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diff --git a/old/56304-0.txt b/old/56304-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5a8abfb..0000000 --- a/old/56304-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3875 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of American Indian Ways of Life: An -Interpretation of the Archaeolog, by Thorne Deuel - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: American Indian Ways of Life: An Interpretation of the Archaeology of Illinois and Adjoining Areas - Story of Illinois Series, #9 - -Author: Thorne Deuel - -Release Date: January 4, 2018 [EBook #56304] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN INDIAN WAYS OF LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - BOARD OF - ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM ADVISORS - - M. M. Leighton, Ph. D., _Chairman_ - Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana - Everett P. Coleman, M. D. - Coleman Clinic - Canton - Percival Robertson, Ph. D. - The Principia College - Elsah - N. W. McGee, Ph. D. - North Central College - Naperville - Sol Tax, Ph. D. - University of Chicago - Chicago - - Copyright by - ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM - 1958 - - - - - STATE OF ILLINOIS - William G. Stratton, _Governor_ - - DEPT. OF REGISTRATION & EDUCATION—ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM - Vera M. Binks, _Director_ Thorne Deuel, _Museum Director_ - - - STORY OF ILLINOIS SERIES, No. 9 - - - - - AMERICAN INDIAN WAYS OF LIFE - - - An Interpretation of the Archaeology of Illinois and Adjoining Areas - - by - Thorne Deuel - - [Illustration: Seal of the State of Illinois] - - Springfield, Illinois - 1958 - - [Printed by authority of the State of Illinois] - - [Illustration: Site of the ancient Middle Mississippi religious city - on the Kincaid farm near Metropolis, Illinois, as it is today. Four - mounds can be seen; the village area is in the foreground and the - plaza at the right (south) of the largest mound with house on it.] - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - Introduction 5 - Paleo-Indians 9 - Archaic Man 12 - Cultures and Cultural Change 19 - Initial Woodland 20 - Food Storers (Advanced Phase) 23 - The Hopewellian Civilization (Classic Phase) 26 - Final Woodland 30 - Middle Mississippi 34 - Upper Mississippi 42 - The Illini 45 - The Indians Leave Illinois 54 - Summary of Illinois Prehistory 54 - Glossary 59 - Bibliography 67 - Diagram: Stream of Culture 57 - Table I: Stages and Archaeological Units 4 - Table II: Radiocarbon Dates 8 - Table III: Cultural Characteristics of Archaeological Units 70 - - [Illustration: TABLE I. STAGES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS] - - STAGE - SUBSTAGE - ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS - PATTERN - PHASE - SUBCULTURE - TYPE STATIONS - IV. MACHINE AGE - Lacking in the Americas - III. FARMING - DOMESTIC PLANTS AND FOOD-DRAFT ANIMALS - Lacking in the Americas - PLANT-RAISING - MISSISSIPPI - Historic Illini: 1673-1833 - [Illini Tribes] - Brandt II (Ra^v1) - Upper: 1100 (?)-1600 A.D. - Langford - Fisher II and III - Middle: 1000-1500 A.D. - Cumberland - Kincaid Site - Cahokia - Dickson Mound (F^o34) and Fout’s Village (F^v664) - Protomiss - Dillinger Village Site - WOODLAND (Hoe-culture) - Final: 200 (?)-1000 A.D. - Effigy Mound - Tampico - Maples Mills Site - Stone Vault - Spencer Mound Group - Jersey Bluff - Otter Creek Sites - Raymond - Raymond Site - Lewis - Lewis (Pp^v1A) - Classic: 500 B.C-500 A.D. - Hopewell (South) - Hubele Village (Wh^v30) - Wilson Mound (Wh^o6) - Hopewell (North) - Clear Lake Village (T^v1) - Liverpool Mound (F^o77-II) - II. SELF-DOMESTICATION - FOOD-STORING - WOODLAND (Ceramic) - Advanced: 1000 (?)-100 (?) B.C. - Crab Orchard - Sugar Camp Hill Village (Wm^v1) - Baumer - Baumer Hamlet (Mx^v30) - HUNTING-COLLECTING - Initial: 2500-500 B.C. - Morton - F^o14-II and F^v35 - Red Ochre - Hilltop Mound (F^o11) - Black Sand - Liverpool Hamlet and Cemetery (F^v88 and F^o77-I) - LITHIC - Archaic: 8000-2500 B.C. - Terminal - Ferry Site (Hn^v251) and Godar Cemetery - Medial - Modoc II - Simple - Modoc I - Paleo-Indian: 50,000 (?)-8,000 (?) B.C. - Folsom - Fluted points as isolated finds only. - Clovis - I. NATURAL MAN - PROTO-CULTURAL - None found in America - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -This paper is primarily planned for the layman, the beginning student of -prehistory and others interested in acquiring a general understanding of -how primitive man lived during his successive occupations of Illinois -and neighboring areas in the more important archaeological periods. Most -of the archaeological data for the chief cultures or ways of life are -given in references in the accompanying bibliography of technical -publications selected as those from which (in the opinion of the writer) -the information can be most easily gleaned. - -The reconstructions given of the cultural features, where not those -ordinarily inferred from archaeological findings, are based on a study -of the practices commonly found among primitive people now, or until -recently, living in the same stage or substage. These are tentative -conclusions resulting from a study of fifty tribes in the -Self-Domestication (pre-farming) stage and forty in the Plant-Raising -substage. Because primitive tribes which are under pressure from people -with advanced food-draft-animal agriculture or with machine industry or -which are in a transitional condition between two adjacent stages are -disorganized or drastically changing a formerly stabilized mode of life, -great care has been exercised in drawing general conclusions from their -cultural features. - -The reconstructions of the perishable objects shown in the drawings are -generally in keeping with the culture in which they are exhibited but -cannot be vouched for as to their detailed form. The handle of an adze, -the shape of a cabin roof, the headdress of a tribal chief each served -the purpose for which they were made and their exact form was and is of -no more consequence in the culture than the fashions in women’s hats or -the fins on an automobile are in our own. The details in cultures serve -to set them apart from each other; it is the basic and significant -features and subfeatures that determine relationships and permit the -most useful classification. - -The study mentioned above is still incomplete, but results so far -obtained indicate: - -1. That man in the same stage (and substage) of cultural development - _tends_ to invent and employ the same broad social and spiritual - features, regardless of surroundings. - -2. That where significant differences arise between substages of the - same stage, they are (at least sometimes) linked with peculiarities - of climate and/or natural resources which the people have seized - upon and exploited to the improvement of their economic situation. - -3. That many details within these broad types of economic, social and - spiritual features appear to vary unpredictably within the range of - available possibilities. - -The stage and criterion for each were proposed in an earlier issue (No. -6) of this series, _Man’s Venture In Culture_, (Deuel 1950, pp. 5-12) -as: - -1. _Natural Man_ (_Protocultural_), when “man” presumably employed - sticks and stones as implements and weapons. - -2. _Self-Domestication_, following the discovery of the principle of the - conchoidal fracturing of flint and its control, and the invention of - tool and weapon types. - -3. _Farming_ or _Food-Raising_, due to the discovery that grains - (grasses) and food-draft animals could be bred and raised in - captivity. - -4. _Inanimate Power Machine_ (_Machine Age_), after the discovery of the - availability of water and wind as sources for energy and the - adaptation of animal-driven machines to utilize them. - -Man in the wild or Protocultural stage is thought not to have reached -the Americas. The oxlike mammals were not domesticated in America for -drawing ploughs and vehicles, turning grain mills or to serve as a -continuous food supply source. Consequently, we are concerned in the -following discussion only with peoples in the Self-Domestication stage -and the Plant-Raising substage of Farming. - -In ordinary language, the word “culture” is used in a diversity of -senses. In these pages it is used in one of two ways, the one employed -being readily understood from the context. In a general sense, culture -means the significant beliefs, customary activities and social -prohibitions that are peculiar to man (together with the man-made tools, -weapons and other material objects that he finds or has found necessary) -that modify, limit or enhance in some manner, most of his discernible -natural activities due to and arising from his physical animal -inheritance and organization. Culture in a specific sense refers to the -significant cultural features of a group or period under consideration. - -For convenience, any cultural activity according to its dominant purpose -may be spoken of as belonging to one of three aspects of culture, (a) -economic (technological and intellectual); (b) social (and political); -and (c) spiritual (religious, artistic and recreational). To lesser -degrees, most cultural activities have relationships with the two -aspects other than the dominant. - -Certain prevalent archaeological designations have been changed to -remove time implications (e.g. “early” and “late” Woodland to _Initial_ -[beginning] and _Final_ [end of an archaeological series]), or to -shorten (e.g. “Tennessee-Cumberland” or “Gordon-Fewkes” to -_Cumberland_). - -Technical terms have generally been avoided; but where it has seemed -necessary to retain them or to use words in a special sense, they are -explained in the text or can be found in the glossary. The terms -_pattern_ and _phase_ are those generally employed in the McKern system -of classification, for the larger groupings into which it is customary -to place the “cultures” as determined from the typology of the -artifacts, their association in the assemblage and pertinent data -recovered at a site (or local community) with due regard to -circumstances of time and location of other sites nearby and over a -larger area. The largest unit is the _pattern_ which is made up of a -number of _phases_. Cultural divisions smaller than these units are -spoken of here as _subcultures_. - -The approximate relationships of the archaeological units to the broader -cultural stages and substages are given in Table I, page 4. The -succession and coexistence of the archaeological units is indicated in -the diagram “The Stream of Culture”, p. 57. The summary of -“Characteristics of the Archaeological-Cultural Units” occurs on pages -70-76. - -This is a story mainly of Illinois when occupied by American Indians but -it would not give a reasonably true picture without showing the known -extensions of some of the cultures into surrounding areas and the -probable intrusions from outside the state. - -Of necessity in attempting a summary of the archaeology of Illinois and -adjacent areas, the writer has had to lean heavily on the field work and -reports of the many anthropologists who have contributed so much to the -present understanding of the American Indian in the United States. To -this invaluable source material and to these able scientists the -indebtedness of the writer is acknowledged to be very great indeed. In -the compass of a work of this type it is impossible to name them or give -them credit for original or similar views, nor is it practicable to -include in the bibliography all the publications used. - -Acknowledgment of assistance is made especially to Georg K. Neumann, -Joseph R. Caldwell and Melvin L. Fowler, Milton D. Thompson, Ruth Kerr, -Nora Deuel and Orvetta Robinson for reading and discussing the -manuscript from various viewpoints, to Dr. James B. Griffin for helpful -information on the dates of sites and of archaeological data, to Irvin -Peithmann, Southern Illinois University, for photographs furnished, for -information on sites he had discovered and the privilege of visiting -them in his company, to George Langford for photographs and data -regarding the Fisher site, to Charles Hodge for all photographs -reproduced not otherwise credited, and to Jerry Connolly, Bettye -Broyles, Barbara Parmalee and Jeanne McCarty for their excellent -drawings. Without all this considerable and valuable aid the publication -could not have been completed. - - - TABLE II. RADIOCARBON DATES[1] - - CULTURAL UNIT C14 DATE SITE STATE COUNTY - - MIDDLE MISSISSIPPI A.D. 1420±200 Crable Village Illinois Fulton - MIDDLE MISSISSIPPI 1326±250 Nodena Village Arkansas Arkansas - MIDDLE MISSISSIPPI 1156±200 Cahokia Illinois Madison - EFFIGY MOUND[2] 1041±212 Effigy Mounds Iowa Allamakee - National Park - HOPEWELLIAN 508±60 Twenhafel Illinois Jackson - (Weber) Md. - HOPEWELLIAN 432±200 Rutherford Illinois Hardin - Mound - HOPEWELLIAN 256±200 Knight Mound Illinois Calhoun - HOPEWELLIAN 214±250 Baehr Mound Illinois Brown - HOPEWELLIAN[2] B.C. 48±160 Hopewellian Ohio Ross - Group Mound #25 - HOPEWELLIAN[3] 57±108 Wilson Mound Illinois White - HOPEWELLIAN 315±164 Havana Mound Illinois Mason - ADENA 423±150 Toepfner Mound Ohio Franklin - #I - ADENA 697±170 Dover Mound Kentucky Mason - ARCHAIC 704±80 Poverty Point Louisiana W. Carroll - (N.E.) Parish - ADENA 826±410 Toepfner Mound Ohio Franklin - #II - ARCHAIC 904±90 Poverty Point Louisiana W. Carroll - (N.E.) Parish - ARCHAIC 1624±300 Kays Landing Tennessee Humphrey - ARCHAIC[2] 2170±215 Indian Knoll Kentucky Ohio - ARCHAIC[2] 2360±270 Annis Mound Kentucky Butler - ARCHAIC 2765±300 Modoc Rock Illinois Randolph - Shelter - ARCHAIC 2812±250 Perry Site Alabama Lauderdale - (N.W.) - ARCHAIC 2950±250 Annis Shell Kentucky Butler - Mound - ARCHAIC 3325±300 Modoc Rock Illinois Randolph - Shelter - ARCHAIC 3352±300 Indian Knoll Kentucky Ohio - ARCHAIC 3646±400 Oconto Old Wisconsin Oconto - Copper Site (E.) - ARCHAIC[2] 3657±164 Modoc Rock Illinois Randolph - Shelter - ARCHAIC 5194±500 Eva Site Tennessee Benton - ARCHAIC 5556±400 Oconto Old Wisconsin Oconto - Copper Site (E.) - ARCHAIC 5945±500 Graham Cave Missouri Montgomery - ARCHAIC 6204±300 Russell Cave Alabama Jackson - ARCHAIC[2] 6219±388 Modoc Rock Illinois Randolph - Shelter - ARCHAIC 7310±352 Graham Cave Missouri Montgomery - ARCHAIC 7922±392 Modoc Rock Illinois Randolph - Shelter - PALEO-INDIAN 7934±350 Lubbock Site Texas Lubbock - (Folsom)[2] (N.W.) - PALEO-INDIAN 18,000 Sandia Cave New Mexico Bernalillo - (Sandia) (Center) - PALEO-INDIAN (?) 22,000 Tule Spring Nevada Clark - Site (S.E.) - PALEO-INDIAN 35,000 Lewisville Site Texas Denton - (Clovis?)[4] - - -[1]These dates are selected as giving a significant picture of sequence - and contemporaneity of cultures. Dates based on shell specimens are - excluded on account of their general unreliability. Adena sites are - not included after 400 B.C. These are burial mounds and with their - inferred customs may be present in two or more cultural units rather - than constitute a feature characteristic of one. - -[2]An average of at least two dates for this period. - -[3]Average of three out of four dates. Libby’s second date disregarded - as widely out of line. - -[4]Two samples gave identical results. Cultural identification as Clovis - based on single spearhead is doubtful. - - - - - PALEO-INDIANS, BIG GAME HUNTERS, DISCOVER A NEW WORLD (50,000? to - 8,000? B.C.)[5] - - -Man probably discovered America as early as 50,000 years ago and -gradually occupied the two continents in the succeeding millenia. The -first discoverers of the New World were of Mongolian racial stock as are -the American Indians. They crossed from Siberia to Alaska over an -existing land bridge, over ice, or possibly by wading or by boat over -the shallow sea in the wake of mammoth, mastodon or musk ox herds on -whose flesh they lived. Following in the path of the huge animals, they -made their way possibly up the Yukon from its mouth to the divide, -thence down into the Mackenzie Basin, and along a great river where now -exist a chain of lakes and so into the Mississippi Valley. - -The migrants trailing each herd doubtless traveled in their several ways -in family groups, uniting from time to time to trap and kill one of the -great shaggy beasts. When the animals stopped, the families bedded down -nearby in the most sheltered spots available taking care not to lose -touch with the herd. These were wanderers, not explorers, nor were they -seeking new homes; they were hunters that traveled where the herd led. - - [Illustration: Fig. 1. Archaic flint drill, stone hammer, and flint - scraper as used in Archaic period and their modern steel - counterparts. (B.B.)] - - [Illustration: Fig. 2. Paleo-Indians attack a mired-down mammoth. - (B.G.P.)] - - [Illustration: Fig. 3. Paleo-Indian spearheads from the William - Small collection. A, B, and C are Clovis points; D, a Folsom point. - All are from Illinois.] - -Their belongings, by our standards, were pitifully few, their way of -life laborious, full of hardship and danger, but their needs were simple -and their means of meeting them doubtless seemed ample to these hardy -hunters. The chief weapon was a thrusting spear with a chipped flint -head and a long shaft to keep the hunter as far from harm’s way as -possible when attacking the dangerous animal. The narrow width of the -spearpoint made it easy to withdraw from a wound and attack again. Our -evidence that the Paleo-Indians (as the Big Game Hunters are commonly -called) lived in Illinois are these same spearheads (Clovis and Folsom -types), usually grooved or fluted lengthwise of the blade, which are -scattered over much of the Illinois prairie as isolated finds. No -campsites of this people have yet been discovered in Illinois, as they -have been in Pennsylvania, Alabama and several southwestern states. We -can only surmise that in Illinois the hunters also had stone hammers and -chipped flint scrapers as they had elsewhere. - -Having arrived in the great central valley between the Rocky Mountains -and the eastern ranges, the herds probably moved slowly from one -browsing ground to another in the open corridor between glaciers. It may -have taken them many years to reach what is now the United States. -Eventually the herds wandered back and forth across the Mississippi -Valley, and some favorable spots came to be used as camping grounds -again and again by the same or different families. Such places would -appeal immediately to the campers because of their protection from rain -and the piercing glacial winds, the presence of a plentiful supply of -wood and water. The possibility of our gaining a better knowledge of -Paleo-Indian life in Illinois rests on the discovery of such a site, -difficult now to recognize because it may no longer provide wood, water, -or shelter of any sort. - -There are in southern Illinois a number of simple linear stone piles -known locally as “stone forts,” all in the same type of land structure. -Each forms an obstruction five to fifteen feet in height across a narrow -neck or ridge leading to the plateau top of a near-vertical-sided -“promontory” projecting out into a stream valley, making an excellent -corral, with no fence necessary except across the entrance. They may -have been used in late Paleo-Indian times and on into the Archaic period -for impounding large game and/or driving them over the cliff. - - - - - ARCHAIC MAN, FIRST SETTLER IN ILLINOIS (8000 to 2500 B.C.)[6] - - -We have reason to believe that the Big Game Hunters wandered over -Illinois and the adjoining states during the last advance of the -glaciers. Around 12,000 B.C. the climate in the Midwest became milder, -the glaciers “retreated,” and the mighty torrents—the Mississippi, the -Ohio and the Illinois that had torn irresistibly down their -valleys—shrank into smaller, less turbulent rivers that occupied but a -fraction of their former beds. The great shaggy mammoths, musk oxen, the -ground sloths and the giant beavers moved westward toward the mountains -or to the north. - -Some of the Big Game Hunters with their families may have followed the -retreating glacier and the herds; others stayed behind in country to -which they had grown attached. With the great herds gone, the human -families remaining in Illinois had to hunt the game animals that now -frequented the area—deer, elk (wapiti), bear and smaller mammals. The -large hunting party was no longer practicable. The game roamed over the -country singly or by twos or threes and had to be stalked by one or two -hunters. Families were compelled to live widely separated one from -another in order to secure ample food throughout the year. Thus -developed a new way of life which we call the Archaic phase or culture. - -The hunter, as time passed, learned the secret habits of the deer, bear -and raccoon and the more sluggish fishes. His wife and daughters learned -the haunts and ways of the smaller animals, the rodents, turtles and -lizards, discovered where edible greens, wild tubers, nuts and fruits -grew and where mussels and snails abounded in creeks and rivers. With -increasing knowledge Archaic man made better and fuller use of his -changed and changing surroundings, food became more plentifully -available, life easier and less hazardous though still very difficult -from our standpoint. - - [Illustration: Fig. 4. Hafted primitive stone adze and grooved ax, - with modern steel-bitted ax in the background. (B.B.)] - -With new needs and some leisure from the labor of providing food, -Archaic man invented specialized devices, new methods of making tools -and weapons, the more skillful among them shaping the objects carefully -into symmetrical forms pleasing to the eye of others and strangely -satisfying to the maker.[7] He pecked a hollow in both sides of his -cobblestone hammer so he could grip it securely and use it more -skillfully. He pecked and ground diorite and granite into adzes, -hatchets (celts), and axes with a groove for hafting. These were a -decided improvement over flaked choppers. He ground and polished banded -and highly-colored shale (“slate”) into prismatic and cylindrical -spearthrower weights and bored them with a tube, sand and water. His own -person he decked out with necklaces and oval pendants (made by boring a -hole in smooth flat waterworn pebbles) and with bone ornaments cut to -shape, ground, engraved and polished. These he and his wife wore as had -their forefathers but not the skin robes of glacial times. - -As life grew easier, the family or local group increased in size. Sons -brought their wives to the family dwelling place and built windbreaks -near those of their parents. With food abundant the little settlement -became a small cluster of households or a hamlet consisting possibly of -sixty to seventy persons. - - - If Archaic Man Was Like Present-Day Archaic Tribes[8] - - [Illustration: Fig. 5. Rock shelter near Cobden. Such shelters were - used by Archaic and succeeding peoples. (Photograph by Irvin - Peithmann)] - -If Archaic man in Illinois lived as do present-day Archaic peoples, the -family or local group, though they restricted themselves during most of -the year to their hunting grounds which they guarded jealously from -trespassers, did not camp continuously in one spot. At appropriate -seasons of the year they rotated from one hamlet site to another to take -advantage of the food resources of that locality. In winter perhaps they -moved to a rock shelter, like that of Modoc in Randolph County, -Illinois, near the wooded valleys of streams emptying into the river -where deer and elk sought protection from the rigors of winter; in -spring to upland lakes for duck and other waterfowl; and in autumn to -wooded parklands to harvest acorns, hickory nuts, and berries. The spot -chosen for each hamlet location was generally one that had been so used -at that same season from time out of mind by the family and its -forebears. - - [Illustration: Fig. 6. Primitive woman carrying a load with the aid - of a tumpline. (J.C.)] - -It is probable, as among most primitive peoples, that men did only work -thought suitable to men, and women that appropriate for women. Men made -the weapons and tools they used, did the hunting and fishing, and the -fighting (when quarrels developed into feuds or wars between local -groups of the same tribe). The rest of the labor fell to the -women—caring for the children, collecting edible plants, clams and small -animals, preparing the food, and carrying burdens. All work was done by -hand; loads were carried on the back. It is possible that boats, perhaps -of dugout type, were used as among present-day Archaic peoples living on -waterways. There was no other specialization and each “household” -provided for the needs of all its members to the best of its ability. No -food was grown and no domestic animal except the dog was known. - -Once or twice a year when food was easily and bountifully available, -local groups from nearby hunting territories met together for religious -rites. These local groups spoke the same dialect, had the same way of -life, and considered themselves a unit or tribe. They had no political -form of government but were kept in order through habits formed by early -training and by extension of the kinship system to the whole tribe. Thus -the tribal elders were considered fathers and mothers, and to them were -due obedience and respect, just as children they had been taught to -regard their own blood fathers, uncles, and other older relatives. The -elders knew the tribal customs; and to be accepted as a tribal member, -boys must respect, learn and conform to these customs. - -The object of these annual gatherings was to teach the young the tribal -customs and to perform solemn ceremonies, the purpose of which was to -insure the security and well-being of the tribe, a continuing abundance -of the favorite foods, and to express gratitude and thanksgiving to -unseen Spirits who watched over the game animals (and possibly the -edible plants) for the blessings received during the past year. These -gatherings and cooperative undertakings served, on the one hand, as a -welcome change from the usual daily grind and afforded opportunities for -the young to get acquainted and choose mates and, on the other, to unify -the language and customs of the constituent local groups, to enhance the -influence of the tribal elders and keep fresh in the minds of all the -history of the tribe, the importance of its activities, and its sacred -tradition, all essential to the way of life of dynamic Archaic peoples -of recent times. - - [Illustration: Fig. 7. Fertility rites were probably performed by - Archaic peoples to ensure the abundance of game animals for the next - year. (J.C.)] - - [Illustration: Fig. 8. Archaic weapons: A, Hidden Valley type - spearhead; B, prismatic atlatl weight of polished red shale; C, - throwing a spear with an atlatl; D, socketed antler spearhead; E, - short thrusting spear or javelin. A, B, and D are from Modoc Shelter - in Randolph County, Illinois.] - -In the later (Medial) Archaic period at Modoc, the dead were buried in -the floor of the rock shelter. Burial probably indicates a belief in -life after death. Care in preparing the body for burial, in the funeral -rites and burying, and in the customary mourning thereafter was highly -important so the dead man could go promptly to the spirit world in peace -and not remain in the neighborhood to disturb his kinsmen. Immediately -after the burial, it is probable that the little settlement removed to a -distant location as is customary with peoples in this stage of culture. - -The rites for important dead in the Terminal period probably began with -the conventional mourning of relatives, with painting the body with red -ochre and grease and adorning it with the dead man’s jewelry, followed -at the appropriate time by the conveyance of the body to the grave side, -where the corpse was deposited in a pit together with personal insigne -and weapons. The grooved stone axe, large spearheads, daggers, -bannerstones, spearthrower with weight and more rarely copper articles -were placed alongside or on the corpse. In some instances large stones -were laid upon the grave probably for one or more of the following -reasons: (a) to mark the grave of an important tribesman; (b) to keep -the body from being disturbed by animals; and (c) to hold the dead man’s -ghost until he departed for the spirit world. - - [Illustration: Fig. 9. Grooved stone axes are frequently found in - Archaic graves but were not buried with the dead after this period. - (J.C.)] - -It is very probable that, on occasions of social and religious import, -Modoc man and other Archaic tribes in Illinois bedecked themselves in -their best paint and jewelry. Possibly the colorful and intriguing -bannerstones, which were undoubtedly developed from the spearthrower -weight, were carried or worn by the local group headmen who had won that -right because they were skillful hunters, courageous fighters, or -learned in the tribal customs and beliefs and thus recognized by the -tribe as leaders for the time being. - - [Illustration: Fig. 10. Anculosa shell necklace with flat pendant of - water-worn stone from the Archaic period. Anculosa necklaces were - worn by many Illinois peoples probably up to the European contact - period.] - - - - - CULTURES AND CULTURAL CHANGE - - -Man can live virtually anywhere on the earth’s surface where he can -obtain food, water and fuel, and do so without any fundamental change in -his physical structure. This is largely because he is easily able to -modify his customary ways of filling his basic needs under new or -changing conditions of his surroundings. For primitive man to “live -better” required an increasing knowledge of the resources in his -locality and ingenuity in devising effective means and contrivances for -exploiting them. - -Because of this ability, the Paleo-Indian wanderers (Big Game Hunters) -in Illinois around 12,000 to 10,000 B.C., when confronted with rising -temperatures and other regional changes, could choose whether they would -follow the mammoth and musk ox herds and familiar subglacial conditions -elsewhere or adopt new and strange methods of securing food and other -requirements. - -As Big Game Hunters they probably lived as a number of families attached -to a herd and relatively independent of each other except at hunting -times. They had no homes, only temporary camps, and were bound to a -moving herd, not to any particular region. The Paleo-Indian culture -consisted of methods of trapping and slaying the great beasts and of -filling other simple physical needs; a simple code of social behavior -which enabled men and wives to live together with their children and, -for brief periods, in gatherings of the families in relative peace and -contentment; with religious beliefs and rites suitable to their cultural -level that they believed assured them of a continuance of their -satisfactory existence. - -When the climate changed, those families that chose to remain in -Illinois had to develop, perhaps slowly and painfully, a new way of -life. The habits and haunts of deer, elk, bear and raccoon had to be -learned. Other methods of hunting and of making tools and devices to fit -new conditions were invented as a result of the new fund of knowledge -assembled. Each family eventually acquired a more or less definite piece -of land or hunting territory in which it selected certain favorable -places to build the temporary hamlet at suitable seasons. As the man and -his family became better adapted to the land and its resources, he -hunted more successfully, and the family or local group grew larger in -number. - -Probably a number of neighboring families, when food was especially -abundant, gathered together for social and religious purposes as peoples -living today in the same status still do. Religious beliefs and other -customs had all this time doubtless been shifting gradually in meeting -the needs and dangers of changing conditions to a new way of life we -call the Archaic culture. - -Every way of life is built on an older, often simpler, culture from -which it has changed more or less rapidly. Due to important inventions, -the group may modify its economy (ways of securing and processing food, -etc.) and produce a substantially improved manner of living which, from -archaeological evidence alone, may be difficult to recognize as a -development from its earlier phase. - -On occasion, people from another region may invade an area, drive out -the inhabitants and bring in a differing way of life. Usually this -merely extends, to a desirable region less effectively exploited by -others, the range of a vigorous cultural group whose territory has -become too densely populated. - -Sometimes newcomers essay to live peaceably with the natives and a new -cultural blend is developed. If fundamental changes are made in the -economy by internal development or by imitating another culture, social -and religious customs are very likely to change too, though usually at a -slower pace. - -As time went on, the Archaic way of life slowly changed and finally -disappeared, but probably not so suddenly as might at first appear; for -many Archaic customs, tools, and weapons continued to be made and used -in the “new” culture by the descendants of rugged earlier people or were -adopted by newcomers to the region. Other changes were added through new -inventions and incoming people from other regions producing a new -culture now generally known as Woodland. - - - - - THE INITIAL WOODLAND CULTURES[9] (2500-500 B.C.) - - -After 5000 B.C. the temperatures continued to rise producing a climatic -interval known as the Thermal Maximum when it was warmer and drier than -at the present time. After reaching its high point, the temperature -gradually declined and probably ended in southern Illinois about 2100 -B.C. or later in a climate much like that of today. - -By projecting the rate of deposit from the eight- to the eleven-foot -level of the Modoc Rock Shelter up to the five-foot level where the -Archaic remains appear to end, we secure a date for its upper limit of -about 2100 B.C. (Deuel 1957, p. 2). The remains between the five- and -eight-foot depths are scantier and less varied than in the earlier -(lower) layers and may indicate a cultural group in a losing struggle to -maintain itself under changing conditions. - - [Illustration: Fig. 11. Potsherds from the Lake Baikal in southern - Siberia resemble those of Initial and Classic Woodland (Hopewellian) - in Illinois. The letters with subscripts refer to Siberian pottery. - A-E, reduced to ½ actual size; F-H, reduced to ¹/₁₆ actual size. - (Siberian pottery from Richthofen in ANTHROPOS, 1932: 128, 129, 130; - Illinois pottery from Illinois State Museum collections.)] - -In northern Illinois, similar climatic conditions were developing. -There, possibly as early as 2500 B.C., a new culture, the Initial -(early) Woodland, was coming into existence. At any rate, groups living -there some time prior to 1000 B.C. made pottery, placed their dead in -cemeteries and in low burial mounds in a flexed or “doubled-up” -position, occasionally with food, personal ornaments and other funeral -offerings. - - [Illustration: Fig. 12. A flint dagger or hunting knife from “Red - Ochre subculture” of Initial Woodland. (B.B.)] - -The pottery of one Woodland group (Morton) in the Illinois valley -resembled, in shape, surface treatment, design and area decorated, pots -made in the Lake Baikal region in Asia some 7000 miles distant. The -appearance of such striking similarities has long been a puzzle to -anthropologists. In the first place the detailed likenesses suggest both -were made by one and the same people. It seems fairly obvious that the -several resemblances did not travel from tribe to tribe from Asia to -central North America. The preservation of a pottery tradition during a -migration of 7000 miles, probably lasting for several generations, seems -equally incredible. Perhaps the most plausible explanation is that two -widely separated divisions of a people originating in central Asia with -the same cultural background and similar surroundings arrived -independently at a remarkably similar but very simple pottery type. - - [Illustration: Fig. 13. A copper gorget, A, (possibly patterned - after the double-bitted ax-shaped bannerstone) and shell gorgets, B - and C, from “Red Ochre subculture” of Initial Woodland. All from - Mound 11, Fulton County, Illinois.] - -These late migrants probably found groups like the Black Sand (and Red -Ochre) peoples in Illinois who were just emerging from the Archaic phase -into Initial Woodland. The settlements of all early Woodland peoples -were small in extent and poor in cultural remains. The population of -these hamlets probably seldom exceeded fifty. No traces of house -structures have yet been discerned. Temporary huts, probably built of -small poles and brush, may have been conical or hemispherical in shape. -The artifacts or cultural objects, except for a small amount of jewelry -(shell and copper beads and pendants) and the few offerings placed in -graves, show little evidence of any urge to fine workmanship or much -feeling for beauty of line or form. Life was probably too hard and the -effort in securing food and other requirements too exacting to leave -much leisure for artistic workmanship in durable materials.[10] - - - - - THE FOOD STORERS (BAUMER AND CRAB ORCHARD CULTURES) (1000?-100 B.C.?) - - -It has been seen that in southern Illinois the Archaic way of life may -have persisted until 2100 B.C. or perhaps even later. Across the state -on the Ohio River a Woodland people succeeded the earlier Archaic -residents. Their culture is known as Baumer and their nearest cultural -relatives lived south of the Ohio in Kentucky (Round Grave or Upper -Valley People). The Baumer artifacts do not resemble those of the -Archaic period very closely, giving one the impression that the Baumer -people developed their way of life elsewhere and moved into Illinois, -possibly while Archaic groups were still in the region. - -The Baumer culture differs in several ways from the northern Initial -Woodland; actually it appears to be more advanced although it has been -termed early Woodland by some archaeologists. In the first place, the -area of settlement was more extensive which seems to indicate a larger -population than do early northern Woodland campsites. Their artifacts -are numerous and varied, suggesting they were well adapted to their -surroundings. Flat forms of polished stone (resembling in outline -certain Archaic bannerstones from which they may have derived) served -presumably as breast ornaments or gorgets (as similar pieces did in the -Hopewellian period). Tear-shaped stone objects (plummets) were made as -they had been in Medial and Terminal Archaic. House structures were -semi-permanent, large, square, made of poles or logs set in holes in the -ground. Huts with circular floors seem to have been in use also. Most -important of the cultural habits noted were numerous pits apparently for -the storage of food. In these the remains of acorns and hickory nuts -were found. These people, like the acorn gatherers of California and the -Eskimo, knew how to preserve food over long periods. Acorns were -probably abundant enough for a Baumer family to lay up several months’ -supply in a short time. This permitted them to live in larger -settlements and gave them sufficient leisure to build rather substantial -houses and shape symmetrical ornaments from stone. These facts seem to -substantiate the hypothesis that they were a sedentary people by virtue -of their knowledge of how to store food. - - [Illustration: Fig. 14. Housewife storing roasted acorns in a pit - near door of her square log cabin dwelling. Characteristic clay - vessel (“flower-pot” type) with “mat-impressed exterior.” Baumer - period. (J.C.)] - - [Illustration: Fig. 15. A, stone pestle; B, reel-shaped stone - gorget; C, “spud-shaped” stone gorget or pendant; D, grooved - plummet. From the Baumer subculture and site.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 16. Pots from the Crab Orchard period of Baumer - subculture recovered from the Sugar Camp Hill Site by Moreau Maxwell - for Southern Illinois University. Vessel in center is roughly 16″ - tall. (Photographs furnished through courtesy of Dr. James B. - Griffin, Univ. of Michigan.)] - -The size of the Baumer settlement, the semi-permanent houses, the -presence of chipped spades, stone pestles and pottery might lead one to -think that these people were plant-growers rather than simple food -storers. Comparing them with the acorn-gathering tribes of California, -who were storers and not food growers, it is seen that these, too, had -permanent settlements with well over one hundred inhabitants, rather -substantial houses, stone pestles, and some tribes, at least, had -pottery vessels. The Californians doubtless had digging tools since the -rooms of some houses were dug four feet down into the soil. - -Traces of Hopewellian influence, possibly indicating inter-marriage with -Hopewellians, have been noted at the Sugar Camp Hill site (date -undetermined) in Jackson County, which is presumably later than Baumer. -However, the Baumerians like the native Californians were conservative, -for four centuries intervened between the oldest Hopewellian village in -the north and the earliest known station of that culture in southern -Illinois.[11] - - - - - THE HOPEWELLIAN CIVILIZATION[12] (500 B.C.-500 A.D.) - - -Toward the end of the Initial Woodland period maize or corn, as we call -it today, was introduced into northern Illinois, presumably from Mexico -and Middle America through the agency of intervening tribes. In an -apparently short time, its production seems to have been greatly -intensified and exploited. Other food crops and tobacco may have -accompanied maize. - -About the same time, a formalized religion arose, probably concerned -with the worship of deities who personified natural forces like the sun, -rain and thunder, which were important to a plant-growing people. From -the evidence of burial places, there seem to have been two or possibly -three social classes. Doubtless the first comprised the families who -introduced and grew the new food plants and who were inspired to invent -the complex religion. The burial of the dead, especially those socially -important and of the highest class, was accompanied by elaborate and -colorful ceremonies closely bound to the religion. This seems to be a -continuation in grander form of the earlier Red Ochre funeral and -burial. It is unfortunate that we do not have tangible evidence of their -other religious and political ceremonies which may have been even more -impressive and significant. The official dress and insignia of the -officials, which we can barely glimpse in the rich and varied remains in -the tombs, signify a political system of social control and an -established priesthood for the spiritual guidance of the community. -Shamans or medicine men probably had only the duty of treating disease. -Reverence for and possibly worship of ancestors is suggested by the -impressive tomb chambers and mounds and the care obviously bestowed on -certain of their socially prominent dead. - -Social and political prestige, religious pomp and ceremonial, all seem -to have combined to stimulate a demand for rare materials, beautiful -jewels and impressive regalia. This initiated the search for pearls at -home, the development of skillful and artistic workmanship in flint, -bone, shell, copper and mica, travel abroad and trade in materials -obtainable only in distant regions. - -Aside from those technologies connected with the growing of plant foods, -probably few new crafts appeared in the culture; rather those already, -existing in the Initial Woodland were raised to a high degree of -excellence. Art in several forms flourished—carving in the round and in -relief, the making of fine symmetrical polished, decorated and painted -pottery commonly called typical Hopewellian, hammered copper jewelry, -the setting of pearls and highly-colored native stones as eyes in -sculptured animals and in bear-tooth pendants and ear ornaments, etching -of delicate designs, naturalistic and conventional, on bone and the -modeling and firing of exquisite statuettes in clay. We admire and -wonder at the excellence of execution in the best of their small -sculpture because they are skillfully fashioned and finished and because -they so accurately portray the characteristics and habits of animals -with which we are familiar. The artist had the crudest of tools to aid -him—rough stone hammers and an anvil for pecking stone to the general -form; sandstone files or abraders; clay and water to polish pieces; -flint and tubular drills for boring; and flint knives to cut and engrave -pottery and bone—in spite of which the best craftsmen well knew how to -bring out the beauty of the piece. - - [Illustration: Fig. 17. Artist’s idea of a Hopewellian chief or high - priest in full ceremonial regalia. (J.C.) Evidence for dress (except - for calumet) has been found in Illinois.] - -For the first time in Amerindian history in Illinois we become aware of -an accumulation of wealth, a surplus of handmade goods over and above -those needed for survival; many of these were neither well-suited nor -intended for immediate physical needs, but rather were aimed at social -display or spiritual enhancement. Wealth reflects a relatively constant -and abundant supply of food and other necessities and the resulting -accompaniment of considerable leisure time for a sizable portion of the -community. It may also mark the beginning of craft specialization.[13] - -It is hardly necessary to add that, if such a profusion of grave -offerings as indicated by Hopewellian tombs—feather cloth robes, pearl -necklaces, copper hatchets, and beautifully fashioned art objects—were -left with the dead, that the high political and religious officers were -correspondingly bedecked in gorgeous apparel for civil and religious -ceremonies. - -Nor should sight be lost of the fact that these creations and materials, -so commonplace and inexpensive today, were to the Hopewellians as -valuable and highly desirable as gold, silk, and precious stones are to -us in Western civilization. For a better perspective these tomb -offerings should be compared with objects usually found in camp and -grave sites of the Initial and Final Woodland peoples. - -Traders may have gone to distant regions to select and barter for raw -materials, to the Lake Superior region for copper, to Ohio for -pipestone, to the south Atlantic and Gulf Coasts for the small -Marginella and Oliva shells, for the larger Cassis and Busycon shells, -and to the Yellowstone or Mexico for obsidian (of which little is found -in Illinois graves). Trade, to some degree, removes the limitations -imposed by the immediate surroundings. Pearls were secured in quantity -from the clams of the native streams. Bone, antler, tortoise and clam -shell, bears’ teeth, bear, wildcat and wolverine jaws from their hunting -and collecting pursuits were utilized more fully than ever before. Even -human jaws, possibly of enemies, were cut, polished and bored for use as -pendants. - -Though the Hopewellians may not have been the pacifists they are -sometimes painted, there must have been long periods of peaceful -relationships with distant and nearer neighbors with whom they traded or -through whose territories their traders had to pass. Whether or not a -condition of peace was maintained within the borders of their culture -area by the force of arms is an interesting question that cannot now be -answered. - - [Illustration: Fig. 18. The Hopewellian assemblage of artifacts that - collectively identify the Hopewellian (Classic Woodland) period and, - except for shell spoon, turtle shell dish, and some bead types, - distinguish it from the other Woodland assemblages. A, drinking cup - of marine shell (_Cassis madagascarensis_); B, C, D, Hopewellian - pottery (restored); E, mussel shell spoon with “handle”; F, turtle - shell dish; G, sheet mica (mirror?); H, antler headdress; I, J, - platform pipes with effigy mammal bowls, polished stone (Otter and - bear’s head, eyes set with copper pellets); K, platform pipe (plain - bowl), curved base, polished stone; L, copper earspools or - ornaments, pair; M, imitation bear tooth, copper; N, (Below) N₁, - Bear jaw, cut in half, ground and drilled to be worn as a double - pendant; (Above) N₂, Fragment of a human jaw that has been similarly - treated; O, copper hatchet that carries imprint of textile on its - surface; P, copper adze; Q, R, Hopewellian spearheads; S, massive - bead of copper; T, bracelet of copper beads; U, necklace of pearls; - V, necklace of copper beads; W, necklace of graduated ground shell - beads from columella (central column) of marine shell.] - -In southern Illinois the advance of Hopewellian culture was slower. The -infiltration of new pottery styles noted at Crab Orchard very possibly -represents intermarriage with Hopewellian women. Possibly through ties -of relationship and the acceptance of the new food plants, the old -Baumer way of life was submerged by the Hopewellian customs though here -and there former habits still are recognizable. Some customs of Baumer -and Crab Orchard were adopted by the northern Hopewellians—the -reel-shaped gorget, the plummet and the chipped stone hoe. - -In the north of Illinois, Hopewellian lasted until 250 A.D. (Poole site) -and in the west and south to about 450 or 500 A.D. Though the culture -died out in Illinois by 500 A.D., it still flourished in Mississippi -(Bynum site) around 800 A.D. and at Marksville, Louisiana, as late as -850 A.D. - -As was stated earlier, emerging cultures grow out of earlier ones. -Although it may not yet be generally recognized, the Hopewellian -civilization probably exerted tremendous influence on the Mississippi -cultures and on tribes that followed them in the great central valley of -the United States and beyond, down to historic times. It must be borne -in mind that in spite of their splendid achievements, the Hopewellians -had no domestic animals but the dog, no herds for meat and great wealth, -no draft animals to drag the plough and turn the mill. All labor was “by -hand,” all transport on the back or in a boat driven by human power. - - - - - THE DARK AGE IN ILLINOIS—FINAL WOODLAND (200 to 900 A.D.) - - -The Hopewellian civilization apparently disappeared as suddenly as it -seems to have arisen. This impression is probably due to the fact that -the people continued to live in the old villages long after the -characteristic colorful Hopewell customs were no longer practiced. -Actually the culture may have declined for a century or more before it -finally broke down completely. Many of the simpler folk traditions -probably persisted in the area for some centuries afterward. - -Possibly long continued abuses of power and privilege by religious and -political officials, especially those from the highest social caste, -weakened the confidence of the lower classes in their leaders and the -culture. Newcomers from Iowa, Missouri and Kentucky may have further -disorganized certain settlements and separated areas of the larger -community from each other. Generally, however, the writer gets the -impression that the decay began within the civilization although its -final downfall may have been accelerated by external pressures. - -With failing confidence and a rising uneasiness, trade would naturally -decrease and the incentive to fine workmanship decline. The larger -cultural community split apart into a number of small tribes, who were -isolationists and individualists. All the separate little tribal units -were Woodland culturally with some small evidence of their Hopewellian -heritage, but each differed in certain respects from its neighbors. -Villages dwindled to the mere hamlets, widely separated one from -another. The elaborate ceremonial dress, insignia, and jewelry, and the -artistic creations (at least in durable materials) became a part of the -past; the people found themselves reduced to the rude cultural level of -their early Woodland ancestors. Huts were flimsy and left no discernible -remains. Tools, weapons, and ornaments were, in general, carelessly made -and poorly finished. Although tobacco was smoked and small patches of -maize and beans may have been grown, the chief economic dependence -undoubtedly was on hunting, fishing and collecting. - - [Illustration: Fig. 19. Group of mounds exhibiting bird, mammal, - linear and conical mounds as they occur characteristically in Effigy - Mound subculture of Final Woodland. (B.B.)] - -The religious beliefs, too, were probably simplified and mixed with -magic and superstition, surviving relics of the religion of the past -age. In a word, the social and religious customs of the little tribes -were broadly similar but in minor details differed from each other much -as do their artifactual remains. - -A study of the Final Woodland and other phases of Illinois history -reveals certain relationships among some distinguishable differences of -detail: - -1. The almost complete lack of evidence of Hopewellian art, trade and -religion in the late Woodland period gives little apparent indication -that the people were the direct descendants and heirs of that -civilization. On the other hand, the general resemblance of Final -Woodland assemblages to those of the Initial phase seems marked. Let us -examine further. - - [Illustration: Fig. 20. Graves near Quincy, Illinois, Stone Vault - period. (Photographs through courtesy of O. D. Thurber.)] - - [Illustration: Stone mound after earth was removed.] - - [Illustration: Four excavated “vaults”, the third of which shows a - “corridor” entrance with stone steps.] - -The tobacco pipe of the late phase with the stem projecting beyond the -bowl is found in most aspects. Likewise, the vertically elongated pot is -common but not the only form. Burials are often in mounds, frequently in -a central chamber or grave, with skeletons in the flexed and/or extended -positions, occasionally accompanied by grave offerings. All these are -broadly reminiscent of Hopewellian customs and, in the writer’s opinion, -indicate a continuing thread of tradition from Initial Woodland through -Hopewellian into the Final phase. - -2. The relationship to the Middle Mississippi seems more evident and has -been attributed by some authors to the “impact” of a high culture on -that of cruder or “under-developed” neighbors. What are the grounds for -these conclusions? - -New pottery forms were being attempted, the flattened globular pot, the -shallow bowl (occasionally found in Hopewellian sites), the cup or -beaker and the plate. In southern counties, a new method of making pits -is indicated by a tendency of sherds, even grit-tempered ones, to split -or laminate (see Maxwell, _Woodland Cultures of Southern Illinois_, -Beloit, 1951, p. 204). Secondary features previously lacking begin to -appear as “raised points” or knobs on rims, some roughly resembling -animal heads with ears and a snout. Triangular arrowheads and others -reflecting larger spearhead types are all made from curved, not flat -flakes as the Mississippian points are. The stone discoidal that seems -to be the game piece of the historically known chunkey game, which was -possibly initiated in late Hopewellian times (see Fowler, _The -Rutherford Mound_, Springfield, 1957, pp. 31-33) occurs in the Bluff -subculture and probably in the Tampico also. - - [Illustration: Fig. 21. Canton ware pot (Tampico subculture) from - Clear Lake village site in Tazewell County. Designs are formed with - cord impressions. (From Schoenbeck collection in Illinois State - Museum. Max. diam. at shoulder 18″.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 22. “Handled” pipe in form of raven with head - projecting from rim, from Jersey Bluff subculture. After - Titterington. Reduced about ½.] - -All these bespeak Middle Mississippian tendencies. A common conclusion, -as mentioned previously, is that these features were borrowed from -non-Woodland groups. The writer, however, gets the impression from his -studies that the Middle Mississippi phase developed through the -interplay of invention and adoption of improvements, modification and -re-invention, between the Final Woodland subcultures in Illinois and -adjacent territory. This does not mean that Illinois communities alone -were responsible for the emergence of this phase but rather that they -played an important dynamic role in its development. The Cahokia -subculture of western and central Illinois probably constituted the -native local tribe or nation. - - - Final Woodland Archaeology - -Archaeologically these peoples are in the Final Woodland phase of -culture. The Final Phase yields tobacco pipes and crude flint -arrowheads, its chief artifactual differences with the Initial phase. -The clay of their pottery was generally mixed with grit or sand to -prevent firing cracks in the vessel walls. The customary -vertically-elongated pot with a conical or pointed bottom was -accompanied by new forms—the globular or flattened globular with “round” -(spherical) bases, the “coconut shell” cup or larger vessel, and shallow -bowls. The flattened globular pots and the bowls were occasionally -decorated with two or four knobs or with “raised points” on the rim, -sometimes giving a squarish appearance to the mouth. In some instances -these decorative projections were crudely modeled ears and snout which -give the effect of animals’ heads facing out and foreshadowing the -Middle Mississippi effigy shallow bowls. An important invention, the bow -and arrow, appears in Illinois for the first time in this period. -Judging by the crudity of the chipped flint arrowheads, these people -were poor archers and preferred the spear and spearthrower in hunting -and fighting. Pipes, like most artifacts except weapon heads, are rare. -The “elbow” or L-shaped pipe is generally representative of the culture. - -The six recognized Final Woodland subcultures with their diagnostic -(though not very significant) traits are (1) Effigy Mound named for its -distinguishing characteristic; (2) Tampico with pottery decorated with -designs formed by cord-impressions, in northern Illinois; (3) Stone -Vault with stone mounds containing walled tomb chambers; (4) Jersey -Bluff with its unique “handled” tobacco pipes, in the west; (5) Raymond, -best characterized by the generalized Woodland nature of its artifacts; -and (6) Lewis with incised spiral designs on pottery, in southern -Illinois. - - - - - A SECOND PLANT-RAISING CIVILIZATION—THE MIDDLE MISSISSIPPIANS - (1000-1500 A.D.) - - -The Middle Mississippi culture seems to have arisen, as previously -suggested, in the area where several important highways of aboriginal -travel converged—the region surrounding the Ohio and Mississippi rivers -from the mouth of the Wabash to the mouth of the Illinois. Whether or -not its development was stimulated by the contracts of Muskhogeans and -Algonkians or whether it was due to interplay between the cultures of -the Final Woodland petty tribes is unknown. - -Two slightly differing subcultures of the Middle phase appeared in the -state. One, known archaeologically as the Cumberland -(Tennessee-Cumberland), may have embraced at one time all the southern -Illinois counties between the mouths of the Kaskaskia and the Wabash. -[The Angel Site near Evansville, Indiana, may belong to the Cumberland -subculture.] The other subculture, which may be termed Cahokia, -flourished in counties bordering on the Mississippi from Union County to -Wisconsin. As the two periods show few significant cultural differences, -they will, except as noted hereafter, be treated as a single unit. - -The bow and arrow invented in the Final Woodland phase, was developed -early in the Middle Mississippi period into an effective weapon although -spear and perhaps spearthrower continued in use. The chunkey game was -probably played as a part of a religious ceremony though it may quite -possibly have served as a popular pastime as well. - -Pottery was slow at first to change from its more obvious Woodland -characteristics but new shapes foreshadowing most of those of the fully -developed (Old Village) cultural phase practically replaced the -conical-based elongated pot early in the period. Cord-roughening and -grit-tempering disappeared in the classic Cahokia period, and a fine -polished blackware and a painted pottery were added to the smooth -utilitarian ware. An excellent “dull gray” ware with smooth gray to -brown surfaces was of more common occurrence. It appears to differ from -the fine ware only in its partially oxidized surfaces probably due to -poorly controlled firing methods.[14] - - [Illustration: Fig. 23. The chunkey game in foreground. Man hunting - with bow and arrow in background. Middle Mississippi period. (J.C.)] - -There were probably two or more social classes among the Middle phase -people as there were among Hopewellians, Natchez and Polynesians.[15] -The fine polished black and painted wares may have been marks of -distinction between the highest and lower classes since it is much less -common. In Hopewellian times, it is probable that both the fine ware and -the specialized forms (which were usually of the highest quality) were -reserved for the highest caste. In the Mississippi period, the shallow -bowl, the cup or beaker, and the plate of dull gray ware seem to have -been wide-spread in the village and may indicate a general improvement -of living conditions among the lower social classes since Hopewellian -times. - - [Illustration: Fig. 24. Pottery shapes, Middle Mississippi period. - A, “bean pot”; B, angular-shouldered pot or olla; C, common pot or - olla; D, shallow bowl; E, water bottle; F, effigy bowl; G, plate.] - -Advances in the economy were obviously present in the fully developed -Middle phase. The Union County flint “mines” and workshops were -intensively worked. Trade with the Lake Superior, lower Atlantic and -Gulf Coast regions was resumed. Chief imports of raw materials were -copper and marine shells, Busycon, Marginella, Oliva and Olivella. Art, -while possibly as highly developed as Hopewellian, resulted in a far -smaller number of art objects in fewer durable media. Intaglio rock -carvings (chiefly in southern Illinois) of geometric designs, human -hands, ceremonial paraphernalia, animal outlines, and, in a few -instances, painted hollowed-out animal silhouettes can probably be -ascribed to this period on the basis of the symbols employed. Dwellings -or cabins were relatively substantial structures and the extent of -village remains indicate a large general population as compared to -earlier times in the state. Trade and art suggest leisure and wealth or -surplus available for exchange or to support officials and others in -non-food productive pursuits. This prosperity was possibly due to newly -discovered methods of intensive cultivation of maize and possibly to a -greater diversity of crops than ever before. - - [Illustration: Fig. 25. Carved stone pipe (fragmentary) from - Kingston Lake Site (Cahokia subculture, Middle Mississippi period). - Owned by Donald Wray. Right-hand figure shows the pipe - reconstructed.] - -Territorially the tribe probably consisted of a number of villages and -the surrounding country. Each tribe may have had a chief village or -capital that was also a religious center with tribal (public) buildings -and a temple. Archaeological and historical evidence shows that these -buildings, presumably temples and the dwellings of tribal chiefs and the -high priests, were erected on the flat tops of rectangular earthen -mounds or pyramids, which were grouped around a plaza of ceremonial -square. Here the tribe gathered for religious and political ceremonies -and for important funerals. Intertribal negotiations and chunkey games -were probably also staged on or near the plaza. - -Pipes, either of stone or pottery, were generally of the “equal-armed” -type (where stem length is about equal to bowl height). In numerous -instances, a short projection resembling the stem in shape but shorter, -extends beyond the bowl away from the smoker. Massive effigy pipes of -stone were widespread but not numerous. Some were excellently carved. -From their construction, it is obvious that they were made to be smoked -through a reed or hollow wooden stem called in later times the calumet. -These together probably constituted a form of ceremonial pipe that -served as a safe conduct between tribes, as a bond and signature at -peace- and treaty-making ceremonies, and to present tobacco smoke as -incense to the gods in religious rituals. - -Priests and possibly tribal chiefs were interred in the flat tops of -mounds (e.g. the Powell Mound) near temple or cabin. Generally, however, -the dead were buried in cemeteries. In some instances, bodies were laid -on the surface above a “full” cemetery and covered with earth brought -from outside. Continuing this practice eventually produced a mound (e.g. -Dickson Mound near Lewistown). Possibly the burial mounds at Cahokia -were reserved for the socially prominent while the lower classes were -interred in the cemeteries nearby. The dead, especially important -personages were attired in their finest apparel, insignia and personal -ornaments. Beside them in the grave were placed their weapons, favorite -chunkey stones, food and water in pottery vessels with shell spoons or a -dipper. - - [Illustration: Fig. 26. Interior view of Dickson Mound (in Dickson - Mounds State Park near Lewistown, Illinois), showing pottery and - other artifacts as originally placed with the dead. Cahokia - subculture, Middle Mississippi phase.] - -Chief villages were large religious centers often protected by an -encircling palisade or clay wall reinforced with vertical posts or logs. -Remains of defensive walls can still be readily traced by a trained eye -at the Kincaid (Massac County) and Lynn (Union County) villages. -Exploration of the Aztalan village (Wisconsin) yielded remains of a -reinforced clay wall surmounted at regular intervals with towers of like -construction. The Cahokia village seems to have been without -fortifications. - - [Illustration: Fig. 27. Reconstruction of Kincaid Village - (Cumberland subculture, Middle Mississippi period) near Metropolis, - Illinois. (Diorama by Arthur Sieving.)] - -Smaller villages occasionally had one or two small flat-topped mounds -which doubtless served as bases for the cabins of the Village Chief and -possibly War Chief. Other Middle phase villages had no mounds or -fortifications. - -Cabins were of three or more types. In Illinois, two kinds had -rectangular floor outlines and may have developed from the earlier -Baumer square dwelling and the Lewis house. One of these types prevalent -at Kincaid, as determined from charred remains, had a thatched gable -roof supported on four corner posts with their lower ends sunk in the -ground. Walls were made of clay daubed on a latticework of cane (with -foliage) interlacing vertical wall posts, the interior covered with -split cane mats. The rafters, corner and wall posts, and wall plates -were of poles or small logs lashed together and held in place by braided -ropes. Floors do not appear to have been depressed below surrounding -ground level. A larger more substantial structure, presumably a temple, -on a Kincaid mound (Mx^o9) had thick walls of clay mixed with grass, but -otherwise resembled the dwelling just described. The clay floor and wall -surfaces were smooth. Fire basins of puddled clay within the building -may have been the remains of altars. - -Cabins in Fulton County (Fout’s Village) and at Cahokia were rectangular -in floor plan but wall posts were probably bent over to be joined with -corresponding opposite members to form an arched or vaulted roof, the -precursor perhaps of the “barrel-shaped” Illini cabins reported by -French explorers. Floors were sunk somewhat below the ground level. -Remains of cabins with circular floors occur also at Cahokia and in -Fulton County. - - [Illustration: Fig. 28. Petroglyphs from southern Illinois sites - probably made by Middle Mississippian peoples. All figures are - hollowed out or _intaglio_. (Photographs by Irvin Peithmann.)] - - [Illustration: Back wall of rock shelter near Gorham, Illinois.] - - [Illustration: Figure of buffalo calf painted yellow over entire - depressed area. The outlines were chalked in for the purpose of - photographing.] - -Walls and wall posts of the Fulton County cabins appear in some -instances to be formed of bundles of small branches or cane set in -trenches possibly a foot deep. There is no evidence of the -wattle-and-daub structure. Walls may have been covered with mats, or -with rectangles of bark. Roofs were probably thatched. - -Possibly the Cahokia subculture peoples constituted a single tribe, a -small nation, or a confederation of tribes. At its most powerful period, -the Cahokia settlement was perhaps the capital and religious center. The -region south of a line joining the mouths of the Kaskaskia and Wabash -rivers at one time probably belonged to another tribe or subtribe whose -chief village was the Kincaid community in Pope and Massac counties and -who, linguistically and culturally, were closely related to peoples in -Tennessee and Kentucky and at the Angel site in Indiana. - -Archaeologically speaking, the Middle Mississippi contrasts sharply with -the Hopewellian culture. Certain artifacts are readily distinguishable -and easily identified with the craftsman’s cultures. Actually the -Mississippians differ from the Hopewellians chiefly in having -substantial cabins, athletic games and the bow and arrow. - -Remains of Hopewellian dwellings are rare, but the three or four found -up to now are characterized by round or oval floor plans outlined with -post holes of three to four inches in diameter. These seem to indicate -hemispherical wigwams. No further evidence of wall or roof structure has -been recovered. The rarity of these dwellings certainly suggests a less -permanent dwelling than the Mississippi cabin. However, it will be -remembered that some peoples pattern their tombs upon their dwellings. -The upper caste Hopewellians built rectangular burial chambers which -were walled up with logs laid one on another and roofed over with -half-logs or bark. Similar log house surface structures would seldom -leave discernible remains on decay. It is possible, though by no means -certain, that the Hopewellians of highest caste, and perhaps of the -other castes, built log cabins for dwellings. - -The evidence for playing of athletic games in Hopewellian is very late -and scanty. The only tangible indication are the rings, “pulleys” and a -stone discoidal found with a skeleton in the Rutherford Mound. (See M. -L. Fowler, _The Rutherford Mound_, Scientific Papers Series, Vol. VII, -No. 1, Springfield, Ill. 1957, pp. 31-33). The rings of pottery and of -cannel coal (or jet) seem too fragile for actual playing pieces and may -rather be trophies or prizes, replicas of similar pieces made of wood. -Such wooden pieces may have been used in games throughout middle and -late Hopewellian times. - - [Illustration: Fig. 29. (Photographs by Irvin Peithmann.)] - - [Illustration: View of a stream-side flint mine and workshop (in - field alongside) near Cobden, Illinois.] - - [Illustration: Close-up showing spherical or “ball-flint” nodules - from stream banks similar to those worked up by Middle - Mississippians and others in adjacent workshop.] - -The bow and arrow, at least, seems to be a decided improvement over the -spear. It constituted a repeating weapon. Ammunition could be carried in -the belt or on the back in a quiver without unduly hampering the bowman. -On the other hand, it was useless in hand-to-hand fighting and a spear -or dagger was needed to supplement it. Moreover, the spear with a -thrower was a more accurate weapon than the bow, unless the arrows were -carefully made and balanced. The bow never seems to have wholly replaced -the spear which continued to be a favorite weapon down into the European -contact period. - -The improvements that distinguish the Mississippians above the -Hopewellians may be more apparent than real in the first two instances -and, in the third, may represent a significant rather than a fundamental -advance. Looking at the two periods from the broader cultural viewpoint, -they appear to have many cultural features in common. The Middle -Mississippians probably added new food and fibre plants to those of -earlier periods, and perhaps increased production by improved, more -intensive methods of cultivation. Their staple crops like those of the -Hopewellians were corn, beans and tobacco. - -The technologies or methods of making the necessary tools in the two -cultures varied but little. Art was revived or rather re-developed in -the Mississippian period but fewer media are employed. In artistic -skill, imagination and productiveness perhaps the Hopewellians had an -edge on the later people. - -Trade and travel, though resumed to distant sections of the continent, -does not appear so widespread or general as in the Hopewellian period. A -formalized religion with colorful ceremonies seems to have revitalized -the life of the people but possibly no more effectively than in the -earlier period. - -There was no significant improvement in labor, power or transportation; -all were still accomplished wholly by human effort without the aid of -draft animals. Traveling by boat was known and probably used by both -cultures. - -Comparing the two peoples with other plant growers having no domestic -food-draft animals, it seems apparent that each had an effective -political organization, a formalized vital religion with true priests -(not “self-appointed” shamans) and a system of moral values and tenets -that “church” and “state” were organized to maintain. All in all, from -the broader cultural standpoint, they were amazingly alike. - - - - - UNDER-DEVELOPED NEIGHBORS—THE UPPER MISSISSIPPIANS (1100?-1600 A.D.) - - -Less advanced Mississippi tribes with customs showing some admixture of -Woodland cultural elements living contemporaneously in Missouri, Iowa, -Wisconsin, Indiana and Ohio, encircled the Middle phase peoples on the -east, north and west. Known generally now as the Upper phase peoples -their sole representative in Illinois was the people of the Langford -subculture, who dwelt around the southern end of Lake Michigan as well -as in adjacent parts of Indiana and Michigan. The type station is the -Fisher Village and Mounds near Joliet which were ably investigated by -Mr. George Langford, Sr. some years ago.[16] - -They built no flat-topped pyramids and left little, if any, evidence of -their religious practices. Their art, as exhibited by pottery, personal -ornaments or weapons was not of a high order. There is no evidence that -they played the chunkey game. Some copper hatchets and ornaments were in -use, but these appear to be of Middle Mississippi workmanship and may -have been trade articles. - -On the positive side, they buried their dead in dome-shaped earthen -mounds, usually in the extended position, frequently with food (in clay -pots with shell spoons), weapons (arrows and tomahawks or hafted celts), -personal ornaments and various utilitarian implements. Dwellings had -subsurface circular floors and were doubtless dome-shaped -(hemispherical). The bow and arrow were in common use with arrowheads -primarily of slender simple triangular shape, very rarely with side -notches. Implements, weapons and ornaments were chiefly of chipped -flint, ground or polished stone, river clam shells, bone and animal -teeth. Copper was rarely employed. - - [Illustration: Fig. 30. Characteristic pottery from the Langford - subculture, Upper Mississippi phase, (Fisher Site near Channahon, - Illinois). (Photograph by George Langford, Chicago Natural History - Museum.)] - -Pots were generally of the globular or flattened globular shape (olla or -jar), tempered with grit (early) and shell (later), and decorated with -geometric designs in broad lines and dots, drawn (“trailed”) or -impressed on the shoulder region with a blunt tool (such as an antler -tine). Lips of vessels were usually pressure-notched and surfaces -cord-roughened. Loop handles on the jars were common. - -Numerous examples of flat stone tablets associated with a number of -short solid antler cylinders lead one to suspect that a game of chance -of some sort was played and that gambling was probably indulged in. - -Other than pottery and personal adornment, the only art practiced was -the cutting of mussel shell into handled spoons and outlines of fish and -other objects. Apparently there was no urge for fine workmanship. - -It is highly probable that these Upper Mississippians were plant growers -who hunted to secure their meat. The extent of village remains and the -evidence of semi-permanent dwellings point to this type of economy even -though no grain or seeds of any kind were found in the site. Shell hoes -of the common type were used. The dog was the only domesticated animal. - - [Illustration: Fig. 31. Effigy fish and a decorated spoon - (fragmentary) made of mussel shells. Langford subculture, Upper - Mississippi phase (Fisher site). (Photograph by George Langford, - Chicago Natural History Museum.)] - - [Illustration: Fig. 32. Stone tablet and gaming pieces from the - Langford subcultural period, Upper Mississippi phase (Fisher site). - (Photograph by George Langford, Chicago Natural History Museum.)] - -Apparently most of their needs were supplied by their own efforts and -from local sources. There is no evidence of any trade, except possibly -of a very limited kind with near neighbors to the west. - -The evidence for the residence around the southern lake shores is based -chiefly on the occurrence of the Fisher pottery type. This area after -1760 was occupied by the Miami tribe who may possibly have been the -builders of the Fisher Mounds. - - - - - THE ILLINOIS OR ILLINI[17] (1550?-1833 A.D.) - - -The Illinois or Illini Indians are, so far as is now known, the next -group to occupy the state following the Middle Mississippians. At the -time of Marquette and Jolliet’s voyage in 1673, six tribes comprised the -Illinois Confederacy, Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Michigamea, Peoria, Moingwena, -and Tamaroa[18]. The tribes spoke the same or mutually intelligible -dialects of the Algonkian language. - -Some time before 1650, possibly a century or more, the Illinois -Confederacy seems to have been a powerful nation but in the latter half -of the 17th century this was a tradition rather than fact. The -Confederacy appears to have engaged in no united action after 1650. - -The Illini at that time were in the plant-raising stage of culture and -possessed only the dog as a domesticated animal. Like many other -plant-raisers, the families deserted the village for the hunt after the -corn was hilled and again after the harvest. - - - Dress - -Men went naked in summer except for mocassins. At times a breech cloth -was worn; in winter buffalo skin robes were added and belts, leg bands -and leggings on occasion. - -Women when working apparently wore only a girdle (breech cloth), at -other times a wrap-around skirt of skin with a belt passing over one -shoulder and under the opposite arm. The skirt dates back to Hopewellian -times and was used during the Mississippi period in Indiana and probably -in Illinois. The bosom was covered with a deerskin wrap. Hair was worn -long and fastened behind the head. - - - Economy - -Labor was divided between the men and the women (and children). Men did -the hunting, fighting and made the weapons. The women (and children) did -the other work—the housework, planting and harvesting the crops, -dressing deer and buffalo skins, making twine from bast, weaving cloth -and, on the hunt, carrying the house parts and setting up the camp. - -Buffalo meat was preserved by drying and smoking it over a fire in the -hunting camp. Vegetable foods, corn, beans and squash were dried or -parched and buried in containers or in lined pits in the ground and -covered over. Watermelons, muskmelons (?), gourds and tobacco were also -grown. Wild strawberries, paw paws, pecans, lotus roots, wild tubers, -grapes and plums formed part of their diet. - -The winter buffalo hunt usually took place a long way from the village. -The hunting units each consisted of several families under a rigid -police system and regulation to prevent the herd from being stampeded by -an over-eager family before all were amply provided with meat. -Violations of hunting regulations were punished by destruction of the -offender’s property to which no resistance was ever attempted. The group -surrounded the herd, at times encircling it with fires made at intervals -near which the hunters stood and killed the stampeding animals. At times -as many as 120 buffalo were killed in a day. The women cut out the -tongues, skinned the animals, and, peeling off the sides of meat, dried -and smoked them on wooden grates over a slow fire. The smoked sides were -carried back to the village on the back, or when practicable in dugout -boats. Carcasses and bones were left on the hunting grounds. Other -animals were stalked by one or two hunters. Dog meat was considered a -great delicacy. - -Fish were caught in nets, by hook and line, speared or shot with bow and -arrow. They were dried for preservation. Maple trees were tapped late in -the winter, the sap caught in bark containers and made into a maple -drink or reduced by boiling to syrup and sugar. Corn was ground into -meal and baked into bread, or prepared as hominy. - -Vessels and utensils were made of wood or clay, ladles from a section of -the buffalo skull. Fire was produced by the hand drill in the usual -manner. - -The cabin type seems to have varied at different periods or in different -tribes. In early times, cabins had rectangular floors and vaulted -(barrel-shaped) roofs. They were roofed and floored with “double-mats” -of flat rushes and were impervious to wind or rain. Occasionally they -were erected on low mounds (two feet high) to keep the floors dry. Large -cabins of the vaulted type had four fires, with one or two families at a -fire. - -Bark-covered hemispherical huts or wigwams may have been used on hunting -trips. They were apparently common in some villages in 1723. - -Overland travel was on foot. On streams the dugout boat was propelled by -pole and possibly by paddle. Large boats were 40 to 50 feet long, -capable of carrying 40 to 50 men. While dugouts were admirably suited -for travel and trade between the Illini tribes along the Illinois and -Mississippi rivers, they were, on account of their weight and -unwieldiness in portaging, generally useless in raids against enemies. - - [Illustration: Fig. 33. Native Illini artifacts. A, Indian-made gun - flint; B, C, D, chipped flint arrowheads; E, flint scraper; F, - grooved abrader of sandstone; G, expanded base drill (grip only, - point broken off); H, I, polished stone pendants. From Illini - village site near mouth of Kaskaskia River, Randolph County.] - - - Marriage Customs and the Family - -An Illini man, desiring to get married, sent presents to the girl’s -parents. If the suitor was acceptable, the parents kept the gift and -took the bride to the man’s hut the following evening. Apparently there -was no wedding ceremony. - -Women had somewhat lower social status than their husbands. Wives did -not eat with their husbands. A man was permitted two or more wives and -often married two sisters. Children were well-treated. Infants were -bound to a cradle board that the mother carried around. The cradle was -pointed at the lower end and was stuck in the ground when the woman -wanted to rest. Divorce was accomplished by a simple agreement to -separate. - - - Political Organization - -The explorers and writers to whom we are indebted for our knowledge of -Illini social and religious organization were, unfortunately, casual and -untrained observers who, on the whole, held the Indian and his customs -in contempt. Important activities were often dismissed with meaningless -generalizations, or omitted entirely, as if generally known. -Consequently great gaps are left in the information that has come down -to us. - -From the various accounts, the impression is given that the Illini -tribes (and possibly before the 17th century, the Confederacy) had a -political government (rather than _family social control_) with formally -appointed officers or civil chiefs. The Confederacy had one or more -coats-of-arms (“totems”) that may have been recognized abroad as -symbolic of the Illini (as was customary among the Natchez and other -southeastern Indians). It had a Grand Chief, chosen in some manner not -now known, from one of the constituent tribes. At one period “Prince -Tamaroa” of the Tamaroas held the post, later Chief Ducoigne of the -Kaskaskias. Whether or not the Confederacy acted as a nation after 1600 -is doubtful. Each tribe had its own head chief and coat-of-arms, and the -French appear to have treated directly with the tribal heads in matters -of importance. Judging from other Indian Confederations, the individual -tribe had probably retained its full powers, and concerted action by the -Confederacy was possible only by unanimous consent. - -Like most peoples in the simple plant-raising status, the tribe dealt as -a state with other similar units in intertribal affairs. These included -alliances and treaties of peace. Ambassadors or tribal representatives -were sent from Illini tribes to their neighbors. On such occasions, the -calumet was carried and served as a safe conduct.[19] Tribal -representatives met approaching strangers (and presumably the -ambassadors of another tribe), raising the highly adorned calumet (and -pipe) toward the sun as they advanced. Smoking the calumet—by the -contracting tribal agents at the conclusion of an agreement—corresponded -to our signatures and seals at the end of a written treaty. - -Each village probably had a chief, whose power (it was sometimes -reported) was little. However, the chiefs wore, as badges of office, red -scarfs woven of bear and buffalo hair. Their faces were painted red. The -village men (or possibly the important men) met before the village -chief’s cabin or in a large hut built especially for gatherings to -deliberate on political or religious matters. The entire village often -seems to have been in audience. - -If there were social classes among the Illini, no mention is made of it -in early reports. Men acquired prestige mainly through skillful hunting -or success in fighting. The leader in a raid had to recompense the -families of any followers killed in the fighting. - -With so little description of the village and tribal assemblies and the -chiefs in deliberation and judgment, it is difficult to determine the -exact status of political organization of the tribe and its officers. It -may well be that the powers of the chiefs immediately after European -contact were small, and that in order to deal with the agency of a -European state, the Illini found it necessary (as did the Delaware -tribes) to grant greater authority and responsibility to their political -leaders. It is probably also true that the chiefs would, under pressure -from the whites, be reluctant to take responsibility for an unpopular -concession and would declare that only the tribal council or assemblage -could confirm the agreement under consideration. In any case, the Illini -were on the threshold of true political control if they had not actually -adopted it. - - - Raids - -The tribe in historic times seems to have been the war-making group. -Raiding parties tried to sneak undetected into enemy country and conceal -themselves. From their hiding place, they fell suddenly on small -unsuspecting enemy bodies, scalping men, killing women and children, and -slipping away again with a few prisoners if practicable. Back in the -village, captive warriors were bound to a frame of green wood, suspended -over a slow fire, and tortured until death released them. Warriors hung -the scalps taken upon their cabins as evidence of their prowess. The -Illini claimed not to have tortured or burned captives until their men -had been taken and so treated by Iroquois raiding parties. On the war -path warriors carried bundles containing objects sacred to their -guardian spirits and invoked them frequently to obtain victory. - -Bows and arrows in quivers, hatchets or tomahawks, clubs, and -“arrowproof” shields consisting of several layers of buffalo hide were -carried on raids. The bow and arrow was considered superior to the gun -because it could “fire” more rapidly. - - - Trade - -Earlier in the European period, the Illini furnished Canadians with -skins of beaver, raccoon, deer, bear and buffalo, but in 1776 the French -(in Illinois) compelled them “to devote themselves to producing oil, -tallow and meat which they traded with them.” (Deliette Memoir. See -Pease in Bibliography under ILLINI.) The Indians traded for porcupine -quills with more northern neighbors. After the European came, Illini -trade was probably overwhelmingly with the whites, exchanging native -products of the forest for coveted guns, iron knives, hatchets, brass -kettles, cloth, glass beads and alcoholic liquors. - - [Illustration: Fig. 34. A, B, common forms of Illini pipes - (restored) of red Minnesota pipestone, Illinois State Museum - collections: A, “Siouan”; B, Micmac; C, stone effigy-head type, (A. - J. Throop collection). All from village near mouth of Kaskaskia - River, Randolph County. (B.B.)] - - - Religion - -The religion of the early historic Illini was apparently a complex one. -The sun was evidently a powerful deity from whom the calumet pipe had -perhaps been supposedly received. A special calumet, apparently sacred -to the sun, was revered as a palladium (like the Hebraic Ark of the -Covenant) on which rested the safety of the nation. A special official -had responsibility for its safe keeping. The smoke of the pipe was -offered to the sun whenever the Illini prayed for rain, fine weather, or -some other aid. Whether the Grand Manitou (Great Spirit), whom the -French thought was the Supreme God of the Illini, was identical with the -sun is not known though it seems probable. - -In addition to the above gods, the Illini believed in numerous spirits -and in reincarnation. A young man sought to secure a spirit as his -superhuman helper or guardian for life. He fasted and prayed to the -spirit to come to him in a vision. If successful (as he usually was), -the spirit appeared to him in a dream and gave him instructions for a -ritual by which he kept in contact with his protector. The objects -needed for the ritual he collected on awakening and preserved them -thereafter in a roll of painted matting. When calling upon his spirit -protector, the bundle was opened and the rite performed, chiefly prayers -and smoke offerings from a pipe blown toward the bundle. - -It seems probable that there were true priests who were appointed by -regular procedure and who received their power by virtue of their -installation into office. The priests, we are told, painted themselves -all over with clay on which designs were drawn. Their faces were painted -with red, white, blue, yellow, green and black colors. The “high priest” -wore a bonnet or crown of feathers and a pair of horns, possibly young -deer or buffalo. - -Medicine men also seem to have existed, persons who sought power from -spirits to use in behalf of others for private gain or a livelihood. -Possibly they were interested on the side in black magic or witchcraft, -an anti-social activity. - -Dancing, probably singing, and supplication, together with the -inevitable smoke offerings from a ceremonial pipe doubtless formed a -large part of public worship for which the whole community assembled. -Details of the Illini ceremonies and their meanings are not known. - -The French priests severely denounced native religious customs and -“juggleries” of the Illini. The Peoria chiefs and priests resented this -and resisted Christian attempts to convert the tribe (1693). - -Funeral and burial customs seem to have been generally similar to those -of other plant-raising peoples. All dead were treated with respect, -decked in their best apparel, painted in preparation for burial. A dance -was performed in honor of the deceased. A skin stretched over a large -pot formed a drum which was beaten with a single stick as accompaniment -for the dance. The participants were rewarded with presents at the -conclusion of the dance. The gifts to be distributed were displayed in -full view of the dancers and the duration of the dance was determined by -their relative richness. An important personage was given special -consideration and the whole community probably attended the funeral. -Corn and a pot to boil it in were placed beside the dead. Friends -standing around the grave threw into it bracelets, pendants and “pieces -of earthenware” (pots?). The graves of chiefs were marked by a painted -wooden post taller than the markers for ordinary people. Illini chiefs -and persons of distinction as a signal honor were placed in tree-tops in -a coffin made of bark. The tribe danced and sang for twenty-four hours -during the funeral of a distinguished man. - - [Illustration: Fig. 35. Illini arrowshaft “wrench” or straightener - of bison (?) rib engraved with figure of bison and cross-hatched - triangles from Illinois village near mouth of Kaskaskia River, - Randolph County.] - - - Art - -Men tattooed their “whole bodies.” They painted themselves in solid -colors and with designs in red, black, yellow, blue, and other colors. -The body was adorned with native jewelry, the nose and ears were pierced -for ornaments, and feathers of many colors were worn attached to the -scalp lock. Moccasins were decorated with porcupine quill embroidery. -Men clipped or shaved most of the head, leaving the scalp lock and four -other tufts of long hair, two on each side, one in front of and behind -each ear. After European trade goods were available, glass beads and -cloth were obtainable in considerable quantities and largely replaced -native dress materials and ornaments. - -The Illini played lacrosse, an athletic game. The straw-and-bean game -was a game of chance in which the players each took a number of straws -from a bundle. The straws in each hand were discarded by sixes, the -number left determining the winner of the round. Beans were used as -counters. The Illini made wagers as to the outcome, even putting up -their sisters as stakes in the game. - - [Illustration: Fig. 36. Shapes of Illini pots (Middle Mississippi - ware) reconstructed from sherds found in association with other - native and European objects on the Illini village site near mouth of - Kaskaskia River, Randolph County. (B.B.)] - - - Archaeology of the Illini - -Two village sites of the Illini have been investigated by the Illinois -State Museum, one near Utica, LaSalle County (jointly with the -University of Chicago) and one in Randolph County near the mouth of the -Kaskaskia River. This last site was occupied for over a century by -descendants of the Kaskaskias and other Illini tribes. Except for a -small area where Archaic artifacts are found, it is a “pure” site. - -The Illini tools, weapons and ornaments of native make were the usual -chipped flint triangular arrowheads, simple flint drills and scrapers, -rough stone hammers and abrading stones, small ground stone pendants, -polished stone “Micmac” or “keel-based” pipe bowls (many of catlinite), -the long-stemmed L-shaped catlinite pipes (sometimes called “Siouan”), -and cut and engraved bone ornaments. An arrowshaft straightener carries -an etching of a buffalo cow. Pottery is rare, but the pieces found in -association with European trade goods are characteristically Middle -Mississippian. - - [Illustration: Fig. 37. European trade goods and artifacts made from - European materials. All from Illini village near mouth of Kaskaskia - River, Randolph County. A, conical arrowhead of sheet copper; B, - chipped glass arrowhead; C, brass arrowhead; D, hammer of flintlock - gun; E, iron blade of clasp knife; F, an iron scissor-blade; G, part - of a jew’s-harp.] - -The Illini made artifacts from fragments of European materials, iron -spear- and arrowheads, brass and chipped glass arrowheads, brass -pendants, and beads of broken porcelain. - -European trade materials far exceed in number the native products. -Usually they are fragmentary (except for colored glass beads of many -kinds): parts of copper and brass kettles, iron handles, gun hammers and -other parts, lead balls and the molds for making them, molds for casting -crosses and ornaments, iron spoons, kitchen and clasp knife blades of -iron, “Dutch” white pottery pipes, scissors, jew’s-harps, bottles for -wine and olive oil, brass buttons and finger rings. - -The Illini seem to have cast lead into musket balls and chipped gun -flints into shape but beyond that made no attempt to learn machine-age -technologies. For firearms, gunpowder, iron knives and hatchets they -were wholly dependent on the white invaders, a great disadvantage in -event of hostilities and one that eventually cost them ownership of -their ancient homelands. - - - - - THE INDIANS LEAVE ILLINOIS - - -For historic tribes of the state other than the Illini little is known -of their archaeology. Culturally it is almost a certainty that all were, -soon after contact, largely disorganized due to partial economic -dependence, European diseases and the alcohol trade, to diminishing -game, loss of other resources, and to military pressures from white -governments and contiguous Indian groups. - -Only the broad outlines of the movements of the historic tribes that -lived, hunted, or made forays in Illinois need to be noted here. The -Iroquois, Winnebago and Chickasaw made no attempts to permanently occupy -Illinois territory as a result of their raids. - -The Illini came under French influence after 1673 and leaned heavily on -their military support. At times the Illini warriors fought bravely -alongside the French, but generally they had little stomach for fighting -even in their own defense. They shifted their settlements frequently -after the Iroquois attack of 1680 and later under repeated pressure by -the Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo and Potawatomi, who invaded and occupied the -northern part of Illini territory. - -Due to their dwindling courage and lack of incentive, more perhaps than -to their losses in enemy raids, the Illini tribes decreased rapidly in -numbers and importance. When they were removed to the west of the -Mississippi in 1832, the population of the once great Illini Confederacy -totalled little more than one hundred persons. - -Even before this, the Miami had been pushed out of Illinois due to -inroads of the Kickapoo and Potawatomi. The Shawnee, too, probably -abandoned their permanent settlements in southern Illinois early in the -contact period though these lower counties may have still been -considered their territory. Other groups did not settle or hunt there -and the Shawnee did establish some villages there (e.g. Shawneetown) -briefly in the eighteenth century. Bands of Shawnee continued to hunt in -this region until 1828 or later. - -The Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo and Potawatomi did not long enjoy the territory -they had wrested from the Illini and Miami. Immediately after the Black -Hawk War in 1832, steps were taken to move all Indians from the state. -By the Treaty of Chicago, the Indians gave up all their lands in -Illinois, and in 1837 the last bands (Potawatomi) crossed to the western -bank of the Mississippi. No land is reserved today in this state for -Indians. Its former resident tribes now live in reservations in Iowa, -Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska and in the state of Coahuila in Mexico. - - - - - SUMMARY OF ILLINOIS PREHISTORY - - -The archaeology of Illinois in its present position seems to indicate -that the state did not at any time form a distinct single culture or -subculture but that it was rather the meeting place of many, due -possibly to the rivers that enclose, lead to and intersect its -territory. It was at one and the same time a part of one or more -widespread patterns or phases and a patchwork of subcultures that -extended into neighboring states. There was a tendency for the cultures -of the northern four-fifths of the state (roughly north of a line -joining East St. Louis with Evansville, Indiana) to be more like the -adjacent regions, while those of the remaining counties were more -closely related to those of Kentucky, Tennessee, southern Indiana and -Missouri and rather readily distinguishable from those of their northern -neighbors. - -There are few instances when it appears probable that a part of the -state was invaded by a people of a distinctly differing culture. The -Paleo-Indian Big Game Hunters presumably found in Illinois virgin -country without previous human occupants. The Baumerians probably -entered Illinois from south of the Ohio and expelled or absorbed the -conservative Terminal Archaics. Possibly Mortonians intruded into the -Black Sand-Red Ocre culture of Illinois from the northwest. Less -plausibly, the Stone Vault Grave people may have pushed their way into -Adams County from the Gasconade River region of Missouri. - -The emphasis in this paper has been placed perhaps on the change of -cultures. To keep one from getting an erroneous impression of cultural -stability, it should be said that, in the writer’s opinion, a culture -and subculture contained in greater or smaller areas change gradually -through a process of invention here and there and through interchanges -of improvements back and forth over a long time. When the change is -sufficient to be noted as a “new” culture, the various cultural elements -or features are apt to be widely distributed over much the same area. -Thus, Baumer seems to have existed for a time alongside Terminal Archaic -but finally spread through the southern counties; Hopewellian may have -persisted in Calhoun County for a century or more after its collapse to -the north and east; and the Final phase may have lingered on in remote -portions of the state until Cahokia was past the height of its glory. In -general, perhaps it could be said that the southern fifth and the -remaining four-fifths of the state were out of step with each other most -of the time. - -As previously noted, some of the Paleo-Indian families, upon the retreat -of the last glacier, settled in Illinois as they did in the neighboring -states, adapted themselves to the changed surroundings, and in so doing -developed the Archaic culture or way of life. This phase developed -through a series of subcultures though not necessarily identical -sequences in all the states or even within Illinois. In southern -Illinois, Terminal Archaic seems to have persisted until about 2000 B.C. -while in the north, it apparently had developed into Initial (early) -Woodland a few centuries earlier. The Baumer subculture, probably -arising from the Archaic of Tennessee, appears to have been carried by -its bearers into southeastern Illinois along the Tennessee and -Cumberland rivers. Although widespread in the Mississippi Valley, the -Archaic population was thinly scattered. - -In northern Illinois and in Wisconsin the Black Sand-Red Ochre culture -seems to have developed from the native Terminal Archaic (and Old -Copper) possibly around 2500 B.C. The Morton (Central Basin) people -appear to have had their cultural roots outside the state and to have -combined with the native groups (Black Sand-Red Ochre) they found in the -northern counties. Average populational distribution was still low with -the small settlements perhaps somewhat more numerous though no more -populous than during Archaic times. The early Woodland peoples differed -from their predecessors mainly in being pottery-makers. In southern -Illinois only they practiced storage of acorns and hickory nuts -extensively. - -About 500 B.C. in northern Illinois the Morton people more or less -contemporaneously with similarly advanced peoples in Iowa, Wisconsin, -Indiana, Michigan and Ohio, passed into the Hopewellian civilization -which was erected on the cultivation of maize, beans, squash and -tobacco, and the technologies of the earlier Woodland period. In -southern Illinois Baumer developed into the Crab Orchard culture whose -people traded with the more northern Hopewellians, intermarried with -them and finally adopted the Hopewellian way of life about 100 B.C. - -A century or two later, Hopewellian in the north of Illinois began to -deteriorate and eventually broke up into a number of small subcultures, -obviously closely related but still distinguishable archaeologically. -The same disintegration of Hopewellian took place in southern Illinois a -few centuries later, and by 400 or 450 B.C. Hopewellian had disappeared -from all Illinois except possibly in Calhoun County in the west, while -south of the Ohio River it still continued to spread and flourish in -Mississippi and Louisiana for some centuries. - -In Illinois a period of decadence set in for the next few centuries -(possibly 250 to 1000 A.D.). The larger settlements or settlement -clusters dwindled to mere hamlets, whose remains are scarcely -distinguishable from the early Woodland artifacts except that the -tobacco pipe is present. Though they must still have retained a -tradition of plant-raising, they seem to have avoided it and reverted to -a pure hunting-collecting economy. Even in southern Illinois the storage -of food seems to have played an insignificant role. Nevertheless -throughout this cultural recession, certain trends occur in all the six -Final Woodland subcultures which foreshadow later developments in the -Middle (Mississippi) Phase. - - [Illustration: Fig. 38. The Stream of Culture. The archaeological - cultures within Illinois are included within the two heavy lines, - openings in which indicate cultural extensions beyond or intrusions - into the state. Vertical positions indicate sequences in a general - way. (Drawing by Jeanne McCarty.)] - -About 1000 A.D. or possibly a little earlier, the Final Woodland -developed into an early Protomississippi (Protomiss) and, at last, -(possibly 1000 to 1100 A.D.) into the full-blown Middle Phase -civilization. The Cahokia subculture appears to be primarily, though not -exclusively, Illinoisian while the Cumberland development in the -southeast of the state was shared more generously with adjacent Indiana, -Kentucky and Tennessee. Judging by the distribution of stone box (cist) -graves, the Cumberland subculture seems to have expanded westward at the -expense of the Cahokia peoples to envelope most of the southern counties -from Monroe to White. (Another interpretation might be that the grave -type of their eastern Cumberland neighbors was adopted by the -Cahokians.) The Crable Village, possibly a late Cahokian settlement, -yields artifacts suggesting cultural influences brought in from Iowa, -Missouri and possibly Arkansas. It is probable that the culture came to -an end in Illinois by 1500 or 1550. This fact coupled with the pottery -evidence makes it highly probable (though possibly not conclusive) that -the disorganized Illini Confederacy embraced the tribes whose members -were the descendants of the people of the great Middle Phase -civilization in Illinois. - -More or less contemporaneous with the Middle Phase culture were the -so-called Upper Phase peoples of Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan and -Indiana. These were represented in Illinois by the Fisher peoples of the -Langford subculture known chiefly from sites along the Illinois, -Kankakee and Des Plaines rivers in northeastern Illinois and (chiefly on -a pottery basis) in northwestern Indiana and southern Michigan. - -Beset by enemies on the east, south, north and northwest, with their -traditions of former greatness fading, the demoralized Illini tribes -welcomed the protection of French soldiers. Their own resourcefulness, -courage, pride, and confidence in themselves and their culture continued -to deteriorate, their numbers to diminish under the softening influence -of alcohol and the persistent assaults of the ruder more aggressive -Winnebago, Sauk, Fox, Potawatomi and Kickapoo tribes invading Illinois -from the north until they were reduced by 1833 to a mere handful of a -hundred odd men, women and children. The demands on the part of citizens -of the United States for Illinois lands was brought to a head by the -scare of the Black Hawk War, and the Illini, their traditional Indian -friends and enemies, were transferred to new territory west of the -Mississippi. Thus ended the aboriginal occupation of Illinois that had -endured for at least 10,000 years. - - - - - GLOSSARY - - -ADVANCED PHASE: The earliest pottery-making cultures of Woodland in - southern Illinois. The peoples seem to have been storers of acorns - and hickory nuts. It is sometimes called early Woodland. - -AMERINDIAN: The American Indian of Mongolian racial stock so named to - distinguish him from the Asiatic Indian who is of the white or - Caucasian race. - -ANTHROPOLOGY: The study of man and his cultural activities. - -ARCHAEOLOGY: The division of anthropology that studies peoples of the - past through the remains of their works that are found in the - ground. - -ARCHAIC (SUBCULTURE): An archaeological subdivision of the Lithic - Pattern characterized by broad-bladed barbed spearheads, - spearthrower weights and “bannerstones,” small camps, and a - hunting-collecting economy (without plant-raising or food-storage). - -ARROWHEADS: Projectile points less than three inches long presumed to - have been used to tip arrows. - -ART: A form of human endeavor in which the individual or artist, with - more or less skill, tries to produce an object or activity of such a - nature that it is esthetically satisfying in some sense both to - himself and to his group generally. - -ARTIFACTS: Any object made by man, or a natural object modified by man, - in order to satisfy a cultural need. (Only the names and uses of - artifacts that are not self-explanatory appear in the glossary). - -ATLATL: See SPEARTHROWER. - -ASSEMBLAGE: In this paper assemblage refers to the selected significant - artifact types of an archaeological unit. In a more general sense, - it signifies the aggregate of artifacts found at a particular site, - or in a deposit belonging to a single culture at the site. - -AX: Refers in this paper to the grooved ground stone head resembling the - modern steel ax in general form and presumably used for chopping in - a somewhat similar manner. - -AZTALAN: The site of a Middle Phase fortified village with mounds in - Jefferson County, Wisconsin, in the Cahokia Subculture. It was - investigated by the Milwaukee Public Museum. See S. A. Barrett in - Bibliography. - -BARB: A projection or shoulder near the base of the blade of a spear, - dart or arrowhead that serves to retain it in a wound and to - stimulate bleeding. One of a number of “backward” projections on a - harpoon that serves a similar purpose. - -BAST: The inner bark (phloem) of a tree. - -BREECH CLOTH or CLOUT: An article of clothing consisting of a narrow - band or fold of cloth or skin that passes around the waist and - between the legs. - -BURIAL MOUND: Any man-made hill or knoll erected primarily to enclose - the dead. - -CACHE: A deposit of a large number of artifacts in a grave or, in - general, a number of artifacts found together in the earth. - -CALUMET: See note, page 48. - -CELT: An ungrooved stone or copper hatchet head. - -CHIEF: An official selected and formally installed in office by some - social process who exercises civil authority by virtue of office. - -CHIPPING: See Flaking. - -CHOPPER: Generally any tool used for chopping, hewing, or hacking. - Specifically, a chipped flint tool roughly hatchet shaped. Some hand - choppers have the edge of the blade paralleling the longer axis of - the piece. - -CHUNKEY STONE: A polished stone disk that was used as a bowl in various - types of games. - -CIVILIZATION: See note, page 26. - -CLASSIC: The term used in this paper to designate the phase to which the - Hopewellian Civilization of the Woodland pattern belongs. - -CLOVIS POINT: A type of leaf-shaped spearhead with a longitudinal groove - (channel or fluting) generally extending one fourth to one half the - length of the piece from its base toward its tip. - -CLUB: An adaptation of a stick for a weapon or a tool for hurling - (throwing stick) or battering (war club). The war club is often - weighted with a stone head for greater effectiveness. It differs - from the tomahawk in that it has no cutting edge. - -CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE: The property of flint and certain other stones when - struck with a hammer of chipping away in flakes which leave concave - or shell-like scars or hollows. By suitable control methods, tool - and weapon heads of desired types can be produced. - -CONOIDAL or CONICAL BASE: The characteristic pointed base of Woodland - pots. - -CRAB ORCHARD: A division of the Baumer subculture. - -CULTURE: Culture as used in this paper has one of two meanings, each - readily understood in its context. In a general sense, it means the - significant beliefs, customary activities and social prohibitions - peculiar to man (together with the man-made tools, weapons and other - material objects that he finds or has found necessary) that modify, - limit or enhance in some manner, most of his discernible natural - activities due to his physical animal inheritance and organization. - Culture in a specific sense refers to the significant cultural - features of the group or period under consideration, the way of - life. See FEATURE, CULTURAL. - -CUMBERLAND: A subculture of the Middle (Mississippi) Phase that - flourished in southern Illinois, western Kentucky and Tennessee, - archaeologically known as Gordon-Fewkes or Tennessee-Cumberland. - -DAGGER: A long sharp-pointed blade of flint (or a copper pin) presumably - hafted with a wooden handle, used as a hunting knife or in - hand-to-hand fighting. - -DARTHEADS: Medium-sized weapon heads (2½ to 4 inches long) presumably - used to tip lances or javelins. - -DICKSON MOUND: A burial mound near Lewistown in Fulton County where some - three hundred skeletons together with their grave offerings have - been exposed to view. It is now a State Park and open to visitors. - -DIGGING STICK: A conveniently-shaped stick used by primitive peoples in - collecting tubers and roots and small animals, digging storage pits, - and for preparing the soil for planting. Antler was sometimes shaped - and presumably employed in like manner. - -DIGGING TOOL: Any implement employed by primitive peoples in digging—a - digging stick, a shell hoe, or a chipped flint hoe. - -DOMESTICATION: The breeding and rearing of plants and animals under - man’s control and for his needs. - -DRIFT (rarely drifter): A blunt tool of antler or bone presumably held - in the hand and pressed against a flint to flake it, or one held - against the flint piece and struck with a hammer for a like purpose. - -DUGOUT: A boat made by hollowing out a log with fire and tools and - shaping its exterior suitably for water travel. - -ECONOMIC ASPECT: That division of primitive culture concerned primarily - with securing and preparing food, shelter, clothing, and raw - materials for tools, weapons and other material devices, and the - technologies involved. This required considerable knowledge of - natural resources, properties of materials, and lay of the land and - permits freer direct creative intellectual effort than does any - other aspect. - -ECONOMY: The chief means of securing food and other basic physical - requirements of man, as a hunting-collecting economy. - -EFFIGY: Any artifact resembling in outline, in relief, or in the round - some living organism or mythical being. - -EFFIGY MOUND: A mound of earth in low relief shaped in outline form to - resemble an animal or some geometric or other conventionalized form. - They are often found in groups together with conical and elongated - or linear mounds in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa and Illinois. - -EFFIGY POT: A pottery vessel made in the form of an animal, human being, - or a part of one, or having conventionalized bird or animal head and - tail projecting from opposite sides of rim or mouth (generally of - shallow bowls), occurring most commonly in the Middle (Mississippi) - Phase. - -EXTENDED: As applied to burials, a skeleton lying at full length usually - on its side or back. - -FAMILY, EXTENDED: A man, his wife or wives, their descendants in the - male or female line as custom dictates, and their families who - consider themselves as a distinct social unit usually with an - acknowledged leader or headman. The extended family usually lives in - a local settlement or a limited territory. - -FAMILY, SIMPLE: A man, his wife or wives and their unmarried children. - -FAMILY-TYPE SOCIAL CONTROL: The manner of maintaining peace, order, and - obedience to elders and to custom in tribes and local groups in the - Self-Domestication Stage secured by early and strict indoctrination - of the young in the family and through public opinion (social - approval and disapproval) rather than by force and political - agencies. - -FEATHER CLOTH: Robes or blankets made by attaching overlapping feathers - to the outer surface of a textile or netting to simulate a bird - skin. - -FEATURE, CULTURAL: Any type of cultural organization (or institution) - within a tribe or independent cultural unit such as marriage, the - family division of labor, social control, political governing - agency, Sacred Tradition (“mythology”), etc. - -FERTILITY RITES: The religious ceremonies performed in a primitive tribe - for the purpose of insuring its welfare, the continuance of an - abundant supply of food animals and other natural resources on which - it depends, and possibly with expressions of gratitude for past - benefits. - -FESTIVALS: The term applied to the religious ceremonies of plant-raising - peoples that relate to planting and the harvesting of crops. - -FINAL PHASE: The decadent Woodland culture, archaeologically known as - late Woodland, is characteristic of much of Illinois in the interval - between the fall of Hopewellian and the rise of Mississippi. - -FLAKER (DRIFT): A flint-working tool either used alone with simple - pressure or as a punch struck by a stone hammer (indirect - percussion). - -FLAKING or CHIPPING: The method of working flint into tools and weapons - by direct hammer blows, indirect percussion or by pressure with a - flaker. - -FLEXED: As applied to burials, a skeleton (generally lying on its side) - with knees drawn up to or near chest, arms close to side or with - hand(s) near head. - -FLINT: In this paper, any stone that flakes with a conchoidal fracture - that was so used by Amerindians to make chipped tools and weapons. - -FOLSOM POINT: A flint spearhead having the faces of the blade hollowed - out by chipping (channeling or fluting) except for a narrow strip - paralleling each edge including the tip (see Figure 3, page 11). - -FOOD-DRAFT ANIMALS: The large mammals (especially the ox) that were - domesticated by man and besides providing him with a continuously - available supply of meat, served as a beast of burden or to draw a - wheeled vehicle, to drag the plough, and as a source of energy to - turn the mill. Animals were not generally so used in North America. - -FOOD-STORERS: Those peoples who by virtue of native ingenuity and some - special natural resource in their region were enabled to store up - sufficient food supplies to last them for several months. - -FORMALIZED RELIGION: The forms of prayer, worship, devotion and ritual - and the organization of priests, etc. by which plant-raising tribes - carry on their assumed relationships with the world of the unknown - agents of natural forces. - -GORGET: (pronounced gor´-jet) A large flat artifact, possibly at times - an insigne, of stone, shell, copper or bone worn on the chest. - -GRAVE GOODS: The jewelry, insignia, weapons or implements of a dead - tribesman together with offerings that may have been placed in his - grave by friends or relatives, including vessels containing food and - water. Also called beigaben, funeral offerings, grave furniture, - etc. - -GRINDING: The process by which a stone, bone, shell or metal artifact - was shaped by rubbing with sand and water or against a piece of - sandstone (abrader). - -GRINDING STONE: A large flat or slightly hollowed stone on which seeds, - berries, or nuts were crushed or ground by a smaller hand stone - (muller or pestle). - -GUARDIAN SPIRIT: Among primitive peoples, a being from the invisible - spirit world who appeared to a person in a dream and was believed to - serve the dreamer thereafter as his personal protector. - -HAMLET: The name used in this paper for local settlements of Archaic and - Initial Woodland sites. They probably had populations of less than - one hundred persons. - -HAMMERSTONE: A stone hammer. Any native or modified cobblestone used as - a hammer. - -HATCHET: A ground stone or copper celt head. Tomahawk or hafted hatchet. - -HOUSEHOLD: A man, his wife, and children, married and unmarried together - with slaves and others, if any, who customarily in their culture - live under one shelter or roof. - -INDIRECT PERCUSSION: The use of a punch with a hammer, especially in the - chipping of stone. - -INITIAL PHASE: The earliest pottery-making cultures of Woodland in - northern Illinois, archaeologically known as early Woodland. - -INITIATION RITES: Puberty rites. As used in this paper, the ceremonies - by which a boy on “becoming of age” is admitted to adult membership - in the tribe. Somewhat simpler rites are performed for girls also in - some tribes. - -INSIGNE: (Plural _insignia_) Any artifact worn by primitive people as a - symbol of rank or class, birth (in a particular family), office, - priesthood, or of individual prowess. - -INSTITUTIONS: See Social Structure. - -JEWELRY: Any object other than insignia, paint, or clothing worn by - primitive man as personal adornment. - -KINCAID COMMUNITY: The site of a Middle Phase village, mounds, - fortifications and other cultural remains in Pope and Massac - counties, Illinois, on the Ohio River a few miles above Paducah, - Kentucky. - -LAKE BAIKAL: A large inland lake in the south of Siberia. Pottery from - the surrounding region resembles generalized Woodland ware, - especially that of the Initial Phase. - -LINEAGE: The social group (including dead persons) whose members are - descended from some certain or mythical ancestor, either male or - female as the custom prevails, and which considers itself a distinct - social unit. (See also Extended Family.) - -LITHIC: A term employed in this paper as embracing cultures roughly - equivalent to those of the Self-Domestication Stage, but without - pottery. - -MANA: Superhuman power that primitive man believed to reside in certain - inanimate objects, in certain persons at times and in spirits, that - under suitable conditions could be transferred either wholly or in - part to other objects or persons. Improperly handled it was a source - of grave danger. - -MIDDLE PHASE: The archaeological term for the highest development of the - Mississippi pattern in the United States. In Illinois it is - represented by the Cahokia and Cumberland subcultures. - -MISSISSIPPI: The major archaeological pattern that succeeded the earlier - Woodland in most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains - and High Plains and that was still in existence in some parts of - this country as late as 1700 A.D. It is characterized by relatively - intensive plant-raising, political government, walled villages, - temples (or sacred groves) and a priesthood, semi- to permanent - dwellings, pottery of varied shapes, with globular bodies and - secondary features, the bow and arrow. - -MODOC ROCK SHELTER: An ancient settlement of Archaic peoples in Randolph - County, Illinois, dating from 8000 to 2100 B.C. See Bibliography - under Deuel, and Fowler and Winters. - -MOUND: Any rise or hill of earth and/or stone that resulted from some - activity of man, such as refuse mound, shell mound, burial mound, - temple mound, etc. See BURIAL, EFFIGY, TEMPLE. - -MOUND BUILDERS: A term having little significance, meaning any group - that erected mounds. In American archaeology it sometimes refers - specifically to Hopewellians, to Mississippians or to both. - -MYTHOLOGY: See SACRED TRADITION. - -OBSIDIAN: Volcanic glass, a material imported by Hopewellians possibly - from Wyoming. Rare in Illinois. - -PALEO-INDIAN (See Clovis and Folsom): Hunters of big game who roamed - over North America in glacial times. - -PATTERN: The largest archaeological unit in the McKern Classification - System. - -PECKING: The process (other than chipping) by which a stone artifact was - brought to general shape by breaking off small particles with a - stone hammer. - -PEOPLE: The term “people” as used in this paper does not refer to a - physical type but simply to cultural groups unless specifically - stated to the contrary. - -PERIOD: Unless otherwise specifically stated, the word applies to a - cultural level regardless of time and place. - -PHASE: The major division of the pattern as used in the McKern - Classification System. - -PLANT-RAISING: The economy or cultural status of a cultural group who - grew food (and fibre) plants but were without domesticated - food-draft animals. - -POLITICAL ORGANIZATION: A formalized social means of controlling the - members of a nation or tribe and compelling compliance with - established customs or laws with defined customary or lawful - penalties for violations together with the machinery for determining - equity, rights, or damages in non-criminal disputes through - governmental agencies such as officers (chiefs) and official bodies - (councils) regularly selected for these purposes. - -POLISHING: A process by which the surface of a ground stone artifact was - brought to a high degree of smoothness and gloss by rubbing with - fine earth and water. It is readily distinguishable from polish due - to wear in digging. - -PRIEST: Any person selected in a regular and customary manner for - religious office who by virtue of installation into that office and - acceptance of the duties is (believed to be) invested with the power - to communicate and intercede with members of the spirit world, a god - or gods or in certain instances to act for them on behalf of his - group. - -PRIMITIVE PEOPLE: Refers to any people in the Self-Domestication Stage - and to the simple plant-growers of the Farming Period. - -PROTOCULTURAL: A stage presumed to have existed prior to man’s discovery - of the principle of conchoidal fracturing of flint, when he used - native sticks and stones as tools, and sometimes by haphazard - breaking of these secured new forms more suitable for his purposes. - -PROTOMISS: An abbreviated form for Protomississippi, the earliest known - subculture of the Middle (Mississippi) Phase in southwestern - Illinois. Dillinger is the type site. - -RELIGION: The set of beliefs (Sacred Tradition), rules (tabus), and - activities (including rituals) that govern the life of a society - with regard to those superhuman forces with which the individual - feels himself surrounded and which neither he nor his group by - themselves can control. Religious practice includes prayers or - requests for the continuance of well-being and life’s necessities, - thanksgiving for past blessings, and a belief in the necessity of - right conduct of the individuals in their daily living. In all known - primitive religions, a belief in some form exists of spirit beings - and/or gods with superhuman powers. See FORMALIZED RELIGION. - -ROCK SHELTER: An overhanging rock ledge facing away from the prevailing - wind that afforded protection to a primitive family from the - elements and wild animals. - -ROUGH STONE: This term refers to stone used as it occurs in nature with - virtually no artificial modification other than that resulting from - use such as a common hammerstone, an unworked abrader, or a grinding - stone. The stone may have a relatively smooth surface due to natural - causes. - -SACRED TRADITION: The term used here to signify the embodiment of the - significant (effective) beliefs and rules that governed the behavior - and activities of a primitive tribe in matters relating to the - unseen world of spirits (or gods) and unknown forces, which were - handed down from generation to generation. It is usually included in - the inept term “mythology” which may also contain tales and legends - that serve for mere entertainment. - -SELF-DOMESTICATION STAGE: The earliest stage of true human culture which - began presumably with the discovery of controlled flint chipping and - the invention of flint tool types. During this stage, man is enabled - to secure a fairly constant food supply by hunting and collecting, - keeps his young under parental care and control for several years - and learns to accommodate himself more or less peaceably to his - family and to fellow tribesmen during brief periods of religious and - social gatherings. - -SHAMAN: A person who by virtue of dreams or visions believes he can - communicate with spirits, obtain from them superhuman powers for the - benefit of his social group and tribe and who has demonstrated these - abilities over a greater or longer time to the satisfaction of his - fellows. - -SHELLS, MARINE: Shells from the ocean or Gulf of Mexico, raw materials - secured by traders or through exchange for other goods. The most - common marine shells found in Illinois cultures are the _Cassis - madagascarensis_ (Hopewellian), the Busycon or Fulgar (Middle - Mississippi and Hopewellian), _Marginella_ (Initial Woodland, - Hopewellian and Middle Mississippi), _Oliva_ (Middle Mississippi), - and _Olivella_ (Hopewellian). - -SOCIAL ASPECT: That division of primitive culture that is concerned - preeminently with preserving and stabilizing fundamental customs, - with the maintenance of peace and order within its primary social - units, and to this end, in the organization, functioning and - continuation of such units. - -SOCIAL CONTROL: Any general social means by which a social or political - group preserves peace and order within itself and group protection - against outsiders (see Family-type and Political Agency). - -SOCIAL STRUCTURE: The persisting system of significant relationships in - a society that prevails without regard to the particular individuals - involved. - -SPEARHEADS: Projectile points 3 to 6 or 6½ inches long presumed to have - been used to tip spears. - -SPEARTHROWER (ATLATL): A short stick by which increased leverage is - obtained in hurling a spear. It gives greater range and an accuracy - comparable to the bow at shorter distances. - -SPEARTHROWER WEIGHT: A weight secured to the spearthrower for - controlling it and increasing the speed of the spear. - -SPEAR, THRUSTING: A long spear that is fitted with a long, narrow head - generally without barbs or shoulders, that can be easily withdrawn - from a wound. It is primarily for use in the hand, not for throwing. - -SPECIALIZATION (CRAFT): An occupation in which a man or household of a - primitive community engages primarily to the considerable exclusion - of the general economic pursuits or the remainder of his group. It - should not be confused with the production of a highly skilled - craftsman. - -SPECIALIZATION (OF TOOLS): Applies to numerous variations in the forms - derived from a general artifact type presumably to accomplish better - and more easily certain special requirements of construction or - manufacture. - -STAGE (CULTURAL): One of the major periods into which cultures may be - divided by virtue of its degree of development which depends - primarily on the fundamental invention that ushered it in. - -SPIRITUAL ASPECT: That division of primitive culture concerned primarily - with tribal values, religion, recreation and the arts. - -STATUS (CULTURAL): A subdivision of a stage. A substage. - -STONE: Unless otherwise noted any kind of stone generally used by - primitive peoples for pecking, grinding and polishing into weapons, - tools, etc., for example, granite, greenstone, gneiss, shale, - limestone, basalt. - -STONE VAULT GRAVE: A type of burial mound consisting chiefly of flat - stones enclosing a walled-up tomb chamber, the whole covered with - earth. In Illinois known at present only from Adams County. - -STONE VAULT SUBCULTURE: A division of Final Woodland Phase that is - characterized by stone vault graves. - -SUBCULTURE: Any archaeological grouping smaller than a phase. - -SUBSTAGE or STATUS: A subdivision of a _Stage_ that develops as the - result of a significant invention, discovery of a special resource, - or some other condition of the surroundings. - -TECHNOLOGY: The processes by which any artifact is produced. - -TEEPEE: A conical framework of poles covered with bark, skins, brush, - mats, etc. used as a shelter or hut by primitive peoples. - -TEMPERING: Foreign material such as sand, crushed limestone, plant - fibers, crushed shell, etc. mixed with the clay in pottery-making to - render the vessel less likely to crack in firing. - -TEMPLE MOUND: A rectangular pyramid with a flat top on which a temple - was built. Similar mounds were used for council and chief’s houses - among historic Mississippi peoples. Flat-topped pyramidal mounds are - characteristic of the important Middle Mississippi sites in - Illinois. - -THERMAL MAXIMUM: A time interval (roughly between 5000 and 2000 B.C.) in - which the climate was warmer and drier than at present. - -TOMAHAWK: A hafted hatchet of stone or metal used in fighting. - -TOTEM: An animal, plant or inanimate object that is regarded as the - symbol of a social or political group. - -TUMPLINE: A sling or pack strap that rests on the forehead, passes over - the shoulders, and is used for carrying a load on the back. - -TURKEY-TAIL: A large spearhead, broadly oval in the middle and - double-pointed with notches near one end. - -TYPE STATION(S): The site (or sites) that at present seem, to the - author, to give the fullest view of life in a subculture, including - as far as possible a village (or camp) and burial site. - -WAR (ARCHAIC): The blood feud. In the Archaic period, this was the - method of interfamily or intergroup retaliation for murder or other - serious injury to one family or local group by a member of another. - It was carried on by alternate sneak raids between the local - settlements involved, with the object of killing one or more members - of the group attacked, (destroying property), and escaping without - loss. - -WAR (PLANT-RAISERS): Hostilities between plant-raising tribes were - pursued by sneak raids having for their objectives the surprise and - attack of villages, the ambush of enemy parties, and the capture of - prisoners. (Murder, black magic, and other crimes committed within - the tribe were generally dealt with by socio-judicial custom). - -WATTLE AND DAUB: A framework of posts, interlaced with branches and - twigs and plastered over with clay for house and fortification walls - common in Middle Phase and probably in other periods. - -WIGWAM: As used here, a roughly hemispherical hut having a framework of - poles set in the ground with their tops arched over and secured - together, the whole covered over with leafy branches, skins, bark, - mats or thatch. - -WINDBREAK: A vertical or inclined framework of poles covered with - branches and leaves, skins, bark, etc. erected by primitive peoples - as a shelter against wind, sun, and storm. - -WOODLAND: One of the major archaeological patterns of the eastern, - southern and central United States, characterized by plant-raising - (except possibly in its Initial Phase), by elongated globular clay - pots (with cord-roughened exteriors, pointed bottoms, and incised - line and punctate decoration), hamlets or small villages (except in - the Classic Phase), with flint spearheads (but no arrowheads except - in Final Phase). - -WRAP-AROUND-SKIRT: A rectangular piece of clothing made of skin, fur, or - cloth worn by Hopewellian and Middle Mississippi women. It was - wrapped around the body from the waist to the knees or below and was - secured at the top by a belt or other means. - -YUMA POINTS: Chipped spearheads of various general shapes including - leaf-shaped forms, without channeling. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - ADVANCED (WOODLAND) PHASE - - 1951 Cole, F. C. et al in _The Baumer Focus_, in KINCAID, A - PREHISTORIC ILLINOIS METROPOLIS, pp. 184-210, University of - Chicago, Chicago (Baumer Subculture). - 1951 Maxwell, Moreau S. _The Woodland Cultures in Southern - Illinois_, pp. 232-243. Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin - (Baumer Subculture). - 1951 _Ibid._, pp. 78-183 (Crab Orchard Subculture). - Tennessee - 1922 Harrington, M. R. _Cherokee and Earliest Remains on Upper - Tennessee River_, INDIAN NOTES AND MONOGRAPHS, No. 24, New York - (Round Grave People or Baumer Subculture). - 1952 Kneberg, Madeline. _The Tennessee Area_ in Griffin, Ed., - ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, p. 192 and Fig. 102., - University of Chicago, Chicago (Round Grave, Upper Valley or - Baumer). - - ARCHAIC PHASE - - 1950 Deuel, Thorne. _Man’s Venture in Culture_, STORY OF ILLINOIS - SERIES, No. 6, pp. 5-12, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. - 1957 Deuel, Thorne, _The Modoc Shelter_, REPORT OF INVESTIGATIONS, - No. 7, Springfield, revised and reprinted from _Natural - History_, October, 1957, pp. 400-405 (Simple and Medial). - 1956 Fowler, Melvin L. and Winters, Howard. _Modoc Rock Shelter, - Preliminary Report_, REPORT OF INVESTIGATIONS, No. 4, Illinois - State Museum, Springfield. (Simple and Medial). - 1957 Fowler, Melvin L. _Ferry Site, Hardin County, Illinois_, - SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. VIII, No. 1, Illinois State - Museum, Springfield. (Terminal Subculture). - 1950 Titterington, P. F. _Some Non-Pottery Sites in the St. Louis - Area_ in ILLINOIS STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL, N.S. Vol. I, - pp. 19-31 (Terminal Subculture). - Tennessee - 1947 Lewis, T. M. N. and Kneberg, Madeline. _The Archaic Horizon in - Western Tennessee_, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville (Eva - focus or subculture). - United States generally - 1957 Wormington, H. M. _Ancient Man in North America_, POPULAR - SERIES, No. 4, 4th Edition, revised, Denver (Archaic and - Paleo-Indian Assemblages). - - CLASSIC (HOPEWELLIAN) PHASE - - 1937 Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. _Rediscovering Illinois_, pp. - 130-191. University of Chicago, Chicago. - 1952 Deuel, Thorne, Ed. _Hopewellian Communities_, SCIENTIFIC PAPERS - SERIES, Vol. V, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. - 1957 Fowler, Melvin L. _Rutherford Mound, Hardin County, Illinois_, - SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. VII, No. 1, Illinois State - Museum, Springfield. - - MIDDLE (MISSISSIPPI) PHASE - - Cahokia Subculture - 1937 Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. _Rediscovering Illinois_, pp. - 75-94, 111-125, 127, University of Chicago, Chicago. - 1928 Moorehead, W. K. _The Cahokia Mounds_, University of Illinois, - BULLETIN, Vol. 26, No. 4, Urbana. - 1939 Simpson, A. M. _The Kingston Village Site_, Peoria Academy of - Science, Peoria. (Privately printed.) - 1952 Smith, Hale G. _The Crable Site, Fulton County, Illinois_, - ANTHROPOLOGY PAPERS No. 7, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. - 1938 Titterington, P. F. _The Cahokia Mound Group and Its Village - Site Materials_, St. Louis. (Privately printed.) - Cahokia Subculture (Wisconsin) - 1933 Barrett, S. A. _Ancient Aztalan_, BULL. PUBLIC MUSEUM OF - MILWAUKEE, Vol. 13. - Cumberland Subculture - 1951 Cole, F. C. et al. _Kincaid, A Prehistoric Illinois - Metropolis_, pp. 29-164, 293-366, University of Chicago, - Chicago. - Cumberland Subculture (Tennessee) - 1928 Myer, William, Ed. _Two Prehistoric Villages in Middle - Tennessee_, 41st ANNUAL REPORT, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, - pp. 485-614, Washington. - Cumberland Subculture (Kentucky) - 1929 Webb, William S. and Funkhouser, W. D. _The Williams Site in - Christian County, Kentucky_, UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY REPORTS IN - ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 5-23 followed - by 36 figs., Lexington. - - PALEO-INDIAN PHASE - - 1954 Kleine, Harold K. _A Remarkable Paleo-Indian Site in Alabama_ - in TEN YEARS OF THE TENNESSEE ARCHAEOLOGIST, Lewis and Kneberg, - Ed., reprinted from TENNESSEE ARCHAEOLOGIST, 1954. - 1951 Smail, William. _Some Early Projectile Points from the St. - Louis Area_, in ILLINOIS STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOURNAL, N. S., - Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 11-16. - 1957 Wormington, H. M. _Ancient Man in North America_, POPULAR - SERIES, No. 4, 4th Edition, revised, Denver. - - UPPER (MISSISSIPPI) PHASE - - 1927 Langford, George, Sr. _The Fisher Mound Group, Successive - Aboriginal Occupations near the Mouth of the Illinois River_, - in AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, Vol. XXIX, No. 3, pp. 153-206, - Menasha. - - FINAL WOODLAND - - Bluff Subculture - 1935 Titterington, P. F. _Certain Bluff Mounds of Western Jersey - County, Illinois_ in AMERICAN ANTIQUITY, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. - 6-46. - 1943 Titterington, P. F. _The Jersey County, Illinois, Bluff - Culture_, in AMERICAN ANTIQUITY, Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 240-245. - Effigy Mound Subculture (Wisconsin) - 1932 Barrett, S. A. and Skinner, Alanson. _Certain Mound and Village - Sites of Shawano and Oconto Counties, Wisconsin_, BULL. PUBLIC - MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 10, No. 5, Milwaukee. - 1928 McKern, W. C. _The Neal and McClaughry Mound Groups_, BULL. - PUBLIC MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 3, No. 3, Milwaukee. - 1933 Nash, Philleo. _The Excavation of the Ross Mound Group I_, - BULL. PUBLIC MUSEUM OF MILWAUKEE, Vol. 16, No. 1. - 1956 Rowe, Chandler. _The Effigy Mound Culture of Wisconsin_, - MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY, No. 3. - Lewis Subculture - 1951 Cole, F. C. et al. _The Lewis Focus_ in KINCAID, A PREHISTORIC - ILLINOIS METROPOLIS, pp. 165-183, University of Chicago, - Chicago. - Raymond Subculture - 1952 Maxwell, Moreau S. _Archaeology of the Lower Ohio Valley_ in - Griffin, Ed., COLE ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE - EASTERN UNITED STATES, pp. 186-187 and Fig. 100, University of - Chicago, Chicago. - 1951 Maxwell, Moreau S. _The Woodland Cultures in Southern - Illinois_, pp. 78-172, 194-211, Beloit College, Beloit, - Wisconsin. - Stone Vault Subculture - 1935 Thurber, O. D. _New Type of Burial Mound Near Quincy_ in - TRANSACTIONS ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, Springfield, - Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, pp. 67-68. - 1910 Fowke, Gerard. _Antiquities of Central and Southeastern - Missouri_, BULL. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, No. 37, - Washington. - Tampico Subculture - 1937 Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. _Rediscovering Illinois_, pp. - 191-198, University of Chicago, Chicago. - - ILLINI TRIBES - - 1934 Pease, Theodore Calvin and Werner, Raymond C. THE FRENCH - FOUNDATIONS, 1680-1693 (_Memoirs of De Gannes_ by Sieur - Deliette) pp. 302-395, Springfield, Illinois. - 1958 Temple, Wayne C. _Historic Tribes, Part 2 of Indian Villages of - the Illinois Country_ by Sara J. Tucker and Wayne Temple, - SCIENTIFIC PAPERS SERIES, Vol. II, Illinois State Museum, - Springfield. - - INITIAL (WOODLAND) PHASE - - 1937 Cole, F. C. and Deuel, Thorne. _Rediscovering Illinois_ (Red - Ochre, pp. 57-69; Black Sand, pp. 69-75, 136-149; Morton, pp. - 39-46, 126, 128-130; 102-104, 106-108), University of Chicago, - Chicago. - - - - - CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS - - - ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNITS - - - ARTIFACTS[20] - - - RECONSTRUCTION OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FEATURES - - - RECONSTRUCTION OF RELIGIOUS, ARTISTIC, AND RECREATIONAL FEATURES - - - PALEO-INDIAN PHASE 50,000(?)-8000 B.C.(?) - - Narrow leaf-shaped spearheads - Folsom points - Clovis points - Stone hammer (?) - Flint scrapers (?) - Personal ornaments (?) - - Thrusting weapons - Simple family (?) - Lineage in male line (?) - Big game hunting - Roving habits following herd - Temporary camps - Energy sources for labor, travel and transportation wholly human - - Religion based on spirits, mana and on the chief game species hunted - (?) - - - ARCHAIC PHASE 8000-2500 B.C. - - Stone hammers, rough or pitted - Broad barbed flint spearheads - Flint dartheads - Flint scrapers - Flint awls - Chipped choppers - Spearthrower (atlatl) weights - Grooved stone axes (ground) - Ground stone celts - Chipped flint digging tools (hoes) - Small area settlement sites in the open - Rock shelters - Post holes in line - Necklaces and pendants - Plummets - Copper tools - Dog bones - Bone-awls - Whet- or abrading stones - Bannerstones (with cylindrical hole) - Flexed burials in Medial and Terminal subculture - - Projectile weapon - Hunting of deer and small mammals and collecting edible plants, clams, - etc. - Technologies: flint-chipping, pecking, grinding and polishing of - stone, grinding and polishing bone, boring bone and stone with - flint drills and with tube, sand and water, making string - (from hides and [?] plant-fibers), weaving (?), basket-making - (?) - Dog the only domesticated animal - Marriage - Family - Extended family or lineage - “Independent” local groups - Windbreaks or flimsy shelters - Family hunting territory - Rotating hamlet - Non-political tribe - “Family-type” social control - Puberty rites (Initiation ceremonies) - Tribal elders and temporary headmen - Insignia possibly as social acceptance of personal achievement, or as - family crest - - Belief in friendly and ancestral spirits, in mana and in revelation by - vision or dream - Sacred tradition (“mythology”) - The shaman—intercessor with spirits and healer of sick—magic medicines - Fertility ceremonies—to insure abundant game and to perpetuate sacred - traditions - Recreational activities and creative arts practiced chiefly in - connection with religious ceremonies - Funeral rites for all deceased tribal members - Socially important persons on death given special care and preparation - for burial, and possibly buried in a specially selected place - Mourning period for dead - Food and grave offerings left especially for important dead - - - INITIAL (WOODLAND) PHASE 1500-500 B.C. - - Elongated globular pots with pointed (conoidal) bases - Copper ornaments - Burial mounds and cemeteries - - Probably very similar to Archaic - Copper breastplate or gorgets - Socially important persons buried in mounds (?) - - Very similar to Archaic - Dog graves in burial mounds - - - ADVANCED (WOODLAND) PHASE 1000(?)-100(?) B.C. - - Numerous storage pits containing acorn and hickory nut remains - Medium-sized settlement sites - Post holes outlining a square area - Post holes outlining a circular or oval area - Flat-bottomed flaring-walled Woodland pots (“flower pots”) - Polished stone gorgets - Burials in settlement sites - - Storage of acorns, nuts and seeds - Larger population concentrations of perhaps a 100 or 150 persons - Semi- to permanent log dwellings, logs upright - Possibly insignia or badges of leadership or individual prowess - - Religion probably transitional between Archaic and plant-raising types - - - CLASSIC (WOODLAND) PHASE [HOPEWELLIAN] 500 B.C.-500 A.D. - - Chipped limonite hoes - Charred maize kernels and cobs (and in Ohio, beans and squash seeds) - Cloth and feather cloth remains - Basketry, matting and colored textile impressions - Marine shell vessels - Tortoise shell dishes - River mussel shell spoons with “handles” - Excellent polished black and painted pottery with occasional variation - of form—shallow bowls, beakers, effigy and globular shapes - A coarser duty Woodland ware with elongated bodies and pointed or - flattened bases - Large areas with village refuse and numerous mounds - Post holes outlining an oval or circular area (rare) - Pottery statuettes showing dress and ornaments worn - Jewelry of copper, silver, meteoric iron, cut and polished shell - beads, small marine shells, bears teeth sometimes set with - copper, pearls or colorful stones, etc. - Ear ornaments of copper, etc. - Marine shells from south Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of United States - Mica from North Carolina - Obsidian from Wyoming (?) - Copper from Lake Superior region - Galena from northwestern Illinois - Native pearls from river clams - Gorgets of stone, shell and copper (breastplates) - Pearls and ground shell beads distributed over the torso of skeleton - Deer antlers near human skull in grave - Cut maxillaries (more rarely mandibles) of bear or man on skeletons as - if worn as pendants - _Cassis madagascarensis_ shell vessels - Copper hatchets and adzes etc. - Platform type tobacco pipes - Medium to large “dome-shaped” burial mounds enclosing - Log (rarely stone) tomb chambers - Bundle burials and ossuaries in mounds with central tomb (northern - Illinois) - Cemeteries near mounds (southern Illinois) - Bodies buried generally in extended position rarely flexed and often - accompanied by pots, weapons and artistic products - “Pipes of Pan” - Beautifully chipped broad spearheads of special subtypes - Effigy dagger with sheath made from bears’ teeth - - Planting-raising economy supplemented by hunting and collecting - Crops: Maize, beans, squash, tobacco - Weaving of cloth, basket- and mat-making - Clothing: Wrap-around-skirt for women, breech cloth for men, - supplemented by robes in cold weather, feather cloth robes in - ceremonies. Mocassins for women and probably for men. - Large villages (or clusters of villages) as well as small settlements - The wigwam (for lower classes?) - Possibly log cabin dwellings for highest social class, logs laid - horizontal as in tomb chambers - Rise of wealth, rich and extensive trade - Dug-out boats (?) - Two or three social classes seem to be indicated by burial customs - Chiefs—a political form of government, with some of the clans, - possibly bear, wolverine and bobcat, predominant in certain - areas - A tribe organized either politically or into clans with subsidiary - districts or villages and political or clan chiefs. - Chiefs may have worn deer antler headdresses. - Chiefs probably wore feather headdresses, feather cloth robes, mantles - embroidered with pearls shells and cut shell beads, and other - insignia of office. - Tomb chambers probably for chiefs with relatives and retainers slain - to accompany them - Chief person in tomb sometimes woman (May indicate matrilineal descent - or simply ranking woman of highest caste) - Maxillary (jaw) pendants worn maybe as trophies of war and hunt, or to - indicate clan of a chief (?) - Doubtless the pipe served (as it did later) as a safe conduct to - visiting officials, travellers and traders, and a signature - and seal to important agreements whether economic, political - or intertribal - - Probably a formalized religion based on the chief food plant, maize - Regularly appointed priests - The priest probably wore feather robes and insignia of rank and - position - Religion probably included ceremonies connected with plant- or - maize-raising - Deities or gods with special powers related to food-raising, etc. - The spring or planting festival - The green corn or first fruits festival - The harvest festival and perhaps minor festivals revolving about the - deer - High-ranking priests were probably of the highest caste and their - bodies given special care on death, elaborate funeral - ceremonies and burial in the tomb chambers of mounds, with - tribal mourning - Beautiful pipes either with or without long wooden items probably - figured largely in the religious ceremonies - Shamans probably still practiced the healing art (and black magic). - They probably used herbals instead of mineral medicines - High development of art in pottery, ceramic, copper and stone - sculpture, in engraving on bone in personal adornment and - technological expertness - - - FINAL (WOODLAND) PHASE 200(?)-1000 A.D. - - Boatstones and bar “amulets” - L-shaped pipe, long-stemmed - Crude flint arrowheads - Flexed and semi-flexed skeletons in mound graves and tomb chambers - Except for above, much like Initial Phase - - Spear and spearthrower still the chief weapon, weights tied (?) to - spearthrower - Small hamlets - Bow and arrow known but as yet ineffective as a practical weapon - Otherwise very similar to Initial Phase - - Religion probably with shamans rather than priests and a mixture of - Initial and Classic Phase religious beliefs and practices and - superstitions - Some considerable sanctity probably still attached to tobacco, tobacco - smoke and the pipe - Shamans undoubtedly still practiced the healing arts (as well as black - magic) and possibly simple religious rites - - - MIDDLE (MISSISSIPPI) PHASE 1000-1500 A.D. - - Hoes of chipped flint and numerous digging tools - Charred maize kernels and cobs - Large settlement areas with flat-topped pyramidal mounds, with cabin - remains on summits, surrounded by palisade remains in low - ridges of earth - Post holes and/or trenches outlining rectangular house floors. Fired - clay from wattle and daub structure, burned house with charred - thatch, timbers, rafters, mats, etc. - Fire pits or fireplaces within house - Fine polished black and painted wares with globular and flattened - globular bodies, in many shapes—water bottles, shallow bowls, - beakers, ollas or jars and effigy forms - An excellent, dull-gray service ware with similar varieties of shapes - An excellent storage ware of medium to large size, chiefly globular in - form - Busycon, marginella, olivella shells from south Atlantic and Gulf - Coasts - Copper from Lake Superior region - Busycon dippers and drinking cups - L-shaped pipe (“equal armed” and and medium long-stemmed varieties) - Massive effigy stone pipes - Skeletons, in extended positions, (distributed) in single and multiple - graves throughout mounds and in cemeteries - Pottery Vessels, weapon heads, jewelry, and polished stone discoidals, - etc. associated with skeletons - Shell gorgets engraved with realistic and conventional designs - Repoussee copper eagle gorgets or plaques - Copper sheeted ornaments and jewelry of pottery, bone, shell, wood and - leather - Polished stone disks or “wheels” - Ground and squared astragalus bone of deer and elk - - Intensive maize growing with other crops supplemented by hunting - Repeating weapon (bow and arrows) - Energy sources for labor and transportation still entirely human - The finer pottery and burials in mounds and cemeteries may reflect - class differences. The extension of the pottery shapes from - the fine black ware to the less decorative service ware may - indicate an improvement of lower class conditions over those - in Hopewellian times - Clothing much like Hopewellian in general styles - Large villages, small cities and small villages - Large centers or cities had temples and tribal officers’ cabins on - flat-topped mounds, and were protected by palisades and/or mud - walls - Dwellings semi- to permanent, with rectangular floors, vaulted or - gabled roofs of thatch, walls consisting of vertical posts, - wattle and daub construction, covered inside and out with - mats, sometimes possibly bark-covered. Cabin remains numerous. - Dug-out boats (?) - Wealth considerable. Trade in fewer materials than in Hopewellian - Two or three social classes present in population as in Hopewellian - Probably a political government with tribal and war chiefs and village - chiefs. Head tribal chief may have been chief priest also, or - a member of his family may have filled later office. War chief - probably also member of ruling caste (as among Natchez). Other - war chiefs probably of other classes, rank based on their past - deeds - Tribal and war chief. In some villages, village chief possibly had - dwellings on pyramid tops - Headdresses, probably with feathers, and regalia, including - feather-cloth robes were probably worn on tribal occasions of - importance - Calumet pipe doubtless served as safe conduct to travellers and - visiting officials, as seal and signature to important - agreements. Effigy stone pipes may have been Middle Phase - calumet pipe since it had to be smoked with a stem - War parties still of simple or no organization except leader and - followers, object to take prisoners but not territory - - Religious ceremonial centers or cities existed to which outlying - smaller village populations journeyed for religious festivals - Priesthood with appropriate dress and regalia - Temples or sacred groves for worship - Religion with deities having special powers relating to maize-growing. - Veneration or worship of ancestors - Spring, first fruits, and harvest festivals - Tobacco smoke, tobacco pipes used in ceremonies as incense offerings - Athletic games form part of ceremonies - Shamans still exist but chiefly for healing, etc. as among - Hopewellians - High-ranking officials and priests buried in graves in mounds. Usual - preparation of body, burial, mourning periods, elaborated - proportionately to the rank of the deceased. - Art well developed - Games of chance were probably known and played - - - UPPER PHASE 1100(?)-1600 A.D. - - Note: These are fringe groups in relation to Middle and Lower phases, - living in more wooded regions perhaps, where game was - especially abundant and topography less favorable to - plant-raising by a backward culture and where the social - impetus for high cultural development was largely lacking - Artifacts are a mixture of Woodland and Mississippi types - Generally a single pottery ware with both elongated and globular pots - is characteristic and there is little other specialization of - form - - A hunting-collecting economy with plant-raising probably in - garden-like plots - Large and small villages - A social development similar to but simpler than the Middle Phase, - probably a combination of Woodland and Mississippi elements - - A religion based on plant-raising but probably with considerable - emphasis on chief animals hunted. - Sacred groves and shrines, possibly temples in some of larger villages - No pyramidal mounds - Dead buried in mounds and in cemeteries - - - CONTACT PHASE (ILLINI) 1673-1833 A.D. - - Note: The artifacts of all tribes in the historic period probably - became gradually much the same regardless of their prior - cultural status due to deterioration of native technology and - trading of furs for European tools, weapons, cloth, etc. - Arrowheads of chipped flint, and native-made of European copper, brass - or iron - Numerous trade articles such as glass beads, gun parts, copper or - brass kettles, bottles for wine, olives, etc. and other - objects of European production - Native stone molds and cast lead balls (for guns) and native chipped - gun flints - Rectangular L-shaped (“Siouan type”) pipes of catlinite and other - stone. Micmac pipes after 1700. - - Bow and arrows preferred in war because they could be discharged more - rapidly than gun could be loaded and fired. Guns and - ammunition often not available - Little knowledge of proper care of guns, and no attempt to manufacture - guns and powder, or iron knives, copper kettles, etc. - Society largely disorganized, prestige of chiefs largely a matter of - personal prowess and reputation with some regard for earlier - methods of appointment and succession. - - Religion practiced by a fraction of tribe but falling into dispute - without adequate substitute - Probably appointment and succession of priests more or less regular - and based on earlier customs. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[5]All dates, even those determined by radiocarbon methods, should be - taken as only roughly approximate. - -[6]These dates and those given hereafter refer to the earliest and - latest sites known in Illinois for the cultures under consideration. - Although supported by radiocarbon dating methods, they are only - approximate. Undoubtedly also cultures in one area disappeared while - they continued to flourish in another part of the state or in other - states. - -[7]Generally speaking, each succeeding higher culture in the area made - most of the tool and weapon types of their predecessors, adding - certain improvements and sometimes new types. The Archaic people - used flint scrapers, chipped flint choppers, and native cobblestone - hammers as had the Paleo-Indians. The narrow-bladed spearheads were - occasionally made but the fluting or channel is practically always - lacking. Polished stone forms, possibly the spearthrower, were new - inventions in Archaic times. - -[8]In the page that follows a tentative reconstruction of the less - tangible customs of these people will be presented, based on a study - of several tribes now or recently in the Archaic status. The Archaic - culture as used in this paper refers to those tribes who lived - mainly by hunting, supplemented to a degree by collecting native - edible plant foods. They are distinguished here from other peoples - of the Stone Age or non-farming stage—from Big Game Hunters on the - one hand (none of whom exist today) and on the other, from Food - Stores, who were able by one means or another to store food over one - or more seasons and so establish more or less fixed homes. The - peoples recently living in the Archaic status include the native - tribes of Central and Coastal Australia, the Tasmanians, the Andaman - Island tribes, the Terra del Fuegians, the African Bushmen and a - number of others. - -[9]The Initial Woodland in Illinois is usually considered to consist of - three cultural divisions or units, the Black Sand, the Red Ochre and - the Morton. The only known Red Ochre sites are mounds which - undoubtedly are the burial places of important personages of a - cultural group whose campsites and artifact assemblages have not as - yet been identified as such. The graves yield a number of artifact - types that are identical with those found in Black Sand villages. It - is possible the Red Ochre mounds belong to the Black Sand people and - that the mounds and special burial customs may have been continued - into or adopted by the Morton cultural group and served still later - as a framework for the highly elaborated Hopewellian funeral - practices. - -[10]The narrow-bladed leaf-shaped spearhead, well-chipped and without - fluting, reminiscent of the general Yuma, Folsom and Clovis shape, - are found in the Red Ochre subculture and are worthy of note. This - type appears rarely in campsites but occurs in relatively large - numbers in mounds. Profuse amounts of red ochre are found in graves - as in Terminal Archaic (Titterington focus) in western Illinois. - Copper ornaments may indicate Wisconsin (Old Copper Culture) - influence. - -[11]The Poole village (Pike County) is dated 550 B.C. and the Wilson - Mound (White County) about 89 B.C. The Poole village appears to have - been occupied from 550 B.C. to 200 A.D. - -[12]Civilization, as used in this paper, signifies exhaustive - exploitation of the natural resources and accompanying significant - elaborations of the social and spiritual aspects (as exemplified by - ceremonies, regalia, insignia, art and extensive architectural - structures), accomplished by means of specialization of the existing - tools and technologies, with or without fundamental inventive - developments. Artisans of the Initial and Final Woodland cultures - seem to have practiced all the crafts employed by Hopewellians but - failed to produce the beautiful chipped spearheads, “pipes of pan”, - excellent sculpture in stone and pottery, etching in bone, the - extensive earthworks and the mounds with timbered burial chambers. - Perhaps some additional stimuli—the introduction of maize or the - intensification of its cultivation, a satisfying new religion with - stirring ceremonies together with intergroup competition—gave the - spiritual impetus that produced the Hopewellian fluorescence. - -[13]Specialization was foreshadowed in the Red Ochre culture but the - small total of grave offerings discovered to date fail to - demonstrate any greater leisure than occurs at favorable times among - any simple hunting people. - -[14]An early subculture termed Old Village preceding the generally known - Middle Mississippi (Trappist or Bean Pot) period has been proposed - on the strength of stratification at the Cahokia village near East - St. Louis. Although this appears logically sound, the evidence has - not been published and no pure Old Village site has yet been found - and reported upon. - -[15]Except where noted as based directly on archaeological evidence, the - broad cultural features suggested in the rest of this section, are - inferred from similar customs found generally among tribes in the - plant-raising status without food-draft animals. The results were - derived by the writer from a study of anthropological reports of the - following tribes or groups of tribes: Polynesians, Delawares, - Natchez (and their neighbors) and the western Pueblo Indians. The - Pueblos, in their social, political and religious customs and - institutions have been for seven hundred years in a transitional - status between the Archaic hunters (or possibly “food storers”) and - a “fully-developed” plant-raising stage. - -[16]The archaeological evidence for this section is chiefly from _The - Fisher Mound Group_, etc. by George Langford in the AMERICAN - ANTHROPOLOGY, Vol. XXIX, No. 3, pp. 153-205 (July-September, 1927). - -[17]These Indians called themselves Ilini (pronounced Il´-i-nee) or - Illini signifying “man,” in the plural Illiniwek, “the men.” The - French dropped the -iwek and substituted their own ending whence the - name Illinois by which they were generally known thereafter. In this - booklet Illini will be generally used to designate these tribes, - their culture and language to avoid confusion with other tribes who, - like the Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Potawatomi, and Miami, have occupied - parts of the state and are sometimes called Illinois Indians. - -[18]Information given on historic tribes is from notes and manuscript - assembled by Dr. Wayne C. Temple. - -[19]The term _calumet_, originally applied to the stem of the tobacco - pipe, is now generally used to designate the pipe and stem. “It is - fashioned from a red stone, polished like marble, and bored in such - a manner that one end serves as a receptacle for the tobacco, while - the other fits into the stem; this is a stick two feet long, as - thick as an ordinary cane, and bored through the middle. It is - ornamented with the heads and necks of various birds, whose plumage - is very beautiful. To these they also add large feathers—red, green, - and other colors—wherewith the whole is adorned. They have a great - regard for it....” (R. G. Thwaites, ed., _The Jesuit Relations_, - Vol. LIX, p. 131.) The war calumet differed from that of peace and - was decorated with red feathers. See Fig. 34, A. - -[20]Artifact types having once appeared are likely to appear again in - subsequent culture even though rare or even lacking in some - intervening assemblages (e.g. necklaces of anculosa beads of - similarly ground [snail] shells found from Medial Archaic through - Middle Phase; grooved axes from Medial Archaic to Mississippi but - rare or lacking in most subcultures and cultures except Archaic and - Initial Woodland). On account of unwieldiness of complete - accumulative lists only new artifact types when they first appear - will be recorded here. Exceptions: 1) the name of an artifact - entered as probably present (indicated by a following ?) will be - repeated in the first subsequent culture in which definite evidence - for it has been reported and 2) when an artifact once reported - assumes a new form or presumably takes on a new significance (e.g. - Archaic hoe becomes a tool of the plant-raisers in Classic and - Middle Phases), it will appear again in the text. - - - - - STORY OF ILLINOIS SERIES. - - - No. 1. Story of Illinois: Indian and Pioneer, by V. S. Eifert. - No. 2. Mammals of Illinois Today and Yesterday, by V. S. Eifert. - No. 3. Exploring for Mushrooms, by V. S. Eifert. - No. 4. Flowers that Bloom in the Spring, by V. S. Eifert. - No. 5. Invitation to Birds, by V. S. Eifert. - No. 6. Man’s Venture in Culture, by Thorne Deuel. - No. 7. The Past Speaks to You, by Ann Livesay. - No. 8. Common Insects of Illinois, by A. Gilbert Wright. - No. 9. American Indian ways of Life, by Thorne Deuel. - No. 10. Amphibians of Illinois, by Paul W. Parmalee. - No. 11. The Fossils of Illinois, by Carlton Condit. - - _Cost:_ 25c each; 20c each in lots of 25 or more - - _Address all enquiries to the_ Museum Director, - Illinois State Museum, Springfield, Illinois - - (80513—6-58) - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of American Indian Ways of Life: An -Interpretation of the Archaeolog, by Thorne Deuel - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN INDIAN WAYS OF LIFE *** - -***** This file should be named 56304-0.txt or 56304-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/3/0/56304/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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