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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Source and Mode of Solar Energy Throughout the Universe - -Author: Isaac Winter Heysinger - -Release Date: January 4, 2018 [EBook #56302] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOURCE AND MODE OF SOLAR ENERGY *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - THE - SOURCE AND MODE - OF - SOLAR ENERGY - THROUGHOUT THE UNIVERSE. - - BY - I. W. HEYSINGER, M.A., M.D. - - - - ILLUSTRATED. - - PHILADELPHIA: - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. - - 1895. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - Introduction 7 - - CHAPTER I. - - Statement of the Problem of Solar Energy 17 - - CHAPTER II. - - The Constitution and Phenomena of the Sun 39 - - CHAPTER III. - - The Mode of Solar Energy 70 - - CHAPTER IV. - - The Source of Solar Energy 96 - - CHAPTER V. - - The Distribution and Conservation of Solar Energy 139 - - CHAPTER VI. - - The Phenomena of the Stars 162 - - CHAPTER VII. - - Temporary Stars, Meteors, and Comets 187 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - The Phenomena of Comets 210 - - CHAPTER IX. - - Interpretation of Cometic Phenomena 225 - - CHAPTER X. - - The Resolvable Nebulæ, Star-Clusters and Galaxies 237 - - CHAPTER XI. - - The Gaseous Nebulæ 253 - - CHAPTER XII. - - The Nebular Hypothesis: its Basis and its Difficulties 268 - - CHAPTER XIII. - - The Genesis of Solar Systems and Galaxies 282 - - CHAPTER XIV. - - The Mosaic Cosmogony 308 - - CHAPTER XV. - - Conclusion. The Harmony of Nature's Laws and - Operations 341 - - Reference Index of Authorities Cited 349 - - Classified Index of Subject-Matter 353 - - - - - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - Figs. 1 to 8. Types from nature, illustrating development - of a solar system from the attenuated matter of - space Frontispiece. - Fig. 9. A typical sun-spot 57 - Fig. 10. Structure of the sun, analytical illustration of 60 - Fig. 11. Electrical polarities of sun and planets 82 - Fig. 12. Ideal view of the generation and transmission of - planetary electricity 89 - Fig. 13. The aurora borealis, view of 91 - Fig. 14. Diffused brush discharge of an electrical machine 91 - Fig. 15. Planetary generation and transmission of electrical - energy to the sun, analytical illustration of 101 - Fig. 16. Gradual discharge of electricity from one conductor - to another in a partial vacuum 103 - Fig. 17. Sudden electrical discharge through the atmosphere 103 - Fig. 18. Position of planets with reference to the generation - of sun-spots; maximum and minimum of electrical - action 108 - Fig. 19. Analysis of a typical sun-spot 112 - Fig. 20. Retardation of sun-spots in their travel across the - solar face; development to the rear and recession in - front 114 - Figs. 21 and 22. Complex lines of planetary electrical action - upon the sun produced by the inclination of the solar - axis to the plane of the ecliptic 120 - Figs. 23 to 29. Examples of electrical repulsion: Fig. 1, - similarly electrified pith-balls; Fig. 2, the - electrical windmill; Fig. 3, repulsion of a flame; - Fig. 4, self-repulsion around a conductor; Fig. 5, - attraction between opposite and repulsion between - similar electricities; Fig. 6, mutual repulsion - between similar + electrospheres of the earth and - the moon; Fig. 7, mutual repulsion between the - similar--electrospheres of sun and comet 124 - Figs. 30 to 34. Spectra of solar light, incandescent sodium - and calcium, and the absorption and bright-line - spectra of hydrogen gas 155 - Figs. 35 to 37. Reversal and neutralization of spectroscopic - lines of hydrogen in the light of a variable star - like Betelgeuse 160 - Fig. 38. A double-sun nebula in process of development into - a solar system 164 - Fig. 39. Double stars with complementary colors, - interpretation of the phenomena of 167 - Fig. 40. A solar system which would explain the regular - variability of the star Mira 178 - Fig. 41. Lineal nebula in Sobieski's Crown which has been - affected by currents in the ocean of space 189 - Figs. 42 to 45. Four stages in the phenomena of a new or - temporary star, a "star in flames;" reversal of the - hydrogen lines in its spectrum 196 - Figs. 46 and 47. Illustration of repulsion of the tail of a - comet by the similarly electrified solar - electrosphere; comparison with similar repulsion in - a vacuum-chamber experiment 211 - Figs. 48 and 49. The electroscope, and mutual electrical - repulsion in a bundle of dry straws 225 - Fig. 50. Experiment with a candle and currents of air from - between two disks, illustrating the radial - semi-rotation of a comet's tail during perihelion 230 - Figs. 51 to 54. Four non-systemic gaseous nebulæ: Fig. 1, - crab nebula; Fig. 2, dumb-bell nebula; Fig. 3, lineal - nebula in Sobieski's Crown; Fig. 4, Catherine-wheel - nebula. The latter illustrates the formation of a - planetary nebula with a hollow center, or else - dispersion into the elements of space again 263 - Fig. 55. Great spiral nebula in Canes Venatici and a small - adjacent nebula affected thereby 273 - Figs. 56 to 59. Four gaseous nebulæ in process of development - into solar systems: Fig. 1, divergent spiral; Fig. 2, - later stage of a similar spiral; Fig. 3, subsequent - stage of rupture of the nearly circular convolutions - of a similar nebula; Fig. 4, the same stage in the - development of a solar system with a double sun 279 - Fig. 60. Nucleated planetary nebula, showing its external ring - split and held apart, in part of its circumference, - by electrical repulsion 288 - Fig. 61. Divergent spiral nebula on cover of book. - - - - - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -This work is not presented to the reader as a treatise on astronomy, -although the different phenomena pertaining to that splendid science -are reviewed with some detail, and the established facts bearing -upon the subjects discussed are briefly cited in the very words of -the great writers upon whose authority they rest. A considerable -experience in chemistry, electricity, and the other allied physical -sciences long since convinced the author of this work that some -simple and uniform principle must control the production of the -physical phenomena of astronomy,--some general law capable of being -extended in its application to the widest, as well as applied to the -narrowest, limits of that science. Knowing the absolute certainty of -a magnetic and electrical connection between the sun and the earth, -as evidenced by the reflected energy of sun-spots, auroras, etc., -and that no known cause except electricity could account for some, -at least, of the cometic phenomena, it seemed that any comprehensive -law must at all events include this mode of energy as an effective -cause, and that if the law be uniform in its application, it must -equally exclude all others which may be either antagonistic or not -necessary. A careful investigation was therefore made of those -less generally known principles concerned in the generation and -transformations of electrical energy, in order to determine the -sufficiency or insufficiency of this agency in the grander operations -of nature (for, of course, mere currents of electricity could play no -part in these phenomena), with the result that every line of research -led irresistibly to the conclusions presented in this work. These -investigations, specifically directed, at first, to the source and mode -of the solar energy of our own system alone, were found to be equally -applicable to others, and were successively extended to the whole -sidereal, nebular, and cometic field, and finally to space itself, -for all the phenomena of which it seemed to furnish an adequate -and harmonious interpretation. The fact, when once demonstrated, -that the true source of solar energy is not to be found in the sun -itself, but in the potential energy of space, served as a guiding -principle, and, by its continuously extended application, was found -to cover perfectly the source and mode of all solar energy. Every -step of the investigation has been based on the established facts -of science and the observations of eminent astronomers as laid down -by the best authorities; and the quotations herein made from their -works are full and fair, and are properly credited in every case, -and taken from books easily accessible to the general reader. It is -hoped that further attention may be directed to this field of research -by far more capable investigators than the author of this work, so -that systematic astronomy may no longer bear the reproach that it is -largely an empirical science, but that it may henceforth be based -upon rational and comprehensive principles, capable of universal -extension and of general scientific application. - -The authorities cited in this work include many illustrious names: -Proctor, Tyndall, Helmholtz, Langley, Huggins, Newcomb, Young, -Flammarion, Balfour Stewart, R. Kalley Miller, Herschel, Nichol, -Lord Rosse, Urbanitsky, Crookes, Fraunhofer, Ball, and many others, -all of whom are known throughout the world as among the master minds -of science. From them we have drawn the rich stores of knowledge -of the phenomena with which this work deals, and which we have so -fully and freely cited, as the basis of the splendid superstructure -which astronomy to-day reveals. No one will venture to controvert the -statements of fact made by these eminent men, and, where conflict of -opinion has arisen among them, we have quoted all parties, so that -the reader can form his own conclusion, in each case, for himself. So -diverse, apparently, are the phenomena reviewed that they present -the aspect of a great picture-gallery, in which the paintings totally -differ from each other in subject, in treatment, and in origin, their -only common qualities being those of grandeur and fidelity to truth -and to the principles of art. But they are not merely paintings, they -are the moving panorama of creation, and, diverse as they may appear, -they will be found to show the same "handling," which reveals the same -universal artist; they have, in truth, a common mode of development and -a common principle of construction, obscure as these may seem to be. - -For thousands of years "Natural History," so called, was studied and -taught; zoölogy was a well-known science far back in old historic -times. But it was left for modern biological research to turn -from these fixed and fully-developed forms of life, and go back to -trace their primal development through what is now the science of -embryology, and thus we have learned that nature traverses the same -paths in forming a man as in producing a frog or a bird. The process -is carried further along in one case than in another, but the lines -of development are almost identical; and the tracing out of these -common lines and their subsequent divergencies has shed a flood of new -light upon these dark and hitherto unknown places, so that we are now -fairly on the true highway of physical life at last. When adult forms -were alone compared, animal with animal, no common ground of origin -or development could be discerned; nature was believed to work by -"special creations," and vast cataclysms were devised to utterly -destroy the organic life of one terrestrial epoch after another, -leaving a few hardy accidental survivors, or "types," perchance, -to trace back their lines of descent beyond such periods of cyclical -destruction. All this is now changed, and these views, so recently held -and taught, have been abandoned forever, and continuously operative -natural processes of development, modified by environment and heredity, -have taken their place, and biology now has a future as well as a -past. And so it must be with the less complex, but far more extended, -creations and transformations in the vast fields of astronomical -science with which this book is concerned. Hitherto we have here, -too, dealt with "special creations" and cataclysms; henceforth we -must follow the uniform and eternal laws of progressive development. - -Among the multitude of hitherto unsolved problems of astronomy we may -enumerate the following: Why sun-spots travel faster around the sun -when near his equator than when more distant from it. The physical -causes of sun-spots, faculæ, and solar prominences. Why the number and -size of sun-spots seem to affect terrestrial magnetism. The rational -interpretation of the eleven-year and the long sun-spot cycles. The -origin of the aurora borealis. The causes of the periodicity of -regularly variable stars. How to explain, in accordance with the -nebular hypothesis, why Algol and its companion, which are not -greatly different in mass and volume, and both obviously gaseous, -should so differ in character, one being a bright sun and the other -a dark planet. Whether there are great, compact, but dark bodies, -comparable to suns and planets in magnitude, and unconnected with -any solar system, floating about in space. Why double and multiple -stars are so frequently of contrasted or complementary colors. Why -regularly variable stars are longer in decline than in growth of -brilliancy, since such decline is no criterion of loss of heat, -but rather the reverse. Why the sun and fixed stars have atmospheres -largely composed of free hydrogen, and the planets have atmospheres -of free oxygen and nitrogen. Why a small and sometimes even scarcely -visible star occasionally is seen to suddenly blaze up, in a few -hours, to hundreds of times its normal brilliancy, and then far more -gradually fade, through months and years, back to its former state, -in which thenceforth it continues to maintain its original lustre. Why -comets, when they have tails, always project these appendages radially -from the direction of the sun. How to account for the presence of -cyanogen, and how for the absence of oxygen and the constant presence -of hydrocarbon vapors around the nuclei of comets. Why some comets -split up into separate comets and others sometimes show multiple -tails. Why comets, when they pass around and behind the sun, in -some cases reappear shorn of their splendor and in other cases with -their splendor greatly enhanced. Whence comets are derived, where -is their permanent abiding-place, and how did they originally reach -those distant regions which they occupy before entering our system, -if merely the débris left behind from contraction of the mass of plasma -out of which our solar system is supposed to have been formed. Why so -many of the irresolvable nebulæ present the appearance of divergent -spirals of many different forms. How to account for the annular nebulæ -with hollow centers and for those partially-completed planetary nebulæ, -so called, which afterwards appear to retrograde into diffused gaseous -nebulæ again or gradually disappear. What is the ultimate constitution -of interstellar space? Have the fixed stars planetary systems like -our own, or not? Must they have such, or merely may they have? What -principle of conservation of energy is it possible to apply to the -vast quantities of light and heat which constantly disappear in -the interstellar realms of space? How to account for this enormous -emission of solar energy during the long period of time requisite for -the development of the earth during its past geological ages. How to -explain why the moon always presents the same face to the earth. Why, -if the law of gravity prevails there, there are no visible traces of -atmosphere or moisture in the moon. What is the basic principle on -which depends the ratio of mean planetary distances, 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, -etc., always plus 4? What is the origin of the planetary satellites -and the cause of their irregular distribution, and what the origin -of Saturn's rings? How was the belt of asteroids formed between -Mars and Jupiter? Why is the orbit of Neptune relatively compressed -against that of Uranus? Why is the mass of Neptune out of its proper -proportion compared with those of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune -in a diminishing series? What is the rational interpretation and what -the origin of the sun's corona and the cause of the coronal streamers? - -There are many other problems equally difficult which are -encountered in the study of this noble science, but the above are -surely sufficiently striking. Any complete interpretation of these -various phenomena, even singly, would seem to be an important step in -advance; then how much more so if the explanation of one and all of -these is to be found in a single, all-embracing cause, a few simple -and uniformly operative principles, as unquestionably operative here -as in the other fields of science to which they pertain, and which, -once thoroughly comprehended and rigidly applied, will be found to -elucidate all the multifarious phenomena of sidereal space so clearly -and precisely that any intelligent observer and reasoner can determine -each question finally for himself, and solve not only these, but all -the other astronomical problems and paradoxes which have from time to -time arisen? It is not to be understood that this sublime science and -these illimitable realms are to be laid off with the metes and bounds -of a farmer's meadow, for all the lines of the different sciences are -linked together at a thousand points, but that the operative principles -which nature constantly employs once firmly grasped, the intricacy of -each series of phenomena encountered will become gradually lessened, -link by link, as observations and deductions are more closely and -rationally made along these well-established lines of research, -instead of here and there, empirically, and at hap-hazard, as has been -the only method hitherto possible to pursue. When the relatively few -fixed principles which control the operations of nature in the field -of astronomy are thoroughly comprehended, for on this vast panorama -she lays her colors with a heavy brush, we can study her phenomena -and interpret her processes even more readily than the kindred -sciences have enabled us to do in the adjacent fields of biology, -wherein the splendid achievements of less than a quarter of a century -past have not only aroused the interest and enthusiasm of the world, -but already point the way to still grander triumphs yet to come. - - - - - - - - -THE SOURCE AND MODE OF SOLAR ENERGY. - - -CHAPTER I. - -STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM OF SOLAR ENERGY. - - -In endeavoring to present a new and rational interpretation of -the source and mode of solar energy, based upon the established -principles of recent science, it becomes necessary to briefly cite -the facts bearing upon the problem to be solved and the authorities -for their support, as well as to describe concisely the different -hypotheses at present in vogue, and to point out the well-established -insufficiency of these theories, one and all, to account for or explain -the difficulties encountered, and which so far have remained as an -unsolved enigma. And this problem of solar energy is the grandest and -most important question of all physics, for upon the light and heat -of the sun depend all physical life and its consequences, animal -and vegetable, past, present, and future. If within finite time, -and relatively, compared with the enormous vistas of the past, a very -brief time, this source of energy is to cease, and our whole system -be involved in darkness and death, such darkness and death must be -eternal; for the dead sun in his final stage of condensation will be -as fixed and unchangeable as the operation of eternal laws can make -it, and henceforth there can be no revival or reversals, no turning -back of the hand upon the dial, while the laws of nature continue; -and outside the uniform operation of the laws of nature there is no -source, or mode, or continuance of solar energy conceivable. It is true -that when our system shall have ran down to its culmination in death, -other present systems may continue for a time to exist and new ones -spring into being; but these, too, must inevitably follow the same -course, and likewise end in eternal darkness, until finally the great -experiment of creation shall have ended in eternal failure. The changes -we see in progress around us, however, are not of this nature. The -individual dies, but the forces which gave life and strength to the -race persist, and others will take his place, and the same forces will -continue to operate with constant renewals, since we draw our light -and heat and life from without; but in the death of suns and their -attendant planets there is no analogous process, for such suns are -constantly expending their enormous energies in the support of life -external to themselves, and only the smallest part of this energy, -even, can ever be utilized by themselves or by other suns or planets -under any mode of interpretation now in vogue, the boundless realms -of so-called inert and empty space receiving the same proportionate -quota of light and heat as the almost microscopic points in the sky -which constitute the suns and systems we see, and practically all, -or nearly all, of this enormous energy is an absolute dead waste; so -that whether receiving new supplies from a constant rain of adjacent -meteor streams, or from the gradual contraction of the solar volume, -the vast realms of space are the useless recipients of what can never -return to the sun again, and, of course, in such case the inevitable -end can be predicted; for contraction of volume, with a given mass, -must have an effective limit, and meteoric aggregation must also find -an effective limit, if the planets are not to be thrown out of place -as they continue to revolve around the sun. - -All accepted theories begin with a primordial impulse, the energies -of which are of necessity constantly frittered away and wasted, -until finally all light and heat and life must cease to exist, -and that at a stage in which no further impulse can ever be given, -since the whole universe will have passed through every possible -stage of degradation down to the final one of universal and eternal -death. And yet this is the best that science has to suggest; the only -comfort offered us is that it will not happen in our time, and so, -"after us the deluge." The nebular hypothesis, so called, of Laplace, -has required much modification, in the light of more recent science, -but the essential principles of this theory are still generally -accepted, for they fairly well account for the primal connection of -the sun and planets, and the position of the central sun within, -with the orbital and rotational planetary movements, as no other -theory has yet done. By this theory the limits of our solar system -were once occupied by an attenuated gaseous nebula containing within -itself all the matter which now forms our solar system. This great -nebular mass, primordially assumed, was given by gravity a slow but -gradually increasing rotation upon its center; the force of gravity -acted more strongly upon this rotating body as it contracted, so -that rings of nebulous matter were successively thrown off, which -coalesced into single masses and these finally into planets. These -planetary globes themselves, as they coalesced and contracted, left -behind or threw off rings of their outer matter, which, in turn, -became moons, and finally our solar system with its central sun was -evolved as we now see it; development continued, the planets cooled -and condensed, life appeared when the conditions became suitable, -and the original progressive condensation of the central mass--the -sun--still continuing, the evolution of light and heat continues, -and will continue in a correlative degree. As our moon has passed, -apparently, beyond the stage of life, and is cold, airless, waterless, -and dead, so will the earth pass; and the larger planets, such as -Jupiter and Saturn, which have not yet reached the life stage of -condensation, are still hot, but they, too, will pass through the -present stage of the earth, then through that in which the moon now -is; and the central sun, still glowing, but more and more dimly, will -itself pass through the stages in which Jupiter and Saturn now are, -then through that of our present earth, and finally into that of the -moon, long before which time the emission of all light and heat will -have ceased from the sun to its encircling planets, and finally the -sun itself will sink into eternal frigidity, and all its store of -light and heat will have been dissipated into boundless space, and -the possibility of anything resembling what we know as life will have -been forever extinguished. In considering the question of the sun's -energy, the author of the article "Sun," in Appleton's Cyclopædia, -says, "How to account for the supply of the prodigious amount of heat -constantly radiated from the solar surface has offered a boundless -field of hypothesis. One conjecture is that the sun is now giving -off the heat imparted to it at its creation, and that it is gradually -cooling down (1). Another ascribed it to combustion (2), and a third -to currents of electricity (3). Newton and Buffon conjectured that -comets might be the aliment of the sun (4); and of late years a -somewhat similar theory (first broached by Mr. Waterston in 1853) -has been in vogue,--viz., that a stream of meteoric matter constantly -pouring into the sun from the regions of space supplies its heat, -by the conversion into it of the arrested motion (5). As the sun may, -indeed, derive a small amount of heat from this cause, it deserves more -attention than previous conjectures. But conjecture and hypothesis -may be said to have given place to views which claim a higher title, -as it is now becoming generally recognized, in accordance with modern -physical theories of heat, that in the gravitation of the sun's mass -toward its center, and in its consequent condensation, sufficient -heat must be evolved to supply the present radiation, enormous as this -undoubtedly is. It appears to be susceptible of full demonstration that -a contraction of the sun's volume of a given definite amount, which -is yet so slight as to be invisible to the most powerful telescope, -is competent to furnish a heat-supply equal to all that can have been -emitted during historical periods. According to this theory, then -(which is largely due to the development by Helmholtz of Mayer's -great generalization), the sun's mass remains unaltered, and its -temperature nearly constant, while its size is slowly diminishing as -it contracts; so slowly, however, that the supply may be reckoned on -through periods almost infinite as measured by the known past of our -race, and which are in any case to be counted by millions of years -(6)." To these must be added the hypothesis of Dr. Siemens, fully -described in Professor Proctor's "Mysteries of Time and Space." This -ingenious theory, in brief, is that the rotation of the sun on its axis -causes a suction in the manner of a fan, at the poles, and a tangential -projection, at the equator, of a disk-like stream of gaseous matter -into space. The light and heat of the sun, dispersed through space, -slowly but continuously act upon the compound gases with which space -is universally pervaded to disassociate them into their elements. The -disassociated gases thus sucked in at the solar poles at an extremely -low temperature are brought into a state of combustion by friction -and condensation, thus generating new supplies of light and heat, and -the gases thus reunited by combustion are again projected into space, -to be again slowly disassociated by the operation of the sun's light -and heat. The result of this combustion is to form aqueous vapor and -carbonic acid and carbonic oxide, and these gases, when disassociated -in space, are resolved into carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, which again -and again are thus recombined and again and again decomposed as they -pass over the sun's surface (7). - -The seven hypotheses above described are the only ones now in vogue, -and a brief analysis will show that no single one of them, nor all -combined, will give sufficient results to account for the essential -difficulties or known conditions of the problem. The first and second -hypotheses are answered by the fact set forth by Helmholtz (Popular -Scientific Lectures, article "On the Origin of the Planetary System"), -that, if the mass of the sun were composed of the two elements capable -by combination of producing the greatest possible light and heat,--to -wit, hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions in which they unite to -form water,--"calculation shows that under the above supposition the -heat resulting from their combustion would be sufficient to keep up -the radiation of heat from the sun three thousand and twenty-one -years. That, it is true, is a long time, but even profane history -teaches that the sun has lighted and warmed us for three thousand -years, and geology puts it beyond doubt that this period must be -extended to millions of years." - -The third hypothesis relates to currents of electricity. We have no -knowledge of currents of electricity which could produce, however -multiplied or intensified, such light and heat as are constantly -poured forth from the sun into all space. That electricity is the -intermediate cause of our sun's energy, and of all solar energy, it -is the purpose of this work to demonstrate, but not electric currents, -which find their attractiveness to theorists in the vague suggestion of -which Professor Proctor speaks, referring to comets, in his article on -"Cometic Mysteries," "that perhaps this is an electrical phenomenon; -perhaps that other feature is electrical, too; perhaps all or most -of the phenomena of comets depend on electricity." But he adds, "It -is so easy to make such suggestions, so difficult to obtain evidence -in their favor having the slightest scientific value. Still, I hold -the electrical idea to be well worth careful study. Whatever credit -may hereafter be given to any electrical theory of comets will be -solely and entirely due to those who may help to establish it upon -a basis of sound evidence,--none whatever to the mere suggestion, -which has been made time and again since it was first advanced by -Fontanelle." It will be seen that the present work, in demonstrating -the true source and mode of solar energy, in itself presents a full -and sufficient explanation of all the cometic mysteries referred to, -as well as all those pertaining to other solar systems in space, and -the multifarious phenomena which they present. Indeed, the philosophic -mind will not be satisfied with the sufficiency of any hypothesis -which will not unlock the mysteries and clearly explain the phenomena -of other systems,--of comets, variable and temporary stars, double -stars, and all the complicated celestial economy which to the eye -of the mere observer presents a bewildering scene of the operation -of independent and inscrutable forces. The fifth hypothesis cited, -that of meteoric impact, doubtless plays a part, as we know from the -generation of light and heat by the constant passage of similar bodies -through our own atmosphere. And we know, of course, that the sun, by -its vastly-increased attraction, must be subjected to the constant -impact of such meteoric bodies in enormous numbers. But the fatal -defect in the theory is that such impacts, to produce the radiant -energy of the sun, must constantly add to its mass in like proportion, -and as the motions and distances of the planets in their orbits are -regulated and preserved by virtue of the substantially constant mass -of the sun, any progressive and considerable increase in its mass must -constantly bring the planets nearer and nearer, and thus increase -their orbital velocity. Helmholtz quotes from Sir William Thomson's -investigation, that, "assuming it to hold, the mass of the sun should -increase so rapidly that the consequences would have shown themselves -in the accelerated motion of the planets. The entire loss of heat from -the sun cannot, at all events, be produced in this way; at the most a -portion, which, however, may not be inconsiderable." R. Kalley Miller, -in "The Romance of Astronomy," says, "But more recent observations -have led Sir William Thomson to a modification of his theory. He -has calculated that if the meteoric shower were sufficiently heavy -to make up for the sun's whole expenditure of heat, the matter -of the corona must be so dense as seriously to perturb the orbits -of certain comets which pass very close to his surface,--a result -which is found not to be the case. But the meteoric theory is only -thrown back a step. If the sun's mass were originally formed, as is -not at all improbable, by the agglomeration of these particles, Sir -William Thomson has calculated that the heat generated by their thus -falling together would be sufficient to account for a supply of twenty -million years of solar heat at the present rate of emission. And thus, -though the meteors are not sufficient to maintain the energy of our -system unimpaired, they may yet have been the original storehouse -from which all that energy was derived.... But if the economy of our -system be spared long enough, the day must come when the sun with age -has become wan; when the matter of the corona has all been drawn in -and used up without avail; when the lavish luxuriance with which he -has showered abroad his light and heat has finally exhausted all his -stores. He has still power, aided by the resisting medium, to drag his -satellites one by one down upon his surface; and the shock of each -successive impact will, for a brief period, give him a fresh tenure -of life. When the earth crashes into the sun it will supply him with -a store of heat for nearly a century, while Jupiter's large mass will -extend the period by nearly thirty thousand years. But when the last -of the planets is swallowed up, the sun's energies will rapidly die -out and a deep and deathly gloom gather about nature's grave. Looking -into the ages of a future eternity, we can see nothing but a cold -and burnt-out mass remaining of that glorious orb which went forth -in the morning of time, joyful as a bridegroom from his chamber, -and rejoicing as a strong man to run a race." - -The sixth hypothesis is that to which most credence is now given. It -is that of evolution of energy by condensation of volume. Professor -Proctor ("The Sun as a Perpetual Machine") says, "In company with this -great mystery of seeming waste comes the yet more difficult problem, -how to explain the apparent continuance of solar light and heat during -millions of years. We know from the results of geological research -that the earth has been exposed to the action of the solar rays with -their present activity during at least a hundred million years. Yet it -is difficult to see how, on any hypothesis of the generation of solar -heat, or by combining together all possible modes of heat generation, -a supply for more than twenty millions of years in the past and a -possible supply for as long a period in the future can be accounted -for." Of these vast periods of terrestrial existence in the past we -quote the following from a recent publication: - -"Professor C. D. Wolcott expresses the opinion that geologic time -is not to be measured by hundreds of years, but simply by tens of -millions. This is widely different from the conclusion arrived at -by Sir Charles Lyell, who, basing his estimate on modifications of -certain specimens of marine life, assigned 240,000,000 years as the -required geological period; Darwin claimed 200,000,000 years; Crowell, -about 72,000,000; Geike, from 73,000,000 upward; McGee, Upham, and -other recent authorities claim from 100,000,000 up to 680,000,000." - -Helmholtz ("On the Origin of the Planetary System") says, "It is -probable rather that a great part of this heat, which was produced by -condensation, began to radiate into space before this condensation -was complete. But the heat which the sun could have previously -developed by its condensation would have been sufficient to cover -its present expenditure for not less than 22,000,000 of years of the -past.... We may therefore assume with great probability that the sun -will still continue in its condensation, even if it only attained the -density of the earth, though it will probably become far denser in -its interior, owing to its far greater pressure; this would develop -fresh quantities of heat, which would be sufficient to maintain for -an additional 17,000,000 of years the same intensity of sunshine -as that which is now the source of all terrestrial life." Of this -process of condensation Professor Ball, in his recent work, "In -the High Heavens," says, "It goes without saying that the welfare -of the human race is necessarily connected with the continuance -of the sun's beneficent action. We have indeed shown that the few -other direct or indirect sources of heat which might conceivably -be relied upon are in the very nature of things devoid of necessary -permanence. It becomes, therefore, of the utmost interest to inquire -whether the sun's heat can be calculated on indefinitely. Here is -indeed a subject which is literally of the most vital importance, -so far as organic life is concerned. If the sun shall ever cease -to shine, then it must be certain that there is a term beyond which -human existence, or indeed organic existence of any type whatever, -cannot any longer endure on the earth. We may say once for all that -the sun contains just a certain number of units of heat, actual or -potential, and that he is at the present moment shedding that heat -around with the most appalling extravagance." Quoting from Professor -Langley, he says, "We feel certain that the incessant radiation -from the sun must be producing a profound effect on its stores of -energy. The only way of reconciling this with the total absence of -evidence of the expected changes is to be found in the supposition -that such is the mighty mass of the sun, such the prodigious supply -of heat or what is the equivalent of heat which it contains, that -the grand transformation through which it is passing proceeds at a -rate so slow that, during the ages accessible to our observations, -the results achieved have been imperceptible.... We cannot, however, -attribute to the sun any miraculous power of generating heat. That -great body cannot disobey those laws which we have learned from -experiments in our laboratories. Of course no one now doubts that the -great law of the conservation of energy holds good. We do not in the -least believe that because the sun's heat is radiated away in such -profusion it is therefore entirely lost. It travels off, no doubt, -to the depths of space, and as to what may become of it there we have -no information. Everything we know points to the law that energy is -as indestructible as matter itself. The heat scattered from the sun -exists at least as ethereal vibration, if in no other form. But it -is most assuredly true that this energy, so copiously dispensed, is -lost to our solar system. There is no form in which it is returned, -or in which it can be returned. The energy of the system is as surely -declining as the store of energy of the clock declines according as -the weight runs down. In the clock, however, the energy is restored -by winding up the weight, but there is no analogous process known in -our system." The purpose of the present work, however, is to clearly -demonstrate that just such a process is actually being carried on, and -has been so carried on from the beginning, and will be forever. This -writer continues reviewing the suppositions formerly entertained, -that the sun was a heated body gradually cooling down, or that it -was undergoing absolute combustion, and shows that they were utterly -insufficient. He then refers to the theory of meteoric supply, of -which he says, "It can, however, be shown that there are not enough -meteors in existence to supply a sufficient quantity of heat to the -sun to compensate the loss by radiation. The indraught of meteoric -matter may, indeed, certainly tend in some small degree to retard the -ultimate cooling of the great luminary, but its effect is so small -that we can quite afford to overlook it from the point of view that we -are taking in these pages. It is to Helmholtz we are indebted for the -true solution of the long-vexed problem. He has demonstrated in the -clearest manner where the source of the sun's heat lies.... A gaseous -globe like the sun, when it parts with its heat, observes laws of a -very different type from those which a cooling solid follows. As the -heat disappears by radiation the body contracts; the gaseous object, -however, decreases in general much more than a solid body would do for -the same loss of heat.... The globe of gas unquestionably radiates heat -and loses it, and the globe, in consequence of that loss, shrinks to -a smaller size.... In the facts just mentioned we have an explanation -of the sustained heat of the sun. Of course we cannot assume that -in our calculations the sun is to be treated as if it were gaseous -throughout its entire mass, but it approximates so largely to the -gaseous state in the greater part of its bulk that we can feel no -hesitation in adopting the belief that the true cause has been found." - -Regarding the constitution of the sun, it may be stated, however, -that we only see its photosphere, which is the visible sun, and -the whole volume has a density about that of water; but no man -has ever seen the body of the sun itself. In this respect it is -like the planet Jupiter: we only know that its density cannot be -less than one-fourth the density of the earth's solid globe. If -the photosphere extend to a depth of one thousand, ten thousand, -or a hundred thousand miles, the density of the sun's body or core -will be correspondingly increased. Even computing the whole visible -volume, the density is far greater than that of any gas we know, even -with the solar pressure of gravity; with the sun's metallic vapors, -if the whole core were already vaporized, we would not, to say the -least, be likely to observe the sun-spots and other solar phenomena -as we find them actually to occur; this, however, will be more fully -considered later on. The author continues, "But there is a boundary -to the prospect of the continuance of the sun's radiation. Of course, -as the loss of heat goes on the gaseous parts will turn into liquids, -and as the process is still further protracted the liquids will -transform into solids. Thus, we look forward to a time when the -radiation of the sun can be no longer carried on in conformity with -the laws which dictate the loss of heat from a gaseous body. When this -state is reached the sun may, no doubt, be an incandescent solid with -a brilliance as great as is compatible with that condition, but the -further loss of heat will then involve loss of temperature.... There -seems no escape from the conclusion that the continuous loss of solar -heat must still go on, so that the sun will pass through the various -stages of brilliant incandescence, of glowing redness, of dull redness, -until it ultimately becomes a dark and non-luminous star.... There -is thus a distinct limit to man's existence on the earth, dictated -by the ultimate exhaustion of the sun.... The utmost amount of heat -that it would ever have been possible for the sun to contain would, -according to this authority (Professor Langley), supply its radiation -for eighteen million years at the present rate.... It seems that the -sun has already dissipated about four-fifths of the energy with which -it may have originally been endowed. At all events, it seems that, -radiating energy at its present rate, the sun may hold out for four -million years or for five million years, but not for ten million -years.... We have seen that it does not seem possible for any other -source of heat to be available for replenishing the waning stores of -the luminary." He concludes by saying that the original heat may have -been imparted as the result of some great collision, the solar body -having itself been dark before the collision occurred, and that it -may be reinvigorated by a repetition of a similar startling process, -but indicates in general terms that such an operation would be bad -for the round world and all contained therein. It would, in fact, -be rough treatment for even a hopeless case. - -Condensation of the solar volume is unquestionably a source of heat, -for we know that the solid or liquid interior of the earth increases -in temperature at a definite ratio as we descend through its crust; -but long before the sun shall have become contracted to the density of -the earth all its heat will have become substantially internal heat, -and it can then supply no more by radiation to its surrounding planets. - -It will be seen that the radiant energy of the sun on any of the above -hypotheses is not sufficient to account even for the life period of the -earth in the past, and that its future period of energy must be still -more brief. Professor Ball ("In the High Heavens"), basing his views -on Laplace's "Nebular Hypothesis," says, "Looking back into the remote -ages, we thus see that the sun was larger and larger the further back -we project our view. If we go sufficiently far back, we seem to come -to a time when the sun, in a more or less completely gaseous state, -filled up the surrounding space out to the orbit of Mercury, or, -earlier still, out to the orbit of the remotest planet." According -to this hypothesis, all these brilliant suns, the author says, will -"settle down into dark bodies like the earth," and that "every analogy -would teach us that the dark and non-luminous bodies in the universe -are far more numerous than the brilliant suns. We can never see the -dark objects; we can discern their presence only indirectly. All the -stars that we can see are merely those bodies which at this epoch -of their career happen for the time to be so highly heated as to be -luminous.... It may happen that there are dark bodies in the vicinity -of some of the bright stars to which these stars act as illuminants, -just in the same way as the sun disperses light to the planets." One -would naturally suppose, however, that there must be some sort of -laws to govern such stupendous operations, and that nature is not -merely engaged in blowing bubbles. To quote Professor Newcomb: "At the -present time we can only say that the nebular hypothesis is indicated -by the general tendencies of the laws of nature; that it has not been -proved to be inconsistent with any fact; that it is almost a necessary -consequence of the only theory by which we can account for the origin -and conservation of the sun's heat; but that it rests on the assumption -that this conservation is to be explained by the laws of nature as -we now see them in operation. Should any one be sceptical as to the -sufficiency of these laws to account for the present state of things, -science can furnish no evidence strong enough to overthrow his doubts -until the sun shall be found growing smaller by actual measurement, -or the nebulæ be actually seen to condense into stars and systems." - -While the validity of the views set forth in the present volume -does not depend on the sufficiency or insufficiency of the nebular -hypothesis, and in fact requires the condensation as well as the -expansion of the solar volume under the influence of heat to be -recognized and its extreme importance pointed out, yet it must not -be supposed that this great generalization of Kant and Laplace, -based on the views presented originally by Sir William Herschel, is -established, or that the difficulties in its way are not so enormous -as to be almost insuperable. Professor Ball points out that thousands -of bodies occupy our solar system, and together compose it as a whole; -that these have orbits of every sort of eccentricity and direction, -and occupying all possible planes which can pass through the sun; that -the bodies circle around the sun, some backward and others forward, -and that only the planets seem to conform to some common order; and -without this order, which may be accidental, so far as our knowledge -goes, the system would have been disrupted long since, if it ever -could have begun its operations; and that in this view the heavens -may be strewn with wrecks of systems which failed to survive from -inherent want of harmony,--that is to say, as based on observation -only. Whether the nebular hypothesis be a universal or a partial law -of development, or whether the real processes be quite different, -cannot, however, depend on the continued maintenance and evolution -of the sun's energy, as this source must in truth be sought for in -quite a different direction. - -The remaining hypothesis (the seventh) is considered in detail in -Professor Proctor's work, "Mysteries of Time and Space." The fatal -defect in Dr. Siemens's theory is, that his gases will not be projected -from the sun's equator. Professor Proctor says, "Thus the centripetal -tendency of matter at the sun's equator is very much greater (many -hundreds of times greater) than its centrifugal tendency, and there -is not the slightest possibility of matter being projected into space -from the sun's surface by centrifugal tendency. Nor is there any part -of the sun's mass where the centrifugal tendency is greater than at -the surface near the equator. So that, whatever else the sun may be -doing to utilize his mighty energies, he is certainly not throwing -off matter constantly from his equatorial regions, as Dr. Siemens's -theory requires." There are other difficulties which Professor Proctor -considers, such as the doubt as to the power of the sun's rays to -disassociate combined gases in space, and also that, since both light -and heat must be utilized in this work, if the sun's energies are to -be perpetually renewed, these forces would sensibly disappear in work, -and the result would be that the fixed stars would be invisible beyond -their domains, and their light, when not totally cut off, would be -greatly diminished, in any event, as distances increased, which is -not the case. Besides, these gases thus disassociated could never be -entirely used by the sun, and the remainder would be wasted, and the -part wasted would vastly exceed that utilized, probably in as great -proportion of waste as that of the sun's light not utilized by the -planets, which gather but one two-hundred-and-thirty-two-millionths -of the whole. It may be further added that these gases would be -mechanically mixed, the combined and the disassociated, and this -would be mostly the case in those parts nearest the sun, so that large -volumes of spent and useless gases would have to be carried in to no -purpose whatever. In fact, these gases would gradually form a closed -circuit of supply and discharge, and surrounding space would be but -slightly affected. Professor Proctor concludes, "We have, in fact, -the fallacy of perpetual motion in a modified form." - -It will be apparent that under any single one, or all, of these -hypotheses, the future prospect for created forms and continued -existence is hopeless, and that the inevitable result must do -violence to every conception of either an intelligent creative -power or the operations of universal law. The mind revolts from -the continued degradation and destruction of all organic creation, -while the malevolent and iconoclastic forces of nature hold high -revel over final ruin and eternal destruction, brought about by their -own incessant efforts, striking out blindly to make or mar, and they -alone the deathless survivors, the half-blind fates and furies of the -eternal future. It betokens, not the processes of orderly government, -but the reign of anarchy. - -Note.--Since this work has been in press, at the annual meeting of the -British Association, August 8, 1894, Lord Salisbury, the President, -delivered a powerful and lucid address on the present status of -scientific knowledge and its limitations. With reference to the -antiquity of the earth we quote the following: "It is evident, -from the increase of heat as we descend into the earth, that the -earth is cooling, and we know, by experiment within certain wide -limits, the rate at which its substances--the matters of which it is -constituted--are found to cool. It follows that we can approximately -calculate how hot it was so many million years ago; but if at any -time it was hotter at the surface by fifty degrees Fahrenheit than it -is now, life would then have been impossible upon the planet, and, -therefore, we can without much difficulty fix a date before which -organic life on earth cannot have existed. Basing himself on these -considerations, Lord Kelvin limited the period of organic life upon -the earth to a hundred million years, and Professor Tait, in a still -more penurious spirit, cut that hundred down to ten." If a period of -anything like ten million years, even, has been requisite to cool the -earth's surface only fifty degrees in temperature, what time must have -elapsed since the terrestrial globe had a temperature high enough to -effect the difficult chemical combinations of many of the elements -which compose its structure? And even this must have been far less -than the vast cycles of time during which original consolidation was -effected. Through all these ages the sun must have been pouring out -his radiant energy at at least his present rate. Radiation of heat -from the earth may have been relatively less rapid from a denser -carbon-laden atmosphere in times past than at present, but it never -could have been more so. The whole address cited is, indeed, strongly -corroborative of the facts upon which the present work is based. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE CONSTITUTION AND PHENOMENA OF THE SUN. - - -The various theories thus reviewed, while not sufficient in themselves -to account for the facts of our own solar system, are fatally defective -in another respect. While they aim to account for the sun's light -and heat, they all fail to consider the active medium of the solar -light and heat in the sun itself. It is not simply a highly-heated -central mass glowing in space. It is a vast orb surrounded by -different envelopes of incandescent vapors or gases, and by far -the most vast in volume, as well as in light and heat-radiating -power, are the photosphere and its superincumbent chromosphere, -composed almost entirely of free hydrogen gas in a state of intense -incandescence. Whence comes this enormous mass of hydrogen? And -how explain the entire absence of free hydrogen gas from our own -atmosphere and its replacement by oxygen? There is a recent theory -propounded by Mr. A. Mott, which is set forth in detail in Professor -Ball's "In the High Heavens," and which endeavors to account for the -remarkable absence of free hydrogen gas from the earth's atmosphere, -for, as the author states, "It is a singular fact that hydrogen in -the free state is absent from our atmosphere." The theory, in brief, -is that the molecules of hydrogen gas have an average speed of about a -mile a second,--which, however, is only one-seventh that required to -shoot them off into space,--but that these molecules are continually -changing their velocity, and may sometimes attain a speed of seven -miles a second; the result is that "every now and then a molecule -of hydrogen succeeds in bolting away from the earth altogether -and escaping into open space." During past ages the molecules of -hydrogen would thus have gradually wiggled up through the air, and -finally disappeared into outer darkness for good and all; and thus -"the fact that there is at present no free hydrogen in the air over -our heads may be accounted for." Since the molecules of oxygen have -only a velocity of a quarter mile a second, that unfortunate gas -remains behind and is consumed. - -The first difficulty with this theory is to explain how, if the -hydrogen wiggled off in this unceremonious manner, it ever wiggled -on. There is no objection to a gait of this rapidity, however; it -is highly creditable, in fact; but we have a right to expect some -degree of consistency in even so light-headed a body as hydrogen -gas. The article quoted thus continues: "If the mass of the earth -were very much larger than it is, then the velocities with which -the molecules of hydrogen wend their way would never be sufficiently -high to enable them to quit the earth altogether, and consequently we -might in such a case expect to find our atmosphere largely charged with -hydrogen." It will be seen that, according to this theory, hydrogen is -able to achieve a speed of seven miles per second under exceptional -excitement, and that this molecular velocity is just enough, and no -more than enough, to give it egress. We know that Jupiter's mass is -three hundred times as great as that of the earth, and the attraction -of gravity is so powerful on the surface of that planet that, as the -writer just quoted says, "Walking, or even standing, would involve the -most fearful exertion, while rising from bed in the morning would be a -difficult, indeed, probably, an impossible, process." We also know that -the atmosphere of this planet is laden with enormous clouds floating -at various altitudes and with incessant movements. We are told that -"the molecular speed of aqueous vapor averages only one-third of that -attained by the molecules of hydrogen." Of course, on the planet -Jupiter, hydrogen would have no chance of escape at all: it would -just have to stay and take it, like the rest of us. Jupiter must thus -have an atmosphere like our own, except that it is "largely charged -with hydrogen." Of the clouds upon this planet, Professor Ball says, -"In fact, the longer we look at Jupiter the more we become convinced -that the surface of the planet is swathed with a mighty volume of -clouds so dense and so impenetrable that our most powerful telescopes -have never yet been able to pierce through them down to the solid -surface of the planet." With the densities, molecular velocities, -and specific gravity of the oxygen, nitrogen, and the hydrogen, with -which latter the atmosphere of Jupiter must be "largely charged," as -it is said, it is difficult to understand how such enormous clouds -of aqueous vapors, themselves composed of oxygen, which is a very -slow-footed gas, and hydrogen, could travel about with such facility; -we ought to find them packed down like London fog, to say the least, -upon the surface of that planet, with the supernatant gases all -adrift overhead. Jupiter is a hot body; it has not yet cooled down; -and if it is provided with volcanoes, such as its great red spot and -the analogies of the earth and moon would suggest, we can tell pretty -nearly what would have happened long ago with a Jovian atmosphere like -ours; but "largely charged with hydrogen," if we compare it with, -say, an equal mass of dynamite touched off by a volcanic explosion; -there would not have been enough of old Jupiter left to swear by, and -what was left would not have had any atmosphere at all. On Mars, the -same writer thinks the oxygen would still cling, like the fragrance of -the rose, but that all the molecules of the fleet-footed and excitable -hydrogen would long since have taken French leave, as it did from the -earth; but at the moon, on account of its small size and mass, both -gases would have gone off incontinently together. "It is now easy," -the author says, "to account for the absence of atmosphere from the -moon.... Neither of the gases, oxygen or nitrogen, to say nothing of -hydrogen, could possibly exist in the free state on a globe of the -mass and dimensions of our satellite.... Indeed, the weight of every -object on the moon would be reduced to the sixth part of that which -the same object has on earth." Nevertheless, it may be said that -the moon has considerable weight, as weights go, but with a comet -it is quite a different matter. "These bodies," the author says, -"demonstrate conclusively that the quantity of matter even in a -comet is extremely small when compared with its bulk. The conclusion -thus arrived at is confirmed by the fact that our efforts to obtain -the weight of a comet have hitherto proved unsuccessful.... It has -thus been demonstrated that, notwithstanding the stupendous bulk of -a great comet, its mass must have been so inconsiderable as to have -been insufficient to disturb even such unimportant members of the -solar system as the satellites of Jupiter." Now, here is a state of -things; for the spectroscope shows that comets are fully provided with -a large supply of hydrogen, enough and to spare for ornament, even, -and of nitrogen also, while it is the abnormally fugacious oxygen -which has, apparently, taken its departure. Of course, such facts -demonstrate the untenability of the theory, which is, besides, in -direct contradiction with the laws governing gaseous diffusion. Gases -pass into each other with the same velocity as into a vacuum, and -it is not to be imagined that the molecules of hydrogen could thus -move individually off, unless forced upward by the pressure of some -other gas, which the law of gaseous diffusion makes impossible. We -should as readily expect to see a tumbler full of iron balls, into -the interstices of which loose sand has been poured, manifest a -similar phenomenon by the wiggling out of the less dense sand at the -top of the glass. One might also ask whence, if this theory had any -substantial basis, could come the enormous volumes of hydrogen gas -in the atmosphere of a new or temporary star, in a few hours, or the -changes manifested in the atmospheres of the variable stars. So, also, -the nebular or any other hypothesis of creation would be impossible -under this theory, as the heavier and less mobile gaseous elements -would remain behind, or be condensed nearest the center of gravity of -the aggregating nebula, while the more rapid gases would disappear -outwardly, and in consequence the sun would be found to be composed -of the heavier elements exclusively, and each of the planets, in -turn, would consist of only one or two elements, in accordance with -the more and more mobile character of their molecular movements, and -the uniformity of chemical constitution between the sun and planets, -as well as the fixed stars, would not be found to exist. The theory, -in fact, is an example of the endeavor to explain an easily understood -difficulty by a less easily understood impossibility. - -None of the different theories even attempt to account for the -prodigious volumes of hydrogen in the solar atmosphere, and without its -presence the sun, so far as we know, would be almost an inert mass, -considered as a source of energy for the supply of our planetary -system. We know, of course, that meteors contain sometimes as much -as six volumes of gases, largely composed of hydrogen, at our own -atmospheric pressure. But the pressure at the sun's surface is more -than twenty-seven times that at the surface of the earth, and yet the -volume of hydrogen there existing visibly is vaster beyond computation -than any possible mass of meteoric material could supply. So, also, -while it may be granted that condensation of volume must vastly raise -the solar temperature, how could it produce the enormous masses of -hydrogen, the lightest of all the elements, unless they have been -temporarily occluded and finally thrown out from within, which is -impossible? These vast volumes of hydrogen are to be considered first -of all in any attempt whatever to solve the problem of the source -and mode of solar energy. - -Considering the phenomena presented within the limits of our own solar -system alone, we find that the earth is one of a single family of -planets, each of which very closely resembles it, and all of which -circle, in slightly elliptical orbits, at various distances around -the sun, their orbits occupying substantially the same plane, -thus making our solar system a flat disk of space occupied by -the sun as a center, with the planets and their satellites moving -harmoniously around it. The planets differ from each other in size, -mass, and temperature, but each is surrounded by an envelope of -aqueous vapor, suspended in an atmosphere substantially like our -own. Professor Proctor, in his "Light Science for Leisure Hours," -says of the planet Jupiter, "His real surface is always veiled by -his dense and vapor-laden atmosphere. Saturn, Venus, and Mercury -are similarly circumstanced." Of Mars he says that it is "distinctly -marked (in telescopes of sufficient power) with continents and oceans -which are rarely concealed by vapors." Now, whence comes this aqueous -vapor surrounding all the planets? Whether received originally from -the diffused nebular mass from which our solar system is supposed -to have been condensed, or attracted by the force of gravity from -interplanetary space, like the meteors which fall upon the earth's -surface, it is evident that interplanetary space must once have been -pervaded with aqueous vapor, since the nebular mass from which our -solar system was constituted must have occupied at least the space -embraced within its largest planetary orbit, and doubtless much more; -and if so, such aqueous vapor, and other vapors also, must still -persist in space, just as the meteoric particles which so constantly -manifest themselves in our atmosphere. If the planets had no common -origin, the evidence is equally conclusive, since then this identical -substance could only have been derived from a common source, which -can only be interplanetary space. This also is in accordance with -the laws of attraction, which would operate to gather and condense -the rarefied aqueous vapor of space around the planetary masses in -definite proportions. In his "Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects," -Professor Proctor says, "In fact, we do thus recognize in the spectra -of Mars, Venus, and other planets the presence of aqueous vapor in -their atmosphere;" and in his "Mysteries of Time and Space" he says, -"We may admit the possibility that the aqueous vapor and carbon -compounds are present in stellar or interplanetary space." But -in addition to this aqueous vapor which surrounds the planetary -bodies, we find free oxygen in vast quantities, and, with this, free -nitrogen in mechanical admixture, and these together constitute the -atmosphere we breathe, and which sustains organic life by a process -of slow combustion. But we find no free hydrogen either in our own -atmosphere or in that of other planets. Turning now to the sun, we -find that it is surrounded by an atmosphere as well as the planets, -but that this atmosphere is composed not of free oxygen, but of free -hydrogen. In his article, "Oxygen in the Sun," Professor Proctor says, -"Fourteen only of the elements known to us, or less than a quarter -of the total number, were thus found to be present in the sun's -constitution; and of these all were metals, if we regard hydrogen as -metallic.... But most remarkable of all, and most perplexing, was the -absence of all trace of oxygen and nitrogen, two gases which could -not be supposed wanting in the substance of the great ruling center -of the planetary system." The researches of Dr. Draper indicated, -however, that oxygen could be found in the sun; not in his external -atmosphere but far down within his surface. Professor Proctor says, -"Dr. Draper mentions that he has found no traces of oxygen above the -photosphere." Such free oxygen cannot be associated with the hydrogen, -however, even if its presence be finally determined, but it may be -due to the deoxidation of solid compounds precipitated upon the sun -from space, and held at a temperature above that of disassociation, -as hydrogen is sometimes generated at the surface of the earth. - -The vast mass of the solar atmosphere is composed of hydrogen gas, with -which are found commingled vapors of the various elements which enter -into the sun's constitution, and this solar atmosphere corresponds -in proportion, speaking generally, with our own atmosphere, except -that the volume of solar hydrogen is vastly greater than that of -terrestrial oxygen, for the reason, as will be explained, that water -contains two volumes of the former to one of the latter. - -In Appleton's Cyclopædia the sun is thus described, (article by -Professors Langley and Proctor): "To sum up briefly the received -hypotheses of the physical constitution of the sun: of its internal -structure we know nothing, but we can infer, from the low density of -the solar globe as a whole, that no considerable portion is solid or -liquid. The regions we examine appear to consist of cloud layers at -several levels floating in a complex atmosphere, in which probably -most of the elements are known to us, and certainly many of them -exist in the form of vapor. Outside this complex atmosphere extend -envelopes of simpler constitution, though into them occasionally -arise the vapors which ordinarily lie lower down. The sierra, for -instance, consists in the main of glowing hydrogen gas and that gas, -whatever it may be, which produces the line near the orange-yellow -sodium lines. The prominence region may be regarded as simply the -extension of the sierra." Of these prominences, Professor Ball says, -"The memorable discovery made by Janssen and Lockyer, independently, in -1868, showed that the prominences could be observed without the help of -an eclipse, by the happy employment of the peculiar refrangibility of -the rosy light which these prominences emit.... We can now obtain, not, -as heretofore, merely isolated views of special prominences through -the widely opened slit of the spectroscope, but we are furnished, -after a couple of minutes' exposure, with a complete photograph of -the prominences surrounding the sun.... The incandescent region of -the chromosphere from which these prominences arise is also recorded -with accuracy." Resuming our quotation from Appleton's Cyclopædia: -"The inner corona is still simpler than the sierra, so far as its -gaseous constitution is concerned; but here meteoric and cometic matter -appears, extending to the outer corona and to great distances beyond -even the visible limits of the zodiacal. Returning to the photosphere, -we find it subject to continual fluctuations, both from local causes -of agitation and from the subjacent vapor acting by its elasticity to -burst through it; the faculæ, which are found to be above the general -level of the photosphere, are taken to be heapings up of the luminous -matter like the crested surges of the sea. All the strata are subject -to great movements, which sometimes have the character of uniform -progression analogous to our trade-winds, and sometimes are violent, -and resemble in their effects our tornadoes and whirlwinds. Eruptive -action appears to operate from time to time with exceeding violence, -but whether the enormous velocities of outrush are due to true -explosive action (which would compel us to believe that the sun is -enclosed by a liquid shell, so as to resemble a gigantic bubble) or to -the uprising of lighter vapors from enormous depths, as heated currents -rise in our own atmosphere, is not as yet certainly known." The -sierra, or chromosphere, is thus described in the same article: -"The sierra presents four aspects: 1, smooth with defined outline; -2, smooth but with no defined outline; 3, fringed with filaments; -and, 4, irregularly fringed with small flames. The prominences may -be divided into three orders,--heaps, jets, and plumes. The heaped -prominences need no special description. The jets ... originate -generally in rectilinear jets either vertical or oblique, very bright -and very well defined. They rise to a great height, often to a height -of at least eighty thousand miles, and occasionally to more than twice -that; then bending back, fall again upon the sun like the jets of our -fountains. Then they spread into figures resembling gigantic trees -more or less rich in branches. Their luminosity is intense, insomuch -that they can be seen through the light clouds into which the sierra -breaks up. Their spectrum indicates the presence of many elements -besides hydrogen. When they have reached a certain height they cease -to grow, and become transformed into exceedingly bright masses, which -eventually separate into fleecy clouds. The jet prominences last but -a short time--rarely an hour, frequently but a few minutes,--and they -are only to be seen in the neighborhood of the spots. Wherever there -are jet prominences there also are faculæ. The plume prominences are -distinguished from the jets in not being characterized by any signs of -an eruptive origin. They often extend to an enormous height; they last -longer than the jets, though subject to rapid changes of figure; and, -lastly, they are distributed indifferently over the sun's surface. It -would seem that in the jets a part of the photosphere is lifted up, -whereas in the case of plumes only the sierra is disturbed." Of these -eruptions Professor Ball says, "Vast masses of vapors are frequently -expelled from the interior of the sun by convulsive throes with a -speed of three hundred, four hundred, and sometimes nearly a thousand -miles a second.... The spectroscope enables the observer actually to -witness the ascent of these solar prominences." - -The corona, which extends beyond the chromosphere, has been determined -by its continuous spectrum to be a vast envelope extending at -least a million miles from the sun's surface. "It cannot be a solar -atmosphere," Professor Proctor observes in his article on this subject, -in his "Mysteries of Time and Space."... "It will be seen, then, -how inconceivably great the pressure exerted by a solar atmosphere -some eight thousand times as deep as ours would necessarily be, -let the nature of the gases composing it be what it may."... "If a -man could be placed on the solar surface, his own weight would crush -him as effectually as though while on earth a weight of a couple of -tons were heaped upon him.... Now, it happens that we know quite well -that the pressure exerted by the real solar atmosphere, even close -by the bright surface which forms the visible globe of the sun, is -nothing like so great as it would be if the corona formed part of -that atmosphere." In the article "Sun," in Appleton's Cyclopædia, -it is stated that "Mr. Arthur W. Wright, of Yale College, has -succeeded in showing that this light (the zodiacal) is not emitted -from incandescent gas, but reflected from particles or small bodies, -and hence derived from the sun."... "There is reason to believe that -the true solar corona extends much farther (than a million miles), -and that, in reality, the zodiacal light forms the outer part of the -solar corona." Proctor, again, in his article on the corona, says, -"It would seem to follow that the corona is due to bodies of some sort -travelling around the sun, and by their motion preserved either from -falling towards him (in which case the corona would quickly disappear) -or from producing any pressure upon his surface, as an atmosphere -would." In his article on "The Sun as a Perpetual Machine," he says, -"There is every reason for regarding the zodiacal as consisting in -the main of meteorolithic masses, a sort of cosmical dust, rushing -through interplanetary space with planetary velocities. To such -matter, assuming, as we well may, that space really is occupied -by attenuated vapors, ... the luminosity of the zodiacal would be -attributable to particles of dust emitting light reflected by the sun -or by phosphorescence (this last may be seriously questioned). But -there is another cause for luminosity of these particles which may -deserve a passing consideration. Each particle would be electrified -by gaseous friction in its acceleration, and its electric tension -would be vastly increased in its forcible removal, in the same way -as the fine dust of the desert has been observed by Werner Siemens -to be in a state of high electrification on the apex of the Cheops -Pyramid. Would not the zodiacal light also find explanation by slow -electric discharges backward from the dust towards the sun?" It may be -observed in passing that such electrical glow is much more prominently, -and more likely to be, the result of induction than of friction. In -the article "Sun," previously quoted, Professor Young says, "There is -surrounding the sun, beyond any further reasonable doubt, a mass of -self-luminous gaseous matter, whose spectrum is characterized by the -green line 1474 Kirchhoff. The precise extent of this it is hardly -possible to consider as determined, but it must be many times the -thickness of the red hydrogen portion of the sierra, perhaps, on an -average, 8' or 10', with occasional horns of twice that height. It -is not at all unlikely that it may even turn out to have no upper -limit, but to extend from the sun indefinitely into space." In the -same article the sun's apparent diameter is placed at about 32', -so that the thickness of the above gaseous envelope would be not -less than one-fourth the sun's diameter, or more than two hundred -thousand miles. This coronal envelope, extending out from the solar -body until gradually merged into the attenuated matter of space, has -a light so feeble that it can only be clearly observed during total -eclipse. Professor Ball ("In the High Heavens") says, "The sunlight -is so intense that if it be reduced sufficiently by any artifice, -the coronal light also suffers so much abatement that, owing to its -initial feebleness, it ceases altogether to be visible." During the -great eclipse of 1893 it was photographed, and of these photographs -the same author says, "One of the most remarkable features in the -structure of the corona is the presence of streamers or luminous -rays extending from the north and south poles of the sun. These -rays are generally more or less curved, and it is doubtful whether -the phenomena they exhibit are not in some way a consequence of the -rotation of the sun. This consideration is connected with the question -as to how far the corona itself shares in that rotation of the sun -with which astronomers are familiar. I should perhaps rather have -said that rotation of the sun's photosphere which, as the sun-spots -prove, is accomplished once every twenty-five days. Even this shell -of luminous matter does not revolve as a rigid mass would do. By some -mysterious law the equatorial portions accomplish their revolution in -a shorter period than is required by those zones of the photosphere -which lie nearer the north and south poles of the luminary. As to how -the parts of the sun which are interior to the photosphere may revolve, -we are quite ignorant.... We have no means of knowing to what extent -the corona shares in the rotation. It would seem certain that the -lower parts which lie comparatively near the surface must be affected -by the rapid rotation of the photosphere; but it is very far from -certain that this rotation can be shared to any great extent by those -parts of the corona which lie at a distance from the sun's surface -as great as the solar radius or diameter.... The corona presents a -curious green line that seems to denote some invariable constituent -of the sun's outer atmosphere, but the element to which this green -line owes its origin is wholly unknown." The same author quotes from -Dr. Huggins as follows: "It is interesting to read what Dr. Huggins -has to tell us about the solar corona. The nature of this marvellous -appendage to the sun is still a matter of uncertainty. There can, -however, be no doubt that the corona consists of highly-attenuated -matter driven outward from the sun by some repulsive force, and it is -also clear that if this force be not electric, it must at least be -something of a very kindred character.... So far as the spectrum of -the corona is concerned, we may summarize what is known in the words -of Dr. Huggins: 'The green coronal line has no known representative -in terrestrial substances, nor has Schuster been able to recognize any -of our elements in the other lines of the corona.'" The account given -by General Myer--quoted in Professor Proctor's article, "The Sun's -Corona"--of the great eclipse of 1869, as viewed from an altitude -of five thousand five hundred feet above sea-level, is as follows: -"As a centre stood the full and intensely black disk of the moon, -surrounded by an aureola of soft bright light, through which shot out, -as if from the circumference of the moon, straight, massive silvery -rays, seeming distinct and separate from each other, to a distance -of two or three diameters of the lunar disk; the whole spectacle -showing as upon a background of diffused rose-colored light. The -silvery rays were longest and most prominent at four points of the -circumference, ... apparently equidistant from each other. There was -no motion of the rays: they seemed concentric." Three diameters would -make these rays extend two and a half million miles at least from the -sun's photosphere, or even its chromosphere. The coincidence between -these rays and those observed (see above) in the eclipse of 1893 must -be noted, since these latter were conceived at one time to be meteor -streams. As those seen in 1893 radiated from the poles, and were curved -in form, while those last noted radiated at four equidistant points, -none polar, and were straight, it will be seen that, if both phenomena -were of the same class, they could not have been due to meteor streams. - -The sun's spots, which we will next refer to, are deep, -relatively dark, but in fact extremely bright depressions in the -photosphere. "Many spots are of enormous size" (see article, "Sun"); -"one had a diameter exceeding fifty thousand miles, and many far larger -than this have been seen. The spots are not scattered over the whole -surface of the sun, but are for the most part confined to two belts -between latitude five degrees and thirty degrees, on either side of the -solar equator. An equatorial zone six degrees wide is almost entirely -free from spots.... The inclination of the solar equator is about -seven degrees.... The spots on the sun usually have a dark central -region called the umbra, within which is a still darker part called -the nucleus, while around this there is a fringe of fainter shade than -the umbra, called the penumbra. Although the umbra and nucleus appear -dark, however, it is not to be supposed that they are really dark; -... though the nucleus looks perfectly black by contrast with the -general surface, it shines in reality with a light unbearably brilliant -when viewed alone, while his thermal measurements show that the heat -from the nucleus is even greater proportionately than the light, and -not very greatly below the heat of the surrounding surface.... The -recognition of a nucleus within the umbra would seem to indicate that -a third cloud layer (besides the outer or photosphere and a darker -cloud layer beneath) exists within the second or internal layer of -Herschel's theory. But the observations of Professor Langley show that -most probably all the features of the solar photosphere yet observed -are phenomena of cloud envelopes, since he has been able to recognize -cloud forms at one level floating over cloud forms at a lower level, -while even in the (relatively) darkest depths of the nucleus clouds -are still to be perceived, though so deep down that their outlines -can be barely discerned." Professor Ball says of the heat-wave of -1892, "As to the activity of the sun during the past summer, a very -striking communication has recently been made by one of the most -rising American astronomers, Mr. George E. Hale, of Chicago. He has -invented an ingenious apparatus for photographing on the same plate -at one exposure both the bright spots and the protuberances of the -sun.... On the 15th of July a photograph of the sun showed a large -spot. Another photograph taken in a few minutes exhibited a bright -band; twenty-seven minutes later a further exposure displayed an -outburst of brilliant faculæ all over the spot. At the end of an -hour the faculæ had all vanished and the spot was restored to its -original condition. It was not a mere coincidence that our magnetic -observatories exhibited considerable disturbances the next day, and -that brilliant auroras were noted." Carrington's observations have -shown that spots in different solar latitudes travel at different -rates. "Taking two parts of the visible solar surface in the same -longitude, but one in latitude forty-five degrees (say), the other on -the equator, the latter will advance farther and farther in longitude -from the former, gaining daily about two degrees, so that in the -course of about one hundred and eighty days it will have gained a -complete revolution. That is to say, the sun's equator makes about two -revolutions more per annum than regions in forty-five degrees north -and south solar latitude." The sun is about 850,000 miles in diameter; -its density is one-fourth that of the earth; its mass is 316,000 times -greater, and its volume 1,253,000. Gravity at its surface is 27.1 times -that of the earth; its distance is approximately 92,000,000 miles; -it rotates upon its axis, which is inclined to the planetary plane at -an angle of seven degrees, once in twenty-five and one-third days, -apparently increased to thirty days by the earth's orbital advance -in the same direction around the sun; and it has a motion around its -center,--a true orbital motion,--due to displacement by gravity of -the planetary masses, which, however, is always within its own mass. - -The above, in brief, is, so far as we know, the constitution of -the sun and its appendages. Its internal globe is surrounded by -a glowing gaseous envelope, the photosphere, which is the visible -orb, composed of cloud masses of glowing hydrogen gas intermingled -with vapors of many of our terrestrial elements, all in a state -of apparent disassociation. Of the constitution of the sun's mass, -Professor Ball says, "Professor Rowland has shown that thirty-six -terrestrial elements are certainly indicated in the solar spectrum, -while eight others are doubtful. Fifteen elements have not been -found, though sought for, and ten elements have not yet been compared -with the sun's spectrum. Reasons are also given for showing that, -though fifteen elements had no lines corresponding to those shown in -the solar spectrum, yet there is but little evidence to show that -they are really absent from the sun. Dr. Huggins epitomizes these -very interesting results in the striking remark, 'It follows that -if the whole earth were heated to the temperature of the sun, its -spectrum would resemble very closely the solar spectrum.'" Outside -the photosphere is the simpler chromosphere, composed largely of -hydrogen, and merging into the corona at a distance of hundreds of -thousands of miles from the sun's apparent surface, and this corona -extends outward to a vast distance, and is itself largely composed -of self-luminous matter, the action of gravity being counterbalanced -by the centrifugal force of orbital rotation, or more probably by -electrical repulsion. The metallic vapors in the sun's photosphere -are suspended in glowing hydrogen, which vastly preponderates over -all the others in mass and volume, the incandescence of which is -the principal source of solar light and heat. The planets revolve -in elliptical orbits around this central sun, and crossing these -orbits at various angles rush streams of cometic matter and comets -and meteoric bodies, in streams and clouds, which, swiftly sweeping -around at various distances, are again thrown off into space. Meteors -constantly fall into the sun's mass, as they do upon the earth; but the -grand key-note of all his life and energy, so far as we can perceive, -is the vast envelope of glowing hydrogen gas. - -Conversely, the planetary envelopes are of relatively cool oxygen -mixed with nitrogen gas, which hold in suspension diffused aqueous -vapors. If our own aqueous vapors are derived by the attraction of -gravity from the interplanetary space, as they must have been, we can -be sure that, were the sun at a sufficiently low temperature, he, too, -would gather to himself a surrounding envelope of aqueous vapor, larger -than our own in proportion to his mass, and larger than that of all -the planets together, the combined mass of which he exceeds by seven -hundred and fifty times. We should also expect similar aggregations -of aqueous vapors to surround all the fixed stars in proportion to -their various masses, yet we do not find aqueous vapor there, but -hydrogen instead. And in the distant telescopic nebulæ we still find -hydrogen and nitrogen; even in the comets we find free hydrogen in -vast predominance, but not free oxygen; so that we may roughly divide -the bodies of stellar space into two grand categories,--those with -atmospheres of hydrogen and those with atmospheres of oxygen. It is -true that the latter are limited to the planets of our own system, so -far as direct observation goes, for we cannot see such dark planets -as exist beyond our own solar system; but if such planets exist, -as they must, for reasons stated later on, and revolve around their -own central suns, we may infer, with the strength of demonstration -almost, that if their suns correspond to our sun in this respect, their -planets will correspond to our planets in a similar respect. But the -bodies with atmospheres of oxygen are those which rotate around the -sun substantially as a center, while with reference to themselves the -sun is more or less a fixed body in space. It is true that our whole -system is drifting through space, at present in the direction of the -constellation Lyra, and directly away from that portion of space -occupied by Sirius and Canopus, with an annual motion of probably -hundreds of millions of miles. Professor Ball ("In the High Heavens") -says, "In conclusion, it would seem that the sun and the whole solar -system are bound on a voyage to that part of the sky which is marked -by the star Delta Lyræ. It also appears that the speed with which -this motion is urged is such as to bring us every day about 700,000 -miles nearer to this part of the sky. In one year the solar system -accomplishes a journey of no less than 250,000,000 miles." A speed of -eight miles per second gives an annual rate of 252,288,000 miles. This -speed, however, is greatly exceeded by many stars (as determined -by displacement of the lines of the spectrum); the star No. 1830, -of Groombridge's catalogue (see "In the High Heavens"), has a rate -of two hundred miles per second. The author says, "Indeed, in some -cases stellar velocities are attained which appear to be even greater -than that just mentioned. We do not, therefore, make any extravagant -supposition in adopting a speed of twenty miles per second," which -he takes as the average. "I have adopted this particular velocity as -fairly typical of sidereal motions generally. It is rather larger than -the speed with which the earth moves in its orbit." The distances, -of course, are equally enormous. This author says, "The nearest star, -as far as we yet know, in the northern hemisphere is 61 Cygni.... I -think we cannot be far wrong in adopting a value of fifty millions -of millions of miles.... In the course of a million years a star with -the average speed of twenty miles a second would move over a distance -which was about a dozen times as great as the distance between 61 -Cygni and the solar system." This assuming that the solar system is -at rest, which is not the case, as the author says, "Unless binary, -stars do not remain in proximity, so far as we know; the general rule -appears to be that of universal movement through space." This drift -through space, however, no more affects the terms of the problem than -the rotation of the earth upon its axis or its orbital motion affects -the operations of an electric machine as the handle may be rotated to -or from the direction of these motions. Both machine and reservoir -of energy occupying a fixed relation with reference to each other, -the positions of each are the same as though absolutely fixed. This -is true of gravitation, likewise, as well as of all other natural -and universal forces. - -The fact established, then, that attenuated aqueous vapor is -diffused throughout the interplanetary space occupied by our own -solar system, and that it tends to surround our sun and planetary -bodies with aqueous envelopes of increased density, proportionate to -the action of gravity, the question arises, Is there any known force -which will act through such interplanetary space to decompose such -aqueous vapor into its constituent elements and deposit hydrogen gas -around the sun and oxygen gas around the planets, and which, while -maintaining a planetary temperature such as we find on the planets, -will at the same time raise the hydrogen envelope of the sun to such a -temperature of incandescence that it will become a glowing sphere of -heated hydrogen, in which other constituents of the sun's mass will -be raised to incandescence and partially volatilized in the intense -heat of that incandescent gas; in which, in fact, the phenomena of -the sun will become manifest? If so, two vastly important corollaries -are inevitable: first, that the fixed stars, which also shine with -the light of their own glowing hydrogen, are themselves surrounded by -a similar aqueous vapor, diffused through their own adjacent space, -and that, in consequence, not only our own planetary distances, but all -interstellar space, as far as the utmost distance of the faintest fixed -stars, is likewise pervaded by the same attenuated aqueous vapor, and -that this is the grand source from which is derived all solar energy, -not only of our own sun, but of all the other flaming orbs of space; -and, second, which is still more important to us as citizens of the -universe, that each flaming hydrogen sun must have surrounding it a -correlative dark planetary system of its own, and that the complement -of glowing hydrogen, as an incandescent envelope of the central -orb, necessitates the corresponding supplement of cool oxygen as -an envelope for each of such planetary bodies; in other words, that -without such planets as our system possesses, there can be no suns such -as our own and the other suns we see. Vast orbs might be conceived -of as rotating in eternal darkness without associated satellites, -but the incandescent atmosphere of hydrogen must have--not may have, -but must have--subordinate planets substantially similar to ours, -surrounded by atmospheres substantially similar to our own (for we -find free nitrogen in comets, in meteorites, and in the faintest -nebulæ), and these planets are thus fitted, so far as we can know, -for the support of organic life and for the same orderly courses -of nature as we see manifest around us. They must be cool, for at -the planetary poles there must be a moderate temperature in contrast -with the solar pole, which becomes, of necessity, highly heated; they -must have an atmosphere of oxygen in order that the solar center may -have an atmosphere of hydrogen; these planetary atmospheres must be -supplied with nitrogen, because nitrogen is universally available, -and similar causes operating under similar circumstances will produce -like effects; these atmospheres must be charged with condensed aqueous -vapors, and, if cool enough, must have deposited water in liquid form, -for aqueous vapors when condensed by gravity are the correlated sources -of supply of their respective gaseous components at both solar and -planetary poles; and these planets must rotate in orderly periods -around their central suns, or the aqueous vapors cannot be regularly -and continuously disassociated into their elemental gases. These -planets may be few or many--perhaps even a single one sometimes--for -each sun, but they must be large enough or numerous enough to operate -by their aggregate mass, so as to disassociate around the planets -as much oxygen as their central sun disassociates of hydrogen in -their combining proportions,--that is, two volumes of hydrogen for -each one of oxygen. We will therefore find in such planets all the -potentialities of life--we can see and study these planets, though -physically invisible, as easily and as thoroughly as we do our own, -for having the relationship of constitution between our own planets -and our sun, we may thereby learn the essential relationship between -any fixed star and its planets by directly studying the constitution -of such star alone. Among the planets of our own system Neptune and -Mercury, and those which exist adjacent to their boundaries, can be -studied with difficulty and uncertainty; but what astronomer doubts -that they are constituted much like the other planets, and have passed, -or will pass, through such stages of progress as we find apparent among -those more directly under our observation? While we shall thus find -universality and harmony among all the starry systems, we shall not -find identity; but with the guiding light of demonstrated scientific -principles, we may apply our knowledge as a key to unlock the mysteries -of the most distant stars. The Milky Way will gleam with new meaning, -Sirius, Aldebaran, the Pleiades, will send us messages of fellowship, -and the established sphere of creative energy will have expanded, -with all its wondrous mechanism, to fill the universe. When we see -at night a vast factory building with every window lighted, one -who understands the operation and mechanism essential to the work -of a mill sees not alone the illuminated windows, but the looms -in motion, the flying shuttles, the spindles humming, the wheels -turning, and all the complicated machinery in active operation. And -he can even picture operatives at work in their various avocations, -and the flashing windows, though themselves silent, are the visible -index of the light within which illuminates and makes possible the work -there performed. And so, when thus comprehended, the flaming stars, -but points of light in the archways of the sky, themselves will reveal -to us the wondrous workings within the realm which they illuminate -and warm and vivify. We may also reasonably infer, as will be more -fully explained further on, that there can be no actual basis for the -opinion sometimes expressed, that great, dark, solid orbs--independent -worlds, in fact--are drifting about through space at random, as it -were, like homeless vagabonds. In these sparsely-occupied domains -the head of each household, as in every well-regulated family, has -all its different members gathered around in strict subordination, -to aid in the support of the establishment. No sun no planets; no -planets no sun, is the general statement of the sidereal formula. Like -a sexual duality, the mutually correlated parts constitute a single, -composite, and interdependent whole: one generates, concentrates, -and transmits; the other receives, transforms, and delivers. - - - Note.--Regarding the absence of oxygen from the sun's atmosphere - we quote the following from Lord Salisbury's very recent address - (see note at end of Chapter I.): "It is a great aggravation of - the mystery which surrounds the question of the elements, that, - among the lines which are absent from the spectrum of the sun, - those of nitrogen and oxygen stand first. Oxygen constitutes the - largest portion of the solid and liquid substances of our planet, - so far as we know it; and nitrogen is very far the predominant - constituent of our atmosphere. If the earth is a detached bit - whirled off the mass of the sun, as cosmogonists love to tell - us, how comes it that in leaving the sun we cleaned him out so - completely of his nitrogen and oxygen that not a trace of these - gases remains behind to be discovered even by the sensitive - vision of the spectroscope?" We shall find that the absence of - oxygen in the solar envelope is a necessary corollary of its - presence in those of the planets. The same is true, possibly, of - nitrogen. Ammoniacal vapors are decomposable into hydrogen and - nitrogen, and hydrocarbon gases into hydrogen and carbon, just - as aqueous vapors are resolvable into hydrogen and oxygen. In the - earlier stages of the earth's development we have abundant evidence - of an atmosphere heavily laden with carbonic vapors, which have - disappeared, to remain stored as fixed carbon, and the oxygen - has also largely disappeared, to constitute the enormous mass of - oxides in the earth's mass, while the nitrogen remains to dilute - the remaining oxygen and constitute the air we breathe. Their - common correlative, hydrogen, intermingled with metallic vapors, - composes the vast atmosphere of the sun. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE MODE OF SOLAR ENERGY. - - -But is there such an available force? There is one, and only -one,--electricity, when properly generated and suitably applied. It -is an axiom of electrical science that any fluid which will at all -conduct a current of electricity can be decomposed by a current of -electricity. (See Urbanitsky's work, "Electricity in the Service of -Man," Cassell's edition, page 154.) It is there stated (page 152), -"We have frequently had occasion to mention certain chemical effects -of electricity,--namely, the decomposition of gaseous compounds -into simple gases." Page 157, "Whatever the substances we expose -to the action of the galvanic current, decomposition takes place -proportional to the strength of the current." Page 152, "Hydrogen is -always evolved at the negative pole of the battery and oxygen at the -positive pole. The gases can then be collected in different tubes, -the hydrogen tube receiving twice as much gas as the oxygen tube; -since water consists of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume -of oxygen, it follows that the galvanic current decomposes water -into its constituents. As chemically pure water has so great a -resistance as almost to force us to consider it a non-conductor, -it is generally acidulated with sulphuric acid. The smallest amount -of acid diminishes the resistance considerably. The silent discharge -is far more effective in bringing about this transformation than the -spark discharge." Page 37, "Gases are bad conductors of electricity; -if it had been otherwise, we should never have become acquainted with -electricity, as it would have been conducted away by the air as fast -as it was generated. The vacuum also does not conduct electricity, -but moist air becomes a partial conductor. Moist air also will spoil -the insulation of non-conducting supports. All bodies are more or -less hygroscopic, and the moisture condensed on their surfaces thus -turns the best insulators into conductors. Change of temperature also -influences conductivity." Page 63, "When using induction machines, the -moisture of the air often causes experiments to fail, especially before -large audiences. The atmosphere becomes saturated with moisture, and -it is often impossible to get the machine in working order." Several -desiccating devices are mentioned by the authors of this work, as -used with such machines, to prevent such dissipation or conduction -of electricity from the machine into space by the aqueous vapor of -the atmosphere. In describing the aurora borealis (page 93), these -authors say, "The rarefied air is nearer the earth at the poles than -the equator, in consequence of the earth's centrifugal motion, and, -the earth being negatively electrified, negative electricity will flow -from this point, directed against the positively electrified upper -layers of rarefied air." Same work, pages 127, 128, "The resistance -(in liquids) diminishes as the temperature increases, a result which -is exactly opposite to what occurs with metals. Conductivity for -carbon increases with the temperature, thus agreeing with the action -of liquids." Page 133, "To determine the resistance in liquids, -the above methods cannot be employed, liquids being decomposed by -the electrical current." Referring to the voltaic arc and the spark -of the induction apparatus (page 200), it is said, "Dry air under -great pressure offers a high resistance, but a perfect vacuum is a -perfect insulator, and between these extremes there are degrees of -rarification which admit of a flow of electricity." In general, it -is said that electrical decomposition requires that the electrolyte -be in liquid form, but this is not universally true, and throughout -interplanetary space may not be true at all. In Ferguson's work on -Electricity, it is stated that, "The passage of electricity through -compound gases in a state of great rarity, as in the so-called vacuum -tubes, frequently separates them up into their constituents." So, also, -the opinion that electricity cannot be readily conducted through -dry gases is refuted by the play of the auroral streamers. The -distance from the surface of the earth of these electrical waves -and the auroral arch is variously estimated at from seventy to two -hundred and sixty-five miles, and in one instance "at a height of -from four thousand to six thousand miles;" see article in Appleton's -Cyclopædia. Certainly there could be no sensible moisture at the -temperatures there prevalent, and especially at night and during the -fall and winter months when these displays are very frequent. Whether -the currents be due to induction, as between neighboring bodies one of -which is electrified, or from direct emission, as in brush discharges, -there must obviously be some medium of contact and continuity for -the free transference of electrical energy through space. Regarding -the rationale of electrolysis ("Electricity in the Service of -Man"), after discussing certain other theories, the authors say, -"Clausius, too, assumes an electrified condition of the molecules -of each electrode, but he neither attributes to the galvanic current -the force of direction nor power of decomposing. He points out that -both the molecules of fluids and also their atoms are in continual -motion. The atoms in molecules of fluids are held together but by a -moderate force, and the molecules themselves constantly undergo changes -both of synthesis and analysis. The galvanic current merely effects a -regulated motion of the atoms; the positive ions are attracted by the -negative electrode, and the negative ions by the positive electrode, -and by this means are separated out from the liquid." Page 91, "The -upper layers of air are more or less electrified, so as to have a -potential differing from that of the earth, but how their electrical -condition has been produced is not at present known. Condensation of -water-vapor is supposed to produce electricity. Close to the earth -the air has little or no electricity; the farther from the earth -the greater the amount of electricity in the air." Referring to the -sparking discharge, it is said, page 75, "The density of the air, -however, has to be taken into account; the sparking distance is -lessened in denser air, and becomes greater when the atmospheric -pressure is diminished. Not only the density, but also the chemical -composition of the medium influences the sparking distance. Faraday -found the distances considerably less in chlorine gas, but twice -as long in hydrogen gas as in air." Page 74, "The sparking distance -increases at a somewhat greater rate than the difference of potential -of the discharging bodies.... When the sparking distance becomes very -great ... it is proportional to the difference of potential." Page 91, -"There is a difference of potential between the earth and points in the -air above. In fine weather the potential is higher the higher we go, -increasing usually at the rate of twenty to forty volts for each foot." - -It will be seen that, continued upward at this rate, the increased -electrical pressure for each mile of elevation would be between 100,000 -and 200,000 volts, or for each one hundred miles more than 10,000,000 -volts; and at an altitude of one thousand miles, if carried so far, -the potential would be between one and two hundred million volts, -an electrical pressure quite inconceivable to us. Such a potential -in currents of enormous quantity continually flowing from the earth -to the sun would certainly decompose any aqueous vapors condensed -around these bodies. But the question at once arises, What reason -is there to suppose that such currents could possibly flow between -the earth and the sun, across that vast intervening region of space, -a distance of more than 90,000,000 miles? And would not the resistance -to such currents in transit be so enormous that the entire potential, -however great, would have been practically lost long before reaching -the sun? To this there is a complete and irrefutable answer, not -based upon any abstract theory, but upon established fact. It is an -absolute certainty that electrical currents of enormous quantity and -high potential are constantly passing between the earth and the sun, -and that these currents have so free a passage--far more free than -through any metallic circuits that we know of--that they pass over -this enormous distance absolutely without appreciable resistance. We -may note in this connection the well-known facts, now being largely -utilized, though the art is still in its infancy, of telegraphing and -transmitting all sorts of electrical currents over large distances -without wires or any conductors, except those furnished by nature. - -Of the currents between the earth and the sun, Professor Proctor, -in his "Light Science for Leisure Hours," says, "Remembering the -influence which the sun has been found to exercise upon the magnetic -needle, the question will naturally arise, Has the sun anything to do -with magnetic storms? We have clear evidence that he has. On the 1st of -September, 1859, Messrs. Carrington and Hodgson were observing the sun, -one at Oxford and the other in London. Their scrutiny was directed to -certain large spots which at that time marked the sun's face. Suddenly -a bright light was seen by each observer to break out on the sun's -surface and to travel, slowly in appearance, but in reality at the rate -of about seven thousand miles in a minute, across a part of the solar -disk. Now, it was found afterwards that the self-registering magnetic -instruments at Kew had made at that very instant a strongly-marked -jerk. It was learned that at that moment a magnetic storm prevailed -in the West Indies, in South America, and in Australia. The signal -men in the telegraph stations at Washington and Philadelphia received -strong electric shocks; the pen of Bain's telegraph was followed by -a flame of fire; and in Norway the telegraphic machinery was set on -fire. At night great auroras were seen in both hemispheres. It is -impossible not to connect these startling magnetic indications with -the remarkable appearance observed upon the sun's disk. But there is -other evidence. Magnetic storms prevail more commonly in some years -than in others. In those years in which they occur most frequently -it is found that the ordinary oscillations of the magnetic needle -are more extensive than usual. Now, when these peculiarities had been -noticed for many years, it was found that there was an alternate and -systematic increase and diminution in intensity of magnetic action, -and that the period of the variation was about eleven years. But at -the same time a diligent observer had been recording the appearance -of the sun's face from day to day and from year to year. He had -found that the solar spots are in some years more freely displayed -than in others, and he had determined the period in which the spots -had successively presented with maximum frequency to be about eleven -years. On a comparison of the two sets of observations it was found -(and has now been placed beyond a doubt by many years of continual -observation) that magnetic perturbations are most energetic when the -sun is most spotted, and vice versa. For so remarkable a phenomenon -as this none but a cosmical cause can suffice. We can neither say -that the spots cause the magnetic storms nor that the magnetic storms -cause the spots. We must seek for a cause producing at once both sets -of phenomena." It will be observed that the phenomena seen in the sun -were marked at the same instant by violent electric perturbations on -earth. Hence something must have passed with the velocity of light, -which we know to be at the rate of 188,000 miles per second, or in -about eight minutes from the sun to the earth. But it is stated in -"Electricity in the Service of Man," page 82, that, "According to the -theoretical calculations of Kirchhoff, as well as of Ayrton and Perry, -the velocity of electricity in a wire without resistance would be -equal to the velocity of light." Hence we perceive that the apparent -difficulty has vanished in the light of observed fact, and that -currents of electricity do pass and are constantly passing between -the earth and the sun without the slightest loss of speed,--that -is to say, without resistance. We shall find in the sequel that the -above phenomena were caused most probably by a partial interruption -of a constant direct current from the earth to the sun, instead of -by an opposite return current from the sun to the earth. In further -illustration of the above facts we quote the following, page 172, -"Electricity in the Service of Man:" "Many attempts have been made -to find a connection between the spots and prominences in the sun and -the electrical phenomena on the earth. Professor Forster says that by -numerous magnetic observations of the last thirty or forty years it -has been proved that the formation of black spots on the surface of -the sun, and the generation of pillars and clouds of glowing gases -in the immediate neighborhood of the sun, stand in close connection -with certain deviations in direction and intensity of the earth's -magnetic forces." Professor Proctor, in his "Light Science for Leisure -Hours," says, "From all this it appears, incontestably, that there -is an intimate connection between the causes of auroras and those -of terrestrial magnetism.... The magnetic needle not only swayed -responsively to auroras observable in the immediate neighborhood, -but to auroras in progress hundreds and thousands of miles away. Nay, -as inquiry progressed, it was discovered that the needles in our -northern observatories are swayed by influences associated even with -the occurrence of auroras around the southern polar regions.... Could -we only associate auroras with terrestrial magnetism, we should -still have done much to enhance the interest which the beautiful -phenomenon is calculated to excite. But when once this association -has been established, others of even greater interest are brought -into recognition; for terrestrial magnetism has been clearly shown -to be influenced directly by the action of the sun.... We already -begin to see, then, that auroras are associated in some mysterious -way with the action of the solar rays. The phenomenon which had been -looked on for so many ages as a mere spectacle, caused perhaps by some -process in the upper regions of the air of a simple local character, -has been brought into the range of planetary phenomena. As surely as -the brilliant planets which deck the nocturnal skies are illuminated -by the same orb which gives us our days and seasons, so are they -subject to the same mysterious influence which causes the northern -banners to wave respondently over the starlit depths of heaven. Nay, -it is even probable that every flicker and coruscation of our auroral -displays correspond with similar manifestations upon every planet -which travels round the sun." In Professor Ball's late work, "In the -High Heavens," the author says, "Dr. Schuster suggests that there may -be an electric connection between the sun and the planets. In fact, -with some limitations, we might even assert that there must be such a -connection. It is well known that great outbreaks on the sun have been -immediately followed, I might almost say accompanied, by remarkable -magnetic disturbances on the earth. The instances that are recorded -of this connection are altogether too remarkable to be set aside as -mere coincidences. Dr. Huggins has not referred in this connection -to Hertz's astonishing discoveries; but it seems quite possible that -research along this line may throw light on the subject, at present so -obscure, of the electric relation between the sun and the earth." Of -this common electrical relationship between our sun and the different -planets, and of these with each other, Professor Proctor says, in -his article, "Terrestrial Magnetism," "Interesting as are the bonds -of union which Copernicus and Kepler and Newton have traced in the -relations of our system, it would seem as though we were approaching -the traces of a yet more wonderful law of association. We see the -earth's magnetism responding to the solar influences, not merely -in those rhythmic motions which belong to the periodic variations, -but in sudden thrills affecting the whole framework of our globe. The -magnetic storms which are called into action by such solar disturbances -as the one of September, 1859, are, we may feel sure, not peculiar -to our own earth. The other planets feel the same influence,--not, -perhaps, in exactly the same way, but according to the constitution -and physical habitudes which respectively belong to them. So that one -can scarce conceive a subject of study at once more promising and more -interesting." Of these prophetic shadows which science often seems to -cast before, Professor Nichol, in his "Architecture of the Heavens" -(referring to Sir William Herschel), says, "Without difficulty or -pretence he there casts aside an idea which had not been questioned -before, unless in a few of those obscure, indefinite speculations -which, strangely enough, often prelude important discoveries." These -facts are thus incontestably established: that electric currents of -enormous energy and vast quantity are constantly passing without -appreciable resistance and with the speed of light between the -earth and the sun; that such currents cannot be conducted through -vacua, or through dry gases, or through a dense medium; and that, -whatever other matter may exist in the intervening space, such space -is pervaded throughout by an attenuated vapor of such constitution -and density that it will transmit such electrical currents with the -highest conceivable efficiency. We know that such passage of these -currents cannot depend upon the ether of space which is acted upon by -the sun to produce the ethereal undulatory vibrations of light and -heat, for, after we have produced the most perfect vacuum possible, -we find that the rays of light continue to pass through it as freely -as they pass through space, while currents of electricity cannot be -made to pass at all. Hence we know to a certainty that the medium -which transmits these enormous currents of electricity must be a vapor -capable of conducting electricity, that it must hence be decomposable -by the electric current, and that when decomposed one of its elements -must consist of hydrogen gas and the other of oxygen; in other words, -that this conducting medium must consist of attenuated aqueous vapor, -commingled doubtless with other vapors which themselves, like the acid -of the acidulated water used in electrolysis, aid in the conduction -of these enormous currents. We also know that such vapors in space -will be necessarily attracted, by gravitation, around the solar and -planetary bodies immersed therein, and must form condensed vaporous -atmospheres or cloud masses, and if these are decomposed by the passage -of such currents of electricity, that hydrogen gas will be liberated -at the solar galvanic pole and oxygen at the terrestrial or other -planetary pole, precisely as we find to be the case in nature. Will -such gaseous envelopes, then, have the same temperature for each -gas when thus liberated, or will the hydrogen envelope of the sun be -heated to incandescence, due to the passage of the electrical current? - -The temperature of interplanetary space is probably very low. Of this -Professor Ball says, "What this may be is a matter of some uncertainty, -but from all the evidence available it seems plain that we may put it -at not less than three hundred degrees below zero;" and the same author -adds, "The temperature is taken to be sixty-four degrees below zero, -being presumably that at the confines of the atmosphere." Whatever -the temperature of space, or its variations, may be, the passage of -the planetary electricity through the condensed hydrogen envelope of -the sun will produce great changes in the heat of that body and of -the solar core within. While with a small electrolytic apparatus we -find no special differences of temperature in the gases, with large -quantities of electricity, driven at a high potential, we find that -a new and startling result ensues. Something of this sort is seen -in the operation of electric arc-light lamps, now in common use, -in which two slightly separated carbon points are traversed by a -current of considerable potential. The current is driven across the -intervening space between the points, carrying with it an atmosphere -of disintegrated carbon, through which the electricity is carried -at its highest speed, and a most brilliant light is produced. In -"Electricity in the Service of Man," page 151, it is said, "We may -conclude from this that the current does not cease when the arc -of light is formed. The resistance of the arc seems to be only very -slight; in fact, the current must be conducted by it." Of the structure -and constitution of the luminous electrosphere, or arc, produced in -these lamps, "Professor J. A. Fleming," says the Scientific American, -"has shown that the well-known color of the light of the electric -arc from carbon points is due to the incandescence of the carbon -filling the space between the positive and the negative rods. The true -arc is here, and exists in a space filled with the vapor of carbon, -which has a brilliant violet color. Examined by the spectroscope, the -central axis of the carbon arc gives a spectrum marked by two bright -violet bands. Outside this is an aureole of carbon vapor of yellow or -golden color. The electrical strain of the arc occurs chiefly at the -surface of the crater which forms at the end of the positive rod, -where, in fact, the principal work of generating light is done; -for eighty per cent. of the total light of the arc comes from the -incandescent carbon at this place. Thus, in a sense, the arc light is -mainly an incandescent light, the effect being produced by the layer of -carbon which is being constantly evaporated at an extremely elevated -temperature. Hence the light of the carbon arc is not, and can never -be, white, as it is sometimes described as being, but must always be -tinted violet by the carbon vapor normally present between the rods." - -The significance of the above-quoted extract will be readily perceived -when we come to consider the action of the direct planetary electrical -currents upon the solar envelope, the effects in both cases being -substantially identical. The quantity and intensity of the electric -current, as it passes through the incandescent arc to the negative -pole, and thence back to the dynamo, are diminished exactly in -proportion to the energy expended in the generation of the light -and heat of the arc. It is precisely the same as in the operation -of a turbine water-wheel; if working at its highest efficiency, the -discharged water is almost deprived of force: its gravity has been -converted into work. In the electric light this conversion is only -partial, owing to atmospheric and other conditions; but in the case -of the solar envelope and its core, it is nearly, if not altogether, -perfect, so that the currents of electricity are almost entirely -converted into light and heat, or expended in the electrolytic -decomposition of the surrounding aqueous vapors, and do not reappear -as electricity, but as converted solar energy. Brilliant, however, -as the light rays are in a powerful arc lamp,--perhaps the nearest -to solar light we can produce,--the obscure heat rays are far more -numerous and powerful. On page 476 of the work just cited a table is -given, showing the proportion of visible and invisible rays emitted -by different illuminants, and with the electric lamp, even, ninety per -cent. of all the rays emitted by the voltaic arc are heat rays, which -are obscure and invisible. But the startling effects of electricity -of large quantity and high potential, in the decomposition of water, -are far more strikingly exhibited by an apparatus shown in 1893 at the -Chicago Exhibition by a firm from Brussels, and which is described -in the Electrical Review as follows: "An ordinary wooden pail is -three-quarters filled with water slightly acidulated; a lead plate -about nine inches broad by sixteen inches long dips to the bottom of -the pail and is connected to an incandescent dynamo machine capable of -giving over one hundred and fifty ampères. The iron rod, or article to -be heated, is connected to the pole of the dynamo and simply dipped -into the water; it immediately becomes heated and rapidly rises to a -melting temperature; only that portion of the metal completely immersed -becomes heated, and the heating is so rapid that neither the water nor -that portion of the metal out of the water becomes very warm. Wrought -iron and steel actually melt if long enough held under water. A carbon -rod subjected to this process becomes amorphous carbon, proving that -a temperature of at least four thousand degrees Centigrade has been -reached, and it is stated that with two hundred and twenty volts' -pressure a temperature of eight thousand degrees Centigrade has been -reached. There are various theories to account for this phenomenon, -but from close observation it appears to be a case of arc heating. The -moment the metal is plunged into the water it is enveloped in hydrogen -gas decomposed from the water. This envelope of gas parts the water and -metal, forming an arc, which raises the surrounding gaseous envelope -to an enormous temperature; the metal surrounded by this arc is almost -immediately raised to the same temperature. A flame of burning hydrogen -appears around the metal on the surface of the water. The principle of -the method is the same as that on which the burning of an arc light -between two carbon points under water depends. An arc lamp will burn -quite steadily under water if the connections are made water-proof; -the arc itself requires no protection." - -It will be seen that the process above described is precisely -analogous to that involved in the problem of the sun's energy. The -planets correspond with the leaden plates, upon which oxygen is -disengaged from the water, while at the same moment the liberated -hydrogen necessarily appears at the opposite pole. The generation -of hydrogen gas forms an envelope or atmosphere of hydrogen around -the sun which forces back the aqueous vapor. The current, in passing -through this gaseous envelope to the metal core within, intensely -heats the hydrogen, which rapidly communicates its rising heat to the -central core. If this core is composed of metals, and the temperature -be raised sufficiently high, which only depends upon the quantity and -working pressure of the electricity employed, the metal core will be -volatilized in whole or in part, and, if of mixed metals, we will -find the presence of these elements revealed in the spectroscopic -lines corresponding thereto, and the flames and flashes of hydrogen -at the surfaces beyond the envelope, at the surface of contact with -the matter of space, will be also seen. In fact, such an experiment, -properly prepared, could be made to show roughly most of the phenomena -of solar light and heat as they actually appear, such as sun-spots, -prominences, jets, plumes, faculæ, the photosphere, chromosphere, -absorption bands, vortical disturbances, metallic vapors, and the -complete solar spectrum, with the different Fraunhofer lines. In -the case of the sun, these currents must be measured by millions of -ampères, and possibly by hundreds of millions of volts, instead of by -mere hundreds, while the hydrogen envelope extends outward from the -sun's surface hundreds of thousands of miles until, perhaps, finally -merged into the corona. As the currents pass from the planets and -planetoids (for not only the larger planets, but all the planetary -bodies of our system must contribute, if any of them contribute) to -the sun, or rather to the sphere of its electrical action, without -resistance, so long as these planets generate constant currents of the -same, or nearly the same, potential, so long will the sun maintain -his constant light and heat; if these are increased or diminished, -the sun's light and heat will be temporarily, but only temporarily, -increased or diminished; and this process must continue, without -further loss or change, indefinitely into the future. Whatever the -sun may gain by increment of meteoric masses may pass for what it -is worth, but the gradual contraction of his volume cannot proceed -while his present temperature is maintained by the passage of such -currents,--that is to say, his light and heat will remain constant, -and also his mass and volume, so long as the electric currents which -pass from the planets to the sun and the constitution of space which -surrounds the sun and planets themselves remain constant. - -It now remains to consider how such enormous currents of electricity -can be generated and maintained. We know, of course, that chemical -changes cannot operate to produce them. They must be derived from -something contained in or diffused through interplanetary space, -and the planets themselves must be the means by which such currents -of electricity are brought into effective operation. On our own -earth we have many kinds of mechanically-constructed electrical -apparatus which generate electricity, to use a popular expression, -or which, more properly, separate the opposite potentials from -an unstable electrical tension or equilibrium of the matter of -space. These machines practically take positive electricity from -the mutually-balanced electric potentials of which the earth and -its surrounding gaseous envelope are the vast common storehouse, -in such manner that the positive electricity thus drawn out from and -again passing into the common storehouse shall, during such transit, -be compelled to pass through channels which will cause it to do work, -at the expense of its potential or pressure, during its passage, -or in which electricity is raised in its electro-motive force from -a lower to a higher potential or pressure, just as the pressure of -water is increased when delivered from a greater or a still greater -height, or steam, when confined in space under higher and still higher -temperatures. But none of these machines actually generate electricity -ab initio; they merely put into effective operation the pre-existing -force. The mass of the earth is of irregularly negative polarity, the -air above is positive, and as we ascend, the potential, or voltage, -or pressure increases at a nearly uniform rate of from twenty to forty -volts for each foot. The earth is thus surrounded by an electrosphere -as well as an atmosphere, and the two are not coincident, for while -the pressure of the atmosphere diminishes as we ascend, that of the -electrosphere increases. The moon, too, and each planet must have -its electrosphere, and around the sun's core we can see the solar -electrosphere in its visible glory. Thus, all our planets rotate upon -their axes and revolve around the sun, each surrounded by an enormous -electrosphere, just as an electrical induction machine is surrounded, -when in operation, with an electrosphere of its own, and which, -by breaking connection with the conductor which carries away its -current, becomes, when shown in a darkened room, clearly visible. In -"Electricity in the Service of Man" it is said, page 63, "The inductive -action of the machine is quite as rapid and as powerful when both -collectors are removed and nothing is left but the two rotating -disks and their respective contact or neutralizing brushes. The whole -apparatus then bristles with electricity, and if viewed in the dark -presents a most beautiful appearance, being literally bathed with -luminous brush discharges." This is a true aurora. - -Let us now examine some of these more recent electric machines,--the -later induction, not the older frictional machines, for it is -obvious that the rotation of the planets, if they operate as -electric generators, or separators, must act by induction and not by -friction. The frictional machines are of the old type and are well -known from the books; in these a glass disk or cylinder is rubbed -upon in its rotation by an amalgamated (so called) friction pad fixed -securely to the bed of the machine. But more recently these have -been replaced by far more powerful and simple machines which operate -entirely by induction, like approaching thunderclouds, for instance, -and in which one or more glass disks are merely rotated rapidly and -freely in the air, these disks having a number of light metallic -sectors, such as bits of tin-foil, pasted on their outer sides at -equal radial intervals, and with metallic collecting brushes which, -however, barely graze the surfaces of the rotating disk. There is -no pressure and no friction, except that of the disks as they freely -revolve in the atmosphere. - -In the above-quoted work, page 61, is a description of Wimshurst's -influence machine, one of the most recent and most powerful, which we -condense as follows: This machine was produced about 1883. It consists -of two circular disks of thin glass fourteen and one-half inches in -diameter in the sample described, attached at their centers to loose -bosses, so as to be rotated by cords and pulleys operated by a handle, -in opposite directions. The disks rotate parallel with each other and -are not more than one-eighth of an inch apart, and have their surfaces -well varnished; and attached by cement to their outer surfaces are -twelve or more radial, sector-shaped plates of thin brass- or tin-foil, -disposed around the disks at equal distances apart. These sectors -take the place of the "inductors" of Holtz's instrument, and appear -to act also as carriers, though the exact nature of their action is -somewhat mysterious. It appears, however, probable that those acting -for the time as carriers on the one disk act at the same time as -inductors on the other. The two sectors on the same diameter of each -disk, at opposite sides of the center, are twice in each revolution -momentarily placed in metallic connection with one another by means of -a pair of fine wire brushes attached to the ends of a bent metal rod -loosely pivoted at the center of each disk, the metal sectors just -grazing the tips of the wire brushes as they pass. There is one of -these bent rods on the outside of each disk, and their position as -pivoted on their center can be varied at will, both with reference -to the one on the opposite side and to the position of the fixed -collecting combs. The efficiency of the machine varies with their -position, and the maximum appears to be generally when the brushes -touch the disks on diameters crossing the position of the collecting -combs at about forty-five degrees, and with the bent rods on opposite -sides at right angles to each other. The collecting combs are simple -forks with collecting points turned inward, which forks embrace the -opposite sides of the disks outside, which freely rotate between them, -and they are supported on insulated posts. These supports may be small -Leyden jars or condensers, with discharging knobs, or may be connected -with similar condensers at a distance, or arranged in batteries or -otherwise. The presence of the collecting combs is not necessary to -the operation of the machine, their sole function being to carry away -the positive electricity as generated. The machine is self-exciting, -and it is believed that the initial action must be due to friction in -the layer of air contained between the plates, which, as above stated, -are only about one-eighth of an inch apart. It is nearly independent -of atmospheric conditions, and not liable to reverse its polarity, -as are the Voss machines. The Voss machine uses a larger glass disk -which does not rotate, but is fixed, and which has a central opening -three inches wide, with a different arrangement of tin-foil disks or -sectors, and a smaller glass disk rotates parallel with it. The Holtz -machine is somewhat similar, using a single rotating, well-varnished -glass disk revolving opposite a well-varnished larger disk, the latter -provided with three sector-shaped openings or windows, with varnished -paper inductors or flaps passing through these windows so as to touch -the revolving disk. There are also two series of fine metal points held -by brass bars provided with insulated handles and discharging knobs. - -It is only necessary to give a general idea of the construction and -operation of such machines, as their specific construction can be -readily learned from the books. Of the mode of operation, however, -it is said, "What takes place when the machine is in action is of -a very complicated nature, and can hardly be said to be perfectly -understood." With a Wimshurst machine having disks of a diameter -of fourteen and one-half inches "there is produced under ordinary -atmospheric conditions a powerful spark discharge between the knobs -when they are separated by a distance of four and one-half inches, -a pint size Leyden jar being in connection with each knob (one on each -opposite diameter of the two disks), and these four-and-one-half-inch -discharges take place in regular succession at every two and a half -turns of the handle. It is usual to construct the machine with small -Leyden jars or condensers attached to conductors, by which the spark -is materially increased. A machine has been constructed with plates -seven feet in diameter, which, it was believed, would give sparks -thirty inches long; but no Leyden jars have been found to withstand -its discharge, all being pierced by the enormous tension." Three -of Toepler's induction machines (see page 59, "Electricity in the -Service of Man"), connected together, gave a current which maintained -a platinum wire one-fifth of a millimeter thick continually at a red -heat, and was also capable of decomposing water. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE SOURCE OF SOLAR ENERGY. - - -The remarkable resemblance between the mode of operation and effects of -these electrical induction machines and the vast rotating electrosphere -of the earth must be at once apparent. The operation is precisely -the same, and the results must, pari passu, be substantially -similar. We need not seek for precise parallelism of structure, -because these machines themselves, it has been shown, widely differ -in structure among themselves. But the almost infinitely more vast -terrestrial electrosphere, which cannot be less than ten thousand -miles in diameter, and perhaps much more (if we may form an opinion -from the relative magnitude of the field of action of the hydrogen -envelope which constitutes the solar electrosphere), rotating in the -attenuated vapors of space, among which vapors that of water plays a -most important part, and which vapors constantly impinge with various -disturbances of contact against the more and more attenuated layers of -the terrestrial atmosphere, and which gradually, from within outward, -less and less partakes of the earth's rotation until, finally, its -rotatory movement is lost in the vast ocean of space, establishes -the certainty that enormous quantities of electricity must there be -disengaged, precisely as in the machines which we have described, -and to learn the potential or active pressure of this electricity -we have only to consider the fact that we find a rise so rapid, -as we ascend through our atmosphere, that the potential increases -by from twenty to forty volts for each foot. That these currents -are transmitted to the sun without appreciable resistance we already -know, and that they are there transformed into light and heat we can, -from the previously cited experiments, see. - -But it may be urged that the resistance of such attenuated vapors in -space, and the generation of electricity in such quantities, would -inevitably retard and finally destroy planetary motion. The sufficient -answer to this is found in the consideration that the same facts must -exist under any possible mode of organization of our solar system, -and that such interference, besides, must have absolutely prevented -its formation at all, if such were the case. All the matter of our -planetary system together is only one seven-hundred-and-fiftieth -that of the sun; if this were added to the sun's bulk it would but -slightly enlarge it. But all this solar and planetary matter together, -if distributed over the space occupied by our planetary system,--and, -by the nebular hypothesis of the organization of our solar system, -this is requisite,--and having an axial diameter one-half that -of its equatorial (see Proctor's "Familiar Essays on Scientific -Subjects,"--"Oxygen in the Sun"), would have had a density of only -about one four-hundred-thousandth that of hydrogen gas at atmospheric -pressure. This nebular mass must have had a diameter at least sixty -times that of the distance of the earth from the sun and a depth -of thirty times its distance. That this enormous mass of attenuated -matter should ever have been made to rotate as a whole by any force of -attraction, repulsion, or rotation, with a tenuity so great that, if -measured by an equal volume of hydrogen gas,--the lightest substance -known to us,--it would have furnished material for four hundred -thousand such systems as ours, presupposes a resistance so slight -that the planets themselves, when coagulated out of such a mass, -could never in any conceivable time exhibit retardation from such -a source; and we know to a certainty that such attenuated vapors do -exist in space, for electricity cannot be transmitted through a vacuum, -and it is transmitted with perfect freedom between the earth and the -sun. But it may be said that the laws were then different. If they -were different then, they are doubtless different now. If, on the -other hand, we assume that the bodies of which our solar system is -composed were simply aggregated into concrete masses from meteoric -dust, the difficulty is not lessened; for if the resistances to their -operation now are such as to perceptibly retard their motions, they -must have operated still more powerfully to originally prevent them; -while, if hurled forth by an almighty fiat, complete from the hand -of creative energy, the same force which impelled them forward must -have also established the laws under which they now move. - -It is calculated that our earth must be losing time, by tidal -retardation, at the rate of one-half the moon's diameter in each twelve -hundred years (see Proctor, "Light Science for Leisure Hours,"--"Our -Chief Timepiece Losing Time"), and that "the length of a day is now -more by about one eighty-fourth part of a second than it was two -thousand years ago." Perhaps, however, we may discover that these -changes are themselves periodic and increase in cycles to a maximum, -and then diminish, as is the case with magnetic, planetary, and stellar -variations, and other similar changes, when sufficiently long observed; -for while such changes may very well accompany a theory under which -our system and all other systems are slowly running down to decay and -death, it is entirely incompatible with the primal forces under which -they must have been originally formed. In other words, if the tides -are dragging back our earth without compensation, this dragging back -can only come from the oceanic deposit of water on the earth from -the aqueous vapors of space which do not partake of the planetary -rotation and orbital movement of the earth. But if these can now -retard the earth's motion, they must have originally prevented it in -the beginning. This loss of time is, moreover, merely inferential from -mathematical computations, and its basis is found in the belief that -all the operations of nature are in a slow process of degradation, -and the calculated loss itself may be merely theoretical, and not true -in fact. Professor Proctor himself concedes the uncertainty of this -alleged retardation when he says in the same article, "At this rate -of change our day would merge into a lunar month in the course of -thirty-six thousand millions of years. But after a while the change -will take place more slowly, and some trillion or so of years will -elapse before the full change is effected." - -While the processes of nature are generally believed to be running -down, everything is bent to that belief; but the forces of nature -must, nevertheless, be uniform and supreme, for it is by these forces -that the expected results are to be achieved. That changes occur -constantly is inevitable, but the source of these must be looked for -in the interaction of original forces, and not in the degradation -of systems. There is reason to believe, in fact, that the repulsion -of the terrestrial electrosphere by that of the moon may itself -be sufficient to counteract such retarding force of lunar gravity, -for the tides upon earth are not merely oceanic, but atmospheric, -and on the latter the electrical repulsion of the moon must act very -powerfully and with directly counteractive effect. - -Let us now apply the preceding principles to the problem under -review. All planetary space is pervaded with attenuated vapors or -gases, among which aqueous vapor occupies a leading place. The planets -and all planetary bodies, having opposite electrical polarity from -the central and relatively fixed sun, by their orbital motions around -and constant subjection thereto act as enormous induction machines, -which generate electricity from the ocean of attenuated aqueous vapor, -each planet being surrounded by an enormous electrosphere, carried -with the planet in its axial and orbital movements, the successive -atmospheric envelopes gradually diminishing in rotational velocity -until merged into the outer ocean of space. As the planets advance in -their orbits they plunge into new and fresh fields, and, as the whole -solar system gradually moves onward through space, these fields are -never re-occupied. These electrospheres, by their rotation, generate -enormous quantities of electricity at an extremely high potential,--so -high that we can scarcely even conceive it,--and this electricity flows -in a constant current to the sun, where it disappears as electricity, -to reappear in the form of solar light and heat. These planetary -currents also flow towards such other negatively electrified bodies -as may exist in space--the comets and fixed stars, for example--in -proportion to their distance; for, since resistance is not appreciable -between ourselves and the sun, as is also the case with light, so, like -light, our electricity must pass outward as well as inward to take part -in the harmonious operations of the whole universe. But it should be -noted that the distribution of electric energy in the form of currents -is quite different from that of light or other radiant energy; for -while light is diffused from a center outward through space, electric -currents, on the contrary, are concentrated and directed along lines -of force to concrete centers of opposite polarity. As a consequence, -the intensity of light decreases according to the squares of the -distances traversed plus the resistance to the passage of the light -itself, while the electric current is only diminished by the resistance -of the medium through which it passes. As the light of the sun has a -velocity of one hundred and eighty-eight thousand miles per second, -and the electric current between the earth and the sun the same, -it will be seen that the resistance is practically alike for these -two forms of energy. Indeed, the striking resemblance between the -ethereal vibrations which constitute light and heat and exceedingly -rapid alternating currents of electricity through molecular media may -suggest that the transformation of one force into the other is some -sort of a "step-up" or "step-down" process, much higher in degree, -but of the same character as the well-known analogous electrical -transformations used in the arts. It should also be borne in mind -that, while the intensity of light diminishes according to the above -law, the quantity remains the same, less resistance, as the area -covered increases precisely in the same proportion as the intensity -diminishes,--that is, in the ratio of squares. - -Around the earth and other planets gravity attracts the aqueous vapors -in increased density, the same as around the sun; but the electric -currents passing between the planets and the sun decompose this aqueous -vapor into its constituent gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen is -deposited within the positive electrospheres of the planetary bodies, -where it mingles with nitrogen to form our atmosphere and those of -the other planets. In this float the aqueous vapors condensed from -space, which are lighter than air. (See Tyndall, "The Forms of Water:" -"It also sends up a quantity of aqueous vapor which, being far lighter -than air, helps the latter to rise.") These aqueous vapors, condensed -into clouds and precipitated upon the earth, form our oceans and their -affluents. The hydrogen gas disengaged upon the sun's surface forms -a similar envelope, which is penetrated by the planetary electric -currents, and is thus highly heated and rendered incandescent; the -glowing hydrogen transmits its heat to the sun's mass within, which -is thus raised to, and permanently maintained in, a liquid or densely -gaseous state, its metallic constituents being volatilized in part, -and these metallic vapors mingle with the lower strata of hydrogen -to form the sun's photosphere, while, above, the glowing hydrogen -grows more pure, and finally, at a distance of hundreds of thousands -of miles, is merged into the corona, which is composed, in part at -least, of cosmical dust rotating around and repelled by the sun, -and which shines partly by reflected light, partly by that of the -relatively cooler hydrogen, and partly, perhaps, by electrification -of its constituents by the powerful currents passing through it. Each -of the planetary bodies, large or small, takes its proportionate part -in the generation and transmission of electricity, according to its -volume, mass, and motion. As an adjunct to this electrical sequence -we have learned that any interruption of such currents between the -generator and the receiver will cause the generating apparatus to glow -with diffused electrical light, as is the case with the Wimshurst -machine already described. When such connection is removed, it is -said, "the whole apparatus bristles with electricity, and if viewed -in the dark presents a most beautiful appearance, being literally -bathed with luminous brush discharges." Such a phenomenon recalls at -once the aurora borealis; and when we find this as a sequence of the -electrical storm of the first of September, 1859, before described -("at night great auroras were seen in both hemispheres"), and connect -with this the persistence of electricity upon insulated surfaces (see -"Electricity in the Service of Man," page 53: "Glass being a bad -conductor, the electricity does not spread all over the plate, but -remains where it is produced"), we shall inevitably conclude that there -was some partial interruption in the current flowing from the earth -to the sun at that moment; and if we recall that at that very instant -"suddenly a bright light was seen by each observer to break out on the -sun's surface and to travel across a part of the solar disk," we shall -learn that the processes connected with the production of such a bright -light will interrupt in part the terrestrial current. We can readily -understand that if this bright light exceeded in electrical intensity -that due to the earth's current, it might temporarily reverse the -polarity of the afferent current or retard its flow, like the so-called -"backwater" of a mill. It would be like attempting to discharge steam -at sixty pounds' pressure into a vessel filled with other steam at -sixty-one pounds. Whence, then, came this bright light? Perhaps from -the conjoint action of some other planet, perhaps from sudden chemical -disassociation beneath the surface, perhaps by the abnormal piling up -of depths of transparent glowing hydrogen or other local disturbance. - -And this leads to the consideration of the uniformity of solar -action. The planetary electrospheres will be constant in their -operation if the constitution of surrounding space remains uniform; -but we shall find reason to believe that there are currents in -the ocean of space, as there are currents in our own seas, and -electrical generation will necessarily vary when such currents are -encountered. The sun itself in such case, however, will become an -automatic regulator, for his density being but one-fourth that of the -earth, and the spectroscope having shown his chemical composition -to a large extent, we know that his mass must be either liquid or -vaporous, and perhaps in part both. Such masses readily respond to -variations of temperature, expanding as it rises and contracting as -it falls. Hence, if a portion of space were reached where the action -of the planetary electrospheres was increased by relative increase of -temperature in some interstellar "Gulf Stream," the sun's volume would -expand and compensation be at once established, while, conversely, -with diminution of such planetary action, the solar volume would -contract and an increased supply from his reserve store be given out -thereby. In this way the condensation relied upon to give us heat for -seven or seventeen million years becomes a compensating mechanism, -self-operative through the most distant cycles of time. We shall -also find in such electric currents an explanation of sun-spots. It -is not meant that a full knowledge can be obtained of their minute -constitution, nor is it necessary; but the equatorial belt of six -degrees, nearly free from sun-spots, we can readily understand to be -caused--since sun-spots are depressions in the photosphere down to -the deeper and denser cloud strata beneath--by the equatorial piling -up of the sun's atmosphere by its rotation. Any point on the sun's -equator travels at four times the rotational velocity of one on the -earth's equator, but the sun's attraction of gravity is twenty-seven -and one-tenth times that of the earth, so that the piling up of an -atmosphere of hydrogen would be considerable, and such depressions -would not ordinarily exist there. Similarly, near the sun's poles we -should find a gradual darkening, as is the case; but from five degrees -to thirty degrees latitude, the sun, in its rotation, by reason of -the inclination of its axis, passes at every point directly beneath -the planets, or within their area of control, and here we find the -solar spots in their greatest number, size, and intensity. These -sun-spots cross the face of the sun in about fifteen days, and vary -in development from year to year, having a cycle of 11.11 years from -maximum to maximum. They also have a long cycle of about fifty-six -years. (See article "The Sun," in Appleton's Cyclopædia.) "Wolf, in -1859, presented a formula by which the frequency of spots is connected -with the motions of the four bodies, Venus, the earth, Jupiter, and -Saturn. Professor Loomis, of Yale College, has since advocated a theory -(suggested by the present writer [Proctor] in 1865, in 'Saturn and -his System,' page 168, note) that the long cycle of fifty-six years -is related to the successive conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter. But -the association is as yet very far from being demonstrated, to say the -least." Should such fact be established, an explanation for it will -be found in the direct impact of the condensed electric currents from -several planets approaching conjunction, and raising a portion of the -sun's atmosphere suddenly to a higher temperature and volatilizing an -abnormal proportion of the semi-vaporous metallic core beneath. This -would form an upburst piling the intensely heated faculæ up on the -sides and revealing the relatively darker masses of cloud beneath, the -cooler supernatant hydrogen pouring in from the upper layers to fill -the returning void. This is precisely what is seen in such spots and -their surrounding disturbances. In the article "The Sun," above quoted, -we read, "Mr. Huggins has found that several of the absorption bands -belonging to the solar spectrum are wider in the spectrum of a spot, -a circumstance indicative of increased absorption so far as the vapors -corresponding to such lines are concerned.... Near the great spots or -groups of spots there are often seen streaks more luminous than the -neighboring surface, called faculæ. They are oftenest seen towards the -borders of the disk." This writer also describes "luminous bridges -across spots which sink into the vortex and are replaced by others -of the numberless cloud-like forms from one hundred to one thousand -miles in diameter, the brilliancy of which so greatly exceeds that of -the intervening spaces that they must be recognized as the principal -radiators of the solar light and heat." The apparent retardation of -the spots most distant from the sun's equator may also be partially, -at least, explained by planetary currents of electricity, as the -equatorial atmosphere is deeper and more likely to carry forward -such vortices when formed, while the planets act more directly on -the sun's mass beneath their direct influence. - -Let us consider this retardation of sun-spots somewhat more in -detail. Take, for example, the case of a large planet at such orbital -position that its direct line of electrical impact will penetrate -the photosphere at (say) seven degrees north solar latitude, which -is about fifty-two thousand miles from his equator. During its annual -revolution this planet will traverse, with its line of energy, every -point of the sun's surface down to seven degrees south latitude and -back again to its initial point, thus tracing a close spiral around -the sun for fourteen degrees, or about one hundred and four thousand -miles in width. The centrifugal force of the solar rotation piles -up the photosphere and the chromosphere around the sun's equator, -precisely as our atmosphere is piled up around our own equator. If -the planet be a large one (for distance has but little to do with -these electrical currents at planetary distances, in which they -differ entirely from light, heat, and gravity), or if there be two -planets nearly in conjunction, the body of the chromosphere and -the surface of the photosphere will gradually become highly heated, -for currents of electricity, of themselves, do not directly heat the -solar core any more than a like current heats the under carbon of an -arc lamp, the high temperature in both cases being altogether due -to the incandescent heat of the interposed arc or envelope. Faculæ -of intense brightness will then appear upon the photosphere, and -these will be driven forward and also outward in the direction of -the higher latitudes, producing an oblique forward movement from -difference of rotational speed at different portions of the sun's -surface. Similar phenomena are constantly observed on the surface -of the earth in the generation and behavior of cyclones and other -atmospheric disturbances. They may be compared to the wake of a vessel -anchored in a strong tide-way. These faculæ will slowly raise the -temperature of the surface of the sun's core beneath to the point -of eruptive volatilization, and particularly so if the planet is -receding from, instead of advancing towards, the solar equator. At -some point in advance of the line of planetary energy an eruption of -volatilized metals will suddenly occur, first thrusting up a vast -area of the photosphere and then bursting it asunder, which will -drive these ruptured masses with enormous speed forward and obliquely -outward from the equator. Such faculæ (see Proctor's "Light Science") -sometimes reach a velocity of seven thousand miles per minute, while -the sun's rotational movement at the equator is less than seventy -miles per minute. This sudden eruption will be almost immediately -succeeded by great expansion and consequent fall of temperature, so -that within a few hours the heavy volatile metals begin to condense -and rapidly recede into their crater, and the faculæ in front and at -the sides will now stream inward to occupy this vacuum with constantly -accelerated velocity, pouring over the edges like the rush of waters -at the Falls of Niagara. As they sweep downward over the inner rim of -the funnel, these streams of faculæ will glow with increased whiteness, -and appear to be sharply cut off at their inner ends; but this is only -apparently so, and is due to the position of the observer, who looks -almost directly downward upon these descending streams. It is for -the same reason that the faculæ appear more brilliant when near the -borders of the solar disk (see page 109). Any good view of a sun-spot -when analyzed will show the streams of faculæ thus pouring inward, -and they are among the most peculiar and conspicuous phenomena -to be observed. The drawings of Professor Langley, reproduced in -the Popular Science Monthly for September, 1874, and July, 1885, -are particularly striking in their illustration of these effects, -though their significance and interpretation were not then at hand. - -But while these heavy metallic vapors so rapidly condense and subside -in the forward or initial portion of the sun-spot under observation, -new depths of intensely-heated faculæ are generated behind, and these -operate with renewed energy upon the fresh surface of the solar core -in rear of the original seat of eruption; so that each sun-spot, -while in an active state, will exhibit two entirely distinct aspects, -the forward portion of the crater in a state of rapid condensation -and subsidence of the recently erupted metallic vapors, and with -inflowing streams of incandescent hydrogen from the front and sides, -and the rear portion of the crater up to its rearward wall, and even -streaming forth from beneath it, in a state of violent eruption. The -large volcanic craters of the Hawaiian Islands exhibit similar -partial eruptions and subsidences progressing simultaneously in the -same depths. The sudden formation of the great incandescent loops and -plumes to which Professor Langley calls especial attention, and which -have hitherto been so perplexing, can now be readily understood and -explained. If one of these inflowing streams be carried partially -down into and across the crater, and then caught, in its advance, -by the uprush in the central or rear portions of the cavity, it will -be at once swept upward alongside the ascending eruption, and either -scattered at its forward extremity into sprays and plumes, or else -thrown forward bodily in the form of a more or less complete loop. In -a sun-spot fifty thousand miles in diameter, such a loop, having a -long diameter of twenty thousand miles, if we give a speed to the -faculæ of seven thousand miles per minute, would be formed in about -seven minutes, during which the sun-spot would itself have advanced -less than five hundred miles across the face of the sun. The luminous -bridges which form so suddenly across portions of the crater may be -explained in a similar manner: they are streams of faculæ floated on -the nearly balanced uprush of metallic vapors from beneath. - -It will thus be seen that a sun-spot is not merely a fixed eruption, -like a volcano, but rather a continuous series of eruptions, like -a line of activity following, for example, the great terrestrial -volcanic curve which extends up the western coast of America, across -the Pacific Ocean and Asia, and into Central and Southern Europe, -for during its progression its scene of action is constantly being -shifted to the rear; it is like a furrow cut by a plough, in which -the upturned sod is constantly falling in at one end of the furrow -while the plough is cutting a new furrow at the other, except that -in this case the plough is relatively fixed overhead, and the field -itself passes along beneath it. Consequently, the center of activity -of a sun-spot is only in its rear portions, generally considered, and -the whole sun-spot is gradually retreating, by successive filling up in -front and opening out behind, farther and farther to the rear,--that is -to say, to the east,--so that retardation relatively to the rotational -advance of the photosphere necessarily ensues. - -But when the sun-spot is developed upon or near the equatorial -line this retardation is not so considerable, for the deeper layers -of the photosphere in those regions are slower to act and require -greater energy to affect them, so that all except deep and violent -eruptions fail to show themselves at the surface at all, and the -heated faculæ are carried directly forward along the surface of the -equatorial swell, so that the center of activity is driven forward -more rapidly than in the higher latitudes, and the rate of progression -is more nearly coincident with that of the photosphere. But if these -facts are correctly stated and explained, we may have to revise our -calculations of the sun's rotational period, for retardation to some -extent must occur in all cases, if in any. - -A sun-spot, we thus perceive, is an elongated wave or ridge of eruption -along the rotational direction of the sun's body. Why, then, it may -be asked, is not this line of eruption continuous entirely around the -sun? For the same reason, it may be answered, that our own cyclones -are not continuous, though caused substantially in the same manner, -and that volcanic eruptions only occur at long intervals, though -the forces at work are continuous. Lowering of temperature follows -swiftly after eruption, and as the deeper structures of the solar -nucleus become gradually affected, instead of volatilization of the -outer layers of the surface, we will have diffused gaseous expansion -of large portions, and finally of the entire solar mass, which cannot -as a whole be volatilized by any conceivable planetary energy. We see -these operations exemplified in heating a bar of copper in a Bunsen -flame; the latter first turns green from surface volatilization of -the copper, but as the heat is communicated to the deeper structures -the green flame disappears, and the whole additional heat goes to -raise the temperature of the mass. - -These processes in the sun are thus seen to be self-compensatory in -their nature. They are the means provided to distribute the restricted -areas of abnormally heated photosphere over the solar surface, and -finally to cause the absorption of the whole excess of heat in the -sun's central mass. The balance is so evenly maintained, however, that, -were all the planets equally distributed with reference to the sun's -surface, such sun-spots would be the exception and not the rule, and -their distribution would be equal and constant; but, as the planets -continually change their positions with reference to the sun and to -each other, only by some such provision of nature could the internal -structure of the sun be maintained without serious derangement, or, -indeed, final disruption. So nature distributes her stores of heat -upon the earth. These beautiful self-compensations we shall find -suddenly appearing, as we advance, in all parts of the field of -astronomical research. - -It may seem like temerity to advance statements so positive and -specific as to the cause, constitution, and progression of sun-spots, -in the absence of any considerable accumulation of observations -to sustain them, but the few examples which we have noted are in -accordance with these views, and when attention is once called to the -basic principles on which they depend, observations will doubtless be -made in abundance to prove or disprove what has been here stated. The -mere fact of a differential rate of advance among sun-spots, as they -pass across the solar face, of itself demonstrates that the active -causes of these phenomena must be extra-solar, and if so, their only -possible dynamic source must be looked for in the planets, and the -remaining conclusions will of necessity follow as a corollary. We may -even, by merely examining an accurate drawing of a sun-spot, determine -its position and direction upon the solar sphere from which it was -delineated by its lines of active eruption and influx of faculæ, -and also whether it be a new spot or one which has passed entirely -beyond its active stage and is about to finally disappear. - -As for the faculæ which striate the photosphere, the mottlings and -so-called "willow-leaves," any one who will quietly gaze downward -upon the turbid surface of the Mississippi or other similar river, -in mid-channel, will see plenty of such faculæ: the river is full of -them. The heavier, intermingled clay, slowly subsiding, is caught up in -the turmoil beneath the surface and swept upward in elongated ovals and -eddies, the larger swells nearly colorless, and others of all shades -of ochre and yellow, and the whole as richly mottled, sometimes, as -the variegated pattern of a Persian carpet. If we substitute for the -subsiding clay the rapidly sinking heavy metallic vapors, and enlarge -the scale from the dimensions of the river to those of the sun, we -will have the mottled solar surface with its kaleidoscopic changes, -the so-called "willow-leaves," and the faculæ in all their glory. A -careful study of the sun will show most clearly that only in some -such explanation as the present view affords can a rational basis -for its varied phenomena be found. - -If the sun's equator were coincident with the plane of the planetary -orbits, it is obvious that all the planetary energies would be -directed, whatever the position of the planets around the sun, -immediately upon this equatorial great circle, and that, at each -revolution upon his axis, corresponding nearly to our calendar month, -the same part of his sphere would be exposed to these direct currents, -so that the intensity would be, in its aggregate, nearly a constant -quantity. But, by reason of the sun's axial inclination of seven -degrees to the plane of the planetary orbits, a far more complex and -important condition of affairs ensues. It will be seen at once that -the plane of the planetary orbits intersects the sun's equator at -opposite sides, and that, from a minimum of nothing, this line reaches -a maximum, twice in each circumference, of seven degrees, one north -and the other south of the equator, and that this arc of fourteen -degrees, thus traversed by every planet in its orbital rotation -around the sun, measures more than one hundred thousand miles from -north to south upon the solar surface, nearly one-half the distance -which separates the earth from the moon. If all the planets were in -conjunction or nearly so, on one side of the sun, for example, and in -the vertical plane of the sun's axis, they would continue to deliver -their electrical currents with their greatest intensity upon a single -point of his surface fifty-two thousand miles north of his equator, -while the opposite point, one hundred and four thousand miles distant, -would be unaffected by any direct currents at all. Conversely, if -in conjunction on the opposite side of the sun, they would continue -to deliver these currents upon a corresponding point fifty-two -thousand miles south of the equator; but if in conjunction in the -vertical plane transverse to the sun's axial inclination, these -currents on either side of the sun would be delivered directly upon -the solar equator. The importance of this will be understood when -it is considered that for many of our years such planets as Jupiter -and Saturn must continue to direct their currents upon a very slowly -changing point of the sun's surface, by reason of their vast annual -rotational period, while with the earth and the interior planets these -various points are struck with ever-increasing rapidity as the year -decreases in length with the different planets, the earth, Venus, -and Mercury. There is a solar equinoctial, so to speak, just as there -is a terrestrial equinoctial in which the sun crosses the line twice -each year, and the meteorological disturbances faintly shown on the -earth at such times are vastly increased on the sun, and rendered -far more complex by the interaction of many planets upon the sun, -instead of a single sun upon each planet. While our equinoctial has -to do with gravity and light and heat, and probably magnetism, the -solar equinoctial deals with the vast electrical streams which feed -its fires and set it boiling with furious energy, first at one point, -then at another, until the increment has been absorbed and adjusted, -and thus equalized throughout his mass. What a new interest this must -arouse in our study of sun-spots, faculæ, prominences, sun-storms, -and the vast panorama of solar action hung up before our astonished -eyes! A new world here awaits its Columbus. - -But not only the planets thus gather, so to speak, electricity for -the sun's support from space; the moon also must do its part, as it -rotates in the same manner, subject to the sun, and has its own motion -through space. But an examination of the moon shows no atmosphere -and no aqueous matter visible to us, and also the singular fact -that it constantly presents one side only to the earth. R. Kalley -Miller, in his "Romance of Astronomy," article "The Moon," says, -"After an elaborate analysis, Professor Hausen, of Gotha, found that -it could be accounted for only by supposing that the side of the moon -nearest us was lighter than the other, and hence that its center of -gravity was not at its center of figure, but considerably nearer -the side of it which is always turned away from us. He calculates -the distance between these centers to be nearly thirty-five miles, -evidently a most important eccentricity, when we remember that the -radius of the moon is little over a thousand miles. It must have been -produced by some great internal convulsion after the moon assumed its -solid state; but the forces required to produce this disruption are -less than might at first sight appear necessary, owing to the fact -that the force of gravitation and the weight of matter are six times -less at the moon than with us." Those who are fond of the so-called -"Argument of Design" will be gratified to learn that, if the moon -had a rotation upon its own axis similar to that of the earth, -all life--past, present or future--would have been impossible on -that satellite or planet; and that, on the contrary,--provided she -always turns the same side of her surface to the earth,--it is quite -possible that air, water, and life may exist, or may have existed, -on the opposite side of the moon, but not otherwise. In fact, air and -water must now exist on the opposite side; and, since her whole supply -will thus be condensed upon half her surface or less, even with her -small force of gravity, it may be quite sufficient in quantity and -density for the support of animal, vegetable, or even human life. By -reason of this difference in the lunar center of gravity, the side -presented to the earth in physical position is similar to the summit -of a mountain upon the earth's surface two hundred miles high, and -surely we would not expect to find much air or water or life at that -altitude. But the opposite side would resemble a champagne country -at the foot of this enormous mountain, and might be well fitted for -human existence. Now, we know that similar electricities repel each -other, and air or gases charged with similar electricities are equally -self-repellent. Professor Tyndall, in his "Lessons in Electricity," -says, "The electricity escaping from a point or flame into the air -renders the air self-repulsive. The consequence is, that when the -hand is placed over a point mounted on the prime conductor of a good -machine, a cold blast is distinctly felt.... The blast is called the -'electric wind.' Wilson moved bodies by its action; Faraday caused -it to depress the surface of a liquid; Hamilton employed the reaction -of the electric wind to make pointed wires rotate. The wind was also -found to promote evaporation." - -While electrical repulsion is doubtless analogous to, and correlative -with, the attraction of gravitation, this force, and even gravity -itself, has been sometimes interpreted as derived from the mutually -interacting molecules of space itself. We may even learn somewhat -of how such repulsions of similar and attractions of opposite -electrospheres might occur. We constantly speak of positive -and negative electricity as though these were different fluids, -but such expressions are employed only in the same manner as the -analogous terms, heat and cold. We know, of course, that cold is the -relative absence of heat, the dividing line being not a fixed, but a -constantly changing one, so that one body is cold to another by reason -of relative, and not absolute, deprivation of heat. It is well known, -however, that cold, which is purely a negative state, manifests the -same apparent radiant energy as heat. A vessel near an iceberg is -exposed to a wave of cold, precisely as of heat from a heated body at -the same distance. This, of course, is due to abstraction and not to -increment. All space being occupied by attenuated matter in a state -of unstable electrical equilibrium, as we say, which simply means -a condition ready to be raised or lowered in tension by absorption -from or into outside media, all concrete bodies floating in that -space must have an electrical potential either equal to, or higher, -or else lower than that of their surrounding space. A solitary body in -space, if we can conceive of such, in either a higher or lower state -of electrical tension, would be drawn upon from all sides to equalize -the distribution and restore the general average. But if two bodies -occupy the same field, and are widely different from each other in -electrical potential, one higher and the other lower than that of -space, this distribution will be towards each other, and must be -manifested by mutual attraction. But if, on the contrary, these two -bodies are both equally higher or lower than the spatial average, -they have nothing to give to each other, but have this difference -to give to or receive only from outer space, and hence they will be -drawn apart or, as we say, mutually repelled. The case is similar to -what we see in the case of bodies of water at various levels. Suppose -there be a lake of a fixed level, and communicating with it and with -each other, by open channels, two ponds of water occupying an island -in the middle of the lake. If one of these ponds be higher in level -and the other lower than the lake, their waters will rapidly converge, -the higher flowing into the lower; but if both are at the same level, -and higher than the lake, they will flow apart into the lake. Or, if -both are at the same level, and lower than the lake, the water of the -latter will equally flow from outside into both ponds, and their waters -will still be held separate from each other. The analogies of these -various levels may be pursued to any desired extent, as electrical -tensions find their most exact analogies in the pressures of bodies -of water at different levels and of different quantities, and these -analogies are those most constantly used in the interpretation of -such electrical phenomena. - -The great electrical activity of the electrospheres of the earth and -moon, while they discharge their tremendous currents directly into -the sun, at the same time must cause their similarly electrified -atmospheres to mutually repel each other, while gravity continues -to operate to maintain the earth and moon at their fixed distances -from each other, and to retain their gaseous envelopes around their -own bodies. The result must be that these similarly electrified -atmospheres repel each other with a force proportioned to their masses -of atmosphere and the intensity of the electricities of each. The -moon's axial rotation being completed but once in twenty-eight days, -and that of the earth once in each day, and the moon's mass and volume -being so much less than those of the earth, whatever of electrified air -or moisture she may have (and she must have both, proportionate to her -attributes) would have been driven as by a cyclone to the opposite side -of the moon and there retained. Now, with an atmosphere and water only -on one side of the moon, and that the side opposite the earth, it is -obvious that a rotation on her axis at all resembling that of the earth -would carry every part of her surface, at each complete rotation, from -a region of air and moisture into one deprived of both, and in such -a condition she would of necessity be deprived of both life and its -possibility; hence, as the laws of nature compel the lunar atmosphere -and moisture to reside permanently on the side always opposite the -earth, a co-ordinate arrest of the moon's axial motion with reference -to the earth could alone compensate for such a state of things, -and, curiously enough, we find as a solitary exception, compared -with the planets, that such is the case. The moon unquestionably has -both atmosphere and water on its opposite side. In his recent work, -"In the High Heavens," Professor Ball reviews the physical conditions -of the other planets as possible abodes of life. He pronounces against -the moon because night and day would each be a fortnight in length; -but this is surely no objection, for even in Norway and Greenland such -nights and days are not uncommon at different seasons, and thousands -of human beings, even as at present constituted on earth, spend their -lives there in content and happiness. That the moon also would be -terribly scorched by the long day and frozen by the long night does -not necessarily follow, for the atmosphere of Mars, that author says, -"to a large extent mitigates the fierceness with which the sun's rays -would beat down on the globe if it were devoid of such protection." As -the moon's opposite face must have a double quota both of atmosphere -and clouds, the difficulty will be correspondingly less than on Mars; -and as for the "lightness" of bodies on the moon, they would probably -get along quite as well as mosquitoes and like "birds of prey" in the -marshes along our coasts. The author refers constantly to our bodies; -for example, "Could we live on a planet like Neptune?" No, we could -not; we would be dead before we got there. Nor could we live in the -bark of a tree, or at the bottom of the ocean, or in a globule of -serum; but living beings are found there nevertheless. The principle -is that wherever life is possible there we may expect to find life; -and surely life is, or has been, or will be possible, not only on -the moon, so far as our knowledge of physical conditions can go, but -also on some of the other planets. Of course each planet has its life -stage, but this applies not only to the earth, but to all the other -planets as well, and not only to the planets of our own system, but -to those of all other solar systems. Each has had, or will have, its -stage in which life is possible, and these planets may be like human -habitations, in which whole races at times migrate from one home to -another. There is no conceivable reason why this may not be the general -law of creation, and every analogy leads us to believe that it is so. - -It has been recently announced that, from telescopic observations, -the atmosphere of Mars must be at least as attenuated as that among -the highest mountainous regions of the earth, if this planet has any -atmosphere at all. That it must be far less dense than that of the -earth at sea-level is obvious, for the mass and volume of Mars are -very much less than those of our own planet; but that Mars is devoid -of a gaseous envelope or atmosphere is contrary to what we know of all -sidereal physics. The sun, the fixed stars, the comets, the nebulæ, -and even the meteorolithic fragments which fall upon the earth, all -show the same elementary chemical constitution as the earth itself, -and we cannot believe that Mars alone is differently constituted from -every other body we have been able to examine. We have direct evidence, -on this planet, of polar snows and their melting away under the sun's -heat; we see the apparent areas of sea and land; it has its moons as -the earth has hers, and exhibits all the characteristic phenomena of -the earth and other planets. All sidereal bodies that we know of, -except, perhaps, our moon, which exception we have fully accounted -for, are found to be surrounded by gaseous envelopes or atmospheres -of some sort. The sun, the fixed stars, the nuclei of comets, the -condensing nebulæ, the planets Jupiter and the earth, which are -those under our most direct observation, and even the meteorites, -when examined, reveal the presence of many times their own volumes of -independent atmospheric gases; and whatever may be the theory of the -origin or development of Mars, it must have been subjected to the same -influences, the same environment, and the same processes of creation as -those of our solar system generally; and that this body alone should -possess no gaseous envelope--for the denial of atmosphere denies, -at the same time, the presence of any or all surrounding gases--is -quite incredible. Only the most positive, direct, and long-continued -proofs of such fact could be accepted, and even then the history of all -scientific progress shows that what are believed to be facts themselves -fluctuate like fancies till, by their accumulated force, they solidify -into universally accepted demonstration. The fact, moreover, that -the atmospheres of the smaller planets are more attenuated than our -own and those of the larger ones denser has no bearing, in itself, -on the probability of the existence of life on these other planets, -for in our own atmosphere oxygen, which is the efficient element, -is diluted with four times its quantity of inert nitrogen. These -proportions doubtless vary largely in other atmospheres, so that -the oxygen may be much richer in some and far poorer, relatively, -in others. The mere fact that the presence of nitrogen, probably, and -aqueous vapor, certainly, depends on the gravity of the mass of each -planet, while the oxygen is due to electrolytic decomposition induced -by the combined volume, mass, and rotation, and other causes,--such -as the axial inclination of such planets, for example,--renders -these variations in the constitution of planetary atmospheres a -certainty. As Mars has a diameter much more than one-half that of -the earth, and a diurnal rotational period nearly the same, while his -mass, which controls the action of gravity, is only about one-ninth -that of the earth (see Appleton's Cyclopædia), it is obvious that his -oxygen-gathering power, compared with that for accumulating nitrogen -and aqueous vapor, is much higher than that of the earth, and we should -expect to find there an attenuated atmosphere very rich in oxygen, -and with a relatively smaller proportion of aqueous vapor, or even -water, on his surface. Such seem to be the facts as far as observed. - -In operating an electric machine the strength of the current is -directly proportionate to the speed of rotation,--that is to say, -to the velocity of the generating surface; for example, of the -Wimshurst induction machine it is stated (page 63, "Electricity -in the Service of Man"), "These four-and-one-half inch discharges -take place in regular succession at every two and a half turns of -the handle." It is also a well-established law of electrolysis that -"The amount of decomposition effected by the current is in proportion -to the current strength." Professor Ferguson ("Electricity," page -225) says of the voltameter, an instrument devised by Faraday, -and used for testing the strength of currents by the proportionate -decomposition of acidulated water, "Mixed gases rise into the tube, -and the quantity of gas given off in a given time measures the -strength of the current." Roughly estimating the diameter of Mars at -five-eighths, the surface velocity at three-fifths, and the mass at -one-ninth those of the earth, this planet should have an atmosphere -containing about sixty per cent. of oxygen and forty of nitrogen, with -a barometric pressure at sea-level of about six and one-half inches of -mercury. This would be an excellent atmosphere,--about equal in its -quota of oxygen for each respiration to that of the higher areas of -Persia, a great country for roses. The aqueous vapors lying low and -near the surface would serve as a vaporous screen to concentrate and -retain the sun's heat and retard radiation from that planet. Nothing -in particular seems to be the matter with Mars. - -On the contrary, the mass of Jupiter is so great, and his attraction -of gravity so powerful, that it is only by his exceedingly rapid -diurnal rotation (once in less than ten hours) that it is possible -for him to accumulate any effective percentage of oxygen at all. But -there is certainly plenty of water there. - -We may approximately compute, in general terms, the proportion -of oxygen in the atmospheres of the other planets in the same -way. Neptune, it is true, is so far distant from the sun that the -solar orb only "appears about the same magnitude as Venus when at -its greatest brilliancy, as viewed from the earth," but we must not -forget that "the intensity of the sun's light would be more than ten -thousand times greater than that of Venus" (Professor Dunkin, in "The -Midnight Sky"). Unless the moon gathers a portion of the earth's oxygen -(the planetary satellites, like Saturn's rings, thus constituting -in their rotations a constituent part of the planets themselves), -the percentage of this gas in her atmosphere must be exceedingly -small, for her axial rotation has a period of a whole lunar month, -being the same as that of her revolution around the earth as a center. - -The absence of apparent atmosphere and moisture from the visible lunar -surface has already been mentioned and explained. The means by which -this fact has been approximately determined are described by Professor -Dunkin, in "The Midnight Sky," as follows: "Among the many proofs of -the non-existence of a lunar atmosphere, it may be mentioned that -no water can be seen; at least there is not a sufficient quantity -in any one spot so as to be visible from the earth. Again, there are -no clouds; for if there were, we should immediately discover them by -the variable light and shade which they would produce. But one great -proof of the absence of any large amount of vapor being suspended over -the lunar surface is the sudden extinction of a star when occulted by -the moon. The author has been a constant observer of these phenomena, -and, though his experience is of long standing, he has never observed -an occultation of a star or planet, especially at the unilluminated -edge of a young moon, without having his conviction confirmed that -there is no appreciable lunar atmosphere.... Professor Challis has -subjected the results of a large number of these observations to a -severe mathematical test, but he has not been able to discover the -slightest trace of any effect produced by a lunar atmosphere." - -In Appleton's Cyclopædia, article "The Moon," it is stated that -"Schröter (about 1800) claimed to have discovered indications of -vegetation on the surface of the moon. These consist of certain traces -of a greenish tint which appear and reappear periodically; much as -the white spots covering the polar regions of Mars.... As we are able, -under the most favorable conditions, to use upon the moon telescopic -powers which have the effect of bringing the satellite to within one -hundred and fifty to one hundred and twenty miles of us, we should -doubtless notice any such marked changes on her surface as the passage -of the seasons produces, for example, on our own globe." Very recently -(August 12, 1894), it has been stated, Professor Gathmann has observed -a peculiar green spot about forty by seventy miles in area near the -crater of Tycho Brahe, "on the northwestern edge of the satellite's -upper limb," which had disappeared twenty-two hours afterwards. - -We understand, of course, that the moon's librations, by the variation -of position of the lunar body, enable us to see, at times, around -the edge of this satellite somewhat, so that, instead of observing -only one-half, we can in this way see nearly six-tenths of her -surface, but not at the same time, of course. When the moon is dark -it occupies a position between the earth and the sun, and only its -opposite face is illuminated. In this position the attraction of -solar gravity and the attraction of the electrically opposite solar -electrosphere both accumulate their forces upon the moon's atmosphere -in the same line as the repulsion of the earth's similar electricity, -so that the lunar moisture and atmosphere are, at this part of her -subordinate orbit, most powerfully forced away from the direction -of the earth. As the moon now proceeds towards her first quarter, -the terrestrial repulsion drives her atmosphere radially outward, -while solar gravity and electrical attraction tend to hold it in the -direction of the sun. The result will be an electrospheric libration, -so to speak, and the moon's atmosphere and moisture will be carried -around towards its illuminated face and, to some extent, will overlap -the area of terrestrial repulsion. But as the moon advances this will -gradually diminish, soon cease, and finally be reversed as it again -approaches darkness. We can now understand why the green surface, if -it really was due to vegetation, appeared along the lunar margin at -the time described above, and also that the observation of planetary -occultations "at the unilluminated edge of the young moon" was the -very worst part of the moon and its orbit in which to look for air -or moisture; as the sun's influence is then directly away from the -unilluminated surface of the moon, and his "pull" would have, in fact, -still further denuded the very portion most persistently examined, -and where this absence of atmosphere was especially noted. - -When considering the transference of energy from the peripheral -regions of the solar system to the center, its conversion there into -a new form of molecular force, and its subsequent distribution, we -find a curious and instructive parallel in the action of the reflex -nervous system of animal life. This system is one in which the brain -or other conscious center of nerve-energy takes no part. Tickle -the foot of a child, for example, and its whole muscular system is -thrown into uncontrollable convulsions of laughter. Here an exciting -contact with the terminal filaments of the afferent or sensory nerves -is rapidly carried into the local nerve-center of this part of the -system,--that is, the sensory column of the spinal cord. This center -of ganglionic nerve-matter lies directly against the corresponding -motor mass, both freely communicating with each other. The sensory -current passing into its central ganglion undergoes some peculiar -change of character, probably one of intensification, such as is -observed in the action of the condenser of an electrical machine, -through which sensory ganglion, thus raised in potential, it passes to -the motor ganglion adjacent, where it is instantly transformed into -an entirely different form of energy. The sensory character has now -entirely disappeared, and it has been converted into and is flashed -forth as motor energy to the different muscles of the body, which are -immediately contracted, the violent molecular motion of the fibres -being at once converted into muscular motion in mass. The changes are -entirely analogous to those we see in the different conversions of -energy in our solar system. Considering the surface of the body as a -planetary electrosphere, it is acted upon by excitation from without; -currents of energy are engendered, which are at once transmitted to -the sensory ganglion, corresponding to the hydrogen atmosphere or -electrosphere of the sun; intensification of action here ensues, the -current passing through this ganglion or atmosphere into the solar body -itself, which corresponds to the motor ganglion; both ganglia are now -highly excited; the electrical force is converted into the radiant -molecular motor energy of heat and light in the sun and muscular -excitement in the body, and these are flashed forth and find scope -for their action within the body of the subject or upon the surface -of the planets, which lie, like the muscular structure of the body, -within the genetic electrosphere where, acted upon from without and -by agencies entirely external, moving contact has induced the primary -molecular action, which was then instantaneously transferred to the -center, there converted into another form, that of motor energy, -and thence sent forth to produce action in the muscles of the body -in the one case, and in the other upon the planetary bodies and their -satellites and other structures which occupy surrounding space. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF SOLAR ENERGY. - - -What, then, becomes of the light and heat flashed forth with -eternal energy from the fiery waves of the sun's incandescent -atmosphere? Professor Ball ("In the High Heavens") says, "Much -of what has been said with regard to light may be repeated with -regard to heat. We know that radiant heat consists of ethereal -undulations of the same character as the waves of light. Hence we -see that the heat or the light radiated from a glowing gas is mainly -provided at the expense of the energy possessed by the molecules -in virtue of their internal oscillations." Conversely, of course, -the ethereal undulations thus induced by high molecular motion in -the heated gas or vapor must disappear in so-called absorption or -transference by contact with other molecules, themselves devoid of -such specific internal oscillations. The heat motion then disappears -as heat by its conversion into work, just as the motion of a belt -in a mill disappears in the work of the machine which it drives. One -two-hundred-and-thirty-two-millionth part of the radiant solar energy, -we know, is caught by the flying planets of our system in the forms of -heat and light, adapted to sustain life and its continued potentiality, -and we know that this solar energy is the sole source of all the -development and maintenance of the planets as the possible abodes of -organic life, past, present or future. - -But what of the vast total, of which we consume so minute a -fraction? It is true that, in addition to the planets, space is -occupied by many small meteoric bodies, which manifest themselves to us -as shooting stars and meteorites, but the mass of these is too trifling -to be estimated. Professor Helmholtz, in his "Popular Scientific -Lectures," says, "According to Alexander Herschel's estimates, each -stone is, on an average, at a distance of four hundred and fifty miles -from its neighbors." When these bodies enter our atmosphere by force of -the earth's attraction they are heated by its atmospheric friction to -incandescence, and in most cases are even volatilized before reaching -the earth's surface. The vast volumes of solar heat and light, however, -are poured forth from the sun indiscriminately in all directions into -illimitable space, wherein all the masses of concrete matter, including -the stars, are relatively far less in volume than the flying motes of -the purest morning air which sparkle in the flood of light sent forth -by the rising sun. Is all the rest wasted? Professor Balfour Stewart, -in his work "The Conservation of Energy," says, "If this be the fate of -the high-temperature energy of the universe, let us think for a moment -what will happen to its visible energy. We have spoken already about -a medium pervading space, the office of which appears to be to degrade -and ultimately extinguish all differential motion, just as it tends to -reduce and ultimately equalize all difference in temperature. Thus, -the universe would ultimately become an equally heated mass, utterly -worthless as far as the production of work is concerned, since such -production depends upon difference of temperature." - -It is obvious that the starting-point taken by the author last -quoted, but which, nevertheless, is in accordance with the views -now generally prevalent, is diametrically opposed to that sought -to be established in this work. Professor Stewart takes the sun's -inherent energy as the initial point of departure, and reasons from -that as to the final consequence when all its light and heat shall -have been distributed or dissipated into the attenuated medium which -occupies space, and which will be thus slowly heated until all space -has been raised in temperature to that of the last dying sun, when -all will thenceforth remain unchanged and unchangeable, silent, dark, -and dead, to all eternity. On the contrary, the purpose of the present -work is to establish a directly opposite principle, based, however, on -demonstrated scientific facts and not on theory, that the medium which -pervades all space was originally in the same equally and universally -potential state (with its molecules raised to a tension constituting -an unstable equilibrium) in which, practically, Professor Stewart's -argument leaves it finally, and that this universal molecular energy -of position was permanently maintained by the employment of the forces -which afterwards, transformed into light and heat, were shed abroad -by the sun in the work of again overcoming the intermolecular tension -of cohesion, and that the light and heat of the sun are merely caught -up again by these same or other molecules and successively employed in -the same manner, while the planetary electrospheres utilize these same -forces of internal tension in the generation of electricity, which, -sent to the sun, is converted into light and heat, and these are again -transferred to their original source. The rotation of the planets is -the grand exciting cause, and the process, in its complete cycle of -development, has live stages: first, planetary generation; second, -transference by currents of electricity to the sun; third, conversion -into light and heat; fourth, emission; and, fifth, reabsorption and -conversion again into molecular energy of position. All space is thus -found to be pervaded by extremely attenuated vapors, which contain -the elemental constituents out of which suns and planets are evolved -under favorable circumstances of development, and, among other vapors, -aqueous vapor, and that these are the agency upon which the planetary -electrospheres operate in their generation of electrical currents, and -which vapors, in turn, by absorption of the solar energy of radiation, -again transform this energy into mutually balanced electric potential, -until it is once more disengaged as electricity by the rotating -planetary electrospheres, and so on in a constant circuit forever -repeated. It differs from perpetual motion, however, in that the -planetary rotation is the external and not the internal generative -cause, since the electrical forces neither cause nor control these -motions; they belong to the realm of gravity. The disassociation, -moreover, is electrical and not chemical disassociation. The tensions -are against cohesion and not against chemical affinity; are, in fact, -similar to those which constitute our atmosphere a vast electrical -reservoir; and the aqueous vapors, through all their changes, -permanently remain as aqueous vapors, except those condensed portions -disassociated by electrolytic action at the electrospheric poles, and -which have no relation to the attenuated vapors of space, except in -that the latter are their sources of supply. The process is analogous -to what we see around us at all times in the atmosphere. While the -process described by Professor Stewart resembles the emptying of the -inherent water of a cloud, in the form of rain, into an ocean which -never yields up its water again, so that, when the cloud has rained -itself out, it is gone forever, the processes here sketched are like -the vapors which are caught up by the heated air, carried over the -thirsty lands, distributed in rain to fertilize and vivify them, -then gathered in a thousand tiny rills from countless fountains, -again descending to the sea and again carried up in vapor, and so on -over and over in unceasing round. It is the difference between an -old-fashioned flintlock musket and a modern magazine rifle, except -that the magazine is always full. - -This great ocean of space was primordially charged with these -potential vapors; it is the constitution of space itself. We are so -accustomed to consider space as empty, and that it is nothingness, -the antithesis of something or anything, that it is a negation or -a blank, that it requires an effort to even think of it as a fully -stocked establishment with all the goods necessary for use or ornament, -in the latest styles and of prime quality, only not made up, and that -all our suns and worlds are merely tailoring establishments where -the operatives cut and fit and make them up to order. When more goods -are wanted they have to go to the store. - -Is space, then, eternal, and is this constant round of energies to -be eternal? If one is eternal, so is the other, and surely nothing -can be more eternal than space, and we cannot conceive of any -other space than this space. Out of it came all created things, -and so long as the orbs rotate without retardation, so long will -these interchanges go on without impairment, and that they do so -rotate is the necessary corollary of the fact that they ever began -to rotate. If rotation, on the contrary, was imparted by special -creative power, then the same power established the laws by which -they rotate, and took cognizance of resistance as well. Whatever the -impulse was, it still remains; whatever caused the rotation to begin -maintains it; if the cause is eternal the rotation may be eternal; -and, in any case, its period must be measured by cycles of æons, -to which the allotted lifetime of a dying sun--a few million years, -perhaps--is but as the sunburst of a morning-glory flower to the -hoary age of a mighty planet. Compared with the popular view of the -sun's life-period, we may formulate the terms of an equation in which -the sun's mass, compared with the realms of infinite space, is as -the sun's lifetime--on a basis of contraction of his volume--to the -lifetime which actually is to be. As one of the terms is practically -infinite, so must be the answer to the problem. Professor Stewart says, -"We cannot help believing that there is a material medium of some -kind between the sun and the earth; indeed, the undulatory theory -of light requires this belief." It has already been shown that the -transmission of electricity also requires it, but that there must be -a medium quite different from the undulatory ether. Professor Proctor -("Mysteries of Time and Space") says, "We may admit the possibility -that the aqueous vapor and carbon compounds are present in stellar -or interplanetary space." Again he says, "Assuming, as we well may, -that space is really occupied by attenuated vapors." The same writer -says further, "To this end all thoughtful study of the mechanism -seems to tend (associating, perhaps, our visible universe with others, -permeating it as the ether of space permeates the densest solids, and -in turn with others so permeated by it); there may be that constant -interchange, that perpetual harmony, of which Goethe sung: - - - 'Balanced worlds from change defending, - While everywhere diffused is harmony unending.'" - - -The light and heat poured forth from the sun are, as stated, in -the form of radiated energy. They penetrate the attenuated vapors -as far as vision extends, and doubtless farther, but they cannot -reach the boundaries of space, for even the mind of man cannot reach -those limits. Aqueous vapor absorbs heat; we know this without any -demonstration, for the radiated heat of the earth is arrested by -a veil of clouds, so that on cloudy nights frost will not form. So -also the sun shining into water will raise its temperature, as in -a glass globe, and such absorption of heat by aqueous vapors or -water would be much more manifest were not a large part employed in -loosening the tension of the constituent molecules, since, when thus -employed, it is not manifest as sensible heat. Professor Tyndall, in -"The Forms of Water," states that "The quantity of heat which would -raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree would raise the -temperature of a pound of iron ten degrees." Professor Stewart, in -"The Conservation of Energy," says, "That peculiar motion which is -imparted by heat when absorbed into a body is, therefore, one variety -of molecular energy.... Part of the energy of absorbed heat is spent in -pulling asunder the molecules of the body under the attractive force -which binds them together, and thus a store of energy of position is -laid up, which disappears again after the body is cooled. - -"Heat will only be changed into work while it passes from a body of -high temperature to one of low.... At very high temperatures it is -possible that most compounds are decomposed, and the temperature -at which this takes place, for any compound, has been termed its -temperature of disassociation. Heat energy is changed into electrical -separation when tourmalines and certain other crystals are heated." It -may be added that it is also changed into electrical energy by the -operation of all electrical machines, as molecular motions are all -mutually interconvertible, and heat itself is only a mode of such -motion. Of radiant energy, the same writer says, "This form of energy -[radiant heat] is converted into absorbed heat whenever it falls upon -an opaque substance ... and heats it. It is a curious question to ask -what becomes of the radiant light from the sun that is not absorbed -either by the planets of our system or by any of the stars. We can -only reply to such a question that, as far as we can judge from -our present knowledge, the radiant energy that is not absorbed must -be conceived to be traversing space at the rate of one hundred and -eighty-eight thousand miles a second." - -We know, of course, that aqueous vapors are partially opaque to heat -rays, as the radiated heat of the earth is partially arrested by -such vapors in the atmosphere, but they are apparently transparent to -the rays of light. But we know that this cannot be entirely true in -fact, for light rays only differ from heat rays in the comparative -length of their waves or impulses, while rays of light are always -accompanied--when emitted by a thermally incandescent body--by a much -larger number of those of heat. As a body is raised in temperature -radiant dark rays first appear; these being raised higher, become -visible as light, and new dark rays are radiated behind them, and this -continues till after the state of highest incandescence is reached -and the invisible chemical rays beyond the spectrum appear. It is -like a crowd surging forth in flight from the doors of a building; -as the speed of those in front increases to a run, others follow more -slowly in the mass, and as these gain speed others continue to follow, -while the great mass of laggards still trails along in a lengthening -line to the rear. The perception of light is itself merely due to the -constitution of the optic apparatus of the observer, which only takes -cognizance of vibrations radiated from the middle portion of the scale, -just as the ear does with sounds, and not to any actual difference in -their mode of production. That heat rays and light rays are identical -in constitution can be readily shown by the experiment described by -Professor Tyndall in his "Forms of Water," in which an opaque screen -of iodine solution in bisulphide of carbon was employed to arrest, in -a beam of light, all the light waves (to which it is entirely opaque), -while transmitting the dark rays. These non-luminous rays are then -converged by a lens: "Let us, then, by means of our opaque solution, -isolate our dark waves and converge them on the cotton. It explodes -as before.... At the same dark focus sheets of platinum are raised -to vivid redness; ... a diamond is caused to glow like a star, being -afterwards gradually dissipated." Sir William Herschel (see article -"Spectrum," Appleton's Cyclopædia) says, "If we call light those rays -which illuminate objects, and radiant heat those which heat bodies, -it may be inquired whether light be essentially different from radiant -heat. In answer to which I would suggest that we are not allowed by the -rules of philosophizing to admit of two different causes to explain -certain effects, if they may be accounted for by one."... "Tyndall, -by similar experiments, found that the thermal energy of the invisible -radiation of a very powerful electric light is eight times that of -the visible.... Seebeck showed that the position of maximum heat -in the spectrum changes with the nature of the prism and sometimes -occurs in the red." Melconi, with prisms of alcohol and water, found -it in the yellow. Athermic bands are also found in the heat-spectrum, -corresponding to the Fraunhofer lines seen in the visible spectrum. - -We may illustrate this successive development of more and more rapid -light-waves by conceiving of a harp having musical strings of various -length and thickness, but not strung up, so that, when swept by the -hand, the vibrations are felt, but no musical tones are produced. If, -now, all the strings are simultaneously and gradually stretched -while under continuous vibration, we will first hear the hum of -the lighter strings, but deep down in the scale; and as the tension -gradually increases the pitch of these will rise higher and higher -and be succeeded by other new tones below, until the whole register -is simultaneously sounded. And if the tension be further increased, -the vibrations of the upper strings will gradually grow so rapid -that the ear can take no cognizance of them, corresponding to the -invisible chemical rays of the spectrum, while the middle strings -will be sounding loudly, and others will be slowly vibrating below the -musical scale, but without sound, corresponding to the invisible heat -rays. In addition to this gradual ascent of pitch along the scale, -however, there is reason to believe that sympathetic vibrations are -induced in the spectrum of thermal and chemical light corresponding to -the over-tones in music and to those hidden rhythms which differentiate -the "timbre" of one kind of musical instrument from that of another, -so that a definite wave-length will not only repeat itself among -adjacent molecules, but will give rise to harmonious vibrations -quite different in amplitude and velocity. An example of this is -found in some of the phenomena of phosphorescence and fluorescence, -in which chemical rays totally invisible are able, under suitable -conditions, to excite molecular movements corresponding to parts -of the visible spectrum, and quite different in wave-lengths and -in rapidity. This process is precisely the converse of what we -perceive in thermal light; in the latter case the colors ascend, -loaded with invisible heat rays; in the former they descend, loaded -with invisible chemical rays, only noted, perhaps, by their actinic -action on the photographic plate. Others, as the sulphide of calcium -paints and the like, repeat their own vibrations for many hours, and -we find in certain chemical salts of some rare metals, as lanthanum -and cerium, the curious property of suddenly raising the whole scale, -as in a recently introduced gas-lamp, in which a skeleton mantle of -these oxides glows with a wondrously beautiful white light under the -relatively low temperature of a small Bunsen burner; similar phenomena -are manifested in the behavior of electric discharges in attenuated -gases, as well as in what is known to children as "fox-fire," wood -undergoing slow decomposition in damp places, or in the self-luminous -secretions (corresponding, perhaps, to ptomaines or like products) -of glow-worms and other animals. If we ever--as we probably soon -shall--reach that point where we can illuminate our dwellings with -"cold candles," as the inhabitants of tropical countries carry about a -few fire-flies in a paper box for a lantern on dark nights, it must be -by the study of these phenomena. But meantime "Old Sol" will continue -to discharge his accumulating stores of both heat and light, for both -these are essential, not only for use upon the planets, but throughout -all the realms of space. In the transformation into and emission of -his radiant energy the sun is not a chemical engine, but a mill,--one -of those which "grind slowly, but they grind exceeding small." - -The difference between radiated thermal light and heat is obviously -one of degree only and not of kind. The undulations of light may -be compared to the thrust of a rapier, and the more massive waves -of radiant heat to the blow of a bludgeon, but the same resistance -which arrests the advance of the one must retard and finally arrest -that of the other, if sufficiently extended. Within the limits of -a space in which Professor Stewart conceives that the first rays of -light which ever flashed forth at the dawn of creation, in the primal -æons of the universe, are still to this day, along their original -lines of radiation, "traversing space at the rate of one hundred -and eighty-eight thousand miles per second," there must certainly -be room enough and absorption enough (which even a few yards of mist -will supply) to curb these runaway steeds somewhere along their lines -of flaming passage. At that very point they are at work acting upon -the molecules of the attenuated vapors of space, and assisting to -re-establish the potential energy which has there been converted, into -another form of force by the planetary rotations of the solar systems -of those distant regions. By the law of the diffusion of gases, and -that of the diffusion or transference of heat-energy from molecule -to molecule, the vast realms of interstellar space must tend to be -all brought into approximate uniformity of tensions, and the force -abstracted at those points of space occupied by the relatively few -and insignificant solar systems will be returned, not directly at -the identical places where such solar systems may exist, but at every -part of space to which their radiant energy extends. As we give from -our own supplies to other systems for their support, so they, in turn, -give back again to us. It is said that in the earliest days of creation -the stars sang together; they still sing together, planets and suns, as - - - "Jura answers from her misty shroud - Back to the joyous Alps, who call to her aloud." - - -When old Earth lifts his brimming beaker from the great crystal sea -and drains it to the good health of all the stars of heaven, they each -respond with fiery energy, and by their merry twinkle we may know -how highly they appreciate the toast. We are all one family,--but -what a family! Comets, planets, double stars, variable stars, stars -of complementary colors, blue, yellow, orange, and red stars, stars -which blaze up in sudden conflagration, apparently new stars, nebulæ -half star and half vapor, nebulæ all vapor and others all stars, the -vast milky-way like a wondrous river of hundreds of millions of solar -systems, the insulated stars scattered through space like watchmen -on the distant hills beyond the city walls, streams of stars, stars -which are parting from each other in space like scattering families, -and those which travel together in groups like pioneers in a strange -country,--all these and doubtless other unknown types and forms -compose this sidereal family. Will they fall into their categories as -lawful subjects, so as to be properly classified in a single scheme -of the visible order of creation, or shall we fail to interpret their -apparent mysteries when we apply the same principles which have been -successfully applied to the phenomena of our own solar system? Let -us see. - -In examining the sun, we find that a beam of its light passed -through a prism is thrown upon the wall in a wedge-shaped streak of -rainbow-tinted colors. Fraunhofer, many years ago, found that this -spectrum was crossed at irregular intervals by a series of dark lines, -of variable width and distance apart, of which he catalogued more -than five hundred. These lines were subsequently found to correspond -in the aggregate, in their position in the spectrum, with a series of -bright lines of different colors which formed the separate spectra -of various metals when burned, in vapor or powder, in the flame of -an alcohol lamp. Each of these transverse lines was found to have a -fixed and invariable position in the extended scale of the spectrum, -and scarcely any lines of the different elements are alike; so that, -when the spectrum is properly magnified under telescopic observation -and the lines identified, we have the means of determining the -presence or absence of such elements in the vaporous constitution -of any incandescent body by examination of its spectrum. In this way -many of our terrestrial elements are found to exist in the sun,--so -many, in fact, that we know that the sun's nucleus, or core, must -be composed substantially of the same elements, the same sort of -matter, as exists on earth,--that we are, in fact, "a chip of the -old block." But it was found--and this is the real basis of spectrum -analysis--that if a certain metal or other element be burned in the -flame of an alcohol lamp, and a more brilliant flame of the same metal -or element burned in another lamp be observed through the first flame, -it will be seen that, "while the general illumination of the spectrum -is increased, the previous bright lines characterizing the element -are now replaced by dark lines or lines relatively very faint; in -a word, the spectrum characteristic of the given element is exactly -reversed" (Appleton's Cyclopædia, article "Spectrum Analysis"). We have -referred to this fact above in considering the origin of sun-spots, -showing that they are due to increased heat acting upon the core of -the sun so as to volatilize an abnormally large proportion of the -elements usually in a more condensed state upon the surface of the -solar body beneath its hydrogen envelope. These vapors, thus raised -in temperature, are driven upward by their volatilization into the -incandescent atmosphere of hydrogen, and the vaporous matters in the -higher strata thus produce the characteristic absorption bands of -these elements, while the overheated vapors, by a vast uprush from -beneath, hurl aside the more highly heated hydrogen above to appear -as faculæ around the sun-spot, the cooler upper layers of hydrogen -following downward the subsiding vaporous metallic uprush as it sinks -back beneath the photospheric level. - -It is obvious that by similar spectrum analysis we may determine -to a large extent the constitution of the fixed stars and other -self-luminous bodies of space and interpret the phenomena which they -exhibit. We quote the following from the previously cited article -in Appleton's Cyclopædia, by Professor Proctor: "Spectroscopic -analysis applied to the stars has shown that they resemble the sun in -general constitution and condition. But characteristic differences -exist, insomuch that the stars have been divided into four orders -distinguished by their spectra. These are thus presented by Secchi, -who examined more than five hundred star spectra: The first type is -represented by Alpha Lyræ, Sirius, etc., and includes most of the -stars shining with a white light, as Altair, Regulus, Rigel, the -stars Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Zeta, and Eta of Ursa Major, etc. These -give a spectrum showing all the seven colors, and crossed usually -by many lines, but always by the four lines of hydrogen, very dark -and strong. The breadth of these four lines indicates a very deep, -absorptive stratum at a high temperature and at great pressure. Nearly -half the stars observed by Secchi [more than two hundred out of five -hundred] showed this spectrum. The second type includes most of the -yellow stars, as Capella, Pollux, Arcturus, Aldebaran, Alpha of Ursa -Major, Procyon, etc. The Fraunhofer lines are well seen in the red -and blue, but not so well in the yellow. The resemblance of this -spectrum to the sun suggests that stars of this type resemble the -sun closely in physical constitution and condition. About one-third -of the stars observed by Secchi [more than one hundred and fifty -out of five hundred] showed this spectrum. The third type includes -Antares, Alpha of Orion, and Alpha of Hercules, Beta of Pegasus, -Mira, and most of the stars shining with a red light. The spectra -show bands of lines; according to Secchi, there are shaded bands, -but a more powerful spectroscope shows multitudes of fine lines. The -spectra resemble somewhat the spectrum of a sun-spot, and Secchi has -advanced the theory that these stars are covered in great part by -spots like those of the sun. About one hundred [out of five hundred] -of the observed stars belong to this type." (It should be noted that -the presence of sun-spots is no evidence of diminished heat in a sun; -see Professor Proctor in his "Myths and Marvels of Astronomy," article -"Suns in Flames:" "It may be noticed, in passing, that it is by no -means certain that the time when the sun is most spotted is the time -when he gives out least light.... All the evidence we have tends to -show that when the sun is most spotted his energies are most active. It -is then that the colored flames leap to their greatest height and show -their greatest brilliancy, then also that they show the most rapid and -remarkable changes of shape.") ... "The fourth type differs from the -preceding in the arrangement and appearance of the bands. It includes -only faint stars. A few stars, as Gamma of Cassiopeia, Eta of Argus, -Beta of Lyra, etc., show the lines of hydrogen bright instead of dark, -as though surrounded by hydrogen glowing with a heat more intense -than that of the central orb itself around which the hydrogen exists." - -All the above five hundred stars reveal the presence of hydrogen under -precisely such conditions as conform to the general principle involved -in the source and mode of solar energy as herein stated. But a single -star (Betelgeuse) was observed by Huggins and Miller in England which -showed the lines of sodium, magnesium, iron, bismuth, and calcium, -"but found those of hydrogen wanting." Of the spectrum of this gas, -Professor Ball says, "The hydrogen spectrum appears to present a -simplicity not found in the spectrum of any other gas, and therefore -it is with great interest that we examine the spectra of the white -stars, in which the dark lines of hydrogen are unusually strong and -broad." Referring to the new star in the Northern Crown, which burst -forth in 1866, the same writer says, "The feature which made the -spectrum of the new star essentially distinct from that of any other -star that had been previously observed was the presence of certain -bright lines superposed on a spectrum with dark lines of one of the -ordinary types. The position of certain of these lines showed that -one of the luminous gases must be hydrogen." Of this particular star -(Betelgeuse) it is said (Proctor's "Familiar Essays"), "Red stars -and variable stars affect the neighborhood of the Milky Way or of -well-marked star-streams. The constellation Orion is singularly rich -in objects of this class. It is here that the strange 'variable' -Betelgeuse lies. At present this star shows no sign of variation, -but a few years ago it exhibited remarkable changes." We thus see -that Betelgeuse is a variable star, and it must have passed in its -different variations between the limits of extreme brilliancy, in which -the lines of hydrogen appear bright, and that of a less brilliant -stage, in which they appear dark,--that is, as absorption bands. It -has thus, in fact, run the gamut, so to speak, of color changes, and -now occupies an intermediate position in the scale. In his article -"Star unto Star," the same writer says, "On this view we may fairly -assume that the darkness of the hydrogen lines is a characteristic -of stars at a much higher temperature than our sun and suns of the -same class." We have already seen that the spectra of stars of the -fourth type--Appleton's Cyclopædia, "Spectrum Analysis"--"show the -lines of hydrogen bright instead of dark, as though surrounded by -hydrogen glowing with a heat more intense than that of the central -orb itself." Professor Dunkin says, in his work "The Midnight Sky," -"One of the conclusions drawn by Kirchhoff from these experiments -is that each incandescent gas weakens, by absorption, rays of the -same degree of refrangibility as those it emits; or, in other words, -that the spectrum of each incandescent gas is reversed when this gas -is traversed by rays of the same refrangibility emanating from an -intensely luminous source which gives of itself a continuous spectrum -like that of the sun." ... "The third division, including Betelgeuse, -Antares, Alpha Herculis, and others of like color, seems to be -affected by something peculiar in their physical composition, as if -their photospheres contained a quantity of gas at a lower temperature -than usual. The stars in this class have generally a ruddy tint, -probably owing to their light having undergone some modification -while passing through an absorbing atmosphere.... A great number of -the stars in the third division are variable in their lustre." We may -therefore readily conclude that midway between the inverted lines which -constitute the dark absorption bands and the faint spectra which show -the bright lines of hydrogen direct there must be an atmosphere of -glowing hydrogen superposed upon a deeper one in such proportion that -it will not reveal its presence in the spectroscope at all; for when -the dark and light bands, which occupy precisely the same position in -the spectrum, are of approximately equal intensity the result will -obviously be the neutralization of both. That among a myriad suns, -some with dark hydrogen lines and some with bright, there should occur -occasionally an example corresponding to this point of divergence, -and especially among variable stars, is not only to be expected, but -is, in fact, confirmatory of the general hypothesis itself. It is an -exception which emphatically proves the rule, when we can trace the -operative cause which has produced it. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE PHENOMENA OF THE STARS. - - -Let us now consider the phenomena of the double stars. These -were formerly believed to be single orbs, but the more powerful -telescopes of recent years have shown them to consist of two suns, -each substantially similar to our own sun, revolving around each -other at a relatively small distance apart. In Appleton's Cyclopædia, -article "Star," we read, "It is noteworthy that few simple stars -show such colors as blue, green, violet, or indigo; but among double -and multiple star systems not only are these colors recognized, but -such colors as lilac, olive, gray, russet, and so on. A beautiful -feature in many double stars remains to be noticed: it is often found -that the components exhibit complementary colors. This is oftener -seen among unequal doubles, and then the larger component shows a -color from the red end of the spectrum, as red, orange, or yellow, -while the smaller shows the corresponding color from the blue end, -as green, blue, or purple. The colors are real, not merely the result -of contrast, for when the larger star is concealed the color of the -smaller remains (in most cases) unchanged. Spectrum analysis shows -that the colors of many double stars are due to the absorptive vapors -cutting off certain portions of the light.... The components are -circling around each other, or rather around their common center of -gravity." Professor Ball, in his work "In the High Heavens," says, -"There is no more pleasing phenomenon in sidereal astronomy than -that presented by the contrasted hues often exhibited by double -stars.... It seemed not at all impossible that there might be some -optical explanation of colors so vividly contrasted emanating from -points so contiguous. It was also remembered that blue stars were -generally only present as one member of an associated pair.... When, -however, Dr. Huggins showed that the actual spectrum of the object -demonstrated that the cause of the color in each star arose from -absorption by its peculiar atmosphere, it became impossible to doubt -the reality of the phenomena. Since then it has been for physicists -to explain why two closely neighboring stars should differ so widely -in their atmospheric constituents, for it can be no longer contended -that their beautiful hues arise from an optical illusion." - -Of these double stars with complementary colors we quote the following -from Professor Dunkin (who, in turn, quotes from Admiral Smyth, the -author of "Sidereal Chromatics"): "In Eta Cassiopeiæ the large star -is a dull white and the smaller one lilac; in Gamma Andromedæ, a deep -yellow and sea-green; in Iota Cancri, a dusky orange and a sapphire -blue; in Delta Corvi, a bright yellow and purple; and in Albiero, -or Beta Cygni, yellow and blue. In most of the remaining stars of -the list the contrasting colors are equally marked, and also in many -others which are not included in it." Some of these double stars are -variable in their colors, as are the ordinary single variables, and, -of course, for a similar reason,--to wit, the varying intensity of -more or less cumulative planetary impacts. - -The interpretation, of course, as explained below, is that these suns, -each one of different mass and consequently of different electrical -resistance, are arranged in parallel circuit along a single line of -electric current; a pair of different-sized arc or incandescent lamps, -similarly arranged, would exhibit precisely the same phenomena. A -compound solar system of this sort, apparently, with double sun and -single planetary system in process of formation, nearly completed -from a spiral nebula, is shown in a gaseous nebula within the -constellation Ursa Minor, illustrated in Lord Rosse's drawing (see -Nichols "Architecture of the Heavens," Plate X., lower figure). - -More than three thousand of these binary stars have been catalogued, -and some of them make a complete revolution about their common -centers of gravity--so distant are they from each other--in periods -of not less than sixty, or even eighty, years. Of the double star -Mizar,--the middle one of the three which form the tail of the Great -Bear,--Professor Ball states that, by new methods of spectroscopic -analysis, the component stars which form this double have been found -to be one hundred and fifty millions of miles apart, while Alcor, a -smaller star, visible to the naked eye, and enormously farther from -Mizar than are the components of the latter from each other, moves -through space in a parallel direction and with the same velocity as -its double companion. What the connection may be, if any, we do not -know, but their identical course is obviously related to some common -circumstance of origin, as is the probable case with those other -groups of stars which drift through space together. They show that -solar systems are not necessarily individual creations, but may be -formed in groups at the same period of time, and by the operation of -natural laws simultaneously directed upon or into the creative matter -from which solar systems are built up and sent along their way. It -has been already shown that our sun has a motion around the center -of gravity of our own solar system, as a whole, similar to that of -the binary stars around each other, but that, by reason of his vast -relative mass (seven hundred and fifty to one for all the planets), -this center is always within the confines of his own volume. If, -however, our sun were divided into two suns one, two, or five million -miles apart, each revolving around a common center of gravity situated -between the two, and the planets revolving around the same center -of gravity, but relatively more distant, the planets would thus -rotate around both suns as a common center, and with the electric -polarity of both suns the same, as must necessarily be the case, -they would present phenomena precisely similar to those exhibited by -the double stars. And such might very easily be the case in even a -system so small as our own, for the planet Mercury has so elliptical -an orbit that its distance from the sun varies in different parts -of its annual movement from twenty-eight to forty-five millions -of miles. There would then be mutual electric repulsion of the two -solar electrospheres, such as we see in the case of comets and in -the sun's corona and long streamers. Professor Proctor, article -"The Sun's Long Streamers," says, "These singular appendages, like -the streamers seen by Professor Abbe, extend directly from the sun, -as if he exerted some repellent action.... I cannot but think that -the true explanation of these streamers, whatever it may be (I am not -in the least prepared to say what it is), will be found whensoever -astronomers have found an explanation of comets' tails.... Whether -the repulsive force is electrical, magnetic, or otherwise, does not -at present concern us, or rather does concern us, but at present we -are quite unable to answer the question." A similar example is to -be found in the self-repellent positive electrospheres of the earth -and moon, illustrated on a previous page, which, in fact, are types -among planets of precisely what we find in double stars. Now, if -these double central suns, with a common system of planets revolving -around them both, differ one from the other in size, they will differ -also in the depth and density of their hydrogen atmospheres, and the -electric forces directed against them will produce different results -in each. In one we will have high temperature, great volatilization, -and wide absorption bands; in the other, a shallow atmosphere, -a temperature below that of an extensive volatilization of its -metallic components, and a spectrum rich in light at the blue end, -while the former one will be correspondingly richer in the yellow -and red rays at the opposite and lower end of the spectrum. One, -in fact, will manifest the phenomena of blue-white stars, the other, -those of orange-red, but variously modified in a chromatic series. The -case may be extended to multiple stars, and complementary colors, -more or less perfect, may be almost predicated as the law of compound -solar bodies having cores like that of our sun, but each of different -mass, and surrounded by hydrogen atmospheres of different depths and -densities, both acted upon by the same exterior planetary electrical -currents. It is certainly true of double stars, and probably so of all -the others. Of course such enormously massive double suns presuppose -enormous planets, rotating around them at enormous distances; but -when we compare the distance of our own satellite, the moon, from -the earth with the distance of Neptune from the sun, and consider -that the light of the sun will reach Neptune in about four hours, and -then compare this distance with the inconceivable distances of space -requisite to retard and merge all radiant energy into the diffused -molecular energy of position, our wonder will cease. - -We have also to consider those single stars which (see Appleton's -Cyclopædia, article "Star") are variable in their brilliancy. "These -stars may be divided into periodic variables, irregular variables, -and temporary stars. Periodic variable stars are those which undergo -increase and diminution of light at regular intervals. Thus, the -star Mira, or Omicron of Cetus, varies in lustre, in a period of -three hundred and thirty-one and one-third days, from the second -magnitude to a faintness such that the star can only be seen with -a powerful telescope, and thence to the second magnitude again. It -shines for about a fortnight as a star of the second magnitude, -and then remains invisible for five months, the decrease of lustre -occupying about three months, the increase about seven weeks. Such -is the general course of its phases. It does not always, however, -return to the same degree of brightness, nor increase and diminish -by the same gradations; neither are the successive intervals of its -maxima equal. From recent observations and inquiries into its history, -the mean period would appear to be subject to a cyclical fluctuation -embracing eighty-eight such periods, and having the effect of gradually -lengthening and shortening alternately those intervals to the extent -of twenty-five days one way and the other. The irregularities in -the degree of brightness attained at the maximum are probably also -periodical.... It suggests a probable explanation of these changes of -brightness, that when the star is near its minimum, its color changes -from white to a full red, which, from what we know of the spectra of -colored stars, seems to indicate that the loss of brightness is due -to the formation of many spots over the surface of this distant sun. - -"Algol is another remarkable variable, passing, however, much more -rapidly through all its changes. It is ordinarily a second-magnitude -star, but during about seven hours in each period of sixty-nine hours -its lustre first diminishes until the star is reduced to a fourth -magnitude, and after it has remained twenty minutes at its minimum its -lustre is gradually restored. It remains a second-magnitude star for -about sixty-two hours in each period of sixty-nine hours. These changes -seem to correspond to what might be expected if a large opaque orb -is circling around this distant sun in a period of sixty-nine hours, -transiting its disk at regular intervals." - -Of this star, Professor Ball says, "Applying the improved spectroscopic -process to Algol, he [Vogel] determined on one night that Algol -was retreating from the earth at a speed of twenty-six miles per -second.... When Vogel came to repeat his observations, he found that -Algol was again moving with the same velocity, but this time towards -the earth instead of from it.... It appeared that the movements were -strictly periodic; that is to say, for one day and ten hours the star -is moving towards us, and then for a like time it moves from us, the -maximum speed being ... twenty-six miles a second.... It is invariably -found that every time the movement of retreat is concluded the star -loses its brilliance, and regains it again at the commencement of the -return movement.... The spectroscopic evidence admits of no other -interpretation save that there must be another mighty body in the -immediate vicinity of Algol.... Algol must be attended by a companion -star which, if not absolutely as devoid of intrinsic light as the -earth or the moon, is nevertheless dark relatively to Algol. Once in -each period of revolution this obscure body intrudes itself between -the earth and Algol, cutting off a portion of the direct light from -the star and thus producing the well-known effect." This is, in fact, -a periodic transit or eclipse of Algol by a planet, such as we see in -eclipses of our own sun by the moon and the inner planets, except that -Algol's planet is apparently single like our moon with reference to -the earth, and that it is relatively much larger than any of our own -planets, as we would necessarily suppose it to be, if solitary. Its -mass has been computed by the effects which it produces, and we learn -that it is not a dark sun with a brilliant planet, but a brilliant -sun with a dark planet, just as our solar system presents. "Algol, -at the moment of its greatest eclipse, has lost about three-fifths -of its light; it therefore follows that the dark satellite must have -covered three-fifths of the bright surface.... The period of maximum -obscuration is about twenty minutes, and we know the velocity of the -bright star, which, along with the period of revolution, gives the -magnitude of the orbit." From these data it has been computed that -the globe of Algol itself is about one-fourth larger than that of -our visible sun, but its mass is so much less that its weight is only -one-half that of our sun, so that its body is probably gaseous. The -author concludes, "No one, however, will be likely to doubt that it -is the law of gravitation, pure and simple, which prevails in the -celestial spaces, and consequently we are able to make use of it to -explain the circumstances attending the movements of Algol's dark -companion. This body is the smaller of the two, and the speed with -which it moves is double as great as that of Algol, so that it travels -over as many miles in a second as an express train can get over in an -hour. The companion of Algol is about the same size as our sun, but -has a mass only one-fourth as great. This indicates a globe of matter -which must be largely in the gaseous state, but which, nevertheless, -seems to be devoid of intrinsic luminosity. Their distance [apart] -is always some three million miles. This is, however, an unusually -short distance when compared with the dimensions of the two globes -themselves." With this exception, the author says, "the movements of -Algol and its companion are not very dissimilar to movements in the -solar system with which we are already familiar." It will be seen that -the want of luminosity in the dark companion of Algol finds a ready -explanation in the fact that it is a planet, acting precisely as our -own planets do, and that the luminosity of Algol itself is directly -attributable to the electricity developed by the presence of this -planet rotating axially and orbitally around it, and the darkness of -the planet itself is the necessary correlative of the heat and light -of its sun. The planet has about one-half the density of Saturn, while -Algol has one-half the density of the sun, and hence we should expect -to find on Algol an atmosphere largely composed of glowing hydrogen, -and on its planet an atmosphere largely composed of oxygen, in which, -doubtless, float enormous clouds of aqueous vapor. The interpretation -is direct and conclusive, and upon no other hypothesis can the facts -be explained, for their close connection with each other demonstrates -their common origin, and their masses are not so different one from the -other as to permit, on any theory of their coequal origin as suns, one -to glow with the fires of youth and energy and the other to have grown -dark and dead from old age and exhaustion, and especially so if still -in its gaseous stage, which is that which must characterize its highest -state of incandescent energy from the most active condensation of its -volume, if the nebular hypothesis has any validity whatever. In fact, -this example alone, if the constitution of Algol's dark satellite is -really gaseous, must go very far to throw the gravest doubt, in itself, -on the validity of this hypothesis. - -The star Beta, of the constellation Lyra, has a full period of twelve -days and twenty-two hours, divided into two periods of six days and -eleven hours, in each of which the star has a maximum brightness of -about the three and one-half magnitude, but in one period the minimum -is about the four and one-third magnitude, while in the other it -is about the four and one-half magnitude. This peculiarity points, -it is said, to an opaque orb with a satellite, the satellite being -occulted by the primary in the alternative transits, and therefore -the loss of light is less. - -The star Delta of Cepheus is quite different, however, for, while it -takes only one, day and fourteen hours in passing from its minimum -to maximum of brightness, it occupies three days and nineteen hours, -or somewhat more than double this time, in passing from maximum to -minimum. Two or three hundred of these variable stars are already -known. The above examples are cited in detail because they furnish -the strongest possible proof of the truth of the hypothesis which we -are endeavoring to present. While the movements of the stars Algol -and Beta Lyræ may find an adequate interpretation in the one case -in a large occulting planet, and in the other in an occulting planet -with a satellite, it is obvious that Mira and Delta Cephei cannot be -explained except by the presence of planetary bodies or satellites -which do not mechanically occult the light of their suns. In these -regularly variable stars it is the light which varies, but of course -the solar heat must vary also,--that is to say, the solar energy varies -regularly, but with unequal periods of growth and decline and with -larger periods of cyclical variation in addition. Such variations can -only be produced by the action of permanently connected and orbitally -rotating planetary bodies, acting dynamically through space, to -regularly increase and diminish the solar energy, and such bodies can -only do this by their orbital positions with reference to each other -and to the central sun itself. In this case, since the activity of -solar energy is most unquestionably varied by the planetary energies, -by their position and movements, at least a portion of solar energy -must be due to planetary action, and if this be so, it may be affirmed -with certainty that substantially all solar energy may be produced in -the same way; for, otherwise, we seek for two diverse causes to produce -a single effect, which may be produced by one. We have no knowledge, -however, of any planetary energy which could operate to increase or -diminish the energy of the central sun in its emission of light, except -that which we have already presented, and no theory of our own sun's -energy hitherto advanced has ever taken cognizance of the planetary -energies of our system as an effective cause for those of the sun. But -while the sun's energy is--as it must be in this case--the outcome of -that of the planets, it is equally obvious that the planets themselves -can have no permanent, inherent energy of their own to generate or -modify such energy of the sun, since they are in fact supplied by -the solar energy, and their motions are controlled and regulated by -the sun itself. Hence the inference is irresistible that the planets -must derive their primary force from an external source not solar, -and this they can only do by means of their rotation in space, and -the only force derivable from space of which we have any knowledge -is electricity, so that the circle thus becomes complete. How now -shall we explain these periodical aberrations of energy? The color -of a star, as we know, is no criterion of its age or size. The color -is due to atmospheric absorption of the radiant light. The double -stars, for example, revolve around each other at regular periods, -and they are necessarily of nearly the same age, as sidereal ages -are computed, but they frequently differ one from the other in color, -and multiple stars may be all different each from the others; and the -color, as before stated, is no criterion of size, for a small sun, -with its glowing hydrogen in a state of high incandescence, and with -few absorption bands in its spectrum, will appear bluish-white, or of -that specific type of stars, without reference to size, while a much -larger sun, with its light darkened by broad absorption bands and -sun-spots, will appear orange or red; and, consequently, difference -of color can be no criterion of distance, since a blue-white star of -small size will outshine a red orb of much greater magnitude, whether -it be more or less distant. The variable stars, for these reasons, -belong to the order of red stars mostly, if not altogether. We must -also bear in mind that sun-spots do not diminish the solar heat, as -they are the result of increased and not of diminished energy. Electric -currents of high potential pass directly, as we know, along the lines -of least resistance to their opposite center of polarity, so that two -planets nearly in conjunction with each other transmit their currents -almost directly towards the sun's center, and upon the same point -of solar latitude, while, if at right angles with the sun, they must -deliver their electricity along converging lines and thus strike the -solar surface at different points. Currents of electricity of high -potential also (see "Electricity in the Service of Man," page 75), -by their own passage, facilitate the passage of succeeding currents, -so that generators discharging along the same lines find less and -less resistance. It is true that we find no appreciable resistance -in the passage of these currents between the earth and the sun, as -their velocity is that of light, but both light and electricity may -be equally retarded by resistance in a small degree. We know also -that in the condensed hydrogen atmosphere of the sun there must be -resistance, and also that the resistance in fluids diminishes as the -temperature rises. Considering now the variable star Mira, as above -described, we observe, as is the case with Delta Cephei, also cited, -that the period between its greatest light, in a descending scale, -and its least is about twice as long as its rise from minimum to -maximum. During a period of four years (1672 to 1676) it is said that -it was not visible at all. - -If Mira be considered a relatively small sun, with its axis strongly -inclined to the planetary plane, and having three planets only, two of -them constituting a double planet, like the earth and moon, but nearly -equal in size, and having a rotation about the sun in nearly eleven -months and a rotation about each other in the same period, and, besides -these, a much more distant large planet, something like our Jupiter, -with an orbital period of many years, so that the cycle of relative -positions is complete in about eighty-eight of the shorter periods of -variation, we would have such results as we see in Mira. Twice in each -revolution of the double planet its two members and their sun would be -in conjunction, and we would have great brilliancy and whiteness until -the metallic elements began to volatilize in increased proportions; -then an era of wide absorption bands and redness, gradually increasing -to a maximum after its periods of greatest light, and then slowly -diminishing as the double planet advanced in its rotation; and, -finally, as it again approached conjunction, the brilliant hydrogen -illumination, subsequently followed by the gradually darkened spectrum, -and so on, while the large outer planet by its various positions -would first relatively retard and then accelerate the variation -until its grand cycle was complete. The permanent disappearance for -years, if true, may be due to other causes, which will be referred -to in considering the phenomena of new and temporary stars. Many of -the irregular variables may doubtless be similarly explained,--our -own sun, in fact, being a variable with a period of about eleven -years,--and doubtless the apparent irregularity in most cases is -due to lack of sufficient time for observation. Those stars which -are in fact really irregular in their variation owe their changes, -doubtless, to the same causes which produce new stars, so called, -and "suns in flames," which will be next considered. - -Among the countless stars of heaven a great catastrophe seems -occasionally to occur. A star bursts out into sudden flame, to all -appearance, or a great fixed star appears where no star had ever been -seen before. In Professor Proctor's article, "Suns in Flames" ("Myths -and Marvels of Astronomy"), we will find an extended discussion of -these wonderful phenomena. The astronomer Tycho Brahe described the -one which appeared in 1572 as follows: "It suddenly shone forth in -the constellation Cassiopeia with a splendor exceeding that of stars -of the first magnitude, or even Jupiter or Venus at their brightest, -and could be seen by the naked eye on the meridian at full day. Its -brilliancy gradually diminished from the time of its first appearance, -and at the end of sixteen months it entirely disappeared, and has never -been seen since. During the whole time of its apparition its place in -the heavens remained unaltered, and it had no annual parallax, so that -its distance was of the same order as that of the fixed stars." Tycho -described its changes of color as follows: first, as having been of a -bright white; afterwards of a reddish-yellow, like Mars or Aldebaran; -and, lastly, of a leaden white, like Saturn. In 1604 a first-magnitude -star suddenly appeared in the right foot of Ophiucus. "It presented -appearances resembling those shown by the former, and disappeared -after a few months." Many other cases are cited by astronomers, and -in 1866 "a star appeared in the Northern Crown, the observations of -which threw great light on the subject of so-called new stars. In -the first place, it was found that where this new star appeared there -had been a tenth-magnitude star; the new star, then, was in reality -a star long known, which had acquired new brilliancy. "When first -observed with this abnormal lustre, it was shining as a star of the -second magnitude. Examined with the spectroscope, its light revealed a -startling state of things in those remote depths of space. The usual -stellar spectrum, rainbow-tinted and crossed by dark lines, was seen -to be crossed also by four exceedingly bright lines, the spectrum of -glowing hydrogen.... The greater part of the star's light manifestly -came from this glowing hydrogen, though it can scarcely be doubted -that the rest of the spectrum was brighter than before the outburst, -the materials of the star being raised to an intense heat. The maximum -brightness exceeded that of a tenth-magnitude star nearly eight hundred -times. After shining for a short time as a second-magnitude star, -it diminished rapidly in lustre, and it is now between the ninth -and tenth magnitudes" (Appleton's Cyclopædia). Of this new star, -Professor Ball says, "Another memorable achievement in the early part -of Dr. Huggins's career is connected with the celebrated new star that -burst forth in the Crown in 1866. It seemed a fortunate coincidence -that just at the moment when the spectroscope was beginning to be -applied to the sidereal heavens a star of such marvellous character -should have presented itself.... The feature which made the spectrum -of the new star essentially distinct from that of any other star -that had been previously observed was the presence of certain bright -lines superposed on a spectrum with dark lines of one of the ordinary -types. The position of certain of these lines showed that one of the -luminous gases must be hydrogen.... The spectroscope showed that there -must have been something which we may describe as a conflagration -of hydrogen on a stupendous scale, and this outburst would account -for the sudden increase in luminosity of the star, and also to some -extent explain how so stupendous an illumination, once kindled, could -dwindle away in so short a time as a few days." It will be seen that -these new stars leap suddenly into great brilliancy: it is a matter -of a few hours only. After remaining a very short time in this stage -of abnormal incandescence, they gradually die out again in lustre and -revert to their original condition; they are not consumed either in -body or atmosphere. - -Several theories have been advanced to account for these remarkable -phenomena; see "Suns in Flames," by Professor Proctor. One is, in -effect, that by some sudden "internal convulsion a large volume of -hydrogen and other gases was evolved from it, the hydrogen by its -combination with some other element giving out the lines represented -by the bright lines, and at the same time heating to a point of -vivid incandescence the solid matter of the star's surface.... As the -liberated hydrogen gas became exhausted the flame gradually abated, -and with the consequent cooling the star's surface became less vivid -and the star returned to its original condition;" which, by the way, -it never could have done if its atmosphere had been exposed to such a -disintegration, without the construction of an entirely new atmosphere -precisely similar to the one just destroyed. The process would be one -of simple combustion. It requires the evolution of enormous volumes -of hydrogen from within the planet, and of other enormous volumes of -something else, by which to burn it up and yet not burn up the original -hydrogen envelope. This other element could not have previously -existed outside the solar body and contiguous thereto, or it would -have burned up the ordinary hydrogen envelope of the sun long before, -as well as the metallic vapors floating therein. Both these mutually -hostile gases must have come from within, and this is manifestly -impossible, as we should thus have explosion and solar destruction, -but not combustion. There is no reason to believe that hydrogen, -the lightest of elements, could have remained occluded within the -solar mass, to the exclusion of the heavier metals, if disassociated, -and if held combined no such sudden liberation could occur. Besides, -such convulsion would be impossible in any sun at all resembling ours, -as any further liberation of gases from internal condensation must be -due to solar contraction, hence gradual, and not sudden. Moreover, -such liberation of hydrogen gas from within would show its spectrum -loaded, at its earliest eruption, with absorption bands; and, finally, -the convulsion presupposes as great an activity, and consequently as -great a difficulty, before the phenomenon as the phenomenon itself -presents; for such vast disturbance of mass would be more difficult -to account for, and require more energy to produce, than the results -themselves. Moreover, the whole mass of the star appeared to increase -equally in temperature, as shown by the spectrum, and, if produced by -an internal convulsion, this must have extended to, if not proceeded -from, its core; so that while the combustion of hydrogen might have -ceased in a very brief time, the intense heat of the solar mass could -not have been dissipated for thousands of years. It would, in fact, -have disrupted the whole orb. - -Another theory is that this vast incandescence was caused by the -"violent precipitation of some mighty mass--perhaps a planet--upon -the globe of that remote sun, by which the momentum of the falling -mass would be changed into molecular motion; in other words, into -heat and light." This theory is no more plausible than the other, -since it fails to account for the enormous volume of hydrogen, with -bright lines, as a result of such contact; while Professor Proctor -very clearly shows that such contact would have been preceded, -necessarily, by repeated partial grazings, as the outside body -repeatedly passed in swifter and closer passage by the sun in its -gradually approaching orbital revolutions, and that the increase -of light and heat must have been measured by years instead of by -hours. The same difficulties exist in the supposed passage of the star -through nebulæ or star clouds, of which Professor Proctor says, "As -for the rush of a star through a nebulous mass, that is a theory which -would scarcely be entertained by any one acquainted with the enormous -distances separating them.... All we certainly know suggests that the -distances separating them from each other are comparable with those -which separate star from star." In fact, no tenable theory has been -advanced which will cover the phenomena. Professor Proctor describes -a star which flamed out in 1876. At midnight, November 24, a star -of the third magnitude was noticed in the constellation of the Swan; -its light was very yellow; its brilliancy rapidly faded. On December -2 it was equal to a star of the fifth magnitude only, and the color, -which had been yellow, was now greenish-blue. "The star's spectrum -at this time consisted almost entirely of bright lines. December 5 he -found three bright lines of hydrogen, the strong double line of sodium, -the triple line of magnesium, and two other lines. One of these last -seemed to agree exactly in position with a bright line belonging -to the corona seen around the sun during total eclipse." The star -afterwards faded away gradually until quite invisible to the naked -eye. It will be noticed that none of the above elements--sodium, -potassium, or magnesium--are such as would combine with hydrogen -to produce the phenomena in question. Professor Proctor concludes, -"This evidence seems to me to suggest that the intense heat which -suddenly affected this star had its origin from without." He suggests -possible meteoric flights; but meteoric stones themselves are separated -in space by enormous distances, and these, if converged in orbital -flight, would present the same phenomena of successive grazings as -a small planet approaching under like circumstances, and by their -gradually increasing incandescence we should certainly have other -elements visible in the spectroscope besides those observed. And these -meteoric bodies, if projected into the sun, would pass in a very brief -time through the hydrogen envelope, producing only local phenomena, -so that their first blow would be manifested in volatilization of the -outer portions of the mass and broad absorption bands, and consequent -redness of the planet, exhibiting great heat, but not great light. In -such case the bright lines of hydrogen, if they appeared at all, would -only be visible as an after-consequence, and not at the earliest moment -of conflagration,--that is, the star might grow from red to white, -but by no possibility the reverse. It is, however, characteristic -of these new stars that their first flash, as it were, is into the -incandescence of directly glowing hydrogen, with its bright lines, -then through a series of gradually increasing sun-spots, and finally -a slow return to their original condition and apparent magnitude. It -is obviously a surface phenomenon of the solar atmosphere, primarily, -then followed by consequences involving only the outer surface of the -solar core, but with no observable permanent change in the character -or constitution of the mass of the sun itself. These characteristics -are invariable, and the sequence of phenomena is the same in all the -cases observed. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -TEMPORARY STARS, METEORS, AND COMETS. - - -What, then, is the probable cause of these terrific conflagrations, -as they appear to us? Take an ordinary electric induction machine,--a -Holtz or a Wimshurst,--and, if the surrounding air is moist, as we -operate it we will find that the results are poor, the sparks short -and relatively few; but let us take the machine into another room -in which the atmosphere is dry and crisp. A wondrous change will -occur, and instead of a current which could scarcely flash across -a few inches of space, we will now have so great an increase of -energy that its tension will even cause the spark to perforate and -destroy the glass walls of the heavy Leyden jars in which it is -condensed. The vast realms of space, with their attenuated vapors, -are the field in which the planetary electric generators operate, -and into which, likewise, myriads of suns constantly pour their -light and heat. We may consider this space, according to the popular -view, to be uniform in constitution and density throughout all its -parts,--that it is, in fact, like a vast, silent, and motionless dead -sea. But this cannot possibly be true, any more than throughout the -vast compass of our own atmosphere; for while some parts of space are -peopled by millions of solar systems, others, as we can plainly see, -so far as telescopic vision extends, are comparatively vacant. Far -more electricity is being abstracted (so to speak) in some parts of -space than in others, and far more heat and light are being poured -back to restore the equilibrium in some than in others. We have -already seen that the temperature at the exterior surface of the -terrestrial atmosphere is estimated to be more than two hundred -degrees higher than in the realms of open interplanetary space; -hence there must be currents,--currents of rotation like cyclones, -vortical currents like whirlwinds, currents of transmission like our -land- and sea-breezes and the trade-winds,--and, in fact, all space -must be in a state of constant displacement and replacement, and, if -visible, we should see it like a vast room filled with smoke, in which -currents of every shape and direction and of all velocities would be -manifest. Such currents could throw nebulæ during their condensation -into rotation which could never rotate of their own motion, or gather -to centers of aggregation vast whirling clouds of spatial matter, -and in the spiral nebulæ we may see many such movements of rotation in -apparent active progress. Of these we read in Appleton's Cyclopædia, -"They have the appearance of a maelstrom of stellar matter, and are -among the most interesting objects in the heavens." In Professor -Nichol's splendid work ("The Architecture of the Heavens," 1850) -we may see magnificent engravings of these wonderful phenomena, -from the drawings by Lord Rosse, and no one can study these figures -without realizing the presence of vast currents in space. - -In the great spiral nebula in the constellation Canes Venatici (see -illustration in Chapter XII.) we perceive that the tail of the smaller -nebula has been drawn into the outer convolution of the great spiral, -against the radial repulsion of the latter nebula, as we can see by -its curvature. This can only be due to a tremendous inflowing current -in space. Were the deflection due to gravity the trend would be to the -center and not to the outer convolution of the larger nebula. Professor -Nichol says, "The spiral figure is characteristic of an extensive -class of galaxies." Not only in the spiral, but in other forms of -nebulæ we may observe these currents of space, so that we cannot fail -to perceive that they exist, and we should even conclude, a priori, -that these must exist. - -In the elongated linear nebula in Sobieski's Crown, illustrated -above, its length is deflected into irregular curves apparently due -to counter-currents of space. These gaseous nebulæ, Flammarion says, -"appear like immense vaporous clouds tossed about by some rough winds, -pierced with deep rents, and broken in jagged portions." It may be -said generally that every sun, as it drifts through space, must leave -a wake of increased electric potential among the molecules which -line its pathway. Beyond the limits of every vortex extend radial -or tangential, polar or equatorial, streams of space, and these -must extend without limit until deflected or neutralized by other -conditions. Throughout all space, just as in our own atmosphere, -but vastly more slowly, there must be an infinitude of movements in -every direction,--movements in lines, circles, vortices, ellipses and -irregular curvatures, and of all possible varieties of mass and volume. - -Suppose, now, a sailing vessel lighted with incandescent lamps, -the electrical currents for the support of which are derived from -the chemical action of sea-water on multiple pairs of suitable -metallic plates arranged to extend downward as a galvanic battery -into the ocean as the ship sails along, and that these plates, -by the chemical action of the sea-water at ordinary, temperatures, -should furnish a sufficient current to properly light the vessel. If -the constancy of such current depended on the average temperature -of the sea-water, at, say, sixty degrees Fahrenheit, we should find -that, on suddenly crossing into the Gulf Stream, with a temperature -twenty degrees higher, the energy of the battery would be rapidly -increased and the lights would glow with increased brilliancy until, -on emerging from the Gulf Stream at its opposite side, the original -status would be gradually restored. If these distant solar systems, -in their drift through space, should encounter a corresponding stream -under an increased molecular tension, more highly heated, for example, -or charged with electrical potential by the surrounding solar systems, -or otherwise, we should expect a similar result to ensue,--that the -currents would be increased suddenly, both in quantity and intensity, -and all the phenomena of "blazing" stars be revealed in the precise -order in which we see them. Professor Proctor seems to have had -some such idea of space vaguely in his mind when he says, in his -"Familiar Essays," "One is invited to believe that the star may have -been carried by its proper motions into regions where there is a more -uniform distribution of the material whence this orb recruits its -fires. It may be that, in the consideration of such causes of variation -affecting our sun in long-past ages, a more satisfactory explanation -than any yet obtained may be found of the problem geologists found -so perplexing,--the former existence of a tropical climate in places -within the temperate zone, or even near the arctic regions. Sir John -Herschel long since pointed to the variation of the sun as a possible -cause of such changes of climate." In confirmation of the view that -such changes may be due to the passage of a solar system into or -through such a "Gulf Stream" of space, we quote the following from -Professor Proctor's "Suns in Flames:" "It is noteworthy that all the -stars which have blazed out suddenly, except one, have appeared in -a particular region of the heavens,--the zone of the Milky Way (all, -too, in one-half of that zone). The single exception is the star in -the Northern Crown, and that star appeared in a region which I have -found to be connected with the Milky Way by a well-marked stream -of stars; not a stream of a few stars scattered here and there, but -a stream where thousands of stars are closely aggregated together, -though not quite so closely as to form a visible extension of the Milky -Way.... Now, the Milky Way and the outlying streams of stars connected -with it seem to form a region of the stellar universe where fashioning -processes are still at work." In just such regions of potential energy -should we look for such currents in space, as, on our own earth, -the Gulf Stream and the trade-winds, as well as cyclones and other -atmospheric movements, find their origin under precisely parallel -circumstances,--to wit, the outpour upon and direct precipitation of -increased quantities of heat at the tropics or other local centers -of such development. The effects of such an increase of quantity and -potential in an electrical current are clearly illustrated in the -device previously referred to, in which electrolytic decomposition -was effected in a pail of water; we find it also in the burning out -of the brushes and commutators in dynamo-electric machines and in -telegraphic apparatus during thunder-storms and the like. Allowing a -solar system a drift through space only equal to that of our own, which -has a relatively slow movement, it would traverse such a "Gulf Stream" -of space seven hundred thousand miles wide in a single day. But it may -not even have passed through; it may merely have grazed the margin of -such a current; for the motions of solar systems are not controlled by -the same forces as those upon which their electrical energies depend. - -Professor Ball, in his chapter on the great heat-wave of 1892, says, -"Towards the end of July an extraordinarily high temperature, even -for that period of the year, prevailed over a very large part of the -North American continent. The so-called heat-wave then seems to have -travelled eastward and crossed the Atlantic Ocean; ... a fortnight -after the occurrence of unusually great heat in the New World there -was a similar experience in the Old World.... This discussion will at -all events enable us to make some reply to the question which has often -been asked, as to what was the cause of the great heat-wave.... It is, -however, quite possible that certain changes in progress on the sun -may act in a specific manner on our climate.... It cannot be denied -that local, if not general, changes in the sun's temperature must be -the accompaniment of the violent disturbances by which our luminary -is now and then agitated. It is, indeed, well known that there are -occasional outbreaks of solar activity, and that these recur in a -periodic manner; it is accordingly not without interest to notice that -the present year has been one of the periods of this activity. We -are certainly not going so far as to say that any connection has -been definitely established between a season of exuberant sun-spots -and a season remarkable for excessive warmth; but, as we know that -there is a connection between the magnetic condition of the earth -and the state of solar activity, it is by no means impossible that -climate and sun-spots may also stand in some relationship to each -other." These local deviations are doubtless due to planetary positions -with reference to the sun, but more general variations must depend upon -the constitution of such parts of space as the solar system may occupy; -but even then they will be but temporary, since the sun's volume will -rapidly expand or contract so as finally to restore the normal emission -of solar heat, as will be further explained later on in this work. - -There are other causes also, readily conceivable, for such increased -electrical action; for instance, in that thickly-peopled region of -space, two solar systems adjacent might easily have their exterior -planets so related to each other as suddenly, at their points of -nearest approach, to cause one or more to direct an abnormally large -electrical current into the sun of the adjacent system; this would -correspond in electric energy, in fact, to a violent "perturbation" -in its orbit by the action of gravity produced by a neighboring -planet or system. No reversal of polarity could take place between -these planets under these circumstances, any more than between the -earth and the moon. In some portions of the Milky Way, doubtless, -suns blaze by dozens across the sky at night, and by day as well, -to which, in our more solitary skies, we are strangers. Revolving -in perfect harmony, perturbations must nevertheless be frequent, and -to what limits they may there be confined we shall never know until -we realize the extent of these galaxies and the relative contiguity -of their solar systems to each other. It is enough to show how such -variations may occur; in what particular way they do occur does not -affect the question of their origin. Even if such increased energy -were to continue by permanently increased planetary action, it is not -necessary to suppose that a corresponding permanent increase of light -and heat would result on the part of the sun, for its density is such -(only one-fourth that of the earth) that, under the tremendous force -of its gravity (twenty-seven and one-tenth times that of the earth), -its constituents cannot be maintained in solid form, but must be, -as before stated, either liquid or gaseous, and perhaps in part -both. Now, as it has been computed that the sun, by contraction to -its present density, would have evolved its present light and heat -for a period of millions of years, it is obvious that any increase in -its present volume, without increase of mass, would produce precisely -opposite and compensated results, so that the sun could receive from -outside sources as much heat as would expand its present volume -to that at the initial point of such assumed condensation without -increased emission of light and heat. The sun is thus, in effect, -a self-compensating machine, and its passage through a region of -increased electrical generation would first manifest itself in -a vast increase of brilliancy, due to higher incandescence of its -hydrogen envelope; this, in turn, would be communicated to the deeper -structures of the sun, producing increased volatilization and dark -absorption bands, and finally to the whole solar mass, expanding -its volume in proportion to the heat absorbed. Hence we should see -precisely the phenomena that we do see in flaming stars or so-called -new stars. We find such compensations all through nature, and it is -simply in accordance with her universal laws that they occur. It is a -singular circumstance that the catastrophe which is foretold in the -biblical record as the termination of all human life on earth, for -the present cycle, at least, should be almost literally in accordance -with the phenomena characteristic of such an increase of solar energy, -and one produced in some such manner. If the temperature of the solar -atmosphere were rapidly raised by increased planetary action to a -point which would reverse the lines of hydrogen from dark to bright, -say to a brightness eight hundred times that of the normal, as in -the case of the temporary star cited, though the heat would not, of -course, be increased in any such proportion, yet the heavens would be -indeed rolled up as a scroll, and all life would be extinguished in a -very brief period. But the planets would continue to roll along their -orbits, the integrity of the earth's mass would still be intact, and -after a few days or weeks the sun would begin to decline in brightness, -the volatilized vapors would slowly recede within the solar atmosphere, -and the temperature would gradually fall again to its normal, leaving, -however, a lifeless world to roll on its way henceforth, but as bright -and cheerful in all its possibilities, when the former conditions had -gradually become restored, as before. Perhaps some distant astronomer -in the neighborhood of Sirius--if we shall have travelled so far away -by that time--might send a note to the morning papers to announce -that the temporary star near Alpha Centauri had again receded to the -tenth magnitude. In due time--perhaps a thousand years--all would be -ready for a new development of life, and the cycle would continue as -before. Perchance, too, in some deep abyss, or buried far beneath -the surface, some germs of life might still continue to exist; -and from these, like the seeds resurrected from buried mummies, -a new life might again begin, guided along once more through vast -ages in a progressive ascent from development to development until, -in some new and strange forms, the higher types of life might again -appear. To these there would indeed be revealed a new heaven and a -new earth. Who knows how many such cycles of life may have come and -gone on earth, in which, like the dwellers of Jerusalem, new peoples -have built new cities, one above another, upon the unknown graves of -the past? In the words of Tennyson,-- - - - "A wondrous eft was of old the Lord and Master of earth, - For him did his high sun flame, and his river billowing ran, - And he felt himself in his force to be Nature's crowning race. - As nine months go to the shaping an infant ripe for his birth, - So many a million of ages have gone to the making man: - He now is first, but is he the last?" - - -Whatever the coming, the progress, or the going of life on earth, -the course of our solar system will go on the same, the processes of -creation unchanged and her mechanism unimpaired. It is obvious that -no such conditions could prevail in the return to unorganizable chaos -which must be the consequence of any possible planetary collisions -in space. No conceivable process of creation could return a system -disrupted into meteorites to an operative solar system again. Even -the nebular hypothesis contemplates nothing of that sort as, by the -wildest conjecture, ever possible. But with us the danger is far -distant. Professor Proctor says, in his article "Suns in Flames," -"As Sir William Herschel long since pointed out, we can recognize in -various parts of the heavens various stages of development, and chief -among the regions where as yet nature's work seems incomplete is the -Galactic zone,--especially that half of it where the Milky Way consists -of irregular streams and clouds of stellar light. As there is no reason -for believing that our sun belongs to this part of the galaxy, but, -on the contrary, good ground for considering that he belongs to the -class of insulated stars, few of which have shown signs of irregular -variation, while none have ever blazed suddenly out with many hundred -times their former lustre, we may fairly infer a very high degree of -probability in favor of the belief that, for many ages still to come, -the sun will continue steadily to discharge his duties as fire, light, -and life of the solar system." The passage of our system through -gradually changing regions of space, as contrasted with streams -or vortices, could not affect our sun's light even temporarily, as -the contraction and expansion of its volume would fully compensate -for any such gradual or partial variation, and, by position, he is -far from likely to pass into any of those whirlpools or torrents of -space which seem to mark at irregular intervals the region of the -irregularly variable stars. - -Allied in appearance to such stars which suddenly flame out in space, -but totally different in reality, are comets. These strangers to our -own system have excited the wonder and astonishment of mankind from -the earliest ages. They seem to defy all rules and all explanation; -but, when properly examined, they will fall inevitably into the -general scheme of the source and mode of solar energy which we -have endeavored to present. These bodies enter our solar system -from without. Appleton's Cyclopædia says, "Schiaparelli, to whom -the discovery is in part due, considers the meteors to be dispersed -portions of the comet's original substance,--that is, of the substance -with which the comet entered the solar domain." Professor Proctor, -"Meteoric Astronomy," says, "A word or two may be permitted on the -question of the condition of comets freshly arriving on the scene of -the solar system. It is assumed sometimes that the train of meteors -already exists when the comet first comes within the solar domain." In -the "Romance of Astronomy" (R. Kalley Miller, M.A.) it is said, -"In a sort of debatable territory between our own solar system and -the infinite stellar universe around we come upon these erratic -and anomalous bodies--the comets; some of which have accidentally -become permanent attendants upon our sun; others have only paid it a -single casual visit in the course of their wanderings through space, -and are not likely again to come within the range of its attracting -influence; while countless millions are doubtless scattered throughout -the realms of the infinite, whose existence will never be revealed -to human ken at all." Professor Helmholtz, in fact (see addendum -to his lecture on the origin of the planetary system), advanced the -idea in a speculative way, that our terrestrial life might have had -its origin in one of these meteoric bodies by the "transmission of -organisms through space." In Professor Proctor's article on comets -("Mysteries of Time and Space") he says, "The paths followed by -comets show no resemblance either to the planetary orbits or to each -other. Here we see a comet travelling in a path of moderate extent -and not very eccentric; then another which rushes from a distance -of two or three thousand millions of miles, approaches the sun with -ever-increasing velocity until nearer to him than parts of his own -corona (as seen in eclipses), sweeps around him with inconceivable -rapidity, and makes off again to where the aphelion of its orbit lies -far out in space beyond the most distant known planet,--Neptune. Some -comets travel in a direct, some in a retrograde path; a few near the -plane of the earth's orbit, many in planes showing every variety of -inclination. Some comets regularly return after intervals of a few -years; some after hundreds of years; others are only seen once or -twice, and then unaccountably vanish; and not a few show by the paths -they follow that they have come from interstellar space to pay our -system but a single visit, passing out again to traverse we know not -what other systems or regions.... When we have said that these objects -obey the law of gravity, we have mentioned the only circumstance--as -it would appear--in which they conform to the relations observed in -terrestrial and planetary arrangements. And even this law--the widest -yet revealed to man--they seem to obey half unwillingly. We see the -head of a comet tracing out systematically enough its proper orbit, -while the comet's tail is all unruly and disobedient.... The fact, -then, is demonstrated that two of the meteor streams encountered by the -earth are so far associated with two comets as to travel on the same -orbits. We may not unsafely infer that all the meteor systems are in -like manner associated with other comets. Nor is it very rash to assume -that all comets are in like manner associated with meteor systems." - -Concerning the influence of gravitation of the planets, the same -author says ("Meteoric Astronomy"), "Now, the circumstances under -which a comet approaching the sun on a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit -can be thus affected must be regarded as exceptional. The planet's -influence must, in the first place, be very energetically exercised; -in other words, the arriving comet must pass very close to the planet, -for under any other circumstances the sun's influence so enormously -outvies the planet's that the figure of the cometic orbit would be -very little affected. Moreover, the planet's attraction must produce an -important balance of retardation. The planet will inevitably accelerate -the comet up to a certain point, and afterwards will retard it; the -latter influence must greatly exceed the former. To show how greatly -the comet must be retarded, it is only necessary to mention that the -actual velocity of the November meteors when they cross the orbit -of Uranus is less than one-third of the velocity with which Uranus -himself travels, but their velocity at the same distance from the -sun, when they were approaching him from some distant stellar domain, -exceeded the velocity of Uranus in his orbit in the proportion of about -seven to five.... It follows, not merely as a probable inference, but, -I think, as a demonstrated conclusion, that if the November meteors -came originally into our system as a comet travelling sunward from -infinity, then either that comet was very compact or else Uranus -captured only a small portion of the comet, the remaining portions -moving thenceforth on orbits wholly different from the path of the -November meteors.... No other planet than Uranus can have brought -about the subjection of this comet to solar rule." In his article on -comets he says, "It may be well here to consider a case in which some -active force (other than gravity) exerted by the sun seems to have -brought the destruction of a comet, or at least to have broken up -the comet into unrecognizable fragments." He refers to Biela's comet, -with an orbital period of six and two-thirds years, and a path which -was found to approach very near to the path of the earth. In 1832 the -comet crossed the earth's track several weeks before the arrival of -the earth at the same point without appreciable interference. On its -second return, in 1845-46, it was found to be divided into two comets -travelling side by side; in 1852 they reappeared, still divided, -and gradually diverging from each other. Since then they have never -reappeared, though diligently sought for at every period. Professor -Proctor adds, "It has been seen again, though not as a comet; nay, the -occasion on which it was seen in the way referred to was predicted, -and the prediction fulfilled, even in details. For a full account of -its reappearance--as a meteor stream--I refer the reader to my essay -on Biela's comet in 'Familiar Science Studies.'" - -In Miller's "Romance of Astronomy" we read, "Encke's comet, which -possesses the smallest orbit of any connected with our system, is -sensibly drawing nearer and nearer to the sun at every revolution." In -Professor Proctor's "Cometic Mysteries," the author says, "We hear -it stated that the nucleus of a comet is made up of meteoric stones -(Professor P. G. Tait says--for unknown reasons--that they resemble -'paving stones or even bricks') as confidently as though the earth had -at some time passed through the nucleus of a comet, and some of our -streets were now paved with stones which had fallen to the earth on -such an occasion. As a matter of fact, all that has yet been proved -is that meteoric bodies follow in the track (which is very different -from the tail) of some known comets, and that probably all comets -are followed by trains of meteors. These may have come out of the -head or nucleus in some way as yet unexplained; but it is by no means -certain that they have done so, and it is by many astronomers regarded -as more than doubtful. The most important point to be noticed in the -behavior of large comets as they approach the sun is, that usually the -side of the coma which lies towards the sun is the scene of intense -disturbance. Streams of luminous matter seem to rise continually -towards the sun, attaining a certain distance from the head, when, -assuming a cloud-like appearance, they seem to form an envelope -around the nucleus. This envelope gradually increases its distance -from the sun, growing fainter and larger, while within it the process -is repeated and a new envelope is formed. This, in turn, ascends -from the nucleus, expanding as it does so, while within it a new -envelope is formed. Meanwhile the first one formed has grown fainter, -perhaps has disappeared. But sometimes the process goes on so rapidly -(a day or two sufficing for the formation of a complete new envelope) -that several envelopes will be seen at the same time,--the outermost -faintest, the innermost most irregular in shape and most varied in -brightness, while the envelope or envelopes between are the best -developed and most regular. The matter raised up in these envelopes -seems to have undergone a certain change of character, causing it no -longer to obey the sun's attractive influence, but to experience a -strong repulsive action from him, whereby it is apparently swept away -with great rapidity to form the tail. 'It flows past the nucleus,' -says Dr. Huggins, 'on all sides, still ever expanding and shooting -backward until a tail is formed in the direction opposite to the -sun. This tail is usually curved, though sometimes rays or extra -tails sensibly straight are also seen.'" - -In "The Sun as a Perpetual Machine," Professor Proctor says, -"Take, again, the phenomena of comets, which still remain among the -greatest of nature's mysteries. We have reason to believe ... that -the nucleus of a comet consists of an aggregation of stones similar -to meteorites. Adopting this view, and assuming that these stones -have absorbed somewhere gases to the amount of six times their volume -(taken at atmospheric pressure), we may ask, What will be the effect -of such a mass of stones advancing towards the sun at a velocity -reaching in perihelion the prodigious rate of three hundred and -sixty-six miles per second (as observed in the comet of 1843), being -twenty-three times our orbital rate of motion?" Professor Ball says, -"One of the most important results of the great shower of 1866 was the -demonstration that the swarm of little bodies to which that shower -owed its origin was connected with a comet. The swarm was found, in -fact, to follow the exact track which the comet pursued around the -sun.... Of this connection between the cometary orbits and revolving -swarms of meteors many other instances could be cited. I may refer to -the remarkable lists published by the British Association, in which, -beside the name of the comet or the designation which astronomers had -affixed to it, the meteoric swarm with which the comet is associated -is also given.... On these grounds it appears to be perfectly certain -that the origin of the shooting stars which appear in swarms cannot -be disassociated from the origin of the comets by which those swarms -are accompanied." The author makes a distinction between such ordinary -shooting stars and meteorites, and attributes the appearance of the -latter on earth to masses thrown forth from some volcano somewhere, but -this has nothing to do with the special phenomena to be interpreted. It -may be said, however, that the presence of olefiant gas as one of -the occluded gases in a meteorite (four and fifty-five-hundredths per -cent., as stated by Professor Proctor, in his article "The Sun as a -Perpetual Machine"), and the remarkable fact, stated in the article -"Spectrum Analysis" in Appleton's Cyclopædia, that, in Winnecke's -comet of 1868, "the bands agree in position with those obtained as -the spectrum of carbon, by passing the electric spark through olefiant -gas, "would lead one to consider a cometic origin, for this particular -meteorite at least, to be highly probable. Professor Ball further says, -"There have been several instances in which a comet has approached -so close to a planet that the attraction between the two bodies must -have had significant influence on the planet, if the cometary mass -had been at all comparable with that of the more robust body. The -most celebrated instance is presented in the case of Lexell's comet, -which happened to cross the track of Jupiter. The effect upon this -body was so overwhelming that it was wrenched from its original path -and started afresh along a wholly different track." The same writer, -speaking of the tails of comets, says, "I have no intention to discuss -here the vexed question of the tails of comets. I do not now inquire -whether the repulsion by which the tail is produced be due to the -intense radiation from the sun, or to electricity, or to some other -agent. It is sufficient for our present purpose to note that, even if -the tails of comets do gravitate towards the sun, the attraction is -obscured by a more powerful repulsive force.... Nor do the directions -in which the comets move exhibit any conformity; some move round the -sun in one direction, some move in the opposite direction. Even the -planes which contain the orbits of the comets are totally different -from each other. Instead of being inclined at only a very few degrees -to their mean position, the planes of the comets hardly follow any -common law; they are inclined at all sorts of directions. In no respect -do the comets obey those principles which are necessary to prevent -constitutional disorder in the planetary system.... Now, all we have -hitherto seen with regard to comets tends to show that the masses of -comets are extremely small. Attempts have been made to measure them, -but have always failed, because the scales in which we have attempted -to weigh them have been too coarse to weigh anything of the almost -spiritual texture of a comet. It is unnecessary to go as far as some -have done, and to say that the weight of a large comet may be only -a few pounds or a few ounces. It might be more reasonable to suppose -that the weight of a large comet was thousands of tons, though even -thousands of tons would be far too small a weight to admit of being -measured by the very coarse balance which is at our disposal." In -the chapter "Visitors from the Sky," the same author says, "As such -a comet in its progress across the heavens passes between us and -the stars, those stars are often seen twinkling brilliantly right -through the many thousand miles of cometary matter which their rays -have to traverse. The lightest haze in our atmosphere would suffice -to extinguish the faint gleam of these small stars; indeed, a few -feet of mist would have more power of obstructing the stellar light -than cometary material scores of thousands of miles thick. It is -true that the central portions of many of these comets often exhibit -much greater density than is found in the exterior regions; still, -in the great majority of such objects there is no opacity, even in -the densest part, sufficient to put out a star. In the case of the -more splendid bodies of this description, it may be supposed that the -matter is somewhat more densely aggregated as well as more voluminous; -still, however, it will be remembered that the great comet of 1858 -passed over Arcturus, and that the star was seen shining brilliantly, -notwithstanding the interposition of a cometary curtain millions of -miles in thickness. So far as I know, no case is known in which the -nucleus of a really bright and great comet has been witnessed in the -act of passage over a considerable star. It would indeed be extremely -interesting to ascertain whether in such case the star experienced -any considerable diminution in its lustre." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE PHENOMENA OF COMETS. - - -From the extracts thus cited we may form a fairly clear idea of the -phenomena which comets present, and these facts represent about all -that we know of these mysterious objects. They approach the sun -in a nearly radial direction, thus cutting the planetary orbits -transversely. They approach the sun from all directions and at -all angles, without reference to the common plane in which all the -planetary orbits lie. They have no rotation on their own axes, as the -planets have, but, like an aggregated mass of meteorites or cosmical -dust, rush inward from the exterior realms of space, so that their -course is diametrically opposite that of the planets and the other -cosmical bodies which constitute our solar system. Such a body as a -comet, in fact, would present in its approach to our solar system very -much the phenomena of an approaching exterior sun, corresponding far -more closely in appearance and behavior to our own sun than to any -of the planets. Such a body could not generate positive electricity, -as the planets do, but, on the contrary, must have an electrosphere -of negative, or at least neutral, polarity. On its approach to our -planetary system the batteries of all the planets would be at once -turned upon the intruder, and it would be rapidly thrown into the -same state of active electrical polarity as the sun. The aqueous -vapor condensed around its nucleus by gravity in its approach through -space, or buried among the meteoric particles constituting the -comet, would be necessarily decomposed into its constituent gases, -just as in the case of the sun, by the positive electrical currents -from the planetary electrospheres, and the disassociated hydrogen -would form the negative electrosphere of the comet, glowing with its -own luminosity, by gaseous incandescence. "We should then observe, -during its continued approach to the sun, phenomena similar to those -which we might expect to manifest themselves during the approach -of a minute solar body towards the sun, characterized by a rapid -increase of velocity, due to attraction of gravity, and tremendous -mutual repulsion between the solar and cometic electrospheres. We -should see the luminous hydrogen and associated gases boiling upward, -and thence drawn forward from the nucleus by the combined gravity -of the sun's mass, that of the planetary masses, and the opposite -polarity of the planetary electrospheres, while they would be, at -the same time, repelled backward by the enormous repulsive force of -the negative electrosphere of the sun. As a result, we should find -these gases in a state of ebullition, forced forward under great -excitement and disturbance, boiling, eddying about, driven to and fro -in all directions until the sun's repulsive force had overcome the -different attractions, when these luminous clouds or envelopes would -be swept swiftly off to the rear, as by a powerful current of wind, -around the margins of the nucleus, and they would be seen to stream -backward from the sun as an elongated envelope or tail. New volumes of -gas would pour to the front, attracted from deeper depths, and these, -on reaching the cometary electrosphere, would be again repelled by -the solar activity and driven to the rear, while the gases thus driven -backward, themselves similarly electrified, would mutually repel each -other as they streamed backward around the margins of the nucleus. - -Let us now see what these gases are: if they are such as appear -in the sun's electrosphere, we will know that such must be their -action; if, on the contrary, they are such as appear in planetary -electrospheres, we will find any such attempted explanation to be -a failure. Quoting largely from Dr. Huggins, Professor Proctor, in -his "Cometic Mysteries," says, "The spectrum of the brightest comet -of that year was partly continuous, and on this continuous spectrum -many of the well-known Fraunhofer lines could be traced. This made it -certain that part of the comet's light was reflected sunlight, though -Dr. Huggins considers also that a part of the continuous spectrum of -every comet is due to inherent light. On this point some doubt may -be permitted. It is one thing for special bands to show themselves, -for some substances may become self-luminous under special conditions -at very moderate temperatures; it is quite another thing that the -solid parts of a comet's substance should become incandescent. I -venture to express my opinion that this can scarcely happen, except -in the case of comets which approach very near to the sun. Besides -the continuous spectrum with dark lines, the photograph showed -also a spectrum of bright lines. 'These lines,' says Dr. Huggins, -'possessed extreme interest, for there was certainly contained within -this hieroglyphic writing some new information. A discussion of -the position of these new lines showed them to be undoubtedly the -same lines which appear in certain compounds of carbon. Not long -before Professors Liveing and Dewar had found from their laboratory -experiments that these lines are only present when nitrogen is also -present, and that they indicate a nitrogen compound of carbon,--namely, -cyanogen. Two other bright groups were also seen in the photograph, -confirming the presence of hydrogen,--carbon and nitrogen.' It is -worthy of notice that only a few days later Dr. H. Draper succeeded -in obtaining a photograph of the same comet's spectrum. It appeared -to him to confirm Dr. Huggins's statements, except only that the dark -Fraunhofer lines were not visible, the photograph having probably -been taken under less favorable conditions.... But the latest comet -has brought with it fresh news. Its spectrum is not like that given -by the comets we are considering. The bright lines of sodium are -seen in it, and also other bright lines and groups of lines which -have not yet been shown to be identical with any belonging to the -hydrocarbon groups, but probably are so.... The cyanogen groups are -not seen.... But it is manifest that this comet underwent important -changes.... In April was found simply a faint continuous spectrum; in -May the three bands associated with carbon were present, though faint, -while there was no trace whatever of the sodium band. On the contrary, -in June the nucleus of the comet gave a very strong and extended -continuous spectrum with an excessively strong bright line in the -orange-yellow identical with the well-known double sodium line of the -solar spectrum. On this ... it is necessary to conclude that during -the last fortnight of May the spectrum of Wells's comet had changed -in a manner of which the history of science furnishes no precedent." - -It should be observed that the elements carbon and hydrogen closely -resemble each other, not only in their multifarious chemical -affinities and reactions, but in their electric polarities, and the -hydrocarbon compounds, like their constituents, carbon and hydrogen, -are electrically similar to each other, an example of this similarity -of the elements being found in the identical action of the carbon -arc and hydrogen envelope in the heating and lighting experiments -with electrical currents hereinbefore described. - -We have already seen that carbon follows quite a different law from the -other concrete elements, in the fact that its electrical resistance -diminishes as the temperature rises; it also differs widely from -the other solid elements in its atomic heat, which has a value much -less than one-half the mean constant, which is 6.4. Of this matter of -specific heat, Professor Fownes, in his work on chemistry (Bridges' -edition), says, "Dulong and Petit observed in the course of their -investigation a most remarkable circumstance. If the specific heats -of bodies be computed upon equal weights, numbers are obtained all -different and exhibiting no simple relations among themselves; but if, -instead of equal weights, quantities be taken in the proportion of the -atomic weights, an almost perfect coincidence in the numbers will be -observed, showing that some exceedingly intimate connection must exist -between the relations of bodies to heat and their chemical nature; and -when the circumstance is taken into view that relations of even a still -closer kind link together chemical and electrical phenomena, it is not -too much to expect that ere long some law may be discovered far more -general than any with which we are yet acquainted.... Nevertheless, -this law must not be understood as perfectly general, for there are -three elements--namely, carbon, boron, and silicon" [these form a -single group of elements in chemical classification]--"which exhibit -decided exceptions to it." - -Organic chemistry is substantially based upon the almost infinitely -interchanging relations among carbon-hydrogen radicals, supplemented -by a few other elements. According to Professor Fownes, "Organic -chemistry is in fact the chemistry of carbon compounds." The position -of carbon among the elements is something like that of camphor among -the oils, the latter being a volatile oil, but concrete in form. With -a concrete element having the peculiar character of carbon we can -well understand its universal chemical and electrical relationship -with gaseous hydrogen in the grandest operations of nature. - -Cyanogen is an electrically similar compound of carbon with the -addition of nitrogen. Of these elements it will be seen that nitrogen -and hydrogen are found to exist also in the gaseous nebulæ, and with -the probable addition there of oxygen; but in comets the quota of -active oxygen must be sought for in the correlated planetary, and -not in the cometic, atmospheres, as is the case with the sun. Of -the presence of the vapor of carbon in comets Professor Ball says, -"This is a very singular fact, when it is remembered that carbon is -one of the substances essentially associated with life in the forms in -which we know it." Professor Huggins says, "Since that time the light -from some twenty comets has been examined by different observers. The -general close agreement in all cases, notwithstanding some small -divergencies, of the bright bands in the cometary light with those -seen in the spectrum of hydrocarbons justifies us fully in ascribing -the original light of these comets to matter which contains carbon -in combination with hydrogen." - -We may learn something further of the constitution of comets, -perhaps, by considering the chemical reactions which their spectra -seem to indicate. The following extract is from a recent article on -the manufacture of illuminating gas: "Ammonia contains 82.35 parts -of nitrogen and 17.65 of hydrogen. It is not produced by a direct -combination, for nitrogen can be caught and wedded only by a hot and -skilful wooing. In the gas retort, at a temperature of 2200 degrees -and in the presence of lime, soda, or potash, it will combine with -carbon and form cyanogen, and then further combine with the alkali -to form a cyanide. There is steam in the retort, and, as nearly -as the gas chemists can make out, the nitrogen promptly divorces -itself, gives up the carbon to the oxygen of the steam, and, taking -the hydrogen to itself, becomes, for the time at least, a fixed, if -volatile, substance, but ever ready to enter into new alliances." It -will be remembered that in the comets examined by Professors Huggins -and Draper the spectroscope revealed both cyanogen and the double -line of sodium. The function of the sodium is readily understood, -as by its presence it enables the nitrogen in the cometic atmosphere -to combine with a part of the carbon of the gaseous hydrocarbons -which constitute this atmosphere, and thus produce the cyanogen. But -to effect this combination requires in the retort a temperature of -2200 degrees. If the combining temperature around the nucleus of a -comet is the same, it will show that the temperature of this comet's -nucleus must be very high, and, while many times less than that of -the sun's photosphere, it still clearly illustrates the powerful -character of the impact of the planetary electrical currents upon -the comet, and its tremendous repulsion by the similarly electrified -solar electrosphere. The second one of the above reactions, that -from cyanogen to ammonia, is due to the steam or aqueous vapor in -the retort. But in the case of the comet all the aqueous vapor and -its constituent oxygen have disappeared by electrolytic decomposition -long before the combining temperature of cyanogen has been reached; -so that the sodium, the hydrocarbons, and the cyanogen alone appear, -and the oxygen compounds are missing. But on the reversal of polarity -of this comet by contact with a planetary electrosphere, should such -ever occur, and its consequent assumption of positive electricity, -the oxygen would again appear, and, if the temperature had not yet -receded below that of the reaction which produces ammoniacal vapors, -we might expect, should a fragment of this comet enter our atmosphere -as a meteorite, to find ammonia as well as sodium as a constituent -thereof; otherwise the ammonia would be replaced by carbonic oxide -and carbonic acid, by the action of oxygen upon the hydrocarbons, -and water by the action of oxygen upon the hydrogen of the same, -at much lower temperatures than would suffice for the generation of -ammonia. The cyanogen would then perhaps remain as cyanide of sodium, -unless decomposed by contact with the meteoric metallic iron at a -high temperature, as occurs in the operation known in the arts as -"case-hardening." The presence of microscopic diamonds in meteorites -may be accounted for by a somewhat similar reducing reaction under -heat and the active force of the planetary and solar voltaic arc. - -In the popular view comets are always associated with tails, but, -in fact, comets without tails are far more numerous than those to -which these appendages pertain; the tails, when such exist, are the -direct result of the repulsive energy of the solar electrosphere, -and are only manifested when their proximity to the sun has aroused -sufficient activity to swiftly sweep backward from the sun with -inconceivable velocity the gaseous matter concentrated in and around -the nucleus. As these tails owe their formation to the sun's repulsive -energy, they must always extend radially outward from the sun, and by -the self-repulsive energy of the diverse constituents of the tails -themselves these will be broken occasionally into two, four, or six -lateral strands, and (possibly by the attraction of the different -planetary electrospheres) curvatures may be apparent along the sweep -of the comets' tails corresponding, in effect, with perturbations -produced by gravity in the orbit of the nucleus. Of these various -phenomena, Professor Proctor, in his article on comets, says, "A very -large number of comets have no visible tails. When first seen in the -telescope a comet usually presents a small, round disk of hazy light, -somewhat brighter near the center. As the comet approaches the sun the -disk lengthens, and, if the comet is to be a tailed one, traces begin -to be observed of a streakiness in the comet's light. Gradually a tail -is formed, which is turned always from the sun. The tail grows brighter -and larger, and the head becomes developed into a coma surrounding -a distinctly marked nucleus. Presently the comet is lost to view -through its near approach to the sun; but after a while it is again -seen, sometimes wonderfully changed in aspect through the effects of -solar heat. Some comets are brighter and more striking after passing -their point of nearest approach to the sun than before; others are -quite shorn of their splendor when they reappear." This change of -aspect is not due to solar heat, but to the energetic repulsion of -the solar electrosphere. The force of gravity irresistibly impels -the comet forward to the sun's electrical vortex, and the change of -aspect is due to the repulsion of its entire stock of free gaseous -matter into space in case its supply is small, or to its increased -development and pouring forth in case the supply is large. It is -like the volatilization by a heated atmosphere of ammoniacal gas, -for instance, absorbed in water. The ebullition is vastly increased -by the heat, but if the entire stock of ammonia has been driven off -in its passage through the heated medium, it will emerge with the -residual water quiescent; otherwise, in a state of increased agitation. - -The same author, in "Cometic Mysteries," says, "Repulsion of the -cometary matter could only take place if this matter, after it has -been driven off from the nucleus, and the sun have both high electric -potentials of the same kind." His further guess, however, that it is -analogous to the aurora, is wide of the mark; it is due, in fact, -to the mutual repulsion of their similar negative electrospheres, -the cometic electrosphere, however, being so much smaller than that -of the sun that the latter shows no appreciable disturbance, as -is the case, under similar circumstances, with the electrospheres -of the earth and moon. In the article last quoted it is said, -"There is a dark space immediately behind the nucleus,--that is, -where the nucleus, if solid, would throw its shadow if there were -matter to receive the light all round so that the shadow could be -seen." This presents, it is stated, a great difficulty. The author, -by a happy guess,--almost an inspiration, in fact, of which this -splendid writer and observer was so full,--suggests in a foot-note a -possible explanation, which, while not in itself correct, suggests an -analogous process very like what we actually see. "If the particles -forming the envelopes are minute flat bodies, and if anything in the -circumstances under which these particles are driven off into the -tail causes them to always so arrange themselves that the planes in -which they severally lie pass through the axis of the tail (which, -if the tail is an electrical phenomenon, might very well happen), -then we should find the region behind the nucleus very dark or almost -black, for the particles in the direction of the line of sight there -would be turned edgewise towards us, whereas those on either side or -in the prolongation of the envelopes would turn their faces towards -the observer." As a matter of fact, the envelope streaming backward -from the nucleus forms a hollow tube, the opposite sides of which -exhibit the same mutual repulsion as both exhibit towards the sun; -hence the phenomenon would be similar to that exhibited by blowing -into a closed bag of porous material covered with wisps of cotton, for -example, and the gases, in addition to their rush backward from the -sun, would also exhibit a radial rush outward from the longitudinal -axis of the tail. This is what we actually observe, and sufficiently -accounts for the phenomenon, be it altogether or only partially real, -and not merely, as that author thinks it may be, apparent. It is said, -in the same article, that "Bredichen has shown that where there are -three tails to a comet their forms correspond with the theory that -the envelopes raised from the head are principally formed of hydrogen, -carbon, and iron; but this ... seems open at present to considerable -doubt." At all events, these separate tails are self-repulsive, or -they would be merged into each other by the sun's repulsive energy; -in fact, they occupy the resultant of the direction produced by the -line of the sun's repulsion and those of their own mutually repellent -force,--that is to say, radial or divergent. - -It must not be supposed that these tails are of insignificant -proportions. "When we see the tail of a comet occupying a volume -thousands of times greater than that of the sun itself, the question -naturally suggests itself, 'How does it happen that so vast a body -can sweep through the solar system without deranging the motion of -every planet?' Conceding even an extreme tenuity to the substance -composing so vast a volume, one would still expect its mass to be -tremendous. For instance, if we supposed the whole mass of the tail of -the comet of 1843 to consist of hydrogen gas (the lightest substance -known to us), yet even then the mass of the tail would have largely -exceeded that of the sun. Every planet would have been dragged from -its orbit by so vast a mass passing so near. We know, on the contrary, -that no such effects were produced. The length of our year did not -change by a single second.... Thus we are forced to admit that the -actual substance of the comet was inconceivably rare.... From what we -have already seen, it will be manifest that the formation of comets' -tails is a process of a very marvellous nature, apparently involving -forces other than those with which we are acquainted. The tail, ninety -million miles in length, which was seen stretching from the head of -Newton's comet nearly along the path which the retreating comet had -to traverse, must, it would seem, have been formed by some force -far more active than the force of gravity. The distance traversed -by the comet in the last four weeks of its approach to the sun under -gravity was no greater than that over which the matter of the tail, -seen after the comet had circled around the sun, had been carried in a -few hours. Yet we have no other evidence of any repulsive force at all -being exerted by the sun,--at least no evidence which can be regarded -as demonstrative,--and still less have we any evidence of a repulsive -force exceeding in energy the sun's attracting power." (Proctor.) - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -INTERPRETATION OF COMETIC PHENOMENA. - - -Now, curiously enough, we have in constant use in our laboratories a -little instrument called the electroscope, in which we have manifested -very clearly a repulsive force exceeding in energy the earth's -attracting power, and very greatly exceeding it. It is described in -"Electricity in the Service of Man" as follows: "If we rub a large -glass rod with a silk pad, we observe that it will attract light -bodies, then, after contact, repel them. During the process we may -notice a peculiar noise, and if the experiment be carried out in -the dark we may further notice sparks passing between the rod and -the rubber, and also that the rod becomes luminous. If we suspend -a pith-ball by means of a silk thread, on bringing the rubbed rod -near the pith-ball it will move towards the rod, touch it, and then -be repelled. If the glass rod be again brought near the pith-ball, it -will move away from the glass rod, and continue to be repelled until it -has been touched by some other body.... In order to ascertain whether -electricity is communicated by electrified bodies to non-electrified -bodies when brought into contact, let us suspend two pith-balls from -the same point of support by threads of uniform silk, and touch the -pith-balls with the rubbed glass rod. The balls fly from the rod and -also from one another. On bringing near them a third pith-ball or -any other light body, we find that, though they repel one another, -they are attracted by the light body, showing that they have become -electrified by contact with the rubbed glass rod. From this we -conclude that an unelectrified body may be electrified by contact -with an electrified body, and also that there is repulsion after -contact. There is mutual repulsion between two electrified bodies, -but there is attraction between a single electrified body and one -that is unelectrified." The mutual repulsion of these pith-balls -is the exact measure of the strength of electrification. Hung -side by side to the knob of a prime conductor of an electrical -machine, the mutual repulsion of the similar electrospheres of -these pith-balls drives them apart against the earth's gravity -and holds them extended, if the electrical tension be sufficient, -to their widest limit of divergence. It is, in effect, precisely -similar to the action of the solar and cometic electrospheres (see -illustration in a previous chapter, page 124), each being similarly -electrified and communicating with the other across a space which, -as before stated, is freely traversable by electric currents without -appreciable resistance. That such electrospheres are flaming with -heat does not interfere with such self-repellent action; in fact, -it intensifies it. In Professor Tyndall's "Lessons in Electricity" -we read, "Flames and glowing embers act like points; they also rapidly -discharge electricity. The electricity escaping from a point or flame -renders the air self-repulsive. The consequence is that when the hand -is placed over a point mounted on the prime conductor of a machine in -good action a cold blast is distinctly felt.... Wilson moved bodies -by its action, Faraday caused it to depress the surface of a liquid, -Hamilton employed the reaction of the electric wind to make pointed -wires rotate. The 'wind' was also found to promote evaporation." - -Let us now apply these principles to the tails of comets. If -we conceive the sun and comet to be analogous to our pith-balls, -one enormously larger than the other, however, and hung by vaporous -conducting cords from the combined generating planetary electrospheres, -both sun and cometic nucleus surrounded each by a vaporous envelope, -and suspended so that they will hang from parallel cords, say a -dozen million miles apart, and with no currents of electricity as -yet in operation, we will find that the sun and comet will be simply -attracted towards each other by the force of gravity, so that their -suspending cords will converge. If the planetary electrical machines -now commence their rotations, and currents of electricity begin to pass -in quantity and intensity like those which pass between the earth and -the sun, both the solar and cometic pith-balls will become similarly -electrified, and their gaseous atmospheres, instead of drawing -towards each other, will become luminous and self-repulsive. The -atmosphere which surrounds the cometic pith-ball, by reason of -its great tenuity, will be driven backward with extreme velocity, -while the solar pith-ball electrosphere will be so little affected -that its repulsion will be imperceptible. All the gaseous matter, -however, of the smaller pith-ball will be forced off in a direction -opposite that of the larger one, and this repulsive energy will even -carry the pith-balls apart, causing the suspending cords to widely -diverge from each other, while the force of gravity of the earth -tends to bring them nearer together. If the gravity of the larger -pith-ball, however, was equal, relatively, to that of the sun, the -result would be that the solid pith-balls would be mutually attracted -by gravitation and only the electrified atmospheres, would be mutually -repelled. This experiment would present phenomena similar to those -we are now considering. (See illustration, page 211.) - -In describing Newton's comet, with a tail ninety million miles long -projected backward both from the sun and the comet, when it disappeared -in the light of the sun, and exhibiting a similar tail, also ninety -million miles long, when, less than four days afterwards, it reappeared -from behind the sun, but with the tail now directed forward from the -comet, but in both cases extended radially outward from the sun, it -is obvious that this whole tail must have made a sweeping change of -direction of nearly one hundred and eighty degrees upon the nucleus -as its center. Professor Proctor says, "As Sir John Herschel remarks, -we cannot look on the tail of a comet as something whirled round -like a stick as the comet circles around its perihelion sweep. The -tail with which the comet reappeared must have been an entirely new -formation." It is true that a comet's tail cannot be conceived of as -being whirled round like a stick, but we can very readily conceive -of it as something like a flame composed of incandescent gases, -and it may very easily be blown round a stick; and this is precisely -what must happen in the case of a comet. Construct, for experiment, -a little apparatus consisting of a blow-pipe adapted to deliver a -current of air between two horizontal metal disks, say an eighth of -an inch apart, one perforated at the center to admit the nozzle of -the blow-pipe. By directing a constant current of air through the -latter, it will be deflected so as to blow radially outward in all -directions and in the same plane. Now take a stick with a flame on -the end of it, or a lighted candle, and with it approach this center -of repellent energy in the plane of the space between the disks and -along an ellipse representing the orbit of a comet. As the flame -approaches the improvised solar center it will be driven backward -from the wick of the candle almost along the line of its approach, -and as it passes around the center it will be constantly blown outward -in a radial direction until, when it recedes after perihelion, the -flame will be seen pointed almost directly ahead. At all times the -direction of the flame will lie along the radial lines prolonged -outward from the center through the wick of the candle, and it will -not be a new flame generated at every change of its direction, but -the same flame constantly forced outward by the repulsive force of -the central atmosphere in this case or the solar electrosphere in -the case of the sun. This experiment is an accurate and conclusive -exhibit of the phenomena of solar repulsion in its action upon the -tail of a comet. It is analogous in principle to the repulsion of -the pith-balls and the electric wind and (in application) to the -phenomena presented by comets in their movements to, around, and -from the sun. This repulsion is not operative in effect against the -wick of the candle,--that is to say, it is not the repulsion of the -nucleus which determines the direction of the tail, but the repulsion -by direct outblow of the sun, so to speak, upon the incandescent -gases of the tail itself. This fact clearly demonstrates that the -repulsion of like electrospheres is the cause of the phenomenon, and, -when once understood, the process is quite as simple as that of the -original formation of the tail itself, which no one disputes. - -There is to be further considered the theoretical resistance of -space to the projection and deflection of such enormous volumes -of attenuated matter as appear in comets' tails. While it may not -be absolutely necessary to offer an explanation of this apparent -difficulty, in view of the fact that such projection and deflection -do actually occur, still, the well-known laws of the diffusion of -gases, in accordance with which any gaseous matter will traverse -any other gaseous matter with the same velocity as, and with no more -resistance than, in a vacuum, will show that this difficulty has been -much overrated, while for the twin difficulty, how to account for the -persistence of luminosity at such vast distances from its source, we -may quote from Professor Proctor, "Cometic Mysteries," who, in turn, -quotes as follows: "Comets travel in what must be regarded as to -all intents and purposes a vacuum. From Dr. Crookes' experiments on -very high vacua we may infer that there is very little loss of heat, -except by radiation." By "intents and purposes" we understand, of -course, as a cause of resistance, and certainly there is no reason to -believe that the attenuated vapors of space are sufficient in density -to cause any rapid diffusion of heat by convection, as contrasted -with that of radiation. - -We have seen that comets of short period sometimes disappear, and -that their disappearance is frequently followed by the appearance -of trains of meteors. In other words, they have apparently lost -their cometic properties and become permanent adjuncts to our solar -system. A curious confirmation of this fact is to be found in the -character of the occluded gases which are contained in such meteorites -as sometimes fall upon the earth's surface. Of this Professor Proctor -says, "We have reason to believe that the nucleus of a comet consists -of an aggregation of stones similar to meteorites." Speaking of -the condition in which meteorites reach the earth, he says, "They -are known to contain as much as six times their own volume of gases -(taken at atmospheric pressure). In one of these meteorites recently -examined by Dr. Flight, the following percentages of various gases -were noted: Of carbonic oxide, 31.88; of carbonic acid gas, 0.12; of -hydrogen, 45.79; of olefiant gas, 4.55; and of nitrogen, 17.66." The -presence of olefiant gas at once suggests the hydrocarbons of the -cometic nucleus. The presence of this gas cannot be accounted for by -the passage of the meteorite through our atmosphere, nor can that of -hydrogen, and these are two characteristic gases, together with the -vapor of carbon, constantly found to exist in comets. - -As before explained, the advent of a comet into our solar system -is that of a stranger, with electric polarity the opposite of -that of the planetary electrospheres and identical with that of -the sun. Under the combined influence of the solar gravity and -perturbation by the gravity of the planets these foreign bodies -tend to shorten their periods, and finally fall into the ordinary -array of the bodies which compose our own solar system. But when -this occurs they will, in turn, become contributors to, instead of -antagonists of, the energy of the sun; in other words, they must then -conform electrically to the condition of the family into which they -have married,--that is to say, the planets,--and a reversal of their -electrical polarity will take place. This reversal of polarity is no -novelty in the operation of electrical apparatus. In "Electricity in -the Service of Man" we read as follows of the Voss induction machine: -"This machine is exceedingly powerful in favorable weather, but has -an important defect in a tendency to self-reversal, which is apt to -occur at a stoppage. This defect can be produced in a Voss machine, -when desired, by holding a metal point to the positive brush K. The -two derived inductive circuits are beautifully manifested when this -machine is worked in the dark. A luminous stream is seen pouring -towards the collecting comb L on whichever side of the machine the comb -is positive." It will thus be seen that simple contact of a neutral -(or negatively opposite) body will reverse the electrical polarity -of this machine, or even the interruption of its motion will do so -at times. Possibly a similar reversal may be produced in a comet -by the contact in whole or in part of its nucleus with a planetary -electrosphere, since the action of gravity is entirely independent -of that of the attraction or repulsion of the electrospheres of both -planetary and cometic bodies. Such reversal of polarity in a comet -would at once extinguish its luminosity, and the generation of oxygen -would at once replace the prior generation of hydrogen, and herein -we may find explained the presence of carbonic oxide in large volume -and carbonic acid in small volume in the meteorite above referred to, -and of which gases Professor Proctor says, "It is quite certain these -gases were not taken up by the meteorolite during its flight through -the air." These aggregations of discrete meteoric bodies, loosely -adherent by mutual gravity alone, would be gradually torn apart by -planetary interference and dragged into streams of small bodies, -thenceforth traversing space in elliptical orbits around the sun, -just as do the planets and planetoids. Cyanogen, also, the deadly gas -so frequently found to exist in enormous quantities in the nuclei of -comets, would at once disappear, by double conversion into carbonic -acid, or oxide, and ammonia, or nitrogen, so that this danger, as -the result of a comet's possible approach to the earth's atmosphere, -may be dismissed from apprehension. - -It will be seen that all the enormous difficulties in the phenomena -of comets find an explanation in the operation of the same universal -laws which we have endeavored to apply to the other sidereal bodies. In -conclusion, we may cite the following from Dr. Huggins: "Broadly, the -different applications of principles of electricity which have been -suggested group themselves about the common idea that great electrical -disturbances are set up by the sun's action in connection with the -vaporization of some of the matter of the nucleus, and that the tail -is probably matter carried away, possibly in connection with electric -discharges, under an electrical influence of repulsion exerted by the -sun. This view necessitates the supposition that the sun is strongly -electrified, either negatively or positively, and, further, that in -the processes taking place in the comet, either of vaporization or -of some other kind, the matter thrown out by the nucleus has become -strongly electrified in the same way as the sun,--that is, negatively -if the sun's electricity is negative, or positively if the sun's is -positive. The enormous disturbances which the spectroscope shows -to be always at work in the sun must be accompanied by electrical -changes of equal magnitude, but we know nothing as to how far these -are all, or the great majority of them, in one direction, so as -to cause the sun to maintain permanently a high electrical state, -whether positive or negative." The above speculations will have thus -become demonstrated facts (though not in the mode suggested by the -above writer) as soon as we clearly understand that, instead of the -sun's "enormous disturbances" producing "electrical changes of equal -magnitude," it is the electrical changes of equal magnitude which -themselves cause the sun's disturbances, and that the sun's negative -electrical polarity is permanently fixed by the opposite and positive -polarity of the planetary electrospheres, and that all these various -phenomena are but the normal expression of a single universal law, -and are all due to the constant interaction of planetary, solar, -and cometic electrospheres, in accordance with the well-established -principles of electrical science. If, however, we consider, as is -generally believed to be the case, the sun itself to be the sole -prime source of its visible energy, nothing but difficulty and vague -speculation can be looked for on every hand; but by relegating the -solar orb to its proper place, and taking as the starting-point the -true source of all energy,--to wit, the hidden forces embodied in the -vapors or gases of interstellar space,--the whole process and mode of -action will logically follow, and obscurity and difficulty together -disappear. This principle, properly understood, is a master-key which -will unlock every problem and interpret every enigma which the realms -of interstellar space can present. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE RESOLVABLE NEBULÆ, STAR-CLUSTERS AND GALAXIES. - - -When we come to consider the nebulæ, and endeavor to learn what part -electricity has to play in the phenomena presented by these singular -objects, we must recollect, in order to give them their due importance, -that they are neither few in number nor uniform in constitution. Of -the nebulæ, Professor Proctor ("Star-Clouds and Star-Mist") says, -"When the depths of the heavens are explored with a powerful -telescope a number of strange cloud-like objects are brought into -view. It is startling to consider that if the eye of man suddenly -acquired the light-gathering power of a large telescope, and if at -the same time all the single stars disappeared, we should see on the -celestial vault a display of the mysterious objects called nebulæ or -star-clouds exceeding in number all the stars which can now be seen -on the darkest night in winter. The whole sky would seem mottled -with these singular objects." As telescopes, with the advances of -constructive art, increased in power, these luminous clouds became -more and more clearly defined, and many of them became resolved into -clusters of stars, galaxies of suns like the Milky Way, of which latter -our solar system is a constituent part, but more distant from us than -the separately visible stars of that galaxy, and each separated from -the relatively adjacent clusters by intervals of space comparable only -with those which separate them from our own system. Of these glorious -star-clusters, says Flammarion, in "The Wonders of the Heavens," -"In the bosom of infinite space, the unfathomable depth of which we -have tried to comprehend, float rich clusters of stars, each separated -by immense intervals. We shall soon show that all the stars are suns -like ours, shining with their own light, and foci of as many systems -of worlds. Now, the stars are not scattered in all parts of space -at hazard; they are grouped as the members of many families. If -we compared the ocean of the heavens with the ocean of the earth, -we should say that the isles which sprinkle this ocean do not rise -separately in all parts of the sea, but that they are united here and -there in archipelagoes more or less rich.... They are all collected in -tribes, most of which count their members by millions." Says Professor -Nichol, "System on system of majesty unspeakable float through the -fathomless ocean of space. Our galaxy, with splendors that seem -illimitable, is only a unit among unnumbered throngs; we can think -of it, in comparison with creation, but as we were wont to think of -one of its own stars. "Of these glorious star-clusters the same writer -says, "That no one has ever seen them in a telescope of adequate power -without uttering a shout of wonder." These mist-like star-clouds were -successively resolved, nebula by nebula, until science settled into -the belief that with telescopes of adequate power all nebulæ might be -so resolved, and the capacity of telescopes to thus resolve nebulæ -became a test of their power. But spectrum analysis finally entered -the lists with new methods of investigation, and the comparatively -tiny spectroscope at a single leap passed far beyond the utmost -limits of the highest telescopic vision, and at one blow struck the -whole category of nebulæ into two widely different classes,--those -composed of discrete stars grouped like the suns of our own Milky -Way, and exhibiting the characteristic spectra of such bodies, and -those composed of diffused gaseous matter not yet condensed into -suns, and showing the disconnected spectral lines of simple elemental -gases. The line of division was clear, direct, positive, and beyond all -dispute. Yet beyond these two classes further research has disclosed -certain vast nebulæ in which some portions exhibit true solar spectra -more or less modified and others true gaseous spectra, each apparently -merging into the other by gradations so faint and delicate that the -inference is irresistible that in these nebulæ we see the processes -of galactic and solar creation at various stages of their development. - -Of these nebulæ, Professor Ball says, "In one of his most remarkable -papers, Sir W. Herschel presents us with a summary of his observations -on the nebulæ, arranged in such a manner as to suggest his theory -of the gradual transmutation of nebulæ into stars. He first shows -us that there are regions in the heavens where a faint diffused -nebulosity is all that can be detected by the telescope. There are -other nebulæ in which a nucleus can be just discerned, others again -in which the nucleus is easily seen, and still others where the -nucleus is a bright star-like point. The transition from an object -of this kind to a nebulous star is very natural, while the nebulous -stars pass into the ordinary stars by a few graduated stages. It -is thus possible to enumerate a series of objects, beginning at one -end with the most diffused nebulosity and ending at the other with -an ordinary fixed star or group of stars. Each object in the series -differs but slightly from the object just before it and just after -it." And of these composite nebulæ, he adds, "The great nebula in -Orion is known to be the most glorious body of its class that the -heavens display. Seen through a powerful telescope, ... the appearance -of this grand 'light stain' is of indescribable glory. It is a vast -volume of bluish gaseous material with hues of infinite softness -and delicacy. Here it presents luminous tracts which glow with an -exquisite blue light; there it graduates off until it is impossible -to say where the nebula ceases and the black sky begins." - -With reference to these distant galaxies of apparently complete solar -systems like our own, the same principles must regulate the conversion -of this energy of planetary electricity into the energy of solar -light and heat as we see manifested in our own sun. The light of the -individual stars is sufficient evidence of this; but the question may -be asked, Is the electrical interaction between separate galaxies and -between different solar systems in the same galaxy universal, or are -these operations merely local? In other words, Is the source and the -mode of solar energy in accordance with a single universal law of and -between all created universes, or is it limited in effective energy -to the members of each individual solar system alone? The answer -is, that it is not less universal than the law of gravitation and -no more so. There is a prevalent popular fallacy that the force of -gravity is such that the movements, not only of solar systems, but -of whole galaxies, and of all the illimitable systems of galaxies, -are under its effective control, and that the whole universe of -boundless space acknowledges its overwhelming sway. But nothing can be -further from the truth. We know, of course, that the law is universal, -as expressed in the statement of its terms by Newton, but the mere -statement of the law itself, as applied to interstellar distances, -refutes the idea that solar systems and galaxies can rotate around -any common center by virtue of the attraction of gravitation as a -controlling force. The universality of the law itself has even been -doubted. Professor Ball says, "In the first book about astronomy which -I read in my boyhood there was a glowing description.... I allude to -the discovery, or the alleged discovery, of a certain 'central sun' -about which it was believed or stated that all the bodies in the -universe revolved.... It was too good to be true. No one ever hears -anything about the central sun hypothesis nowadays.... It must be, -then, admitted that when the law of gravitation is spoken of as being -universal, we are using language infinitely more general than the -facts absolutely warrant. At the present moment we only know that -gravitation exists to a very small extent in a certain indefinite -small portion of space. Our knowledge would have to be enormously -increased before we could assert that gravitation was in operation -throughout this very limited region; and even when we have proved -this, we should only have made an infinitesimal advance to a proof -that gravitation is absolutely universal." - -Anyone who chooses may prove for himself that the force exercised by -gravitation between the multitudinous suns of our own galaxy, the Milky -Way, and our earth must be quite infinitesimal, and totally unable to -control the motions of our own solar system in a definite orbit through -universal space. We know that the law which regulates the intensity of -light at various distances is the same as the law of gravity,--that -is to say, the proportion is directly as the mass and inversely as -the square of the distance. We know also that the stars which compose -the Milky Way are similarly constituted, generally considered, to our -own sun, and that under similar circumstances the emission of light, -roughly speaking, will vary according to the magnitude of these distant -suns. Now, if any one will stand, at the darkest hour of the night, -when the moon is absent and the sky perfectly cloudless, when the - - - "Stars that oversprinkle all the heavens seem to twinkle - With a crystalline delight," - - -and sweep with his gaze all the concave hemisphere of the sky, and -then compare the light which is radiated around him with the gorgeous -effulgence of the noonday summer sun, he can pretty closely compare -the relative attraction of gravity which all those distant suns -together can exercise upon our earth with that of our own sun. Under -control of the latter, the earth sweeps around in her orbit at the -rate of about twenty miles per second; all these suns could not give -our solar system even a minute fraction of that. Of this starlight -Professor Ball says, "The sun certainly must receive some heat by -the radiation from the stars; but this is quite infinitesimal in -comparison with his own stupendous radiation." Any such attraction, -of course, could not control the motions of our solar system, and -much less that of many of the others. - - - "The night has a thousand eyes, and the day but one, - But the light of the whole world dies when the day is done." - - -We can also demonstrate the fact mathematically by an exceedingly -rough calculation, which, however, will be sufficient for our -purpose. Of the Milky Way, which comprises only the stars of our own -sidereal system, Professor Ball says, "One hundred million stars are -presumed to be disposed in a flat circular layer of such dimensions -that a ray of light would require thirty thousand years to traverse -one diameter." (The most recent estimates make the number of the -stars which compose the Milky Way several times one hundred million, -occupying a correspondingly greater amplitude of space. The number in -any case is sufficiently stupendous.) Our solar system is located in -space at the apex of a vast transverse cleft, and nearly at the center -of this disk. Let us leave out of consideration the lower half of the -Milky Way, as we look upward on a starlit night, and conceive this -galaxy to extend only across the midnight sky above us like an archway, -with fifty million suns, visible and invisible, exposed in the field -of our vision. The nearest of all the fixed stars to us is that known -as Alpha Centauri,--not visible, however, in our northern skies. This -star is about two hundred and thirty thousand times as far from our -sun as is the earth. If of the same mass as our sun, it must exert -upon us an attractive force of gravity one fifty-three-billionth -that of our own sun. Next in distance is the star No. 61 of the -constellation Cygnus. This may be three times as distant, and is -certainly not less than twice. The light of the former will reach -the earth in three and one-quarter years; that of the latter in not -less than six and one-half years, perhaps much more. These are our -nearest stellar neighbors. While the former will attract us with only -one fifty-three-thousand-millionth that of the sun, the latter will -attract us with less than one two-hundred-thousand-millionth that of -our sun. Conceive, then, a square pyramid extending radially upward -for three thousand times the mean of these distances to the upper -probable limits of the Milky Way, a light-distance of fifteen thousand -years, and that this pyramid expands according to the squares of its -distances, so that it will contain within it, equally distributed, -all the stars (fifty million) of the upper half of the disk of the -Milky Way; the sum total of all these attractions could not reach one -twenty-millionth part of that of our sun upon the earth. If we continue -to pile galaxies, in the same perpetual recession, behind each other -to all infinity, we still could not engender sufficient attractive -force to control the observed movements of the multitudinous stars of -space. The very statement of the law of gravitation itself disproves -it; for if we multiply orbs and systems according to any principle -of aggregation that we know of in the way of distribution of such -systems, or anything possible, with due regard to their own mutually -interacting movements in space, we could never reach the inside limits -of such a sphere of control, because the piling up of orb behind orb -adds but an infinitesimal fraction to the force of gravity, for as -the orbs themselves multiply in distance progressively by hundreds, -their relative attractions inversely diminish by ten thousands. No -possible increase of suns directly in mass could compensate for such -an inverse ratio of squares, even if all intergalactic space were -peopled with suns, instead of being, in fact, like a vast ocean, with -a few small clusters of islands scattered here and there throughout -its illimitable extent. - -Of these vast realms of space, Professor Ball asks, "Is our sidereal -system to be regarded as an oceanic island in space, or is it in -such connection with the systems in other parts of space as might -lead us to infer that the various systems had a common character? The -evidence seems to show that the stars in our system are probably not -permanently associated together, but that in the course of time some -stars enter our system and other stars leave it, in such manner -as to suggest that the bodies visible to us are fairly typical -of the general contents of the universe. The strongest evidence -that can be presented on this subject is met with in the peculiar -circumstances of one particular star. The star in question is known -as No. 1830 of Groombridge's catalogue. It is a small star, not to be -seen without the aid of a telescope.... We shall probably be quite -correct in assuming that the distance is not less than two hundred -billions of miles.... The velocity is no less than two hundred miles -per second.... The star sweeps along through our system with this -stupendous velocity.... The velocity being over twenty-five miles a -second, the attraction can never overcome the velocity, so that the -star seems destined to escape." Of the star Alcyone he says, "Doubtless -that star is thousands of billions of miles from the earth; doubtless -the light from it requires thousands of years--and some astronomers -have said millions of years--to span the abyss which intervenes -between our globe and those distant regions." And yet these stars, -these galaxies, and even all the nebulæ we see or ever shall see, are -merely in the vestibule of space; we have scarcely even yet lifted the -outer curtain at the entrance of those vast realms. That the popular, -but pseudo-scientific, idea of a series of ever-widening concentric -orbits, increasing at every new expansion by an inconceivable ratio, -is incredible we can well understand, and it is a satisfaction to -know that such a wild hypothesis finds no warrant in the dicta or the -demonstrations of science. And it is in the failure of gravity to -control over the intervening space which lies between those vastly -distant centers that we may hope to find the inklings of a more -far-reaching law, by which nebulæ like that of Orion crystallize out -into separate star systems, just as in the rocks, whether igneous, -metamorphic, or sedimentary, we find the attraction of cohesion yield -to that of crystallization, until the whole cleft rock blazes with -countless garnets in the schist and quartz crystals in the gneiss, -or reveals the yellow specks of olivine in volcanic ejections. - -We shall find in the processes concerned with the development of living -things the workings of a similar great law, perhaps the same. Wherever -there is the possibility of life, there we find life. There seems to -be an all-pervading vital tension, so to speak, an energizing force, -which drives the evolution and ascent of life forward and upward by -successive leaps, as it were, from type to type, from race to race, -and even from nation to nation. In this universal forward movement -we may dimly discern the primordial creative and developing impulse, -constantly acting, but manifesting visible change only at intervals -as gathering forces accumulate and equilibrium is disturbed. It -manifests itself in all the fields of nature,--vital, chemical, -molecular, molar, systemic. It is the ever-acting, eternal past, -present, and future, the macrocosm and the microcosm, the panurgus, -the Brahma, the Ancient of Days, and cannot be silenced or evaded: - - - "They reckon ill who leave me out, - When me they fly I am the wings." - - -R. Kalley Miller, in his "Romance of Astronomy," says, "It would be -hopeless to attempt expressing in ordinary language the vast distance -at which these clusters of stars are situated from us. If we were to -reckon it in miles, or even in millions of miles, figures would pile -upon figures till in their number all definite idea of their value -was lost. We must choose another unit to measure these infinitudes of -space,--a unit compared with which the dimensions of our own solar -system shrink into absolute nothingness. The velocity of light is -such that it would flash fifteen times from pole to pole of our earth -between two beats of the pendulum. It bridges the huge chasm that -separates us from the sun in little more than eight minutes. But the -light that shows us these faint star-clusters has been travelling -with this frightful velocity for more than two million years since -it left its distant source. We see them to-day in the fields of our -telescopes, not as they are now, but as they were countless ages before -the creation of man upon the earth. What they are now who can tell?" - -The movements of solar systems through space are unquestionably -controlled by some wider law than that of gravitation, and it still -remains for science to seek its hidden principles and discover its -mode of operation. We know that some stars travel alone, like the -star already noted, No. 1830 of Groombridge's catalogue; that others -travel in pairs, like the double star Mizar and its companion Alcor; -and others in groups, like the stars Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon and -Zeta, of the constellation Ursa Major; that we are driving towards -the constellation Lyra and leaving behind us Sirius and its fellows, -and that many, if not all, of the stars whose motions we can measure -have a rapid movement through space, but under what control, in accord -with what hidden harmony, and under what general plan they move, -we do not know; but the laws of electrical action of the circling -planets upon their central suns, and of these upon space, we can -readily account for by the similar operation of the same laws within -our own solar domain; and we know by the similar terms of the ratio -of distribution of light that this is commensurate in extent with the -law of gravity, and operates in a like proportion of energy over all -intervening distances; so that wherever our sun presents a visible -point of light, there it is pouring its energy into space, and every -sun we can see, every galaxy, every star-cluster, nay, every nebula, -is likewise pouring into the interplanetary space of our own solar -system its proportionate quota of energy. The very fact that we can -see the star shine is itself the fullest evidence that this is so, -and evidence also that the law of gravitation there, too, is still -in force, operating over these same distances, and with the same -proportionate energy. - -Knowing all this, we can read with a new light the grand vistas -of the skies, with their starry denizens, and claim them all as -parts of our own family; and the mutual interchange of attractive -energy and of light and heat will not fail between us until those -inconceivable distances shall have been reached which human knowledge -can never span and where speculation fails; and even there, from out -those dark abysses,--dark to our human eyes,--the call will still -faintly reach us, and our response will reach them also, though we -shall never have tangible evidence that such mutual ties continue to -exist. Industriously our planets gather their mighty energies from -the surrounding springs of space, as one dips water from a crystal -stream; we hand it over to our sun, and he, the royal high-priest, -sprinkles it in glittering diamond-sprays over all those countless -suns and their subject worlds, and they are baptized with an eternal -baptism into our common brotherhood and we into theirs. Our familiar -planets, Mars, Jupiter, Neptune, the earth, and even our little moon, -seem to raise their voices and take actual part in the councils of -almighty power, to move about as perpetual benefactors, gathering and -spreading beneficence abroad, instead of cowering, a hapless few, -like storm-stayed travellers, around the dying embers of our poor -old sun, passive recipients of the light and heat and life which we -have been taught to believe are slowly sinking into ashes and fading -away in eternal darkness and death. One swift glance into these -boundless truths is better for the human soul than the slow passage -of whole hopeless centuries, which leave as their inevitable legacy -on earth a vast and final catastrophe, in which everything that gave -us light and heat and being must perish forever. Has it, indeed, -come to this, that the last word which science has to offer is, -"After us the deluge"? By no means. We have merely been endeavoring -to measure the right hand of God by weighing and measuring a single -isolated one of his countless multitude of suns. - -It is as though one standing beside a great water-wheel should estimate -its power and rotation by measuring the width and depth of the buckets -and calculating the weight of water which its thirty-two receptacles -contain, saying, "at its present rate in so many seconds it will cease -to move." But we take him to the water-gate, and show it wide open; -to the great dam above it which contains cubic miles of water; and -still beyond that to the mighty fountains bursting forth with their -rush and roar from the rock-ribbed fastnesses of the eternal hills, -and pouring their unfailing flood-tide down forever and ever. And we -do not pause even here: we show him the vapors rising from the spent -water again, condensing into clouds, pouring down in torrents of rain -among the hills, and that these continuously feed the sources of the -fountains, which in turn supply the wheel almost to bursting. And so -it is with the glorious mechanism of the heavens. - -The source of solar energy is not to be found in the sun itself, -but in his environment; and he himself, in all his glory, is but the -king, crowned with gold, blazing with rich apparel, and scattering -benefits among his satellites, not from his own private treasury, -but who himself is enriched by the mighty tribute with which his -willing subjects continually endow him, and to whom alone he owes -all his pride and power and wealth and magnificence, and which he, in -turn, so freely expends, transmuted in form alone, in the perpetual -improvement and welfare of his domain. He is the faithful ruler, -but not the creator; the beneficent monarch, but not the god. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE GASEOUS NEBULÆ. - - -When we reach the irresolvable nebulæ, we unquestionably have -approached the creative period of solar systems and in many cases -of whole galaxies. These are multifarious in form, but all can be -reduced to a few comprehensive types. In determining the question -as to whether these irresolvable nebulæ were composed of distinct -stars like the Milky Way, but too distant to be resolved from their -mist-like light into discrete stars by the most powerful telescopes, -or whether they were gaseous in constitution,--that is, composed -of diffused gaseous elements not condensed into solar bodies,--the -spectroscope became the final and infallible test. Of this instrument, -thus used, Professor Proctor, in his "Star-Clouds and Star-Mist," says, -"A very few words will explain the whole matter to readers who remember -the three fundamental laws of this new mode of investigation,--viz., -that, first, light from a burning solid or liquid source gives the -rainbow-colored streak of light commonly known as the prismatic -spectrum; secondly, when vapors surround such a source of light, the -rainbow-colored streak is crossed by dark lines; and, thirdly, when the -source of light is gas, there is no longer a rainbow-colored streak, -but merely a finite number of bright lines." Dr. Huggins selected for -investigation the small planetary nebula in the Dragon. He says, "When -I had directed the telescope armed with the spectrum apparatus to this -nebula, I at first suspected that some derangement of the instrument -had taken place, for no spectrum was seen, but only a short line of -light. I then found that the light of this nebula, unlike any other -extra-terrestrial light which had yet been subjected by me to prismatic -analysis, was of definite colors, and therefore could not form a -spectrum. A great part of the light is monochromatic, and so remains -concentrated in a bright line occupying a position in the spectrum -corresponding to its color. Careful examination showed a narrower and -much fainter line near the one first discovered. Beyond this point, -about three times as far from the first line, was a third exceedingly -faint line. From the position of one of the bright lines it is inferred -the gas nitrogen is one of the constituents of the nebula; another line -indicates the existence of the gas hydrogen in that far-off system; -the third line has not yet been associated with any known terrestrial -element, though it is near one belonging to the metal barium, and -still nearer one belonging to oxygen; a fourth line occasionally seen -belongs to hydrogen." Professor Proctor says, "Dr. Huggins examined -a large number of the planetary nebulæ (so called), obtaining in -each case a spectrum which indicates gaseity. In some cases only one -line could be seen, in others two, more commonly three, and in a few -instances four. When these lines were seen they invariably corresponded -in position with those already described. The single line sometimes -seen corresponded with the brightest line of the three; and when a -second line was visible, this also was no new line, but agreed with -the second brightest line in the three-line spectrum. The fourth line -was seen only in the spectrum of a very bright, small, blue planetary -nebula, but was later observed in other cases, and especially in the -great Orion nebula." At this time the latter was not visible, but when -Dr. Huggins had opportunity to examine it, he says, "The telescopic -observations of this nebula seem to show that it is suitable to a -crucial test of the usually received opinion that the resolution of -a nebula into bright stellar points is a certain indication that the -nebula consists of discrete stars." Professor Proctor says, "A simple -glance resolved the difficulty. The light from the brightest part of -the nebula--the very part which under Lord Rosse's great reflector -blazed with innumerable points of light--gave a spectrum identical in -all respects with that which Huggins had obtained from the planetary -nebulæ. Thus, what had been deemed boldness in Herschel--namely, -that he should have associated the wildest and most fantastic nebula -in the heavens with the circular and (in ordinary telescopes) almost -uniformly luminous planetary nebulæ--was unexpectedly confirmed." The -spectrum of this nebula has more recently been photographed by a long -exposure in the camera of the prepared plate. Of the result, Professor -Proctor thus speaks, "The nebula is seen to be in great part gaseous, -and, where gaseous, to shine in the main with the tints described -above; but parts of the nebula are not gaseous, and those portions -which are so are not all constituted in the same manner.... That -portion which is called the fish's mouth gives a continuous spectrum; -in other words, the same spectrum which we obtain from a star or a -star-cluster. This is the spectrum arising from a glowing solid or -liquid mass, or if from a gaseous body, then the gaseous body must be -in a state of great compression.... But the stars thus forming must -be immersed in the glowing gas forming the general substance of the -nebula.... It would be absurd to suppose that the nebula is a flat -surface; ... nebulous matter lies also, in all probability (certainly -one might fairly say), between us and the stellar aggregration as -well as on the farther side." Further, the same author says, "If, -as is probable, the luminosity of the gaseous portion of the Orion -nebula is accompanied by but a relatively small proportion of heat, -then the rays from the violet and ultra-violet part of the spectrum -are likely to give us much more complete information respecting the -constitution of these nebulous masses than can be derived from the -visible part of the spectrum." - -In the recent work of Professor Ball, "In the High Heavens," that -author says, "There are, however, good grounds for believing that -nebulæ really do undergo some changes, at least as regards brightness; -but whether these changes are such as Herschel's theory would seem -to require is quite another question. Perhaps the best-authenticated -instance is that of the variable nebula in the constellation of -Taurus, discovered by Mr. Hind in 1852. At the time of its discovery -this object was a small nebula about one minute in diameter, with a -central condensation of light. D'Arrest, the distinguished astronomer -of Copenhagen, found in 1861 that this nebula had vanished. On the 29th -of December, 1861, the nebula was again seen in the powerful refractor -at Pulkova, but on December 12, 1863, Mr. Hind failed to detect it -with the telescope by which it had been originally discovered.... In -1868, O. Struve, observing at Pulkova, detected another nebulous spot -in the vicinity of the place of the missing object, but this also -has now vanished. Struve, however, does not consider that the nebula -of 1868 is distinct from Hind's nebula, but he says, 'What I see is -certainly the variable nebula itself, only in altered brightness and -spread over a larger space. Some traces of nebulosity are still to be -seen exactly on the spot where Hind and D'Arrest placed the variable -nebula. It is a remarkable circumstance that this nebula is in the -vicinity of a variable star which changes somewhat irregularly from -the ninth to the twelfth magnitude. At the time of the discovery in -1861 both the star and the nebula were brighter than they have since -become.'... It must be admitted that the changes are such as would -not be expected if Herschel's theory were universally true. Another -remarkable occurrence in modern astronomy may be cited as having -some bearing on the question as to the actual evidence for or against -Herschel's theory. On November 24, 1876, Dr. Schmidt noticed a new star -of the third magnitude in the constellation Cygnus.... The brilliancy -gradually declined until, on the 13th of December, Mr. Hind found it to -be of the sixth magnitude. The spectrum ... exhibited several bright -lines which indicated that the star differed from other stars by the -possession of vast masses of glowing gaseous material.... September 2, -1877, it was then below the tenth magnitude and of a decidedly bluish -tint. Viewed through the spectroscope, its light was almost completely -monochromatic, and appeared to be indistinguishable from that which -is often found to come from nebulæ.... It would seem certain that -we have an instance before us in which a star has changed into a -planetary nebula of small angular diameter.... Professor Pickering, -however, has since found slight traces of a continuous spectrum, but -the object has now become so extremely faint that such observations -are very difficult.... For the nebular theory we require evidence -of the conversion of nebulæ into stars." And not, it may be added, -of stars into nebulæ. - -Of the irregular nebulæ, Professor Proctor says, "It may well -chance, as long since suggested by Professor Clark, of Cincinnati, -and as more cautiously hinted by Dr. Huggins, that in the varieties -of constitution observed in the irregular nebulæ, and the evidence -such varieties afford of progressive changes, we may find not merely -direct evidence of the development of suns and sun-systems from the -great masses of nebulous matter, but even what would be a far more -important and impressive result,--actual evidence of the development -of so-called elements from substances really elementary, or, at any -rate, one stage nearer the elementary condition than are our hydrogen, -nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and so forth. The peculiarity of the spectral -indications of the presence of nitrogen and hydrogen in the nebula, -that only one line of nitrogen and two or three lines of hydrogen are -discernible, instead of a complete spectrum of either element as seen -under any known conditions, seems suggestive of what may be called -a more elemental condition of hydrogen and nitrogen." Whether this -be so, or whether these peculiarities are due to self-obscuration, or -mutual reversal of the familiar lines due to the enormous disturbances -of the nebular mass which must exist, it is certain that there is one -terrestrial substance, at least, which acts invariably, in combination -and chemical affinity, as a simple element in inorganic chemistry, -but which is, in fact, compound,--to wit, the hypothetical radical -ammonium, which is closely allied with the simple alkaline metals -potassium and sodium, forming with them a single group; and yet, -while the others have always remained as fixed, primitive elements, -the hypothetical element ammonium alone is a composite substance -consisting of hydrogen and nitrogen, two of the invariable gaseous -constituents of all these nebulæ. In comets we find, vaguely expressed, -an occasional strongly marked sodium line, and also the spectrum of -carbon; in these gaseous nebulæ we find, as yet, no trace of carbon, -and this element is so closely allied to hydrogen in its chemical -affinities and reactions as to suggest that it may be the same element -or some alloy of it, or in some allotropic form, as we find to be the -case with other simple elements under special conditions. In organic -chemistry--the chemistry of organic life--we find almost innumerable -compound radicals which act as simple elements in combination, but -which we can combine and separate into their constituents at will; -to all intents and purposes, in their various reactions, they behave -as elemental substances, and were it not that our analyses are able to -resolve them, as the spectroscope resolves the nebulæ, we might well -believe that here also we were dealing with simple primary elements. It -is almost certain that great discoveries in this field of chemistry -are not far distant, which will recall with wondering surprise the now -universally exploded fallacies of the "Philosopher's Stone" and the -"Universal Solvent." Indeed, we may find in the electrical energies -of the planets and the self-repulsive force of the electrospheres -of the earth and moon possible grounds for investigating anew some -of the abandoned tenets of astrology, in the hope that the light of -science may disclose some basis, at least, for what, at one time,--and -for nearly all time, in fact,--was the universally accepted belief, -not only of the ignorant, but of those the wisest and most learned of -their day and generation. If the planets by their position can cloud -the sun, nearly a million miles in diameter, with spots, or shed the -brilliance of the aurora borealis over all our skies, may they not -also cloud the embryonic intellect, or charge it with energies for -a career of prosperity or of disaster? May not the unseen currents, -or the electric storms around us, or the vast electrical phenomena -of the sun as well affect the sprouting germs of the husbandman or -some abnormally rapid development of an insect pest as the light, -the warmth, the moisture, or the cold, which, to our coarser vision, -are alone apparent? Fancy and fallacy revel luxuriantly where science -fails, but truth existed long before science was systematized, and the -supercilious condemnation of once generally accepted views without -examination is merely pseudo-science, and scarcely a single grade -higher in the scale than ignorant superstition itself. And every -new advance in knowledge requires a new overhauling of abandoned -material, just as a new advance in metallurgical knowledge enables -us sometimes to work over again our once-rejected mining dumps -with decided profit. Indeed, science itself is but a collection of -observed facts reduced to system, and among the shrewd and practical -miners there is a well-known saying, "The ore is where you find it," -which has frequently put scientific assertion to the blush. - -A study of the beautiful mezzotint plates, from the drawings of -the Earl of Rosse, contained in Professor Nichol's splendid work, -"The Architecture of the Heavens," will clearly disclose the forms, as -revealed by a powerful telescope, of many of these gaseous nebulæ. Of -such nebulæ, Appleton's Cyclopædia says, "nebulæ proper, or those -which have not been definitely resolved, are found in nearly every -quarter of the firmament, though abounding especially near those -regions which have fewest stars. Scarcely any are found near the -Milky Way, and the great mass of them lie in the two opposite spaces -farthest removed from this circle. Their forms are very various, -and often undergo strange and unexpected changes as the power of the -telescope with which they are viewed is increased, so as not to be -recognizable in some cases as the same objects." An example of this -is shown in Plate X. (Figs. 1 and 2) of Professor Nichol's work, -which gives a greatly enlarged view of those shown in Figs. 1 and 2 -of Plate IX. (For Fig. 2 of Nichol's Plate X., see illustration of -nebula with double sun, in previous chapter.) Professor Nichol says, -"In every instance examined, save one, the planetary nebulæ are nebulæ -with hollow centers." The inference which this writer makes, that such -a planetary nebula consists of "a grand annular cluster of stars," -has been since disproved by the discoveries of the spectroscope, -but the telescopic form remains true, and still awaits further -interpretation. While the irresolvable nebulæ seem to seek some -retired spot in space for their processes, like certain animals -when incubating, this rule is not universal. Of this, Appleton's -Cyclopædia says, "The density of nebular distribution increased with -the distance from the galactic zone for the irresolvable nebulæ, -but diminished with that distance for the clusters.... There is not a -gradual condensation of nebulæ towards two opposite regions, near the -poles of the galactic zone, but the nebulæ are gathered into streams, -nodules, and irregular aggregations such as we find in the grouping -of stars.... Between stars and nebulæ their arrangement follows the -law of contrast. There are two remarkable exceptions to this law,--the -Magellanic Clouds. In these, where stars of all orders, from the ninth -magnitude to irresolvable stellar aggregations, are as richly gathered -as in the galactic zone, nebulæ of all orders are also gathered richly, -even more so than anywhere else over the whole heavens." In the same -work, article "Nebula," it is stated of the planetary nebulæ, "There -are several which have perfectly the appearance of a ring, and are -called annular nebulæ.... Some appear to be physically connected in -pairs like double stars. Most of the small nebulæ have the general -appearance of a bright central nucleus enveloped in a nebulous -veil. This nucleus is sometimes concentrated as a star and sometimes -diffused. The enveloping veil is sometimes circular and sometimes -elliptical, with every degree of eccentricity between a circle and a -straight line. There are some which, with a general disposition to -symmetry of form, have great branching arms or filaments with more -or less precision of outline. An example of this is Lord Rosse's Crab -nebula. Another remarkable object is the nebula in Andromeda, which is -visible with the naked eye, and is the only one which was discovered -before the invention of the telescope. Simon Marius (1612) describes -its appearance as that of a candle shining through horn. Besides the -above, which have comparatively regular forms, there are others more -diffused and devoid of symmetry of shape. A remarkable example is the -great nebula in Orion, discovered by Huygens in 1656.... The great -nebula in Argo is another example of this class." - -The number of nebulæ recognized in all the heavens is upward of five -thousand, and new ones are being constantly discovered. Of these -objects, Professor Nichol says, "The spiral figure is characteristic -of an extensive class of galaxies. Majestic associations of orbs, -arranged in this winding form, with branches issuing like a divergent -geometric curve from a globular cluster." These nebulæ, however, are -not associations of orbs; they are gaseous nebulæ apparently in process -of evolution. This author (Professor Nichol) presents views of such -spiral nebulæ either foreshortened to the view, so as to form a long -ellipse, or with the convolutions of the spiral apparently raised from -the horizontal plane into a conical form, and showing the black streaks -of space which lie between the convolutions, others seen in side view, -others in front, and, in fact, presented to the eye in every position -for observation. The author wrote before the days of the spectroscope, -and that he should conceive these vast objects to be spirals made -up of blazing suns like our Milky Way--vast galaxies, in fact--was -an inevitable conclusion at that time; but we now know that these -spiral nebulæ are gaseous, are apparently in process of manufacture, -and we can see them in their different stages of evolution, and -may perhaps learn something about the processes by which solar -systems and galaxies of suns are formed. Of one of these strange but -exceedingly instructive objects, Professor Ball, in his work "In the -High Heavens," says, "Fig. 3 represents one of the famous spiral nebulæ -(that of Canes Venatici) discovered many years ago by the late Earl of -Rosse. The object is invisible to the naked eye. It seems like a haze -surrounding the stars, which the telescope discloses in considerable -numbers, as shown in the picture. When viewed through an instrument -of sufficient power, a marvellous spectacle is revealed. There are -wisps and patches of glowing cloud-like material which shine not -as our clouds do, by reflecting to us the sunlight. This celestial -cloud is no doubt self-luminous; it is, in fact, composed of vapors so -intensely heated that they glow with fervor. As I write, I have Lord -Rosse's elaborate drawing of this nebula before me, and on the margin -of this stupendous object the nebula fades away so tenderly that it -is almost impossible to say where the luminosity terminates. Probably -this nebula will in some remote age condense down into more solid -substances. It contains, no doubt, enough material to make many -globes as big as our earth. Before, however, it settles down into dark -bodies like the earth, it will have to pass through stages in which -its condensing materials will form bright sun-like bodies. It seems -as if this process of condensation might almost be witnessed at the -present time in some parts of the great object. There are also some -very striking nebulæ which are often spoken of as planetary. They -are literally balls of bluish-colored gas or vapor, apparently more -dense than that which forms the nebula now under consideration. Such -globes are doubtless undergoing condensation, and may be regarded as -incipient worlds." Of these spiral nebulæ it is said, in Appleton's -Cyclopædia, "Many of them had been long known as nebulæ, but their -characteristic spiral form had never been suspected. They have the -appearance of a maelstrom of stellar matter, and are among the most -interesting objects in the heavens." Of their spectra it is said, -"The bright-line spectrum is given by all the irregular nebulæ hitherto -examined and by the planetary nebulæ." That is to say, these nebulæ -are gaseous in constitution, and have not yet reached the stage of -solar condensation which marks the existence of individual suns. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS: ITS BASIS AND ITS DIFFICULTIES. - - "There sinks the nebulous star we call the Sun, - If that hypothesis of theirs be sound."--Tennyson. - - -While the nebular theory of Laplace is now the generally accepted -scientific hypothesis of the formation of our solar system and of -all solar systems, it finds its strongest support in the mode in -which it seeks to account for the heat and light of the sun,--that -is, that the central orb, gradually condensing down from an original -volume as large as the orbit of Neptune, at least, after disengaging -the planetary rings, continued to condense to its present volume, -and still so continues, the molecular motions arrested by condensation -under gravity reappearing in the form of the energy of light and heat, -and that this process of degradation will continue until, finally, -the sun becomes a solid inert mass, incapable by further condensation -of exciting the ethereal undulations in space which constitute heat and -light, when the whole process will finally cease, the sun will die out, -the planets continue to rotate in darkness, and the whole machinery be -left running through an eternal night, like a vast mill in the hands -of a negligent watchman (or rather no watchman at all), left to run -itself alone, dark, empty, lifeless, and deserted, through the long and -silent watches of the night. While the source and mode of solar energy -set forth in this work are to be as readily accounted for if we accept -as valid Laplace's nebular hypothesis as by any other theory, yet -such basis is not essential for its support; for while the planetary -rotations and the central sun are the necessary consequence, according -to Laplace's hypothesis, of their mode of formation,--are, in fact, -just what we actually find them to be under any hypothesis,--electrical -generation and transformation will proceed just the same whether the -planets and sun were formed originally in one mode or in another. But, -since this generally accepted hypothesis accounts for the light and -heat of the sun, to a certain extent at least, and for a certain -relatively brief period, while no other hypothesis has been able to -sufficiently account for it at all, and while this hypothesis also -finds both support and contradiction in many observed phenomena of -our solar system, it may well occur that this hypothesis itself, -based upon the necessity of accounting for the sun's light and heat, -and which latter afford it its strongest basis of support, may, -if the basis upon which the theory rests be found to be otherwise -explicable, still remain as an end, while originally presented only -as a means, and thus be held as an obstacle to the acceptance of the -widely different interpretation of known facts herein presented, in -the absence of any other hypothesis capable of explaining the same -facts in accordance with this presentation of planetary electrical -generation and the solar transformation of this energy into light -and heat. Herbert Spencer mentions an instance of such perversion of -means into an end as occurring during the agitation for the repeal -of the corn laws in England, which extended over many years, during -which organized efforts were made to influence Parliament. A permanent -commission was established, with official head-quarters permanently -located in London, with clerks, secretaries, higher officers, and -all the paraphernalia of a first-class establishment. The purpose of -this institution was to act in behalf of the popular interests upon -Parliament by every available means to secure this great reform. After -years of effort, he says, a clerk one day rushed, breathless, into the -office from the House of Commons and shouted, in accents of despair, -"We are ruined; the bill has passed!" - -The nebular hypothesis, while generally accepted in lieu of a better -one, has no actual primary basis beyond that of mere assumption. Of -it Professor Ball says, "The nebular theory ... seems, from the -nature of the case, to be almost incapable of receiving any direct -testimony." We have already quoted from Professor Newcomb that it -must be accepted, with all its difficulties, until a different and -sufficient explanation of solar energy shall be presented. As set -forth in Appleton's Cyclopædia, the theory is as follows: "Assuming, -for the sake of the argument, a rare, homogeneous, nebulous matter, -widely diffused through space, the following successive changes will, -on physical principles, take place in it: 1, mutual gravitation of -its atoms; 2, atomic repulsion; 3, evolution of heat by overcoming -this repulsion; 4, molecular combination at a certain stage of -condensation; followed by, 5, sudden and great disengagement of heat; -6, lowering of temperature by radiation and consequent precipitation -of binary atoms, aggregating into irregular flocculi and floating in -the rarer medium, just as water when precipitated from air collects -into clouds; 7, each flocculus will move towards the common center of -gravity of all; but, being an irregular mass in a resisting medium, -this motion will be out of the rectilinear,--that is to say, not -directly towards the common center of gravity, but towards one or -the other side of it,--and thus, 8, a spiral movement will ensue, -which will be communicated to the rarer medium through which the -flocculus is moving; and, 9, a preponderating momentum and rotation of -the whole mass in some one direction, converging in spirals towards -the common center of gravity. Certain subordinate actions are to -be noticed also. Mutual attraction will tend to produce groups of -flocculi concentrating around local centers of gravity and acquiring -a subordinate vortical movement. These conclusions are shown to be in -entire harmony with the observed phenomena. In this genetic process, -when the precipitated matter is aggregating into flocculi, there will -be found here and there detached portions, like shreds of cloud in a -summer sky, which will not coalesce with the larger internal masses, -but will slowly follow without overtaking them. These fragments will -assume characteristics of motion strikingly correspondent to those of -the comets, whose physical constitution and distribution are seen to -be completely accordant with the hypothesis." During this process, -it is further stated, successive rings of nebulous matter will be -thrown off and left behind, which are supposed to have coalesced -into planets and their satellites, and the motion of rotation will -become more and more rapid as condensation proceeds, until, finally, -the last planet, Mercury, will be left behind in annular form, -and the sun will then become the central orb of all the planets, -and condensation afterwards will proceed without further delivery of -planetary rings. Professor Ball says, "If we go sufficiently far back, -we seem to come to a time when the sun, in a more or less completely -gaseous state, filled up the surrounding space out to the orbit of -Mercury, or, earlier still, out to the orbit of the remotest planet." - -There is nothing in the actively developing nebula illustrated on -the following page which shows the slightest analogy, either in -structure or the forces at work, to what is demanded by the nebular -hypothesis. On the contrary, these radiating, spiral convolutions, -springing from a center and extended, with interstratified dark spaces, -out to the periphery, are entirely incompatible with that theory. There -have not, so far, been observed in all the heavens any gaseous -nebulæ which lend the slightest support to the nebular hypothesis. We -should expect to find, if it were true, that many of the nucleated -planetary nebulæ show exterior concentric rings of luminous matter, -clearly defined, two, three, or a dozen in number, left behind by the -contracting volume of the nebula, and coalescing into planets, and, -within, the glowing disk from which new external rings are about to be -left as a residuum. On the contrary, these nebulæ gradually fade away -towards their margins, and imperceptibly disappear in the blackness -of space. If they terminated abruptly, we might suppose that here, -at least, was the orbit of a newly forming planet, but the regular -and delicate gradation of luminosity from maximum to zero shows that -no such sudden breaking off has occurred. In all these nebulæ we find -every definitely marked structure to exhibit the operation of combined -forces of gravity and internal repulsion nearly equally balanced, -but each acting independently of the other. These phenomena are as -universal as the forces of cohesion and repellent polarity in the -"attraction particles" of cell-life which determine the segmentation, -growth, and development of the living organism. We find here the -primal modification and differentiation of material structure under -the stress of directly opposite and interacting primitive forces, -and it is doubtless the same whether in a cell or a system. It is -not a residuum, but the vis a tergo. - -It is well known that there are many and great difficulties involved -in the nebular hypothesis. As for the genesis of comets, it will be -at once seen that the theory will only account for such comets as -never venture much beyond the orbit of Neptune, as well as those which -have an orbital plane nearly coincident with that of the planets. But -most comets come from illimitable space, far, far beyond Neptune's -circle and at all angles to the plane of the planetary orbits; and we -have already seen that a disk of space of the diameter of Neptune's -orbit and half as thick (see Proctor's "Familiar Essays") would, -to contain all the matter of our solar system equally distributed, -have a density of only one four-hundred-thousandth that of hydrogen -gas at atmospheric pressure,--that is to say, such a volume of the -lightest substance we know of would make four hundred thousand solar -systems like our own. This author inquires if such a mass could, -under any circumstances, rotate as a whole, and adds, "Has it ever -occurred, I often wonder, to those who glibly quote the nebular theory -as originally propounded, to inquire how far some of the processes -suggested by Laplace are in accordance with the now well-known laws of -physics?" But the great primal difficulty is in the first assumption -of the theory, which is not only entirely gratuitous, but physically -impossible. It is that this great plasma of nebulous material--in -the case of our own solar system not less than six thousand million -miles in diameter--should have in someway become aggregated into -a homogeneous mass of the requisite tenuity, complete and perfect, -and ready for the succeeding stages of the process, in which, however, -the law of gravity has hitherto had no active operation whatever; for, -if gravitation existed and operated therein, such homogeneous mass -could never have been formed, nor ever existed even if formed. The -very forces which alone could have brought this vast mass together -must have been the identical forces which afterwards broke it up into -the sun and planets, and the operation of the same force must have -prevented its original formation at all. According to the theory, it -was like a horse-race, in which all the participants stood silent and -motionless until the judge cried, "Go!" But the judge was the great -creative force itself, and if the fiat reached to this extent, the -same power could just as readily--nay, far more readily--have shot the -sun and planets forth into rotation, as children scatter dough-balls, -instead of holding in abeyance the control of universal law so as to -(as a humorous writer speaks of the operations of a child in his -investigation of a watch) "see the wheels go round." This is not -nature's plan, so far as human knowledge goes. Of course these masses -gathering to this great nebulous center, if acted upon by gravitation, -would have at once condensed around the center as a nucleus, and -if rotation ever commenced, it must have commenced then, millions -of years, doubtless, before the outlying masses had even got within -hailing distance. When masses of people assemble at a camp-meeting, -the first comers take the best places, and the late arrivals have to -circulate around in the woods; they do not all gather in a circle -and then make a grand rush. That would be fair, perhaps, but it is -not nature. And this, unquestionably, is how, if ever formed at all, -these nebulæ must have formed into systems. - -The fact that the orbital planes of very many of these asteroids are -greatly inclined to the common planetary plane, and still more greatly -inclined to one another, points almost unerringly to the existence -during their stage of formation of some powerful force either of -internal repulsion or external attraction. That no sufficiently large -body could have been present to exercise such attraction so far outside -the general planetary plane is self-evident, and if there had been -such source of attraction, while the orbital planes of the asteroids -might have been deflected from the common plane, they could not have -been forced apart so as to differ largely among themselves. Certainly -nothing pertaining to the nebular hypothesis could have produced any -such effects under any conceivable circumstances, and especially at -so late a period of its progress, after all the principal planets had -been completed. The only alternative is self-repulsion, and this could -only have been due to the causes and their mode of operation already -described in this work. In a modified degree these planes exhibit the -same irregular orbital deflections as are so conspicuously visible in -the orbits of comets, and they must have been unquestionably produced -in the same manner. The barren bands or stripes in the area occupied by -these asteroids, like the dark or vacant rings of the planet Saturn, -may have been largely affected by the perturbing attraction of the -neighboring planet Jupiter; but certainly no influence of that great -planet (himself in the common planetary plane) could have operated -to cast these forming planetoids into planes of diverse inclinations -among themselves or to that of his own. On the contrary, his whole -force must have been exerted to bring them into the closest harmony -with his own orbital movements. - -Omitting discussion of the technical difficulties in the application -of the nebular theory to demonstrated facts, which may be found in -the books, we may again repeat that this theory is not essential to -account for the heat of the sun, which finds its real source elsewhere, -while, nevertheless, the theory in itself is not incompatible with -the views which we have endeavored to present and demonstrate. Certain -phenomena, however, have been considered in prior quotations in this -work which may aid us to roughly indicate the successive processes by -which the evolution of solar systems and galaxies may be explained on -another basis which requires no violent assumptions to be made and no -suspension of any of nature's universal laws. The same operations which -we see around us at the present time in our own system, if extended to -the dimensions of a nebular aggregation, would probably present the -same phenomena as those we find partially disclosed in the gaseous -nebulæ, particularly the spiral, and these would naturally determine -the final production of solar systems such as our own. The gaseous -nebulæ, not spiral, and the mixed nebulæ also, would fall into their -appropriate categories in the same general plan, and a consistent -mode of formation would be presented from the beginning to the end -of the different processes. - -It should be observed that the spiral required by Laplace's nebular -theory is essentially a centripetal spiral. The spiral nebulæ we see in -the heavens, however, are centrifugal spirals. This is clearly shown -in Plates XV., XII., and the frontispiece of Nichol's "Architecture -of the Heavens," as well as in Plates XIII. and XIV. Plate XV.--the -open spiral--is directly contradictory of any phenomena which -could occur in accordance with the nebular theory of Laplace. The -frontispiece shows the only form which such a nebula could assume -at any stage of its career,--that is, a close spiral with nearly -circular convolutions. But while this particular form is not only in -entire accordance with the hypothesis which we are about to suggest, -being in fact one of the later and necessary stages in its progress, -any such spiral as that shown in Plate XV. is utterly out of the -question in the application of the nebular theory of Laplace or in -any of the more recent modifications thereof. - -The only hypothesis by which the various phenomena can be adequately -explained must almost certainly be based upon the combined action of -gravitation and electrospheric repulsion. We find in the corona of -our own sun such phenomena manifested in the most striking degree, -even in a completed system, and we can well understand that during -the early stages of systemic development such phenomena would vastly -transcend anything which we could now hope to observe around our -own sun. We see this repulsion still more highly developed in the -formation of the tails of comets. While these coronal rays are not -visible to a distance of more, perhaps, than five million miles -from the sun's disk, we have seen that the tail of Newton's comet -was shot forth to a distance of ninety million miles in a few days, -as it were in a moment, by the tremendous electrical repulsion of the -solar electrosphere, and that this enormous tail, which, if composed -of hydrogen gas alone (it was, of course, enormously more attenuated), -would have contained a mass much more than equal to the weight of the -sun, was swung around over an arc of one hundred and eighty degrees, -giving a radial sweep of the tail over a distance of two hundred -and eighty millions of miles in less than four days. And the tails -of many other comets have largely transcended in dimensions that of -Newton, above cited. We have learned much of the laws which regulate -the development of storms, cyclones, whirlwinds, water-spouts, -and other vortical phenomena in the atmosphere of our own earth, -and can readily apply these principles to phenomena of vastly greater -magnitude. We know that the matter of comets' tails is self-repulsive, -as shown in multiple tails, as well as that it is repelled by an -adjacent similarly electrified electrosphere,--that of the sun, for -example,--as with pith-balls in the familiar class-room experiments; -so that we can gather a very fair and complete idea of the processes -of nature when dealing with such phenomena on a vastly more extended -scale, in which our moments are measured by millions of years and our -miles by the almost infinite distances of sidereal and nebular space. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE GENESIS OF SOLAR SYSTEMS AND GALAXIES. - - -The processes of development of a solar system from the diffused -elemental matter of space may then be roughly sketched as follows, -premising that each stage may have possibly extended over vast periods -of time, and the whole, perhaps, not been completed for millions of -years. With the processes of creation time is as nothing. - -The area of space in which a solar system is about to be developed has -hitherto maintained its molecular constituents in a state of gradually -increased unstable equilibrium, whether such augmented instability -may have been induced by a gradual rise of temperature from emission -of the solar energy of other galaxies, by gradual diffusion from -constantly operative centers, from currents or vortices of space, -or by some primal inherent constitution of space itself, with -constantly increasing tensions relieved by successive discharges, -of which analogous instances are found in various other processes -of nature, as, for example, ovulation, fission, and gemmation in the -reproduction of life, regularly recurring epileptiform convulsions, -regularly repeated spark discharges from electrical machines, or the -ebullition of viscous fluids with their slowly recurring bursting -bubbles. At some focal point of this area a rupture of tension will -finally occur, induced by some sudden current or vortical movement, -as we see sometimes in a pool of water gradually reduced in temperature -below the freezing-point, when its whole surface, by the passage of a -breath of wind even, will be suddenly flashed into crystals of ice. At -this point of space there will be instituted a rapid expansion among -the molecules and a consequent fall of temperature, followed by an -inrush of the vaporous material surrounding this center of agitation, -and a vortical movement will be established, with currents of spatial -matter attracted to this vortex in constantly increasing streams. The -molecular tensions will be successively unlocked as the circles of -agitation continue to widen, and a condensed nucleus will form, -rotating upon its axis and exhibiting the combined phenomena of -gravity and centrifugal force. As the nucleus continues to increase -in mass and density its temperature will constantly rise, while its -speed of rotation will gradually diminish as its volume increases, -and the aqueous vapors of space, as they gather around this rotating -center of attraction, will be forced outward by centrifugal action -and the heat of the nucleus, and form vast attenuated clouds,--not -necessarily visible, however, to human sight,--and these clouds, in -their various stratifications and disturbances, will gradually come -to partake of the rotatory movement of the center, such movements, -however, gradually fading away as they recede in space and in -density. The cyclonic movements of these clouds of aqueous vapor -upon themselves, but principally against the surrounding gases of -space still under tension, will generate enormous quantities of -electricity, which flash like thunder-clouds as they approach each -other, with incessant streams of lightning and rolls of thunder. The -growing and heating central nucleus is thus thrown into a state of -high electrical opposite polarity, and its own constituent elements -become self-repellent, just as we see in the sun's corona and in the -phenomena of comets. The electrical tension of the central mass will -gradually grow higher and higher, until a vast stream or streams -of incandescent nebulous matter (for with double suns they may be -multiple, or the internal repulsion may even cause division of the -nucleus itself) will be suddenly driven outward in a radial direction -along the lines of least resistance,--that is to say, in the plane of -equatorial rotation, where centrifugal force is most effective. We -can readily understand the self-repellent force of such an enormous -mass of cosmical matter by considering that, in our own completed -system, the repulsion of the solar electrosphere drove forth the tail -of Newton's comet, as before stated, to a distance of ninety million -miles, and whirled it around a semicircle of this radius in less than -four days. Our most distant planet, Neptune, is only thirty times -this distance from the sun, and we see during every solar eclipse -the coronal structure glowing to a distance of more than a million -miles from the sun's disk, and the radial streamers driven forth -five million miles, and even farther. (See illustrations of solar -corona in Guillemin's "The Heavens.") The vast stream of radiating -nebulous matter thus forced out by solar repulsion will likewise -be acted upon with equal energy by its own internal self-repellent -force. If we conceive a stream of water thrown vertically upward by -a powerful force-pump, in which every drop of the fluid is endowed -with tremendous self-repulsive energy, we should find an analogy -to the phenomenon in question. We can see an example of this in the -"Crab Nebula," illustrated in a previous chapter. The stream, acted -upon by gravity downward, by the force of ejection upward, and by the -internal force of repulsion both transversely and upward, would assume -a pyriform shape, narrower beneath, largely swollen about its middle, -and thence gradually decreasing in diameter to its termination in -a rounded tuft, in advance of which would be driven forth detached -sprays and wisps, while filaments and outlying parallel strands would -mark its entire ascent, except towards its point of ejection, where -the primal force which drove it out is greatly in excess of those -of gravity and self-repulsion. It will be seen at a glance that -these phenomena are precisely those which we observe in a comet's -tail. (See illustrations of many comets having these characteristics -in Guillemin's "The Heavens," Lockyer's edition.) - -Suppose, now, that this stream of water or the tail of a large comet -were gradually wrapped around its point of emission by the rotation of -this nucleus upon its axis. A spiral would form, very open or flaring -at first, but gradually growing closer and more circular as the force -of gravity drew its convolutions downward upon the interstratified -clouds of aqueous vapor occupying, in compressed layers, the spaces -between the adjacent coils of the spiral. There would be a composite -action of forces observed: gravity would attract the convolutions -and their interstratified layers of cloud equally, according to -their densities, while the central repulsive force would repel the -convolutions of the spiral along the same lines of force, but would -not act at all upon the strata of clouds, and the force of internal -self-repulsion would also tend to disrupt the convolutions of the -spiral by expanding them outwardly. The outer convolution, however, -would have no backward thrust from any internal repulsion beyond, -while, within, gravity and solar repulsion would be more equally -balanced, so that the outer coil would be relatively compressed in -its rotation against the next inner convolution, and its ratio of -distance would not be maintained. We find this exemplified in the -case of Neptune's, orbit in our own system. The inner convolution -would also be abnormal, since the primal force of ejection must have -been sufficient to carry the outward thrust of the whole spiral, -and in consequence its flare would offer much greater resistance -to the deflection of rotation, and it would have a more radial -direction than those beyond. We shall find that the planet Mercury, -and the inner convolution which was eventually reabsorbed into the -solar mass, exhibit these phenomena. Between the outer and these inner -convolutions the curve of the spiral would be approximately regular, -with a fixed ratio of increase. In the planets of our solar system -this ratio is that produced by constantly doubling the preceding -number, the series being 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, etc. In other solar systems, -however, the ratio may be quite different. In this abnormal flare of -the inner convolution is doubtless to be found the rational basis of -Bode's empirical law of planetary distances, in which the arbitrary -number 4 must be added to each term of the above progression, making -the series 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, etc. The inner coil between Mercury and -the sun was drawn into the solar mass on the disruption of the spiral, -leaving, from the abnormally radial curvature of the inner portions -of the spiral and its absence from the series, a vacant place which -must be represented by the relatively fixed increment to be added to -each term of the series. - -As the convolutions of the spiral become more and more compressed -towards each other and more and more flattened against the -interstratified cloud-layers, the force of internal repulsion becomes -more and more active in its tendency to disrupt the spiral, since its -forces are more direct and concentrated along lines nearly at right -angles to the force of gravity. During the formation of the spiral -we can easily conceive that--like a stream of water shooting over a -cascade, or the multiple tails of some comets, or even a whole comet, -as, for example, Biela's, which was split up into two separate bodies -by this force--some convolution, perhaps a single one of the series, -will be laterally divided into a large number of nearly parallel -strands, mutually held apart by their internal self-repulsion, and -with cloud-layers interposed between these lateral strands. Such a -series of small planets as these would finally produce we find in the -belt of our asteroids, the bulk of the convolution, probably, for the -most part, however, scattered in space, since their aggregate mass is -so small, and possibly, in part, coalesced into the mass of Jupiter, -to which Mars, by his position, may also have contributed. - -Not only may a whole convolution be thus split up, but along the -spiral at many points the outer margins may be thrust outward, -forming partially detached parallel strands, which may thus coalesce -to form the satellites of the completed planets; while at the outer -extremity of all, where the backward thrust of self-repulsion is -wanting, enormous wisps, sprays, and tufts of nebulous matter would -be driven entirely forth into the illimitable realms of outer space, -but not necessarily, or even probably, into the space of other systems, -which are so enormously distant; and there, in those unoccupied realms, -they will remain to gyrate "in the solitude of their own originality," -in the form of comets, until, at long intervals, they may chance -to revisit the scenes of their earliest youth, to warm their frozen -limbs for a brief period at the old and well-remembered parental fire, -or finally, worn out with toil and travel, "come home at last to die." - -Driven forth from the society of their fellows by their own unbalanced -energies, these anarchists of the sky may form loose aggregations, -granulated about multitudes of self-constituted minor centers; but, -cut loose from all effective solar control during their period of -coalescence, they must forever lack the consolidated form and complex -organization of their prosperous and rotund brethren, the planets and -their satellites, or even the tiny asteroids, who stayed home and, -like the little pig, had bread and butter for breakfast. - -The disruptive energy of internal repulsion, as above stated, -increases in force as the convolutions of the spiral become more -and more compressed and the spiral becomes more and more circular in -form. Suddenly the coils of the spiral will be burst asunder, and this -will occur along that particular radial line of gravitation where the -central nucleus acts with its most effective force. The disruption will -be simultaneous, as a general rule, in accordance with the principles -which control ruptures of tension of bodies in a state of unstable -equilibrium, and which we see exemplified in multiplied centers of -crystallization, the simultaneous formation of mud-cracks, the Giant's -Causeway, and other like phenomena. Each convolution will now become -a detached open ring, one of its broken extremities, however, being -millions of miles farther from the central nucleus than the other. What -occurs when a cometic body, negatively electrified, impinges upon the -positive electrosphere of a planet, or when an electrical induction -machine like Voss's is touched by an oppositely electrified body, -will now necessarily occur with these disrupted convolutions. Their -connection with the negatively electrified nucleus being broken, -a reversal of electrical polarity will ensue from contact with the -adjacent positively electrified clouds of aqueous vapor, and, instead -of self-repulsion, mutual attraction will now prevail along the length -of each of the open rings. Held apart from the central nucleus by -the interstratified cloud-layers, and acted upon by the double force -of gravity and internal attraction, the component elements of these -open rings will rapidly lose their luminosity and heat, and coalesce -by a retrograde movement down the lines of their direction, thus -approaching the sun along the segment of an ellipse, the nucleus, or -sun, occupying one of the foci, the eccentricity of the ellipse being -measured by the differential between the nearest point of the open -ring and the part of the convolution which lies directly opposite and -beyond the sun. In other words, the form of the spiral will determine -the eccentricity of the ellipse, subject to perturbations, however, -of various sorts. During this stage of coalescence from an open ring -into a sphere, these bodies will take on, by cooling and condensation, -their planetary forms; and as the forming spheres, by the retreat -of their masses down the lines of approach to the sun, advance, -their forward and nearer extremities will be more powerfully acted -upon by gravity than those parts in the rear, and a forward plunge -or axial movement of rotation will be set up. Viscous matter,--pitch, -for example,--molten by the sun's heat and flowing down a steep roof, -exhibits a similar forward movement, the outer layers tending to roll -over the inner ones in convoluted folds, the adhesion to the roof of -the under surface corresponding to the retarding pull of the sun's -attraction. In like manner are produced rotating eddies in streams -of water having crooked channels, eddies of air under water-falls, -and other analogous atmospheric disturbances. During the stage of -coalescence of the planetary spheres the adjacent clouds of aqueous -vapor will condense around them, and their hitherto diffused electrical -energies will be concentrated by rotation in currents of enormous -quantity and potential directly upon the sun, and a disassociation -of the elements which compose these watery vapors will ensue, the -result of which will be the deposit of hydrogen gas as an atmospheric -envelope around the sun's body, and of oxygen around and through the -bodies which constitute the planets. These gases will be disassociated -in their combining proportions, two volumes of hydrogen at the sun -for one volume of oxygen, distributed according to their relative -electrical energies among the planets. This nascent oxygen will -rapidly combine with the consolidating elements of the planets and, -interpenetrating their solidifying bodies, form the vast mass of -oxides which we find to constitute the bulk of our terrestrial mass, -the residue, mechanically commingled with the condensed ever-present -nitrogen, forming the planetary atmospheres. The condensation of volume -of the planets will give rise to great elevation of temperature, -while their currents of electricity, poured into the sun, will, by -their passage through its enormously compressed hydrogen atmosphere, -produce intense heat, and this, rapidly communicated to the solar -core within, will raise its temperature to that of the sun as we now -see it, and permanently maintain it in that state of incandescence. - -During the stage of coalescence of the planetary bodies, outlying -strands of the spiral will follow the course of their adjacent masses -in a nearly parallel movement, and will gradually coalesce into smaller -bodies more directly under the influence of the gravity of their own -adjacent planets, by their proximity, than of that of the sun. These -bodies will thus rotate as satellites around their planets, and the -forward shift of their centers of gravity, by their advance along -their lines of coalescence, may result in a permanent displacement, -of which we see an example in the moon, which constantly presents the -same face to the earth, while having an axial rotation of its own with -reference to the sun. (In this case the action of gravity may have been -assisted, however, by the mutual repulsion of the lunar and terrestrial -electrospheres forcing the atmosphere and moisture of the lunar mass to -its opposite side and maintaining it there, where it would remain as a -buffer against rotation.) In some cases we might find certain outlying -strands of a convolution which, perturbed by external influences, -may have been delayed in its conversion into spherical form, and this -subordinate strand, pyriform itself, as it must have been, in shape, -would thus form a spiral of minute discrete bodies, probably like the -nucleus of a comet, finally assuming the shape of a series of rings, -and rotating like a satellite around the neighboring planet, the inner -and outer strands more attenuated and the middle ones more condensed, -as we find to be the case with the rings of Saturn. - -In the original spiral we have seen that, as a whole, it was of -necessity pyriform in shape. The planets formed therefrom would thus be -found to increase in size from within outward to a maximum, after which -they would again decrease, but not to the original minimum, while the -extreme outer planet would also be unduly enlarged by increment from -partially dissipated terminal filaments, gradually attracted thereto -from surrounding space. There is such an undue enlargement of the -planet Neptune, and this, with its relatively compressed orbit, before -alluded to, renders it almost certain that Neptune is in reality the -outermost member of our planetary system. We find this gradation of -size to be the case in our solar system, except where the series has -been broken by the multitudinous separation, from violent internal -repulsion, of one of the convolutions into parallel strands showing -all sorts of perturbations, this being the convolution which occupied -the region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and which, by the -coalescence of these numerous parallel strands into small planetary -bodies, has filled the space with a belt of asteroids hundreds and -perhaps thousands or even tens of thousands in number. It is probable -that a law regulating the ellipticity of planetary orbits can be -deduced from a consideration of the principles which have governed -their inception, and with these are doubtless closely related those -laws of Laplace which have demonstrated that "in any system of bodies -travelling in one direction around a central attracting orb, the -eccentricities and inclinations, if small at any one time, would always -continue inconsiderable." (Appleton's Cyclopædia, article "Planet.") - -We have thus traced the genesis of a solar system from its earliest -stages forward through its various changes until, complete and in -working order, it is ready to be sent on its eternal course, either -alone or as one of a vast congeries of similar systems, like the -Milky Way. (See frontispiece for illustration of a series of types of -development from a straight-tailed comet, through different curvatures, -and spiral nebulæ of less and less divergence, until nearly circular, -and finally terminating in a complete solar system.) These processes -of creation may be isolated, or they may flash a hundred million solar -systems into being together, as crystals flash forth in the rock; -but, when once formed, they go forth each as eternal as space itself. - -But can we not go back one step farther still in the progressive -stages of creative energy? Whence came these powerful agencies by -means of which all those distant regions became peopled with suns and -worlds? The great source of all is to be found alone in space,--the -so-called "empty space." But it is far from empty; all through it -are diffused the attenuated vapors which, condensed, constitute our -suns and planets, and all that is, or ever shall be, gaseous vapors, -which are held poised, with their opposite tensions of cohesion and -expansion, like the Prince Rupert drops which glass-blowers make -for toys,--a little bulb of glass, chilled as it falls, molten, -in a vessel of water. From one extremity projects a long, crooked -stem, scarcely thicker at the end than a horse-hair, spun out from -the molten glass as it hung from the glass-blower's rod. The bulbous -body is as large, perhaps, as a nut; you can beat it with a hammer and -it will not break; it is the hardest in structure of all glass. Now, -wrap this bulb up in a thick handkerchief, or you may be injured; hold -it firmly, and break off the very tiniest tip of the long stem three, -four, or even six inches from the bulb. There is a sudden shock; open -your handkerchief, and lo! instead of the solid bulb, there is only a -loose mass of white powder. If you put the bulb in a heavy glass vessel -full of water and break off the tip of the tail, it will shatter the -vessel into fragments. What is the explanation?--it is, of course, -well known--simply that the molecules of glass were instantly arrested -in their motion of adjustment as the glass was suddenly chilled by the -water, and the molecular motion of shrinkage was arrested, leaving -the individual molecules under a tremendous strain of position in -their endeavor to reach their true places. They are rigidly fixed -in this position of unstable equilibrium, one balancing the other; -but let a single molecule be displaced,--a fragment so tiny that -the eye can scarcely see it,--and the molecules, thus thrown out of -mutual support against each other, must now rearrange themselves from -the ruptured rigid mass, and, like a row of stood-up bricks, each of -which thrusts the other forward, with a sudden explosive force the -molecules assume their true position of stable equilibrium, but it -is at the cost of the whole structure. To this same cause we owe the -explosive force of our gunpowder, nitroglycerin, and all explosives; -the molecules are held in unstable equilibrium, and the tension once -relieved at a single point, be it ever so infinitesimal, the molecules -of the whole mass rearrange themselves with explosive energy. Strange -that so harmless a substance as glycerin, by the mere replacement of -an atom of nitrogen gas, should develop the energy of dynamite under -a trifling molecular shock. - -So, also, the aqueous and perhaps other vapors of all space, attenuated -though they be, and perhaps by reason of this very tenuity itself, -as shown by the experiments of Professor Crookes with attenuated -gases when acted upon by electricity, are held in the same state -of unstable equilibrium. We know the potency of this instability -from the terrific explosive combination of the gases which combine -to form aqueous vapor. We may again refer to one of the well-known -experiments of Professor Crookes with simple atmospheric air. Enclosed -in a cylindrical glass vessel, the electric spark passed freely; as -it became more rarefied under an air-pump, new phenomena appeared, -until, at a stage of high rarefaction, the molecules of these gases -were driven forward by the electric current with such energy as -first to raise the temperature of the opposite side of the cylinder -to a red heat, then to melt, and finally to perforate the glass. The -explanation is that the movements of closely aggregated molecules -mutually interfere with each other; as they gain elbow-room by being -reduced in number, they act with more directness, and consequently -with more force: it is the difference between men fighting in a -crowded room and out in an open field. It is possible that these -molecular tensions of space, by the ready unlocking of the forces with -which they are charged, may even aid in the rotation of the planets -by acting upon their electrospheres in their drift through space, -as charged thunder-clouds react upon each other, or the molecules of -atmospheric air, in moderately high vacua, under electrical excitement, -act upon the walls of the containing vessel, as in the experiments -of Professor Crookes and others. The riddles of nature are like those -of the sphinx,--they have more than one meaning. - -The tensions of the aggregated molecules of space are thus -counterbalanced only so long as all space is equally occupied and -a state of perfect quiescence exists in its every part. A molecular -disturbance in one part is immediately communicated to adjacent parts, -and finally to all. With the first movement, gravity asserts itself, -for gravity exists and must exist in all parts, and must actively -manifest itself whenever the perfect mutual balance of space is -disturbed and a center of energy developed, and co-ordinately with -the action of gravity begins that of electricity. Movements among -the molecules are converted into movement of mass; centripetal motion -begets condensation, this begets sensible heat and vortical movement; -then come the phenomena of electrical generation by moving contact with -the gases of space, then repulsion and disassociation of the elements -of the aqueous vapors, combination of simple into compound elements; -and, the balance once disturbed, the state of unstable equilibrium -is forever destroyed, and all space henceforth must exhibit constant -change. There are whole segments of space absolutely blank, so far as -visible systems are concerned, which seem to have been exhausted, for -the present æons at least, to supply material for the vast adjacent -galaxies which extend along their borders; see illustrations in -Proctor's "Essays on Astronomy," article "Distribution of the Nebulæ." - -It need not be supposed that such stage of perfect and universal -quiescence ever existed in fact; it is like the Nirvana of the Buddhist -philosophers,--a subjective and not an objective condition. We can -have no knowledge of the existence, even, of material things, save -from their phenomena, the manifestation of interchanging forces, -upon which rests our threefold basis of knowledge, perception, -cognition, and comparison. We know nothing of matter, except as -affected by internal or external force, nor of force itself, except -as it acts in one mode or another upon matter. All beyond this is, -for us, without form and void. - -Progressive change has always, doubtless, been the universal law of -creation, and the great ocean of space is, and ever has been, and -ever will be the highway through which perpetually plough the great -caravels which bear the fortunes of creative energy, laden with life -and light and heat, in their eternal progression. The creative impulse -once given, if it, too, was not primeval in the eternal past, must -have gone on from development to development, like the transmission -of life, from age to age and from realm to realm. "The mills of the -gods grind slowly;" in these vast areas time is absolutely nothing; -the processes we see are but as the dip of a swallow's wing compared -with an inconceivable futurity; but all our energies, and all the -energies of planets and suns and systems and galaxies, and of whatever -other and wider created forms may stretch onward to infinity, came -forth from the ocean of space, and to this ocean all these energies -continue to return again in ceaseless circuit. - -Can we indicate any relationship of periodicity for the genesis of -solar systems from space? There is a remarkable example of a somewhat -similar periodicity in organic life for the rupture of tensions, -so common that its analogous character and perfect regularity are -scarcely even thought of. Among the highest species of mammalia we -find that, in a state of health, whether resident of the heights -of the Andes, the deserts of Africa, the jungles of India, or the -most densely populated centers of London; among rich or poor, high -or low, idle or industrious, virtuous or vicious, ancient or modern, -civilized or barbarous, black, white, red, or yellow, the ovum of the -mature female rises to the surface of the ovary, and at intervals, -almost uniform, of twenty-eight days, organic excitement ensues, the -enclosing vesicle is ruptured, and the ovum escapes. The remarkable -feature is not that these processes continuously succeed each other; -but that under such diverse conditions and opposite circumstances, and -with two separate ovaries operating at the same time, simultaneously or -successively, this almost miraculous interval of no more and no less -than twenty-eight days between the successive ruptures of tension and -their attendant phenomena, should constantly persist. For its ultimate -cause we must look back to the vis a tergo to which we have already -alluded; and there may be, and doubtless is, a similarly acting remote -cause which regulates the periodical development of solar systems or -of galaxies, periods of intense activity, followed by intervals of -exhaustion and recuperation, and again succeeded by another period -of activity, and so on perpetually, for space is perpetual, infinite, -and inexhaustible. - -It will be observed that the processes above roughly sketched are -somewhat similar to those observed in the formation of so-called -water-spouts, which usually terminate in dissipation in the atmosphere, -or else in terrific thunder-storms, but which occasionally reach -a sufficient energy of rotation to spin their central nuclei down -towards, or even to, the surface of the sea, or, in desert regions, -to that of the ground. There is no analogy with the theoretical and -"assumed" primal mass of attenuated plasma of the nebular theory, -or with its slow initial rotation, with the successive casting off -of rings of nebulous matter. It may sometimes happen, however, that -the repulsive electrical energy of the central nucleus may throw off -its external envelopes with sufficient force to drive them entirely -beyond the effective limit of its attractive forces, as occurs -in the formation of embryonic comets as above described; in such -case the nebula will be a variable one, with successively repeated -aggregations and successive outbursts, periodical like the active -stages of volcanoes; and, even when the nucleus has already presented a -continuous solar spectrum, its energies may be thus expended, or more -gradually, and finally dissipated like the electricity of a highly -charged Leyden jar exposed to a moist atmosphere. - -As a bottle of strongly effervescing liquid may blow itself empty, -when suddenly opened, by the mutually repellent energy of its -contained molecules, so if such a phenomenon were manifested in -a radial direction from a central point, the repelled spray would -show itself as a nebulous ring with a hollow center. An example of -this sort is shown in the multiple-tailed "Catherine-wheel" nebula -(Fig. 4 of a previous illustration). If such an annular nebula -should become ruptured into two portions by internal repulsion, -the electrical polarity of the smaller fragment would be reversed, -and the two arcs would separately coalesce and consolidate into a -sun and a single planet, forming a solar system like that of Algol, -which has been already described. Otherwise, the nebula would probably -retrograde and disappear, by diffusion, into space again. We may -expect to find abortive efforts of nature here, as we so constantly -find them elsewhere, not merely in inorganic matter, but even among -the processes of life. - -In Professor Proctor's article ("Essays on Astronomy") on -the square-shouldered aspect of Saturn, he mentions a hitherto -unexplained circumstance of the earth's atmosphere--the curious fact -that the barometrical pressure of the earth's atmosphere is somewhat -higher between the poles and the equator than immediately over the -latter, as might be supposed to be the case. This is a phenomenon of -mutual repulsion similar to those manifested in the operations above -described. The rotation of the earth on its axis forces the terrestrial -atmosphere, by its centrifugal motion, in undue proportion, around -the equatorial belt, causing the same sort of atmospheric thinning at -the poles which we see in the solar photosphere at its corresponding -parts. At the same time the highly electrified atmosphere, by its -mutually repellent action, tends to force this swollen equatorial ring -backward toward the poles. The resultant of these two repulsions is an -area of maximum density part way between the poles and the equator. It -is probable that this self-repellent equatorial swell may play some -part in the sun's atmosphere, in extending, and also in limiting, -the areas of eruptive sun-spots outward from his equator. - -While the nebulæ are more distant than many of the discrete stars -revealed to us by the telescope, there is no reason to suppose that -they are more distant than the star-clouds into which are merged -the separate stars of the Milky Way, or the star-clusters seen in -other portions of the sky. We know, in fact, that this is not so, -for our telescopes show brilliant stars in very many cases which are -components of the nebulæ themselves; and the fact that the nebulæ -can be seen as having visible form, and not as mere points of light, -is itself conclusive as to their relative distances. Hence we need -not be surprised to learn that these forming spirals will result each -in the production of a single solar system, and not a galaxy of suns, -as was once supposed. Were such the case it would be impossible for -us to observe the structure of the nebulæ at all, as their distances -would be far too vast. Of the forms of the gaseous nebulæ Guillemin -asks, "Is the spiral the original form of those gaseous matters, -the condensation of which may give, or has given, birth to each -individual of this gigantic association?" The same author says of -these apparently regularly formed nebulæ, "It is impossible not to -recognize in them so many systems." Many of the spiral nebulæ were -formerly supposed to be globular aggregations of nebulous matter only, -and their spiral character came as a great surprise with the use of -more powerful telescopes; and many--nay, most--of these apparently -globular nebulæ have totally changed their appearance when viewed -with instruments of higher power, while the spirals have become more -and more pronounced in character with every increase of telescopic -vision. Of one of such apparently globular nebulæ Guillemin says, "The -center is like a large globular nebula with a very marked condensation, -whence radiate branches arranged in the form of spirals. In several -points of these branches other centers of condensation are noticed. Sir -John Herschel had classed this among the nebulæ of rounded, globular -form, doubtless because the central nebulosity was the only one -revealed by his telescope." The formation of the sub-centers in -this nebula (which is between the Great Bear and Boötes) should be -particularly noted in connection with the coalescence of planets as -above described. In a note to Guillemin's work, Professor Lockyer -says, "The proper motion of nebulæ has not yet been inquired into, -because everybody, looking upon them as irresolvable star-clusters, -thought them infinitely remote. Now, however, that we know they are -not clusters of stars, properly so called, it is possible that they -may be much nearer to us than we imagine." - -In connection with the double-sun spiral nebula shown in the preceding -illustration, Guillemin says, "We have noticed nebulæ accompanied -by systems of double or multiple stars, placed in a manner so -symmetrical in the midst of the nebulosity that it is impossible to -doubt the existence of a real connection between the stars and the -nebulæ." And Flammarion says of these apparently globular nebulæ, -when under the observation of more powerful telescopes, "In the place -where pale and whitish clouds gave out a calm and uniform light, the -giant eye of the telescope has discerned alternately dark and luminous -regions,"--that is to say, they reveal the operation of the opposite -forces of attraction and repulsion, and are spiral. While gaseous -nebulæ may be of any conceivable form, the direction and operation -of the forces which will determine their character as solar systems -must be similar, just as with the forms of organic life, and the only -nebulæ which reveal a distinct systematic development in harmony with -a working solar system are the spiral. There is no difficulty whatever -in tracing such a nebula through all its formative stages, as we have -done, and we can, in fact, see painted on the background of the sky -every step of the shifting tableau through which such forms must pass. - -By the nebular hypothesis the whole course of development, of -necessity, is rigidly forward to its culmination; but by employing -the analogies presented to us in other operations of nature, we -can readily account for variations, haltings, ineffectual efforts, -uncompleted processes, and even reversals and redistributions into -other secondary sources of energy. They equally comprise the agencies -for the production of a single solar system or of a myriad, just as we -see the vortical water-spouts or sand-storms either single, double, -or multiple; they are flexible, as are all the processes of nature, -and require no violent assumption of a prior physical basis known to -us "ne'er before on sea or shore." They also account for the deviation -from the normal of the orbits of Neptune and Mercury, for the formation -of the asteroids and Saturn's rings, for the different eccentricities -and inclinations of the orbits, for the forward axial rotation of -the planets and their satellites, and even for their perturbations -and abnormalities; they furnish a basis for Bode's empirical law, -for the distribution of the planets in size, for the origin of comets -and meteor streams, for Kepler's laws, for the equal and permanent -relation of eccentricities and inclinations, and for the fixed axial -position of the moon with reference to the earth; they account for the -free oxygen in the planetary and free hydrogen in the solar atmosphere, -they employ the variation of volume of the sun as a regulator instead -of an independent generator of light and heat, and they are in entire -conformity with the established principles which govern the electrical -generation of active forces, their transmission to the sun, their -transformation into light and heat, and their return to the regions -of space, where they continue to act with potential energy to all -eternity, as they must do if space itself is eternal; and we surely -know that, if anything whatever is eternal, space must be so. This -great ocean--the home, the domain, the workshop of creative energy--is -the last retreat of the human intellect; here it may find rest, and -here alone. While solar systems may afford in their circling planets -a possible dominion for finite life, and in their suns their daily -bread; in the infinite and all-embracing realms of space, filled with -the potentialities of all created forms, thrilled with the impulses -of all creative force, is to be found the unfailing source of all, -the dominion of the eternal architect, before whom nature bends the -obedient knee, waits to hear his mighty voice, or swiftly runs to do -his royal bidding. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY. - - "One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: - but the earth abideth for ever."--Bible. - - -Thus, as we have seen, through countless future ages will the sun, -with his incandescent envelope of hydrogen, and the planets, with their -life-sustaining atmospheres of oxygen, fulfil their appointed times -and courses. But if we could conceive that all atmospheres, solar -and planetary, were suddenly blotted out and forever annihilated, -so that these great orbs thenceforth rolled along as they do now, -but only as black globes in an ocean of space of Stygian darkness, -new atmospheres would at once begin to be formed, and these would -soon again surround the sun and planets, precisely like those which -now exist. - -Sweeping along in darkness, the force of gravity would gather around -each of these bodies vast accumulations of aqueous vapor and other -gases condensed from the attenuated matter of surrounding space. The -planets, by their axial rotations, would again generate from these -regions, newly occupied as the system drifted along through space, -electrical energy of enormous quantity and potential. Earth would again -hear the mighty mandate, "Let there be light," and from her poles to -her equator the skies would blaze with brush-light auroras. Suddenly, -with a mighty leap, the pent-up currents would flash across to their -opposite electric pole, the auroras would gradually die away, and -instantly the molecules of hydrogen would begin to sift out at the -solar and those of oxygen at the planetary terminals. The electrical -currents driving their furious pathway through the rapidly gathering -hydrogen envelope, the sun would first begin to faintly flicker with -hazy, nebulous light; the light would gather intensity, and soon -flash and glow with energy; the solar nucleus within would become -intensely heated and liquefied or partially volatilized, and again -the solar streams of incandescent heat and light would radiate forth -on every side; the commingled gases, oxygen and nitrogen, would once -more surround each planetary globe, and we should have a new solar -envelope just as we now see it, and new planetary atmospheres like our -own; and then, and not till then, would the opposing generative forces -permanently counterbalance each other and electrolytic decomposition -become practically stationary, except to compensate for the slight -variations constantly liable to occur in the complicated running of -the mechanism. So the mutilated crustacean re-grows his lost claws, -and so our own gaping wounds are healed by the great vis medicatrix -naturæ. The most stable of all things is mutually balanced instability; -perhaps there is no other form of stability. - -The "Nebular Hypothesis" of Laplace concerns itself only with the -aggregate matter of which our solar system is composed, and the force -of gravity, including cohesion, ignoring the action of the equally -powerful force of repulsion. But there is another nebular hypothesis -much older than that of Laplace and far more scientific, for it -utilizes both the force of gravity and cohesion and the radiant force -of repulsion in the generation of our solar system. We refer to what is -known as the Mosaic cosmogony. Whatever the origin of this magnificent -narrative may have been, whether written down by Moses originally, -or by him derived from the sacred learning of Egypt, with which he -was fully acquainted, or by the Egyptian scribes drawn from Ethiopia, -and still further back from the sacred traditions of India, it bears -internal evidence, when properly rendered from the Hebrew record, of a -knowledge of these stupendous phenomena (which no human eye could ever -have beheld) which is most remarkable. The commonly accepted versions -do not clearly bring out the full meaning of the original,--indeed, -it would have been impossible for the earlier translators to have -done so,--but when critically and etymologically rendered, very -surprising coincidences with the succession of events as they must -actually have occurred, and the principles involved in the successive -stages of creation, will be found in nearly every part of the record. - -This record is embodied in the first chapter and first three verses -of the second chapter of Genesis. The Hebrew was long believed to be -an original, if not an inspired, language, but it is now well known to -have been a derivative or root language, made up much like the English, -and, like it, having the meanings of its words primarily determined -by those of the root-stems from which they have been formed. The -roots of these Hebrew words are to be found among the languages of -many older peoples, and nearly all of them have now been traced to -their immediate origin. Another source of error is in the so-called -Masoretic pointing, which was not introduced for a thousand years -after the time of Moses, and which has often changed the signification -of the older words, and even the form of the words themselves; but -by critical researches the roots and their combinations have been -isolated, so that we are now able to possess a much mere accurate -knowledge of the Mosaic record than was possible in former times, -for, of course, no original copies have come down to us. It is not -a reconstruction of the record which has been made, but a careful -editing by means of the derivation and true signification of the -words used, and by careful comparison among the most ancient versions -accessible to modern research. The English version, while imperfect -in its rendering of this ancient narrative, is not to be considered -by any means a false translation, but it largely errs in failing to -give the full radical meaning of the words employed in the original. - -As an illustration of this indefiniteness of rendering in the ordinary -English version let us consider the opening sentences of the narrative: -"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the -earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of -the deep." - -In the "beginning" of what? Does it mean the beginning of our own solar -system? or of all systems? or of all space? or of Jehovah (for He has -not yet been mentioned or described)? or of the Aleim themselves,--that -is, did the work begin as soon as the forces began? and did the latter -originate spontaneously, or otherwise? What "God" is meant? Is it -Jehovah, or Aleim, or some other God not yet mentioned or described? If -we will take every name in the Bible which is translated God (and it -may be any of these according to the English rendering), we will have -legion. We shall even find that the same word which is translated "God" -was applied by Jehovah on one occasion to Moses. "Created"? What is -meant by this word? Was the creating a creation out of nothing? out -of something pre-existing? or something coexisting elsewhere? Was -the creation a direct or an indirect one? by the use of the forces -of nature, or by overriding the forces of nature? Was it a physical -creation by an inconceivable action of mere thought, or will? and if -so, was this thought, or will, God himself, or one of his attributes -or powers only? "The heaven"? What heaven? Was it that to which the -virtuous are supposed to go after death? or was it some more physical -heaven? Was the heaven the atmospheric heaven, the interplanetary -heaven, the heaven of interstellar space, or that more extended -heaven which lies beyond our knowledge? Was the heaven one of these -which He created, or did He create all the different heavens of all -the solar systems and nebulæ at the same time? "Without form"? Was -the earth without any form at all? or merely without its present -form? or without some particular form not mentioned? If the earth was -a physical structure it must have had some form; what was it? "And -void"? Was the earth void like a soap-bubble? or void like a ray of -light? or a vacuum? If it was empty, what was it that was empty? How -could the heaven and earth be void after they had been brought into -existence? "Darkness was upon the face of the deep"? What deep? Was -it the sea not yet created? or the earth, which is anything but a -"deep"? was it the atmosphere? or all space? If the latter, did -all other systems of space wait for their light on ours? or did we -wait on theirs? are there no new systems now forming, and none to be -formed hereafter? If all space is meant, where was its outside, or -its face? and what occupied the intervening regions? was it a physical -face or the face of a vacuum? Were these statements to be accepted by -faith or reason? If the former, was it a faith which could only have -come from the experience of after-ages? or was it based on the ipse -dixit of Moses? What was the basis of faith when the record was first -written? was it from generally accepted tradition or by revelation? Is -the record anonymous or does it reveal the name of its author? If to -be endorsed by knowledge and reason, why should not the narrative be -strictly and accurately translated, even at the expense of conciseness -and elegance of diction, in order that the exact force of every word -shall be fully felt and recognized? If the record is from divine -revelation, it is still more essential to know precisely what was -revealed; otherwise we are no better than idolaters; we are worse, -in fact, for we have changed and falsified the landmarks of religion, -and bear false witness against God Himself. We must not interpret -Genesis by records made long subsequently; it must speak for itself -or not at all. - -When construed in accordance with the exact definition of the words -themselves quite a new and strange light is thrown upon the history of -the events thus recorded. The great importance of a strict construction -of the translation and fidelity to the original is emphasized by -the fact that the same word was never used in this record to express -a different sense in different parts, nor were two different words -ever used in different places to express the same meaning. It is, -therefore, necessary to give every word of the original its exact -fulness and force. The basis of the following critical translation is -to be found in "Mankind: their Origin and Destiny" (Longmans & Co., -London, 1872), but a careful comparison has been made with other -accepted authorities, and the root-meanings of the separate words -have been carefully traced out, so that many necessary changes will -be found to have been made in order to bring out the precise sense -of the original. There is no actual literal, critical, etymological, -and scientific rendering embraced in a single translation known to us, -and which is complete in itself; but that which follows will be found, -it is believed, to give every word its particular etymological shade -of meaning, and to employ the same word in the same place, for the same -purpose, and with the same signification as it was understood to have, -in its original form, when first recorded. The specific root-meanings -of the most important words used are further explained in detail in -a separate section below. - -The use of Aleim, "the powerful Forces," in the plural, followed by -the verb in the singular, is a Hebraism, and indicates the collective -character of the forces as specially energized, sent forth, and -directed by Jeove (Jeova or Jehovah is the Chaldaic form of the word, -the original Hebrew being Jeove), who does not appear by name in this -narrative, though, as we shall see, specially delegated power from -some higher source is that characteristic which is most emphasized -throughout the record. These forces are personified, as is usual in -ancient records (and, indeed, in modern thought), but they are in -reality the "powers of God." The author of the work above referred -to says, "The idea of Moses was that there was a Supreme God ... and -that He only acts by means of his agents called Aleim, the Gods, -in the plural and indefinite number, or embassadors, or voices." The -ancient belief in the unity of all forces in one creative individuality -is also most clearly shown in some of the oldest Vedaic hymns of India -(see Max Müller, "The Veda"). "Self (Atman) is the Lord of all things, -Self is the King of all things. As all the spokes of a wheel are -contained in the nave and the circumference, all things are contained -in this Self; all selves are contained in this Self. Brahman (Force) -itself is but Self." - -Of the religion of the ancient Egyptians (see "Evolution and -Christianity," by J. F. York) it is said, "The chief theological -characteristic of this first of all known civilized religions is -the doctrine of the Divine Unity. As M. de Rougé says, 'One idea -predominates, that of a single and primeval God; everywhere and -always it is one substance, self-existent, and an unapproachable -God.'" The Egyptian cosmogony, as the fragments have come down to us -(see Professor Arnold Guyot, "Creation"), is as follows: - -1. The original gaseous form, and the darkness of matter. - -2. The successive transformations. - -3. Light, as the first step in this development. - -4. The separation of the waters below from the waters above the - expanse. - -5. Periods of development of indefinite length. - -6. The sun, moon, and earth organized last. - -The word Mlactou, which occurs several times repeated in the summing -up of this narrative, explains the character of Aleim most fully, as -specially energized and directed agencies or forces. This word never -has any other meaning. Even when applied to a king it was not a king -as a monarch, but as the specially directed agent of God. I. Samuel -xxviii. 17, "The Lord hath sent the kingdom out of thine hand; -... because thou obeydst not the voice of the Lord." When, in Exodus -xiii. 21 it is said that "Jeove went before them by day in a pillar -of a cloud," this is explained, in chapter xiv. verse 19, to mean that -this pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night was Mlac, a messenger, -or agent. It is translated "angel" in the English version, but it -was not a personal angel; it was a specially energized and directed -force. In the earliest times it was not the God of fire, or of force, -or of justice which men feared, but fire, or force, or justice; -the anthropomorphic conception came later with the generalization -of all fire, all force, or all justice. We say now that a malefactor -fears the law; what he really fears, however, is punishment. In this -record we are dealing with the primordial forces of God,--gravity, -electricity, attraction, repulsion, cohesion, vital force, etc., etc., -but acting with special energy for a predetermined result. Of these -forces Dr. McCosh says, in his work on Christianity and Positivism, -"One God, with his infinitely varied perfections,--his power, his -knowledge, his wisdom, his love, his mercy; we should see that one -Power blowing in the breeze, smiling in the sunshine, sparkling in -the stars, quickening us as we bound along in the felt enjoyment of -health, efflorescing in every form and hue of beauty, and showering -down daily gifts upon us. The profoundest minds in our day, and in -every day, have been fond of regarding this force, not as something -independent of God, but as the very power of God acting in all action; -so that in him we live, and move, and have our being." In more rugged -and virile form this was precisely the old Mosaic philosophy, the -philosophy of the arcana of the Egyptian temples, and of the Vedaic -age of the Aryans of India. Where was the radiant center of this -unfailing search-light which has poured its broad belt of dazzling -brightness down to our day from those old, prehistoric ages? - -So De Jouvencel, in his "Genesis according to Science," says, "We -should not place the works of nature on one side and nature on the -other. Nature is a work and not a person." - -The word which in the English version is translated "rested," in the -concluding verses of the narrative, does not mean rested from fatigue, -but rested as a pendulum rests when it ceases to vibrate. Had the -word been rendered "came to a state of rest," it would have been far -more accurate and true to the sense of the original. What is meant is -that these pent-up forces had operated, under the guidance of Jeove, -to rupture a state of unstable equilibrium in the attenuated matter of -space, just as similar forces are now said to gather energy to produce -a volcanic eruption of the earth's crust, preceded by earthquakes and -other vast disturbances radiating from the center of rupture of these -tensions between the molecules of matter, accompanied by explosive -expansion and all the phenomena of disorganization and repulsion, and -succeeded by condensation, development, harmony, and final quiescence -of these specially energized and self-opposing forces in a newly -formed state of molecular equilibrium. To quote from Professor Guyot, -"God rests as the creator of the visible universe. The forces of -nature are now in that admirable equilibrium which we now behold, -and which is necessary to our existence." In "The Unity of Nature" -the Duke of Argyle says, "We strain our imaginations to conceive the -processes of Creation, whilst in reality they are around us daily." - -The words which conclude the third verse of chapter ii. are also -imperfectly rendered in our English version, and this defect has led to -a popular misconception almost universal. They are construed to mean -"created--and made," as though marking a broad class distinction -between the different processes before described. From this the -inference has been drawn that while, for the more subordinate features, -the word rendered "made" indicated that these were stages in the -process of creation merely involving the use of coexisting materials, -in the grander features of the work it was supposed that there had been -a creation ab initio,--that is, out of nothing. Whole libraries have -been written on this theme; but the words used bear no such meaning; -on the contrary, they signify the exact opposite. There is, however, -a broad distinction between the interpretation of the two words; -but it is that the word which is to be rendered "fashioned like the -work of a sculptor" is narrower and not broader in significance than -the simple word "made;" so that the former is included in, but is -not generically distinct from, the latter. The word Bra means that -these portions of creation were fashioned with the care and artistic -skill of a sculptor, as contradistinguished from turning out the -productions in mass; this distinction does not relate to the origin, -but to the workmanship. However interstellar or primordial space -was formed, or when, if it ever was formed, there is nothing in this -record which excludes a pre-existent space substantially like that -which now is. What we see in the sky, among the nebulæ, are later -developments of like solar systems, in like manner, from the midst -of the substance of the same illimitable and eternal space. - -But biology has an interest in this account of creation equally as -great as has cosmology. The word Bra is first applied to the formation -of the individualized substance of the heavens and the earth. They were -fashioned or carved out like a sculpture from something on which the -forces could operate. There was, of course, creation involved, but it -was a mental, not a physical process. When a sculptor has completed -his clay figure he has brought forth a great creation, perhaps, and -the "creation" is still his own, though the figure be cast in bronze -by hired workmen in the foundry, who execute the sculptor's will at -two dollars a day, it may be, each. Beyond this mental element there -is no more creation, in its widest sense, than when a boy "creates" -a new point on his pencil by guiding his hand and knife to sharpen it. - -When the "diffused light" came, it is not said that it was "fashioned -like the work of a sculptor," or that it was even "made;" but that it -"came into existence." "Let there be light, and there was light," -as the English version has it. But when the radiant energy of the -sun came to be formed, on the fourth day, it did not "come into -existence," nor was it "fashioned like the work of a sculptor;" it was -"made." The reason is that it was not a development from the preceding -"diffused light," but a new kind of light, made mechanically by the -electrolysis of aqueous vapor around the sun's body, forming a hydrogen -envelope, and by driving the furious torrents of electricity from the -planets through this atmosphere, while the auroral, "diffused light" -of the earth was gradually dying away during the process. Hence -there was no room for the word Bra, or for the word Iei (came into -existence) here; the word to be used was Osh. And when life was first -introduced,--vegetable life, the primal life,--the word used is not -Bra; this life was not "fashioned" or developed from other life. But -when animal life was afterwards introduced, the word used is Bra; -it was a refashioning. What was this life fashioned out of? It was -not "made;" it did not "begin to exist;" it was developed. In this -manner the earth was finally filled with animal life. Then came -the introduction of the human race. Here we again have the word -Bra, thrice repeated; but when this introduction of mankind was -first projected, and before it was executed, it was in these words, -"We will make [the root Osh] mankind;" or, in the English version, -"Let us make man." There seems here to have been a gradual ascent of -living organisms by development, almost precisely in accordance with -the most recent teachings of science. Two essentially different kinds -of light were successively produced, independently of each other; -the earlier kind "came into being," and the later "was made." The -substance or entity of the heavens and of the earth, generically, -"was fashioned." Three successive introductions of organic life not -essentially different from each other occurred; the first is described -thus: "Let the earth bring forth; ... and the earth brought forth," -in the English version; or "There shall be made to grow; ... and there -was caused to arise suddenly out of the ground ... vegetation," as -more accurately rendered. The second form of organic life, in order of -time, the animal, was "fashioned." The third form, mankind, was also -"fashioned," and this was done long subsequently to the introduction -of the second. - -If the word Bra had any signification of original creation it would -have been applied to the first creation of life, for it was far more -wonderful and original that there should be vegetable life which -grew and developed, which brought forth flowers and then fruit, which -formed germinative seeds, and from these successively and continuously -reproduced its multifarious species, than that animal life should -have been introduced long afterwards to repeat these same things -which vegetation had been, in all its forms, from the lowest to the -highest, already doing for untold ages,--from the third period of the -earth's long history to the fifth; and more especially still when we -consider that vegetable life and animal life, in their lowest forms, -have no positive line of division between them. - -And if Osh, which is applied to the genesis of solar light, be capable -of the signification of original creation, then this word should have -been applied to the generation of the "diffused light" of the second -day, for the genesis of light is far more wonderful and original -than the subsequent production of sunlight, after the forming earth -had existed for two whole formative periods, from the second to the -fourth, under the constant illumination of this universally diffused -auroral light. If, on the other hand, the words applied to the first -generation of light and the first generation of life be held to mark -an original creation, then these words are never applied in this whole -narrative to the genesis of the entity of the heavens, or the earth, -or the sun and moon, or to animal life, or the life of man. - -The radiant light and heat of the sun were not made until the fourth -day, while the introduction of vegetable life dates from the long -antecedent third day of creation. Prior to the development of the -sun's thermal light there could have been, as we have already shown, -no free oxygen in the terrestrial atmosphere; and it is a remarkable -circumstance that vegetation, which is the only form of organic life -which could have existed and propagated its species in an atmosphere -composed of carbonic, nitrogenous, and aqueous vapors, devoid of -oxygen, is that particular form of life which has been selected for -this purpose, and its advent placed prior to the making of the sun. It -would have been far more reasonable (previous to our present knowledge -of these things) to have placed the formation of the sun in advance -of the introduction of life; it is surprising that this was not done, -unless we give to these "ancients" a knowledge of the principles of -natural science far beyond anything hitherto attributed to them. - -In the same connection there is described a stage preparatory to and -leading up to the simultaneous development of the sun's light and -heat, and the sifting out of hydrogen around the solar core, and of -oxygen in the terrestrial atmosphere, which is equally remarkable. The -"separation of the waters" described in verses 6 and 7 has never been -fully rendered into English, or even understood in the original, as -the words seemed meaningless in their literal sense until correctly -interpreted by the facts set forth in the present work. - -We must first note that the separation of the waters of space to -two opposite foci, with an intervening space of attenuated matter, -and their condensation there into two entirely different bodies, was -the work of the second day, while the formation of the terrestrial -rain-clouds and seas, as connected together, was a work of the -third day, and was not accomplished until then, which was long -afterwards. These entirely different operations--different in time, -place, character, and circumstance--have always been confounded with -each other; but one is in reality systemic and the other merely local. - -In verse 6 there was decreed an expanse or thinning (an attenuated -region) in the center of the waters, and a separation was made by -the formation of two "spots" (verse 7), one under the expanse and -the other above the expanse; the expanse was space, interplanetary -space. Professor Arnold Guyot, in his book on Creation, says, "It is -to be regretted that the English version has translated the Hebrew -word expanse by the word firmament.... The difficulties they [the -commentators] have created for themselves arose ... from depriving it -of its cosmogonic character and belittling it by reducing the great -phenomena there described to a simple modification of the terrestrial -atmosphere.... They forget that this thin covering of clouds is but -a temporary and ever-changing one, and that the clouds are in that -heaven rather than above it.... They forget that this is not the true -heavens in which are spread the sun and moon and stars.... This grand -day, so dwarfed and misunderstood, is the one in which are described -the generations of the heavens, announced by Moses, which otherwise -find no place in the narrative of the creative week." - -The two foci of waters were the solar and terrestrial; around these -bodies were gathered by the attraction of gravity, and there condensed, -the aqueous vapors from the attenuated intervening matter of space; the -earth by its rotation generated the enormous electrical currents which -still continue; when these made their mighty leap across to the sun, -the diffused auroral light around the earth gradually disappeared, -hydrogen and oxygen began to be evolved at the opposite poles--the -sun and the earth--from the condensed envelopes of aqueous vapor -which surrounded them, the sun's hydrogen atmosphere was pierced, -as in the pail-of-water experiment described in an earlier chapter -of the present work, by the planetary electric currents, the sun -became incandescent, and pari passu the earth became fitted, by the -development of oxygen, for the abode of animal life. As taking part -in this great mechanical transformation, the sun was said to have been -"made;" it did not "come into being." - -Just prior to the introduction of vegetable life--during the same -creative epoch, in fact, and for the support of which life it was -necessary--the waters under the expanse were condensed into rain-clouds -and seas, and there is a curious reference (verse 9) to the appearance -of the earth's dryness "as produced by the action of an internal fire;" -the gradual cooling of the earth by the radiation of its internal heat -of condensation into space would account for this appearance, and, in -connection with the diffused auroral light throughout the whole sky, -would doubtless have sufficed for the support of vegetable life. - -In verse 16 the fixed stars (the suns of other systems) are referred -to, but in a parenthetical statement--almost deprecatory, in fact--that -"the dim and almost extinct lights" the same forces created also, -but when they were created is not stated in the record. The occasion -for this incidental remark is to be found in the preceding statement -that the two new luminaries, the sun and moon, were the two "superior -bodies in size of the starry lights." Having mentioned the stars in -this comparison, the author feels called upon to add that the latter -also had been similarly created,--that is, that they were not original -existences, and of course they are not, but they were not created at -that epoch, and are not said to have been. - -In chapter ii. verse 4, which opens the second narrative (quite a -different history, by the way), Jeove appears Himself, joined with -the Aleim, and henceforth this personal connection is maintained; -the English version translates this composite word "The Lord God," -which means the Master God; the correct reading is, however, the -"God of gods," or what we call the "God of the forces of nature," -or the "God omnipotent." - -In the whole Mosaic cosmogony there is nothing which can even -suggest a gradually closing nebulous mass; the element of rotation is -absent (and it would not have been understood by the people even if -presented); but, with this exception, the processes of development -are substantially in accord with what must really have taken place, -and in the order described. But it is, as before stated, absolutely -essential to understand the root-meanings of all the more important -words used in the original. A superficial translation is not only -meaningless, but misleading; whereas, when accurately understood, -the record is one of the most remarkable ever presented to human -intelligence. The words used were selected deliberately for their -specific shades of meaning, and, unless these are properly rendered, -to the uninformed the narrative will present a simple succession -of startling phenomena, while to the educated student each of these -changes carries within its verbal index its origin, its mode, and the -knowledge of the forces at work. To the one it is a dramatic spectacle -performed on the stage in front; to the other it is the same work -as seen behind the curtain, with all the intermoving mechanism (the -author's manuscript the sole guide), the interplay of complicated -forces, the triumphant successes, the rapt attention, and even the -sudden applause extorted at each wondrous climax from the skilled -actors themselves, who are at the same time unceasingly engaged in -working out the mighty drama of creation. One might readily believe -that the original author of this record was thoroughly acquainted -with the processes involved in the development of a solar system like -our own from the diffused primordial matter of space, substantially -as we have endeavored, in the present work, to deduce them from the -most recent investigations and discoveries of science. - -Of the watery vapors condensed above the expanse of space many of -the ancient writers had a far more correct knowledge than had those -who translated these chapters from the original into the various -modern languages. In the Psalms we read, "Praise him, ... ye waters -that be above the heavens;" in the Song of the Three Holy Children, -"O all ye waters that be above the heavens." Theophilus speaks of the -"visible sky as having drawn to itself a portion of the waters of -chaos at the time of the creation." Saint Augustine says that the -firmament has been formed "between the upper and the lower waters," -and quotes Genesis i. 6 and 7, as his authority. - -Thousands of years ago, as far back as the days of the Pythagoreans, -and even long before, mankind was acquainted with the mariner's -compass, telescopic tubes, and glass lenses; they knew that the moon -receives her light by reflection from the sun, of the presence of -mountains and valleys on the lunar surface, that her day and night are -each a fortnight in length, that there were other planets known to the -Egyptians besides the seven known to the Greeks (the Brahmans reckoned -fifteen of them), that the sun is the center of our planetary system, -that the earth and the other planets revolve around it, that the earth -is round and rotates on its own axis daily, that weight is a principal -element in the maintenance of these rotations, that the fixed stars -are suns, and that the Milky Way appears white from the number of -stars which it contains. Kircher quotes from an ancient Syrian author -the philosophy of the sidereal system, dividing it into many layers -or spheres attached to orbits, each presided over by a spirit. In -the eighth sphere are placed the fixed stars, "still higher two other -layers of stars not less luminous, and of different sizes, the nebulæ -and the small stars of the Milky Way, and the whole is surrounded by -the celestial waters, which spread over the whole firmament, and which -compose the great sea of light and the boundless ocean." The sources -of all this wondrous knowledge can be traced back through Chaldea, -Arabia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and, through the colony of Meroë, to India. - - - -ROOT-MEANINGS OF THE PRINCIPAL WORDS USED IN THE MOSAIC NARRATIVE -OF CREATION. - -Aleim ("corruptly called Elohim by the modern Jews, but always Aleim -in the synagogue copies") means the Strong Forces (or, by subsequent -impersonation, subaltern gods), operating to carry out the purposes and -execute the plans of Jeove. Al, the root, signifies Strong, strength, -a ram; Al-e means Strong in a personal sense; Aleim (plural) means -the Forces, the Strong-ones, the Powers, and in Egyptian mythology, -the subordinate, or executive, gods, the demi-urgi. Exodus vii. 1, -"And the Lord [Jeove] said unto Moses, See I have made thee a god -[Aleim] to Pharaoh; thou shalt speak all that I command thee." - -Bra, carved, cut, fashioned like the work of a sculptor, gave a new -shape to, formed from unformed material. From Br, a knife; br-i, -to carve, to cut. - -Brashit, in the commencement or beginning of individualized existence -(with the initial preposition b-). B signifies in; it (which is -related to at) signifies individualized existence; rash, a principle -or beginning, or a commencement. - -At, connected with the Chaldaic, signifies substance, essence, -or individuality, "the thing itself" (Latin, ens); it is correctly -translated "individualized substance." - -Eshmim, the combination of the preposition e with the substantive -shmim, the word signifying of the visible heavens, or the planisphere. - -Artz, the earth in a state of aridity, or as a generalized expression -for the earth; ar signifies the earth, and the termination tz -intensifies the signification of drought, whiteness, aridity; in -contrast with this is adme, red earth, or productive earth or soil. - -U- is a conjunction, signifying and or then, in the sense of succession -of time, something like our phrase "and then." - -Teou does not mean "without form," nor does ubeou mean "and void," as -rendered in our English version, at least not in the ordinary sense -of these words. "Teou refers to extinct life, or to existence shut -up as in a tomb and in darkness, while u-beou refers to life which -is about reappearing, but still hidden in the egg or the ovary, and -waiting for the word which shall cause the dawn of creation to shine -upon it." These words are more properly rendered "tomb-like darkness -and undeveloped." - -Eshc means darkness; not merely an intense darkness, but what may be -denominated a "thick darkness;" it is an enshrouding darkness which -compresses and hinders. It is precisely such a darkness as would be -produced by the interstratified cloud-layers between the convolutions -of a forming spiral nebula, or the cloud-strata surrounding the -earth before electrolytic decomposition of the aqueous vapors had -ensued. With the advent of the sun, in the narrative, this darkness -and the term which expresses it disappear. - -Teou-m is the word above explained, with the termination -m, -expressing the idea of arrested, doubtful, indefinite, as applied to -all existence; the word "undifferentiated nature" properly interprets -its vagueness and general character of an abyss of being, in the -etymological sense of "nature" as the totality of things at that time -born or produced. - -Rove means breath, in the sense of an expanding, liberating, or -developing spirit; its literal meaning is "the breath, the spirit -which dilates and frees." - -Mrepht, brooded with incubating love; reph is composed of re, "to be -full of good-will, to be agreeable," and eph, "to cover, to protect, -to incubate, to brood." - -Mim, the seeds of all beings, the waters. It is said, "the choice of -this letter m, to signify water [the alphabetical Egyptian letter m -is represented by the two undulatory lines which in the hieroglyphics -represent water], is connected with the Egyptian ideas of the cause -of the generation of living beings." Numbers xxiv. 7, "He shall -pour the waters out of his buckets, and the seed [zro] in the waters -[b-mim]." The latter word is plural in form, but both singular and -plural in sense. - -Aour, diffused light; a light resembling the dawn, but quite distinct -from the light of the sun. The latter was not established until the -fourth day, and its advent is characterized by a new word, leair, -"to cause light to move above the earth." - -Joum is day, generically, and lile night. - -Rqiô, the expanse; atrqiô, the individualized substance of the -expanse. Space, in the opinion of the Egyptians, "not being a vacuum, -but a material substance, Moses could say, and was even compelled to -say, 'the substance of space, that which constitutes it.'" - -Osh, made. This word first occurs in verse 7, and is there applied to -the making a separation between the waters or aqueous vapors condensed -around the earth and those condensed around some similar spot "above, -as regards the individuality of the expanse,"--to wit, the solar core -or nucleus,--to which, attracted by gravity from the attenuated vapors -of the space between, is due the subsequent establishment of the solar -light and heat, as in an electrical arc light, and the presence of -oxygen in the terrestrial atmosphere. These processes, involving -the constitution of our atmosphere and of the sun's photosphere -and chromosphere, were not completed until two subsequent cosmical -periods had elapsed, from the third to the fifth. The word osh, in its -different combinations and inflections, is also used in verse 11, where -it signifies "making," as applied to fruit; "yielding" fruit, in verse -12; "they made," as applied to the sun and moon, in verse 16; "made," -as applied to the entity of quadrupeds and higher animals generally, -in verse 25; "we will make," as applied to man, verse 26; "had made," -as applied to "every entity of creation," verse 31; "had made," as -applied to the specially directed work as mlactou, chapter ii. verse -2; and finally, in the general summing up in verse 3 of the second -chapter, as an element in a compound substantive phrase "according -to the making-act," or "in accordance with the making of creation." - -"Oshout," it is said, "signifies a manual operation, carried on -according to a previously conceived idea, or model." - -We find a similar use of the substantive infinitive with a preceding -preposition in verse 21, chapter iii. "Ctnout is derived from tne, -a consoling word. Tnout, the infinitive of the conjugation Piel, adds -to the word the act of causing to be done, and of doing with care." - -A similar construction, lraout, is employed in chapter ii. verse -19, translated in the English version, "and brought them unto Adam -to see what ..."; more literally, "as regards the act of seeing," -or according to a vision, or show. That is, they were brought and -presented to his sight. - -The object in writing these two words, bra and l-osh-out, together at -the very end of the narrative was to conclusively establish the fact, -beyond all possible doubt, that the whole work of creation was an -orderly and harmonious progression. - -Mlactou, which word is used twice in verse 2 and once in verse 3 of the -second chapter, and not previously, is also introduced for specific -emphasis. It means that the whole preceding work of creation was, in -its nature, "the work of Mlac," a messenger, or a specially energized -and directed agency, sent to fulfil the appointed work of Jeove. Its -purpose was to forever prevent the belief that the work of creation -was due to mere natural forces, on the one hand, operating by chance; -and, on the other, that these forces were independent gods carrying -out their own purposes, and of their own will. It was set up as a -double barrier against rationalism on the one side and polytheism on -the other. - -It may be incidentally added that the popular belief that "Adam was -created out of the dust of the earth" is not in accordance with the -original record. In the second narrative, chapter ii. verse 7, the -word ophr is rendered "dust" in our English version, but it does not -signify ordinary terrestrial dust at all; "its radical meaning is to -volatilize a substance, to sublimate it." The true signification of -the word used is analogous to a "material essence." The same word is -used in Numbers xxiii. 10 as a synonym for "seed;" it is said that -"the Septuagint version translates ophr by sperma." - -The formation, described in the third chapter, of the female human -being out of one of the ribs of Adam, excised for that purpose (which -is a matter of almost universal popular belief), is not, in reality, -what is stated in the original. In verse 21 of chapter ii. the words -are rendered in our version, "And he took one of his ribs." What is -really said, however, is "And he brought out another one from his -sides." So the similar expression in verse 22 in reality signifies, -"caused to be made according to womankind the individualized substance -of his side." - -The word translated "of his ribs" is precisely the same as is -subsequently used by the same writer (Exodus xxxvii. 27) to designate -the location of the supporting rings upon an altar of incense, and -is there rendered, "by the two corners of it, upon the two sides." - -The defective translation is due to imperfect knowledge, at that -time, of the processes of organic development. The true signification -is that given in the "Institutes of Manu": "Having divided his own -sub-sistence, the Mighty Power became half male and half female." - -The words rendered "help meet" in verses 18 and 20 have a far -higher meaning; "I will make him a help meet" should be translated, -"I will cause to be made for him an overseeing help as a guide, -an instructor, a revealer." And in verse 20 of chapter iii., "And -Adam called his wife's name Eve," the latter word is not translated; -the correct rendering is, "And Adam called the symbolic name of his -wife the female serpent-wise revealer, she who explains, points out -things, who instructs," for that is what the true root-meaning of Eve -signifies. The concluding words of this verse, "because she was the -mother of all living," are obviously mistranslated, for not only was -she not a mother at all, but she did not even conceive, as stated in -the next chapter, until she had left the garden finally. The true -signification is, "because she was the mother of all [spiritual, -see verse 22, as contradistinguished from animal and vegetable] life." - -The female human being, the word translated woman, has the generic -root-signification of "flame," while, prior to Eve, that of the -Adamic man is the "red earth." As the male was formed from a material -earthly essence, the female was created one remove further from the -gross and material in the direction of the spiritual; and her powers -were distinctively subjective, those of intuition, while those of -the male were objective, those derived from instruction. Even in the -final curse (so called) the man turns back to the earth to earn his -subsistence, while the woman turns forward to the instruction of -the future men and women, the children; for the words, "In sorrow -shalt thou bring forth children," have left one word of the original -untranslated, and by supplying this the sense is entirely changed, -"and conceiving, and bringing forth, in sorrow shalt thou bring up, -care for, and train children." In those countries childbirth was -never attended with much pain or sorrow. - -The obvious effect of the whole inspired or traditionary second -narrative is to clearly differentiate the contrasted faculties of -the two sexes, and the root-meanings of the words employed, whether -Moses himself perceived it or not, are a testimonial of the highest -possible character for woman, instead of being, as rendered in the -ordinary versions, a mark of inferiority, or even of degradation. In -the garden scene, when she partook of the fruit of the tree of -knowledge, she did not do it hastily or from mere temptation; it is -said that "she considered it attentively;" the same word being used -as was employed in the first narrative to mark the intense interest -and almost superhuman character of the consideration by the Aleim -of the work, as its successive stages appeared, which they were -delegated to perform, and which Jeove himself directed. The prize, -to her, far outweighed the penalty, and the aspiring sibyl dared to -lift the innermost veil in the adytum of the temple, and grasp the -lofty truths which made her as one of the Aleim. So fell Prometheus. - -And then, no sooner had the flame-crowned seer won her precious prize, -than, woman-like, she turned and laid it before her husband, and he, -the innocent one, "did eat." - -The serpent was not a mere snake, be it understood; it was the Egyptian -Typhon, the dark Spirit of doubt, the questioner, the tempter, the -eternal if, the why, whence, what, and whither? - -It was her insatiable aspiration to reach the highest possible -limits of human knowledge which gave strength to her daring, and -not a childish fancy for an apple. All this, of course, is lost in -the translation. It is as though the national standard of a mighty -people had been disinterred from the remains of past ages, which had -been borne aloft at the head of mighty armies for centuries, and for -which thousands had gloriously died in battle in defence of a sacred -cause, and which now, its past history untraced, has been catalogued -as a brass bird of some sort mounted on a stick. - -It is to be regretted that there is no plain, popular work by a -thoroughly capable scholar, without theological or anti-theological -bias, which treats of the origin, form, root-derivation, usage, -accurate signification, and construction of the comparatively few -words employed in the ancient narratives which compose the first -half-dozen chapters of Genesis, and, we may add, the book of Job; -something like those inestimable works which deal with the ancient -cosmogonic literature of Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, India, China, -Phoenicia, and Central America. Nothing of this sort is to be found, -at all events in a form accessible to the general reader, and such a -work, in small compass, would be of the highest importance to popular -instructors, to students, and to the public as well, for it would -throw a flood of light on these extremely valuable but, hitherto, -so illy-comprehended records. - - - - THE MOSAIC NARRATIVE OF CREATION. - - 1. Aleim, the Forces, fashioned like the work of a sculptor, in - the commencement of individualized existence, the individualized - substance of the heavens and the individualized substance of - the earth. - - 2. And the earth was in tomb-like darkness and undeveloped, - and there was compressive hindering darkness on the surface of - undifferentiated nature. And the dilating and liberating Spirit - of the Forces hovered with incubating love on the surface of the - seeds of all beings, the waters. - - 3. Then Aleim said, There shall be a diffused light; and a diffused - light was. - - 4. And Aleim regarded with attention the individualized substance - of the diffused light, because good. And Aleim caused a separation - to be made between the diffused light and between the compressive - hindering darkness. - - 5. Then Aleim exclaimed for the diffused light, Day! and for the - compressive hindering darkness exclaimed, Night! And there was a - transition from light to darkness, and then there was a renewal - of light; First Day. - - 6. Then Aleim said, There shall be an expansion obtained by a - thinning in the center of the waters, and there was that which - caused a separation to be made by occupying a spot, the waters - according to the waters. - - 7. And Aleim made the individualized substance of the expanse, - and caused a separation to exist by the occupation of the spot, - of the waters which are under as regards the expanse of space, - and by the occupation of the spot, of the waters which are above - as regards the expanse of space; and it was so. - - 8. Then Aleim exclaimed for the expanse of space, The Heavens! and - there was a transition from light to darkness, and then there - was a renewal of light; Second Day. - - 9. And Aleim said, The waters which are underneath the heavens - will tend directly, in order to meet in it, towards a single spot - fixed upon for their meeting; and of dryness produced by the action - of an internal fire the appearance shall be made; and it was so. - - 10. Then Aleim exclaimed for the dryness, Earth! and for the spot - fixed upon for the meeting of the waters exclaimed, Seas! Then - Aleim looked attentively at it, because good. - - 11. And Aleim said, There shall be made to grow from the earth - a dwarf vegetation which can be trodden under foot, a maturing - plant causing to be sowed around it a seed, the strong and woody - substance of fruit making fruit after his kind whose seed is in - itself above the earth; and it was so. - - 12. And there was caused to arise suddenly and full of strength - a dwarf vegetation, a maturing plant sowing around it seed after - his kind; and the woody substance yielding fruit whose seed is - in itself after his kind. Then Aleim considered it, because good. - - 13. And there was a transition from light to darkness, and then - there was a renewal of light; Third Day. - - 14. Then Aleim said, There shall be starry-lights in the expanse - of space of the heavens to separate between the duration of the - day and between the duration of the night; and they shall be for - signs, and for seasons, and for the days which make the year, - and for the repetitions of years. - - 15. And they shall be for luminous bodies in the expanse of - space of the heavens to cause light to move above the earth; - and it was so. - - 16. And Aleim made a double individualized substance, the superior - in size and excellence of the starry-lights, the individualized - substance which was the greater of the luminous bodies to represent - the rule of the day, and the lesser luminous body to represent - the rule of the night. - - Of the dim and almost extinct lights [the stars] they made the - individualized substance also. - - 17. And Aleim established these individualized substances in the - expanse of space of the heavens to make light move above the earth. - - 18. And to be representatives of dominion during the day and - during the night, and to separate between the continuance of - diffused light and between the continuance of compressive hindering - darkness; then Aleim looked attentively at it, because good. - - 19. And there was a transition from light to darkness, and then - there was a renewal of light; Fourth Day. - - 20. Then Aleim said, The waters shall bring forth a swarm of - swarming creatures having living breath; and that which flies, - the birds, shall be made to fly with strength and fleetness above - the earth in the space extended of the heavens. - - 21. And Aleim fashioned like the work of a sculptor the - individualized substance of those which are superior in size of - the gigantic reptiles and every individualized substance having - living breath, that moveth, which they had produced, swarming - from the waters, according to their kind; and every individualized - substance of flying thing with wings, after his kind. Then Aleim - looked attentively at it, because good. - - 22. And Aleim blessed these individualities by saying, propagate - your species and multiply yourselves, and fill the individualized - substance of the waters in the seas; and as for the flying thing, - it shall multiply itself on the earth. - - 23. And there was a transition from light to darkness, and then - there was a renewal of light; Fifth Day. - - 24. Then Aleim said, From the earth shall be brought forth the - living breath according to its kind, the quadruped, and the being - which moveth about, and the terrestrial animal according to its - kind; and it was so. - - 25. And Aleim made the individualized substance of the animal of - the earth according to his kind, and the individualized substance - of the quadruped according to his kind, and every individualized - substance that moveth about of red earth according to his - kind. Then Aleim regarded it, because good. - - 26. Then Aleim said, We will make mankind of a like order of - intellect with ourselves, and they shall extend their dominion - over the fish of the sea, and over the bird of the heavens, and - over the quadruped, and over all of the earth, and over all the - moving beings that move about over the earth. - - 27. And Aleim fashioned like the work of a sculptor the - individualized substance of mankind in the exactness of a shadow - cast upon a wall; on this shadow Aleim carved the individuality; - male and female they fashioned the individualized substance. - - 28. Then Aleim blessed the individualized substance. And Aleim - said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply and replenish the - individualized substance of the earth, and subdue it, and extend - your dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of - the heavens, and over all life of the being which moveth about - over the earth. - - 29. And Aleim said, Behold I have given for you every useful - plant-substance yielding seed, yielding seed which there is over - the surface of all the earth, and every individualized substance - of tree which has in it fruit pertaining to a tree yielding seed, - yielding seed for you, it shall be for food. - - 30. And for all animal life of the earth, and for everything - that flies in the heavens, and for every being that moveth over - the surface of the earth which has in it living breath, every - individualized substance which is a green maturing plant shall - be for food. And it was so. - - 31. Then Aleim looked at every individualized substance which - they had made, and behold it was as good as possible. And there - was a transition from light to darkness, and then there was a - renewal of light; Sixth Day. - - (Chapter ii.) 1. Then the finishing was made of the heavens, - and of the earth, and of all the orderly arrangement. - - 2. And Aleim [the Forces] finished on the seventh day the divinely - appointed and directed work which they had performed; and they - came again to a state of rest on the seventh day from all the - appointed work which they had done. - - 3. Then Aleim blessed the individualized substance of the seventh - day and sanctified it, because in it they returned to their - primitive condition from all the divinely appointed and directed - work which the Forces had fashioned like the work of a sculptor, - in accordance with the making of creation. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -CONCLUSION. THE HARMONY OF NATURE'S LAWS AND OPERATIONS. - - -We have passed before us the different orders of celestial phenomena; -we have called down the denizens of the starry skies and placed them -on the witness stand, and we have interrogated them in the light of -the evidence which they have given before; we have compared their -different statements, and have found that in their testimony they -all finally agree. Instead of confusion, we find order; instead of -complexity, simplicity; instead of discord, harmony; and through all -we see the orderly progress of nature with uniform step, from stage -to stage, higher and higher, until at last she stands triumphant, -the handmaid of creative power, in the very center of the arch of -the universe. We have taken the simplest operations which we find -in progress around us, and have extended them to larger operations, -constantly keeping in view their relevancy and the facts which form -their sole support. Mere speculation has been excluded, and theory -has found its every step based on an established fact. In this way -we may hope to make place for further investigation in this field -by abler minds, and that the conclusions of science may then become -so well understood and so firmly established that to go back to the -"dead-and-dying" theories of solar energies will be like going back -to Ptolemy and Tycho for our astronomy. - -We have considered the hypothesis which bases the energy of our -sun upon his inherent heat, upon combustion, upon the accretion -of meteoric streams, and upon his slow and gradual condensation -of volume; and have found that all these hypotheses, singly or -combined, fail to account for his energy through the vistas of the -past, during which we know he must have shone as he now shines, -and fail to account for more than a slow but inevitable decline, -in the relatively near future, into eternal darkness and death. We -have found that all these theories are alike, in that they recognize -the sun itself as the only source of his energy, that his enormous -emission of light and heat is almost entirely wasted in empty space, -and that this will go on with the same frightful waste until he has -squandered his whole patrimony and ends his melancholy career in the -poor-house or the dungeon. We have, however, seen that even this will -not save the wretched client, for he has already spent far more than -he ever could have received originally by inheritance, and far more -than he could have gained by gifts pitched in in bulk--like the poor -colored brother's potatoes--through the window. - -We have therefore gone over the case anew, and have learned that -enormous electrical currents are constantly passing between the earth -and the sun, with practically no resistance, and this irrespective of -any hypothesis, actual or possible; and these facts have solved at the -outset one of the greatest conceivable difficulties,--to wit, that of -the transmission through space of such essential currents. Turning -our attention to the more recent advances in electricity and the -arts of electrical construction, we have found that induction -machines, as contradistinguished from the older friction machines, -operate in a manner strongly suggestive of the rotation of a planet -through space, and we learn that the electrical potential of the air -overhead increases constantly by an enormous multiplying number as we -ascend, proving great electrical action in the regions immediately -surrounding the earth, and which we have called the terrestrial -electrosphere. We have also found that sun-spots and solar storms -and other disturbances are at once reflected in our earth-currents, -and are followed immediately by great electrical disturbances here -and by extensive auroral displays at night. Experiment shows that -similar auroral displays may be produced with an electrical machine by -interruption of the current leading to its principal condenser, thus -demonstrating that the currents are from the earth to the sun, and not -the converse. We have also found that while the solar atmosphere is -largely composed of hydrogen gas, that of the earth and other planets -is largely composed of oxygen, and that these gases, the constituents -of water, are separately disengaged at the opposite electrical -poles by the electrolytic action of a powerful current of electricity -applied to the decomposition of aqueous vapors, in accordance with the -established electrical law that any fluid which will transmit a current -may be decomposed by it; hence we learn that our interplanetary space -contains attenuated aqueous vapors, which we have also learned to be -true from other sources. As our other planets, as well as the earth, -are found to be surrounded with an atmosphere of dilute oxygen, and -with aqueous vapors suspended in it, we know that their action upon -the sun must be similar to that of the earth, and that the congeries -of planets thus unite in their supply of electricity to the sun in -constant and enormous currents. Examining now the effects of passing -powerful electrical currents through a compressed envelope of hydrogen -gas surrounding a conductor, we find that great heat ensues, that the -hydrogen becomes highly incandescent, and that the metallic nucleus -within is raised to an extremely high temperature, and we also observe -the same effects when the current is transmitted through the separated -carbons of an electrical arc light. We have thus accounted for the -constant supply of the energy which, transformed into light and heat, -as in the last-mentioned experiments, the sun pours forth perpetually -into space. We have also learned that electrical induction machines -derive their electrical currents from the surrounding air, and also -that no electricity can be generated in, or transmitted through, -a vacuum, and hence we learn that the planets, by the rotation of -their electrospheres in contact with the attenuated vapors of space, -generate these powerful electrical currents with which the sun is -supplied, and that the sun merely restores to the ocean from which, -in another form, it was abstracted the light and heat which he emits, -and that, instead of all being wasted except that which falls upon the -planets, in fact that is the only part which actually, in one sense -at least, is wasted: all the rest is deposited in bank, but that is -"spent." The important generalization is thus arrived at, that the -true source of solar energy is to be found in the attenuated vapors of -space, and that the mode is that of the generation of electricity by -the rotating planetary electrospheres, its transference through the -aqueous vapors of interplanetary space to the sun, its passage under -resistance through the compressed hydrogen envelope, its transformation -there into light and heat, and its final emission or backpouring into -space again. The molecular motions which give rise to light and heat -in their passage through the vast distances of space are finally -retarded by and disappear as radiated energy in the restoration -or increase of the intermolecular tension of the vapors of space, -and these processes continue, and must continue, to all eternity, -if the sun exists and his planets continue to revolve in orderly -circuit around him. If there be any permanent degradation of energy, -it must be with reference to the total volume of infinite, or at least -indefinite, space, and not with reference to the relatively minute -spark of fire which we call the sun. We have also learned that the -moon's electrosphere is repelled by that of its neighbor, the earth, -and that whatever vapor and atmosphere it may have can exist only on -its opposite side; and we have also learned that, by reason of the -moon's peculiar axial rotation with reference to the earth, any other -arrangement of the lunar moisture and air, even if such were possible, -would have absolutely prohibited all life on that subordinate planet -at any stage of its existence whatever. We have applied the above -principles to the fixed stars, and have learned that, by the same law, -the resplendent star itself is proof conclusive that it, too, must -have planets rotating around it, and that these planets must have an -oxygen atmosphere and clouds of aqueous vapor like our own. We have -interpreted the double and multiple stars, and, by an extension of -the same law, explained their frequently contrasted or complementary -colors. The new stars which blaze up in sudden conflagration and -then die out have no secrets when this new light is turned upon them; -they, too, are but the faithful followers of the law; and the temporary -and variable stars likewise fall into their appropriate categories and -obediently move on with the procession. The comets,--the banner-bearers -of the sidereal hosts,--which from the earliest ages have defied -science to read their cabalistic legend, find it now "writ large" -and in plain English. Even the meteorites, the cosmical dust, the -unorganized débris of space, are found to be amenable to the same -law. When we turn in wider gaze to spy out the fantastic nebulæ on the -very outer fringe of visible things, after we have separated out the -star-clusters and organized galaxies of suns, we apply our touchstone -to the irresolvable gaseous nebulæ, and lo! their mystery dissolves -at a touch. We have even been able to picture the processes of the -creation of solar systems and whole galaxies of suns in which the -same law finds scope, and by its infinite and harmonious extension we -learn that nature moves with a comprehensive plan, and is uniform in -her infinite variety and eternal in her ceaseless activity. We have -been told that-- - - - "The poem of the universe - No rhythm has nor rhyme; - Some god recites the wondrous song, - A stanza at a time." - - -But it is all a mistake; the loftiest strains which ever inspired -the soul of Mozart or of Beethoven had not the ineffable harmony, -nor the sweetest songs of the greatest poets the perfect rhyme, -ever repeated and ever varied, of the universe. Its orderly progress -is like the onward movement of a mighty army, and there is but one -grand commander, "but one God," and Nature, that showeth forth his -handiwork, "is his prophet." We have found that the "course of nature," -the eternally youthful mother, is the same, whether in spinning a -tendril in the garden, in weaving a whirlwind in the atmosphere, or -in elaborating from the universal vapors of primordial space a solar -system or a galaxy. And it is not a convulsive, spasmodic nature that -we find; we do not love to associate great explosions, cataclysms, -the destruction of worlds, or the extinction of suns with our ideas -of nature. These seem not to be of nature. The nature we love is -the gentle mother, uniform in her operations, kindly in her ways, -beneficent in her results; the nature of the rain, the sunshine, -seed-time and harvest and the sprouting seed again; ever patient, -ever responsive, but in all as firm and steadfast as the foundations -of eternity itself. So we have found her. We have assumed nothing; we -have observed and endeavored to deduce from observation her systematic -plan, for this is the voice of her law, "the same yesterday, to-day, -and forever." To quote the words of Matthew Arnold, from out the -darkness of the past we seem to hear her say,-- - - - "Will ye claim for your great ones the gift - To have rendered the gleam of my skies? - - Race after race, man after man, - Have thought that my secret was theirs, - - --They are dust, they are changed, they are gone! - I remain." - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Source and Mode of Solar Energy -Throughout the Universe, by Isaac Winter Heysinger - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOURCE AND MODE OF SOLAR ENERGY *** - -***** This file should be named 56302-8.txt or 56302-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/3/0/56302/ - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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