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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eae9660 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #56205 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56205) diff --git a/old/56205-0.txt b/old/56205-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dd70915..0000000 --- a/old/56205-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1345 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn, by -National Aeronautics and Space Administration - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn - -Author: National Aeronautics and Space Administration - -Release Date: December 18, 2017 [EBook #56205] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGER 1 ENCOUNTERS SATURN *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn - - - - - Contents - - - Foreword 1 - Introduction 3 - The Planet 4 - The Rings 12 - The Satellites 20 - A Glimpse Back 32 - The Voyager Mission 36 - MISSION OBJECTIVES 36 - SPACECRAFT CHARACTERISTICS 36 - SATURN ENCOUNTER 36 - Scientific Highlights 38 - SATURN 38 - RINGS 38 - NEW SATELLITES 38 - INNER SATELLITES 38 - TITAN 39 - OUTER SATELLITES 39 - MAGNETOSPHERE 39 - Scientific Investigations 40 - - [Illustration: COVER: Saturn and two of its moons, Tethys (above) - and Dione (below), were photographed by Voyager 1 on November 3, - 1980, from 13 million kilometers (8 million miles). The shadow of - Tethys is cast onto the cloudtops in the upper right corner of the - image.] - - - - - Foreword - - -The pictures assembled in this publication are a part of the rich and -varied harvest of information returned by Voyager 1 across nearly a -billion miles of interplanetary space. These images are of great beauty -as well as great scientific interest, serving to remind us of the -awesome and breathtaking dimensions of the solar system we inhabit. -Voyager is providing intriguing new information which should help us to -understand how the Earth—and possibly the universe—was formed. Already -there have been surprises and puzzles that paint a completely new -picture of Saturn and its neighborhood, including the discovery of three -new moons, startling information about Saturn’s rings, and observation -of the unexpectedly complex structure of Saturn’s atmosphere and that of -its largest moon, Titan. It will take years for scientists to assimilate -completely the information which is cascading down from Voyager. What -more will this marvel of technology have to tell us before it departs -the solar system to travel endlessly among the stars? - - Robert A. Frosch, _Administrator_ - _National Aeronautics and Space Administration_ - December 1980 - - -The date of each photograph and the distance of the spacecraft from the -planet or satellite are included with each picture. - - For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government - Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Stock No. 033-000-00817-1 - - [Illustration: _Voyager 1 was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, - on September 5, 1977, beginning its journey to Jupiter, Saturn, and - beyond._] - - - - - Introduction - - -No other generation has had the opportunity or the technology to reach -beyond our world—to see, to touch, to hear the forces that shape our -universe. In slightly over two decades, man has ingeniously explored -five distant planets—and two dozen moons. We have seen their weather and -surfaces, landed on some, probed the atmospheres of others, and listened -to their radio noises. - -Under the planetary exploration program of the National Aeronautics and -Space Administration, the Voyager Mission, begun in 1972, was designed -to explore Jupiter, Saturn, their satellites, rings, magnetic fields, -and interplanetary space. Two automated, reprogrammable spacecraft, -Voyagers 1 and 2, were launched in late summer of 1977. Their goals: the -outer planets. - -Both spacecraft made astounding discoveries in the Jupiter system in -1979—a thin ring, a thick ionized sulfur and oxygen torus, an actively -volcanic satellite—these were but a few of the treasures yielded by the -two Jupiter flybys. - -Now, Voyager 1 has completed exploration of its final target: the ringed -planet Saturn and its enigmatic giant satellite, Titan. True to the -generally unpredictable nature of planetary exploration, the treasures -of the Saturn system far exceeded all expectations. We learned more -about Saturn in one week than in all of recorded history, thanks to one -trusty robot no larger than a compact car and to thousands of diligent -and imaginative people. - -Both spacecraft carry an assortment of optical, radiometric, and fields -and particles sensing instruments. Taken together, their data present a -comprehensive picture of a planetary system—and clues to what is -happening, what has happened, and what may happen in our universe. - -This publication presents the preliminary photographic results of -Voyager 1’s encounter with Saturn and its major satellites. Voyager 1 -transmitted over 17,500 images in its four months of close observations -of the system. Many of these images have been combined to produce -mosaics and color pictures. Hundreds have yet to be closely examined. - -The second Voyager spacecraft will begin its close Saturn observations -in early June 1981 and make its closest approach to the planet’s -northern hemisphere on August 25. Then, due to its launch during a -period of rare planetary alignment occurring only once every 175 years, -Voyager 2 will be able to continue on to a rendezvous with the seventh -planet, Uranus, in January 1986, and perhaps even the eighth planet, -Neptune, in August 1989. - -Voyager 1’s primary mission is complete. But its usefulness is far from -over. As we go about our daily business, Voyager 1 is searching for -another frontier—the edge of our solar system. In 7 to 15 years, the -spacecraft will cross the heliopause—the farthest reaches of our Sun’s -magnetic field influence. Then, high above our ecliptic plane, Voyager 1 -will continue its flight toward the star Alpha Ophiuchus. Eventually, -Voyager 1 will be too distant to communicate with Earth and will -silently drift in space forever. - - Andrew J. Stofan, _Acting Associate Administrator for Space Science_ - _National Aeronautics and Space Administration_ - - - - - The Planet - - - [Illustration: 11/5/80 9 million km (5.5 million mi) - - Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and second largest in our - solar system. Like Jupiter, it is a giant sphere of gas—mostly - hydrogen and helium—with a possible core of rocky material. Various - features in Saturn’s cloudtops are visible in the accompanying - color-enhanced image of the planet’s northern hemisphere: - small-scale convective cloud features (similar to, but much larger - than, thunderstorms in Earth’s atmosphere) are visible in the brown - belt; an isolated convective cloud with a dark ring is visible in - the light brown zone; and a longitudinal wave is visible in the - light blue region.] - - [Illustration: 9/17/80 76 million km (47 million mi) - - As Voyager 1 approached Saturn, a series of dark and light cloud - bands (belts and zones) became apparent in the planet’s northern - hemisphere through a high altitude atmospheric haze. The planet’s - shadow obscures the rings behind and immediately to the east of the - disk. In addition, the shadow of the rings on the planet’s disk can - be seen just north of the rings themselves as they cross in front of - the planet. Six of Saturn’s 15 known satellites are visible. - Saturn’s largest moon, Titan (considerably larger than Earth’s - moon), is clearly visible in the upper left corner. The smaller - satellites Dione, Tethys, and Rhea are shown in the lower left - corner (upper, middle, and lower, respectively). Two of the - innermost moons, Mimas and Enceladus, appear to the right of the - planet (Mimas is the one closer to the planet). These six moons - orbit Saturn in the equatorial plane and appear in their present - positions because Voyager is above that plane.] - - [Illustration: 10/18/80 34 million km (21 million mi) - - The North Temperate Belt is visible as the violet-colored belt in - this false-color photograph. In this image, features which are - especially bright in ultraviolet light appear as turquoise and - violet, while ultraviolet-dark areas appear orange. Notice in - particular the three spots (two bright orange and one pale violet) - at mid-northern latitudes. The bright spots are similar to those - shown at much higher resolution in later images. The distinct color - difference between the North Equatorial Belt and Saturn’s other - belts and zones may be due to a thick haze layer covering the - northern portion of the belt. It is not yet understood why the - southern hemisphere of the planet (below the rings) appears bluer - than the northern hemisphere. Color spots in the rings are artifacts - of image processing.] - - [Illustration: 10/30/80 18 million km (11 million mi) - - Saturn’s soft, velvety appearance and previously unseen detail in - its mysterious rings became visible as Voyager 1 approached the - planet. For example, a gap in the dark C-Ring is now visible, and - material can be seen within the relatively wide Cassini Division - (long believed to be empty), which separates the B-Ring (middle) - from the A-Ring (outer). The Encke Division appears near the outer - edge of the A-Ring. Detail can be seen within the shadow cast by the - rings upon the planet: the broad, dark band near the equator is the - shadow of the B-Ring; the thinner, brighter line just to the south - is the shadow of the less dense A-Ring. Three of Saturn’s moons, - Tethys (outer left), Enceladus (inner left), and Mimas (right) are - also visible in this computer mosaic of Voyager 1 images.] - - [Illustration: 11/6/80 8.5 million km (5.3 million mi) - - An unusual red oval cloud feature, similar to (but smaller than) - Jupiter’s Great Red Spot, was discovered in the southern hemisphere - of Saturn. The oval, 6000 kilometers (4000 miles) in length, is - located at 55 degrees south latitude. The difference in color - between the red oval and the surrounding bluish clouds in these two - false-color images indicates that material within the oval contains - a substance that absorbs more blue and violet light than the bluish - clouds. Voyager scientists first observed the oval in August 1980, - and the feature has retained its appearance since its discovery.] - - [Illustration: 11/6/80 8 million km (5 million mi) - - In this photograph, the shadow of the satellite Dione is seen as a - dark circle on the face of the planet.] - - [Illustration: 11/10/80 3.5 million km (2.2 million mi) - - A ribbon-like wave structure and small convective features marking a - westward jet stream above the wave are visible in this photograph of - Saturn’s cloudtops. The view, extending from 40 degrees to 60 - degrees north latitude, shows features 65 kilometers (40 miles) in - diameter. Measurements in images such as this one indicate that - Saturn has fewer east-to-west wind currents than does Jupiter.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 442,000 km (265,000 mi) - - Numerous small cloud features were photographed as Voyager 1 passed - above Saturn’s southern hemisphere. At these polar latitudes, the - large-scale light and dark bands break down into small-scale - features, seen here as waves and eddies.] - - [Illustration: 11/7/80 7.5 million km (4.6 million mi) - - Two brown ovals, approximately 10,000 kilometers (6000 miles) - across, were discovered in Saturn’s northern hemisphere, at about 40 - degrees and 60 degrees latitude. The polar oval (upper left) has a - structure similar to Saturn’s red oval located in the southern polar - latitudes. Detail within the ovals is not visible at this - resolution, so it is not yet known if they are rotating features - similar to the many spots in Jupiter’s atmosphere.] - - - - - The Rings - - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 717,000 km (444,000 mi) - - The rings of Saturn have amazed and intrigued astronomers for over - 300 years. Now that we have seen them up close, they are even more - astonishing. Although they stretch over 65,000 kilometers (40,000 - miles), they may be only a few kilometers thick. The ring - particles—from a few microns to a meter (three feet) in size—have - been described as icy snowballs or ice-covered rock. Voyager - scientists continue to pore over their data, searching for answers - to the puzzles of the rings. The rings were named in order of their - discovery, so the labels do not indicate their relative positions. - From the planet outward, they are known as D, C, B, A, F, and E.] - - [Illustration: 10/25/80 24 million km (15 million mi) - - Extraordinarily complex structure is seen across the entire span of - Saturn’s ring system. The sequence (taken approximately every 15 - minutes as Voyager 1 approached Saturn) proceeds from top to bottom - in each column and shows radial “spokes” rotating within the B-Ring. - The spokes may be caused by a combination of magnetic and - electrostatic forces.] - - [Illustration: 11/6/80 8 million km (5 million mi) - - Over 95 individual concentric features can he counted; the final - count in higher resolution images may be anywhere from 500 to 1000 - separate rings. A few of the ringlets shown in this - computer-assembled mosaic are not concentric circles but are instead - elliptical. Ring particles are probably ice or ice covered rock.] - - [Illustration: The classic features of the rings are illustrated in - the diagram.] - - D-RING - C-RING - B-RING - “SPOKE” - CASSINI DIVISION - ENCKE DIVISION - A-RING - F-RING - - [Illustration: 11/8/80 6 million km (3.7 million mi) - - The Cassini Division is filled with numerous ringlets. Discovered by - Cassini in 1675, this area between the A- and B-Rings had long been - thought devoid of material. The Voyager observation of well-defined - rings within the Cassini Division was an unexpected discovery.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 740,000 km (460,000 mi) - - Saturn’s ring system, viewed from below, appears dramatically - different from its appearance on the sunlit side. This - computer-processed image shows the F-Ring circling outside the - A-Ring, the A-Ring with its Encke Division, the multiple ringlets in - the Cassini Division, and the optically thick B-Ring, seen here in - magenta hues (the coloration is an artifact of processing and is not - real). The B-Ring appears dark from below the ring plane because it - is dense enough to reflect most of the sunlight, causing it to - appear very bright when seen from the sunward side. The opaline - brightness of the Cassini Division here indicates a great deal of - sunlight being scattered through this region. The Encke Division may - really be empty, since it appears dark from both above and below.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 720,000 km (450,000 mi) - - Outbound and above the ring plane, Voyager 1 gave us this view of - Saturn’s rings eight hours after its closest approach to the planet. - The unique lighting accentuates the many hundreds of bright and dark - ringlets comprising the ring system. The C-Ring (dark gray area) - seems to blend into the brighter B-Ring as the concentric features - radiate out from the planet. The dark spoke-like features seen in - images taken during the approach to Saturn now appear as bright - streaks, indicating that they may be composed of small particles.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 750,000 km (470,000 mi) - - Two narrow, braided rings in the F-Ring are evident in this view, as - well as a broader, very diffuse component about 35 kilometers (20 - miles) across. A totally unexpected discovery, the braided rings - trace distinctly separate orbits intertwining each other. The - “knots” may be local clumps of ring material or tiny moons. It is - difficult to explain this complicated structure using only the - gravitational forces known to be affecting the particles of this - ring. It is possible that additional, electrostatic forces may also - influence these particles.] - - [Illustration: 11/8/80 7 million km (4.3 million mi) - - Brightness variations in the F-Ring may be due to clumping in the - ring material. The features are seen at the top and again near the - left edge of the ring in this image. The “gap” in the ring (left - center) is not real but is the location of a reseau mark on the - camera’s vidicon tube. These bright features in the F-Ring appear to - move at the orbital rate of the ring particles and may be larger - bodies or thicknesses in the rings. Saturn’s thirteenth and - fourteenth satellites, which orbit on either side of the F-Ring, may - act like “sheepdogs,” herding the F-Ring particles between them. - Less than 100 kilometers (60 miles) wide, the F-Ring is located - outside of the A-Ring. Satellite 14, discovered by Voyager 1, is - seen just inside the F-Ring.] - - - - - The Satellites - - - [Illustration: In only twelve hours, Saturn’s satellites grew from - names in ancient mythology into dazzling worlds with personae of - their own. As Voyager 1 sailed through the Saturn system, it - returned photographs of Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and - Rhea—all part of a class of intermediate-sized icy bodies heretofore - unstudied by planetary spacecraft. All but Enceladus show heavily - cratered surfaces, evidence of aeons of meteorite bombardment. - Enceladus hints at internal processes, as yet unidentified, which - may have erased from its surface the evidence of early - bombardment—but we must await Voyager 2’s arrival next August to - better understand this body.] - - [Illustration: 11/9/80 4.5 million km (2.8 million mi) - - The surface of giant Titan, now dethroned from its seat as the solar - system’s largest satellite (Jupiter’s Ganymede is larger), remains - an enigma, shrouded beneath thick layers of haze.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 22,000 km (14,000 mi) - - Tiny moons—three new ones and three confirmed from previous - sightings—may tell us much about ring dynamics since gravitational - forces from satellites probably influence the ring structure. Two of - these tiny moons are on the verge of collision in the same orbit, - while several others appear to bound the A- and F-Rings. Iapetus, - whose two hemispheres differ dramatically in brightness, was - photographed in its orbit, almost 3.6 million kilometers (2.2 - million miles) from the planet.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 425,000 km (264,000 mi) - - Mimas, Saturn’s innermost large satellite, has an impact crater - covering more than one quarter the diameter of the entire moon. - Nowhere else in the solar system has such a disproportionately large - feature been seen. In fact, it is believed that any impact larger - than this would probably have shattered Mimas into two or more - fragments. The crater has a raised rim and central peak, typical of - large impact structures on terrestrial planets. Additional smaller - craters, 15 to 45 kilometers (10 to 30 miles) in diameter, can be - seen scattered across the surface, particularly along the - terminator. Mimas is one of the small, low density Saturnian - satellites implying that it is composed primarily of ice.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 130,000 km (80,000 mi) - - Mimas’ other side shows a uniformly and heavily cratered surface—a - record of the bombardment that occurred throughout the solar system - in its early history 4.5 billion years ago. A long, narrow trough - about 5 kilometers (3 miles) wide crosses from northeast to - southwest. Mimas’ surface is very reflective (about 60 percent), - indicating that it consists largely of ice, which has been chipped - and pulverized by aeons of meteoritic bombardment. Such a surface on - a small, low mass moon would probably resemble light, powdery snow. - Features as small as 3 kilometers (2 miles) across are visible.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 650,000 km (400,000 mi) - - Enceladus appears to be largely devoid of craters or other major - surface relief, suggesting that perhaps internal processes may have - erased such structures. This satellite will be seen better by - Voyager 2 when it flies past Saturn in August 1981.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 1.2 million km (750,000 mi) - - This heavily cratered surface of Tethys faces toward Saturn and - includes a large valley about 750 kilometers (500 miles) long and 60 - kilometers (40 miles) wide. The craters are the result of impacts, - and the valley appears to be a large fracture of unknown origin. - Tethys has a diameter of 1050 kilometers (650 miles), about - one-third that of Earth’s Moon. The smallest features visible in - this picture are about 24 kilometers (15 miles) across.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 700,000 km (435,000 mi) - - Dione reveals two distinctly different hemispheres. The photograph - shows Dione’s trailing side. Bright radiating patterns are probably - rays of debris thrown out of impact craters; other bright areas may - be topographic ridges and valleys.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 162,000 km (101,000 mi) - - Dione’s other hemisphere (mosaic) also has many impact craters—the - record of cosmic collisions. The largest crater is less than 100 - kilometers (60 miles) in diameter and includes a well-developed - central peak. Sinuous valleys (seen near each pole) are probably the - result of crustal fracturing in the moon’s icy crust. Dione’s - diameter is only 1100 kilometers (700 miles), much smaller than any - of Jupiter’s icy moons.] - - [Illustration: 11/13/80 80,000 km (50,000 mi) - - Craters stand shoulder-to-shoulder on the surface of Saturn’s - satellite Rhea, seen in this mosaic of the highest-resolution - pictures of the north polar region. Rhea is 1500 kilometers (950 - miles) in diameter and is the most heavily cratered Saturn moon. The - largest crater, made by the impact of cosmic debris, is about 300 - kilometers (190 miles) in diameter.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 128,000 km (79,500 mi) - - Impact craters on the ancient surface of Rhea closely resemble those - on Mercury and Earth’s Moon. Many of the craters have central peaks - formed by rebound of the floor during the explosive formation of the - crater. Some craters are old and degraded by later impacts. Many - have sharp rims and appear relatively fresh, while others are very - shallow and have subdued rims, indicative of their antiquity. White - areas on the edges of several of the craters are probably fresh ice - exposed on steep slopes or possibly deposited by volatiles leaking - from fractured regions. Surface features as small as 2.5 kilometers - (1.5 miles) in diameter are visible.] - - [Illustration: 11/9/80 4.5 million km (2.8 million mi) - - Titan is a large, bizarre satellite. It is larger (almost 5120 - kilometers or 3180 miles in diameter) than the planet Mercury and - possesses a dense atmosphere of unique composition. Voyager 1’s - cameras show Titan’s surface to be totally obscured by a thick layer - of atmospheric haze. In the full-disk photograph, only two features - are visible: a faint boundary between the southern and darker - northern hemispheres and a dark “hood” overlying Titan’s north polar - region.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 435,000 km (270,000 mi) - - This hood and greater detail in the haze layers are shown in the - higher resolution photograph.] - - [Illustration: 11/10/80 4.6 million km (2.8 million mi) - - Little detail can be seen in this distant view of Hyperion, the - satellite which orbits just beyond Titan. Voyager 2 will observe - Hyperion at a closer range.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 3.2 million km (1.9 million mi) - - Saturn’s satellite Iapetus displays a large, circular feature about - 200 kilometers (120 miles) across with a dark spot in its center. - The circular feature is probably a large impact structure outlined - by dark material, possibly thrown out by the impact. The satellite’s - leading hemisphere is to the left, and the trailing hemisphere, - which is four to five times brighter, is to the right. Iapetus’ - diameter is 1450 kilometers (900 miles).] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 177,000 km (110,000 mi) - - Two satellites (Saturn’s tenth and eleventh) revolve in nearly - identical orbits 151,000 kilometers (94,000 miles) from Saturn’s - center. The satellites are each 100 to 200 kilometers in diameter, - larger than the distance separating their orbits, and they are - currently approaching one another at a rate which promises collision - in about two years. Such a collision, however, will probably be - averted by orbital changes induced by the satellites’ mutual - gravitational interactions as they near one another. The trailing - co-orbital satellite, seen in this photograph, has a very irregular - outline (the Sun is shining from the left). This color composite was - produced from three exposures taken over a period of more than six - minutes. During this period, a thin shadow, cast by a previously - unknown ring, moved across the satellite causing the “rainbow” - pattern shown here.] - - [Illustration: 10/25/80 25 million km (16 million mi) - - Two smaller satellites—Saturn’s thirteenth and fourteenth moons—were - discovered on October 25, 1980, in images taken to study the dark - “spokes” within Saturn’s B-Ring. The smaller, inner satellite has a - diameter of about 500 kilometers (300 miles) and is visible just - outside the A-Ring, near the bottom of the picture. It travels in an - orbit between the A-Ring and the F-Ring (not visible in this - photograph). The second satellite, seen to the left, travels just - outside the F-Ring and is about 600 kilometers (400 miles) in - diameter. Scientists believe the dimensions of the narrow F-Ring may - be determined by these two satellites, which orbit on either edge of - the ring.] - - - - - A Glimpse Back - - - [Illustration: 11/13/80 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) - - Looking back at the Saturn system as it soared upward and outward, - Voyager 1 continued its observations for nearly five weeks after - closest Saturn approach. The spacecraft photographed the planet’s - sunlit crescent, the ring shadows falling on the planet, and - Saturn’s dark hemisphere illuminated by “ringshine.” It searched for - lightning and auroras on the planet’s dark side and looked for “sun - dogs” resulting from ammonia crystals in the atmosphere. It - continued temperature and composition measurements and searched for - new satellites out to the orbit of Mimas. It measured the flow of - plasma in Saturn’s magnetosphere and now, its journey far from over, - Voyager 1 proceeds toward the outer boundary of our solar system, as - it seeks to probe the space among the stars of our galaxy, the Milky - Way.] - - [Illustration: 11/16/80 5.3 million km (3.3 million mi) - - Departing Saturn, Voyager 1 photographed the planet from a unique - perspective, clearly showing Saturn’s shadow on the rings.] - - [Illustration: 11/12/80 250,000 km (150,000 mi) - - During a 40-minute period on the day of encounter, the spacecraft - was itself in the planet’s shadow. At this time, the wide-angle - camera acquired a photograph of this shadow line, revealing ring - material in a region very close to the planet, where no material had - been previously observed. This inner ring, the D-Ring, is roughly - 6000 kilometers (4000 miles) wide and extends to within about 6000 - kilometers of Saturn’s cloudtops.] - - - - - The Voyager Mission - - -Only once every 175 years are the outer planets aligned in their orbits -so that we can take advantage of gravity-assist trajectories to achieve -encounters with Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune on one mission. The -gravity-assist technique uses one planet’s gravity field and motion -through space to alter the spacecraft’s flight path and propel it -outward toward the next planet. Voyager 1’s trajectory, which was -selected to best view Titan, has now propelled the spacecraft out of the -ecliptic plane, while Voyager 2’s path will remain in this plane to -provide future encounters with Uranus and possibly with Neptune. - - -MISSION OBJECTIVES - -The Voyager Project was approved in June 1972 and had as its mission -objectives: - - ★ Exploration of the Jupiter and Saturn planetary systems, including - their atmospheres, rings, satellites, and magnetospheres - ★ Comparative analyses of the two systems - ★ Investigation of the interplanetary medium between Earth and Saturn - -A fourth objective, added in 1976, was to preserve the possibility of -extending the mission to include an investigation of the planet Uranus -and the interstellar medium. - -With the completion of Voyager 1’s Saturn flyby, it is now clear that -these objectives will be achieved. - - -SPACECRAFT CHARACTERISTICS - -Two identical spacecraft were developed for the 1977 launch opportunity. -These marvelous machines were cleverly designed to survive the rigors of -long voyages in outer space and to deliver high-quality scientific -information required for detailed understanding of planetary systems. -The spacecraft are both complex—automatically responding to their -Earth-bound monitors that remotely control them via radio commands—and -highly autonomous—capable of caring for themselves in many areas through -a system of sensors, computers, and spare equipment. Each spacecraft -functions on about 400 watts of electrical power which is provided by -nuclear generators. Broadcasts of data across a billion miles to Earth -are accomplished with a spacecraft transmitter power of only about 25 -watts, the amount of energy required by a small household light bulb. - -Voyager’s scientific payload was carefully chosen to observe Saturn over -a wide range of wave-lengths and to measure magnetic fields, charged -particles, and plasma waves. - - -SATURN ENCOUNTER - - [Illustration: _Voyager 1 approached within 124,000 kilometers - (77,000 miles) of Saturn’s cloudtops. Six of the satellites that - were photographed are shown in their approximate positions at - closest approach by the spacecraft._] - - TITAN - DIONE - TETHYS - MIMAS - ENCELADUS - RHEA - -Voyager 1’s Saturn encounter period began on August 22, 1980, at a range -of 109 million kilometers (68 million miles) from the planet. Even at -this great distance, Voyager’s images were better than any from -Earth-based telescopes. During the long encounter period, which extended -through December 19, 1980, continuous observations of Saturn’s realm -were carried out by Voyager’s instruments. Voyager 1’s flight path -through the Saturn system demanded navigation of the highest precision -to meet three critical targets: (1) a close 4000-kilometer (2300-mile) -flyby and occultation at Titan, (2) a precise, three-minute time period -when the spacecraft was emerging from occultation at the same time Earth -was in a position to receive the spacecraft signals passing through the -gap between Saturn and its rings, and (3) a flight path through the -E-Ring at Dione’s orbit to assure safe passage through a zone clear of -potentially dangerous material. To assure these targets were achieved, -small trajectory trim maneuvers were executed on October 11, 1980, and -again on November 6, 1980, as Voyager 1 sped toward Saturn. - - [Illustration: _Voyager spacecraft and scientific instruments._] - - HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA (3.7-meter diameter) - LOW-ENERGY CHARGED PARTICLE - COSMIC RAY - PLASMA - IMAGING - ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETER - INFRARED INTERFEROMETER SPECTROMETER - PHOTOPOLARIMETER - OPTICAL CALIBRATION TARGET - PLANETARY RADIO ASTRONOMY AND PLASMA WAVE ANTENNA (2) - RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR (3) - MAGNETOMETER BOOM - -By October 24, 1980, when Voyager 1 was about 30 million kilometers (19 -million miles) from Saturn, the spacecraft’s narrow-angle camera could -no longer capture the planet in a single picture. Thus, a period of -multiple images or mosaics began. By November 2, 1980, even four-picture -mosaics could no longer cover the rapidly growing scene. Voyager 1’s -pace of operations reached an exciting peak during the near-encounter -phase from November 11 through November 13, 1980. While still about 1.6 -million kilometers (1 million miles) from closest approach to Saturn, -Voyager 1 encountered Titan on November 11, 1980, and then dipped below -the ring plane as it accelerated rapidly toward Saturn. On November 12, -1980, Voyager 1 came within 124,000 kilometers (77,000 miles) of the -cloudtops of Saturn’s southern hemisphere, where Saturn’s gravity -altered the spacecraft’s course, hurtling the spacecraft upward past the -ring plane. Close observation of Saturn’s other major satellites and its -rings were made during this passage. - -From Earth to Saturn, Voyager 1 has traveled in the ecliptic plane, the -plane in which the major planets orbit. Now, having completed its final -planetary flyby, Voyager 1 is rising above this plane on a trajectory -that will eventually carry it above and out of the solar system, -probably before the end of this century. As it proceeds, the spacecraft -will return information about the solar wind and magnetic fields in the -far, unexplored reaches of our solar system and will observe cosmic rays -emitted from the distant stars among which Voyager will ultimately -cruise. - - - - - Scientific Highlights - - -Some of the most important information gathered by Voyager 1 on the -Saturn system is presented pictorially in this publication and is -supplemented here with brief summaries of the major discoveries, -observations, and theories. - - -SATURN - -Saturn’s atmosphere appears similar to Jupiter’s, with alternating dark -belts and bright zones, circulating storm regions, and other dark and -light cloud markings. Saturn’s belt and zone system extends to higher -latitudes than those on Jupiter, and all of the features are muted by a -thick atmospheric haze, perhaps 70 kilometers (40 miles) deep. - -Wind speeds up to 1500 kilometers per hour (900 miles per hour) occur at -the equator—four to five times faster than any Jovian winds. -Temperatures near the cloudtops range from 86 to 92 kelvins (-305° to --294° Fahrenheit)—nearly 60 degrees colder than at Jupiter. Saturn still -radiates about 2.8 times as much heat as it receives from the Sun. The -coolest temperatures are found at the center of the equatorial zone. - -Auroral emissions have been seen near Saturn’s poles, and auroral-type -emissions have been seen in ultraviolet light near the illuminated limb -of the planet. - -Lightning bolts have not been seen on Saturn, but radio emissions -typical of lightning discharges have been recorded. The source of these -discharges is believed to be the rings rather than Saturn’s atmosphere. - - -RINGS - -Hundreds of tiny ringlets—a few of them elliptical rather than -circular—comprise the classic A-, B-, and C-Rings, once thought to be -uniform disks of material. The F-Ring, which was first sighted by -Pioneer 11 in 1979, was observed to be three separate, intertwined -ringlets. - -The existence of a D-Ring between the C-Ring and the planet has been -confirmed by observations during Voyager 1’s passage through Saturn’s -shadow. The tenuous E-Ring, previously observed from Earth only when -Saturn’s rings could be viewed edge-on (every 15 years), has also been -observed during shadow passage. At least one other ring has been found -between the E- and F-Rings in Voyager images. - -Long, radial, spoke-like features in the B-Ring were dark when viewed -upon approach and bright when observed after encounter when the -spacecraft looked back toward the planet and the Sun. - - -NEW SATELLITES - -Voyager 1 photographed six tiny moons, some that had never been seen -before. Satellites 10 and 11, dubbed the “co-orbitals,” share an orbit -91,000 kilometers (57,000 miles) above Saturn’s cloudtops. The leading -satellite has a diameter of about 160 kilometers (100 miles), while the -trailing satellite has an irregular shape, approximately 105 by 65 -kilometers (65 by 40 miles). - -Little is known about satellites 12, 13, 14, and 15 aside from their -orbits and periods. Satellite 12 orbits at the same distance from Saturn -as Dione, at a point about 60 degrees ahead of Dione. Satellites 13 and -14, outside and inside the F-Ring (respectively), appear to “herd” this -thin ring between them. Satellite 15 appears to limit the outer edge of -the A-Ring in a similar manner. - - -INNER SATELLITES - -Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea represent a body size not -previously explored by spacecraft. They are larger than Jupiter’s -Amalthea and Mars’ Phobos and Deimos, yet smaller than Mercury, our -Moon, or Jupiter’s large satellites. Their diameters range from 390 -kilometers (240 miles) for Mimas to 1530 kilometers (950 miles) for -Rhea, and they are probably composed primarily of water ice. - -With the exception of Enceladus, all of these moons have heavily -cratered surfaces, looking much like the Moon and Mercury. Mimas -displays an impact crater whose diameter is one-fourth that of the -satellite—such an impact must have nearly shattered the icy satellite. -Tethys has a valley 70 kilometers (40 miles) wide that stretches 800 -kilometers (500 miles) across the satellite, an apparent crustal -fracture resulting from seismic activity. Several sinuous valleys, some -of which appear to branch, are visible on Dione’s surface. Both Dione -and Rhea have bright, wispy streaks on their already highly reflective -surfaces, perhaps caused by ice thrown out of craters by meteorite -impacts. - -Of the five inner moons, Enceladus appears the smoothest, but we will -have to wait for Voyager 2 to photograph the satellite at greater -resolution in 1981. Since the maximum intensity of the E-Ring occurs -near Enceladus’ orbit, Enceladus may be a source of E-Ring particles. - - -TITAN - -Titan is now known to be smaller than Jupiter’s Ganymede. Its diameter -is less than 5120 kilometers (3180 miles), which implies a density twice -that of water ice. A dense, hazy atmosphere at least 400 kilometers (250 -miles) thick obscures the surface. Voyager 1 determined that Titan has a -nitrogen-rich atmosphere (as does Earth), but with concentrations of -hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas), ethane, acetylene, ethylene, -and deadly hydrogen cyanide. The haze layers merge into a darkened hood -over the north pole. At the poles, liquid nitrogen lakes may form. The -surface temperature is probably near 100 kelvins (-280° Fahrenheit), -only slightly warmer than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen. - -Titan has no appreciable magnetic field and therefore possesses no large -liquid conducting core. It does, however, supply a small amount of -charged particles to Saturn’s magnetosphere. - -The southern hemisphere is somewhat brighter than the northern, perhaps -as a result of seasonal effects. - - -OUTER SATELLITES - -Of the three known outer satellites, Voyager 1 studied from a distance -only Hyperion and Iapetus. Tiny Phoebe, in its retrograde (clockwise) -orbit, will be studied by Voyager 2 in the summer of 1981. Hyperion and -Iapetus are most likely composed of water ice, although their masses and -densities are uncertain. Iapetus has one bright and one dark hemisphere. -The dark side, which faces forward as Iapetus circles Saturn, reflects -about one-fifth as much light as the trailing, bright side. - - -MAGNETOSPHERE - -Although it is only about one-third the size of Jupiter’s magnetosphere, -Saturn’s magnetosphere is still an enormous structure, extending nearly -two million kilometers from the planet toward the Sun. The size of the -magnetosphere fluctuates rhythmically as the flow of charged particles -in the solar wind increases or decreases in intensity. The magnetosphere -can be pushed inside Titan’s orbit, so that at times the satellite finds -itself outside of the magnetosphere altogether. - -Charged particles in the planet’s magnetosphere are dragged along by the -magnetic field, circling the planet at Saturn’s rotation rate of 10 -hours, 39 minutes. These charged particles whiz by Titan at a dizzying -rate of more than 200 kilometers (120 miles) per second. Titan leaves a -motorboat-like wake in its orbital path. - -Extending from the orbit of Titan inward to the orbit of Rhea, an -enormous cloud of uncharged hydrogen atoms forms a doughnut-shaped torus -of ultraviolet-emitting particles. Because of their neutrality, these -atoms are not towed around by Saturn’s magnetic field. - -Close to the planet, Saturn’s rings act as an effective shield or -absorber of charged particles. The rings themselves are apparently -substantially affected in this process, however, as evidenced by their -“spokes” of fine particles and the lightning-like electrical discharges -attributed to the rings. - - - - - Scientific Investigations - - - INVESTIGATION SATURN ENCOUNTER OBJECTIVES - - Imaging science Planetary meteorology; satellite geology; - ring structure and dynamics - Infrared Atmospheric composition, thermal structure - interferometry and dynamics; satellite surface composition - and thermal properties; ring composition - Radio science Atmospheric and ionospheric structure, - constituents, and dynamics at Saturn and - Titan; ring particle size - Ultraviolet Upper atmospheric composition and structure; - spectroscopy auroral processes; distribution of ions and - neutral atoms in the Saturn system - Magnetic fields Planetary magnetic field; magnetospheric - structure - Plasma particles Magnetospheric ion and electron - distribution; solar wind interaction with - Saturn; ions from satellites - Plasma waves Plasma electron densities; wave-particle - interactions; low-frequency wave emissions - Planetary radio Polarization and spectra of radio-frequency - astronomy emissions; plasma densities - Low-energy charged Distribution, composition, and flow of - particles energetic ions and electrons; - satellite-energetic particle interactions - Cosmic ray particles Distribution, composition, and flow of - high-energy trapped nuclei; energetic - electron spectra - - -“_Notre voyageur connaissait merveilleusement les lois de la -gravitation, et toutes les forces attractives et répulsives. Il s’en -servait si à propos, que tantôt à l’aide d’un rayon de soleil, tantôt -par la commodité d’une comète, il allait de globe en globe, lui et les -siens, comme un oiseau voltige de branche en branche._” - -“_Our voyager knew marvelously the laws of gravitation, and all -attractive and repulsive forces. He used them in such a timely way that, -once with the help of a ray of sunshine, another time thanks to a -cooperative comet, he went from globe to globe, he and his kin, as a -bird flutters from branch to branch._” - - VOLTAIRE—Micromégas, Histoire Philosophique, 1752. - - - [Illustration: NASA] - - National Aeronautics and Space Administration - - Jet Propulsion Laboratory - California Institute of Technology - Pasadena, California - -JPL 400-100 12/80 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - -—Moved captions nearer the relevant images; tweaked image references - within captions accordingly. - -—Added a Table of Contents. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn, by -National Aeronautics and Space Administration - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGER 1 ENCOUNTERS SATURN *** - -***** This file should be named 56205-0.txt or 56205-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/2/0/56205/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -dl.pcap { margin-top:0; font-weight:bold; font-size:90%; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn, by -National Aeronautics and Space Administration - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn - -Author: National Aeronautics and Space Administration - -Release Date: December 18, 2017 [EBook #56205] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGER 1 ENCOUNTERS SATURN *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn" width="600" height="786" /> -</div> -<h1>Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn</h1> -<h2 class="center">Contents</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1">Foreword</a> 1</dt> -<dt><a href="#c2">Introduction</a> 3</dt> -<dt><a href="#c3">The Planet</a> 4</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4">The Rings</a> 12</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5">The Satellites</a> 20</dt> -<dt><a href="#c6">A Glimpse Back</a> 32</dt> -<dt><a href="#c7">The Voyager Mission</a> 36</dt> -<dd><a href="#c8"><span class="small">MISSION OBJECTIVES</span></a> 36</dd> -<dd><a href="#c9"><span class="small">SPACECRAFT CHARACTERISTICS</span></a> 36</dd> -<dd><a href="#c10"><span class="small">SATURN ENCOUNTER</span></a> 36</dd> -<dt><a href="#c11">Scientific Highlights</a> 38</dt> -<dd><a href="#c12"><span class="small">SATURN</span></a> 38</dd> -<dd><a href="#c13"><span class="small">RINGS</span></a> 38</dd> -<dd><a href="#c14"><span class="small">NEW SATELLITES</span></a> 38</dd> -<dd><a href="#c15"><span class="small">INNER SATELLITES</span></a> 38</dd> -<dd><a href="#c16"><span class="small">TITAN</span></a> 39</dd> -<dd><a href="#c17"><span class="small">OUTER SATELLITES</span></a> 39</dd> -<dd><a href="#c18"><span class="small">MAGNETOSPHERE</span></a> 39</dd> -<dt><a href="#c19">Scientific Investigations</a> 40</dt> -</dl> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="660" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="small">COVER</span>: Saturn and two of its moons, -Tethys (above) and Dione (below), were photographed by Voyager 1 on November 3, -1980, from 13 million kilometers (8 million miles). The shadow of Tethys is cast onto the -cloudtops in the upper right corner of the image.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Foreword</span></h2> -<p>The pictures assembled in this publication are a part of the rich and varied harvest of information -returned by Voyager 1 across nearly a billion miles of interplanetary space. These images are of -great beauty as well as great scientific interest, serving to remind us of the awesome and breathtaking -dimensions of the solar system we inhabit. Voyager is providing intriguing new information which -should help us to understand how the Earth—and possibly the universe—was formed. Already there -have been surprises and puzzles that paint a completely new picture of Saturn and its neighborhood, -including the discovery of three new moons, startling information about Saturn’s rings, and observation -of the unexpectedly complex structure of Saturn’s atmosphere and that of its largest moon, Titan. -It will take years for scientists to assimilate completely the information which is cascading down from -Voyager. What more will this marvel of technology have to tell us before it departs the solar system -to travel endlessly among the stars?</p> -<p><span class="lr"><span class="sc">Robert A. Frosch</span>, <i>Administrator</i></span> -<span class="lr"><i>National Aeronautics and Space Administration</i></span> -<span class="lr">December 1980</span></p> -<p class="tb">The date of each photograph and the distance of the -spacecraft from the planet or satellite are included -with each picture.</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government</p> -<p class="t0">Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402</p> -<p class="t0">Stock No. 033-000-00817-1</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="699" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Voyager 1 was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on -September 5, 1977, beginning its journey to Jupiter, Saturn, -and beyond.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Introduction</span></h2> -<p>No other generation has had the opportunity or the technology to reach beyond our world—to -see, to touch, to hear the forces that shape our universe. In slightly over two decades, man has ingeniously -explored five distant planets—and two dozen moons. We have seen their weather and surfaces, -landed on some, probed the atmospheres of others, and listened to their radio noises.</p> -<p>Under the planetary exploration program of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, -the Voyager Mission, begun in 1972, was designed to explore Jupiter, Saturn, their satellites, rings, -magnetic fields, and interplanetary space. Two automated, reprogrammable spacecraft, Voyagers 1 and -2, were launched in late summer of 1977. Their goals: the outer planets.</p> -<p>Both spacecraft made astounding discoveries in the Jupiter system in 1979—a thin ring, a thick -ionized sulfur and oxygen torus, an actively volcanic satellite—these were but a few of the treasures -yielded by the two Jupiter flybys.</p> -<p>Now, Voyager 1 has completed exploration of its final target: the ringed planet Saturn and its -enigmatic giant satellite, Titan. True to the generally unpredictable nature of planetary exploration, the -treasures of the Saturn system far exceeded all expectations. We learned more about Saturn in one -week than in all of recorded history, thanks to one trusty robot no larger than a compact car and to -thousands of diligent and imaginative people.</p> -<p>Both spacecraft carry an assortment of optical, radiometric, and fields and particles sensing -instruments. Taken together, their data present a comprehensive picture of a planetary system—and -clues to what is happening, what has happened, and what may happen in our universe.</p> -<p>This publication presents the preliminary photographic results of Voyager 1’s encounter with -Saturn and its major satellites. Voyager 1 transmitted over 17,500 images in its four months of close -observations of the system. Many of these images have been combined to produce mosaics and color -pictures. Hundreds have yet to be closely examined.</p> -<p>The second Voyager spacecraft will begin its close Saturn observations in early June 1981 and -make its closest approach to the planet’s northern hemisphere on August 25. Then, due to its launch -during a period of rare planetary alignment occurring only once every 175 years, Voyager 2 will be -able to continue on to a rendezvous with the seventh planet, Uranus, in January 1986, and perhaps -even the eighth planet, Neptune, in August 1989.</p> -<p>Voyager 1’s primary mission is complete. But its usefulness is far from over. As we go about our -daily business, Voyager 1 is searching for another frontier—the edge of our solar system. In 7 to 15 -years, the spacecraft will cross the heliopause—the farthest reaches of our Sun’s magnetic field influence. -Then, high above our ecliptic plane, Voyager 1 will continue its flight toward the star Alpha -Ophiuchus. Eventually, Voyager 1 will be too distant to communicate with Earth and will silently drift -in space forever.</p> -<p><span class="lr"><span class="sc">Andrew J. Stofan</span>, <i>Acting Associate Administrator for Space Science</i></span> -<span class="lr"><i>National Aeronautics and Space Administration</i></span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">The Planet</span></h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/5/80<span class="hst"> 9 million km (5.5 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">Saturn is the sixth planet from -the Sun and second largest in our solar system. -Like Jupiter, it is a giant sphere of gas—mostly -hydrogen and helium—with a possible -core of rocky material. Various features -in Saturn’s cloudtops are visible in the -accompanying color-enhanced image of the -planet’s northern hemisphere: small-scale -convective cloud features (similar to, but -much larger than, thunderstorms in Earth’s -atmosphere) are visible in the brown belt; -an isolated convective cloud with a dark -ring is visible in the light brown zone; and a -longitudinal wave is visible in the light blue -region.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="708" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">9/17/80<span class="hst"> 76 million km (47 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>As Voyager 1 approached Saturn</b>, a series of dark and light cloud bands -(belts and zones) became apparent in the planet’s northern hemisphere through a high -altitude atmospheric haze. The planet’s shadow obscures the rings behind and immediately -to the east of the disk. In addition, the shadow of the rings on the planet’s disk can -be seen just north of the rings themselves as they cross in front of the planet. Six of Saturn’s -15 known satellites are visible. Saturn’s largest moon, Titan (considerably larger than -Earth’s moon), is clearly visible in the upper left corner. The smaller satellites Dione, -Tethys, and Rhea are shown in the lower left corner (upper, middle, and lower, respectively). -Two of the innermost moons, Mimas and Enceladus, appear to the right of the -planet (Mimas is the one closer to the planet). These six moons orbit Saturn in the equatorial -plane and appear in their present positions because Voyager is above that plane.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="633" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">10/18/80<span class="hst"> 34 million km (21 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>The North Temperate Belt</b> is visible -as the violet-colored belt in this false-color photograph. -In this image, features which are especially -bright in ultraviolet light appear as turquoise and -violet, while ultraviolet-dark areas appear orange. -Notice in particular the three spots (two bright -orange and one pale violet) at mid-northern latitudes. -The bright spots are similar to those shown -at much higher resolution in later images. The distinct -color difference between the North Equatorial -Belt and Saturn’s other belts and zones may be due -to a thick haze layer covering the northern portion -of the belt. It is not yet understood why the southern -hemisphere of the planet (below the rings) -appears bluer than the northern hemisphere. Color -spots in the rings are artifacts of image processing.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="635" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">10/30/80<span class="hst"> 18 million km (11 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Saturn’s soft, velvety</b> appearance -and previously unseen detail in its mysterious rings -became visible as Voyager 1 approached the planet. -For example, a gap in the dark C-Ring is now visible, -and material can be seen within the relatively -wide Cassini Division (long believed to be empty), -which separates the B-Ring (middle) from the A-Ring -(outer). The Encke Division appears near the -outer edge of the A-Ring. Detail can be seen within -the shadow cast by the rings upon the planet: the -broad, dark band near the equator is the shadow of -the B-Ring; the thinner, brighter line just to the -south is the shadow of the less dense A-Ring. Three -of Saturn’s moons, Tethys (outer left), Enceladus -(inner left), and Mimas (right) are also visible in this -computer mosaic of Voyager 1 images.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="728" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/6/80<span class="hst"> 8.5 million km (5.3 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>An unusual red oval cloud feature</b>, similar to (but smaller than) -Jupiter’s Great Red Spot, was discovered in the southern hemisphere of Saturn. The oval, -6000 kilometers (4000 miles) in length, is located at 55 degrees south latitude. The difference -in color between the red oval and the surrounding bluish clouds in these two -false-color images indicates that material within the oval contains a substance that absorbs -more blue and violet light than the bluish clouds. Voyager scientists first observed the -oval in August 1980, and the feature has retained its appearance since its discovery.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="744" height="700" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/6/80<span class="hst"> 8 million km (5 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">In this -photograph, the shadow of the satellite Dione is seen as a dark circle on the face -of the planet.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="665" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/10/80<span class="hst"> 3.5 million km (2.2 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>A ribbon-like wave structure</b> and small convective features marking a -westward jet stream above the wave are visible in this photograph of Saturn’s -cloudtops. The view, extending from 40 degrees to 60 degrees north latitude, shows features -65 kilometers (40 miles) in diameter. Measurements in images such as this one indicate -that Saturn has fewer east-to-west wind currents than does Jupiter.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="665" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 442,000 km (265,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Numerous small cloud features</b> were photographed as Voyager 1 passed -above Saturn’s southern hemisphere. At these polar latitudes, the large-scale light and dark -bands break down into small-scale features, seen here as waves and eddies.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p06b.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="643" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/7/80<span class="hst"> 7.5 million km (4.6 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Two brown ovals</b>, approximately 10,000 kilometers (6000 miles) across, were -discovered in Saturn’s northern hemisphere, at about 40 degrees and 60 degrees latitude. -The polar oval (upper left) has a structure similar to Saturn’s red oval located in the southern -polar latitudes. Detail within the ovals is not visible at this resolution, so it is not yet -known if they are rotating features similar to the many spots in Jupiter’s atmosphere.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">The Rings</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="752" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 717,000 km (444,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">The -rings of Saturn have amazed -and intrigued astronomers for over 300 -years. Now that we have seen them up close, -they are even more astonishing. Although -they stretch over 65,000 kilometers (40,000 -miles), they may be only a few kilometers -thick. The ring particles—from a few -microns to a meter (three feet) in size—have -been described as icy snowballs or ice-covered -rock. Voyager scientists continue to -pore over their data, searching for answers -to the puzzles of the rings. The rings were -named in order of their discovery, so the -labels do not indicate their relative positions. -From the planet outward, they are known -as D, C, B, A, F, and E.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="754" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">10/25/80<span class="hst"> 24 million km (15 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Extraordinarily -complex</b> structure is seen across the entire span of Saturn’s ring -system. The sequence (taken approximately -every 15 minutes as Voyager 1 approached Saturn) -proceeds from top to bottom in each column and -shows radial “spokes” rotating within the B-Ring. -The spokes may be caused by a combination of -magnetic and electrostatic forces.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="642" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/6/80<span class="hst"> 8 million km (5 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">Over 95 -individual concentric features can he counted; the -final count in higher resolution images may be anywhere -from 500 to 1000 separate rings. A few of -the ringlets shown in this computer-assembled -mosaic are not concentric circles but are instead -elliptical. Ring particles are probably ice or ice covered -rock.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p08b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="598" /> -<p class="pcap">The classic features of the rings are illustrated -in the diagram.</p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>D-RING</dt> -<dt>C-RING</dt> -<dt>B-RING</dt> -<dt>“SPOKE”</dt> -<dt>CASSINI DIVISION</dt> -<dt>ENCKE DIVISION</dt> -<dt>A-RING</dt> -<dt>F-RING</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="637" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/8/80<span class="hst"> 6 million km (3.7 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>The Cassini Division</b> -is filled with numerous ringlets. Discovered by -Cassini in 1675, this area between the A- and B-Rings -had long been thought devoid of material. -The Voyager observation of well-defined rings -within the Cassini Division was an unexpected -discovery.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="752" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 740,000 km (460,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Saturn’s ring system</b>, viewed from -below, appears dramatically different from its -appearance on the sunlit side. This computer-processed -image shows the F-Ring circling outside -the A-Ring, the A-Ring with its Encke Division, the -multiple ringlets in the Cassini Division, and the -optically thick B-Ring, seen here in magenta hues -(the coloration is an artifact of processing and is -not real). The B-Ring appears dark from below the -ring plane because it is dense enough to reflect -most of the sunlight, causing it to appear very -bright when seen from the sunward side. The -opaline brightness of the Cassini Division here -indicates a great deal of sunlight being scattered -through this region. The Encke Division may really -be empty, since it appears dark from both above -and below.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="763" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 720,000 km (450,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Outbound and above</b> the ring plane, -Voyager 1 gave us this view of Saturn’s rings eight -hours after its closest approach to the planet. The -unique lighting accentuates the many hundreds of -bright and dark ringlets comprising the ring system. -The C-Ring (dark gray area) seems to blend -into the brighter B-Ring as the concentric features -radiate out from the planet. The dark spoke-like -features seen in images taken during the approach -to Saturn now appear as bright streaks, indicating -that they may be composed of small particles.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p10a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="811" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 750,000 km (470,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Two narrow, braided rings</b> in the -F-Ring are evident in this view, as well as a broader, -very diffuse component about 35 kilometers (20 -miles) across. A totally unexpected discovery, the -braided rings trace distinctly separate orbits intertwining -each other. The “knots” may be local -clumps of ring material or tiny moons. It is difficult -to explain this complicated structure using only -the gravitational forces known to be affecting the -particles of this ring. It is possible that additional, -electrostatic forces may also influence these -particles.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p10b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="571" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/8/80<span class="hst"> 7 million km (4.3 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Brightness variations</b> in the F-Ring -may be due to clumping in the ring material. The -features are seen at the top and again near the left -edge of the ring in this image. The “gap” in the -ring (left center) is not real but is the location of a -reseau mark on the camera’s vidicon tube. These -bright features in the F-Ring appear to move at the -orbital rate of the ring particles and may be larger -bodies or thicknesses in the rings. Saturn’s thirteenth -and fourteenth satellites, which orbit on -either side of the F-Ring, may act like “sheepdogs,” -herding the F-Ring particles between them. Less -than 100 kilometers (60 miles) wide, the F-Ring is -located outside of the A-Ring. Satellite 14, discovered -by Voyager 1, is seen just inside the F-Ring.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">The Satellites</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<p class="pcap">In only twelve hours, Saturn’s satellites grew from names in -ancient mythology into dazzling worlds with personae of their own. As Voyager -1 sailed through the Saturn system, it returned photographs of Mimas, -Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea—all part of a class of intermediate-sized -icy bodies heretofore unstudied by planetary spacecraft. All but Enceladus -show heavily cratered surfaces, evidence of aeons of meteorite bombardment. -Enceladus hints at internal processes, as yet unidentified, which may have -erased from its surface the evidence of early bombardment—but we must -await Voyager 2’s arrival next August to better understand this body.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="674" height="604" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/9/80<span class="hst"> 4.5 million km (2.8 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">The surface -of giant Titan, now dethroned from its seat as the solar system’s largest -satellite (Jupiter’s Ganymede is larger), remains an enigma, shrouded beneath -thick layers of haze.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="614" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 22,000 km (14,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">Tiny moons—three new ones and three confirmed from -previous sightings—may tell us much about ring dynamics since gravitational -forces from satellites probably influence the ring structure. Two of these tiny -moons are on the verge of collision in the same orbit, while several others -appear to bound the A- and F-Rings. Iapetus, whose two hemispheres differ -dramatically in brightness, was photographed in its orbit, almost 3.6 million -kilometers (2.2 million miles) from the planet.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 425,000 km (264,000 mi</span>)</span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Mimas, Saturn’s innermost large satellite</b>, has an impact crater covering -more than one quarter the diameter of the entire moon. Nowhere else in the solar system -has such a disproportionately large feature been seen. In fact, it is believed that any -impact larger than this would probably have shattered Mimas into two or more fragments. -The crater has a raised rim and central peak, typical of large impact structures on terrestrial -planets. Additional smaller craters, 15 to 45 kilometers (10 to 30 miles) in diameter, -can be seen scattered across the surface, particularly along the terminator. Mimas is one of -the small, low density Saturnian satellites implying that it is composed primarily of ice.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="768" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 130,000 km (80,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Mimas’ other side</b> shows a uniformly and heavily cratered surface—a record of -the bombardment that occurred throughout the solar system in its early history 4.5 billion -years ago. A long, narrow trough about 5 kilometers (3 miles) wide crosses from northeast -to southwest. Mimas’ surface is very reflective (about 60 percent), indicating that it consists -largely of ice, which has been chipped and pulverized by aeons of meteoritic bombardment. -Such a surface on a small, low mass moon would probably resemble light, powdery -snow. Features as small as 3 kilometers (2 miles) across are visible.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="686" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 650,000 km (400,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Enceladus</b> appears to be largely devoid -of craters or other major surface relief, suggesting -that perhaps internal processes may have erased -such structures. This satellite will be seen better by -Voyager 2 when it flies past Saturn in August 1981.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/p13a.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="493" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 1.2 million km (750,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>This heavily cratered surface</b> of -Tethys faces toward Saturn and includes a large valley -about 750 kilometers (500 miles) long and 60 -kilometers (40 miles) wide. The craters are the -result of impacts, and the valley appears to be a -large fracture of unknown origin. Tethys has a -diameter of 1050 kilometers (650 miles), about -one-third that of Earth’s Moon. The smallest features -visible in this picture are about 24 kilometers -(15 miles) across.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/p13c.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="654" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 700,000 km (435,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Dione</b> reveals two distinctly different -hemispheres. The photograph shows Dione’s -trailing side. Bright radiating patterns are probably -rays of debris thrown out of impact craters; other -bright areas may be topographic ridges and valleys.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/p13d.jpg" alt="" width="764" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 162,000 km (101,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">Dione’s other hemisphere (mosaic) also has -many impact craters—the record of cosmic collisions. -The largest crater is less than 100 kilometers -(60 miles) in diameter and includes a well-developed -central peak. Sinuous valleys (seen near each -pole) are probably the result of crustal fracturing in -the moon’s icy crust. Dione’s diameter is only 1100 -kilometers (700 miles), much smaller than any of -Jupiter’s icy moons.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="751" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/13/80<span class="hst"> 80,000 km (50,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Craters -stand shoulder-to-shoulder</b> on the surface of Saturn’s satellite -Rhea, seen in this mosaic of the highest-resolution pictures of the north polar region. -Rhea is 1500 kilometers (950 miles) in diameter and is the most heavily cratered Saturn -moon. The largest crater, made by the impact of cosmic debris, is about 300 kilometers -(190 miles) in diameter.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/p14a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="767" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 128,000 km (79,500 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Impact craters</b> on the ancient surface of Rhea closely resemble those on -Mercury and Earth’s Moon. Many of the craters have central peaks formed by rebound of -the floor during the explosive formation of the crater. Some craters are old and degraded -by later impacts. Many have sharp rims and appear relatively fresh, while others are very -shallow and have subdued rims, indicative of their antiquity. White areas on the edges -of several of the craters are probably fresh ice exposed on steep slopes or possibly deposited -by volatiles leaking from fractured regions. Surface features as small as 2.5 kilometers -(1.5 miles) in diameter are visible.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<div class="img" id="fig32"> -<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="693" height="700" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/9/80<span class="hst"> 4.5 million km (2.8 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Titan -is a large, bizarre satellite.</b> It is larger (almost 5120 kilometers or -3180 miles in diameter) than the planet Mercury and possesses a dense atmosphere of -unique composition. Voyager 1’s cameras show Titan’s surface to be totally obscured by a -thick layer of atmospheric haze. In the full-disk photograph, only two features are -visible: a faint boundary between the southern and darker northern hemispheres and a -dark “hood” overlying Titan’s north polar region.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<div class="img" id="fig33"> -<img src="images/p15a.jpg" alt="" width="765" height="999" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 435,000 km (270,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">This hood and greater detail in the haze -layers are shown in the higher resolution photograph.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<div class="img" id="fig34"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="496" height="647" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/10/80<span class="hst"> 4.6 million km (2.8 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Little detail</b> can be seen in this distant -view of Hyperion, the satellite which orbits just -beyond Titan. Voyager 2 will observe Hyperion at a -closer range.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig35"> -<img src="images/p16a.jpg" alt="" width="496" height="637" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 3.2 million km (1.9 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Saturn’s satellite Iapetus</b> displays a -large, circular feature about 200 kilometers (120 -miles) across with a dark spot in its center. The circular -feature is probably a large impact structure -outlined by dark material, possibly thrown out by -the impact. The satellite’s leading hemisphere is to -the left, and the trailing hemisphere, which is four -to five times brighter, is to the right. Iapetus’ diameter -is 1450 kilometers (900 miles).</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<div class="img" id="fig36"> -<img src="images/p16c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="641" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 177,000 km (110,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Two satellites</b> (Saturn’s tenth and -eleventh) revolve in nearly identical orbits 151,000 -kilometers (94,000 miles) from Saturn’s center. -The satellites are each 100 to 200 kilometers in -diameter, larger than the distance separating their -orbits, and they are currently approaching one -another at a rate which promises collision in about -two years. Such a collision, however, will probably -be averted by orbital changes induced by the satellites’ -mutual gravitational interactions as they near -one another. The trailing co-orbital satellite, seen in -this photograph, has a very irregular outline (the -Sun is shining from the left). This color composite -was produced from three exposures taken over a -period of more than six minutes. During this -period, a thin shadow, cast by a previously -unknown ring, moved across the satellite causing -the “rainbow” pattern shown here.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig37"> -<img src="images/p16d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="635" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">10/25/80<span class="hst"> 25 million km (16 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Two smaller satellites</b>—Saturn’s thirteenth -and fourteenth moons—were discovered on -October 25, 1980, in images taken to study the dark -“spokes” within Saturn’s B-Ring. The smaller, inner -satellite has a diameter of about 500 kilometers -(300 miles) and is visible just outside the A-Ring, -near the bottom of the picture. It travels in an orbit -between the A-Ring and the F-Ring (not visible in -this photograph). The second satellite, seen to the -left, travels just outside the F-Ring and is about 600 -kilometers (400 miles) in diameter. Scientists -believe the dimensions of the narrow F-Ring may -be determined by these two satellites, which orbit -on either edge of the ring.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">A Glimpse Back</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig38"> -<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="803" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/13/80<span class="hst"> 1.5 million km (930,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">Looking -back at the Saturn system as it soared upward and outward, Voyager 1 -continued its observations for nearly five weeks after closest Saturn approach. The -spacecraft photographed the planet’s sunlit crescent, the ring shadows falling on the -planet, and Saturn’s dark hemisphere illuminated -by “ringshine.” It searched for lightning -and auroras on the planet’s dark side and looked for “sun dogs” resulting from -ammonia crystals in the atmosphere. It continued temperature and composition measurements -and searched for new satellites out to the orbit of Mimas. It measured the -flow of plasma in Saturn’s magnetosphere and now, its journey far from over, Voyager -1 proceeds toward the outer boundary of our solar system, as it seeks to probe the -space among the stars of our galaxy, the Milky Way.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<div class="img" id="fig39"> -<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="733" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/16/80<span class="hst"> 5.3 million km (3.3 million mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc"><b>Departing Saturn</b>, -Voyager 1 photographed the planet from a unique perspective, clearly -showing Saturn’s shadow on the rings.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<div class="img" id="fig40"> -<img src="images/p18b.jpg" alt="" width="418" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="datetime">11/12/80<span class="hst"> 250,000 km (150,000 mi)</span></span></p><p class="pcapc">During a 40-minute period on the day of -encounter, the spacecraft was itself in the planet’s -shadow. At this time, the wide-angle camera -acquired a photograph of this shadow line, -revealing ring material in a region very close to the -planet, where no material had been previously -observed. This inner ring, the D-Ring, is roughly -6000 kilometers (4000 miles) wide and extends to -within about 6000 kilometers of Saturn’s cloudtops.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">The Voyager Mission</span></h2> -<p>Only once every 175 years are the outer -planets aligned in their orbits so that we can take -advantage of gravity-assist trajectories to achieve -encounters with Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and -Neptune on one mission. The gravity-assist -technique uses one planet’s gravity field and -motion through space to alter the spacecraft’s flight -path and propel it outward toward the next planet. -Voyager 1’s trajectory, which was selected to best -view Titan, has now propelled the spacecraft out -of the ecliptic plane, while Voyager 2’s path will -remain in this plane to provide future encounters -with Uranus and possibly with Neptune.</p> -<h3 id="c8">MISSION OBJECTIVES</h3> -<p>The Voyager Project was approved in June 1972 -and had as its mission objectives:</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt>★ Exploration of the Jupiter and Saturn planetary systems, including their atmospheres, rings, satellites, and magnetospheres</dt> -<dt>★ Comparative analyses of the two systems</dt> -<dt>★ Investigation of the interplanetary medium between Earth and Saturn</dt></dl> -<p>A fourth objective, added in 1976, was to preserve -the possibility of extending the mission to -include an investigation of the planet Uranus and -the interstellar medium.</p> -<p>With the completion of Voyager 1’s Saturn flyby, -it is now clear that these objectives will be -achieved.</p> -<h3 id="c9">SPACECRAFT CHARACTERISTICS</h3> -<p>Two identical spacecraft were developed for the -1977 launch opportunity. These marvelous -machines were cleverly designed to survive the -rigors of long voyages in outer space and to deliver -high-quality scientific information required for -detailed understanding of planetary systems. The -spacecraft are both complex—automatically -responding to their Earth-bound monitors that -remotely control them via radio commands—and -highly autonomous—capable of caring for themselves -in many areas through a system of sensors, -computers, and spare equipment. Each spacecraft -functions on about 400 watts of electrical power -which is provided by nuclear generators. Broadcasts -of data across a billion miles to Earth are -accomplished with a spacecraft transmitter power -of only about 25 watts, the amount of energy -required by a small household light bulb.</p> -<p>Voyager’s scientific payload was carefully chosen -to observe Saturn over a wide range of wave-lengths -and to measure magnetic fields, charged -particles, and plasma waves.</p> -<h3 id="c10">SATURN ENCOUNTER</h3> -<div class="img" id="fig41"> -<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="234" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Voyager 1 approached within 124,000 kilometers (77,000 miles) -of Saturn’s cloudtops. Six of the satellites that were photographed -are shown in their approximate positions at closest -approach by the spacecraft.</i></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt>TITAN</dt> -<dt>DIONE</dt> -<dt>TETHYS</dt> -<dt>MIMAS</dt> -<dt>ENCELADUS</dt> -<dt>RHEA</dt></dl> -<p>Voyager 1’s Saturn encounter period began on -August 22, 1980, at a range of 109 million kilometers -(68 million miles) from the planet. Even at this -great distance, Voyager’s images were better than -any from Earth-based telescopes. During the long -encounter period, which extended through -December 19, 1980, continuous observations of -Saturn’s realm were carried out by Voyager’s instruments. -Voyager 1’s flight path through the Saturn -system demanded navigation of the highest precision -to meet three critical targets: (1) a close 4000-kilometer -(2300-mile) flyby and occultation at -Titan, (2) a precise, three-minute time period -when the spacecraft was emerging from occultation -at the same time Earth was in a position to -receive the spacecraft signals passing through the -gap between Saturn and its rings, and (3) a flight -path through the E-Ring at Dione’s orbit to assure -safe passage through a zone clear of potentially -dangerous material. To assure these targets were -achieved, small trajectory trim maneuvers were -executed on October 11, 1980, and again on -<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span> -November 6, 1980, as Voyager 1 sped toward -Saturn.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig42"> -<img src="images/p19a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="607" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Voyager spacecraft and scientific instruments.</i></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA (3.7-meter diameter)</dt> -<dt>LOW-ENERGY CHARGED PARTICLE</dt> -<dt>COSMIC RAY</dt> -<dt>PLASMA</dt> -<dt>IMAGING</dt> -<dt>ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETER</dt> -<dt>INFRARED INTERFEROMETER SPECTROMETER</dt> -<dt>PHOTOPOLARIMETER</dt> -<dt>OPTICAL CALIBRATION TARGET</dt> -<dt>PLANETARY RADIO ASTRONOMY AND PLASMA WAVE ANTENNA (2)</dt> -<dt>RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR (3)</dt> -<dt>MAGNETOMETER BOOM</dt></dl> -<p>By October 24, 1980, when Voyager 1 was about -30 million kilometers (19 million miles) from Saturn, -the spacecraft’s narrow-angle camera could no -longer capture the planet in a single picture. Thus, -a period of multiple images or mosaics began. By -November 2, 1980, even four-picture mosaics -could no longer cover the rapidly growing scene. -Voyager 1’s pace of operations reached an exciting -peak during the near-encounter phase from -November 11 through November 13, 1980. While -still about 1.6 million kilometers (1 million miles) -from closest approach to Saturn, Voyager 1 -encountered Titan on November 11, 1980, and -then dipped below the ring plane as it accelerated -rapidly toward Saturn. On November 12, 1980, -Voyager 1 came within 124,000 kilometers (77,000 -miles) of the cloudtops of Saturn’s southern hemisphere, -where Saturn’s gravity altered the spacecraft’s -course, hurtling the spacecraft upward past -the ring plane. Close observation of Saturn’s other -major satellites and its rings were made during this -passage.</p> -<p>From Earth to Saturn, Voyager 1 has traveled in -the ecliptic plane, the plane in which the major -planets orbit. Now, having completed its final planetary -flyby, Voyager 1 is rising above this plane on -a trajectory that will eventually carry it above and -out of the solar system, probably before the end -of this century. As it proceeds, the spacecraft will -return information about the solar wind and magnetic -fields in the far, unexplored reaches of our -solar system and will observe cosmic rays emitted -from the distant stars among which Voyager will -ultimately cruise.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div> -<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">Scientific Highlights</span></h2> -<p>Some of the most important information -gathered by Voyager 1 on the Saturn system is -presented pictorially in this publication and is -supplemented here with brief summaries of the -major discoveries, observations, and theories.</p> -<h3 id="c12">SATURN</h3> -<p>Saturn’s atmosphere appears similar to Jupiter’s, -with alternating dark belts and bright zones, circulating -storm regions, and other dark and light cloud -markings. Saturn’s belt and zone system extends to -higher latitudes than those on Jupiter, and all of the -features are muted by a thick atmospheric haze, -perhaps 70 kilometers (40 miles) deep.</p> -<p>Wind speeds up to 1500 kilometers per hour -(900 miles per hour) occur at the equator—four to -five times faster than any Jovian winds. Temperatures -near the cloudtops range from 86 to 92 kelvins -(-305° to -294° Fahrenheit)—nearly 60 -degrees colder than at Jupiter. Saturn still radiates -about 2.8 times as much heat as it receives from the -Sun. The coolest temperatures are found at the -center of the equatorial zone.</p> -<p>Auroral emissions have been seen near Saturn’s -poles, and auroral-type emissions have been seen -in ultraviolet light near the illuminated limb of the -planet.</p> -<p>Lightning bolts have not been seen on Saturn, -but radio emissions typical of lightning discharges -have been recorded. The source of these discharges -is believed to be the rings rather than Saturn’s -atmosphere.</p> -<h3 id="c13">RINGS</h3> -<p>Hundreds of tiny ringlets—a few of them elliptical -rather than circular—comprise the classic A-, B-, -and C-Rings, once thought to be uniform disks of -material. The F-Ring, which was first sighted by -Pioneer 11 in 1979, was observed to be three separate, -intertwined ringlets.</p> -<p>The existence of a D-Ring between the C-Ring -and the planet has been confirmed by observations -during Voyager 1’s passage through Saturn’s -shadow. The tenuous E-Ring, previously observed -from Earth only when Saturn’s rings could be -viewed edge-on (every 15 years), has also been -observed during shadow passage. At least one -other ring has been found between the E- and F-Rings -in Voyager images.</p> -<p>Long, radial, spoke-like features in the B-Ring -were dark when viewed upon approach and bright -when observed after encounter when the spacecraft -looked back toward the planet and the Sun.</p> -<h3 id="c14">NEW SATELLITES</h3> -<p>Voyager 1 photographed six tiny moons, some -that had never been seen before. Satellites 10 and -11, dubbed the “co-orbitals,” share an orbit 91,000 -kilometers (57,000 miles) above Saturn’s cloudtops. -The leading satellite has a diameter of about 160 -kilometers (100 miles), while the trailing satellite -has an irregular shape, approximately 105 by 65 -kilometers (65 by 40 miles).</p> -<p>Little is known about satellites 12, 13, 14, and 15 -aside from their orbits and periods. Satellite 12 -orbits at the same distance from Saturn as Dione, at -a point about 60 degrees ahead of Dione. Satellites -13 and 14, outside and inside the F-Ring (respectively), -appear to “herd” this thin ring between -them. Satellite 15 appears to limit the outer edge of -the A-Ring in a similar manner.</p> -<h3 id="c15">INNER SATELLITES</h3> -<p>Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea represent -a body size not previously explored by -spacecraft. They are larger than Jupiter’s Amalthea -and Mars’ Phobos and Deimos, yet smaller than -Mercury, our Moon, or Jupiter’s large satellites. -Their diameters range from 390 kilometers (240 -miles) for Mimas to 1530 kilometers (950 miles) for -Rhea, and they are probably composed primarily -of water ice.</p> -<p>With the exception of Enceladus, all of these -moons have heavily cratered surfaces, looking -much like the Moon and Mercury. Mimas displays -an impact crater whose diameter is one-fourth that -of the satellite—such an impact must have nearly -shattered the icy satellite. Tethys has a valley -70 kilometers (40 miles) wide that stretches -800 kilometers (500 miles) across the satellite, an -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -apparent crustal fracture resulting from seismic -activity. Several sinuous valleys, some of which -appear to branch, are visible on Dione’s surface. -Both Dione and Rhea have bright, wispy streaks on -their already highly reflective surfaces, perhaps -caused by ice thrown out of craters by meteorite -impacts.</p> -<p>Of the five inner moons, Enceladus appears the -smoothest, but we will have to wait for Voyager 2 -to photograph the satellite at greater resolution in -1981. Since the maximum intensity of the E-Ring -occurs near Enceladus’ orbit, Enceladus may be a -source of E-Ring particles.</p> -<h3 id="c16">TITAN</h3> -<p>Titan is now known to be smaller than Jupiter’s -Ganymede. Its diameter is less than 5120 kilometers -(3180 miles), which implies a density twice -that of water ice. A dense, hazy atmosphere at least -400 kilometers (250 miles) thick obscures the surface. -Voyager 1 determined that Titan has a nitrogen-rich -atmosphere (as does Earth), but with -concentrations of hydrocarbons such as methane -(natural gas), ethane, acetylene, ethylene, and -deadly hydrogen cyanide. The haze layers merge -into a darkened hood over the north pole. At the -poles, liquid nitrogen lakes may form. The surface -temperature is probably near 100 kelvins (-280° -Fahrenheit), only slightly warmer than the boiling -point of liquid nitrogen.</p> -<p>Titan has no appreciable magnetic field and -therefore possesses no large liquid conducting -core. It does, however, supply a small amount of -charged particles to Saturn’s magnetosphere.</p> -<p>The southern hemisphere is somewhat brighter -than the northern, perhaps as a result of seasonal -effects.</p> -<h3 id="c17">OUTER SATELLITES</h3> -<p>Of the three known outer satellites, Voyager 1 -studied from a distance only Hyperion and Iapetus. -Tiny Phoebe, in its retrograde (clockwise) orbit, -will be studied by Voyager 2 in the summer of -1981. Hyperion and Iapetus are most likely composed -of water ice, although their masses and -densities are uncertain. Iapetus has one bright and -one dark hemisphere. The dark side, which faces -forward as Iapetus circles Saturn, reflects about -one-fifth as much light as the trailing, bright side.</p> -<h3 id="c18">MAGNETOSPHERE</h3> -<p>Although it is only about one-third the size of -Jupiter’s magnetosphere, Saturn’s magnetosphere is -still an enormous structure, extending nearly two -million kilometers from the planet toward the Sun. -The size of the magnetosphere fluctuates rhythmically -as the flow of charged particles in the solar -wind increases or decreases in intensity. The magnetosphere -can be pushed inside Titan’s orbit, so -that at times the satellite finds itself outside of the -magnetosphere altogether.</p> -<p>Charged particles in the planet’s magnetosphere -are dragged along by the magnetic field, circling the -planet at Saturn’s rotation rate of 10 hours, 39 minutes. -These charged particles whiz by Titan at a -dizzying rate of more than 200 kilometers (120 -miles) per second. Titan leaves a motorboat-like -wake in its orbital path.</p> -<p>Extending from the orbit of Titan inward to the -orbit of Rhea, an enormous cloud of uncharged -hydrogen atoms forms a doughnut-shaped torus of -ultraviolet-emitting particles. Because of their neutrality, -these atoms are not towed around by Saturn’s -magnetic field.</p> -<p>Close to the planet, Saturn’s rings act as an effective -shield or absorber of charged particles. The -rings themselves are apparently substantially -affected in this process, however, as evidenced by -their “spokes” of fine particles and the lightning-like -electrical discharges attributed to the rings.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<h2 id="c19"><span class="small">Scientific Investigations</span></h2> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr class="th"><th>INVESTIGATION </th><th>SATURN ENCOUNTER OBJECTIVES</th></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Imaging science </td><td class="l">Planetary meteorology; satellite geology; ring structure and dynamics</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Infrared interferometry </td><td class="l">Atmospheric composition, thermal structure and dynamics; satellite surface composition and thermal properties; ring composition</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Radio science </td><td class="l">Atmospheric and ionospheric structure, constituents, and dynamics at Saturn and Titan; ring particle size</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Ultraviolet spectroscopy </td><td class="l">Upper atmospheric composition and structure; auroral processes; distribution of ions and neutral atoms in the Saturn system</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Magnetic fields </td><td class="l">Planetary magnetic field; magnetospheric structure</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Plasma particles </td><td class="l">Magnetospheric ion and electron distribution; solar wind interaction with Saturn; ions from satellites</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Plasma waves </td><td class="l">Plasma electron densities; wave-particle interactions; low-frequency wave emissions</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Planetary radio astronomy </td><td class="l">Polarization and spectra of radio-frequency emissions; plasma densities</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Low-energy charged particles </td><td class="l">Distribution, composition, and flow of energetic ions and electrons; satellite-energetic particle interactions</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Cosmic ray particles </td><td class="l">Distribution, composition, and flow of high-energy trapped nuclei; energetic electron spectra</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div> -<p class="tb">“<i>Notre voyageur connaissait merveilleusement les lois -de la gravitation, et toutes les forces attractives et répulsives. -Il s’en servait si à propos, que tantôt à l’aide d’un rayon de -soleil, tantôt par la commodité d’une comète, il allait de globe -en globe, lui et les siens, comme un oiseau voltige de branche -en branche.</i>”</p> -<p>“<i>Our voyager knew marvelously the laws of gravitation, -and all attractive and repulsive forces. He used them in such -a timely way that, once with the help of a ray of sunshine, -another time thanks to a cooperative comet, he went from -globe to globe, he and his kin, as a bird flutters from branch -to branch.</i>”</p> -<p class="center">VOLTAIRE—Micromégas, Histoire Philosophique, 1752.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="NASA" width="488" height="166" /> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><b>Jet Propulsion Laboratory</b></p> -<p class="t0">California Institute of Technology</p> -<p class="t0">Pasadena, California</p> -</div> -<p><span class="ss"><span class="small">JPL 400-100 12/80</span></span></p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li> -<li>Moved captions nearer the relevant images; tweaked image references within captions accordingly.</li> -<li>Added a Table of Contents.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn, by -National Aeronautics and Space Administration - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGER 1 ENCOUNTERS SATURN *** - -***** This file should be named 56205-h.htm or 56205-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/2/0/56205/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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