiety I was quick to -notice and to share. The trail was lost! We plunged into the thick -vegetation, cutting our way with an energy born of fear, till -floundering up to the waists in a deep morass, we were forced to retrace -our steps. We now realised the awe that the forest can inspire, for in -the darkness which had suddenly descended it was impossible to see, and -the imagination conjured up snakes and odious things in close proximity. -To add to the horror of it all, my companion pointed out that we should -have to climb a tree and wait till morning. My tired limbs ached in -anticipation of the further effort required of them. My feet were sore -and heavy, and the cool night air made my flesh creep under damp, -clinging garments, and I felt ready to sink down and let events take -their course, without attempting to battle any more against -circumstances. We shouted, in hopes that our voices might reach the camp -and bring assistance, shouted all together, until our faces must have -been as black as the darkness that surrounded us. The negroes and -Indians were in dreadful apprehension, their imaginations conjuring up -demons of the wood and “duppies” in every moving branch. Strange, -uncanny noises added to the unpleasantness of the situation, and when I -ventured to quote to my companion, “There is a pleasure in the pathless -wood,” he retorted, “It must have retired for the night, as we can’t -find it. Still, it’s very gratifying to know it is around somewhere.” I -paid no attention, but continued, “There is a rapture by the lonely -shore.” He admitted that might be true, for, as he said, you knew where -you were. “There is society where none intrude,” I added. But by this -time my companion had no proper appreciation of Childe Harold’s -meditations, and implored me to help him in roaring, instead of wasting -my breath on stuff like poetry. At last we heard a faint “Halloo,” which -came from the opposite direction to that which we had been attempting to -take, and we made a fresh united effort to raise a loud yell. The -inhabitants of the forest, monkeys, parrots, and strange, unknown -animals, wondering doubtless what all the shouting was about, started -jabbering, screaming, and growling, as if to drown our cries. We had -been standing with water reaching to our knees, overcome with an acute -sense of helplessness and afraid to venture in any direction. The -answering shouts from the camp grew louder, and we knew that help was at -hand; and when at last lights appeared, and, guided by our shouts, -approached us, we experienced a feeling of intense relief. We made our -way towards the lights, and found they were carried by a party of men -from the camp, who conducted us to the not far-distant trail, and after -about a half-hour’s walk we arrived at the camp we had been seeking. A -hearty welcome from “the boys,” who had grown anxious at our -non-appearance, and a meal consisting of hot coffee, biscuits, Boston -beans, and jam was quickly set before us in one of the huts. In the dim -light of the oil lamp we did ample justice to this simple fare, for we -were as hungry as we were tired. At one end of the long hut six bunks -had been placed, and already some of the party had turned in for the -night, under the mosquito bars with which each was provided. It was only -when I tried to remove my soaking boots and raiment that I realised that -the bundle containing my dry clothing was in charge of Harvey, who was -far behind us in the bush. Guns were fired off to direct him and his -companion to the camp, but after waiting for a couple of hours we gave -up expecting their arrival until morning. I was rigged out in sleeping -clothes that were fairly dry, and turned in under a mosquito bar tired -out in body, but awake in mind. We talked together for some hours, and -speculated as to how poor Harvey and the Indian would be feeling, and -how they would spend the night. Doubtless Harvey would recall our -conversation of the morning, and would be thinking that the retribution -and punishment which we had told him overtake drunkards had caught him -up. One thing was quite certain, both he and his companions would be -almost scared to death by fear of evil spirits or “duppies,” which are -reported amongst the natives to inhabit the forest. All the strange -noises that they hear are put down as emanating from the mysterious -being who presides over the spirits that they believe infest the gloomy -recesses of the woods. Confused notions prevail among the Indians and -negroes, in spite of their outward adherence to the Christian faith, for -they still retain a strong though disguised belief in the superstitions -of their ancestors. - -Harvey and his comrade had been perforce left in their distress, as it -would have been impossible to persuade or force any of their companions -to go in search of them. None of the camp, Indian or negro, would -venture after nightfall into the eerie caverns of the bush. Before sleep -came to me the rain fell with great violence, making a sound like waves -lashing upon rocks during a storm, and innumerable sand-flies found -their way under the mosquito curtain, and settled down to torment my -aching limbs. The “pesky” sand-fly, small and insignificant, can inflict -more suffering upon the human race than many another insect fifty times -its size. The sensation of myriads of these small flies hovering around -my feet felt at first as if innumerable particles of gritty dust had got -between the sheets, and I paid little heed to them; but after about an -hour of their attention I was fully convinced of my mistake, and -realised that the sand-flies had discovered a new feeding-ground. - -Some years ago, when on board a steamer which had run ashore on the -Tampico River, in Mexico, I had experiences of what these small pests -were capable of accomplishing. On that occasion a companion and myself -had been so severely bitten about the ankles, wrists, and face that any -casual observer would have avoided contact with us for fear of taking -smallpox. Dreading a further experience of these insects, I covered up -my face with a handkerchief, and mumbled to myself the poet’s plea: - - “I crave but this: That from the different kinds - Of insects cursing night and day - (The entomologist claims that he finds - Five hundred thousand so they say), - - “Thou wilt at once destroy, annihilate, - Permit no longer to exist-- - Efface, cut off, rub out, obliterate - The pesky sandfly from the list!” - -At last half-stifled I fell into a disturbed slumber, from which, very -early in the morning, I was awakened by the screams of the birds, -monkeys, and parrots all round, and on looking out of the hut the -strange beauty of the scene made me eager to get up and go outside to -take ample stock of the camp and surroundings. The heavy morning mists -hung all around, imparting a soft, mysterious aspect to the forest. It -was as if an elusive veil of finest silver gauze had been spread from -tree to tree by hidden fairy fingers. The smoke ascending from the camp -fires seemed almost solid against the pearly background of the - -[Illustration: SEBASTIAN.] - -woods, and so unreal did it all appear that one expected every moment it -would fade away, as dreams do. And so it did, for as the sun rose higher -the mists melted and disappeared, and the strange outlines and varied -forms of trees and creeping vines stood plainly forth. We went down to a -stream that ran near the camp and bathed in water that was warm but -still refreshing. On our return we found the men whose huts were about -forty yards away from ours busy preparing and eating their morning meal, -sharpening machetes, spreading out damp clothes to dry, mending and -patching garments that seemed unworthy of attention, drying, or trying -to dry, great hobnailed boots by placing them over fires that shot up -threatening flames around them. One man was at a biscuit tin filled with -water, rinsing and beating a mud-stained shirt, in the vain endeavour to -cleanse it from the all-pervading dirt; while near him another hacked -with a machete at a pair of heavy top boots, removing great slices of -half-dried mud at every blow. But all of them abruptly ceased from their -occupations when Harvey and his comrade came shouting gleefully into the -clearing. They were sorry-looking wrecks, mud-stained and dishevelled, -with their clothes hanging about them in tatters. All the camp crowded -round them, and I was rather relieved to find that Harvey had not -abandoned the great bundle which contained, amongst other things, my -clothes; and while he untied the parcel we questioned him about his -experiences in the bush. He was quite sober now, but although he had -regained some of his natural obsequious manner, he was inclined to be a -trifle boastful after the night’s exploit. “What man dat say dere be -‘duppies’ in the wood?” he asked vehemently. “Dat man he lie, for dere -don’t be no ‘duppies,’ no, not one at all, in de whole bush. Dere don’t -be nothin’ ’cept them monkeys, tigers, snakes, and other tings.” “But -you were a little frightened, Harvey, weren’t you?” I inquired. - -“No, massa, not a bit frightened, not a bit. Sebastian, he war kin’ o’ -skeered, so I made him light a fire to keep away dem tiger cats, and -made him keep awake, to see if any ob dem ‘duppies’ was about. But dere -don’t be no ‘duppies,’ not a ting in de bush at all to be skeered of.” - -In consideration for the trials the two men had passed through, they -were permitted to take a day off work and recover from the fright they -had undoubtedly received; and, if I am not mistaken, Harvey had suffered -more alarm than his dull and less imaginative companion. After this -interlude the day’s work began in real earnest, each surveyor taking -with him an escort of five or six labourers, to cut their way in -different directions, measuring levels and distances, and surveying the -contour of the country. The troches which they cut into the bush form -long, straight tunnels, but the progress they make is slow. Each day the -distance from the camp cut in this manner is increased, and parties have -a two hours’ walk through the troches before they arrive at the point -they had reached the previous day. The levels and the land surveyed -during the morning are carefully recorded and marked on the large charts -upon the return to camp. Thus day after day knowledge is gained of a -country hitherto untrodden by human footsteps. The party that I was -visiting had been engaged upon this work for over six months, and one of -their number had never once during all that period left the bush. -Magazines, newspapers, and letters arrived at camp once a week, but -visitors never came, and mine was the first strange face he had seen for -half a year. He was a quiet cultured, well-educated youth, energetic, -and in love with his work, well content to be gaining an experience in -his profession denied to those less venturous and plodding than himself. -On my return journey from the camp I was guided by a small Indian boy, -strong, fleet of foot, who although encumbered with my baggage yet -raced along the trail with such rapidity that I was in danger of losing -sight of him. After a mile or two I wished to call a halt, but was -unsuccessful in making him understand my wishes, so I was forced to keep -up with him as best I could, and wait until we arrived at the deserted -camp before taking a rest. When we arrived I sat again in the shelter -afforded by the now abandoned hut, and rested for an hour or more, -marvelling at the wonder all around me. Confused masses of shrubs and -plants met my gaze, which would have been greeted with enthusiastic -admiration if seen in English hot-houses. Wild bananas grew in large -clumps, their long leaves torn by the wind, their stems covered with -climbing ferns. Bamboos sixty or seventy feet high swayed in the -faintest breeze and creaked in every joint. - -The richest woodland in northern latitudes is tame compared with the -tropical forest. During the midday heat the leaves where the sun beats -on them became lax and drooping and languishing for the rain to come and -cheer them. While I sat there under the shade of the rude cabin the heat -and tension became almost insupportable, and languor and sleepiness fell -upon me. As the sun blazed down upon the clearing myriads of humming, -buzzing insects filled the air. The white rolling clouds which passed -overhead were quickly changing to a leaden hue, and darkness, -intensified by contrast with the brilliant light it superseded, covered -the scene. Lightning flashed and thunder rolled, and deafened with its -noise. A mighty wind arose and swayed the tall trees all around, the -rustling of whose million leaves added to the roaring sound that made my -head grow dizzy. Then the rain came. Nothing can compare with the storm -that burst. Even the thickly padded roof of palm leaves above my head -was not impervious to the deluge, and very soon I was wet with the great -splashes that came bursting through. So violent was its descent, that -upon reaching the earth the water rebounded in all directions, so that -even had the roof proved water-tight, sufficient water found entrance -upwards to swamp the hut. The storm ceased as suddenly as it had come, -the black clouds dissipated and passed away, then the serene, deep blue -sky again looked down upon the glistening landscape. Before leaving the -clearing I strolled around, and one giant tree of enormous girth -attracted my attention. The buttresses at its base made by the roots -rising out of the ground formed huge stalls that would have accommodated -six good-sized ponies. Its age, not easily determined, must have been -great, and it had seen thousands of storms like the one that had just -passed over it. It was long past its early youth when Europeans first -landed on these shores. The ancients supposed that trees were all -immortal, and modern botanists have proved that many are almost -indestructible, and may have witnessed the struggles of the earliest -man. At last we started off to complete the journey home. When we -arrived at the bank of the river we were fortunate in discovering a -canoe moored to a branch. I felt a little reluctant to trust myself to -the skill of the mere boy who accompanied me, but there was no help for -it, so seating myself at one end of the narrow craft I awaited anxiously -our arrival on the opposite bank. In spite of his diminutive -proportions, however, the urchin was quite an adept with the paddle, and -accomplished the journey against a swiftly flowing stream in a manner -that showed he was accustomed to the navigation of the river. After we -landed the journey was comparatively easy, but I was glad when we -arrived at the headquarters house from which I had started. Finding my -way along the railway track past houses inhabited by workers on the -line, I arrived at the village and railway station, whence I got a train -that carried me back to comparative civilisation. - - - - -INDEX - - -Aborigines, 234, 236, 237, 238, 251, 294 - -Acla, 30, 32 - -Aconcagua, 177 - -Almagro, 140, 142, 161 - -Alonzo de Ojeda, 17, 18 - -Alpaca, the, 139 - -Amazon, the, 220, 298 - -Antofagasta, 157 - -Araucanians, 158, 161, 162, 163 - -Architecture (Peru), 151 - -Arequipa, 149, 151 - -Argentina, 167 - -Arica, 145 - -Armadillo, the, 183 - -Asuncion, 226, 231 - -Atahualpa, 128, 141, 142 - -Atrato, river, 72, 79, 80 - -Avenida, Beira-mar, 265, 266 - - “ Central (Rio), 266 - - “ de Mayo (Buenos Ayres), 168 - -Ayacusho (battle of), 153 - - -B - -Bahia, 295, 296 - -Bahia Blanca, 170, 171 - -Balboa, 57 - -Balbao, Vasco Nuñez de, 18, 19, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33 - -Balmaceda, José, 162, 164 - -Barranquilla, 124 - -Beira-mar, Avenida, 265, 266 - -Belgrano, General, 241 - -Bello Horizonte, 288, 290 - -Bird life on the plains, 195 - -Bogota, 117, 125 - -Boliche (native spirit), 183 - -Bolivar, Simon, 117, 144, 152, 240 - -Bolivia, 146, 152, 154, 155 - -Botanical Gardens (Rio), 276 - -Botofogo, 265, 266 - -Braganza, Duke of, 255 - -Branding stock, 190 - -Brazil, war with Paraguay, 245, 249, 350 - -Brazilians, 255, 257, 259, 268, 269, 270 - -Breaking-in horses, 188 - -Buccaneers, 34-47 - -Buenos Ayres, 167-170 - -Bulwer-Clayton Treaty, 76 - - -C - -Cabral, 252 - -Caliche deposits, 165 - -Callao, 131, 138 - -Camp, the, 180-196 - -Canal Commission, 62 - - “ Projects, 72-96 - - “ Zone, 50 - -Cape Frio, 253 - -Cartagena, 18, 40, 119, 125 - -Cattle Industry, 198 - -Chagres, 41, 45, 46 - - “ river, 55, 56, 86, 91, 338 - -Chamber of Deputies (Rio), 271 - -Children of the Sun, 138 - -Chili, 145 - -Chilian army in Lima, 135 - -Chilian nitre, 164 - -Chilians, the, 157 - -Christobal, 50 - -Churches in Panama, 99-102 - -Coca, 146 - -Cocaine, 146 - -Cochrane, Lord Thomas, 162 - -Coelho, Goncalo, 265 - -Coffee, 327-337 - -Colombia, 117, 125 - -Colon, 48, 50, 52, 53, 63 - -Colon (Argentina), 201-209 - -Columbus, Christopher, 17, 48 - -Concordia, 210 - -Condor, the (of the Andes), 175 - -Conquest of Peru, 142 - -Coquimbo, 157 - -Conquistadores, 20, 22, 26, 32, 117, 128, 140-143 - -Copacabana (Rio), 276 - -Corcovada, 263 - -Cordillera, the, 175 - -Corrientes, 199, 216 - -Cortex, 72 - -Corumba, 220-222 - -Cruces, 42, 43, 45 - -Culebra cutting, 54, 57 - - “ slides at, 94 - -Cullen, Dr., 78 - -Curious burial customs, 105 - -Cuyaba, 220 - -Cuzco, 138, 140, 149-151 - - -D - -Davis, Admiral (report on Canal), 80 - -De Lesseps, 50, 80-84, 86-88 - -Deodoro, Marshal, 261, 279 - -Dias, Fernão, 292 - -Discovery of gold in Brazil, 292 - -Drake, Sir Francis, 120 - -Drysalting in Argentine, 204 - -Dutch in South America, 255-256 - -Dwellings, primitive, 22 - - -E - -Early Adventurers, 17-25 - -Ecuador, 127-130 - -Estancias, 173, 203 - -Excursions from Rio, 286 - - -F - -Fazendas, 329 - -Flat arch in Panama, 94, 101 - -Forest, a tropical, 338-350 - -Formosa, 224 - -Francia, Dr., 228, 240-243 - -French canal company, 83, 86, 90, 91 - -Frey Bentos, 200, 209 - -Frigorificos, 186, 200, 205 - -Frontin, Dr. Paul de, 274 - -Frozen meat trade, 204 - - -G - -Galisteo, 76 - -Galvao, 72 - -Gatun, 57 - -Gauchos, 180, 184-188 - -Germans in South America, 142, 156, 185, 251, 273, 286, 302 - -Gisborne, Lionel, 78 - -Gondra, President of Paraguay, 246 - -Goyaz, 220 - -Grand Chaco, 222 - -Great Central Railway, Brazil, 289, 294 - -Guano deposits, 138, 166 - -Guarani Indians, 192, 232, 234, 247 - -Guayaquil, 127 - - -H - -Hay-Herran, treaty, 93 - -Hides, 206 - -Horses (Argentine), 188, 206 - -Hospitals (Canal Zone), 53, 63 - -Huascar, 128, 141 - -Humboldt, 166 - - -I - -Incas of Peru, 128, 134, 138, 139, 144, 161 - -Ipanema, 276 - -Isthmian Canal Commission, 91 - -Italians in Brazil, 251 - -Itamarity Palace, 272 - - -J - -Jara, Albino, President of Paraguay, 246 - -Jenkins’s ear (war of), 120 - -Jesuits in South America, 220, 234, 236, 242, 254, 302, 320 - -João IV, 255 - -João VI, 257, 276 - -Jockey Club, Buenos Ayres, 168, 170 - -José de Garay, 76 - -Journey across the Andes, 176, 177 - - -L - -Labour on the isthmus, 55, 60, 71 - -Lage, Antonio, 278, 282, 283 - -Lage Iramos, 295, 298 - -Lages River, 275 - -Lake Titicaca, 151, 156, 157 - -Land of Nitrates, 157-166 - -La Paz, 149, 156, 222 - -La Plata, 171, 172 - -Liebig Extract of Meat Co., 200-203, 209 - -Leme, 276 - -Leopoldina Railway, 286, 287 - -Light and Power Company, Rio, 275 - - “ “ “ São Paulo, 319 - -Lima, 131, 132, 134 - -Limon Bay, 51 - -Liot, Captain, R.N., report on Canal route, 75 - -Live Industry, a, 197, 207 - -Llama, the 139 - -Locusts in Paraguay, 243 - -Lopez, Carlos, 244 - -Lopez, Francesco, 229, 244, 245 - -Luque, 140 - -Lynch, Madame, 244 - - -M - -Magdalena, river, 124 - -Manzanilla, island, 48 - -Maranhão, revolt of, 255 - -Martinique, women of, 64-66 - -Maté, 186, 192-194 - -Matto Grosso, 220, 245 - -Melgarejo, President of Bolivia, 155, 156 - -Mendoza, 173-174 - - “ wine of, 213 - -Mercedes, 216 - -Mihanovitch Steamship Company, 208 - -Minas Geraes, 288, 291 - -Miramar, 160 - -Missiones, 199 - -Misti, mountain, 151 - -Mitre, General Bartolomé, 197 - -Mollendo, 149, 150 - -Montevideo, 200, 209 - -Moreno, 129 - -Morgan, Henry, 36, 37, 45 - - -N - -National Library, Rio, 267 - -Negro labour, 60 - -Nelson, Horatio, 76 - -New Granada, 117 - -Newspaper offices, Rio, 267 - -Nicaragua, canal scheme, 76, 77, 92 - -Nictheroy (Rio), 265 - -Nitrates, 164 - -Novo Friburgo, 288 - - -O - -O’Higgins, 160, 162 - -Opera House (Rio), 267 - -Ouro Preto, 289 - -Ouvidor, Rua do (Rio), 265-268 - - -P - -Palace of Fine Arts (Rio), 267 - -Palacete do Friburgo (Rio), 272 - -Panama, 17, 33, 40 - - “ cemetery, 105 - - “ churches, 99, 100, 101 - - “ country life, 67 - - “ founded, 97 - - “ old, 107 - - “ Plaza, 108 - - “ Railroad, 49 - - “ scandals, 50 - - “ social functions in, 113, 116 - -Panamanians, 104, 150 - -Paraguay, 208, 226, 232, 240, 260 - - “ river, 214, 219, 238, 241 - -Parahyba, river, 275 - -Parana, river, 200, 238, 300 - -Parnahyba Falls, 319 - -Paulistas, 254, 293 - -Paysandu, 209 - -Pearl Islands, 32 - -Pedrarias, 29, 140 - -Pedro I, 259 - -Penna, President of Brazil, 273 - -Penteado, Condé de, 310 - -Peoples of Brazil, 249 - -Pernambuco, 253, 296, 297 - -Peru, 136-147 - -Petropolis, 286 - -Piraguas, 124 - -Pirapora, 323 - -Pizarro, 20, 153, 161, 162 - -Plaza de Mayo, Buenos Ayres, 168 - -Politics in Colombia, 119 - -Poncho, the, 186 - -Portobello, 37, 38 - -Portuguese, 252, 254 - - “ houses, 300 - -Posadas, 214 - -Prado, Antonio, 330 - -Puno, 151 - - -Q - -Quito, 127 - - -R - -Railways of Peru, 144 - -Resources of Peru, 137 - -Revolutions in Colombia, 119 - - “ in Ecuador, 130 - - “ in Paraguay, 245 - - “ in Rio, 280-281 - -Rhea, the, 181, 182 - -Rio Branco, Baron de, 272 - -Rio de Janeiro, 254, 328 - - “ “ harbour, 263, 265 - -River Plate, 220 - -Rocafuerte, 129 - -Rogas, Liberado M., 247 - -Roosevelt, Theodore, 59, 95, 103 - -Rosario, 170, 171 - -Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company, 75, 295, 299 - -Rural Society, Argentina, 206 - - -S - -Saavedra, Angel, 72 - -Saladero, the, 186, 198, 199, 200 - -Salto, 210, 213 - -San Lorenzo, 40 - -San Martin, General, 128, 160, 177, 178, 212, 217 - -San Miguel, Gulf of, 28 - -Santa Cruz (Rio), 278 - -Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien, 18 - -São Paulo, 254, 262, 267, 299-318 - - “ “ Early history, 302, 328 - - “ “ Light and Power Company, 319 - -São Paulo Railway, 317 - - “ “ Theatre, 309 - -Savana, river, 78 - -Selfridge, Commander, 79 - -Serra do Mar, 301 - -Sharp’s Map, 220 - -Shipbuilding in Brazil, 283 - -Slave Trade, 34, 251. - -Swiss colony in Brazil, 288 - -Sun worshippers, 139 - - -T - -Tacna, 145 - -Tarapaca, 145 - -Tehuantepec route, 76, 80 - -Temple of the Sun, 151 - -Tieté, river, 300, 322 - -Tijuca, 276 - -Ticlio, 144 - -Titicaca, lake, 151, 156, 157 - -Tobago, 59 - -Tortuga, 34, 35, 47 - -Tumbez, 138, 140 - -Trans-Andean Railway, 178 - - -U - -Uruguay, 199, 200, 208, 246 - - -V - -Valdivia, 162 - -Valparaiso, 157, 158 - -Venezuela, 117 - -Vernon, Admiral, 121 - -Vespucci, Amerigo, 253 - -Vianna, island, 278 - -Villetta, 224, 248 - -Vina do Mar, 160 - - -W - -Wentworth, General, 121 - -Wheelwright’s survey for Canal, 75 - - -Y - -Yellow fever, 124 - -Yerba (maté), 186, 192, 193, 194, 232 - -Ypiranga, 306 - - - WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD., - PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH, - - * * * * * - - A Page of Travel-Books - - - California: An Englishman’s Impression of the Golden State. - - By A. T. JOHNSON. With many illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, - 10s. 6d. net. - -Mr. Johnson declares that California is a land “where wealth accumulates -and men decay.” He notes the Californian’s egoism and distrust, and, -without dwelling on the history or politics of the State, gives a record -of observations of the simple and everyday things of life in the Far -West. - - - Everyman’s Eldorado--British South America. - - By EDITH A. BROWNE, Author of “Peeps at Greece and Spain,” etc. - Fully illustrated. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 125. 6d. net. - -British Guiana is an undeveloped country with a high commercial value -and a delightful climate: a land where the holiday-maker can explore -unbeaten tracks without discomfort and enjoy to the full the fascination -of unique surroundings. Miss Edith A. Browne relates the history of the -country, discusses its future, and in her charming style gives -picturesque descriptions. - - -Half Hours in the Levant. - - By ARCHIBALD B. SPENS, Author of “Love’s Outlaws,” etc. With 32 - illustrations. Crown 8vo, 1s. net. - -Mr. Spens is a novelist of some repute, and this rambling and discursive -book of travels in the Near East is enlivened by his “by the way” notes. -He visited Algeria, Constantinople, Corsica, Crete, Naples, and many -other places of interest. The book might be compared to Mark Twain’s -“Innocents Abroad.” - - -The Lords of the Devil’s Paradise. - - By G. SIDNEY PATERNOSTER, Author of “The Hand of the Spoiler,” etc. - With several illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 5s. net. - -This book tells the story of the Putumayo Rubber Atrocities in its -entirety, putting the blame on the right shoulders and showing the steps -which led to the exposure. Mr. Paternoster has been for twenty-two years -connected with “Truth,” the paper which first published the terrible -account, and his description is therefore authoritative. Several -illustrations from photographs emphasize the truth of the story. - - - LONDON: STANLEY PAUL & CO. - 31 ESSEX STREET, STRAND, W.C. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Ilex paraguayensis_ is the scientific name of the yerba shrub or -tree. Amongst other varieties from which tea is obtained are the _I. -curitibensis_, _I. gigantea_, _I. ovalifolia_, _I. humboldtiana_. - -[2] Bartolomé Mitre was born in 1821, and was, after a military career, -selected President in 1862. In 1865 he allied his country with Brazil -in operations against Paraguay. - -[3] One or two of the planters were notable exceptions to the general -opposition to the liberation. Antonio du Silva Prado, a wealthy -Paulista and the owner of hundreds of slaves, performed a noble act -when he set all his negroes at liberty before the law was passed, and -many planters in São Paulo followed his example by freeing their slaves -forthwith. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Tour Through South America, by -A. 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