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diff --git a/old/56171-0.txt b/old/56171-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 99c71c6..0000000 --- a/old/56171-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16499 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Journey in Brazil, by -Louis Agassiz and Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: A Journey in Brazil - -Author: Louis Agassiz - Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz - -Release Date: December 12, 2017 [EBook #56171] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A JOURNEY IN BRAZIL *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: Cocoeiro Palm] - - - - - A - JOURNEY IN BRAZIL. - - BY - PROFESSOR AND MRS. LOUIS AGASSIZ. - - And whenever the way seemed long, - Or his heart began to fail, - She would sing a more wonderful song, - Or tell a more marvellous tale. - - LONGFELLOW. - - BOSTON: - TICKNOR AND FIELDS. - 1868. - - - - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by - TICKNOR AND FIELDS, - in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of - Massachusetts. - - - SECOND EDITION. - - - UNIVERSITY PRESS: WELCH, BIGELOW, & CO., - CAMBRIDGE. - - - - - TO - MR. NATHANIEL THAYER, - - THE FRIEND WHO MADE IT POSSIBLE TO GIVE THIS JOURNEY THE CHARACTER OF A - SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION, - - The Present Volume - - _IS GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED_. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE. - - -In the winter of 1865 it became necessary for me, on account of some -disturbance of my health, to seek a change of scene and climate, with -rest from work. Europe was proposed; but though there is much enjoyment -for a naturalist in contact with the active scientific life of the Old -World, there is little intellectual rest. Toward Brazil I was drawn by a -lifelong desire. After the death of Spix, when a student of twenty years -of age, I had been employed by Martius to describe the fishes they had -brought back with them from their celebrated Brazilian journey. From -that time, the wish to study this fauna in the regions where it belongs -had been an ever-recurring thought with me; a scheme deferred for want -of opportunity, but never quite forgotten. The fact that the Emperor of -Brazil was deeply interested in all scientific undertakings, and had -expressed a warm sympathy with my efforts to establish a great -zoölogical museum in this country, aiding me even by sending collections -made expressly under his order for the purpose, was an additional -incentive. I knew that the head of the government would give me every -facility for my investigations. Nevertheless, tempting as was the -prospect of a visit to Brazil, as a mere vacation it had little charm -for me. Single-handed, I could make slight use of the opportunities I -should have; and though the excursion might be a pleasant one for -myself, it would have no important result for science. I could not -forget that, had I only the necessary means, I might make collections on -this journey which, whenever our building could be so enlarged as to -give room for their exhibition, would place the Museum in Cambridge on a -level with the first institutions of the kind. But for this a working -force would be needed, and I saw no possibility of providing for such an -undertaking. While I was brooding over these thoughts I chanced to meet -Mr. Nathaniel Thayer, whom I have ever found a generous friend to -science. The idea of appealing to him for a scheme of this magnitude had -not, however, occurred to me; but he introduced the subject, and, after -expressing his interest in my proposed journey, added, “You wish, of -course, to give it a scientific character; take six assistants with you, -and I will be responsible for all their expenses, personal and -scientific.” It was so simply said, and seemed to me so great a boon, -that at first I hardly believed I had heard him rightly. In the end, I -had cause to see in how large and liberal a sense he proffered his -support to the expedition, which, as is usual in such cases, proved -longer and more costly than was at first anticipated. Not only did he -provide most liberally for assistants, but, until the last specimen was -stored in the Museum, he continued to advance whatever sums were needed, -always desiring me to inform him should any additional expenses occur on -closing up the affairs of the expedition. It seems to me that the good -arising from the knowledge of such facts justifies me in speaking here -of these generous deeds, accomplished so unostentatiously that they -might otherwise pass unnoticed. - -All obstacles thus removed from my path, I made my preparations for -departure as rapidly as possible. The assistants I selected to accompany -me were Mr. James Burkhardt as artist, Mr. John G. Anthony as -conchologist, Mr. Frederick C. Hartt and Mr. Orestes St. John as -geologists, Mr. John A. Allen as ornithologist, and Mr. George Sceva as -preparator. Beside these, my party was enlarged by several volunteers, -to whom I was indebted for assistance as untiring and efficient as if -they had been engaged for the purpose. These were Mr. Newton Dexter, Mr. -William James, Mr. Edward Copeland, Mr. Thomas Ward, Mr. Walter -Hunnewell, and Mr. S. V. R. Thayer. I should not omit to mention my -brother-in-law, Mr. Thomas G. Cary, as one of my aids; for, though not -nominally connected with the expedition, he made collections for me at -Monte Video, Buenos Ayres, and other places. I was also joined by my -friends Dr. and Mrs. Cotting. Dr. Cotting, like myself, was in need of a -vacation, and it was his intention to remain with us for as long a time -as he could spare from his professional practice. But the climate proved -unfavorable to his health, and after passing a couple of months in Rio, -and sharing with us all our excursions in that neighborhood, he sailed -with Mrs. Cotting for Europe, where they passed the summer. His presence -with us during that time was most fortunate, for it so happened that the -only serious cases of illness we had among us occurred before he left, -and his medical advice and care were of great service. I lost the -assistance of Mr. Anthony, and Mr. Allen also, early in the expedition; -their health, always delicate, obliging them to leave for home. With -these exceptions, our working force remained intact, and I am happy to -state that every member of the party returned in safety to the United -States.[1] - -No sooner was the Brazilian Expedition known to the public, than I -received a letter from Mr. Allen McLane, President of the Pacific Mail -Steamship Company, offering to me and my whole party the hospitality of -their magnificent ship the Colorado, then just sailing from New York for -the Pacific coast. She was going almost empty of passengers, being bound -by the way of Cape Horn for San Francisco. We left New York on board -this beautiful vessel, on the 1st of April, 1865. The record of our -delightful voyage to Rio de Janeiro will be found in the narrative; but -I wish here publicly to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. McLane for his -generosity to the expedition. Besides the sympathy accorded me by -private individuals, I have to thank the Hon. Gideon Welles, Secretary -of the Navy, for a general order, received on the eve of my departure, -desiring the officers of the United States Navy, wherever I should fall -in with them, to afford me such assistance in my scientific researches -as would not interfere with the regular service; and I learned at Rio -that Mr. Seward had warmly recommended the expedition to General Webb, -at that time United States Minister to Brazil. Finally, I would express -my thanks also to Messrs. Garrison and Allen for the free passage -offered to myself and my companions for our return, on board the line of -steamers established between New York and Rio de Janeiro during our stay -in Brazil. - -It will be seen hereafter what facilities were granted me throughout -this journey by the Brazilians themselves, and that the undertaking, so -warmly speeded on its way, was welcomed no less cordially in the country -to which it was bound. - -One word as to the manner in which this volume has grown into its -present shape, for it has been rather the natural growth of -circumstances than the result of any preconceived design. Partly for the -entertainment of her friends, partly with the idea that I might make -some use of it in knitting together the scientific reports of my journey -by a thread of narrative, Mrs. Agassiz began this diary. I soon fell -into the habit of giving her daily the more general results of my -scientific observations, knowing that she would allow nothing to be lost -which was worth preserving. In consequence of this mode of working, our -separate contributions have become so closely interwoven that we should -hardly know how to disconnect them, and our common journal is therefore -published, with the exception of a few unimportant changes, almost as it -was originally written. In this volume I have attempted only to give -such an account of my scientific work and its results as would explain -to the public what were the aims of the expedition, and how far they -have been accomplished. It is my hope to complete a work, already begun, -on the Natural History, and especially on the Fishes of Brazil, in which -will be recorded not only my investigations during the journey and those -of my assistants in their independent excursions, but also the -researches now regularly carried on in connection with the immense -Brazilian collections stored in the Museum at Cambridge. This must, -however, be the slow labor of many years, and can only be published very -gradually. In the mean time I hope that this forerunner of the more -special reports may serve to show that our year in Brazil, full as it -was of enjoyment for all the party, was also rich in permanent results -for science. - - L. AGASSIZ. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - There is but one sad record I have to make connected with this - journey. My friend and companion of many years, Mr. Burkhardt, died - about ten months after his return, of a disease which, though not - contracted in Brazil, since it was of some years’ standing, was no - doubt aggravated by the hot climate. His great desire to accompany me - led him, against my advice, to undertake a journey which, in his case, - was a dangerous one. He suffered very much during our stay on the - Amazons, but I could not persuade him to leave his work; and in the - following pages it will be seen that his industry was unflagging. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - VOYAGE FROM NEW YORK TO RIO DE JANEIRO. - - PAGE - - First Sunday at Sea.—Gulf Stream.—Gulf-Weed.—Lectures - proposed.—First Lecture: On the Gulf Stream in the Gulf - Stream.—Aquarium established on board.—Second Lecture.—Rough - Sea.—Peculiar Tint of Water.—Third Lecture: Laying out Work - of Expedition in Brazil; Distribution of Fishes in Brazilian - Rivers; its Bearing on Origin of Species; Collecting of - Eggs.—Tropical Sunset.—Fourth Lecture: Plan of Geological - Investigations with special reference to Glacial Phenomena in - South America.—Flying-Fish.—Fifth Lecture: Glacial Phenomena, - continued.—Second Sunday at Sea.—Rough Water.—Sixth Lecture: - Embryological Investigations as a Guide to sound - Classification.—Seventh Lecture.—Moonlight - Nights.—Trade-Winds.—Eighth Lecture: Importance of Precision - in Localizing Specimens.—Southern Cross.—Ninth Lecture: - Fresh-water Fishes of Brazil.—Easter Sunday.—First Sight of - South American Shore.—Olinda.—Pernambuco.—Catamarans.—Tenth - Lecture: Methods of Collecting.—Eleventh Lecture: - Classification of Fishes as illustrated by - Embryology.—Preparations for Arrival.—Twelfth Lecture: - Practical Lesson in Embryology.—Closing Lecture: - Transmutation Theory; Intellectual and Political - Independence.—Resolutions and Speeches.—Singular Red Patches - on the Surface of the Sea 1–45 - - - CHAPTER II. - - RIO DE JANEIRO AND ITS ENVIRONS.—JUIZ DE FORA. - - Arrival.—Aspect of Harbor and City.—Custom-House.—First Glimpse - of Brazilian Life.—Negro Dance.—Effect of Emancipation in - United States upon Slavery in Brazil.—First Aspect of Rio de - Janeiro on Land.—Picturesque Street Groups.—Eclipse of the - Sun.—At Home in Rio.—Larangeiras.—Passeio Publico.—Excursion - on the Dom Pedro Railroad.—Visit of the Emperor to the - Colorado.—Cordiality of the Government to the - Expedition.—Laboratory.—Botanical Garden.—Alley of - Palms.—Excursion to the Corcovado.—Juiz de Fora - Road.—Petropolis.—Tropical Vegetation.—Ride from Petropolis - to Juiz de Fora.—Visit to Senhor Lage.—Excursion to the - Forest of the Empress.—Visit to Mr. Halfeld.—Return to - Rio.—News of the Great Northern Victories, and of the - President’s Assassination 46–79 - - - CHAPTER III. - - LIFE IN RIO CONTINUED.—FAZENDA LIFE. - - Botafogo.—Insane Hospital.—Tijuca.—Erratic - Drift.—Vegetation.—Birthday Dinner.—Arrangements for Parties - to the Interior.—Public Lectures in Rio.—Procession of St. - George.—Leave Rio on Excursion to the Fortaleza de Santa - Anna.—Localities for Erratic Drift between Rio and - Petropolis.—Departure from Juiz de Fora.—Arrival at the - Fazenda. Ride in the Forest.—Eve of San João.—Cupim - Nests.—Excursion to the Upper Fazenda.—Grand - Hunt.—Picnic.—Coffee Plantation.—Return to Rio.—Mimic - Snow-Fields.—Coffee Insect spinning its Nest.—Visit to the - Fazenda of Commendador Breves.—Botanizing Excursion to - Tijuca.—Preparations for leaving Rio.—Major - Coutinho.—Collegio Dom Pedro Segundo. 80–125 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - VOYAGE UP THE COAST TO PARÁ. - - On board the Cruzeiro do Sul.—Members of the Party.—Arrival at - Bahia.—Day in the Country.—Return to the - Steamer.—Conversation about Slavery in Brazil.—Negro - Marriages.—Maceio.—Pernambuco.—Parahyba do Norte.—Ramble on - Shore.—Ceará.—Difficult Landing.—Brazilian - Baths.—Maranham.—Assai Palm.—Visit to Orphan Asylum.—Detained - in Port.—Variety of Medusæ.—Arrival of American Gunboat.—More - Medusæ.—Dinner on Shore.—Cordiality toward the - Expedition.—Arrival at Pará.—Kind Reception.—Environs of - Pará.—Luxuriant Growth.—Markets.—Indian Boats.—Agreeable - Climate.—Excursion in the Harbor.—Curious Mushroom.—Success - in collecting, with the assistance of our Host and other - Friends.—Fishes of the Forests.—Public Expressions of - Sympathy for the Expedition.—Generosity of the Amazonian - Steamship Company.—Geological Character of the Shore from Rio - to Pará.—Erratic Drift.—Letter to the Emperor. 126–151 - - - CHAPTER V. - - FROM PARÁ TO MANAOS. - - First Sunday on the Amazons.—Geographical Question.—Convenient - Arrangements of Steamer.—Vast Dimensions of the River.—Aspect - of Shores.—Village of Breves.—Letter about - Collections.—Vegetation.—Variety of Palms.—Settlement of - Tajapuru.—Enormous Size of Leaves of the Miriti Palm.—Walk on - Shore.—Indian Houses.—Courtesy of Indians.—Row in the - Forest.—Town of Gurupá.—River Xingu.—Color of Water.—Town of - Porto do Moz.—Flat-topped Hills of Almeyrim.—Beautiful - Sunset.—Monte Alégre.—Character of Scenery and - Soil.—Santarem.—Send off Party on the River Tapajoz.—Continue - up the Amazons.—Pastoral Scenes on the Banks.—Town of Villa - Bella.—Canoe Journey at Night.—Esperança’s - Cottage.—Picturesque Scene at Night.—Success in - Collecting.—Indian Life.—Making Farinha.—Dance in the - Evening.—Howling Monkeys.—Religious Impressions of - Indians.—Cottage of Maia.—His Interest in Educating his - Children.—Return to Steamer.—Scientific Results of the - Excursion. 152–184 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - LIFE AT MANAOS.—VOYAGE FROM MANAOS TO TABATINGA. - - Arrival at Manaos.—Meeting of the Solimoens with the Rio - Negro.—Domesticated at Manaos.—Return of Party from the - Tapajoz.—Generosity of - Government.—Walks.—Water-Carriers.—Indian School.—Leave - Manaos.—Life on board the Steamer.—Barreira das - Cudajas.—Coari.—Wooding.—Appearance of Banks.—Geological - Constitution.—Forest.—Sumaumeira-Tree.—Arrow-Grass.—Red Drift - Cliffs.—Sand-Beaches.—Indian Huts.—Turtle-Hunting.—Drying - Fish.—Teffé.—Doubts about the Journey.—Unexpected - Adviser.—Fonte Bôa.—Geological Character of - Banks.—Lakes.—Flocks of Water Birds.—Tonantins.—Picturesque - Grouping of Indians.—San Paolo.—Land-Slides.—Character of - Scenery.—Scanty Population.—Animal Life.—Tabatinga.—Aspect of - the Settlement.—Mosquitoes.—Leave one of the Party to make - Collections.—On our Way down the River.—Party to the Rivers - Iça and Hyutahy.—Aground in the Amazons.—Arrival at Teffé. 185–211 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - LIFE IN TEFFÉ. - - Aspect of Teffé.—Situation.—Description of Houses.—Fishing - Excursion.—Astonishing Variety of Fishes.—Acará.—Scarcity of - Laborers.—Our Indoors Man.—Bruno.—Alexandrina.—Pleasant - Walks.—Mandioca-shed in the Forest.—Indian Encampment on the - Beach.—Excursion to Fishing Lodge on the Solimoens.—Amazonian - Beaches.—Breeding-Places of Turtles, Fishes, etc.—Adroitness - of Indians in finding them.—Description of a “Sitio.”—Indian - Clay-Eaters.—Cuieira-Tree.—Fish Hunt.—Forest Lake.—Water - Birds.—Success in Collecting.—Evening Scene in - Sitio.—Alexandrina as Scientific Aid.—Fish - Anecdote.—Relations between Fishes as shown by their - Embryology.—Note upon the Marine Character of the Amazonian - Faunæ.—Acará.—News from the Parties in the Interior.—Return - of Party from the Iça.—Preparations for Departure.—Note on - General Result of Scientific Work in Teffé.—Waiting for the - Steamer.—Sketch of - Alexandrina.—Mocuim.—Thunder-Storm.—Repiquete.—Geological - Observations. 212–250 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - RETURN TO MANAOS.—AMAZONIAN PICNIC. - - Arrival at Manaos.—New Quarters.—The Ibicuhy.—News from - Home.—Visit to the Cascade.—Banheiras in the - Forest.—Excursion to Lake Hyanuary.—Character and Prospects - of the Amazonian Valley.—Reception at the Lake.—Description - of Sitio.—Successful Fishing.—Indian Visitors.—Indian - Ball.—Character of the Dancing.—Disturbed Night.—Canoe - Excursion.—Scenery.—Another Sitio.—Morals and Manners.—Talk - with the Indian Women.—Life in the Forest.—Life in the - Towns.—Dinner-Party.—Toasts.—Evening Row on the Lake.—Night - Scene.—Smoking among the Senhoras.—Return to Manaos. 251–275 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - MANAOS AND ITS NEIGHBORHOOD. - - Photographic Establishment.—Indian Portraits.—Excursion to the - Great Cascade.—Its Geological Formation.—Bathing - Pool.—Parasitic Plants.—Return by the Igarapé.—Public - Ball.—Severity in Recruiting, and its Effects.—Collecting - Parties.—Scenes of Indian Life.—Fête Champêtre at the Casa - dos Educandos.—Prison at Manaos.—Prison Discipline on the - Amazons.—Extracts from Presidential Reports on this - Subject.—Prison at Teffé.—General Character of Brazilian - Institutions.—Emperor’s Birthday.—Illuminations and Public - Festivities.—Return of Collecting Parties.—Remarks on the - Races.—Leave Manaos for Mauhes. 276–300 - - - CHAPTER X. - - EXCURSION TO MAUHES AND ITS NEIGHBORHOOD. - - Leave Manaos.—On board the Ibicuhy.—Navigation of the River - Ramos.—Aspect of the Banks.—Arrival at Mauhes.—Situation of - Mauhes.—Tupinambaranas.—Character of Population.—Appearance - of the Villages of Mauhes.—Bolivian - Indians.—Guaraná.—Excursion to Mucaja-Tuba.—Mundurucu - Indians.—Aspect of Village.—Church.—Distribution of - Presents.—Generosity of the Indians.—Their - Indifference.—Visit to another Settlement.—Return to - Mauhes.—Arrival of Mundurucus in the Village.—Description of - Tattooing.—Collection.—Boto.—Indian Superstitions.—Palm - Collection.—Walk in the Forest.—Leave Mauhes.—Mundurucu - Indian and his Wife.—Their Manners and Appearance.—Indian - Tradition.—Distinctions of Caste. 301–321 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - RETURN TO MANAOS.—EXCURSION ON THE RIO NEGRO. - - Christmas Eve at Manaos.—Ceremonies of the Indians.—Churches on - the Amazons.—Leave Manaos for the Rio Negro.—Curious River - Formation.—Aspect of the River.—Its Vegetation.—Scanty - Population.—Village of Taua Péassu.—Padre of the - Village.—Palms.—Village of Pedreira.—Indian Camp.—Making - Palm-thatch.—Sickness and Want at Pedreira.—Row in the - Forest.—Tropical Shower.—Geology of Pedreira.—Indian - Recruits.—Collection of Palms.—Extracts from Mr. Agassiz’s - Notes on Vegetation.—Return to Manaos.—Desolation of the Rio - Negro.—Its future Prospects.—Humboldt’s Anticipations.—Wild - Flowers.—Distribution of Fishes in the Amazonian Waters.—How - far due to Migration.—Hydrographic System.—Alternation - between the Rise and Fall of the Southern and Northern - Tributaries. 322–350 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - DOWN THE RIVER TO PARÁ.—EXCURSIONS ON THE COAST. - - Farewell Visit to the Great Cascade at Manaos.—Change in its - Aspect.—Arrival at Villa Bella.—Return to the House of the - Fisherman Maia.—Excursion to the Lago Maximo.—Quantity of - Game and Waterfowl.—Victoria regia.—Leave Villa Bella.—Arrive - at Obydos.—Its Situation and Geology.—Santarem.—Visit to the - Church.—Anecdote of Martius.—A Row overland.—Monte - Alégre.—Picturesque Scenery.—Banheiras.—Excursion into the - Country.—Leave Monte Alégre.—Anecdote of - Indians.—Almeyrim.—New Geological Facts.—Porto do - Moz.—Collections.—Gurupá.—Tajapurú.—Arrive at Pará.—Religious - Procession.—Excursion to Marajo.—Sourés.—Jesuit - Missions.—Geology of Marajo.—Buried - Forest.—Vigia.—Igarapé.—Vegetation and Animal - Life.—Geology.—Return to Pará.—Photographing Plants.—Notes on - the Vegetation of the Amazons.—Prevalence of Leprosy. 351–396 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE AMAZONS. - - Drift about Rio de Janeiro.—Decomposition of underlying - Rock.—Different Aspect of Glacial Phenomena in different - Continents.—Fertility of the Drift.—Geological Observations - of Messrs. Hartt and St. John.—Correspondence of Deposits - along the Coast with those of Rio and those of the Valley of - the Amazons.—Primitive Formation of the Valley.—First known - Chapter of its History.—Cretaceous Fossil Fishes.—Former - Extent of the South-American Coast.—Cretaceous Fossils from - the Rio Purus.—Comparison between North and South - America.—Geological Formations along the Banks of the - Amazons.—Fossil Leaves.—Clays and Sandstones.—Hills of - Almeyrim.—Monte Alégre.—Situation and Scenery.—Serra of - Ereré.—Comparison with Swiss Scenery.—Boulders of - Ereré.—Ancient Thickness of Amazonian Deposits.—Difference - between Drift of the Amazons and that of Rio.—Inferences - drawn from the present Condition of the Deposits.—Immense - Extent of Sandstone Formation.—Nature and Origin of these - Deposits.—Referred to the Ice-Period.—Absence of Glacial - Marks.—Glacial Evidence of another Kind.—Changes in the - Outline of the South-American Coast.—Souré.—Igarapé - Grande.—Vigia.—Bay of Braganza.—Anticipation. 397–441 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - CEARÁ. - - Leaving Pará.—Farewell to the Amazons.—Ease of Travelling on - the Amazons.—Rough Passage.—Arrival at Ceará.—Difficulty of - Landing.—Aspect of the Town.—Rainy Season.—Consequent - Sickliness.—Our Purpose in stopping at Ceará.—Report of Dr. - Felice about Moraines.—Preparations for Journey into the - Interior.—Difficulties and Delays in getting off.—On the - Way.—Night at Arancho.—Bad Roads.—Carnauba Palm.—Arrival at - Monguba.—Kind Reception by Senhor Franklin de Lima.—Geology - of the Region.—Evening Games and Amusements.—Pacatuba.—Traces - of ancient Glaciers.—Serra of Aratanha.—Climb up the - Serra.—Hospitality of Senhor da Costa.—Picturesque Views.—The - Sertaō.—Drought and Rains.—Epidemics.—Return to - Monguba.—Detained by extraordinary Rains.—Return to - Ceará.—Overflowed Roads.—Difficulty of fording.—Arrival at - Ceará.—Liberality of the President of the Province toward the - Expedition. 442–465 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS OF RIO.—ORGAN MOUNTAINS. - - Voyage from Ceará.—Freshets at Pernambuco.—Arrival at - Rio.—Collections.—Vegetation about Rio as compared with that - on the Amazons.—Misericordia Hospital.—Charities connected - with it.—Almsgiving in Brazil.—Insane Asylum.—Military - School.—The Mint.—Academy of Fine Arts.—Heroism of a - Negro.—Primary School for Girls.—Neglected Education of - Women.—Blind Asylum.—Lectures.—Character of a Brazilian - Audience.—Organ Mountains.—Walk up the - Serra.—Theresopolis.—Visit to the St. Louis Fazenda.—Climate - of Theresopolis.—Descent of the Serra.—Geology of the Organ - Mountains.—The Last Word. 466–494 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - GENERAL IMPRESSIONS OF BRAZIL. - - Religion and Clergy.—Education.—Law, Medical, and Scientific - Schools.—High and Common Schools.—Public Library and Museum - in Rio de Janeiro.—Historical and Geographical - Institute.—Social and Domestic Relations.—Public - Functionaries.—Agriculture.—Zones of - Vegetation.—Coffee.—Cotton.—Timber and other Products of the - Amazons.—Cattle.—Territorial Subdivision of the Great - Valley.—Emigration.—Foreigners.—Paraguayan War. 495–517 - - - APPENDIX. - - I. The Gulf Stream 519 - - II. Flying-Fishes 522 - - III. Resolutions passed on board the Colorado 525 - - IV. Dom Pedro Segundo Railroad 527 - - V. Permanence of Characteristics in different Human Species 529 - - VI. Sketch of Separate Journeys undertaken by different Members of - the Expedition 533 - - - - - LIST OF WOODCUTS. - - - COCOEIRO PALM FRONTISPIECE - - A species of Attalea common in the Serra d’Estrella. It - bears two or three large bunches of olive-like berries, - hanging immediately below the crown of leaves. The upper - part of the stem is often overgrown with parasites, as - in the specimen represented here. - - From a photograph by G. Leuzinger. - - Page - - - TREE ENTWINED BY SIPOS 54 - - There are a great many parasites, the stem and roots of - which are attached to larger trees; this woodcut - represents one of those strange “tree-killers,” as they - are called by the natives, belonging to the family of - the Fig-trees, which, beginning their growth among the - upper branches of trees, gradually descend to the - ground, throw out branches around the stem they attack, - and in the end kill it in their embrace. On the right - are Lianas, from which hang parasitic flowers. - - From a photograph by G. Leuzinger. - - - SIDE VIEW OF THE ALLEY OF PALMS 60 - - Part of the Botanical Garden in Rio de Janeiro. In the - foreground a Pandanus covered with fruits. The Palms - standing in pairs in the great alley are commonly called - Palma Real. Their botanical name is Oreodoxa oleracea. - The peak of Corcovado forms the background. - - From a photograph by Messrs. Stahl & Wahnschaffe. - - - VISTA DOWN THE ALLEY OF PALMS 61 - - The objects are the same as in the preceding woodcut, only - seen at right angles, to afford a view down the alley. - - From a photograph by Messrs. Stahl & Wahnschaffe. - - - BOTAFOGO BAY 81 - - The great southeastern bay in the harbor of Rio de - Janeiro. The highest peak in the centre is the - Corcovado, at the foot of which stand the Insane Asylum - and the Military School. On the left are the Gavia and - the Sugar-Loaf; on the right, Tijuca. A beach runs all - round the bay. - - From a photograph by G. Leuzinger. - - - MINA NEGRESS 83 - - From a photograph by Messrs. Stahl & Wahnschaffe. - - - MINA NEGRESS AND CHILD 84 - - From a photograph by Messrs. Stahl & Wahnschaffe. - - - FALLEN TRUNK OVERGROWN BY PARASITES 91 - - A comparison with the woodcut facing p. 54 will show how - parasites growing upon living trees differ from those - springing from dead trunks. - - From a photograph by G. Leuzinger. - - - FAZENDA DE SANTA ANNA, IN MINAS GERAES 103 - - The level grounds in front of the buildings are used for - drying the coffee. - - From a photograph by Senhor Machado. - - - ESPERANÇA’S COTTAGE 179 - - From a water-colored painting by Mr. J. Burkhardt. - - - VERANDA AND DINING-ROOM AT TEFFÉ 214 - - From a drawing by Mr. J. Burkhardt. - - - HEAD OF ALEXANDRINA 245 - - Extraordinary as the head of hair of this girl may seem, - it is in no way exaggerated; it stood six inches beyond - the shoulders each way. - - From a sketch by Mr. Wm. James. - - - DINING-ROOM AT HYANUARY 258 - - The palm on the left is a Pupunha (Guilielma speciosa); - the large-leaved trees back of the building are Bananas, - and the Palm on the right a Javari (Astrocaryum Javari). - - From a water-colored painting by Mr. J. Burkhardt. - - - MAUHES RIVER 304 - - The Palm in the foreground is a Mucaja (Acrocomia - lasiospatha); near the fence stand Banana-trees, and in - the distance on the right a Tucuma Palm (Astrocaryum - Tucuma). - - From a water-colored painting by Mr. J. Burkhardt. - - - MUNDURUCU INDIAN; male 313 - - From a photograph by Dr. Gustavo, of Manaos. - - - MUNDURUCU INDIAN; female 314 - - Also from a photograph by Dr. Gustavo, of Manaos. - - - FAN BACCÁBA 335 - - This Palm, called Œnocarpus distychius by botanists, is - remarkable for the arrangement of its leaves, which are - placed opposite to each other on two sides of the trunk, - and higher and higher alternately, so that, seen from - one side, the two rows of leaves are equally visible, - and have the appearance of a wide fan; seen in profile, - they look like a narrow plume. - - From a drawing by Mr. J. Burkhardt. - - - SUMAUMEIRA 391 - - This colossal tree is known to botanists under the name of - Eriodendrum Sumauma, and may be seen everywhere in the - basin of the Amazons. - - From a photograph presented by Senhor Pimenta Bueno. - - - GARRAFAŌ, among the Organ Mountains 486 - - This peak is called the Finger by the English residents of - Rio. The Brazilians liken it to a bottle. - - From a photograph by G. Leuzinger. - - - ORGAN MOUNTAINS 490 - - The loose boulder alluded to in the text stands on the - fourth peak from the left. - - From a photograph by G. Leuzinger. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - A JOURNEY IN BRAZIL. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - VOYAGE FROM NEW YORK TO RIO DE JANEIRO. - - FIRST SUNDAY AT SEA.—GULF STREAM.—GULF-WEED.—LECTURES - PROPOSED.—FIRST LECTURE: “ON THE GULF STREAM IN THE GULF - STREAM.”—AQUARIUM ESTABLISHED ON BOARD.—SECOND LECTURE.—ROUGH - SEA.—PECULIAR TINT OF WATER.—THIRD LECTURE: LAYING OUT - WORK OF EXPEDITION IN BRAZIL; DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN - BRAZILIAN RIVERS; ITS BEARING ON ORIGIN OF SPECIES; - COLLECTING OF EGGS.—TROPICAL SUNSET.—FOURTH LECTURE: PLAN OF - GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GLACIAL - PHENOMENA IN SOUTH AMERICA.—FLYING-FISH.—FIFTH LECTURE: - GLACIAL PHENOMENA, CONTINUED.—SECOND SUNDAY AT SEA.—ROUGH - WATER.—SIXTH LECTURE: EMBRYOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AS A GUIDE - TO SOUND CLASSIFICATION.—SEVENTH LECTURE.—MOONLIGHT - NIGHTS.—TRADE-WINDS.—EIGHTH LECTURE: IMPORTANCE OF PRECISION IN - LOCALIZING SPECIMENS.—SOUTHERN CROSS.—NINTH LECTURE: FRESH-WATER - FISHES OF BRAZIL.—EASTER SUNDAY.—FIRST SIGHT OF SOUTH AMERICAN - SHORE.—OLINDA.—PERNAMBUCO.—CATAMARANS.—TENTH LECTURE: - METHODS OF COLLECTING.—ELEVENTH LECTURE: CLASSIFICATION OF - FISHES, AS ILLUSTRATED BY EMBRYOLOGY.—PREPARATIONS FOR - ARRIVAL.—TWELFTH LECTURE: PRACTICAL LESSON IN EMBRYOLOGY—CLOSING - LECTURE: TRANSMUTATION THEORY; INTELLECTUAL AND POLITICAL - INDEPENDENCE.—RESOLUTIONS AND SPEECHES.—SINGULAR RED PATCHES ON - THE SURFACE OF THE SEA. - - -_April 2d, 1865._—Our first Sunday at sea. The weather is delicious, the -ship as steady as anything on the water can be, and even the most -forlorn of our party have little excuse for sea-sickness. We have had -service from Bishop Potter this morning, and since then we have been on -deck reading, walking, watching a singular cloud, which the captain says -is a cloud of smoke, in the direction of Petersburg. We think it may be -the smoke of a great decisive engagement going on while we sail -peacefully along. What it means, or how the battle ends, if battle it -be, we shall not know for two months perhaps.[2] Mr. Agassiz is busy -to-day in taking notes, at regular intervals, of the temperature of the -water, as we approach the Gulf Stream. To-night we cut it at right -angles, and he will remain on deck to continue his observations. - -_April 3d._—The Professor sat up last night as he intended, and found -his watch, which was shared by one or two of his young assistants, very -interesting. We crossed the Gulf Stream opposite Cape Hatteras, at a -latitude where it is comparatively narrow, some sixty miles only in -breadth. Entering it at about six o’clock, we passed out of it a little -after midnight. The western boundary of the warm waters stretching along -the coast had a temperature of about 57°. Immediately after entering it, -the temperature began to rise gradually, the maximum being about 74°, -falling occasionally, however, when we passed through a cold streak, to -68°. These cold streaks in the Gulf Stream, which reach to a -considerable depth, the warm and cold waters descending together in -immediate contact for at least a hundred fathoms, are attributed by Dr. -Bache to the fact that the Gulf Stream is not stationary. It sways as a -whole sometimes a little toward the shore, sometimes a little away from -it, and, in consequence of this, the colder water from the coast creeps -in, forming these vertical layers in its midst. The eastern boundary is -warmer than the western one, for the latter is chilled by the Arctic -currents, which form a band of cold water all along the Atlantic shore. -Their influence is felt nearly to the latitude of Florida. On coming out -of the Gulf Stream the temperature of the water was 68°, and so it -continued for an hour longer, after which Mr. Agassiz ceased his -observations. To-day some of the gulf-weed was gathered by a sailor, and -we found it crowded with life. Hydroids, in numbers, had their home upon -it; the delicate branching plumularia and a pretty campanularia, very -like some of our New England species; beside these, bryozoa, tiny -compound mollusks, crusted its stem, and barnacles were abundant upon -it. These are all the wonders that the deep has yielded us to-day, -though the pretty Portuguese men-of-war go floating by the vessel, out -of reach thus far. Such are the events of our life: we eat and drink and -sleep, read, study Portuguese, and write up our journals. - -_April 4th._—It has occurred to Mr. Agassiz, as a means of preparing the -young men who accompany him for the work before them, to give a course -of lectures on ship-board. Some preparation of the kind is the more -necessary, since much of the work must be done independently of him, as -it will be impossible for so large a party to travel together; and the -instructions needed will be more easily given in a daily lecture to all, -than in separate conversations with each one singly. The idea finds -general favor. The large saloon makes an excellent lecture-room; a -couple of leaves from the dining-table with a black oil-cloth stretched -across them serve as a blackboard. The audience consists, not only of -our own company, but includes the few ladies who are on board, Mr. -Bradbury, the captain of our steamer, Bishop Potter, some of the ship’s -officers, and a few additional passengers, all of whom seem to think the -lecture a pleasant break in the monotony of a sea voyage. To-day the -subject was naturally suggested by the seaweeds of the Gulf Stream, so -recently caught and so crowded with life,—“A lecture on the Gulf Stream -in the Gulf Stream,” as one of the listeners suggests. It was opened, -however, by a few words on the exceptional character of the position of -this scientific commission on board the Colorado. - -“Fifty years ago, when naturalists carried their investigations to -distant lands, either government was obliged to provide an expensive -outfit for them, or, if they had no such patronage, scanty opportunities -grudgingly given might be granted them on ordinary conveyances. Even if -such accommodation were allowed them, their presence was looked upon as -a nuisance: no general interest was felt in their objects; it was much -if they were permitted, on board some vessel, to have their bucket of -specimens in a corner, which any sailor might kick over, unreproved, if -it chanced to stand in his way. This ship, and the spirit prevailing in -her command, opens to me a vista such as I never dreamed of till I stood -upon her deck. Here, in place of the meagre chances I remember in old -times, the facilities could hardly be greater if the ship had been built -as a scientific laboratory. If any such occasion has ever been known -before, if any naturalist has ever been treated with such consideration, -and found such intelligent appreciation of his highest aims, on board a -merchant-ship fitted up for purposes of trade, I am not aware of it. I -hope the first trip of the Colorado will be remembered in the annals of -science. I, at least, shall know whom to thank for an opportunity so -unique. This voyage, and the circumstances connected with it, are, to -me, the signs of a good time coming; when men of different interests -will help each other; when naturalists will be more liberal and sailors -more cultivated, and natural science and navigation will work hand in -hand. And now for my lecture,—my first lecture on ship-board.” - -The lecture was given, of course, specimen in hand, the various -inhabitants of the branch of seaweed giving their evidence in succession -of their own structure and way of life. To these living illustrations -were added drawings on the blackboard to show the transformations of the -animals, their embryological history, &c.[3] Since the lecture, Captain -Bradbury has fitted up a large tank as an aquarium, where any specimens -taken during the voyage may be preserved and examined. Mr. Agassiz is -perfectly happy, enjoying every hour of the voyage, as well he may, -surrounded as he is with such considerate kindness. - -_April 6th._—Though I took notes, as usual, of the lecture yesterday, I -had not energy enough to enter them in my journal. The subject was the -Gulf Stream,—the stream itself this time, not the animals it carries -along with it. Mr. Agassiz’s late observations, though deeply -interesting to himself, inasmuch as personal confirmation of facts -already known is always satisfactory, have nothing novel now-a-days; yet -the history of the facts connected with the discovery of the Gulf -Stream, and their gradual development, is always attractive, and -especially so to Americans, on account of its direct connection with -scientific investigations carried on under our government. Mr. Agassiz -gave a slight sketch of this in opening his lecture. “It was Franklin -who first systematically observed these facts, though they had been -noticed long before by navigators. He recorded the temperature of the -water as he left the American continent for Europe, and found that it -continued cold for a certain distance, then rose suddenly, and after a -given time sank again to a lower temperature, though not so low as -before. With the comprehensive grasp of mind characteristic of all his -scientific results, he went at once beyond his facts. He inferred that -the warm current, keeping its way so steadily through the broad -Atlantic, and carrying tropical productions to the northern shores of -Europe, must take its rise in tropical regions, must be heated by a -tropical sun.[4] This was his inference: to work it out, to ascertain -the origin and course of the Gulf Stream, has been, in a great degree, -the task of the United States Coast Survey, under the direction of his -descendant, Dr. Bache.”[5] - -We are now fairly in the tropics. “The trades” blow heavily, and -yesterday was a dreary day for those unused to the ocean; the beautiful -blue water, of a peculiar metallic tint, as remarkable in color, it -seemed to me, as the water of the Lake of Geneva, did not console us for -the heavy moral and physical depression of sea-sick mortals. To-day the -world looks brighter; there is a good deal of motion, but we are more -accustomed to it. This morning the lecture had, for the first time, a -direct bearing upon the work of the expedition. The subject was, “How to -observe, and what are the objects of scientific explorations in modern -times.” - -“My companions and myself have come together so suddenly and so -unexpectedly on our present errand, that we have had little time to -organize our work. The laying out of a general scheme of operations is, -therefore, the first and one of the most important points to be -discussed between us. The time for great discoveries is passed. No -student of nature goes out now expecting to find a new world, or looks -in the heavens for any new theory of the solar system. The work of the -naturalist, in our day, is to explore worlds the existence of which is -already known; to investigate, not to discover. The first explorers, in -this modern sense, were Humboldt in the physical world, Cuvier in -natural history, Lavoisier in chemistry, La Place in astronomy. They -have been the pioneers in the kind of scientific work characteristic of -our century. We who have chosen Brazil as our field must seek to make -ourselves familiar with its physical features, its mountains and its -rivers, its animals and plants. There is a change, however, to be -introduced in our mode of work, as compared with that of former -investigators. When less was known of animals and plants the discovery -of new species was the great object. This has been carried too far, and -is now almost the lowest kind of scientific work. The discovery of a new -species as such does not change a feature in the science of natural -history, any more than the discovery of a new asteroid changes the -character of the problems to be investigated by astronomers. It is -merely adding to the enumeration of objects. We should look rather for -the fundamental relations among animals; the number of species we may -find is of importance only so far as they explain the distribution and -limitation of different genera and families, their relations to each -other and to the physical conditions under which they live. Out of such -investigations there looms up a deeper question for scientific men, the -solution of which is to be the most important result of their work in -coming generations. The origin of life is the great question of the day. -How did the organic world come to be as it is? It must be our aim to -throw some light on this subject by our present journey. How did Brazil -come to be inhabited by the animals and plants now living there? Who -were its inhabitants in past times? What reason is there to believe that -the present condition of things in this country is in any sense derived -from the past? The first step in this investigation must be to ascertain -the geographical distribution of the present animals and plants. Suppose -we first examine the Rio San Francisco. The basin of this river is -entirely isolated. Are its inhabitants, like its waters, completely -distinct from those of other basins? Are its species peculiar to itself, -and not repeated in any other river of the continent? Extraordinary as -this result would seem, I nevertheless expect to find it so. The next -water-basin we shall have to examine will be that of the Amazons, which -connects through the Rio Negro with the Orinoco. It has been frequently -repeated that the same species of fish exist in the waters of the San -Francisco and in those of Guiana and of the Amazons. At all events, our -works on fishes constantly indicate Brazil and Guiana as the common home -of many species; but this observation has never been made with -sufficient accuracy to merit confidence. Fifty years ago the exact -locality from which any animal came seemed an unimportant fact in its -scientific history, for the bearing of this question on that of origin -was not then perceived. To say that any specimen came from South America -was quite enough; to specify that it came from Brazil, from the Amazons, -the San Francisco, or the La Plata, seemed a marvellous accuracy in the -observers. In the museum at Paris, for instance, there are many -specimens entered as coming from New York or from Pará; but all that is -absolutely known about them is that they were shipped from those -sea-ports. Nobody knows exactly where they were collected. So there are -specimens entered as coming from the Rio San Francisco, but it is by no -means sure that they came exclusively from that water-basin. All this -kind of investigation is far too loose for our present object. Our work -must be done with much more precision; it must tell something positive -of the geographical distribution of animals in Brazil. Therefore, my -young friends who come with me on this expedition, let us be careful -that every specimen has a label, recording locality and date, so secured -that it shall reach Cambridge safely. It would be still better to attach -two labels to each specimen, so that, if any mischance happens to one, -our record may not be lost. We must try not to mix the fishes of -different rivers, even though they flow into each other, but to keep our -collections perfectly distinct. You will easily see the vast importance -of thus ascertaining the limitation of species, and the bearing of the -result on the great question of origin. - -“Something is already known. It is ascertained that the South American -rivers possess some fishes peculiar to them. Were these fishes then -created in these separate water-systems as they now exist, or have they -been transferred thither from some other water-bed? If not born there, -how did they come there? Is there, or has there ever been, any possible -connection between these water-systems? Are their characteristic species -repeated elsewhere? Thus we narrow the boundaries of the investigation, -and bring it, by successive approaches, nearer the ultimate question. -But the first inquiry is, How far are species distinct all over the -world, and what are their limits? Till this is ascertained, all theories -about their origin, their derivation from one another, their successive -transformation, their migration from given centres, and so on, are mere -beating about the bush. I allude especially to the fresh-water fishes, -in connection with this investigation, on account of the precision of -their boundaries. Looking at the matter theoretically, without a -positive investigation, I do not expect to find a single species of the -Lower Amazons above Tabatinga.[6] I base this supposition upon my own -observations respecting the distribution of species in the European -rivers. I have found that, while some species occur simultaneously in -the many upper water-courses which combine to form the Rhine, the Rhone, -and the Danube, most of them are not found in the lower course of these -rivers; that, again, certain species are found in two of these -water-basins and do not occur in the third, or inhabit only one and are -not to be met in the two others. The brook trout, for instance (_Salmo -Fario_), is common to the upper course and the higher tributaries of all -the three river-systems, but does not inhabit the main bed of their -lower course. So it is, also, and in a more striking degree, with the -Salmling (_Salmo Salvelinus_). The Huchen (_Salmo Hucho_) is only found -in the Danube. But the distribution of the perch family in these rivers -is, perhaps, the most remarkable. The Zingel (_Aspro Zingel_) and the -Schrætzer (_Acerina Schrætzer_) are only found in the Danube; while -_Acerina cernua_ is found in the Danube as well as in the Rhine, but not -in the Rhone; and _Aspro asper_ in the Danube as well as in the Rhone, -but not in the Rhine. The Sander (_Lucioperca Sandra_) is found in the -Danube and the other large rivers of Eastern Europe, but occurs neither -in the Rhine nor in the Rhone. The common perch (_Perca fluviatilis_), -on the contrary, is found both in the Rhine and Rhone, but not in the -Danube, which, however, nourishes another species of true Perca, already -described by Schaeffer as _Perca vulgaris_. Again, the pickerel (_Esox -Lucius_) is common to all these rivers, especially in their lower -course, and so is also the cusk (_Lota vulgaris_). The special -distribution of the carp family would afford many other striking -examples, but they are too numerous and too little known to be used as -an illustration here. - -“This is among the most remarkable instances of what I would call the -arbitrary character of geographical distribution. Such facts cannot be -explained by any theory of accidental dispersion, for the upper mountain -rivulets, in which these great rivers take their rise, have no -connection with each other; nor can any local circumstance explain the -presence of some species in all the three basins, while others appear -only in one, or perhaps in two, and are absent from the third, or the -fact that certain species inhabiting the head-waters of these streams -are never found in their lower course when the descent would seem so -natural and so easy. In the absence of any positive explanation, we are -left to assume that the distribution of animal life has primary laws as -definite and precise as those which govern anything else in the system -of the universe. - -“It is for the sake of investigations of this kind that I wish our party -to divide, in order that we may cover as wide a ground as possible, and -compare a greater number of the water-basins of Brazil. I wish the same -to be done, as far as may be, for all the classes of Vertebrates, as -well as for Mollusks, Articulates, and Radiates. As we have no special -botanist in the party, we must be content to make a methodical -collection of the most characteristic families of trees, such as the -palms and tree ferns. A collection of the stems of these trees would be -especially important as a guide to the identification of fossil woods. -Much more is known of the geographical distribution of plants than of -animals, however, and there is, therefore, less to be done that is new -in that direction. - -“Our next aim, and with the same object, namely, its bearing upon the -question of origin, will be the study of the young, the collecting of -eggs and embryos. This is the more important, since museums generally -show only adult specimens. As far as I know, the Zoölogical Museum at -Cambridge is the only one containing large collections of embryological -specimens from all the classes of the animal kingdom. One significant -fact, however, is already known. In their earliest stages of growth all -animals of the same class are much more alike than in their adult -condition, and sometimes so nearly alike as hardly to be distinguished. -Indeed, there is an early period when the resemblances greatly outweigh -the differences. How far the representatives of different classes -resemble one another remains to be ascertained with precision. There are -two possible interpretations of these facts. One is that animals so -nearly identical in the beginning must have been originally derived from -one germ, and are but modifications or transmutations, under various -physical conditions, of this primitive unit. The other interpretation, -founded on the same facts, is, that since, notwithstanding this material -identity in the beginning, no germ ever grows to be different from its -parent, or diverges from the pattern imposed upon it at its birth, -therefore some other cause besides a material one must control its -development; and if this be so, we have to seek an explanation of the -differences between animals outside of physical influences. Thus far -both these views rest chiefly upon personal convictions and opinions. -The true solution of the problem must be sought in the study of the -development of the animals themselves, and embryology is still in its -infancy; for, though a very complete study of the embryology of a few -animals has been made, yet these investigations include so small a -number of representatives from the different classes of the animal -kingdom that they do not yet give a basis for broad generalizations. -Very little is known of the earlier stages in the formation of hosts of -insects whose later metamorphoses, including the change of the already -advanced larva, first to the condition of a chrysalis and then to that -of a perfect insect, have been carefully traced. It remains to be -ascertained to what extent the caterpillars of different kinds of -butterflies, for instance, resemble one another during the time of their -formation in the egg. An immense field of observation is open in this -order alone. - -“I have, myself, examined over one hundred species of bird embryos, now -put up in the museum of Cambridge, and found that, at a certain age, -they all have bills, wings, legs, feet, &c., &c. exactly alike. The -young robin and the young crow are web-footed, as well as the duck. It -is only later that the fingers of the foot become distinct. How very -interesting it will be to continue this investigation among the tropical -birds!—to see whether, for instance, the toucan, with its gigantic bill, -has, at a certain age, a bill like that of all other birds; whether the -spoonbill ibis has, at the same age, nothing characteristic in the shape -of its bill. No living naturalist could now tell you one word about all -this; neither could he give you any information about corresponding -facts in the growth of the fishes, reptiles, or quadrupeds of Brazil, -not one of the young of these animals having ever been compared with the -adult. In these lectures I only aim at showing you what an extensive and -interesting field of investigation opens before us; if we succeed in -cultivating even a few corners of it we shall be fortunate.” - -In the evening, which is always the most enjoyable part of our day, we -sat on the guards and watched the first tropical sunset we had yet seen. -The sun went down in purple and gold, and, after its departure, sent -back a glow that crimsoned the clouds almost to the zenith, dying off to -paler rose tints on the edges, while heavy masses of gray vapor, just -beginning to be silvered by the moon, swept up from the south. - -_April 7th._—To-day the lecture was upon the physical features of South -America, something with reference to the geological and geographical -work in which Mr. Agassiz hopes to have efficient aid from his younger -assistants. So much of the lecture consisted of explanations given upon -geological maps that it is difficult to record it. Its principal object, -however, was to show in what direction they should work in order to give -greater precision to the general information already secured respecting -the formation of the continent. “The basin of the Amazons, for instance, -is a level plain. The whole of it is covered with loose materials. We -must watch carefully the character of these loose materials, and try to -track them to their origin. As there are very characteristic rocks in -various parts of this plain, we shall have a clew to the nature of at -least some portion of these materials. My own previous studies have -given me a special interest in certain questions connected with these -facts. What power has ground up these loose materials? Are they the -result of disintegration of the rock by ordinary atmospheric agents, or -are they caused by the action of water, or by that of glaciers? Was -there ever a time when large masses of ice descended far lower than the -present snow line of the Andes, and, moving over the low lands, ground -these materials to powder? We know that such an agency has been at work -on the northern half of this hemisphere. We have now to look for its -traces on the southern half, where no such investigations have ever been -made within its warm latitudes; though to Darwin science is already -indebted for much valuable information concerning the glacial phenomena -of the temperate and colder portions of the South American continent. We -should examine the loose materials in every river we ascend, and see -what relation they bear to the dry land above. The color of the water in -connection with the nature of the banks will tell us something. The -waters of the Rio Branco, for instance, are said to be milky white; -those of the Rio Negro, black. In the latter case the color is probably -owing to the decomposition of vegetation. I would advise each one of our -parties to pass a large amount of water from any river or stream along -which they travel through a filter, and to examine the deposit -microscopically. They will thus ascertain the character of the detritus, -whether from sand, or lime, or granite, or mere river mud formed by the -decomposition of organic matter. Even the smaller streams and rivulets -will have their peculiar character. The Brazilian table-land rises to a -broad ridge running from west to east, and determining the direction of -the rivers. It is usually represented as a mountain range, but is in -fact nothing but a high flat ridge serving as a water-shed, and cut -transversely by deep fissures in which the rivers flow. These fissures -are broad in their lower parts, but little is known of their upper -range; and whoever will examine their banks carefully will do an -important work for science. Indeed, very little is known accurately of -the geology of Brazil. On the geological maps almost the whole country -is represented as consisting of granite. If this be correct, it is very -inconsistent with what we know of the geological structure of other -continents, where the stratified rocks are in much larger proportions.” - -Upon this followed some account of the different kinds of valley -formation and of terraces. “Do the old terraces above the rivers of -South America correspond to the river terraces on any of our -rivers,—those of the Connecticut, for instance,—showing that their -waters had formerly a much greater depth and covered a much wider -bottom? There must of course have been a cause for this great -accumulation of water in ancient periods. I account for it in the -northern half of the hemisphere by the melting of vast masses of ice in -the glacial period, causing immense freshets. There is no trustworthy -account of the river terraces in Brazil. Bates, however, describes -flat-topped hills between Santarem and Pará in the narrow part of the -valley, near Almeyrim, rising 800 feet above the present level of the -Amazons. If this part of the valley were flooded in old times, banks -might have been formed of which these hills are a remnant. But because -such a theory might account for the facts it does not follow that the -theory is true. Our work must be to study the facts, to see, among other -things, of what these hills are built, whether of rock or of loose -materials. No one has told us anything as yet of their geological -constitution.”[7] - -To-day we have seen numbers of flying-fish from the deck, and were -astonished at the grace and beauty of their motion, which we had -supposed to be rather a leap than actual flight. And flight indeed it is -not, their pectoral fins acting as sails rather than wings, and carrying -them along on the wind. They skim over the water in this way to a great -distance. Captain Bradbury told us he had followed one with his glass -and lost sight of it at a considerable distance, without seeing it dip -into the water again. Mr. Agassiz has great delight in watching them.[8] -Having never before sailed in tropical seas, he enjoys every day some -new pleasure. - -_April 9th._—Yesterday Mr. Agassiz lectured upon the traces of glaciers -as they exist in the northern hemisphere, and the signs of the same kind -to be sought for in Brazil. After a sketch of what has been done in -glacial investigation in Europe and the United States, showing the great -extension of ice over these regions in ancient times, he continued as -follows: “When the polar half of both hemispheres was covered by such an -ice shroud, the climate of the whole earth must have been different from -what it is now. The limits of the ancient glaciers give us some estimate -of this difference, though of course only an approximate one. A degree -of temperature in the annual average of any given locality corresponds -to a degree of latitude; that is, a degree of temperature is lost for -every degree of latitude as we travel northward, or gained for every -degree of latitude as we travel southward. In our times, the line at -which the average annual temperature is 32°, that is, at which glaciers -may be formed, is in latitude 60° or thereabouts, the latitude of -Greenland; while the height at which they may originate in latitude 45° -is about 6,000 feet. If it appear that the ancient southern limit of -glaciers is in latitude 36°, we must admit that in those days the -present climate of Greenland extended to that line. Such a change of -climate with reference to latitude must have been attended by a -corresponding change of climate with reference to altitude. Three -degrees of temperature correspond to about one thousand feet of -altitude. If, therefore, it is found that the ancient limit of glacier -action descends on the Andes, for instance, to 7,000 feet above the -level of the sea under the equator, the present line of perpetual snow -being at 15,000, it is safe to infer that in those days the climate was -some 24° or thereabouts below its present temperature. That is, the -temperature of the present snow line then prevailed at a height of 7,000 -feet above the sea level, as the present average temperature of -Greenland then prevailed in latitude 36°. I am as confident that we -shall find these indications at about the limit I have pointed out as if -I had already seen them. I would even venture to prophesy that the first -moraines in the valley of the Marañon should be found where it bends -eastward above Jaen.”[9] - -Although the weather is fine, the motion of the ship continues to be so -great that those of us who have not what are popularly called -“sea-legs,” have much ado to keep our balance. For my own part, I am -beginning to feel a personal animosity to “the trades.” I had imagined -them to be soft, genial breezes wafting us gently southward; instead of -which they blow dead ahead all the time, and give us no rest night or -day. And yet we are very unreasonable to grumble; for never were greater -comforts and conveniences provided for voyagers on the great deep than -are to be found on this magnificent ship. The state-rooms large and -commodious, parlor and dining-hall well ventilated, cool, and cheerful, -the decks long and broad enough to give a chance for extensive -“constitutionals” to everybody who can stand upright for two minutes -together, the attendance punctual and admirable in every respect; in -short, nothing is left to be desired except a little more stable -footing. - -_April 10th._—A rough sea to-day, notwithstanding which we had our -lecture as usual, though I must say, that, owing to the lurching of the -ship, the lecturer pitched about more than was consistent with the -dignity of science. Mr. Agassiz returned to the subject of embryology, -urging upon his assistants the importance of collecting materials for -this object as a means of obtaining an insight into the deeper relations -between animals. - -“Heretofore classification has been arbitrary, inasmuch as it has rested -mainly upon the interpretation given to structural differences by -various observers, who did not measure the character and value of these -differences by any natural standard. I believe that we have a more -certain guide in these matters than opinion or the individual estimate -of any observer, however keen his insight into structural differences. -The true principle of classification exists in Nature herself, and we -have only to decipher it. If this conviction be correct, the next -question is, How can we make this principle a practical one in our -laboratories, an active stimulus in our investigations? Is it -susceptible of positive demonstration in material facts? Is there any -method to be adopted as a correct guide, if we set aside the idea of -originating systems of classification of our own, and seek only to read -that already written in nature? I answer, Yes. The standard is to be -found in the changes animals undergo from their first formation in the -egg to their adult condition. - -“It would be impossible for me here and now to give you the details of -this method of investigation, but I can tell you enough to illustrate my -statement. Take a homely and very familiar example, that of the branch -of Articulates. Naturalists divide this branch into three -classes,—Insects, Crustacea, and Worms; and most of them tell you that -Worms are lowest, Crustacea next in rank, and that Insects stand -highest, while others have placed the Crustacea at the head of the -group. We may well ask why. Why does an insect stand above a crustacean, -or, _vice versa_, why is a grasshopper or a butterfly structurally -superior to a lobster or a shrimp? And indeed there must be a difference -in opinion as to the respective standing of these groups so long as -their classification is allowed to remain a purely arbitrary one, based -only upon interpretation of anatomical details. One man thinks the -structural features of Insects superior, and places them highest; -another thinks the structural features of the Crustacea highest, and -places them at the head. In either case it is only a question of -individual appreciation of the facts. But when we study the gradual -development of the insect, and find that in its earliest stages it is -worm-like, in its second, or chrysalis stage, it is crustacean-like, and -only in its final completion it assumes the character of a perfect -insect, we have a simple natural scale by which to estimate the -comparative rank of these animals. Since we cannot suppose that there is -a retrograde movement in the development of any animal, we must believe -that the insect stands highest, and our classification in this instance -is dictated by Nature herself. This is one of the most striking -examples, but there are others quite as much so, though not as familiar. -The frog, for instance, in its successive stages of development, -illustrates the comparative standing of the orders composing the class -to which it belongs. These orders are differently classified by various -naturalists, according to their individual estimate of their structural -features. But the growth of the frog, like that of the insects, gives us -the true grade of the type.[10] There are not many groups in which this -comparison has been carried out so fully as in the insects and frogs; -but wherever it has been tried it is found to be a perfectly sure test. -Occasional glimpses of these facts, seen disconnectedly, have done much -to confirm the development theory, so greatly in vogue at present, -though under a somewhat new form. Those who sustain these views have -seen that there was a gradation between animals, and have inferred that -it was a material connection. But when we follow it in the growth of the -animals themselves, and find that, close as it is, no animal ever misses -its true development, or grows to be anything but what it was meant to -be, we are forced to admit that the gradation which unquestionably -unites all animals is an intellectual, not a material one. It exists in -the Mind which made them. As the works of a human intellect are bound -together by mental kinship, so are the thoughts of the Creator -spiritually united. I think that considerations like these should be an -inducement for us all to collect the young of as many animals as -possible on this journey. In so doing we may change the fundamental -principles of classification, and confer a lasting benefit on science. - -“It is very important to select the right animals for such -investigations. I can conceive that a lifetime should be passed in -embryological studies, and yet little be learned of the principles of -classification. The embryology of the worm, for instance, would not give -us the natural classification of the Articulates, because we should see -only the first step of the series; we should not reach the sequence of -the development. It would be like reading over and over again the first -chapter of a story. The embryology of the Insects, on the contrary, -would give us the whole succession of a scale on the lowest level of -which the Worms remain forever. So the embryology of the frog will give -us the classification of the group to which it belongs, but the -embryology of the Cecilia, the lowest order in the group, will give us -only the initiatory steps. In the same way the naturalist who, in -studying the embryology of the reptiles, should begin with their lowest -representatives, the serpents, would make a great mistake. But take the -alligator, so abundant in the regions to which we are going. An -alligator’s egg in the earliest condition of growth has never been -opened by a naturalist. The young have been occasionally taken from the -egg just before hatching, but absolutely nothing is known of their first -phases of development. A complete embryology of the alligator would give -us not only the natural classification of reptiles as they exist now, -but might teach us something of their history from the time of their -introduction upon earth to the present day. For embryology shows us not -only the relations of existing animals to each other, but their -relations to extinct types also. One prominent result of embryological -studies has been to show that animals in the earlier stages of their -growth resemble ancient representatives of the same type belonging to -past geological ages. The first reptiles were introduced in the -carboniferous epoch, and they were very different from those now -existing. They were not numerous at that period; but later in the -world’s history there was a time, justly called the ‘age of reptiles,’ -when the gigantic Saurians, Plesiosaurians, and Ichthyosaurians -abounded. I believe, and my conviction is drawn from my previous -embryological studies, that the changes of the alligator in the egg will -give us the clew to the structural relations of the Reptiles from their -first creation to the present day,—will give us, in other words, their -sequence in time as well as their sequence in growth. In the class of -Reptiles, then, the most instructive group we can select with reference -to the structural relations of the type as it now exists, and their -history in past times, will be the alligator. We must therefore neglect -no opportunity of collecting their eggs in as large numbers as possible. - -“There are other animals in Brazil, low in their class to be sure, but -yet very important to study embryologically, on account of their -relation to extinct types. These are the sloths and armadillos,—animals -of insignificant size in our days, but anciently represented in gigantic -proportions. The Megatherium, the Mylodon, the Megalonyx, were some of -these immense Mammalia. I believe that the embryonic changes of the -sloths and armadillos will explain the structural relations of those -huge Edentata and their connection with the present ones. South America -teems with the fossil bones of these animals, which indeed penetrated -into the northern half of the hemisphere as high up as Georgia and -Kentucky, where their remains have been found. The living -representatives of the family are also numerous in South America, and we -should make it one of our chief objects to get specimens of all ages and -examine them from their earliest phases upward. We must, above all, try -not to be led away from the more important aims of our study by the -diversity of objects. I have known many young naturalists to miss the -highest success by trying to cover too much ground,—by becoming -collectors rather than investigators. Bitten by the mania for amassing a -great number and variety of species, such a man never returns to the -general consideration of more comprehensive features. We must try to set -before ourselves certain important questions, and give ourselves -resolutely to the investigation of these points, even though we should -sacrifice less important things more readily reached. - -“Another type full of interest, from an embryological point of view, -will be the Monkeys. Since some of our scientific colleagues look upon -them as our ancestors, it is important that we should collect as many -facts as possible concerning their growth. Of course it would be better -if we could make the investigation in the land of the Orangs, Gorillas, -and Chimpanzees,—the highest monkeys and the nearest to man in their -development. Still even the process of growth in the South American -monkey will be very instructive. Give a mathematician the initial -elements of a series, and he will work out the whole; and so I believe -when the laws of embryological development are better understood, -naturalists will have a key to the limits of these cycles of growth, and -be able to appoint them their natural boundaries even from partial data. - -“Next in importance I would place the Tapirs. This is one of a family -whose geological antecedents are very important and interesting. The -Mastodons, the Palæotherium, the Dinotherium, and other large Mammalia -of the Tertiaries, are closely related to the Tapir. The elephant, -rhinoceros, and the like, are of the same family. From its structural -standing next to the elephant, which is placed highest in the group, the -embryology of the Tapir would give us a very complete series of changes. -It would seem from some of the fossil remains of this family that the -Pachyderms were formerly more nearly related to the Ruminants and -Rodents than they now are. Therefore it would be well to study the -embryology of the Capivari, the Paca, and the Peccary, in connection -with that of the Tapir. Lastly, it will be important to learn something -of the embryology of the Manatee or Sea-Cow of the Amazons. It is -something like a porpoise in outline, and seems to be the modern -representative of the ancient Dinotherium.” - -_April 12th._—The lecture to-day was addressed especially to the -ornithologists of the party, its object being to show how the same -method of study,—that of testing the classification by the phases of -growth in the different groups,—might be applied to the birds as -profitably as to other types. - -We have made good progress in the last forty-eight hours, and are fast -leaving our friends “the trades” behind. The captain promises us smooth -waters in a day or two. With the dying away of the wind will come -greater heat, but as yet we have had no intensely warm weather. The sun, -however, keeps us within doors a great part of the day, but in the -evening we sit on the guards, watch the sunset over the waters, and then -the moonlight, and so while away the time till nine or ten o’clock, when -one by one the party disperses. The sea has been so rough that we have -not been able to capture anything, but when we get into smoother waters, -our naturalists will be on the look out for jelly-fish, argonautas, and -the like. - -_April 13th._—In to-day’s lecture Mr. Agassiz returned again to the -subject of geographical distribution and the importance of localizing -the collections with great precision. - -“As Rio de Janeiro is our starting-point, the water-system in its -immediate neighborhood will be as it were a schoolroom for us during the -first week of our Brazilian life. We shall not find it so easy a matter -as it seems to keep our collections distinct in this region. The -head-waters of some of the rivers near Rio, flowing in opposite -directions, are in such close proximity that it will be difficult -sometimes to distinguish them. Outside of the coast range, to which the -Organ Mountains belong, are a number of short streams, little rills, so -to speak, emptying directly into the ocean. It will be important to -ascertain whether the same animals occur in all these short -water-courses. I think this will be found to be the case, because it is -so with corresponding small rivers on our northern coast. There are -little rivers along the whole coast from Maine to New Jersey; all these -disconnected rivers contain a similar fauna. There is another extensive -range inland of the coast ridge, the Serra de Mantiquera, sloping gently -down to the ocean south of the Rio Belmonte or Jequitinhonha. Rivers -arising in this range are more complex; they have large tributaries. -Their upper part is usually broken by waterfalls, their lower course -being more level; probably in the lower courses of these rivers we shall -find fishes similar to those of the short coast streams, while in the -higher broken waters we shall find distinct faunæ.” The lecture closed -with some account of the excursions likely to be undertaken in the -neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro on arriving, and with some practical -instructions about collecting, based upon Mr. Agassiz’s personal -experience.[11] - -_April 14th._—Last evening was the most beautiful we have had since we -left home; perfectly clear with the exception of soft white masses of -cloud on the horizon, all their edges silvered by the moonlight. We -looked our last for many months to come on the north star, and saw the -southern cross for the first time. With the visible image I lost a far -more wonderful constellation which had lived in my imagination; it has -vanished with all its golden glory, a celestial vision as amazing as -that which converted Constantine, and in its place stands the veritable -constellation with its four little points of light. - -The lecture to-day was upon the fishes of South America. “I will give -you this morning a slight sketch of the characteristic fishes in South -America, as compared with those of the Old World and North America. -Though I do not know how the fishes are distributed in the regions to -which we are going, and it is just upon the investigation of this point -that I want your help, I know their character as distinguished from -those of other continents. We must remember that the most important aim -of all our studies in this direction will be the solution of the -question whether any given fauna is distinct and has originated where it -now exists. To this end I shall make you acquainted with the Brazilian -animals so far as I can in the short time we have before beginning our -active operations, in order that you may be prepared to detect the law -of their geographical distribution. I shall speak to-day more especially -of the fresh-water fishes. - -“In the northern hemisphere there is a remarkable group of fishes known -as the Sturgeons. They are chiefly found in the waters flowing into the -Polar seas, as the Mackenzie River on our own continent, the Lena and -Yenissei in the Old World, and in all the rivers and lakes of the -temperate zone, communicating with the Atlantic Ocean. They occur in -smaller numbers in most tributaries of the Mediterranean, but are common -in the Volga and Danube, as well as in the Mississippi, in some of the -rivers on our northern Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in China. This -family has no representatives in Africa, Southern Asia, Australia, or -South America, but there is a group corresponding in a certain way to it -in South America,—that of the Goniodonts. Though some ichthyologists -place them widely apart in their classifications, there is, on the -whole, a striking resemblance between the Sturgeons and Goniodonts. -Groups of this kind, reproducing certain features common to both, but -differing by special structural modifications, are called -‘representative types.’ This name applies more especially to such groups -when they are distributed over different parts of the world. To -naturalists the comparison of one of these types with another is very -interesting, as touching upon the question of origin of species. To -those who believe that animals are derived from one another the -alternative here presented is very clear: either one of these groups -grew out of the other, or else they both had common ancestors which were -neither Sturgeons nor Goniodonts, but combined the features of both and -gave birth to each. - -“There is a third family of fishes, the Hornpouts or Bullheads, called -Siluroids by naturalists, which seem by their structural character to -occupy an intermediate position between the Sturgeons and Goniodonts. -There would seem to be, then, in these three groups, so similar in -certain features, so distinct in others, the elements of a series. But -while their structural relations suggest a common origin, their -geographical distribution seems to exclude it. Take, for instance, the -Hornpouts; they are very few in the northern hemisphere, hardly ever -occurring in those rivers where the Sturgeons abound, and they are very -numerous in the southern hemisphere, in southern Asia, Australia, -Africa, and South America, where the Sturgeons are altogether wanting. -In South America the Siluroids everywhere exist with the Goniodonts, in -all other parts of the world without them; the Goniodonts being only -found in South America. If these were the ancestors of the Siluroids in -South America, they were certainly not their ancestors anywhere else. If -the Sturgeons were the ancestors of the Siluroids and of the Goniodonts, -it is strange that their progeny should consist of these two families in -South America, and in the Old World of the Siluroids only. But if all -three had some other common ancestry, it would be still more -extraordinary that its progeny should exhibit so specific a distribution -upon the surface of our globe. The Siluroids lay very large eggs, and as -they are very abundant in South America we shall no doubt have -opportunities of collecting them. Of the reproduction of the Goniodonts -absolutely nothing is known. Of course the embryology of both these -groups would have a direct bearing on the problem of their origin. - -“Another family very abundant in various parts of the world is that of -the Perches. They are found all over North America, Europe, and Northern -Asia; but there is not one to be found in the fresh waters of the -southern hemisphere. In South America and in Africa they are represented -however by a very similar group, that of the Chromids. These two groups -are so much akin that from their structure it would seem natural to -suppose that the Chromids were transformed Perches; the more so, since -in the western hemisphere the latter extend from the high north to -Texas, south of which they are represented by the Chromids. Here the -geographical as well as the structural transition would seem an easy -one. But look at the eastern hemisphere. Perches abound in Asia, Europe, -and Australia, but there are no Chromids there. How is it that the -Perches of this continent have been so fertile in producing Chromids, -and the Perches of all other continents, except Africa, absolutely -sterile in this respect? Or if we reverse the proposition, and suppose -the Perches to have grown out of the Chromids, why have their ancestry -disappeared so completely on the Asiatic side of the world, while they -do not seem to have diminished on this? And if Perches and Chromids -should be represented as descending from an older common type, I would -answer that Palæontology knows nothing of such a pedigree. - -“Next come the Chubs, or in scientific nomenclature the Cyprinoids. -These fishes, variously called Chubs, Suckers, or Carps, abound in all -the fresh waters of the northern hemisphere. They are also numerous in -the eastern part of the southern hemisphere, but have not a single -representative in South America. As the Goniodonts are characteristic of -the southern hemisphere in its western half, so this group seems to be -characteristic of it in its eastern half. But while the Cyprinoids have -no representative in South America, there is another group there, -structurally akin to them, called the Cyprinodonts. They are all -small-sized; our Minnows belong to this group. From Maine to Texas they -are found in all the short rivers or creeks all along the coast. It is -for this reason that I expect to find the short coast rivers of South -America abounding in Minnows. I remember to have found in the -neighborhood of Mobile no less than six new species in the course of an -afternoon’s ramble. These fishes are almost all viviparous, or at least -lay their eggs in a very advanced state of development of the young. The -sexes differ so greatly in appearance that they have sometimes been -described as distinct species, nay, even as distinct genera.[12] We must -be on our guard against a similar mistake. Here again we have two -groups, the Cyprinoids and Cyprinodonts, so similar in their structural -features that the development of one out of the other naturally suggests -itself. But in South America there are no Cyprinoids at all, while the -Cyprinodonts abound; in Europe, Asia, and North America on the contrary, -the Cyprinoids are very numerous and the Cyprinodonts comparatively -few.” The Characines were next considered with reference to their -affinities as well as their geographical distribution; and a few remarks -were added upon the smaller families known to have representatives in -the fresh waters of South America, such as the Erythrinoids, the -Gymnotines, &c. “I am often asked what is my chief aim in this -expedition to South America? No doubt in a general way it is to collect -materials for future study. But the conviction which draws me -irresistibly, is that the combination of animals on this continent, -where the faunæ are so characteristic and so distinct from all others, -will give me the means of showing that the transmutation theory is -wholly without foundation in facts.” The lecture closed with some -account of the Salmonidæ, found all over the northern hemisphere, but -represented in South America by the Characines, distinct species of -which may be looked for in the separate water-basins of Brazil; and also -of several other important families of South American fishes, especially -the Osteoglossum, the Sudis, &c., interesting on account of their -relation to an extinct fossil type, that of the Cœlacanths.[13] - -_April 17th._—Yesterday was Easter Sunday, and the day was beautiful. -The services from Bishop Potter in the morning were very interesting; -the more so for us on account of the God speed he gave us. Wind and -weather permitting, it is the last Sunday we shall pass on board ship -together. The Bishop spoke with much earnestness and sympathy of the -objects of the expedition, addressing himself especially to the young -men, not only with reference to their duties as connected with a -scientific undertaking, but as American citizens in a foreign country at -this time of war and misapprehension. - -This morning we were quite entertained at meeting a number of the -so-called “Catamarans,” the crazy crafts of the fishermen, who appear to -be amphibious animals on this coast. Their boats consist of a few logs -lashed together, over which the water breaks at every moment without -apparently disturbing the occupants in the least. They fish, walk about, -sit, lie down or stand, eat, drink, and sleep, to all appearance as -contented and comfortable as we are in our princely steamer. Usually -they go into port at nightfall, but are occasionally driven out to sea -by the wind, and may sometimes be met with two hundred miles and more -from the shore. To-day we have fairly come upon the South American -coast. Yesterday we could catch sight occasionally of low sand banks; -but this morning we have sailed past the pretty little town of Olinda, -with its convent on the hill, and the larger city of Pernambuco, whose -white houses come quite down to the sea-shore. Immediately in front of -the town lies the reef, which runs southward along the coast for a -hundred miles and more, enclosing between itself and the shore a strip -of quiet waters, forming admirable anchorage for small shipping. Before -Pernambuco this channel is quite deep, and directly in front of the town -there is a break in the reef forming a natural gateway through which -large vessels can enter. We have now left the town behind, but the shore -is still in sight; a flat coast rising into low hills behind, and here -and there dotted with villages and fishing-huts. - -The lecture on Saturday was rather practical than scientific, on the -best modes of collecting and preserving specimens, the instruments to be -used, &c. To-day it was upon the classification of fishes as illustrated -by embryology; the same method of study as that explained the other day -and now applied to the class of fishes. “All fishes at the time when the -germ becomes distinct above the yolk have a continuous fin over the -whole back, around the tail, and under the abdomen. The naked reptiles, -those which have no scales, such as frogs, toads, salamanders, and the -like, share in this embryological feature of the fishes. From this -identity of development I believe the naked reptiles to be structurally -nearer to the true fishes than to the scaly reptiles. All fishes, and -indeed all Vertebrates, even the highest, have, at this early period, -fissures in the side of the neck. These are the first indications of -gills, an organ the basis for which exists in all Vertebrates at a -certain period of their life, but is fully developed and functionally -active only in the lower ones, in which it acquires a special final -structure; giving place to lungs in the higher ones before they reach -their adult condition. From this time forward not only the class -characters, but those of the family, begin to be distinguished. I will -show you to-day how we may improve the classification of fishes by -studying their embryology. Take, for instance, the family of Cods in its -widest acceptation. It consists of several genera, among which are the -Cod proper, the Cusk, and the Brotula. Naturalists may differ in their -estimation of the relative rank of these genera, and even with reference -to their affinity, but the embryology of the Cod seems to me to give the -natural scale. In its early condition the Cod has the continuous fin of -the Brotula, next the dorsal and caudal fins become distinct, as in the -Cusk, and lastly the final individualization of the fins takes place, -and they break up into the three dorsals and two anals of the Cod. Thus -the Brotula represents the infantile condition of the Cod, and of course -stands lowest, while the Cusk has its natural position between the two. -There are other genera belonging to this family, as, for instance, the -Lota or fresh-water Cusk and the Hake, the relative position of which -may be determined by further embryological studies. I had an opportunity -of observing something in the development of the Hake which throws some -light on the relation of the Ophidini to the Cod family, though thus far -they have been associated with the Eel. The little embryonic Hake on -which I made my investigation was about an inch and a half in length; it -was much more slender and elongated in proportion to its thickness than -any of the family of Cods in their adult condition, and had a continuous -fin all around the body. Although the structural relations of the Eels -are not fully understood, some of them, at least, now united as a -distinct family under the name of Ophidini, are known to be closely -connected with the Cods, and this character of the Hake in its early -condition would seem to show that this type of Eel is a sort of -embryonic form of the Cod family. - -“Another well-known family of fishes is that of the Lophioides. To this -group belongs the Lophius or Goose-fish, with which the Cottoids or -Sculpins, and the Blennioids, with Zoarces and Anarrhichas, the -so-called Sea-cat, ought to be associated. It was my good fortune to -have an opportunity of studying the development of the Lophius, and to -my surprise I found that its embryonic phases included the whole series -here alluded to, thus presenting another of those natural scales on -which I hope all our scientific classifications will be remodelled when -we obtain a better knowledge of embryology. The Lophius in its youngest -stage recalls the Tænioids, being long and compressed; next it resembles -the Blennioids, and growing stouter passes through a stage like Cottus, -before it assumes the depressed form of Lophius. In the family of -Cyprinodonts I have observed the young of Fundulus. They are destitute -of ventrals, thus showing that the genus Orestias stands lowest in its -family. I would allude to one other fact of this kind observed by -Professor Wyman. There has been a doubt among naturalists as to the -relative standing of the Skates and Sharks. On geological evidence I had -placed the Skates highest, because the Sharks precede them in time; but -this fact had not been established on embryological evidence. Professor -Wyman has followed the embryology of the Skate through all its phases, -and has found that in its earlier condition it is slender in outline, -with the appearance of a diminutive shark, and that only later it -assumes the broad shield-like form and long tapering tail of the skate. -Were it only that they enable us to set aside all arbitrary decisions -and base our classifications on the teachings of nature, these -investigations would be invaluable; but their importance is increased by -the consideration that we are thus gradually led to recognize the true -affinities which bind all organized beings into one great system.” - -_April 20th._—The day after to-morrow we shall enter the Bay of Rio de -Janeiro. One begins to see already that little disturbance in the -regularity of sea life which precedes arrival. People are making up -their letters, and rearranging their luggage; there is a slight stir -pervading our small party of passengers and breaking up the even tenor -of the uniform life we have been leading together for the last three -weeks. It has been a delightful voyage, and yet, under the most charming -circumstances, life at sea is a poor exchange for life on land, and we -are all glad to be near our haven. - -On Tuesday the lecture was upon the formation and growth of the egg; a -sort of practical lesson in the study of embryology; yesterday, upon the -importance of ascertaining, at the outset, the spawning season of the -animals in Brazil, and the means to that end. “It will often be -impossible for us to learn the breeding season of animals, a matter in -which country people are generally very ignorant. But when we cannot -obtain it from persons about us, there are some indications in the -animals themselves which may serve as a guide. During my own -investigations upon the development of the turtles, when I opened many -thousands of eggs, I found that in these animals, at least, the -appearance of the ovaries is a pretty good guide. They always contain -several sets of eggs. Those which will be laid this year are the -largest; those of the following year are next in size; those of two -years hence still smaller, until we come to eggs so small that it is -impossible to perceive any difference between their various phases of -development. But we can readily tell whether there are any eggs so -advanced as to be near laying, and distinguish between the brood of the -year and those which are to be hatched later. When the eggs are about to -be laid the whole surface is covered with ramifying blood-vessels, and -the yolk is of a very clear bright yellow. Before the egg drops from the -ovary this network bursts; it shrivels up and forms a little scar on the -side of the ovary. Should we, therefore, on examining the ovary of a -turtle, find that these scars are fresh, we may infer that the season -for laying is not over; or if we find some of the eggs much larger than -the rest and nearly mature, we shall know that it is about to begin. How -far this will hold good with respect to alligators and other animals I -do not know. I have learned to recognize these signs in the turtles from -my long study of their embryology. With fishes it could hardly be -possible to distinguish the different sets of eggs because they lay such -numbers, and they are all so small. But if we cannot distinguish the -eggs of the different years, it will be something to learn the size of -their broods, which differs very greatly in different families.” - -The lecture concluded with some advice as to observing and recording the -metamorphoses of insects. “Though much has been written on the societies -of ants and other like communities in Brazil, the accounts of different -naturalists do not agree. It would be well to collect the larvæ of a -great many insects, and try to raise them; but as this will be difficult -and often impossible in travelling, we must at least get the nests of -ants, bees, wasps, and the like, in order to ascertain all we can -respecting their communities. When these are not too large it is easy to -secure them by slipping a bag over them, thus taking the whole -settlement captive. It may then be preserved by dipping into alcohol, -and examined at leisure, so as to ascertain the number and nature of the -individuals contained in it, and learn something at least of their -habits. Nor let us neglect the domestic establishments of spiders. There -is an immense variety of spiders in South America, and a great -difference in their webs. It would be well to preserve these on sheets -of paper, to make drawings of them, and examine their threads -microscopically.” - -_April 21st._—Yesterday Mr. Agassiz gave his closing lecture, knowing -that to-day all would be occupied with preparations for landing. He gave -a little history of Steenstrup and Sars, and showed the influence their -embryological investigations have had in reforming classification, and -also their direct bearing upon the question of the origin of species. To -these investigators science owes the discovery of the so-called -“alternate generations,” in which the Hydroid, either by budding or by -the breaking up of its own body, gives rise to numerous jelly-fishes; -these lay eggs which produce Hydroids again, and the Hydroids renew the -process as before.[14] - -“These results are but recently added to the annals of science, and are -not yet very extensively known in the community; but when the facts are -more fully understood, they cannot fail to affect the fundamental -principles of zoölogy. I have been astonished to see how little weight -Darwin himself gives to this series of transformations; he hardly -alludes to it, and yet it has a very direct bearing on his theory, since -it shows that, however great the divergence from the starting-point in -any process of development, it ever returns to the road of its normal -destiny; the cycle may be wide, but the boundaries are as impassable as -if it were narrower. However these processes of development may -approach, or even cross each other, they never end in making any living -being different from the one which gave it birth, though in reaching -that point it may pass through phases resembling other animals. - -“In considering these questions we should remember how slight are most -of those specific differences, the origin of which gives rise to so much -controversy, in comparison with the cycle of changes undergone by every -individual in the course of its development. There are numerous genera, -including many very closely allied species, distinguished by differences -which, were it not for the fact that they have remained unchanged and -invariable through ages, might be termed insignificant. Such, for -instance, are the various species of corals found in the everglades of -Florida, where they lived and died ages ago, and had the identical -specific differences by which we distinguish their successors in the -present Florida reefs. The whole science of zoölogy in its present -condition is based upon the fact that these slight differences are -maintained generation after generation. And yet every individual on such -a coral stock,—and the same is true of any individual in any class -whatsoever of the whole animal kingdom, whether Radiate, Mollusk, -Articulate, or Vertebrate,—before reaching its adult condition and -assuming the permanent characters which distinguish it from other -species, and have never been known to vary, passes in a comparatively -short period through an extraordinary transformation, the successive -phases of which differ far more from each other than do the adult -species. In other words, the same individual differs more from himself -in successive stages of his growth than he does in his adult condition -from kindred species of the same genus. The conclusion seems inevitable, -that, if the slight differences which distinguish species were not -inherent, and if the phases through which every individual has to pass -were not the appointed means to reach that end, themselves invariable, -there would be ever-recurring deviations from the normal types. Every -naturalist knows that this is not the case. All the deviations known to -us are monstrosities, and the occurrence of these, under disturbing -influences, are to my mind only additional evidence of the fixity of -species. The extreme deviations obtained in domesticity are secured, as -is well known, at the expense of the typical characters, and end usually -in the production of sterile individuals. All such facts seem to show -that so-called varieties or breeds, far from indicating the beginning of -new types, or the initiating of incipient species, only point out the -range of flexibility in types which in their essence are invariable. - -“In the discussion of the development theory in its present form, a -great deal is said of the imperfection of the geological record. But it -seems to me that, however fragmentary our knowledge of geology, its -incompleteness does not invalidate certain important points in the -evidence. It is well known that the crust of our earth is divided into a -number of layers, all of which contain the remains of distinct -populations. These different sets of inhabitants who have possessed the -earth at successive periods have each a character of their own. The -transmutation theory insists that they owe their origin to gradual -transformations, and are not, therefore, the result of distinct creative -acts. All agree, however, that we arrive at a lower stratum where no -trace of life is to be found. Place it where we will: suppose that we -are mistaken in thinking that we have reached the beginning of life with -the lowest Cambrian deposit; suppose that the first animals preceded -this epoch, and that there was an earlier epoch, to be called the -Laurentian system, beside many others older still; it is nevertheless -true that geology brings us down to a level at which the character of -the earth’s crust made organic life impossible. At this point, wherever -we place it, the origin of animals by development was impossible, -because they had no ancestors. This is the true starting-point, and -until we have some facts to prove that the power, whatever it was, which -originated the first animals has ceased to act, I see no reason for -referring the origin of life to any other cause. I grant that we have no -such evidence of an active creative power as Science requires for -positive demonstration of her laws, and that we cannot explain the -processes which lie at the origin of life. But if the facts are -insufficient on our side, they are absolutely wanting on the other. We -cannot certainly consider the development theory proved, because a few -naturalists think it plausible: it seems plausible only to the few, and -it is demonstrated by none. I bring this subject before you now, not to -urge upon you this or that theory, strong as my own convictions are. I -wish only to warn you, not against the development theory itself, but -against the looseness in the methods of study upon which it is based. -Whatever be your ultimate opinions on this subject, let them rest on -facts and not on arguments, however plausible. This is not a question to -be argued, it is one to be investigated. - -“As I have advanced in these talks with you, I have become more and more -dissatisfied, feeling the difficulty of laying out our work without a -practical familiarity with the objects themselves. But this is the -inevitable position of one who is seeking the truth: till we have found -it, we are more or less feeling our way. I am aware that in my lectures -I have covered a far wider range of subjects than we can handle, even if -every man do his very best; if we accomplish one tenth of the work I -have suggested, I shall be more than satisfied with the result of the -expedition. In closing, I can hardly add anything to the impressive -admonitions of Bishop Potter in his parting words to us last Sunday, for -which I thank him in your name and my own. But I would remind you, that, -while America has recovered her political independence, while we all -have that confidence in our institutions which makes us secure, that so -far as we are true to them, doing what we do conscientiously and in full -view of our responsibilities we shall be in the right path, we have not -yet achieved our intellectual independence. There is a disposition in -this country to refer all literary and scientific matters to European -tribunals; to accept a man because he has obtained the award of -societies abroad. An American author is often better satisfied if he -publish his book in England than at home. In my opinion, every man who -publishes his work on the other side of the water deprives his country -of so much intellectual capital to which she has a right. Publish your -results at home, and let Europe discover whether they are worth reading. -Not until you are faithful to your citizenship in your intellectual as -well as your political life, will you be truly upright and worthy -students of nature.” - -At the conclusion of these remarks a set of resolutions was read by -Bishop Potter.[15] They were followed by a few little friendly speeches, -all made in the most informal and cordial spirit; and so ended our -course of lectures on board the Colorado. Later in the day we observed -singular bright red patches in the sea. Some were not less than seven or -eight feet in length, rather oblong, and the whole mass looked as red as -blood. Sometimes they seemed to lie on the very top of the water, -sometimes to be a little below it, so as only to tinge the rippling -surface. One of the sailors succeeded in catching a portion of it in a -bucket, when it was found to consist of a solid mass of little -crustaceans, bright red in color. They were all very lively, keeping up -a constant rapid motion. Mr. Agassiz examined them under the microscope -and found them to be the young of a crab. He has no doubt that every -such patch is a single brood, floating thus compactly together like -spawn. - ------ - -Footnote 2: - - On the 17th of May, nearly a month after our arrival in Rio, this - cloud was interpreted to us. It was, indeed, charged with the issues - of life and death, for it was on this day and the following that the - final assaults on Petersburg were made, and the cloud which marred an - otherwise stainless sky, as we were passing along the shores of - Virginia, was, no doubt, the mass of smoke gathered above the opposing - lines of the two armies. - -Footnote 3: - - The species of Hydroids most numerous upon the gulf-weed have not yet - been described, and would form a valuable addition to the Natural - History of the Acalephs. For an account of the animals of this class - inhabiting the Atlantic coast of North America, and especially the New - England shores, I may refer to the third volume of my Contributions to - the Natural History of the United States, and to the second number of - the Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoloögy at - Cambridge.—L. A. - -Footnote 4: - - “This stream,” he writes, “is probably generated by the great - accumulation of water on the eastern coast of America, between the - tropics, by the trade-winds which constantly blow there.” These views, - though vaguely hinted at by old Spanish navigators, were first - distinctly set forth by Franklin, and, as is stated in a recent - printed report of the Coast Survey Explorations, “they receive - confirmation from every discovery which the advance of scientific - research brings to aid in the solution of the great problem of oceanic - circulation.” - -Footnote 5: - - No one can read the account of the explorations undertaken by the - Coast Survey in the Gulf Stream, and continued during a number of - successive years, and the instructions received by the officers thus - employed from the Superintendent, Dr. A. D. Bache, without feeling how - comprehensive, keen, and persevering was the intellect which has long - presided over this department of our public works. The result is a - very thorough survey of the stream, especially along the coast of our - own continent, with sections giving the temperature to a great depth, - the relations of the cold and warm streaks, the form of the ocean - bottom, as well as various other details respecting the direction and - force of the current, the density and color of the water, and the - animal and vegetable productions contained in it. (See Appendix No. - I.)—L. A. - -Footnote 6: - - This anticipation was more than confirmed by the result of the - journey. It is true that Mr. Agassiz did not go beyond the Peruvian - frontier, and therefore could not verify his prophecy in that region. - But he found the localization of species in the Amazons circumscribed - within much narrower limits than he expected, the whole length of the - great stream, as well as its tributaries, being broken up into - numerous distinct faunæ. There can be no doubt that what is true for - nearly three thousand miles of its course is true also for the - head-waters of the Amazons; indeed, other investigators have already - described some species from its higher tributaries differing entirely - from those collected upon this expedition. - -Footnote 7: - - Mr. Agassiz afterward visited these hills himself, and an account of - their structure and probable origin will be found in the chapter on - the physical history of the Amazons. - -Footnote 8: - - See Appendix No. II. - -Footnote 9: - - It proved in the sequel unnecessary to seek the glacial phenomena of - tropical South America in its highest mountains. In Brazil the - moraines are as distinct and as well preserved in some of the coast - ranges on the Atlantic side, not more than twelve or fifteen hundred - feet high, as in any glaciated localities known to geologists in more - northern parts of the world. The snow line, even in those latitudes, - then descended so low that masses of ice formed above its level - actually forced their way down to the sea-coast.—L. A. - -Footnote 10: - - In copying the journal from which these notes are taken, I have - hesitated to burden the narrative with anatomical details. But for - those who take an interest in such investigations it may be well to - add here that the frog, when first hatched, is simply an oblong body, - without any appendages, and tapering slightly towards its posterior - end. In that condition it resembles the Cecilia. In its next stage, - that of the tadpole, when the extremity has elongated into a tail, the - gills are fairly developed, and it has one pair of imperfect legs, it - resembles the Siren, with its rudimentary limbs. In its succeeding - stages, when the same animal has two pairs of legs and a fin around - the tail, it recalls the Proteus and Menobranchus. Finally the gills - are suppressed, the animal breathes through lungs, but the tail still - remains; it then recalls Menopoma and the Salamanders. At last the - tail shrinks and disappears, and the frog is complete. This gives us a - standard by which the relative position of the leading groups of the - class may safely be determined.—L. A. - -Footnote 11: - - On account of the many exploring expeditions for which the Bay of Rio - de Janeiro has been a favorite port, it has acquired a special - interest for the naturalist. It may seem at first sight as if the fact - that French, English, German, Russian, and American expeditions have - followed each other in this locality, during the last century, each - bringing away its rich harvest of specimens, by diminishing its - novelty would rather lessen than increase its interest as a collecting - ground. On the contrary, for the very reason that the specimens from - which the greater part of the descriptions and figures contained in - the published accounts of these voyages were obtained from Rio de - Janeiro and its neighborhood, it becomes indispensable that every - zoölogical museum aiming at scientific accuracy and completeness - should have original specimens from that very locality for the - identification of species already described. Otherwise doubts - respecting the strict identity or specific difference of specimens - obtained on other parts of the Atlantic shore, not only in South - America but in Central and North America, may at any time invalidate - important generalizations concerning the distribution of animals in - these seas. From this point of view, the Bay of Rio de Janeiro forms a - most important centre of comparison, and it was for this reason that - we made so prolonged a stay there. Although the prospect of - discovering any novelties was diminished by the extensive - investigations of our predecessors, I well knew that whatever we - collected there would greatly increase the value of our collections - elsewhere. One of my special aims was to ascertain how far the marine - animals inhabiting the coast of Brazil to the south of Cape Frio - differed from those to the north of it, and furthermore, how the - animals found along the coast between Cape Frio and Cape St. Roque - differed from or agreed with those inhabiting the more northern shore - of the continent and the West Indian Islands. In the course of the - following chapters I shall have occasion to return, more in detail, to - this subject.—L. A. - -Footnote 12: - - Molinesia and Pœcilia. - -Footnote 13: - - This lecture was accompanied by careful descriptions and drawings on - the blackboard, showing the structural differences between these - groups. These are omitted, as they would have little interest for the - general reader. The chief object in reporting these lectures is to - show the aims which Mr. Agassiz placed before himself and his - companions in laying out the work of the expedition, and these are - made sufficiently clear without further scientific details. - -Footnote 14: - - As these investigations have been published with so much detail - (Steenstrup, Alternate Generation, Sars’s Fauna Norwegica; L. Agassiz, - Contr. to Nat. Hist. of U. S.), it has not been thought necessary to - reproduce this part of the lecture here. Any one who cares to read a - less technical account of these investigations than those originally - published, will find it in “Methods of Study,” by L. Agassiz. - -Footnote 15: - - See Appendix No. III. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - RIO DE JANEIRO AND ITS ENVIRONS.—JUIZ DE FORA. - - ARRIVAL.—ASPECT OF HARBOR AND CITY.—CUSTOM-HOUSE.—FIRST GLIMPSE OF - BRAZILIAN LIFE.—NEGRO DANCE.—EFFECT OF EMANCIPATION IN UNITED - STATES UPON SLAVERY IN BRAZIL.—FIRST ASPECT OF RIO DE JANEIRO ON - LAND.—PICTURESQUE STREET GROUPS.—ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.—AT HOME IN - RIO.—LARANGEIRAS.—PASSEIO PUBLICO.—EXCURSION ON THE DOM PEDRO - RAILROAD.—VISIT OF THE EMPEROR TO THE COLORADO.—CORDIALITY OF - GOVERNMENT TO THE EXPEDITION.—LABORATORY.—BOTANICAL - GARDEN.—ALLEY OF PALMS.—EXCURSION TO THE CORCOVADO.—JUIZ DE FORA - ROAD.—PETROPOLIS.—TROPICAL VEGETATION.—RIDE FROM PETROPOLIS TO - JUIZ DE FORA.—VISIT TO SENHOR LAGE.—EXCURSION TO THE “FOREST OF - THE EMPRESS.”—VISIT TO MR. HALFELD.—RETURN TO RIO.—NEWS OF THE - GREAT NORTHERN VICTORIES, AND OF THE PRESIDENT’S ASSASSINATION. - - -_April 23d._—Yesterday at early dawn we made Cape Frio light, and at -seven o’clock were aroused by the welcome information that the Organ -Mountains were in sight. The coast range here, though not very lofty, -(its highest summits ranging only from two to three thousand feet,) is -bold and precipitous. The peaks are very conical, and the sides slope -steeply to the water’s edge, where, in many places, a wide beach runs -along their base. The scenery grew more picturesque as we approached the -entrance of the bay, which is guarded by heights rising sentinel-like on -either side. Once within this narrow rocky portal, the immense harbor, -stretching northward for more than twenty miles, seems rather like a -vast lake enclosed by mountains than like a bay. On one side extends the -ridge which shuts it from the sea, broken by the sharp peaks of the -Corcovado, the Tijuca, and the flat-topped Gavia; on the other side, and -more inland, the Organ Mountains lift their singular needle-like points, -while within the entrance rises the bare bleak rock so well known as the -Sugar Loaf (_Paō de Assucar_). Were it not for the gateway behind us, -through which we still have a glimpse of the open ocean, and for the -shipping lying here at anchor, leaving the port or entering it, we might -easily believe that we were floating on some great quiet sheet of inland -water. - -We reached our anchorage at eleven o’clock, but were in no haste to -leave the ocean home where we have been so happy and so comfortable for -three weeks past; and as the captain had kindly invited us to stay on -board till our permanent arrangements were made, we remained on deck, -greatly entertained by all the stir and confusion attending our arrival. -Some of our young people took one of the many boats which crowded at -once around our steamer, and went directly to the city; but we were -satisfied with the impressions of the day, and not sorry to leave them -undisturbed. As night came on, sunset lit up the mountains and the -harbor. In this latitude, however, the glory of the twilight is soon -over, and as darkness fell upon the city it began to glitter with -innumerable lights along the shore and on the hillsides. The city of Rio -de Janeiro spreads in a kind of crescent shape around the western side -of the bay, its environs stretching out to a considerable distance along -the beaches, and running up on to the hills behind also. On account of -this disposition of the houses, covering a wide area and scattered upon -the water’s edge, instead of being compact and concentrated, the -appearance of the city at night is exceedingly pretty. It has a kind of -scenic effect. The lights run up on the hill-slopes, a little cluster -crowning their summits here and there, and they glimmer all along the -shore for two or three miles on either side of the central, business -part of the town. - -Soon after our arrival Mr. Agassiz received an official visit from a -custom-house agent, saying that he had orders to land all our baggage -without examination, and that a boat would be sent at any day and hour -convenient to him to bring his effects on shore. This was a great -relief, as the scientific apparatus, added to the personal luggage of so -large a party, makes a fearful array of boxes, cases, &c. It would be a -long business to pass it all through the cumbrous ceremonies of a -custom-house. This afternoon, while Mr. Agassiz had gone to San -Christovāo[16] to acknowledge this courtesy and to pay his respects to -the Emperor, we were wandering over a little island (_Ilha das Enxadas_) -near which our ship lies, and from which she takes in coal for her -farther voyage. The proprietor, besides his coal-wharf, has a very -pretty house and garden, with a small chapel adjoining. It was my first -glimpse of tropical vegetation and of Brazilian life, and had all the -charm of novelty. As we landed, a group of slaves, black as ebony, were -singing and dancing a fandango. So far as we could understand, there was -a leader who opened the game with a sort of chant, apparently addressed -to each in turn as he passed around the circle, the others joining in -chorus at regular intervals. Presently he broke into a dance which rose -in wildness and excitement, accompanied by cries and ejaculations. The -movements of the body were a singular combination of negro and Spanish -dances. The legs and feet had the short, jerking, loose-jointed motion -of our negroes in dancing, while the upper part of the body and the arms -had that swaying, rhythmical movement from side to side so -characteristic of all the Spanish dances. After looking on for a while -we went into the garden, where there were cocoa-nut and banana trees in -fruit, passion-vines climbing over the house, with here and there a dark -crimson flower gleaming between the leaves. The effect was pretty, and -the whole scene had, to my eye, an aspect half Southern, half Oriental. -It was nearly dark when we returned to the boat, but the negroes were -continuing their dance under the glow of a bonfire. From time to time, -as the dance reached its culminating point, they stirred their fire, and -lighted up the wild group with its vivid blaze. The dance and the song -had, like the amusements of the negroes in all lands, an endless -monotonous repetition. Looking at their half-naked figures and -unintelligent faces, the question arose, so constantly suggested when we -come in contact with this race, “What will they do with this great gift -of freedom?” The only corrective for the half doubt is to consider the -whites side by side with them: whatever one may think of the condition -of slavery for the blacks, there can be no question as to its evil -effects on their masters. Captain Bradbury asked the proprietor of the -island whether he hired or owned his slaves. “Own them,—a hundred and -more; but it will finish soon,” he answered in his broken English. -“Finish soon! how do you mean?” “It finish with you; and when it finish -with you, it finish here, it finish everywhere.” He said it not in any -tone of regret or complaint, but as an inevitable fact. The death-note -of slavery in the United States was its death-note everywhere. We -thought this significant and cheering. - -_April 24th._—To-day we ladies went on shore for a few hours, engaged -our rooms, and drove about the city a little. The want of cleanliness -and thrift in the general aspect of Rio de Janeiro is very striking as -compared with the order, neatness, and regularity of our large towns. -The narrow streets, with the inevitable gutter running down the -middle,—a sink for all kinds of impurities,—the absence of a proper -sewerage, the general aspect of decay (partly due, no doubt, to the -dampness of the climate), the indolent expression of the people -generally, make a singular impression on one who comes from the midst of -our stirring, energetic population. And yet it has a picturesqueness -that, to the traveller at least, compensates for its defects. All who -have seen one of these old Portuguese or Spanish tropical towns, with -their odd narrow streets and many-colored houses with balconied windows -and stuccoed or painted walls, only the more variegated from the fact -that here and there the stucco has peeled off, know the fascination and -the charm which make themselves felt, spite of the dirt and discomfort. -Then the groups in the street,—the half-naked black carriers, many of -them straight and firm as bronze statues under the heavy loads which -rest so securely on their heads, the padres in their long coats and -square hats, the mules laden with baskets of fruit or vegetables,—all -this makes a motley scene, entertaining enough to the new-comer. I have -never seen such effective-looking negroes, from an artistic point of -view, as here. To-day a black woman passed us in the street, dressed in -white, with bare neck and arms, the sleeves caught up with some kind of -armlet, a large white turban of soft muslin on her head, and a long -bright-colored shawl passed crosswise under one arm and thrown over the -other shoulder, hanging almost to the feet behind. She no doubt was of -the colored gentry. Just beyond her sat a black woman on the curbstone, -almost without clothing, her glossy skin shining in the sun, and her -naked child asleep across her knees. Or take this as another picture: an -old wall several feet wide, covered with vines, overhung with thick -foliage, the top of which seems to be a stand for the venders of fruits, -vegetables, &c. Here lies at full length a powerful negro looking over -into the street, his jetty arms crossed on a huge basket of crimson -flowers, oranges and bananas, against which he half rests, seemingly too -indolent to lift a finger even to attract a purchaser. - -_April 25th._—Nature seems to welcome our arrival, not only by her most -genial, but also by her exceptional moods. There has been to-day an -eclipse of the sun, total at Cape Frio, sixty miles from here, almost -total here. We saw it from the deck of the ship, not having yet taken up -our quarters in town. The effect was as strange as it was beautiful. -There was a something weird, uncanny in the pallor and chill which came -over the landscape; it was not in the least like a common twilight, but -had a ghastly, phantom-like element in it. Mr. Agassiz passed the -morning at the palace where the Emperor had invited him to witness the -eclipse from his observatory. The clouds are poor courtiers, however, -and unfortunately a mist hung over San Christovāo, obscuring the -phenomenon at the moment of its greatest interest. Our post of -observation was better for this special occasion than the Imperial -observatory, and yet, though the general scene was perhaps more -effective in the harbor than on the shore, Mr. Agassiz had an -opportunity of making some interesting observations on the action of -animals under these novel circumstances. The following extract is from -his notes. “The effect of the waning light on animals was very striking. -The bay of Rio is daily frequented by large numbers of frigate-birds and -gannets, which at night fly to the outer islands to roost, while the -carrion-crows (_urubús_) swarming in the suburbs, and especially about -the slaughterhouses of the city, retire to the mountains in the -neighborhood of Tijuca, their line of travel passing over San -Christovāo. As soon as the light began to diminish, these birds became -uneasy; evidently conscious that their day was strangely encroached -upon, they were uncertain for a moment how to act. Presently, however, -as the darkness increased, they started for their usual night quarters, -the water-birds flying southward, the vultures in a northwesterly -direction, and they had all left their feeding-grounds before the moment -of greatest obscurity arrived. They seemed to fly in all haste, but were -not half-way to their night home when the light began to return with -rapidly increasing brightness. Their confusion was now at its height. -Some continued their flight towards the mountains or the harbor, others -hurried back to the city, while others whirled about wholly uncertain -what to do next. The re-establishment of the full light of noon seemed -to decide them, however, upon making another day of it, and the whole -crowd once more moved steadily toward the city.” - -The cordial interest shown by the Emperor in all the objects of the -present expedition is very encouraging to Mr. Agassiz. So liberal a -spirit in the head of the government will make his own task -comparatively easy. He has also seen several official persons on -business appertaining to his scientific schemes. Everywhere he receives -the warmest expressions of sympathy, and is assured that the -administration will give him every facility in its power to carry out -his plans. To-night finds us established in our rooms, and our Brazilian -life begins; with what success remains to be seen. While still on board -the “Colorado” we seemed to have one foot on our own soil. - -_April 26th._—This morning Mrs. C—— and myself devoted to the arranging -of our little domestic matters, getting out our books, desks, and other -knickknacks, and making ourselves at home in our new quarters, where we -suppose we are likely to be for some weeks to come. This afternoon we -drove out on the Larangeiras road (literally, the “orangery”). Our first -drive in Rio left upon my mind an impression of picturesque decay; -things seemed falling to pieces, it is true, but mindful of artistic -effect even in their last moments. This impression was quite effaced -to-day. Every city has its least becoming aspect, and it seems we had -chosen an unfavorable direction for our first tour of observation. The -Larangeiras road is lined on either side by a succession of country -houses; low and spreading, often with wide verandas, surrounded by -beautiful gardens, glowing at this season with the scarlet leaves of the -Poinsettia, or “Estrella do Norte” as they call it here, with blue and -yellow Bignonias, and many other shrubs and vines, the names of which we -have hardly learned as yet. Often, as we drove along, a wide gateway, -opening into an avenue of palms, would give us a glimpse of Brazilian -life. Here and there a group of people were sitting in the garden, or -children were playing in the grounds under the care of their black -nurses. Farther out of town the country houses were less numerous, but -the scenery was more picturesque. The road winds immediately under the -mountains to the foot of the Corcovado, where it becomes too steep for -carriages, the farther ascent being made on mules or horses. But it was -too late for us,—the peak of the Corcovado was already bathed in the -setting sun. We wandered a little way up the romantic path, gathered a -few flowers, and then drove back to the city, stopping on our return to -ramble for half an hour in the “Passeio Publico.” This is a pretty -public garden on the bay, not large but tastefully laid out, its great -charm being a broad promenade built up from the water’s edge with very -solid masonry, against which the waves break with a refreshing coolness. -To-morrow we are invited by Major Ellison, chief engineer of the Dom -Pedro Railroad, to go out to the terminus of the road, some hundred -miles through the heart of the Serra do Mar. - -[Illustration: Tree entwined by Sipos.] - -_April 27th._—Perhaps in all our journeyings through Brazil we shall not -have a day more impressive to us all than this one; we shall, no doubt, -see wilder scenery, but the first time that one looks upon nature, under -an entirely new aspect, has a charm that can hardly be repeated. The -first view of high mountains, the first glimpse of the broad ocean, the -first sight of a tropical vegetation in all its fulness, are epochs in -one’s life. This wonderful South American forest is so matted together -and intertwined with gigantic parasites that it seems more like a solid, -compact mass of green than like the leafy screen, vibrating with every -breeze and transparent to the sun, which represents the forest in the -temperate zone. Many of the trees in the region we passed through to-day -seemed in the embrace of immense serpents, so large were the stems of -the parasites winding about them; orchids of various kinds and large -size grew upon their trunks; and vines climbed to their summits and -threw themselves down in garlands to the ground. On the embankments also -between which we passed, vines of many varieties were creeping down, as -if they would fain clothe in green garments the ugly gaps the railroad -had made. Yet it must be confessed that, in this instance, the railroad -has not destroyed, but rather heightened, the picturesque scenery, -cutting, as it does, through passes which give beautiful vistas into the -heart of the mountain range. Once, as we issued from a tunnel, where the -darkness seemed tangible, upon an exquisite landscape all gleaming in -the sunshine, a general shout from the whole party testified their -astonishment and admiration. We were riding on an open car in front of -the engine, so that nothing impeded our view, and we had no -inconvenience from smoke or cinders. During the latter part of the ride -we came into the region of the most valuable coffee-plantations; and -indeed the road is chiefly supported by the transportation of the -immense quantities of coffee raised along its track or beyond it. Near -its terminus is an extensive fazenda, from which we were told that five -or six hundred tons of coffee are sent out in a good year. These -fazendas are singular-looking establishments, low (usually only one -story) and very spreading, the largest of them covering quite an -extensive area. As they are rather isolated in situation, they must -include within their own borders all that is needed to keep them up. -There is something very primitive in the way of life of these great -country proprietors. Major Ellison told me that some time ago a wealthy -Marqueza living at some distance beyond him in the interior, and going -to town for a stay of a few weeks, stopped at his house to rest. She had -a troop of thirty-one pack-mules, laden with all conceivable baggage, -besides provisions of every sort, fowls, hams, &c., and a train of -twenty-five servants. Their hospitality is said to be unbounded; you -have only to present yourself at their gates at the end of a day’s -journey, and if you have the air of a respectable traveller, you are -sure of a hearty welcome, shelter and food. The card of a friend or a -note of introduction insures you all the house can afford for as long as -you like to stay. - -The last three miles of our journey was over what is called the -“temporary road,” the use of which will be discontinued as soon as the -great tunnel is completed. I must say, that to the inexperienced this -road looks exceedingly perilous, especially that part of it which is -carried over a wooden bridge 65 feet high, with a very strong curvature -and a gradient of 4 per cent (211 feet per mile). As you feel the engine -laboring up the steep ascent, and, looking out, find yourself on the -edge of a precipitous bank, and almost face to face with the hindmost -car, while the train bends around the curve, it is difficult to resist -the sense of insecurity. It is certainly greatly to the credit of the -management of the line that no accident has occurred under circumstances -where the least carelessness would be fatal.[17] - -It gives one an idea of the labor expended on this railroad, to learn -that for the great tunnel alone, now almost completed (one of fourteen), -a corps of some three hundred men, relieving each other alternately, -have been at work day and night, excepting Sundays, for seven years. The -sound of hammer and pick during that time has hardly ever been still, -and so hard is the rock through which the tunnel is pierced, that often -the heaviest blows of the sledge yield only a little dust,—no more in -bulk than a pinch of snuff.[18] - -On our return we were detained for half an hour at a station on the bank -of the river Parahyba. This first visit to one of the considerable -rivers of Brazil was not without its memorable incident. One of our -friends of the Colorado, who parts from us here on his way to San -Francisco, said he was determined not to leave the expedition without -contributing something to its results. He improvised a fishing -apparatus, with a stick, a string, and a crooked pin, and caught two -fishes, our first harvest from the fresh waters of Brazil, one of which -was entirely new to Mr. Agassiz, while the other he had never seen, and -only knew from descriptions. - -_April 28th._—This morning we went over to the Colorado, which still -lies in the harbor, and where the visit of the Emperor was expected. We -all felt an interest in the occasion, for we have a kind of personal -pride in the fine ship whose first voyage has been the source of so much -enjoyment to us. The Imperial yacht arrived punctually at twelve -o’clock, and was received by the captain with a full salute from his -Parrott guns, fired with a promptness and accuracy which the Emperor did -not fail to notice. His Majesty went over the whole steamer; and really -an exploring expedition over such a world in little, with its -provision-shops, its cattle stalls, its pantries and sculleries, its -endless accommodations for passengers and freight, its variety of decks -and its great central fires, deep below all, is no contemptible journey -for a tropical morning. The arrangements of the vessel seemed to excite -the interest and admiration both of the Emperor and his suite. Captain -Bradbury invited his Majesty to lunch on board; he very cordially -accepted, and remained some time afterward, conversing chiefly about -scientific subjects, and especially on matters connected with the -expedition. The Emperor is still a young man; but though only forty, he -has been the reigning sovereign of Brazil for more than half that time, -and he looks careworn and somewhat older than his years. He has a -dignified, manly presence, a face rather stern in repose, but animated -and genial in conversation; his manner is courteous and friendly to all. - -_May 1st._—We celebrated May-day in a strange land, where May ushers in -the winter, by driving to the Botanical Garden. When I say we, I mean -usually the unprofessional members of the party. The scientific corps -are too busily engaged to be with us on many of our little pleasure -excursions. Mr. Agassiz himself is chiefly occupied in seeing numerous -persons in official positions, whose influence is important in matters -relative to the expedition. He is very anxious to complete these -necessary preliminaries, to despatch his various parties into the -interior, and to begin his personal investigations. He is commended to -be patient, however, and not to fret at delays; for, with the best will -in the world, the dilatory national habits cannot be changed. Meanwhile -he has improvised a laboratory in a large empty room over a warehouse in -the Rua Direita, the principal business street of the city. Here in one -corner the ornithologists, Mr. Dexter and Mr. Allen, have their bench,—a -rough board propped on two casks, the seat an empty keg; in another, Mr. -Anthony, with an apparatus of much the same kind, pores over his shells; -a dissecting-table of like carpentry occupies a conspicuous position; -and in the midst the Professor may generally be seen sitting on a -barrel, for chairs there are none, assorting or examining specimens, or -going from bench to bench to see how the work progresses. In the midst -of the confusion Mr. Burkhardt has his little table, where he is making -colored drawings of the fish as they are brought in fresh from the -fishing-boats. In a small adjoining room Mr. Sceva is preparing -skeletons for mounting. Every one, in short, has his special task and is -busily at work. A very questionable perfume, an “ancient and fish-like -smell,” strongly tinged with alcohol, guides one to this abode of -Science, where, notwithstanding its unattractive aspect, Mr. Agassiz -receives many visitors, curious to see the actual working process of a -laboratory of Natural History, and full of interest in the expedition. -Here also pour in specimens from all quarters and of every kind; -voluntary contributions, which daily swell the collections.[19] Those of -the party who are not engaged here have their work elsewhere. Mr. Hartt -and Mr. St. John are at various stations along the railroad line, making -geological sections of the road; several of the volunteers are -collecting in the country, and Mr. Hunnewell is studying at a -photographic establishment, fitting himself to assist Mr. Agassiz in -this way when we are beyond the reach of professional artists. - -[Illustration: Side View of the Alley of Palms.] - -[Illustration: Vista down the Alley of Palms.] - -Our excursion of to-day took us to another of those exquisite drives in -the neighborhood of the city, always along the harbor or some inlet of -it, always in sight of the mountains, always bordered by pretty country -houses and gardens. The Botanical Garden is about eight miles from the -centre of the town. It is beautiful, because the situation is admirably -well chosen, and because anything that calls itself a garden can hardly -fail to be beautiful in a climate where growth is so luxuriant. But it -is not kept with great care. Indeed, the very readiness with which -plants respond to the least culture bestowed upon them here makes it -very difficult to keep grounds in that trim order which we think so -essential. This garden boasts, however, one feature as unique as it is -beautiful, in its long avenue of palms, some eighty feet in height. I -wish it were possible to give in words the faintest idea of the -architectural beauty of this colonnade of palms, with their green crowns -meeting to form the roof. Straight, firm, and smooth as stone columns, a -dim vision of colonnades in some ancient Egyptian temple rises to the -imagination as one looks down the long vista.[20] - -_May 6th._—Yesterday, at the invitation of our friend Mr. B——, we -ascended the famous Corcovado peak. Leaving the carriages at the -terminus of the Larangeiras road, we made the farther ascent on -horseback by a winding narrow path, which, though a very fair road for -mountain travelling in ordinary weather, had been made exceedingly -slippery by the late rains. The ride was lovely through the fragrant -forest, with enchanting glimpses of view here and there, giving promise -of what was before us. Occasionally a brook or a little cascade made -pleasant music by the roadside, and when we stopped to rest our horses -we heard the wind rustle softly in the stiff palms overhead. The beauty -of vegetation is enhanced here by the singular character of the soil. -The color of the earth is peculiar all about Rio; of a rich warm red, it -seems to glow beneath the mass of vines and large-leaved plants above -it, and every now and then crops out in vivid, striking contrast to the -surrounding verdure. Frequently our path followed the base of such a -bank, its deep ochre and vermilion tints looking all the softer for -their framework of green. Among the larger growth, the Candelabra-tree -(_Cecropia_) was conspicuous. The strangely regular structure of the -branches and its silvery-tinted foliage make it stand out in bold relief -from the darker background. It is a striking feature of the forest in -this neighborhood. - -A wide panoramic prospect always eludes description, but certainly few -can combine such rare elements of beauty as the one from the summit of -the Corcovado. The immense landlocked harbor, with its gateway open to -the sea, the broad ocean beyond, the many islands, the circle of -mountains with soft fleecy clouds floating about the nearer peaks,—all -these features make a wonderful picture. One great charm of this -landscape consists in the fact, that, though very extensive, it is not -so distant as to deprive objects of their individuality. After all, a -very distant view is something like an inventory: so many dark, green -patches, forests; so many lighter green patches, fields; so many white -spots, lakes; so many silver threads, rivers, &c. But here special -effects are not lost in the grandeur of the whole. On the extreme peak -of the height a wall has been built around the edge, the descent on one -side being so vertical that a false step might hurl one to instant -destruction. At this wall we dismounted and lingered long, unwilling to -leave the beautiful view before sunset. We were, however, anxious to -return by daylight, and, to confess the truth, being a timorous and -inexperienced rider at best, I was not without some anxiety as to the -descent, for the latter part of the slippery road had been a sheer -scramble. Putting a bold face on the matter, however, I resumed my seat, -trying to look as if it were my habit to mount horses on the tops of -high mountains and slide down to the bottom. This is really no -inaccurate description of our descent for the first ten minutes, after -which we regained the more level path at the little station called “the -Païneiras.” We are told to-day that parties usually leave their horses -at this station and ascend the rest of the way on foot, the road beyond -that being so steep that it is considered unsafe for riding. However, we -reached the plain without accident, and I look back upon yesterday’s -ride with some complacency as a first lesson in mountain travelling.[21] - -_May 20th._—On Friday, the 12th of May, we left Rio on our first -excursion of any length. A day or two after our arrival Mr. Agassiz had -received an invitation from the President of the Union and Industry -Company to go with some of his party over their road from Petropolis to -Juiz de Fora, in the Province of Minas Geräes, a road celebrated not -only for the beauty of its scenery, but also for its own excellence. A -word as to the circumstances under which it has been built may not be -amiss here; and it must be confessed, that, if the Brazilians are, as -they are said to be, slow in their progress, the improvements they do -undertake are carried out with great thoroughness. It is true that the -construction of the road has been intrusted to French engineers, but the -leading man in its projection and ultimate completion has been a -Brazilian, Senhor Mariano Procopio Ferreira Lage, a native of the -province of Minas Geräes. This province is said to be remarkable for the -great energy and intelligence of its inhabitants, as compared with those -of the adjoining provinces. Perhaps this may be owing to its cooler -climate, most of its towns lying among the highlands of the Serras, and -enjoying a fresher, more stimulating air than those nearer the -sea-coast. Before undertaking the building of this road, Senhor Lage -travelled both in Europe and America with the purpose of learning all -the modern improvements in works of a similar character. The result -bears testimony to the energy and patience with which he has carried out -his project.[22] Twelve years ago the only means of going into the -interior from Petropolis was through narrow, dangerous, broken -mule-tracks, and a journey of a hundred miles involved a difficult ride -of three or four days. Now one travels from Petropolis to Juiz de Fora -between sunrise and sunset over a post-road equal to any in the world, -changing mules every ten or twelve miles at pretty little stations, -built somewhat in the style of Swiss châlets, each one of which is a -settlement for the German colonists who have been induced to come out as -workmen on the road. This emigration in itself is a great advantage to -the country; wherever these little German villages occur, nestled down -among the hills, there are the neat vegetable and flower gardens, the -tidy houses, the general aspect of thrift and comfort, so characteristic -of the better classes of the German peasantry. Nominally no slaves are -allowed on the service of the road, Portuguese and German workmen being -chiefly employed. This is a regulation which applies not only here, but -on other public works about Rio. The contracts granted by the government -expressly exclude the employment of slaves, though unfortunately this -rule is not adhered to strictly, because for the performance of certain -kinds of work no substitute for slave labor has yet been found. In the -direct care of the road, however, in the repairs, for instance, -requiring gangs of men who are constantly at work blasting rock and -cracking the fragments into small pieces for the fresh macadamizing of -any imperfect spot, mending any defects in the embankments or walls, -&c., none but free labor is employed. - -This attempt to exclude slaves from the public works is an emancipation -movement, undertaken with the idea of gradually limiting slave labor to -agricultural processes, and ridding the large cities and their -neighborhood of the presence of slavery. The subject of emancipation is -no such political bugbear here as it has been with us. It is very -liberally and calmly discussed by all classes; the general feeling is -against the institution, and it seems to be taken for granted that it -will disappear before many years are over. During this very session of -the Assembly one or two bills for emancipation have been brought -forward. Even now any enterprising negro may obtain his freedom, and, -once obtained, there is no obstacle to his rising in social or political -station. But while from this point of view slavery is less absolute than -it was with us, it has some appalling aspects. The slaves, at least in -the cities, are literally beasts of burden. One sees the most cumbersome -furniture,—pianos and the like, and the heaviest trunks or barrels, -piled one on top of the other, or bales of sugar and coffee weighing -hundreds of pounds,—moving about the streets on the heads of the -negroes. The result of this is that their limbs often become crippled, -and it is common to see negroes in the prime of life who are quite -crooked and maimed, and can hardly walk without a stick to lean upon. In -justice I must add, however, that this practice, though it shocks a -stranger even now, is gradually disappearing. We are told that a few -years ago there were hardly any baggage-wagons except these living ones, -and that the habit of using the blacks in this way is going out of -vogue. In this as in other matters the Emperor’s opinions are those of -an enlightened and humane man, and were his power equal to his will, -slavery would vanish from his dominions at once. He is, however, too -wise not to know that all great social changes must be gradual; but he -openly declares his abhorrence of the system.[23] - -But to return from this digression to the road of the Union and Industry -Company. It is now completed as far as Juiz de Fora, affording every -convenience for the transport of the rich harvest of coffee constantly -travelling over it from all the fazendas in the region. As the whole -district is very rich in coffee-plantations, the improvement in the -means of transportation is of course very important to the commercial -interests of the country, and Senhor Lage is making practicable roads to -the smallest settlements in his neighborhood. He has not, however, been -free from the difficulties which men encounter whose schemes are in -advance of their surroundings. No doubt a great part of the -dissatisfaction is owing to the fact that the road is not so -remunerative as was anticipated, the advance of the Dom Pedro Railroad -having impaired its success. Still it must be considered as a monument -to the public spirit and energy of the men who undertook it. Not wishing -to interrupt the course of the narrative, I have thought it best to -preface the story of our journey by some account of this road, the -building of which is a significant fact in the present history of -Brazil. I will now take up again the thread of our personal adventures. - -Leaving the city at two o’clock in the ferry-boat, we kept up the harbor -some fifteen miles. There was a cool breeze, and the day, though warm, -was not oppressive. Passing the large Ilha do Governador, the smaller -but exceedingly pretty island of Paqueta, and many others, with their -palms, banana and acacia trees, dotting the harbor of Rio and adding -another grace to its beauty, we landed in about an hour and a quarter at -the little town of Mauá.[24] Here we took the cars, and an hour’s ride -through low and marshy grounds brought us to the foot of the Serra -(_Raiz da Serra_), where we left the railroad for the post-coach, which -runs regularly from this station. The drive was delightful, in an open -diligence drawn by four mules on the full gallop over a road as smooth -as a floor. It wound zigzag up the mountains, through the wildest -scenery, while below us lay the valley broken into a billowy sea of -green hills, and the harbor with the coast range beyond, growing soft -and mellow in the afternoon sunshine. To complete the picture, one must -clothe it in palms and acacias and tree-ferns, and drape it in a tangle -of parasitic growth, with abundant bloom of the purple Quaresma (Flower -of Lent),[25] the Thunbergia vine, with its little straw-colored -blossoms creeping over every wall and shrub, and the blue and yellow -Bignonias. We are constantly astonished at the variety of palms. A palm -is such a rarity in our hot-houses, that we easily forget how numerous -and varied they are in their native forests. We have the scarlet-oak, -the white-oak, the scrub-oak, the chestnut-oak, the swamp-oak, and many -others. And so in the tropical forest there is the cocoanut-palm, with -its swollen, bulb-like stem when young, its tall, straight trunk when -full grown, its cluster of heavy fruit, and its long, plume-like, -drooping flower;[26] the Coccoeiro, with its slighter trunk and pendant -branches of small berry-like fruit; the Palmetto, with its tender -succulent bud on the summit of the stem, which is used as a vegetable -here, and makes an excellent substitute for cabbage; the thorny Icaree -or Cari, a variety of fan-palms, with their leaves cut like ribbons; and -very many others, each with its characteristic foliage and -appearance.[27] - -The mountains along the road, as indeed throughout the neighborhood of -Rio, are of very peculiar forms, steep and conical, suggesting at first -sight a volcanic origin. It is this abruptness of outline which gives so -much grandeur to mountain ranges here, the average height of which does -not exceed two or three thousand feet. A closer examination of their -structure shows that their wild, fantastic forms are the result of the -slow processes of disintegration, not of sudden convulsions. Indeed, the -rocks here differ so much in external character from those of the -Northern Hemisphere, that the European geologist stands at first -bewildered before them, and feels that the work of his life is to be -done over again. It is some time before he obtains a clew to the facts -and brings them into harmony with his previous knowledge. Thus far Mr. -Agassiz finds himself painfully perplexed by this new aspect of -phenomena so familiar to him in other regions, but so baffling here. He -comes upon a rock, for instance, or a rounded elevation which by its -outline he would suppose to be a “roche moutonnée,” but approaching it -more nearly he finds a decomposed crust instead of a glaciated surface. -It is the same with the loose materials corresponding to the drift of -the Northern hemisphere, and with all boulders or detached masses of -rock; on account of their disintegration wherever they are exposed to -the atmosphere, nothing is to be learned from their external appearance. -There is not a natural surface of rock, unless recently broken, to be -found anywhere. - -The sun had set before we drove into the pretty town of Petropolis, the -summer paradise of all Rio Janeirans whose circumstances enable them to -leave the heat and dirt and vile smells of the city, for the pure air -and enchanting views of the Serra. In a central position stands the -summer palace of the Emperor, a far gayer and more cheerful-looking -edifice than the palace at San Christovāo. Here he passes six months of -the year. Through the midst of the town runs the pretty river Piabanha, -a shallow stream, now rippling along in the bottom of its bed between -high green banks; but we were told that a night of rain in the hot -season is enough to swell its waters till they overflow and flood the -road. I could not but think how easy it would be for any one who cares -to see tropical scenery to come here, when the direct line of steamers -from New York is established, and, instead of going to Newport or -Nahant, to take a house in Petropolis for the summer. It commands all -the most beautiful scenery about Rio, and the horseback rides are -without end. During our summer the weather is delightful here, just -admitting a semblance of wood-fire morning and evening, while the orange -orchards are golden with fruit, and flowers are everywhere. We had -little time to become acquainted with the beauty of the place, which we -hope to explore more at our leisure on some future visit, for sunrise -the next morning saw us on our road again. The soft clouds hanging over -the tops of the mountains were just tinged with the first rays of the -sun when we drove out of the town on the top of the diligence, the mules -at full gallop, the guard sounding a gay reveille as we rattled over the -little bridge and past the pretty houses where closed windows and doors -showed that the inhabitants were hardly yet astir. - -The first part of our road lay through the lovely valley of the -Piabanha, the river whose acquaintance we had already made in -Petropolis, and which accompanied us for the first forty or fifty miles -of our journey, sometimes a restless stream broken into rapids and -cascades, sometimes spreading into a broad, placid river, but always -enclosed between mountains rising occasionally to the height of a few -thousand feet, lifting here and there a bare rocky face seamed with a -thousand scars of time and studded with Bromelias and Orchids, but more -often clothed with all the glory of the Southern forest, or covered from -base to summit with coffee shrubs. A thriving coffee plantation is a -very pretty sight; the rounded, regular outline of the shrubs gives a -tufted look to the hillside on which they grow, and their glittering -foliage contrasts strikingly at this season with their bright red -berries. One often passes coffee plantations, however, which look ragged -and thin; in this case the trees are either suffering from the peculiar -insect so injurious to them, (a kind of Tinea,) or have run out and -become exhausted. As we drove along, the scenes upon the road were often -as amusing as they were picturesque. Now we came upon a troop of pack -mules with a _tropeiro_ (driver) at their head; if a large troop, they -were divided into companies of eight, with a man to guide each company. -The guard wound his horn to give warning of our coming, and a general -struggle, garnished with kicks, oaths, and many lashes, ensued, to -induce the mules to make way for the coach. These troops of mules are -beginning to disappear from the seaboard since the modern improvements -in railroads and stage lines, making transportation so much easier; but -until lately it was the only way of bringing down the produce from the -interior. Or again we fell in with a line of country wagons made of -plaited bamboo, a kind of fabric which is put to a variety of uses here, -such as the building of fences and lining of ceilings or roofs, as well -as the construction of carts. Here and there the laborers were sitting -in groups at the roadside, their work suspended while they cooked their -midday meal, their kettles hanging over the fire, their coffee-pot -simmering over the coals, and they themselves lying about in gypsy-like -freedom of attitude. - -At Posse, the third stage of our road, after having gone some thirty -miles, we also stopped to breakfast, a meal which was by no means -unacceptable after our three hours’ ride. It is an almost universal -custom with the Brazilians, especially when travelling, to take their -cup of black coffee on rising, and defer their more solid breakfast till -ten or eleven o’clock. I do not know whether my readers will sympathize -with me, but I am always disappointed myself if any book of travels, -having led me along the weary road, does not tell me what the hungry -wanderers had to eat. It seems hardly fair, having shared their -fatigues, that I should not also share their refreshment and be invited -to sit down at table with them. Doing, therefore, as I would be done by, -I shall give our bill of fare, and take an opportunity of saying a word -at the same time of the characteristic Brazilian dishes. In the first -place we had black beans stewed with _carne secca_ (dried meat), the -invariable accompaniment of every meal in Brazil. There is no house so -poor that it does not have its _feijōes_, no house so rich as to exclude -this homely but most excellent dish, a favorite alike with high and low. -Then there was chicken stewed with potatoes and rice, almost as marked a -feature of the Brazilian cuisine as the black beans. Beside these, there -were eggs served in various ways, cold meat, wine, coffee, and bread. -Vegetables seem to be rare, though one would expect a plentiful variety -in this climate.[28] At Posse Mr. Agassiz found a cordial co-operator in -Mr. Charles Taylor, who expressed a warm interest in his scientific -researches, and kept one of the collecting cans that he might fill it -with fishes from the neighboring rivers and streams.[29] - -Our kind friend Senhor Joaō Baptista da Fonseca, who was our guide and -our host on this journey, had neglected nothing which could contribute -to the success and pleasure of the party, and had so prepared the way -for the scientific objects of the excursion that at several points of -the road we found collections of fishes and other animals awaiting us by -the roadside. Once or twice, as we passed a fazenda, a negro carrying a -basket came out to stop the diligence, and, lifting the cool green -leaves which covered them, showed freshly caught fishes of all hues and -sizes. It was rather aggravating, especially as we approached the end of -our long drive, and the idea of dinner readily suggested itself, to see -them disappear in the alcohol cans.[30] - -At about midday we bade good by to the pretty river we had followed thus -far, and at the Estaçaō d’Entre Rios (between the rivers) crossed the -fine bridge which spans the Parahyba at this point. The Parahyba is the -large river which flows for a great part of its course between the Serra -do Mar and the Serra da Mantiqueira, emptying into the Atlantic at San -Joaō da Barra considerably to the northeast of Rio de Janeiro. One is a -little bewildered at first by the variety of Serras in Brazil, because -the word is used to express not only important chains of mountains, but -all their spurs. Any mountainous elevation is a Serra; but though there -is an endless number of them between the Serra do Mar and the Serra da -Mantiqueira, these are the two most important chains, running parallel -with the sea-coast. Between them flows the Parahyba with its many -branches. It is important to make collections here, as the peculiar -character of this water basin, the many tributaries of which drain the -southern water-shed of the Serra da Mantiqueira, and the northern -water-shed of the Serra do Mar, make it of especial interest for the -naturalist. On account of its neighborhood to the sea, it is also -desirable to compare its inhabitants with those of the many short, -disconnected rivers which empty into the Atlantic on the other side of -the coast range. In short, it gives a good opportunity for testing those -questions of the geographical distribution of living beings, as -connected with their origin, which Mr. Agassiz so strongly urged upon -his assistants during our voyage. - -Soon after crossing the Parahyba, the road strikes the Parahybuna, a -tributary which enters the main river on its northern side, nearly -opposite the Piabanha. The latter part of the journey is less wild than -the first half; the mountains fall away in somewhat gentler slopes, and -do not shut in the road with the steep rugged precipices so striking in -the valley of the Piabanha. But though perhaps less picturesque on -approaching Juiz de Fora,[31] the scenery is beautiful enough throughout -the whole ride to satisfy the most fastidious and keep the attention -constantly awake. We arrived at the end of our journey at about six -o’clock, and found most comfortable accommodations prepared for us at a -little cottage, built somewhat in the style of a Swiss châlet, and kept -by the company for the use of their guests or for the directors of the -road. An excellent dinner awaited us at the little hotel just opposite, -the door of which is shaded by two stately palms; and with a ramble in -the neighboring grounds of Senhor Lage, and a concert by a band of -German musicians, consisting of employees on the road, our day closed,—a -day full of pleasure. - -The following morning we were indebted to Senhor Lage for a walk, as -instructive as it was charming, through his gardens and orange orchards. -Not only has he arranged his grounds with exquisite taste, but has -endeavored to bring together the shrubs and trees most characteristic of -the country, so that a stroll through his place is a valuable lesson to -the botanist, the more so if he is fortunate enough to have the -proprietor as a companion, for he may then learn the name and history of -every tree and flower he passes. Such a guide is invaluable here, for -the Brazilians seem to remain in blissful ignorance of systematic -nomenclature; to most of them all flowers are “flores,” all animals, -from a fly up to a mule or an elephant, “bixos.” One of the most -beautiful features of Senhor Lage’s grounds is a plantation of -parasites,—an extensive walk, bordered on either side by a rustic fence, -over which are trained some of the most exquisite parasitic plants of -the Brazilian forests. In the midst of this walk is the Grotto of the -Princesses, so called after the daughters of the Emperor who, on -occasion of a visit made by the Imperial family to Juiz de Fora, at the -opening of the road, were exceedingly pleased with this pretty spot, -where a spring all overhung with parasitic vines, orchids, &c. flows out -from the rock. The spring, however, is artificial, and is a part of the -admirable system of irrigation introduced over the whole estate. So -rapid is the growth of everything here that one can hardly believe this -beautiful country place to have been under cultivation only five or six -years; a few years more under the same direction will make it a tropical -paradise. - -A variety of plans combining pleasure and science had been arranged for -the next day. First on the list was a drive to the “Forest of the -Empress.” Everything of any interest in the neighborhood recalls the -visit of the Imperial family at the opening of the road. From this event -all loyal Juiz de Forans date, and the virgin forest we were to visit is -consecrated by the fact that on this great occasion the Emperor with his -family and suite breakfasted here in presence of a numerous assemblage -of their loving subjects. Surely a more stately banqueting-hall could -scarcely be found. The throne was cut in the broad buttressed trunk of a -huge figueira; the rustic table, built of rough stems, stood under the -shadow of great palm-trees; and around was the tropical forest, -tapestried with vines, and embroidered with Orchids. These were royal -accompaniments, even though the whole entertainment was conducted with a -simplicity in harmony with the scene. Neither gold nor silver nor glass -was brought to vie with the beauties of nature; the drinking-cups were -made from the hollow stems of the wild bamboo-tree, and all the service -was of the same rustic description. The tables, seats, &c. stand, -undisturbed, as they were on that day, and of course this spot remains a -favorite resort for humbler picnics than the one by which it was -inaugurated. We wandered about for some time in the cool shade of the -wood, lunched under the rustling palms, and then drove homeward, -stopping for a while by the side of the river, where a pretty cascade -rushes over the stones, and a rustic house built for the same memorable -occurrence makes a pleasant resting-place. In the afternoon a heavy rain -kept us within doors, but we were not sorry, for we were in danger of -having a surfeit of pleasure, and quiet was very grateful. - -A great part of our last day at Juiz de Fora was spent at the hospitable -house of Mr. Halfeld, the German engineer who has gained an honorable -distinction by his explorations in the interior. His work on the Rio San -Francisco was well known to Mr. Agassiz, so that they found themselves -at once on familiar ground, and Mr. Halfeld was able to give him a great -deal of valuable information respecting the prospects of the present -expedition, especially that department of it which will go to the -Amazons by way of the Rio San Francisco and the Tocantins. He has also -an interesting collection of objects of natural history, and cordially -offered his assistance in obtaining the fishes of the neighborhood. As -for the collections, they had been going on famously during our whole -visit. We had hardly been in Juiz de Fora twenty-four hours before a -dozen collectors were actively at work. All the urchins of the -neighborhood and many of the Germans employed on the road lent a helping -hand. Even the ladies did their full share, and Mr. Agassiz was indebted -to our friend Mrs. K—— for some of the most interesting specimens from -this locality. No doubt such as were left of the “bixos” of Juiz de Fora -must have congratulated themselves on our departure the following -morning. - -We enjoyed our return over the same road scarcely less than our first -introduction to it; but the latter part of the day was full of an -interest which touched us more nearly. At Posse, where we had -breakfasted on our way up, Mr. Taylor welcomed us with a Portuguese -paper containing a bulletin announcing the great victories of the North. -Petersburg and Richmond taken,—Lee in full retreat,—the war virtually -over. This was the substance of the news received with delight and -acclamation, not without tears of gratitude also, and we went on our way -rejoicing. As we drove up to the Hotel Inglez after dark that evening, -hoping to get a glimpse of an American paper, or at least to have the -good news confirmed through the American Minister, General Webb, whose -residence is at Petropolis, we were greeted by the announcement of the -assassination of Lincoln and Seward, both believed at this time to be -dead. At first it seemed absolutely incredible, and the more sanguine -among us persisted in regarding it as a gigantic street rumor, invented -perhaps by Secession sympathizers, till on our return to town the next -morning our worst fears were confirmed by the French steamer just -arrived. The days seemed very long till the next mail, which reassured -us somewhat, as it brought the news of Mr. Seward’s probable recovery -and strengthened our faith in the stability of the national character. -All the accounts, public and private, assure us that, though there is -mourning throughout the land, there is no disturbance of the general -regularity and order. - ------ - -Footnote 16: - - The winter palace of the Emperor. - -Footnote 17: - - Some weeks after this I chanced to ask a beautiful young Brazilian - woman, recently married, whether she had ever been over this temporary - road for the sake of seeing the picturesque scenery. “No,” she - answered with perfect seriousness, “I am young and very happy, and I - do not wish to die yet.” It was an amusing comment on the Brazilian - estimate of the dangers attending the journey. - -Footnote 18: - - This road, which is but the beginning of railroad travel in Brazil, - opens a rich prospect for scientific study. From this time forward the - difficulty of transporting collections from the interior to the - seaboard will be diminishing. Instead of the few small specimens of - tropical vegetation now preserved in our museums, I hope that - hereafter, in every school where geology and palæontology are taught, - we shall have large stems and portions of trunks to show the structure - of palms, tree-ferns, and the like,—trees which represent in modern - times the ancient geological forests. The time is coming when our - text-books of botany and zoölogy will lose their local, limited - character, and present comprehensive pictures of Nature in all her - phases. Then only will it be possible to make true and pertinent - comparisons between the condition of the earth in former times and its - present aspect under different zones and climates. To this day the - fundamental principle guiding our identification of geological - formations in different ages rests upon the assumption that each - period has had one character throughout; whereas the progress of - geology is daily pressing upon us the evidence that at each period - different latitudes and different continents have always had their - characteristic animals and plants, if not as diversified as now, at - least varied enough to exclude the idea of uniformity. Not only do I - look for a vast improvement in our collections with improved methods - of travel and transportation in Brazil, but I hope that scientific - journeys in the tropics will cease to be occasional events in the - progress and civilization of nations, and will be as much within the - reach of every student as journeys in the temperate zone have hitherto - been. For further details respecting the building of this road, see - Appendix No. IV.—L. A. - -Footnote 19: - - Among the frequent visitors at the laboratory, and one to whom Mr. - Agassiz was indebted for most efficient aid in making his collection - of fishes from the harbor of Rio, was our friend Dr. Pacheco de Silva, - who never lost an opportunity of paying us all sorts of friendly - attentions. He added quite a number of luxuries to the working-room - described above. Another friend who was often at the laboratory was - Dr. Nägeli. Notwithstanding his large practice, he found time to - assist Mr. Agassiz not only with collections but with drawings of - various specimens. Being himself an able naturalist, his co-operation - was very valuable. The collections were indeed enriched by - contributions from so many sources that it would be impossible to - enumerate them all here. In the more technical reports of the - expedition all such gifts are recorded, with the names of those - persons from whom the specimens were received. - -Footnote 20: - - The palm is the beautiful _Oreodoxa oleracea_. - -Footnote 21: - - Leuzinger’s admirable photographs of the scenery about the Corcovado, - as well as from Petropolis, the Organ Mountains, and the neighborhood - of Rio generally, may now be had in the print-shops of Boston and New - York. I am the more desirous to make this fact known as I am indebted - to Mr. Leuzinger for very generous assistance in the illustration of - scientific objects.—L. A. - -Footnote 22: - - A commemorative tablet, set in the rocks on the dividing line between - the provinces of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geräes, recording the speech - of the Emperor on the occasion of the opening of the road, testifies - the appreciation in which this undertaking was held by the government - of Brazil. - -Footnote 23: - - Since this was written the Emperor, at a large pecuniary sacrifice, - has liberated all the slaves belonging to the property of the crown, - and a general scheme of emancipation has been announced by the - Brazilian government, the wisdom, foresight, and benevolence of which - can hardly be too highly praised. If this be adopted, slavery in - Brazil will disappear within the century by a gradual process, - involving no violent convulsion, and perilling neither the safety of - the slave nor the welfare of his master. - -Footnote 24: - - To the Baron de Mauá, a leader in the great improvements now going on - in Brazil, the citizens of Rio de Janeiro owe their present convenient - road to Petropolis, their favorite summer residence. - -Footnote 25: - - A species of Melastoma, with very large, conspicuous flowers.—L. A. - -Footnote 26: - - This is not, however, native to Brazil. - -Footnote 27: - - Indeed, their diversity is much greater even than that of our Oaks, - and it would require a comprehensive comparison with a majority of our - forest-trees to match the differences they exhibit among themselves; - and their native names, far more euphonic than the systematic names - under which they are entered in our scientific works, are as familiar - to the Indians as those of our beeches, birches, hazels, chestnuts, - poplars, or willows to our farmers. There are four essentially - different forms among the palms: the tall ones, with a slender and - erect stem, terminating with a crown of long feathery leaves, or with - broad fan-shaped leaves; the bushy ones, the leaves of which rise as - it were in tufts from the ground, the stem remaining hidden under the - foliage; the brush-like ones, with a small stem, and a few rather - large leaves; and the winding, creeping, slender species. Their - flowers and fruits are as varied as their stock. Some of these fruits - may be compared to large woody nuts, with a fleshy mass inside; others - have a scaly covering; others resemble peaches or apricots, while - others still are like plums or grapes. Most of them are eatable and - rather pleasant to the taste. It is a thousand pities that so many of - these majestic trees should have been deprived of their sonorous - native names, to bear henceforth, in the annals of science, the names - of some unknown princes, whom flattery alone could rescue from - oblivion. The Inaja has become a Maximiliana, the Jara a Leopoldinia, - the Pupunha a Guilielma, the Pachiuba an Iriartea, the Carana a - Mauritia. The changes from Indian to Greek names have not been more - felicitous. I would certainly have preferred Jacitara to Desmonchus, - Mucaja to Acrocomia, Baccába to Œnocarpus, Tucuma to Astrocaryum. Even - Euterpe for Assai is hardly an improvement.—L. A. - -Footnote 28: - - This observation was confirmed by our year’s travel. The Brazilians - care little for a variety of vegetables, and do not give much - attention to their cultivation. Those they do use are chiefly imported - in cans from Europe. - -Footnote 29: - - On our return from the Amazons a year later we heard with great regret - of the death of Mr. Taylor For many months he took an active part in - the objects of the Expedition, being himself a good naturalist, and - not only made valuable collections for Mr. Agassiz, but also some - admirable colored drawings of fishes and insects, which it is hoped - may be published at a future time with the other scientific results of - this journey. - -Footnote 30: - - My experience of this day might well awaken the envy of any - naturalist, and I was myself no less astonished than grateful for its - scientific results. Not only had Senhor Lage provided us with the most - comfortable private conveyance, but he had sent messengers in advance - to all the planters residing near our line of travel, requesting them - to provide all the fishes that were to be had in the adjoining rivers - and brooks. The agents of the stations situated near water-courses had - also received instructions to have similar collections in readiness, - and in two places I found large tanks filled with living specimens of - all the species in the neighborhood. The small number of species - subsequently added, upon repeated excursions to different parts of the - basin of the Parahyba, convinced me that in this one day, thanks to - the kindness of our host and his friends, I had an opportunity of - examining nearly its whole ichthyological fauna, and of making - probably as complete a collection from it as may be found from any of - the considerable rivers of Europe in the larger museums of the Old - World.—L. A. - -Footnote 31: - - In some maps this place is inscribed under the name of Parahybuna. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - LIFE IN RIO CONTINUED.—FAZENDA LIFE. - - BOTAFOGO.—INSANE HOSPITAL.—TIJUCA.—ERRATIC - DRIFT.—VEGETATION.—BIRTHDAY DINNER.—ARRANGEMENTS FOR PARTIES TO - THE INTERIOR.—PUBLIC LECTURES IN RIO.—PROCESSION OF ST. - GEORGE.—LEAVE RIO ON EXCURSION TO THE FORTALEZA DE SANTA - ANNA.—LOCALITIES FOR ERRATIC DRIFT BETWEEN RIO AND - PETROPOLIS.—DEPARTURE FROM JUIZ DE FORA.—ARRIVAL AT THE - FAZENDA.—RIDE IN THE FOREST.—EVE OF SAN JOAŌ.—CUPIM - NESTS.—EXCURSION TO THE UPPER FAZENDA.—GRAND HUNT.—PICNIC.—COFFEE - PLANTATION.—RETURN TO RIO.—MIMIC SNOW-FIELDS.—COFFEE INSECT - SPINNING ITS NEST.—VISIT TO THE FAZENDA OF COMMENDADOR - BREVES.—BOTANIZING EXCURSION TO TIJUCA.—PREPARATIONS FOR LEAVING - RIO.—MAJOR COUTINHO.—COLLEGIO DOM PEDRO SEGUNDO. - - -[Illustration: Botafogo Bay.] - -_May 22d._—This afternoon Dr. and Mrs. C—— and myself went out for a -country ramble, somewhat at a venture, it is true, but feeling sure that -in the beautiful scenery about Rio we could hardly go amiss. We took one -of the many ferry-boats in the neighborhood of our hotel, and presently -found ourselves on the way to Botafogo. Almost all the environs of the -city are built along beaches; there is the beach or Praia of Botafogo, -the Praia of San Christovāo, the Praia of San Domingo, and half a dozen -others, all of which mean some suburb of the town situated on the shore -with a beach in front of it. As it is rather the fashion for the better -class of people to live out of town, the houses and gardens in these -suburbs are often delightful. We enjoyed the sail exceedingly. For a -part of the way the boat keeps close under the mountains, and no -description can give an idea of their picturesque outlines, or of the -wonderful coloring which softens all their asperities and mellows the -whole landscape. We landed at a jetty thrown out from a romantic-looking -road, and as we found no carriage on the wharf, and ascertained that the -boat did not return for two hours, we wandered up this road to see where -chance would lead us. The afternoon would have been full of interest had -it ended in the walk along the crescent-shaped bay, with the water -rippling on the sands, and the mountains opposite all purple in the -afternoon sunshine. The road brought us, however, to a magnificent -hospital for the insane, the hospital of Dom Pedro Segundo, which we had -seen and admired from the deck of the steamer on the day of our arrival. -We entered the grounds, and as the great door of the building was open -and the official on guard looked by no means forbidding, we ascended the -steps and went in. It is difficult to imagine an edifice more -appropriate for the purpose to which it is devoted. It is true we saw -only the public rooms and corridors, as a permit was required to enter -the wards; but a plan hanging near the entrance gave us an idea of the -arrangement of the building, and its general aspect bore testimony to -the cleanliness, cheerfulness, and order of the establishment. Some of -the public rooms were very handsome,—especially one, at the end of which -stands a statue of the boy Emperor, taken, no doubt, at the time of his -coronation. In the man of forty you still recognize the frank, -intelligent, manly face of the lad on whom such great responsibility was -thrown at the age of fifteen. As we went up the spacious staircase, the -sound of music brought us to the door of the chapel, where the evening -service was going on. Patients and nurses were kneeling together; a -choir of female voices was singing sweetly a calm, peaceful kind of -music; that somewhat monotonous chanting, so passionless in its regular -movement, which one hears in the Catholic Church; the candles were -burning before the altar, but the great window just outside the door was -open to the setting sun, and, as I stood in the balcony looking out on -the mountains and listening to the music, I thought that a mind which -had gone astray might find its way back again in such scenes and under -such influences. Certainly, if nature has any healing power, it must be -felt here. We lingered and listened as long as we dared, and stole away -as the services were closing, just in time to take the evening boat. - -[Illustration: Mina Negress.] - -_May 25th._—The fish-market is, in all seaport towns, a favorite haunt -with Mr. Agassiz, and here it has an especial interest for him on -account of the variety and beauty of the fishes brought in every -morning. I sometimes accompany him in these rambles for the pleasure of -seeing the fresh loads of oranges, flowers, and vegetables, and of -watching the picturesque negro groups selling their wares or sitting -about in knots to gossip. We have already learned that the fine-looking -athletic negroes of a nobler type, at least physically, than any we see -in the States, are the so-called Mina negroes, from the province of -Mina, in Western Africa. They are a very powerful-looking race, and the -women especially are finely made and have quite a dignified presence. I -am never tired of watching them in the street and market, where they are -to be seen in numbers, being more commonly employed as venders of fruit -and vegetables than as house-servants. It is said that a certain wild -and independent element in their character makes them unfit for domestic -service. The women always wear a high muslin turban, and a long, -bright-colored shawl, either crossed on the breast and thrown carelessly -over the shoulder, or, if the day be chilly, drawn closely around them, -their arms hidden in its folds. The amount of expression they throw into -the use of this shawl is quite amazing. I watched a tall, superbly made -woman in the street to-day who was in a great passion. Gesticulating -violently, she flung her shawl wide, throwing out both arms, then, -drawing it suddenly in, folded it about her, and stretched herself to -her full height; presently opening it once more, she shook her fist in -the face of her opponent, and then, casting one end of her long drapery -over her shoulder, stalked away with the air of a tragedy queen. It -serves as a cradle also, for, tying it loosely round their hips, they -slip the baby into the folds behind, and there it hangs, rocked to sleep -by the mother’s movement as she walks on with her long, swinging tread. -The Mina negress is almost invariably remarkable for her beautiful hand -and arm. She seems to be conscious of this, and usually wears -close-fitting bracelets at the wrist, made of some bright-colored beads, -which set off the form of the hand and are exceedingly becoming on her -dark, shining skin. These negroes are Mohammedans, and are said to -remain faithful to their prophet, though surrounded by the observances -of the Catholic Church. They do not seem to me so affable and responsive -as the Congo negroes, but are, on the contrary, rather haughty. One -morning I came upon a cluster of them in the market breakfasting after -their work was done, and I stopped to talk with them, asking what they -had for breakfast, and trying various subjects on which to open an -acquaintance. But they looked at me coldly and suspiciously, barely -answering my questions, and were evidently relieved when I walked away. - -[Illustration: Mina Negress and Child.] - -_May 26th._—Tijuca. In the pleasant environs of Rio there is no resort -more frequented than the establishment of Mr. Bennett at Tijuca, and we -were not sorry the day before yesterday to leave the hot, dusty city, -with a pleasant party of friends, for this cluster of mountains, some -eighteen hundred feet above the sea level and about eight miles from -Rio. It takes its name from the peak of Tijuca, so conspicuous an object -in the coast range. On our arrival we were very cordially welcomed by -our host himself, who was not quite a stranger to us, for Mr. Agassiz -has been already indebted to him for valuable collections. Mr. Bennett -has an Englishman’s love of nature, and is very familiar with the botany -and zoölogy of the beautiful region which has been his home for many -years. Under his guidance, we have taken a number of pleasant rambles -and rides, regretting only that we cannot avail ourselves for a longer -time of his intimate knowledge of the locality and its productions. - -I have alluded before to the perplexing character of the geology, and -the almost universal decomposition of the rock surfaces, making it -difficult to decipher them. The presence of the drift phenomena, so -universal in the Northern hemisphere, has been denied here; but, in his -long walk to-day, Mr. Agassiz has had an opportunity of observing a -great number of erratic boulders, having no connection with the rocks in -place, and also a sheet of drift studded with boulders and resting above -the partially stratified metamorphic rock in immediate contact with it. -I introduce here a letter written by him to his friend, Professor Peirce -of Harvard University, under the first impression of the day’s -experience, which will best explain his view of the subject. - - “May 27th, 1865, TIJUCA. - - “MY DEAR PEIRCE:— - - “Yesterday was one of the happiest days of my life, and I want to - share it with you. Here I am at Tijuca, a cluster of hills, about - eighteen hundred feet high and some seven or eight miles from Rio, - in a charming cottage-like hotel, from the terrace of which you see - a drift hill with innumerable erratic boulders, as characteristic as - any I have ever seen in New England. I had before seen sundry - unmistakable traces of drift, but there was everywhere connected - with the drift itself such an amount of decomposed rocks of various - kinds, that, though I could see the drift and distinguish it from - the decomposed primary rocks in place, on account of my familiarity - with that kind of deposits, yet I could probably never have - satisfied anybody else that there is here an equivalent of the - Northern drift, had I not found yesterday, near Bennett’s hotel at - Tijuca, the most palpable superposition of drift and decomposed - rocks, with a distinct line of demarcation between the two, of which - I shall secure a good photograph. This locality afforded me at once - an opportunity of contrasting the decomposed rocks which form a - characteristic feature of the whole country (as far as I have yet - seen it) with the superincumbent drift, and of making myself - familiar with the peculiarities of both deposits; so that I trust I - shall be able hereafter to distinguish both, whether they are in - contact with one another or found separately. These decomposed rocks - are quite a new feature to me in the structure of the country. - Imagine granite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, and in fact all the - various kinds of rocks usually found in old metamorphic formations, - reduced to the condition of a soft paste, exhibiting all the - mineralogical elements of the rocks, as they may have been before - they were decomposed, but now completely disintegrated and resting - side by side, as if they had been accumulated artificially in the - manner you have seen glass cylinders filled with variously colored - sands or clays to imitate the appearance of the beds of Gay-Head. - And through this loose mass there run, here and there, larger or - smaller dikes of quartz-rock or of granite or other rocks equally - disintegrated; but they retain the arrangement of their materials, - showing them to be disintegrated dikes in large disintegrated masses - of rock; the whole passing unmistakably to rocks of the same kind in - which the decomposition or disintegration is only partial, or no - trace of it visible, and the whole mass exhibiting then the - appearance of an ordinary metamorphic set of rocks. - - “That such masses forming everywhere the surface of the country - should be a great obstacle to the study of the erratic phenomena is - at once plain, and I do not therefore wonder that those who seem - familiar with the country should now entertain the idea that the - surface rocks are everywhere decomposed, and that there is no - erratic formation or drift here. But upon close examination it is - easy to perceive that, while the decomposed rocks consist of small - particles of the primitive rocks which they represent, with their - dikes and all other characteristic features, there is not a trace of - larger or smaller boulders in them; while the superincumbent drift, - consisting of a similar paste, does not show the slightest sign of - the indistinct stratification characteristic of the decomposed - metamorphic rocks below it, nor any of the decomposed dikes, but is - full of various kinds of boulders of various dimensions. I have not - yet traced the boulders to their origin; but the majority consist of - a kind of greenstone composed of equal amounts of a greenish black - hornblende and feldspar. In Entre Rios on the Parahyba, I was told - by an engineer on the road that in Minas Geräes iron mines are - worked in a rock like these boulders. This week I propose to explore - the Serra da Mantiqueira,[32] which separates the province of Rio - from Minas, and may advance the question further. But you see that I - need not go to the Andes to find erratics, though it may yet be - necessary for me to go, in order to trace the evidence of glacier - action in the accumulation of this drift; for you will notice that I - have only given you the evidence of extensive accumulations of drift - similar in its characteristics to Northern drift. But I have not yet - seen a trace of glacial action properly speaking, if polished - surfaces and scratches and furrows are especially to be considered - as such. - - “The decomposition of the surface rocks to the extent to which it - takes place here is very remarkable, and points to a new geological - agency, thus far not discussed in our geological theories. It is - obvious here (and to-day with the pouring rain which keeps me in - doors I have satisfactory evidence of it) that the warm rains - falling upon the heated soil must have a very powerful action in - accelerating the decomposition of rocks. It is like torrents of hot - water falling for ages in succession upon hot stones. Think of the - effect, and, instead of wondering at the large amount of decomposed - rocks which you meet everywhere, you will be surprised that there - are any rocks left in their primitive condition. It is, however, the - fact, that all the rocks you see are encased, as it were, in a - lining of the decomposed part of their surface; they are actually - covered with a rotten crust of their own substance. - - “Ever truly yours, - - “L. AGASSIZ.” - -Among the objects of special interest which we have seen here for the -first time are the colossal fruits of the Sapucaia-tree, a species of -Lecythis, belonging to the same family as the Brazilian nuts. These -fruits, of which there are a number of species, vary from the size of an -apple to that of an ordinary melon; they resemble an urn closed with a -lid, and contain about fifty seeds as large as almonds. The woods all -over these Tijuca hills are beautiful and wonderfully luxuriant; but I -lack names for the various trees. We are not yet familiar enough with -the aspect of the forest to distinguish readily its different forms of -vegetation; and it is besides exceedingly difficult here to ascertain -the common names of plants. The Brazilians do not seem to me observant -of nature in its details; at all events, I never get a satisfactory -answer to the question I am constantly putting, “What do you call this -tree or flower?” And if you ask a botanist, he invariably gives you the -scientific, not the popular name, nor does he seem to be aware that any -such exists. I have a due respect for nomenclature, but when I inquire -the name of some very graceful tree or some exquisite flower, I like to -receive a manageable answer, something that may fitly be introduced into -the privacy of domestic life, rather than the ponderous official Latin -appellation. We are struck with the variety of Melastomas in full flower -now, and very conspicuous, from their large purple blossoms, and have -remarked also several species of the Bombaceæ, easily distinguished by -their peculiar foliage and large cotton fruits. The Candelabra-tree -(Cecropia) is abundant here, as throughout the neighborhood of Rio, and -is covered at this season with fruit resembling somewhat the fruit of -the bread-tree, but more slender and cylindrical in form. Large -Euphorbias, of the size of forest-trees, also attract our attention, for -it is the first time we have seen them except as shrubs, such as the -“Estrella do Norte” (Poinsettia). But there is before Mr. Bennett’s -house a very large nut-tree, “Nogueira,” of this family. The palms are -numerous; among them the Astrocaryum Cari, whose spiny stems and leaves -make it difficult to approach, is very common. Its bunches of bright -chestnut-brown fruit hang from between the leaves which form its crown, -each bunch about a foot in length, massive and compact, like a large -cluster of black Hamburg grapes. The Syagrus palm is also frequent; it -has a greenish fruit not unlike the olive in appearance, also hanging in -large pendent bunches just below the leaves. The mass of foliage is -everywhere knit together by parasitic vines without number, and every -dead branch or fallen trunk is overgrown by parasites. Foreign tropical -trees are cultivated about the houses everywhere,—bread-fruit trees and -Ameixas, a kind of plum of the hawthorn family, bananas, etc. The bamboo -of the East Indies also is used to form avenues in Rio de Janeiro and -its environs. The alleys of bamboo in the grounds of the palace at San -Christovāo are among its most beautiful ornaments. - -[Illustration: Fallen Trunk overgrown by Parasites.] - -Mr. Agassiz has been surprised to find that shrimps of considerable size -are common in all the brooks and even in the highest pools of Tijuca. It -seems strange to meet with Crustacea of marine forms in mountain -streams. - -To-day we are kept in the house by a violent rain, but there is enough -to do in looking over specimens, working up journals, writing letters, -&c., to prevent the time from hanging heavy on our hands. To-morrow we -return to town. - -_May 28th_, RIO.—To-day is Mr. Agassiz’s birthday, and it has been so -affectionately remembered here that it is difficult to believe ourselves -in a foreign country. The Swiss citizens gave him a dinner yesterday on -the eve of the anniversary, where everything recalled the land of his -birth, without excluding the land of his adoption. The room was draped -with the flags of all the Cantons, while the ceiling was covered by two -Swiss national flags, united in the centre just above his own seat by -the American flag, thus recognizing at once his Swiss nationality and -his American citizenship.[33] The Brazilian flag which gave them all -hospitality and protection had also an honored place. The fête is -reported to have been most genial and gay, closing with a number of -student songs in which all bore their share, and succeeded by a serenade -under our windows. To-day our room is festive with flowers and other -decorations, and friendly greetings on every side remind us that, though -in a foreign land, we are not among strangers. - -_June 14th._—Since our return from Tijuca we have been almost constantly -in town, Mr. Agassiz being engaged, often from early morning till deep -into the night, in taking care of the specimens which come in from every -quarter, and making the final preparations for the parties which he -intends sending into the interior. The most important of these, or -rather the one for which it is most difficult to procure the necessary -facilities, is bound for the upper course of the San Francisco. At this -point one or more of their number will strike across the country to the -Tocantins, and descend that river to the Amazons, while the others will -follow the valley of the Piauhy to the coast. This is a long, difficult, -but, as we are assured, not a dangerous journey for young and vigorous -men. But wishing to anticipate every trouble that may befall them, Mr. -Agassiz has made it his business to ascertain, as far as possible, the -nature of the route, and to obtain letters to the most influential -people for every step of the road. This has been no light task; in a -country where there are no established means of internal communication, -where mules, guides, camaradas, and even an armed escort may be -necessary, and must be provided for in advance, the preparation for a -journey through the interior requires a vast deal of forethought. Add to -this the national habit of procrastination, the profound conviction of -the Brazilian that to-morrow is better than to-day, and one may -understand how it happens that, although it has been a primary object -since our arrival to expedite the party to the Tocantins, their -departure has been delayed till now. And yet it would be the height of -ingratitude to give the impression that there has been any backwardness -on the part of the Brazilians themselves, or of their government, to -facilitate the objects of the expedition. On the contrary, they not only -show a warm interest, but the utmost generosity, and readiness to give -all the practical aid in their power. Several leading members of the -Cabinet, the Senate, and the House of Representatives have found time -now, when they have a war upon their hands, and when one ministry has -been going out and another coming in, not only to prepare the necessary -introductions for these parties from Rio to the Amazons, but also to -write out the routes, giving the most important directions and -information for the separate journeys.[34] Yet with the best will in the -world the Brazilians know comparatively little of the interior of their -own country. It is necessary to collect all that is known from a variety -of sources, and then to combine it as well as may be, so as to form an -organized plan. Even then a great deal must be left to be decided in -accordance with circumstances which no one can foresee. No pains have -been spared to anticipate all the probable difficulties, and to provide -for them as far as it is humanly possible to do so; and we feel that -this journey, a part of which has been made by very few persons before, -has never been undertaken under better auspices. This party will explore -the upper course of the Rio Doce, the Rio das Velhas, and the San -Francisco, with the lower course of the Tocantins and its tributaries, -as far as they can; making also collections of fossils in certain -regions upon the route. Another party, starting at about the same time, -is to keep nearer the coast, exploring the lower course of the Rio Doce -and the San Francisco. Mr. Agassiz thus hopes to make at least a partial -survey of this great water system, while he himself undertakes the -Amazons and its tributaries.[35] In the mean time, the result of the -weeks he has been obliged to spend in Rio, while organizing the work of -these parties and making the practical arrangements for its prosecution, -has been very satisfactory. The collections are large, and will give a -tolerably complete idea of the fauna of this province, as well as a part -of that of Minas Geräes. A survey of the Dom Pedro Railroad, made under -his direction by his two young friends, Messrs. Hart and St. John, is -also an excellent beginning of the work in this department, and his own -observations on the drift phenomena have an important bearing on the -great questions on which he hoped to throw new light in coming here. The -closing words of a lecture delivered by him last evening at the Collegio -Dom Pedro Segundo will best express his own estimation of the facts he -has collected in their bearing on the drift phenomena in other parts of -the world. After giving some account of the erratic blocks and drift -observed by him at Tijuca and already described in his letter to Mr. -Peirce, he added: “I wish here to make a nice distinction that I may not -be misunderstood. I _affirm_ that the erratic phenomena, viz. erratic -drift, in immediate superposition with partially decomposed stratified -rock, exist here in your immediate neighborhood; I _believe_ that these -phenomena are connected, here as elsewhere, with the action of ice. It -is nevertheless possible that a more intimate study of these subjects in -tropical regions may reveal some phase of the phenomena not hitherto -observed, just as the investigation of the glacial action in the United -States has shown that immense masses of ice may move over a plain, as -well as over a mountain slope. Let me now urge a special study of these -facts upon the young geologists of Rio, as they have never been -investigated and their presence is usually denied. If you ask me, ‘To -what end?—of what use is such a discovery?’—I answer, It is given to no -mortal man to predict what may be the result of any discovery in the -realms of nature. When the electric current was discovered, what was it? -A curiosity. When the first electric machine was invented, to what use -was it put? To make puppets dance for the amusement of children. To-day -it is the most powerful engine of civilization. But should our work have -no other result than this,—to know that certain facts in nature are thus -and not otherwise, that their causes were such and no others,—this -result in itself is good enough, and great enough, since the end of man, -his aim, his glory, is the knowledge of the truth.” - -One word upon these lectures, since we are told by the Brazilians -themselves that the introduction of public lectures among them is a -novelty and in a certain sense an era in their educational history. If -any subject of science or letters is to be presented to the public here, -it is done under special conditions before a selected audience, where -the paper is read in presence of the Emperor with all due solemnity. -Popular instruction, with admittance for all who care to listen or to -learn, has been hitherto a thing unknown. The suggestion was made by Dr. -Pacheco, the Director of the Collegio Dom Pedro II., a man of liberal -culture and great intelligence, who has already done much for the -progress of education in Rio de Janeiro; it found favor with the -Emperor, who is keenly alive to anything which can stimulate the love of -knowledge among his people, and at his request Mr. Agassiz has given a -course of lectures in French on a variety of scientific subjects. He was -indeed very glad to have an opportunity of introducing here a means of -popular education which he believes to have been very salutary in its -influence among us. At first the presence of ladies was objected to, as -too great an innovation on national habits; but even that was overcome, -and the doors were opened to all comers, the lectures being given after -the true New England fashion. I must say that, if the absolutely -uninterrupted attention of an audience is any test of its intelligence, -no man could ask a better one than that which Mr. Agassiz has had the -pleasure of addressing in Rio de Janeiro. It has also been a great -pleasure to him, after teaching for nearly twenty years in English, to -throw off the fetters of a foreign tongue and speak again in French. -After all, with a few exceptions, a man’s native language remains for -him the best; it is the element in which he always moves most at ease. - -The Emperor, with his family, has been present at all these lectures, -and it is worthy of note, as showing the simplicity of his character, -that, instead of occupying the raised platform intended for them, he -caused the chairs to be placed on a level with the others, as if to show -that in science at least there is no distinction of rank.[36] - -_June 11th._—To-day has been a festa, but one the significance of which -it is somewhat difficult to understand, so singularly is the religious -element mingled with the grotesque and quaint. In the Church it is the -feast of Corpus Christi, but it happens to fall on the same date as -another festival in honor of St. George, which is kept with all sorts of -antique ceremonies. I went in the morning with our young friend, Mr. -T——, to the Imperial chapel, where high mass was celebrated, and at the -close of the services we had some difficulty in finding our way back to -the hotel, before which the procession was to pass, for the street was -already draped with all sorts of gay colors and crowded with spectators. -First in order came the religious part of the procession; a long array -of priests and church officials carrying lighted candles, pyramids of -flowers, banners, &c. Then came the host, under a canopy of white satin -and gold, supported by massive staffs; the bearers were the highest -dignitaries of the land, first among them being the Emperor himself and -his son-in-law, the Duke of Saxe. In strange contrast with these -solemnities was the stuffed equestrian figure of St. George, a huge, -unwieldy shape on horseback, preceded and followed by riders almost as -grotesque as himself. With him came a number of orders resembling, if -not the same as, the Free-Masons, the Odd Fellows, and like societies. -The better educated Brazilians speak of this procession as an old legacy -from Portugal, which has lost its significance for them, and which they -would gladly see pass out of use, as it is already out of date. - -This evening Mr. Agassiz gave the closing lecture of his course. It is -to be followed next week by a lecture from Dr. Capanema, the Brazilian -geologist, and there will be an attempt made to organize courses of -public lectures on the same plan hereafter. Our numbers are gradually -diminishing. Last week the party for the interior, consisting of Messrs. -St. John, Allen, Ward, and Sceva, started, and Messrs. Hartt and -Copeland leave in a day or two to undertake an exploration of the coast -between the Parahyba do Sul and Bahia. - -_June 30th._—On the 21st we left Rio on our way to the province of Minas -Geräes, where we were to pass a week at the coffee fazenda of Senhor -Lage, who received us so courteously on our former visit to Juiz de -Fora, and who was so influential in projecting and carrying out the -Union and Industry road. The journey to Juiz de Fora, though we had made -it once before, had lost nothing of its beauty by familiarity, and had -gained in interest of another kind; for his examination of the erratic -drift at Tijuca has given Mr. Agassiz the key to the geological -constitution of the soil, and what seemed to him quite inexplicable on -our first excursion over this road is now perfectly legible. It is -interesting to watch the progress of an investigation of this character, -and to see how the mental process gradually clears away the obscurity. -The perception becomes sharpened by dwelling upon the subject, and the -mind adapts itself to a difficult problem as the eye adapts itself to -darkness. That which was confused at first presently becomes clear to -the mental vision of the observer, who watches and waits for the light -to enter. There is one effect of the atmospheric influence here, already -alluded to in the previous pages, which at first sight is very -deceptive. Wherever there is any cut through drift, unless recently -opened, it becomes baked at the surface so as to simulate stone in such -a way as hardly to be distinguished from the decomposed rock surfaces in -place, unless by a careful examination. This, together with the partial -obliteration of the stratification in many places, makes it, at first -glance, difficult to recognize the point of contact between the -stratified rock and the drift resting above it. A little familiarity -with these deceptive appearances, however, makes it as easy to read the -broken leaves of the book of nature here as elsewhere, and Mr. Agassiz -has now no more difficulty in following the erratic phenomena in these -Southern regions than in the Northern hemisphere. All that is wanting to -complete the evidence of the actual presence of ice here, in former -times, is the glacial writing, the striæ and furrows and polish which -mark its track in the temperate zone. These one can hardly hope to find -where the rock is of so perishable a character and its disintegration so -rapid. But this much is certain,—a sheet of drift covers the country, -composed of a homogeneous paste without trace of stratification, -containing loose materials of all sorts and sizes, imbedded in it -without reference to weight, large boulders, smaller stones, pebbles, -and the like. This drift is very unevenly distributed; sometimes rising -into high hills, owing to the surrounding denudations; sometimes -covering the surface merely as a thin layer; sometimes, and especially -on steep slopes, washed completely away, leaving the bare face of the -rock; sometimes deeply gullied, so as to produce a succession of -depressions and elevations alternating with each other. To this latter -cause is due, in great degree, the billowy, undulating character of the -valleys. Another cause of difficulty in tracing the erratic phenomena -consists in the number of detached fragments which have fallen from the -neighboring heights. It is not always easy to distinguish these from the -erratic boulders. But a number of localities exist, nevertheless, where -the drift rests immediately above stratified rock, with the boulders -protruding from it, the line of contact being perfectly distinct. It is -a curious fact, that one may follow the drift everywhere in this region -by the prosperous coffee plantations. Here as elsewhere ice has been the -great fertilizer,—a gigantic plough grinding the rocks to powder and -making a homogeneous soil in which the greatest variety of chemical -elements are brought together from distant localities. So far as we have -followed these phenomena in the provinces of Rio and Minas Geräes, the -thriving coffee plantations are upon erratic drift, the poorer growth -upon decomposed rock in place. Upon remarking this, we were told that -the farmers who are familiar with the soil select that in which they -find loose rocks imbedded, because it is the most fertile. They -unconsciously seek the erratic drift. It may not be amiss to point out -some of the localities in which these geological phenomena may be most -readily studied, since they lie along the public road, and are easy of -access. The drift is very evident in the swamp between Mauá and Raiz da -Serra on the way to Petropolis. In ascending the Serra at the half-way -house there is an excellent locality for observing drift and boulders; -and beyond one may follow the drift up to the very top of the road. The -whole tract between Villa Theresa and Petropolis is full of drift. Just -outside of Petropolis, the Piabanha has excavated its bed in drift, -while the banks have been ravined by the rains. At the station of -Correio, in front of the building, is also an admirable opportunity for -observing all the erratic phenomena, for here the drift, with large -boulders interspersed throughout the mass, overlies the rock in place. A -few steps to the north of the station Pedro do Rio there is another -great accumulation of large boulders in drift. These are but a few of -the localities where such facts may be observed. - -On the evening of the 22d we arrived at Juiz de Fora, and started at -sunrise the next morning for the fazenda of Senhor Lage, some thirty -miles beyond. We had a gay party, consisting of the family of Senhor -Lage and that of his brother-in-law, Senhor Machado, with one or two -other friends and ourselves. The children were as merry as possible, for -a visit to the fazenda was a rarity, and looked upon by them as a great -festivity. To transport us all with our luggage, two large coaches were -provided, several mules, and a small carriage, while a travelling -photographic machine, belonging to Senhor Machado, who is an admirable -photographist, brought up the rear.[37] The day was beautiful and our -road lay along the side of the Serra, commanding fine views of the -inland country and the coffee plantations which covered the hillsides -wherever the primeval forest had been cut down. The road is another -evidence of the intelligence and energy of the proprietor. The old roads -are mere mule tracks up one side of the Serra and down the other, -gullied of course by all the heavy rains and rendered at times almost -impassable. Senhor Lage has shown his neighbors what may be done for -their comfort in a country life by abandoning the old method, and, -instead of carrying the road across the mountain, cutting it in the side -with so gradual an ascent as to make the ride a very easy one. It is but -a four hours’ drive now from Juiz de Fora to the fazenda, whereas, until -the last year, it was a day’s, or even in bad weather a two days’ -journey on horseback. It is much to be desired that his example should -be followed, for the absence of any tolerable roads in the country makes -travelling in the interior almost an impossibility, and is the most -serious obstacle to the general progress and prosperity. It seems -strange that the governments of the different provinces, at least of the -more populous ones, such as Minas Geräes and Rio, should not organize a -system of good highways for the greater facility of commerce. The -present mode of transportation on mule back is slow and cumbrous in the -highest degree; it would seem as if, where the produce of the interior -is so valuable, good roads would pay for themselves very soon. - -[Illustration: Fazenda de Santa Anna in Minas Geraës.] - -At about eleven o’clock we arrived at the “Fazenda,” the long, low, -white buildings of which enclosed an oblong, open space divided into -large squares, where the coffee was drying. Only a part of this -extensive building is occupied as the living rooms of the family; the -rest is devoted to all sorts of objects connected with the care of the -coffee, provision for the negroes, and the like. - -When we reached the plantation the guests had not all arrived. The -special occasion of this excursion to the fazenda was the festival of -San João, kept always with great ceremonies in the country; the whole -week was to be devoted to hunting, and Senhor Lage had invited all the -best sportsmen in the neighborhood to join in the chase. It will be seen -in the end that these hunters formed themselves into a most valuable -corps of collectors for Mr. Agassiz. After an excellent breakfast we -started on horseback for the forest with such of the company as had -already assembled. The ride through the dense, deep, quiet wood was -beautiful; and the dead pause when some one thought the game was near, -the hushed voices, the breathless waiting for the shot which announced -success or failure, only added a charm to the scene. They have a strange -way of hunting here; as the forest is perfectly impenetrable, they -scatter food in a cleared space for the animals, and build green -screens, leaving holes to look through; behind such a screen the hunter -waits and watches for hours perhaps, till the paca, or peccary, or -capivara steals out to feed. The ladies dismounted and found a cool seat -in one of these forest lodges, where they waited for the hunt. No great -success, after all, this afternoon, but some birds which were valuable -as specimens. We rode home in the evening to a late dinner, after which -an enormous bonfire, built by the negroes in honor of the Eve of St. -João, was lighted in front of the house. The scene was exceedingly -picturesque, the whole establishment, the neighboring negro huts, and -the distant forest being illuminated by the blaze, around which the -blacks were dancing, accompanying their wild gestures with song and -drum. Every now and then a burst of fireworks added new brightness to -the picture. - -The next day, the 24th, began with a long ride on horseback before -breakfast, after which I accompanied Mr. Agassiz on a sort of -exploration among the Cupim nests (the nests of the Termites). These are -mounds sometimes three or four or even six feet high, and from two to -three or four feet in diameter, of an extraordinary solidity, almost as -hard as rock. Senhor Lage sent with us several negroes carrying axes to -split them open, which, with all their strength, proved no easy task. -These nests appear usually to have been built around some old trunk or -root as a foundation; the interior, with its endless serpentine -passages, looked not unlike the convolutions of a meandrina or brain -coral; the walls of the passages seemed to be built of earth that had -been chewed or kneaded in some way, giving them somewhat the consistency -of paper. The interior was quite soft and brittle, so that as soon as -the negroes could break through the outer envelope, about six inches in -thickness, the whole structure readily fell to pieces. It had no opening -outside, but we found, on uprooting one of these edifices from the -bottom, that the whole base was perforated with holes leading into the -ground beneath. The interior of all of them swarmed with the different -kinds of inhabitants; the little white ones, the larger black ones with -brown heads and powerful forceps, and in each were found one or two very -large swollen white ones, quite different in dimensions and appearance -from the rest, probably the queens. With the assistance of the negroes, -Mr. Agassiz made, for future examination, a large collection of all the -different kinds of individuals thus living together in various numeric -proportions, and he would gladly have carried away one of the nests, but -they are too cumbersome for transportation. The Cupim nests are very -different from the dwellings of the Sauba ants, which have large -external openings. The latter make houses by excavating, and sometimes -undermine a hill so extensively, with their long galleries, that when a -fire is lighted at one of the entrances to exterminate them, the smoke -issues at numerous openings, distant perhaps a quarter of a mile from -each other, showing in how many directions they have tunnelled out the -hill, and that their winding passages communicate with each other -throughout. So many travellers have given accounts of these ant-houses, -and of the activity of their inhabitants in stripping and carrying off -the leaves of trees to deposit them in their habitations, that it hardly -seems worth while to repeat the story. Yet no one can see without -astonishment one of these ant-armies travelling along the road they have -worn so neatly for themselves, those who are coming from the trees -looking like a green procession, almost hidden by the fragments of -leaves they carry on their backs, while the returning troops, who have -already deposited their burden, are hurrying back for more. There seems -to be another set of individuals running to and fro, whose office is not -quite so clear, unless it be to marshal the whole swarm and act as a -kind of police. This view is confirmed by an anecdote related by an -American resident here, who told us that he once saw an ant, returning -without his load to the house, stopped by one of these anomalous -individuals, severely chastised and sent back to the tree apparently to -do his appointed task. The Sauba ants are very injurious to the coffee -shrubs, and difficult to exterminate.[38] - -In the afternoon, the hunters of the neighborhood began to come in and -the party was considerably enlarged. This fazenda life, at least on an -informal jovial occasion like this, has a fascinating touch of the -Middle Ages in it. I am always reminded of this when we assemble for -dinner in the large dimly lighted hall, where a long table, laden with -game and with large haunches of meat, stands ready for the miscellaneous -company, daily growing in numbers. At the upper end sit the family with -their immediate guests; below, with his family, is the “Administrador,” -whose office I suppose corresponds to that of overseer on a Southern -plantation. In this instance he is a large picturesque-looking man, -generally equipped in a kind of gray blouse strapped around the waist by -a broad black belt, in which are powder-flask and knife, with a bugle -slung over his shoulder, a slouched hat, and high top-boots. During -dinner a number of chance cavaliers drop in, entirely without ceremony, -in hunter’s costume, as they return from the chase. Then at night, or -rather early in the morning, (for the Brazilian habit is “early to bed -and early to rise,” in order to avoid the heat,) what jollity and song, -sounding the bugles long before the dawn, twanging the guitar and -whistling on the peculiar instrument used here to call the game. -Altogether it is the most novel and interesting collection of social -elements, mingling after a kind of picnic fashion without the least -formality, and we feel every day how much we owe to our kind hosts for -admitting us to an occasion where one sees so much of what is national -and characteristic. The next day we went to breakfast at a smaller -fazenda belonging also to Senhor Lage, higher up on the Serra da -Babylonia. Again, starting before sunrise, we went slowly up the -mountain, the summit of which is over 3,000 feet above the sea level. We -were preceded by the “liteira,” a queer kind of car slung between two -mules, in which rode the grandmamma and the baby; as carriages are -impossible on these mountain roads, some such conveyance is necessary -for those who are too old or too young for horseback travelling. The -view was lovely, the morning cool and beautiful, and after a two hours’ -ride we arrived at the upper fazenda. Here we left our horses and went -on foot into the forest, where the ladies and children wandered about, -gathering flowers and exploring the wood walks, while the gentlemen -occupied themselves with fishing and hunting till midday, when we -returned to the house to breakfast. The result of the chase was a -monkey, two caititú (wild pigs), and a great variety of birds, all of -which went to swell the scientific collections.[39] We returned to dine -at the lower fazenda, and all retired soon after, for the next day the -great hunt of the week would take place, and we were to be early astir. - -At dawn the horses were at the door, and we were mounting the Serra -before sunrise. We were bound to a fazenda on the Serra da Babylonia, -some two leagues from the one at which we were staying, and on higher -ground, too high indeed for the culture of coffee, and devoted to -pasture land. It is here that Senhor Lage has his horses and cattle. The -ride along the zigzag road winding up the Serra was delightful in the -early morning. The clouds were flushed with the dawn; the distant hills -and the forest, spreading endlessly beneath us, glowed in the sunrise. -The latter part of the road lay mostly through the woods, and brought us -out, after some two hours’ ride, on the brow of a hill overlooking a -small lake, sunk in a cuplike depression of the mountain, just beyond -which was the fazenda. The scenic effect was very pretty, for the border -of the lake was ornamented with flags, and on its waters floated a -little miniature steamer with the American flag at one end and the -Brazilian at the other. Our host invited us to ride in at the gate of -the fazenda, in advance of the rest of our cavalcade, a request which we -understood when, as we passed the entrance, the little steamer put into -shore, and, firing a salute in our honor, showed its name, AGASSIZ, in -full. It was a pleasant surprise very successfully managed. After the -little excitement of this incident was over, we went to the house to tie -up our riding-habits and prepare for the woods. We then embarked in the -newly-christened boat and crossed the lake to a forest on the other -side. Here were rustic tables and seats arranged under a tent where we -were to breakfast; but while the meal was making ready and a fire -building for the boiling of coffee, the stewing of chicken, rice, and -other creature comforts, we wandered at will in the wood. This was the -most beautiful, because the wildest and most primitive, specimen of -tropical forest we have yet seen. I think no description prepares one -for the difference between this forest and our own, even though the -latter be the “forest primeval.” It is not merely the difference of the -vegetation, but the impenetrability of the mass here that makes the -density, darkness, and solemnity of the woods so impressive. It seems as -if the mode of growth—many of the trees shooting up to an immense -height, but branching only toward the top—were meant to give room to the -legion of parasites, sipos, lianas, and climbing plants of all kinds -which fill the intervening spaces. There is one fact which makes the -study of the tropical forest as interesting to the geologist as to the -botanist, namely, its relation to the vegetable world of past ages -hidden in the rocks. The tree-ferns, the Chamærops, the Pandanus, the -Araucarias, are all modern representatives of past types, and this walk -in the forest was an important one to Mr. Agassiz, because he made out -one of those laws of growth which unite the past and the present. The -Chamærops is a palm belonging to the ancient vegetable world, but having -its representatives in our days. The modern Chamærops, with its fan-like -leaves spreading on one level, stands structurally lower than the Palms -with pinnate leaves, which belong almost exclusively to our geological -age, and have numerous leaflets arranged along either side of a central -axis. The young Palms were exceedingly numerous, springing up at every -step upon our path, some of them not more than two inches high, while -their elders towered fifty feet above them. Mr. Agassiz gathered and -examined great numbers of them, and found that the young Palms, to -whatever genus they may belong, invariably resemble the Chamærops, -having their leaves extending fan-like on one plane, instead of being -scattered along a central axis, as in the adult tree. The infant Palm is -in fact the mature Chamærops in miniature, showing that among plants as -among animals, at least in some instances, there is a correspondence -between the youngest stages of growth in the higher species of a given -type and the earliest introduction of that type on earth.[40] - -At the close of our ramble, from which the Professor returned looking -not unlike an ambulatory representative of tropical vegetation, being -loaded down with palm-branches, tree-ferns, and the like, we found -breakfast awaiting us. Some of our party were missing, however, the -hunters having already taken their stations at some distance near the -water. The game was an Anta (Tapir), a curious animal, abounding in the -woods of this region. It has a special interest for the naturalist, -because it resembles certain ancient mammalia now found only among the -fossils, just as the tree-fern, Chamærops, &c. resemble past vegetable -types. Although Mr. Agassiz had seen it in confinement, he had a great -desire to observe it in action under its natural condition, and in the -midst of a tropical forest as characteristic of old geological times as -the creature itself. It was, in fact, to gratify this desire that Mr. -Lage had planned the hunt. “L’homme propose et Dieu dispose,” however, -and, as the sequel will show, we were not destined to see an Anta this -day. The forest being, as I have said, impenetrable to the hunter, -except where paths have been cut, the game is roused by sending the dogs -into the wood, the sportsmen stationing themselves at certain distances -on the outskirts. The Anta has his haunts near lakes or rivers, and when -wearied and heated with the chase he generally makes for the water, and, -springing in, is shot as he swims across. As we were lingering over the -breakfast-table we heard the shout of Anta! Anta! In an instant every -man sprang to his gun and ran down to the water-side, while we all stood -waiting, listening to the cries of the dogs, now frantic with -excitement, and expecting every moment the rush of the hunted animal and -his spring into the lake. But it was a false alarm; the cries of the -dogs died away in the distance: the day was colder than usual, the Anta -turned back from the water, and, leading his pursuers a weary chase, was -lost in the forest. After a time the dogs returned, looking tired and -dispirited. But though we missed the Tapir, we saw enough of the sport -to understand what makes the charm to the hunter of watching for hours -in the woods, and perhaps returning, after all, empty-handed. If he does -not get the game, he has the emotion; every now and then he thinks the -creature is at hand, and he has a momentary agitation, heightened by the -cries of the dogs and the answering cry of the sportsmen, who strive to -arouse them to the utmost by their own shouts, and then if the animal -turns back into the thicket all sound dies away, and to a very -pandemonium of voices succeed the silence and solitude of the forest. -All these things have their fascination, and explain to the uninitiated, -to whom it seems at first incomprehensible, why these men will wait -motionless for hours, and think themselves repaid (as I heard one of -them declare) if they only hear the cry of the dogs and know they have -roused the game, even if there be no other result. However, in this -instance, we had plenty of other booty. The Anta lost, the hunters, who -had carefully avoided firing hitherto, lest the sounds of their guns -should give him warning, now turned their attention to lesser game, and -we rode home in the afternoon rich in spoils, though without a Tapir. - -The next day was that of our departure. Before leaving, we rode with Mr. -Lage through his plantation, that we might understand something of the -process of coffee culture in this country. I am not sure that, in giving -an account of this model fazenda, we give a just idea of fazendas in -general. Its owner carries the same large and comprehensive spirit, the -same energy and force of will, into all his undertakings, and has -introduced extensive reforms on his plantations. The Fazenda da -Fortaleza de Santa Anna lies at the foot of the Serra da Babylonia. The -house itself, as I have already said, makes a part of a succession of -low white buildings, enclosing an oblong square divided into neat lots, -destined for the drying of coffee. This drying of the coffee in the -immediate vicinity of the house, though it seems a very general custom, -must be an uncomfortable one; for the drying-lots are laid down in a -dazzling white cement, from the glare of which, in this hot climate, the -eye turns wearily away, longing for a green spot on which to rest. Just -behind the house on the slope of the hill is the orangery. I am never -tired of these golden orchards, and this was one of especial beauty. The -small, deep-colored tangerines, sometimes twenty or thirty in one -cluster, the large, choice orange, “Laranja selecta,” as it is called, -often ten or twelve together in a single bunch, and bearing the branches -to the ground with their weight; the paler “Limaō dôce,” or sweet lemon, -rather insipid, but greatly esteemed here for its cool, refreshing -properties,—all these, with many others,—for the variety of oranges is -far greater than we of the temperate zone conceive it to be,—make a mass -of color in which gold, deep orange, and pale yellow are blended -wonderfully with the background of green. Beyond the house enclosure, on -the opposite side of the road, are the gardens, with aviary, and -fish-ponds in the centre. With these exceptions, all of the property -which is not forest is devoted to coffee, covering all the hillsides for -miles around. The seed is planted in nurseries especially prepared, -where it undergoes its first year’s growth. It is then transplanted to -its permanent home, and begins to bear in about three years, the first -crop being of course a very light one. From that time forward, under -good care and with favorable soil, it will continue to bear and even to -yield two crops or more annually, for thirty years in succession. At -that time the shrubs and the soil are alike exhausted, and, according to -the custom of the country, the fazendeiro cuts down a new forest and -begins a new plantation, completely abandoning his old one, without a -thought of redeeming or fertilizing the exhausted land. One of the -long-sighted reforms undertaken by our host is the manuring of all the -old, deserted plantations on his estate; he has already a number of -vigorous young plantations, which promise to be as good as if a virgin -forest had been sacrificed to produce them. He wishes not only to -preserve the wood on his own estate, and to show that agriculture need -not be cultivated at the expense of taste and beauty, but to remind his -country people also, that, extensive as are the forests, they will not -last forever, and that it will be necessary to emigrate before long to -find new coffee grounds, if the old ones are to be considered worthless. -Another of his reforms is that of the roads, already alluded to. The -ordinary roads in the coffee plantations, like the mule-tracks all over -the country, are carried straight up the sides of the hills between the -lines of shrubs, gullied by every rain, and offering, besides, so steep -an ascent that even with eight or ten oxen it is often impossible to -drive the clumsy, old-fashioned carts up the slope, and the negroes are -obliged to bring a great part of the harvest down on their heads. An -American, who has been a great deal on the coffee fazendas in this -region, told me that he had seen negroes bringing enormous burdens of -this kind on their heads down almost vertical slopes. On Senhor Lage’s -estate all these old roads are abandoned, except where they are planted -here and there with alleys of orange-trees for the use of the negroes, -and he has substituted for them winding roads in the side of the hill -with a very gradual ascent, so that light carts dragged by a single mule -can transport all the harvest from the summit of the plantation to the -drying-ground. It was the harvesting season, and the spectacle was a -pretty one. The negroes, men and women, were scattered about the -plantations with broad, shallow trays, made of plaited grass or bamboo, -strapped over their shoulders and supported at their waists; into these -they were gathering the coffee, some of the berries being brilliantly -red, some already beginning to dry and turn brown, while here and there -was a green one not yet quite ripe, but soon to ripen in the scorching -sun. Little black children were sitting on the ground and gathering what -fell under the bushes, singing at their work a monotonous but rather -pretty snatch of song in which some took the first and others the -second, making a not inharmonious music. As their baskets were filled -they came to the Administrador to receive a little metal ticket on which -the amount of their work was marked. A task is allotted to each one,—so -much to a full-grown man, so much to a woman with young children, so -much to a child,—and each one is paid for whatever he may do over and -above it. The requisition is a very moderate one, so that the -industrious have an opportunity of making a little money independently. -At night they all present their tickets and are paid on the spot for any -extra work. From the harvesting-ground we followed the carts down to the -place where their burden is deposited. On their return from the -plantation the negroes divide the day’s harvest, and dispose it in -little mounds on the drying-ground. When pretty equally dried, the -coffee is spread out in thin even layers over the whole enclosure, where -it is baked for the last time. It is then hulled by a very simple -machine in use on almost all the fazendas, and the process is complete. -At noon we bade good by to our kind hosts, and started for Juiz de Fora. -Our stage was not a bad imitation of Noah’s ark, for we carried with us -the beasts of the field and the birds of the air and the fishes from the -waters,[41] to say nothing of the trees from the forest. The party with -whom we had passed such pleasant days collected to bid us farewell, and -followed us, as we passed out from the gate, with vivas and waving hats -and handkerchiefs. - -The following day we were fortunate in having cool weather with a -somewhat cloudy sky, so that our ride of ten hours from Juiz de Fora to -Petropolis, on the top of the stage, was delightful. The next morning in -driving down the Serra to Mauá we witnessed a singular phenomenon, -common enough, I suppose, to those who live in high regions. As we -turned the corner of the road which first brings us in sight of the -magnificent view below the Serra, there was a general exclamation of -surprise and admiration. The valley and harbor, quite out to the sea, -were changed to a field of snow, white, soft, and fleecy, as if fallen -that night. The illusion was perfect, and though recognized at once as -simply an effect of the heavy morning fog, we could hardly believe that -it would disperse at our approach and not prove to be the thing it -seemed. Here and there the summit of a hill pierced through it like an -island, making the deception more complete. The incident was especially -interesting to us as connecting itself with our late discussions as to -the possible former existence of glaciers in this region. In his lecture -a few nights before, describing the greater extension of the ice in -former geological ages, when the whole plain of Switzerland between the -Alps and Jura must have been filled with glaciers, Mr. Agassiz had said -“there is a phenomenon not uncommon in the autumn in Switzerland which -may help us to reconstruct this wonderful picture. Sometimes in a -September morning the whole plain of Switzerland is filled with vapor -which, when its pure white, undulating surface is seen from the higher -summits of the Jura, looks like a snowy ‘mer de glace,’ appearing to -descend from the peaks of the Alps and extending toward the Jura, while -from all the tributary valleys similar masses pour down to meet it.” It -was as if the valley and harbor of Rio had meant to offer us a similar -picture of past times, with the image of which our minds had been filled -for the last few days in consequence of the glacial phenomena constantly -presented to us on our journey. - -_July 6th._—To-morrow was to have been the day of our departure for the -Amazons, but private interests must yield to public good, and it seems -that the steamer which was to have left for Pará to-morrow has been -taken by the government to transport troops to the seat of war. The -aspect of the war grows daily more serious, and the Emperor goes himself -the day after to-morrow to Rio Grande do Sul, accompanied by his -son-in-law, the Duke of Saxe, soon to be followed by the Conte d’Eu, who -is expected by the French steamer of the 18th of this month. Under these -circumstances, not only are we prevented from going at the appointed -date, but it seems not improbable that the exigencies of war may cause a -still further delay, should other steamers be needed. A very pleasant -public dinner, intended to be on the eve of his departure, was given to -Mr. Agassiz yesterday by Messrs. Fleiuss and Linde. Germans, Swiss, -French, Americans, and Brazilians made up the company, a mingling of -nationalities which resulted in a very general harmony. - -_July 9th._—For some time Mr. Agassiz has been trying to get living -specimens of the insect so injurious to the coffee-tree; the larva of a -little moth akin to those which destroy the vineyards in Europe. -Yesterday he succeeded in obtaining some, and among them one just -spinning his cocoon on the leaf. We watched him for a long time with the -lens as he wove his filmy tent. He had arched the threads upwards in the -centre, so as to leave a little hollow space into which he could -withdraw; this tiny vault seemed to be completed at the moment we saw -him, and he was drawing threads forward and fastening them at a short -distance beyond, thus lashing his house to the leaf as it were. The -exquisite accuracy of the work was amazing. He was spinning the thread -with his mouth, and with every new stitch he turned his body backward, -attached his thread to the same spot, then drew it forward and fastened -it exactly on a line with the last, with a precision and rapidity that -machinery could hardly imitate. It is a curious question how far this -perfection of workmanship in many of the lower animals is simply -identical with their organization, and therefore to be considered a -function, as inevitable in its action as digestion or respiration, -rather than an instinct. In this case the body of the little animal was -his measure: it was amazing to see him lay down his threads with such -accuracy, till one remembered that he could not make them longer or -shorter; for, starting from the centre of his house, and stretching his -body its full length, they must always reach the same point. The same is -true of the so-called mathematics of the bee. The bees stand as close as -they can together in their hive for economy of space, and each one -deposits his wax around him, his own form and size being the mould for -the cells, the regularity of which when completed excites so much wonder -and admiration. The mathematical secret of the bee is to be found in his -structure, not in his instinct. But in the industrial work of some of -the lower animals, the ant for instance, there is a power of adaptation -which is not susceptible of the same explanation. Their social -organization, too intelligent, it seems, to be the work of any reasoning -powers of their own, yet does not appear to be directly connected with -their structure. While we were watching our little insect, a breath -stirred the leaf and he instantly contracted himself and drew back under -his roof; but presently came out again and returned to his work. - -_July 14th._—I have passed two or three days of this week very -pleasantly with a party of friends who invited me to join them on a -visit to one of the largest fazendas in this neighborhood, belonging to -the Commendador Breves. A journey of some four hours on the Dom Pedro -Railroad brought us to the “Barra do Pirahy,” and thence we proceeded on -mule-back, riding slowly along the banks of the Parahyba through very -pleasant, quiet scenery, though much less picturesque than that in the -immediate vicinity of Rio. At about sunset we reached the fazenda, -standing on a terrace just above the river, and commanding a lovely view -of water and woodland. We were received with a hospitality hardly to be -equalled, I think, out of Brazil, for it asks neither who you are nor -whence you come, but opens its doors to every wayfarer. On this occasion -we were expected; but it is nevertheless true that at such a fazenda, -where the dining-room accommodates a hundred persons if necessary, all -travellers passing through the country are free to stop for rest and -refreshment. At the time of our visit there were several such transient -guests; among others a couple quite unknown to our hosts, who had -stopped for the night, but had been taken ill and detained there several -days. They seemed entirely at home. On this estate there are about two -thousand slaves, thirty of whom are house-servants; it includes within -its own borders all that would be required by such a population in the -way of supplies: it has its drug-shop and its hospital; its kitchens for -the service of the guests and for that of the numerous indoor servants, -its church, its priest, and its doctor. Here the church was made by -throwing open a small oratory, very handsomely fitted up with gold and -silver service, purple altar-cloth, &c., at the end of a very long room, -which, though used for other purposes, serves on such an occasion to -collect the large household together. The next morning our hostess -showed us the different working-rooms. One of the most interesting was -that where the children were taught to sew. I have wondered, on our -Southern plantations, that more pains was not taken to make clever -seamstresses of the women. Here plain sewing is taught to all the little -girls, and many of them are quite expert in embroidery and lace-making. -Beyond this room was a storeroom for clothing, looking not unlike one of -our sanitary rooms, with heaps of woollen and cotton stuffs which the -black women were cutting out and making up for the field hands. The -kitchens, with the working and lodging rooms of the house negroes, -enclosed a court planted with trees and shrubs, around which extended -covered brick walks where blacks, young and old, seemed to swarm, from -the withered woman who boasted herself a hundred, but was still proud to -display her fine lace-work, and ran like a girl, to show us how -sprightly she was, to the naked baby creeping at her feet. The old woman -had received her liberty some time ago, but seemed to be very much -attached to the family and never to have thought of leaving them. These -are the things which make one hopeful about slavery in Brazil; -emancipation is considered there a subject to be discussed, legislated -upon, adopted ultimately, and it seems no uncommon act to present a -slave with his liberty. In the evening, while taking coffee on the -terrace after dinner, we had very good music from a brass-band composed -of slaves belonging to the estate. The love of the negroes for music is -always remarkable, and here they take pains to cultivate it. Senhor -Breves keeps a teacher for them, and they are really very well trained. -At a later hour we had the band in the house and a dance by the black -children which was comical in the extreme. Like little imps of darkness -they looked, dancing with a rapidity of movement and gleeful enjoyment -with which one could not but sympathize. While the music was going on, -every door and window was filled with a cloud of dusky faces, now and -then a fair one among them; for here, as elsewhere, slavery brings its -inevitable and heaviest curse, and white slaves are by no means -uncommon. The next morning we left the fazenda, not on mule-back, -however, but in one of the flat-bottomed coffee-boats, an agreeable -exchange for the long, hot ride. We were accompanied to the landing by -our kind hosts, and followed by quite a train of blacks, some of them -bringing the baggage, others coming only for the amusement of seeing us -off. Among them was the old black woman who gave us the heartiest cheers -of all, as we put off from the shore. The sail down the river was very -pleasant; the coffee-bags served as cushions, and, with all our -umbrellas raised to make an awning, we contrived to shelter ourselves -from the sun. Neither was the journey without excitement, the river -being so broken by rocks in many places that there are strong rapids, -requiring a skilful navigation. - -_July 15th._—A long botanizing excursion to-day among the Tijuca hills -with Mr. Glaziou, director of the Passeio Publico, as guide. It has been -a piece of the good fortune attending Mr. Agassiz thus far on this -expedition to find in Mr. Glaziou a botanist whose practical familiarity -with tropical plants is as thorough as his theoretical knowledge. He has -undertaken to enrich our scientific stores with a large collection of -such palms and other trees as illustrate the relation between the -present tropical vegetation and the ancient geological forests. Such a -collection will be invaluable as a basis for palæontological studies at -the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy in Cambridge. - -_July 23d._—At last our plans for the Amazons seem definitely settled. -We sail the day after to-morrow by the Cruzeiro do Sul. The conduct of -the government toward the expedition is very generous; free passages are -granted to the whole party, and yesterday Mr. Agassiz received an -official document enjoining all persons connected with the -administration to give him every facility for his scientific objects. We -have another piece of good fortune in the addition to our party of Major -Coutinho, a member of the government corps of engineers, who has been -engaged for several years in explorations on the Amazonian rivers. -Happily for us, he returned to Rio a few weeks ago, and a chance meeting -at the palace, where he had gone to report the results of the journey -just completed, and Mr. Agassiz to discuss the plans for that about to -begin, brought them together. This young officer’s investigations had -made his name familiar to Mr. Agassiz, and when the Emperor asked the -latter how he could best assist him, he answered that there was nothing -he so much desired or which would so materially aid him as the -companionship of Major Coutinho. The Emperor cordially consented, Major -Coutinho signified his readiness, and the matter was concluded. Since -then there have been frequent conferences between Mr. Agassiz and his -new colleague, intent study of maps and endless talk about the most -desirable mode of laying out and dividing the work. He feels that Major -Coutinho’s familiarity with the scenes to which we are going will -lighten his task of half its difficulties, while his, scientific zeal -will make him a most sympathetic companion.[42] We found to-day some -large leaves of the Terminalia Catappa of the most brilliant colors; red -and gold as bright as any of our autumnal leaves. This would seem to -confirm the opinion that the turning of the foliage with us is not an -effect of frost, but simply the ripening of the leaf; since here, where -there is no frost, the same phenomenon takes place as in our northern -latitudes. - -_July 24th._—Our last preparations for the journey are completed; the -collections made since our arrival, amounting to upwards of fifty -barrels and cases, are packed, in readiness for the first opportunity -which occurs for the United States, and to-morrow morning we shall be on -our way to the great river. We went this morning to the Collegio Dom -Pedro Segundo to bid farewell to our excellent friend Dr. Pacheco, to -whose kindness we owe much of our enjoyment during our stay here. The -College building was once a “seminario,” a charitable institution where -boys were taken to be educated as priests. The rules of the -establishment were strict; no servants were kept, the pupils were -obliged to do their own work, cooking, &c., and even to go out into the -streets to beg after the fashion of the mendicant orders. One condition -only was attached to the entrance of the children, namely, that they -should be of pure race; no mulattoes or negroes were admitted. I do not -know on what ground this institution was broken up by the government and -the building taken as a school-house. It has still a slightly monastic -aspect, though it has been greatly modified; but the cloisters running -around closed courts remind one of its origin. The recitations were -going on at the moment of our visit, and as we had seen nothing as yet -of the schools, Dr. Pacheco took us through the establishment. A college -here does not signify a university as with us, but rather a high school, -the age of the pupils being from twelve to eighteen. It is difficult to -judge of methods of education in a foreign language with which one is -not very familiar. But the scholars appeared bright and interested, -their answers came promptly, their discipline was evidently good. One -thing was very striking to a stranger in seeing so many young people -collected together; namely, the absence of pure type and the feeble -physique. I do not know whether it is in consequence of the climate, but -a healthy, vigorous child is a rare sight in Rio de Janeiro. The -scholars were of all colors, from black through intermediate shades to -white, and even one of the teachers having the direction of a higher -class in Latin was a negro. It is an evidence of the absence of any -prejudice against the blacks, that, on the occasion of a recent vacancy -among the Latin professors, this man, having passed the best -examination, was unanimously chosen in preference to several Brazilians, -of European descent, who presented themselves as candidates at the same -time. After hearing several of the classes we went over the rest of the -building. The order and exquisite neatness of the whole establishment, -not forgetting the kitchen, where the shining brasses and bright tins -might awaken the envy of many a housekeeper, bear testimony to the -excellence of the general direction. Since the institution passed into -Dr. Pacheco’s hands he has done a great deal to raise its character. He -has improved the library, purchased instruments for the laboratory, and -made many judicious changes in the general arrangement. - ------ - -Footnote 32: - - Mr. Agassiz was prevented from making this excursion. - -Footnote 33: - - Though a resident of the United States for nearly twenty years, Mr. - Agassiz was only naturalized in 1863. At the moment when a general - distrust of our institutions prevailed in Europe, it was a - satisfaction to him to testify by some personal and public act his - confidence in them. - -Footnote 34: - - A short account of these explorations may be found at the end of the - volume.—L. A. - -Footnote 35: - - I am particularly indebted to Senator Th. Ottoni, Baron de Prados, - Senator Pompeo, Senator Paranagua, Senhor Paula Souza, and Senhor J. - B. da Fonseca, for information, maps, and other documents relative to - the regions intended to be explored by my young friends and myself.—L. - A. - -Footnote 36: - - Since it was reported in the newspapers that the proceeds of these - lectures were devoted to the expedition, it may be well to mention - here that they were free, given simply at the request of the Emperor, - and open to all without charge. - -Footnote 37: - - Mr. Agassiz was indebted to Senhor Machado for a valuable series of - photographs and stereoscopic views of this region, begun on this - excursion and completed during our absence in the North of Brazil. - -Footnote 38: - - The most complete account of these curious animals is to be found in - Bates’s “Naturalist on the Amazons.” - -Footnote 39: - - I was especially interested in examining the vegetable productions of - a little lake, hardly larger than a mill-pond, near this fazenda. It - was strange to see Potamogeton and Myriophyllum, plants which we - associate exclusively with the fresh waters of the temperate zone, - growing in the shadow of tropical forests where monkeys have their - home. Such combinations are very puzzling to the student of the laws - of geographical distribution.—L. A. - -Footnote 40: - - In the same way, it may be said that in its incipient growth the - Dicotyledonous Plant exhibits, in the structure of its germinative - leaves, the characteristic features of Monocotyledonous Plants.—L. A. - -Footnote 41: - - Senhor Lage had caused an extensive collection of fishes to be - gathered from the waters of the Rio Novo, so that this excursion - greatly extended the range of my survey of the basin of the - Parahyba.—L. A. - -Footnote 42: - - Never were pleasant anticipations more delightfully fulfilled. During - eleven months of the most intimate companionship I had daily cause to - be grateful for the chance which had thrown us together. I found in - Major Coutinho an able collaborator, untiring in his activity and - devotion to scientific aims, an admirable guide, and a friend whose - regard I trust I shall ever retain.—L. A. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - VOYAGE UP THE COAST TO PARÁ. - - ON BOARD THE “CRUZEIRO DO SUL.”—MEMBERS OF THE PARTY.—ARRIVAL - AT BAHIA.—DAY IN THE COUNTRY.—RETURN TO THE - STEAMER.—CONVERSATION ABOUT SLAVERY IN BRAZIL.—NEGRO - MARRIAGES.—MACEIO.—PERNAMBUCO.—PARAHYBA DO NORTE.—RAMBLE ON - SHORE.—CEARÁ.—DIFFICULT LANDING.—BRAZILIAN - BATHS.—MARANHAM.—ASSAI PALM.—VISIT TO ORPHAN - ASYLUM.—DETAINED IN PORT.—VARIETY OF MEDUSÆ.—ARRIVAL OF - AMERICAN GUNBOAT.—MORE MEDUSÆ.—DINNER ON SHORE.—CORDIALITY - TOWARD THE EXPEDITION.—ARRIVAL AT PARÁ.—KIND - RECEPTION.—ENVIRONS OF PARÁ.—LUXURIANT - GROWTH.—MARKETS.—INDIAN BOATS.—AGREEABLE CLIMATE.—EXCURSION - IN THE HARBOR.—CURIOUS MUSHROOM.—SUCCESS IN COLLECTING, WITH - THE ASSISTANCE OF OUR HOST AND OTHER FRIENDS.—FISHES OF THE - FORESTS.—PUBLIC EXPRESSIONS OF SYMPATHY FOR THE - EXPEDITION.—GENEROSITY OF THE AMAZONIAN STEAMSHIP - COMPANY.—GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE SHORE FROM RIO TO - PARÁ.—ERRATIC DRIFT.—LETTER TO THE EMPEROR. - - -_July 25th._—On board the “Cruzeiro do Sul.” We sailed to-day at 11 -o’clock, bidding good by with regret, though not without hope of return, -to the beautiful bay and mountains on which we have been looking for -three months. Our party consists of Major Coutinho, Mr. Burkhardt, -Monsieur Bourget, who accompanies Mr. Agassiz to the Amazons as -collector and preparator, our two young friends Mr. Hunnewell and Mr. -James, and ourselves. At Bahia we shall be joined by Mr. Dexter and Mr. -Thayer, two of our party who have preceded us up the coast, and have -been collecting in the neighborhood of Bahia for two or three weeks. The -aspect of the steamer is not very inviting, for it has been used of late -for the transportation of troops to the south, in consequence of which -it is very dirty; it is also overcrowded on account of the number of -persons bound northward, who have been detained in Rio by the -interruption of the regular trips on this line. We are promised better -accommodations after a few days, however, as many of the passengers will -drop off at Bahia and Pernambuco. - -_July 28th._—Bahia. Half the enjoyment of life borrows intensity from -contrast, and to this principle we certainly owe a part of our pleasure -to-day. After three half sea-sick days on a dirty, crowded steamer, the -change is delightful to a breezy country house, where we are received -with that most gracious hospitality which relieves both host and guests -of the sense of entertaining or being entertained. Here I have been -sitting under the deep shade of a huge mango-tree, with a number of the -“Revue des Deux Mondes” on my knee, either reading or listening lazily -to the rustle of the leaves or the cooing of the pigeons as they patter -up and down on the tiled floor of the porch near by, or watching the -negroes as they come and go with trays of vegetables or baskets of fruit -and flowers on their heads, for the service of the house. In the mean -time, Mr. Agassiz is engaged in examining the collections made by Mr. -Dexter and Mr. Thayer during their visit here. They have been aided most -cordially by our friend Mr. Antonio de Lacerda, at whose hospitable -house we are staying, and where we found our travelling companions quite -domesticated. He received them on their arrival, and has given them -every facility during their stay here for the objects they had in view, -his own love of natural history, to which he devotes every spare hour -from his active business life, rendering him an efficient ally. He has a -large and very valuable collection of insects, admirably arranged and in -excellent preservation. They are also greatly indebted to Mr. Nicolai, -the resident English clergyman here, who has accompanied them on some of -their excursions, and put them in the way of seeing whatever was most -interesting in the neighborhood. - -On arriving in South America one should land first in Bahia, for in its -aspect it is the most national and characteristic of the cities. As we -passed directly through the town this morning, we can give but little -account of it, and yet we saw enough to confirm all that has been said -of its quaint and picturesque character. On first disembarking, you find -yourself at the foot of an almost perpendicular hill, and negro-bearers -appear at your side to carry you up the steep ascent, almost impassable -for carriages, in a “cadeira,” or curtained chair. This is in itself an -odd experience for one to whom it is new, and the rest of the city, with -its precipitous streets, its queer houses, its old churches, is as -quaint and antique as these original carriages. - -_July 29th._—To-day we have the “revers de la médaille”; we have -returned to our prison, and a violent rain drives us all to take refuge -in the hot, close dining-room, our only resort when the weather is bad. - -_July 30th._—Off Maceió. Last evening, when the rain was over and the -moonlight tempted every one on deck, we had a long conversation with our -pleasant travelling companion, Mr. Sinimbu, senator from the province of -Alagôas, on the aspect of slavery in Brazil. It seems to me that we may -have something to learn here in our own perplexities respecting the -position of the black race among us, for the Brazilians are trying -gradually and by installments some of the experiments which are forced -upon us without previous preparation. The absence of all restraint upon -the free blacks, the fact that they are eligible to office, and that all -professional careers are open to them, without prejudice on the ground -of color, enables one to form some opinion as to their ability and -capacity for development. Mr. Sinimbu tells us that here the result is -on the whole in their favor; he says that the free blacks compare well -in intelligence and activity with the Brazilians and Portuguese. But it -must be remembered, in making the comparison with reference to our own -country, that here they are brought into contact with a less energetic -and powerful race than the Anglo-Saxon. Mr. Sinimbu believes that -emancipation is to be accomplished in Brazil by a gradual process which -has already begun. A large number of slaves are freed every year by the -wills of their masters; a still larger number buy their own freedom -annually; and as there is no longer any importation of blacks, the -inevitable result of this must be the natural death of slavery. -Unhappily, the process is a slow one, and in the mean while slavery is -doing its evil work, debasing and enfeebling alike whites and blacks. -The Brazilians themselves do not deny this, and one constantly hears -them lament the necessity of sending their children away to be educated, -on account of the injurious association with the house-servants. In -fact, although politically slavery has a more hopeful aspect here than -elsewhere, the institution from a moral point of view has some of its -most revolting characters in this country, and looks, if possible, more -odious than it did in the States. The other day, in the neighborhood of -Rio, I had an opportunity of seeing a marriage between two negroes, -whose owner made the religious, or, as it appeared to me on this -occasion, irreligious ceremony, obligatory. The bride, who was as black -as jet, was dressed in white muslin, with a veil of coarse white lace, -such as the negro women make themselves, and the husband was in a white -linen suit. She looked, and I think she really felt, diffident, for -there were a good many strangers present, and her position was -embarrassing. The Portuguese priest, a bold, insolent-looking man, -called them up and rattled over the marriage service with most -irreverent speed, stopping now and then to scold them both, but -especially the woman, because she did not speak loud enough and did not -take the whole thing in the same coarse, rough way that he did. When he -ordered them to come up and kneel at the altar, his tone was more -suggestive of cursing than praying, and having uttered his blessing he -hurled an amen at them, slammed the prayer-book down on the altar, -whiffed out the candles, and turned the bride and bridegroom out of the -chapel with as little ceremony as one would have kicked out a dog. As -the bride came out, half crying, half smiling, her mother met her and -showered her with rose-leaves, and so this act of consecration, in which -the mother’s benediction seemed the only grace, was over. I thought what -a strange confusion there must be in these poor creature’s minds, if -they thought about it at all. They are told that the relation between -man and wife is a sin, unless confirmed by the sacred rite of marriage; -they come to hear a bad man gabble over them words which they cannot -understand, mingled with taunts and abuse which they understand only too -well, and side by side with their own children grow up the little -fair-skinned slaves to tell them practically that the white man does not -keep himself the law he imposes on them. What a monstrous lie the whole -system must seem to them if they are ever led to think about it at all. -I am far from supposing that the instance I have given should be taken -as representing the state of religious instruction on plantations -generally. No doubt there are good priests who improve and instruct -their black parishioners; but it does not follow because religious -services are provided on a plantation, the ceremony of marriage -observed, &c., that there is anything which deserves the name of -religious instruction. It would be unjust not to add the better side of -the question in this particular instance. The man was free, and I was -told that the woman received her liberty and a piece of land from her -master as her marriage dower. - -We arrived at Maceió this morning, and went on shore with Mr. Sinimbu, -who leaves us here, and with whose family we passed a delightful day, -welcomed with that hearty cordiality so characteristic of Brazilians in -their own homes. Although our stay was so short, a considerable addition -was made here to the collections. On arriving at any port the party -disperses at once, the young men going in different directions to -collect, Mr. Bourget hurrying to the fish-market to see what may be -found there of interest, and Mr. Agassiz and Mr. Coutinho generally -making a geological excursion. In this way, though the steamer remains -but a few hours at each station, the time is not lost. - -_July 31st._—Pernambuco. Arrived to-day off Pernambuco, and were too -happy, after a stormy night, to find ourselves behind the famous reef -which makes such a quiet harbor at this port. Our countryman, Mr. Hitch, -met us on landing, and drove us at once out to his “chacara,” (country -place,) where it was delightful to be welcomed, like old friends, to an -American home.[43] Pernambuco is by no means so picturesque as Bahia or -Rio de Janeiro. It has a more modern air than either of these, but looks -also more cleanly and more prosperous. Many of the streets are wide, and -the river running through the business part of the city, crossed by -broad, handsome bridges, is itself suggestive of freshness. The country -is more open and flat than farther south. In our afternoon drive some of -the views across wide, level meadows, if we could have put elms here and -there in the place of palms, would have reminded us of scenery at home. - -_August 2d._—Yesterday we left Pernambuco, and this morning found -ourselves at the mouth of the Parahyba do Norte, a broad, beautiful -river, up which we steamed to within a few miles of the little town -bearing the same name. Here we took a boat and rowed to the city, where -we spent some hours in rambling about, collecting specimens, examining -drift formations, &c. In the course of our excursion we fell in with -some friends of Major Coutinho’s, who took us home with them to an -excellent breakfast of fresh fish, with bread, coffee, and wine. The -bread is to be noticed here, for it is said to be the best in Brazil. -The flour is the same as elsewhere, and the people generally attribute -the superiority of their bread to some quality of the water. Whatever be -the cause, there is no bread in all Brazil so sweet, so light, and so -white as that of Parahyba do Norte. - -_August 5th._—We arrived yesterday at Ceará, where we were warmly -welcomed and most hospitably entertained at the house of Dr. Mendes, an -old acquaintance of Major Coutinho. It was blowing hard and raining when -we left the steamer; our boat put into the beach in a heavy surf, and I -was wondering how I should reach the shore, when two of our negro rowers -jumped into the water, and, standing at the side of the boat behind me, -motioned me to come, crossing their arms basket-fashion, as we do -sometimes to carry children. They looked as if it were the ordinary mode -of conveyance, so I seated myself, and with one arm around the neck of -each of my black bearers, they laughing as heartily as I did, I was -landed triumphantly on the sands. After the first greetings at the house -of Dr. Mendes were over, we were offered the luxury of a bath before -breakfast. The bath is a very important feature in a Brazilian -household. This one was of the size of a small room, the water (about -two feet deep and of a delicious, soft, velvety character) constantly -flowing through over the smooth sand floor. They are often larger than -this, from four to five feet deep, and sometimes lined with blue and -white tiles, which make a very clean and pretty floor. It is a great -luxury in this warm climate, and many persons bathe several times a day. -The bathhouse is usually in the garden, at a convenient distance from -the house, but not immediately adjoining it. The bath was followed by an -excellent breakfast, after which we drove through the city. Ceará is a -wonderfully progressive town for Brazil. Five years ago it had not a -paved street; now all the streets are well paved, with good sidewalks, -and the city is very carefully laid out, with a view to its future -growth.[44] To-day we are again coasting along within sight of land, -with a quiet sea and a delicious breeze. The ocean is covered with white -caps, and of a very peculiar greenish, aquamarine tint, the same which I -observed as soon as we reached these latitudes in coming out. This -singular color is said to be owing to the nature of the sea bottom and -the shallowness of the water, combined, farther north, with the -admixture of fresh water along the coast. - -_August 6th._—Arrived early this morning before Maranham, and went on -shore to breakfast at the hotel; for, wonderful to relate, Maranham -possesses a hotel, a great rarity in many Brazilian towns. We passed the -greater part of the day in driving about the city with Dr. Braga, who -kindly undertook to show us everything of interest.[45] The town and -harbor are very pretty, the city itself standing on an island, formed by -two bays running up on either side and enclosing it. The surrounding -country is flat and very thickly wooded, though the woods are rather -low. Here, at the house of Dr. Braga’s brother-in-law, we saw, for the -first time, the slender, graceful Assai palm, from which the drink is -made so much appreciated in Pará and on the Lower Amazons. It is curious -to see the negroes go up the tree to gather the fruit. The trunk is -perfectly smooth, the fruit growing in a heavy cluster of berries, just -below the crown of leaves on its summit. The negro fastens a cord or a -strip of palm-leaf around his insteps, thus binding his feet together -that they may not slide apart on the smooth stem, and by means of this -kind of stirrup he contrives to cling to the slippery trunk and scramble -up. - -We were much interested in seeing here an admirably well conducted -institution for the education of poor orphans. Its chief aim is to -educate them, not as scholars, though they receive elementary -instruction in reading, writing, and ciphering, but to teach them a -variety of occupations by which they can earn an honest livelihood. They -are trained in several trades, are taught to play on a number of -instruments, and there is also a school of design connected with the -establishment. A faultless order and scrupulous neatness prevailed -through the whole building, which was not the result of an exceptional -preparation, since our visit was wholly unexpected. This surprised us -the more, because, notwithstanding their fondness for bathing, order and -neatness in their houses are not a virtue among the Brazilians. This may -be owing to slave labor,—rarely anything better than eye-service. The -large dormitories looked fresh and airy, with the hammocks rolled up and -laid on a shelf, each one above the peg to which it belonged; the shoes -were hung on nails along the walls, and the little trunks, holding the -clothing of each scholar, were neatly arranged beneath them. On the -upper story was the hospital, a large, well-ventilated room, with -numerous windows commanding beautiful views, and a cool breeze blowing -through it. Here were cots instead of hammocks, but I thought the sick -boys might prefer the swinging, cradle-like beds to which they were -accustomed, and which they evidently find very comfortable. When Mr. -Agassiz remarked, as we passed through the dormitory, that sleeping in a -hammock was an experience he had yet to make, one of the boys took his -down from the shelf, and, hanging it up, laughingly threw himself into -it, with a lazy ease which looked quite enviable. The kitchen and -grocery rooms were as neat as the rest of the house, and the simplicity -of the whole establishment, while it admitted everything necessary for -comfort and health, was well adapted for its objects. A pretty little -chapel adjoined the house, and the house itself was built around an open -square planted with trees,—a pleasant playground for the boys, who have -their music there in the evening. On our return to town we heard that, -owing to the breakage of some part of the machinery, the steamer would -be detained in this port for a couple of days. We have, however, -returned to our quarters on board, preferring to spend the night on the -water rather than in the hot, close town. - -_August 7th._—To-day we have all been interested in watching the -beautiful Medusæ swept along by the tide, so close to the side of the -steamer that they could easily be reached from the stairway. We have now -quite a number disposed about the deck in buckets and basins, and Mr. -Burkhardt is making colored sketches of them. They are very beautiful, -and quite new to Mr. Agassiz. In some the disk has a brown tracery like -seaweed over it, while its edge is deeply lobed, every lobe being tinged -with an intensely brilliant dark blue; the lobes are divided into eight -sets of four each, making thirty-two in all, and an eye is placed on the -margin between each set; the tubes running to the eyes are much larger -than those in the intervals between, and the network of vessels on the -margin is wonderfully fine and delicate; the curtains hanging from the -mouth are white and closely fringed with full flounces, somewhat like -our Aurelia. The movement is quick, the margin of the disk beating with -short, rapid pants. Another is altogether brown and white, the -seaweed-like pattern being carried down to the edge of the lobes, and -the lobes themselves being more delicate than those of the blue-edged -one, the disk thinning out greatly towards the periphery. The brown -marks are, however, darker, more distinct, and cover a larger space in -some specimens than in others. This is also true of those with the blue -margin, the brown pattern covering the whole disk in some, confined to a -simple zone around the disk in others, and even entirely absent -occasionally. Mr. Agassiz inclines to think, from the similarity of -their other features, however, that, notwithstanding their difference of -color, they all belong to the same species, the variety in coloration -being probably connected with difference of sex. He has, at any rate, -ascertained that all the wholly brown specimens caught to-day are males. - -We were rejoiced this morning by the sight of our own flag coming into -harbor. We presently found that the ship was the gunboat Nipsic. She had -sailed from Boston on the 4th of July, and brought papers of a later -date than any we have seen. The officers were kind enough to send us a -large bundle of papers, which we have been eagerly devouring. - -_August 8th._—Another quite new and beautiful Medusa to-day. As we were -waiting for breakfast this morning a number floated past, so dark in -color that in the water they appeared almost black. Two of our party -took a boat and went in search of them, but the tide was so swift that -they swept past like lightning, and one had hardly time to point them -out before they were gone again. However, after many efforts, we -succeeded in getting one, whose portrait Mr. Burkhardt is now taking. -The disk is of a chocolate-brown, shading into a darker, more velvety -hue toward the edge, which is slightly scalloped, but not cut up into -deep lobes like those of yesterday. The eyes, eight in number, are -distinctly visible as lighter-colored specks on the margin. The -appendages hanging from the mouth are more solid and not so thickly -fringed as in those of yesterday. It moves rather slowly in its glass -prison, the broad margin shading from lighter brown to a soft chocolate -color almost verging on black, as it flaps up and down somewhat -languidly, but still with a regular, steady pulsation.[46] - -_August 9th._—We passed yesterday afternoon with the Braga family in -town. The weather was charming, a cool breeze blowing through the -veranda where we dined. There were a number of guests to meet us, and we -had again cause to acknowledge how completely the stranger is made to -feel himself at home among these hospitable people. We sailed this -morning, Mr. Agassiz taking with him a valuable collection, though our -time was so short. The fact is, that, not only here, but at every town -where we have stopped in coming up the coast, the ready, cordial desire -of the people to help in the work has enabled him to get together -collections which it would otherwise have been impossible to make in so -short a time. If he is unexpectedly successful in this expedition, it is -as much owing to the active sympathy of the Brazilians themselves, and -to their interest in the objects he has so much at heart, as to the -efforts of himself and his companions. - -_August 11th._—Pará. Early yesterday morning, a few yellowish patches -staining the ocean here and there gave us our first glimpse of the water -of the Amazons. Presently the patches became broad streaks, the fresh -waters encroaching gradually upon the sea, until, at about ten o’clock, -we fairly entered the mouth of the river, though, as the shores are some -hundred and fifty miles apart, we might have believed ourselves on the -broad ocean. As we neared the city, the numerous islands closing up -about Pará and sheltering its harbor limited the view and broke the -enormous expanse of the fresh-water basin. We anchored off the city at -about three o’clock, but a heavy thundershower, with violent rain, -prevented us from going on shore till the next morning. None of the -party landed except Major Coutinho. He went to announce our arrival to -his friend, Mr. Pimenta Bueno, who has kindly invited us to make his -house our home while we stay in Pará. The next morning was beautiful -after the rain, and at seven o’clock two boats were sent to take us and -our effects on shore. On landing we went at once to Mr. Pimenta’s large -business establishment near the wharves. Here he has provided several -excellent working-rooms to serve as laboratories and storage-places for -the specimens, and besides these a number of airy, cool chambers on the -floor above, for the accommodation of our companions, who have already -slung their hammocks, arranged their effects, and are keeping a kind of -bachelor’s hall. Having disposed of the scientific apparatus, we drove -out to Mr. Pimenta’s “chacara,” some two miles out of town, on the Rua -de Nazareth, where we were received with the utmost kindness. Mr. -Agassiz and Major Coutinho soon returned to town, where no time is to be -lost in beginning work at the laboratory. I remained at home and passed -a pleasant morning with the ladies of the family, who made me acquainted -with the peculiar beverage so famous in these regions, prepared from the -berries of the Assai palm. They are about the size of cranberries, and -of a dark-brown color. Being boiled and crushed they yield a quantity of -juice, which when strained has about the consistency of chocolate, and -is of a dark purplish tint like blackberry juice. It has a sweetish -taste, and is very nice eaten with sugar and the crisp “farinha d’agua,” -a kind of coarse flour made from the mandioca root. People of all -classes throughout the province of Pará are exceedingly fond of this -beverage, and in the city they have a proverb which runs thus:— - - “Who visits Pará is glad to stay, - Who drinks Assai goes never away.” - -_August 12th._—This morning we rose early and walked into town. Great -pains have been taken with the environs of Pará, and the Rua de Nazareth -is one of the broad streets leading into the country, and planted with -large trees (chiefly mangueiras) for two or three miles out of town. On -our way we saw a lofty palm-tree completely overpowered and stifled in -the embrace of an enormous parasite. So luxuriant is the growth of the -latter that you do not perceive, till it is pointed out to you, that its -spreading branches and thick foliage completely hide the tree from which -it derives its life; only from the extreme summit a few fan-like -palm-leaves shoot upwards as if trying to escape into the air and light. -The palm cannot long survive, however, and with its death it seals the -doom of its murderer also. There is another evidence, and a more -pleasing one, of the luxuriance of nature on this same road. The -skeleton of a house stands by the wayside; whether a ruin or unfinished, -I am unable to say, but at all events only the walls are standing, with -the openings for doors and windows. Nature has completed this imperfect -dwelling;—she has covered it over with a green roof, she has planted the -empty enclosure with a garden of her own choosing, she has trained vines -around the open doors and windows; and the deserted house, if it has no -other inmates, is at least a home for the birds. It makes a very pretty -picture. I never pass it without wishing for a sketch of it. On our -arrival in town we went at once to the market. It is very near the -water, and we were much amused in watching the Indian canoes at the -landing. The “montaria,” as the Indian calls his canoe, is a long, -narrow boat, covered at one end with a thatched roof, under which is the -living-room of the family. Here the Indian has his home; wife and -children, hammock, cooking utensils,—all his household goods, in fact. -In some of the boats the women were preparing breakfast, cooking the -coffee or the tapioca over a pan of coals. In others they were selling -the coarse pottery, which they make into all kinds of utensils, -sometimes of quite graceful, pretty forms. We afterwards went through -the market. It is quite large and neatly kept; but the Brazilian markets -are only good as compared with each other. The meats are generally poor; -there is little game to be seen; they have no variety of vegetables, -which might be so easily cultivated here, and even the display of fruit -in the market is by no means what one would expect it to be. To-night -Mr. Agassiz goes off with a party of gentlemen on an excursion to some -of the islands in the harbor. This first expedition in the neighborhood -of Pará, from which the Professor promises himself much pleasure, is -planned by Dr. Couto de Magalhaês, President of the Province.[47] - -_August 14th._—We are very agreeably surprised in the climate here. I -had expected from the moment of our arrival in the region of the Amazons -to be gasping in a fierce, unintermitting, intolerable heat. On the -contrary, the mornings are fresh; a walk or ride between six and eight -o’clock is always delightful; and though during the middle of the day -the heat is certainly very great, it cools off again towards four -o’clock; the evenings are delightful, and the nights always comfortable. -Even in the hottest part of the day the heat is not dead; there is -always a breeze stirring. Mr. Agassiz returned this afternoon from his -excursion in the harbor, more deeply impressed than ever with the -grandeur of this entrance to the Amazons and the beauty of its many -islands, “An archipelago of islands,” as he says, “in an ocean of fresh -water.” He describes the mode of fishing of the Indians as curious. They -row very softly up the creek, having first fastened the seine across -from shore to shore at a lower point, and when they have gained a -certain distance above it, they spring into the water with a great plash -and rush down the creek in a line, driving the fish before them into the -net. One draught alone filled the boat half full of fish. Mr. Agassiz -was especially interested in seeing alive for the first time the curious -fish called “Tralhote” by the Indians, and known to naturalists as the -Anableps tetrophthalmus. This name, signifying “four-eyed,” is derived -from the singular structure of the eye. A membranous fold enclosing the -bulb of the eye stretches across the pupil, dividing the visual -apparatus into an upper and lower half. No doubt this formation is -intended to suit the peculiar habits of the Anableps. These fishes -gather in shoals on the surface of the water, their heads resting partly -above, partly below the surface, and they move by a leaping motion -somewhat like that of frogs on land. Thus, half in air, half in water, -they require eyes adapted for seeing in both elements, and the -arrangement described above just meets this want. - -_August 19th._—To-night at ten o’clock we go on board the steamer, and -before dawn shall be on our way up the river. This has been a delicious -week of rest and refreshment to me. The quiet country life, with morning -walks in the fresh, fragrant lanes and roads immediately about us, has -been very soothing after four months of travel or of noisy hotel life. -The other day as we were going into town we found in the wet grass by -the roadside one of the most beautiful mushrooms I have ever seen. The -stem was pure white, three or four inches in height, and about half an -inch in diameter, surmounted by a club-shaped head, brown in color, with -a blunt point, and from the base of this head was suspended an open -white net of exquisitely delicate texture, falling to within about an -inch of the ground; a fairy web that looked fit for Queen Mab -herself.[48] The week, so peaceful for me, has been one, if not of rest, -at least of intense interest for Mr. Agassiz. The very day of his -arrival, by the kindness of our host, his working-rooms were so arranged -as to make an admirable laboratory, and, from the hour he entered them, -specimens have poured in upon him from all quarters. His own party make -but a small part of the scientific corps who have worked for and with -him here. In Pará alone he has already more than fifty new species of -fresh-water fishes; enough to reveal unexpected and novel relations in -the finny world, and to give the basis of an improved classification. He -is far from attributing this great success wholly to his own efforts. -Ready as he is to work, he could not accomplish half that he does, -except for the active good-will of those about him. Among the most -valuable of these contributions is a collection made by Mr. Pimenta -Bueno, of the so-called fishes of the forest. When the waters overflow -after the rainy season and fill the forest for a considerable distance -on either side, these fish hover over the depressions and hollows, and -as the waters subside are left in the pools and channels. They do not -occur in the open river, but are always found in these forest retreats, -and go by the name of the “Peixe do Mato.” - -Mr. Agassiz has not only to acknowledge the untiring kindness of -individuals here, but also the cordial expression of sympathy from -public bodies in the objects of the expedition. A committee from the -municipality of the city has waited upon him to express the general -satisfaction in the undertaking, and he has received a public -demonstration of the same kind from the college. The bishop of the -province and his coadjutor have also been most cordial in offers of -assistance. Nor does the interest thus expressed evaporate in empty -words. Mr. Pimenta Bueno is director of the Brazilian line of steamers -from Pará to Tabatinga.[49] The trip to Manaos, at the mouth of the Rio -Negro, is generally made in five days, allowing only for stoppages of an -hour or two at different stations, to take or leave passengers and to -deposit or receive merchandise. In order that we may be perfectly -independent, however, and stop wherever it seems desirable to make -collections, the company places at our disposition a steamer for one -month between Pará and Manaos. There are to be no passengers but -ourselves, and the steamer is provided with everything necessary for the -whole company during that period,—food, service, &c. I think it may -fairly be said that in no part of the world could a private scientific -undertaking be greeted with more cordiality or receive a more liberal -hospitality than has been accorded to the present expedition. I dwell -upon these things and recur to them often, not in any spirit of egotism, -but because it is due to the character of the people from whom they come -to make the fullest acknowledgment of their generosity. - -While Mr. Agassiz has been busy with the zoölogical collections, Major -Coutinho has been no less so in making geological, meteorological, and -hydrographic investigations. His regular co-operation is invaluable, and -Mr. Agassiz blesses the day when their chance meeting at the Palace -suggested the idea of his joining the expedition. Not only his -scientific attainments, but his knowledge of the Indian language -(_lingua geral_), and his familiarity with the people, make him a most -important coadjutor. With his aid Mr. Agassiz has already opened a sort -of scientific log-book, in which, by the side of the scientific name of -every specimen entered by the Professor, Major Coutinho records its -popular local name, obtained from the Indians, with all they can tell of -its haunts and habits. - -I have said nothing of Mr. Agassiz’s observations on the character of -the soil since we left Rio, thinking it best to give them as a whole. -Along the entire length of the coast he has followed the drift, -examining it carefully at every station. At Bahia it contained fewer -large boulders than in Rio, but was full of small pebbles, and rested -upon undecomposed stratified rock. At Maceió, the capital of the -province of Alagôas, it was the same, but resting upon decomposed rock, -as at Tijuca. Below this was a bed of stratified clay, containing small -pebbles. In Pernambuco, on our drive to the great aqueduct, we followed -it for the whole way; the same red clayey homogeneous paste, resting -there on decomposed rock. The line of contact at Monteiro, the aqueduct -station, was very clearly marked, however, by an intervening bed of -pebbles. At Parahyba do Norte the same sheet of drift, but containing -more and larger pebbles, rests above a decomposed sandstone somewhat -resembling the decomposed rock of Pernambuco. In the undecomposed rock -below, Mr. Agassiz found some fossil shells. In the neighborhood of Cape -St. Roque we came upon sand-dunes resembling those of Cape Cod, and -wherever we sailed near enough to the shore to see the banks distinctly, -as was frequently the case, the bed of drift below the shifting -superficial sands above was distinctly noticeable. The difference in -color between the white sand and the reddish soil beneath made it easy -to perceive their relations. At Ceará, where we landed, Mr. Agassiz had -an opportunity of satisfying himself of this by closer examination. At -Maranham the drift is everywhere conspicuous, and at Pará equally so. -This sheet of drift which he has thus followed from Rio de Janeiro to -the mouth of the Amazons is everywhere of the same geological -constitution. It is always a homogeneous clayey paste of a reddish -color, containing quartz pebbles; and, whatever be the character of the -rock in place, whether granite, sandstone, gneiss, or lime, the -character of the drift never changes or partakes of that of the rocks -with which it is in contact. This certainly proves that, whatever be its -origin, it cannot be referred to the localities where it is now found, -but must have been brought from a distance. Whoever shall track it back -to the place where this peculiar red soil with its constituent elements -forms the primitive rock, will have solved the problem. I introduce here -a letter written by Mr. Agassiz, a few days later, to the Emperor, which -will better give his views on the subject. - - A BORD DE L’ICAMIABA, SUR L’AMAZONE, - le 20 Aout, 1865. - -SIRE:—Permettez moi de rendre un compte rapide à Votre Majesté, de ce -que j’ai observé de plus intéressant depuis mon départ de Rio. La -première chose qui m’a frappé en arrivant à Bahia, ce fut d’y trouver le -terrain erratique, comme à la Tijuca et comme dans la partie méridionale -de Minas, que j’ai visitée. Ici comme là, ce terrain, d’une constitution -identique, repose sur les roches en place les plus diversifiées. Je l’ai -retrouvé de même à Maceio, à Pernambuco, à Parahyba do Norte, à Ceará, à -Maranham, et au Pará. Voilà donc un fait établi sur la plus grande -échelle! Cela démontre que les matériaux superficiels, que l’on pourrait -désigner du nom de drift, ici comme dans le Nord de l’Europe et de -l’Amérique, ne sauraient être le résultat de la décomposition des roches -sous-jacentes, puisque celles-ci sont tantôt du granit, tantôt du -gneiss, tantôt du schiste micacé ou talqueux, tantôt du grès, tandis que -le drift offre partout la même composition. Je n’en suis pas moins aussi -éloigné que jamais de pouvoir signaler l’origine de ces matériaux et la -direction de leur transport. Aujourd’hui que le Major Coutinho a appris -à distinguer le drift des roches décomposées, il m’assure que nous le -retrouverons dans toute la vallée de l’Amazône. L’imagination la plus -hardie recule devant toute espèce de généralisation à ce sujet. Et -pourtant, il faudra bien en venir à se familiariser avec l’idée que la -cause qui a dispersé ces matériaux, quelle qu’elle soit, a agi sur la -plus grande échelle, puisqu’on les retrouvera probablement sur tout le -continent. Déjà j’apprends que mes jeunes compagnons de voyage ont -observé le drift dans les environs de Barbacena et d’Ouro-Preto et dans -la vallée du Rio das Velhas. Mes résultats zoologiques ne sont pas moins -satisfaisants; et pour ne parler que des poissons, j’ai trouvé à Pará -seulement, pendant une semaine, plus d’espèces qu’on n’en a décrit -jusqu’à présent de tout le bassin de l’Amazône; c. à. d. en tout -soixante-trois. Cette étude sera, je crois, utile à l’ichthyologie, car -j’ai déjà pu distinguer cinq familles nouvelles et dix-huit genres -nouveaux et les espèces inédites ne s’élèvent pas à moins de -quarante-neuf. C’est une garantie que je ferai encore une riche moisson, -lorsque j’entrerai dans le domaine de l’Amazône proprement dit; car je -n’ai encore vu qu’un dixième des espèces fluviatiles que l’on connait de -ce bassin et les quelques espèces marines qui remontent jusqu’au Pará. -Malheureusement M. Burkhardt est malade et je n’ai encore pu faire -peindre que quatre des espèces nouvelles que je me suis procurées, et -puis près de la moitié n’ont été prises qu’en exemplaires uniques. Il -faut absolument qu’à mon retour je fasse un plus long séjour au Pará -pour remplir ces lacunes. Je suis dans le ravissement de la nature -grandiose que j’ai sous les yeux. Votre Majesté régne sans contredit sur -le plus bel empire du monde et toutes personelles que soient les -attentions que je reçois partout où je m’arrête, je ne puis m’empêcher -de croire que n’était le caractère généreux et hospitalier des -Brésiliens et l’intérêt des classes supérieures pour le progrès des -sciences et de la civilisation, je n’aurais point rencontré les -facilités qui se pressent sous mes pas. C’est ainsi que pour me -faciliter l’exploration du fleuve, du Pará à Manaos, M. Pimenta Bueno, -au lieu de m’acheminer par le steamer régulier, a mis à ma disposition, -pour un mois ou six semaines, un des plus beaux bateaux de la compagnie, -où je suis instalé aussi commodément que dans mon Musée à Cambridge. M. -Coutinho est plein d’attention et me rend mon travail doublement facile -en le préparant à l’avance par tous les renseignements possibles. - -Mais je ne veux pas abuser des loisirs de Votre Majesté et je la prie de -croire toujours au dévouement le plus complet et à l’affection la plus -respectueuse - - De son très humble et très obéissant serviteur, - - L. AGASSIZ.[50] - ------ - -Footnote 43: - - Mr. Agassiz was indebted to Mr. Hitch for valuable additions to his - collections, and for many acts of kindness in behalf of the - expedition. - -Footnote 44: - - Here, as elsewhere, I found ready and willing coadjutors among amateur - collectors. On my return from the Amazons, many months later, I found - collections made in my absence by Dr. Mendes and Senhor Barroso, who - had been our companions on board the steamer. At Parahyba do Norte I - was indebted in the same way to Dr. Justa. These collections will - afford invaluable materials for the comparison of the Coast Faunæ.—L. - A. - -Footnote 45: - - At a later period I owed to Dr. Braga far more than the ordinary - courtesy extended to a stranger. I had informed him that Mr. St. John, - then following the course of the Rio San Francisco, on his way to the - province of Piauhy, would arrive in Maranham at the close of his - journey. When he reached that city he was very seriously ill with - fever. Dr. Braga took him into his house, where he was attended by him - and his family as if he had been one of their kindred. I have, indeed, - little doubt that my young friend owed his recovery to the considerate - care with which he was treated under their kindly roof.—L. A. - -Footnote 46: - - These two Medusæ belong to the Rhizostomidæ, and I shall take an early - opportunity to publish a description of them, with the drawings of Mr. - Burkhardt.—L. A. - -Footnote 47: - - To Dr. Couto de Magalhaês Mr. Agassiz was indebted for unremitting - attentions during our stay in the region of the Amazons. He never - failed to facilitate the success of the expedition by every means in - his power, and the large collections made under his directions during - our sojourn upon the Upper Amazons were among the most valuable - contributions to its scientific results. When he heard that Mr. Ward, - one of our young companions, was coming down the Tocantins, he sent a - boat and boatmen to meet him, and on his arrival in Pará received him - in his own house, where he remained his guest during his stay in the - city. - -Footnote 48: - - This mushroom belongs to the genus Phallus, and seems to be an - undescribed species. I preserved it in alcohol, but was unable to have - any drawing made from it before its beauty and freshness were quite - gone. In the early morning, while the grass was still damp, we often - found a peculiar snail, a species of Bulimus, creeping by the - roadside. The form of the anterior part of the foot was unlike that of - any species known thus far from this group. Such facts show the - desirableness of making drawings from the soft parts of these animals - as well as from their solid envelopes.—L. A. - -Footnote 49: - - The President of this line is the Baron de Mazá, esteemed by his - countrymen as a financier of great ability and a man of rare energy, - perseverance, and patriotism. As he was in Europe during the year of - my visit to Brazil, I had not the pleasure of a personal acquaintance - with him, and I therefore welcome this opportunity of thanking him for - the liberality shown in all their dealings with me by the company of - which he is the moving spirit.—L. A. - -Footnote 50: - - ON BOARD THE ICAMIABA, ON THE AMAZONS, - August 20, 1865. - - SIRE:—Allow me to give your Majesty a rapid sketch of the most - interesting facts observed by me since leaving Rio. The first thing - which struck me on arriving at Bahia was the presence of the erratic - soil, corresponding to that of Tijuca and the southern part of - Minas-Geräes, which I have visited. Here, as there, this soil, - identical in its constitution, rests upon rocks in place, of the most - diversified character. I have found it also at Maceió, at Pernambuco, - at Parahyba do Norte, at Ceará, at Maranham, and at Pará. This is a - fact, then, established on the largest scale. It shows that the - superficial materials which, here as in the North of Europe and - America, may be designated as drift, cannot be the result of the - decomposition of underlying rocks, since the latter are sometimes - granite, sometimes gneiss, sometimes mica or talcose slate, sometimes - sandstone, while the drift presents the same composition everywhere. I - am as far as ever from being able to point out the origin of these - materials and the direction of their transportation. Now that Major - Coutinho has learned to distinguish the drift from the decomposed - rocks, he assures me that we shall find it throughout the valley of - the Amazons. The boldest imagination shrinks from any generalization - on this subject, and yet we must gradually familiarize ourselves with - the idea that the cause which has dispersed these materials, whatever - it be, has acted on the largest scale, since they are probably to be - found all over the continent. Already I learn that my young travelling - companions have observed the drift in the environs of Barbacena and - Ouro-Preto, and in the valley of the Rio das Velhas. My zoölogical - results are not less satisfactory; and to speak of the fishes alone, I - have found at Pará during one week more species than have as yet been - described from the whole basin of the Amazons,—sixty-three in all. - This study will be useful, I hope, to ichthyology, for I have already - succeeded in distinguishing five new families and eighteen new genera, - while the unpublished species do not number less than forty-nine. It - is a guaranty of the rich harvest I shall make when I enter upon the - domain of the Amazons properly so called; for I have seen as yet but a - tenth part of the fluviatile species known from this basin, and some - of the marine species which come up to Pará. Unhappily, Mr. Burkhardt - is ill, and has been able to paint but four of the new species we have - procured; and of nearly half the number, only single specimens have - been secured. On my return I must make a longer stay in Pará in order - to fill these deficiencies. I am enchanted with the grandeur of nature - here. Your Majesty certainly reigns over the most beautiful empire of - the world; and, personal as are the attentions which I receive - wherever I stop, I cannot but believe that, were it not for the - generous and hospitable character of the Brazilians and the interest - of the higher classes in the progress of science and civilization, I - should not have met with the facilities which crowd my path. Thus, in - order to render the exploration of the river from Pará to Manaos more - easy, Mr. Pimenta Bueno, instead of allowing me to take the regular - steamer, has put at my disposition, for a month or six weeks, one of - the finest boats of the company, where I am installed as conveniently - as in my Museum at Cambridge. Mr. Coutinho is full of attention, and - renders my work doubly light by procuring, in advance, all the - information possible. But I will not further abuse your Majesty’s - leisure, only begging you to believe in the complete devotion and - respectful affection of - - Your humble and obedient servant, - - L. AGASSIZ. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - FROM PARÁ TO MANAOS. - - FIRST SUNDAY ON THE AMAZONS.—GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTION.—CONVENIENT - ARRANGEMENTS OF STEAMER.—VAST DIMENSIONS OF THE - RIVER.—ASPECT OF SHORES.—VILLAGE OF BREVES.—LETTER ABOUT - COLLECTIONS.—VEGETATION.—VARIETY OF PALMS.—SETTLEMENT OF - TAJAPURÚ.—ENORMOUS SIZE OF LEAVES OF THE MIRITI PALM.—WALK - ON SHORE.—INDIAN HOUSES.—COURTESY OF INDIANS.—ROW IN THE - FOREST.—TOWN OF GURUPÁ.—RIVER XINGU.—COLOR OF WATER.—TOWN OF - PORTO DO MOZ.—FLAT-TOPPED HILLS OF ALMEYRIM.—BEAUTIFUL - SUNSET.—MONTE ALÉGRE.—CHARACTER OF SCENERY AND - SOIL.—SANTAREM.—SEND OFF PARTY ON THE RIVER - TAPAJOS.—CONTINUE UP THE AMAZONS.—PASTORAL SCENES ON THE - BANKS.—TOWN OF VILLA BELLA.—CANOE JOURNEY AT NIGHT TO THE - LAKE OF JOSÉ ASSÚ.—ESPERANÇA’S COTTAGE.—PICTURESQUE SCENE AT - NIGHT.—SUCCESS IN COLLECTING.—INDIAN LIFE.—MAKING - FARINHA.—DANCE IN THE EVENING.—HOWLING MONKEYS.—RELIGIOUS - IMPRESSIONS OF INDIANS.—COTTAGE OF MAIA THE FISHERMAN.—HIS - INTEREST IN EDUCATING HIS CHILDREN.—RETURN TO - STEAMER.—SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF THE EXCURSION. - - -_August 20th._—On board the “Icamiaba.” Our first Sunday on the Amazons; -for, notwithstanding the warm dispute as to whether both the rivers -enclosing the island of Marajó must be considered as parts of the great -river, it is impossible not to feel from the moment you leave Pará that -you have entered upon the Amazons. Geology must settle this knotty -question. If it should be seen that the continent once presented an -unbroken line, as Mr. Agassiz believes, from Cape St. Roque to Cayenne, -the sea having encroached upon it so as to give it its present limits, -the Amazons must originally have entered the ocean far to the east of -its present mouth, at a time when the Island of Marajó divided the river -in two channels flowing on either side of it and uniting again beyond -it. We came on board last night, accompanied to the boat by a number of -the friends who have made our sojourn in Pará so agreeable, and who came -off to bid us farewell. Thus far the hardships of this South American -journey seem to retreat at our approach. It is impossible to travel with -greater comfort than surrounds us here. My own suite of rooms consists -of a good-sized state-room, with dressing-room and bath-room adjoining, -and, if the others are not quite so luxuriously accommodated, they have -space enough. The state-rooms are hardly used at night, for a hammock on -deck is far more comfortable in this climate. Our deck, roofed in for -its whole length, and with an awning to let down on the sides, if -needed, looks like a comfortable, unceremonious sitting-room. A table -down the middle serving as a dinner-table, but which is at this moment -strewn with maps, journals, books, and papers of all sorts, two or three -lounging-chairs, a number of camp-stools, and half a dozen hammocks, in -one or two of which some of the party are taking their ease, furnish our -drawing-room, and supply all that is needed for work and rest. At one -end is also a drawing-table for Mr. Burkhardt, beside a number of kegs -and glass jars for specimens. This first day, however, it is almost -impossible to do more than look and wonder. Mr. Agassiz says: “This -river is not like a river; the general current in such a sea of fresh -water is hardly perceptible to the sight, and seems more like the flow -of an ocean than like that of an inland stream.” It is true we are -constantly between shores, but they are shores, not of the river itself, -but of the countless islands scattered throughout its enormous breadth. -As we coast along their banks, it is delightful to watch the exquisite -vegetation with which we have yet to become familiar. The tree which -most immediately strikes the eye, and stands out from the mass of green -with wonderful grace and majesty, is the lofty, slender Assai palm, with -its crown of light plume-like leaves, and its bunches of berry-like -fruit, hanging from a branch that shoots out almost horizontally, just -below the leaves. Houses on the shore break the solitude here and there. -From this distance they look picturesque, with thatched, overhanging -roofs, covering a kind of open porch. Just now we passed a cleared nook -at the water-side, where a wooden cross marked a single mound. What a -lonely grave it seemed! We are now coasting along the Isle of Marajó, -keeping up the so-called Pará river; we shall not enter the undisputed -waters of the Amazons till the day after to-morrow. This part of the -river goes also by the name of the Bay of Marajó. - -_August 21st._—Last evening we stopped at our first station,—the little -town of Breves. Its population, like that of all these small settlements -on the Lower Amazons, is made up of an amalgamation of races. You see -the regular features and fair skin of the white man combined with the -black, coarse, straight hair of the Indian, or the mulatto with partly -negro, partly Indian features, but the crisp taken out of the hair; and -with these combinations comes in the pure Indian type, with its low -brow, square build of face, and straight line of the shoulders. In the -women especially the shoulders are rather high. In the first house we -entered there was only an old half-breed Indian-woman, standing in the -broad open porch of her thatched home, where she seemed to be surrounded -with live stock,—parrots and parroquets of all sorts and sizes, which -she kept for sale. After looking in at several of the houses, buying one -or two monkeys, some parroquets, and some articles of the village -pottery, as ugly, I must say, as they were curious, we wandered up into -the forest to gather plants for drying. The palms are more abundant, -larger, and in greater variety than we have seen them hitherto. At dusk -we returned to the steamer, where we found a crowd of little boys and -some older members of the village population, with snakes, fishes, -insects, monkeys, &c. The news had spread that the collecting of “bixos” -was the object of this visit to their settlement, and all were thronging -in with their live wares of different kinds. Mr. Agassiz was very much -pleased with this first harvest. He added a considerable number of new -species to his collection of Amazonian fishes made in Pará, already so -full and rare. We remained at the Breves landing all night, and this -morning we are steaming along between islands, in a channel which bears -the name of the river Aturia. It gives an idea of the grandeur of the -Amazons, that many of the channels dividing the islands by which its -immense breadth is broken are themselves like ample rivers, and among -the people here are known by distinct local names. The banks are flat; -we have seen no cliffs as yet, and the beauty of the scenery is wholly -in the forest. I speak more of the palms than of other trees, because -they are not to be mistaken, and from their peculiar port they stand out -in bold relief from the mass of foliage, often rising above it and -sharply defined against the sky. There are, however, a host of other -trees, the names of which are unknown to us as yet, many of which I -suppose have no place even in botanical nomenclature, forming a dense -wall of verdure along the banks of the river. We have sometimes heard it -said that the voyage up the Amazons is monotonous; but to me it seems -delightful to coast along by these woods, of a character so new to us, -to get glimpses into their dark depths or into a cleared spot with a -single stately palm here and there, or to catch even the merest glance -at the life of the people who live in the isolated settlements, -consisting only of one or two Indian houses by the river-side. We are -keeping so near to the banks to-day, that we can almost count the leaves -on the trees, and have an excellent opportunity of studying the various -kinds of palms. At first the Assai was most conspicuous, but now come in -a number of others. The Mirití (Mauritia) is one of the most beautiful, -with its pendant clusters of reddish fruit and its enormous, spreading, -fan-like leaves cut into ribbons, one of which Wallace says is a load -for a man. The Jupatí (Rhaphia), with its plume-like leaves, sometimes -from forty to fifty feet in length, seems, in consequence of its short -stem, to start almost from the ground. Its vase-like form is peculiarly -graceful and symmetrical. Then there is the Bussù (Manicaria), with -stiff, entire leaves, some thirty feet in length, more upright and close -in their mode of growth, and serrated along their edges. The stem of -this palm also is comparatively short. The banks in this part of the -river are very generally bordered by two plants forming sometimes a sort -of hedge along the shore; namely, the Aninga (Arum), with large, -heart-shaped leaves on the summit of tall stems, and the Murici, a lower -growth, just on the water’s edge. We are passing out of the so-called -river Aturia into another channel of like character, the river Tajapurú. -In the course of the day we shall arrive at a little settlement bearing -the same name, where is to be our second station. - -_August 22d._—Yesterday we passed the day at the settlement mentioned -above. It consists only of the house of a Brazilian merchant,[51] who -lives here with his family, having no neighbors except the inhabitants -of a few Indian houses in the forest immediately about. One wonders at -first what should induce a man to isolate himself in this solitude. But -the India-rubber trade is very productive here. The Indians tap the -trees as we tap our sugar-maples, and give the produce in exchange for -various articles of their own domestic consumption. Our day at Tajapurú -was a very successful one in a scientific point of view, and the -collections were again increased by a number of new species. Much as has -been said of the number and variety of fishes in the Amazons, the fauna -seems far richer than it has been reported. For those of my readers who -care to follow the scientific progress of the expedition as well as the -thread of personal adventure, I add here a letter on the subject, -written a day or two later by Mr. Agassiz to Mr. Pimenta Bueno, in Pará, -the generous friend to whom he owes in a great degree the facilities he -enjoys in this voyage. - - 22 Aout, au matin: entre Tajapurú et Gurupá. - - MON CHER AMI:—La journée d’hier a été des plus instructives, surtout - pour les poissons “do Mato.” Nous avons obtenu quinze espèces en - tout. Sur ce nombre il y en a dix nouvelles, quatre qui se trouvent - aussi au Pará et une déjà décrite par moi dans le voyage de Spix et - Martius; mais ce qu’il y a de plus intéressant, c’est la preuve que - fournissent ces espèces, à les prendre dans leur totalité, que - l’ensemble des poissons qui habitent les eaux à l’ouest du groupe - d’îles qu’on appelle Marajó, diffère de ceux des eaux du Rio do - Pará. La liste des noms que nous avons demandée aux Indiens prouve - encore que le nombre des espèces qui se trouvent dans ces localités - est beaucoup plus considérable que celui des espèces que nous avons - pu nous procurer; aussi avons nous laissé des bocaux à Breves et à - Tajapurú pour compléter la collection. - - Voici quelques remarques qui vous feront mieux apprécier ces - différences, si vous voulez les comparer avec le catalogue des - espèces du Pará que je vous ai laissé. À tout prendre, il me parait - évident dès à présent que notre voyage fera une révolution dans - l’Ichthyologie. Et d’abord, le Jacundá de Tajapurú est différent des - espèces du Pará; de même l’Acará; puis nous avons une espèce - nouvelle de Sarapó et une espèce nouvelle de Jeju; une espèce - nouvelle de Rabeca, une espèce nouvelle d’Anojá, un genre nouveau de - Candiru, un genre nouveau de Bagre, un genre nouveau d’Acary et une - espèce nouvelle d’Acary du même genre que celui du Pará; plus une - espèce nouvelle de Matupirim. Ajoutez à ceci une espèce d’Aracu déjà - décrite, mais qui ne se trouve pas au Pará et vous aurez à Tajapurú - onze espèces qui n’existent pas au Pará, auxquelles il faut ajouter - encore quatre espèces qui se trouvent à Tajapurú aussi bien qu’au - Pará, et une qui se trouve au Pará, à Brèves, et à Tajapurú. En tout - vingt espèces, dont quinze nouvelles, en deux jours. Malheureusement - les Indiens ont mal compris nos directions, et ne nous ont rapporté - qu’un seul exemplaire de chacune de ces espèces. Il reste donc - beaucoup à faire dans ces localités, surtout à en juger d’après le - catalogue des noms recueillis par le Major Coutinho qui renferme - vingt-six espèces “do Mato” et quarante-six “do Rio.” Il nous en - manque donc au moins cinquante-deux de Tajapurú, même à supposer que - cette localité renferme aussi les cinq espèces de Breves. Vous voyez - que nous laisserons encore énormément à faire à nos successeurs. - - Adieu pour aujourd’hui, votre bien affectioné - - L. AGASSIZ.[52] - -The Indians here are very skilful in fishing, and instead of going to -collect, Mr. Agassiz, immediately on arriving at any station, sends off -several fishermen of the place, remaining himself on board to -superintend the drawing and putting up of the specimens as they -arrive.[53] He made at Tajapurú a collection of the leaves and fruit of -palms, of which there were several very beautiful ones near the shore. I -sat for a long time on the deck watching an Indian cutting a leaf from a -Mirití palm. He was sitting in the crotch of a single leaf, as safe and -as perfectly supported as if he had been on the branch of an oak-tree, -and it took many blows of his heavy axe to separate the leaf at his side -which he was trying to bring down. The heat during the day was intense, -but at about five o’clock it became quite cool and R—— and I strolled on -shore. Walking here is a peculiar process, and seems rather alarming -till you become accustomed to it. A great part of the land, even far up -into the forest, is overflowed, and single logs are thrown across the -streams and pools, over which the inhabitants walk with as much security -as on a broad road, but which seem anything but safe to the new-comer. -After we had gone a little way we came to an Indian house on the border -of the wood. Here we were very cordially invited to enter, and had again -cause to comment on the tidy aspect of the porch, which is their general -reception-room. A description of one of these dwellings will do for all. -Their materials are drawn from the forest about them. The frames are -made of tall, slender tree-trunks, crossing each other at right angles. -Between these are woven long palm-leaves, making an admirable thatch, or -sometimes the walls are filled in with mud. The roof overhangs, covering -the wide, open porch, which extends the length of one side of the house, -and is as deep as a good-sized room; it is usually left open on the -sides as well as in front. Within, the rest of the house is divided off -into one or more chambers, according to its size. I have not penetrated -into these, but can bear testimony to the usual cleanliness and order of -the outer room. The hard mud-floor is neatly swept, there is no litter -about, and, except for the mosquitoes, I should think it no hardship to -sling my hammock for the night under the thatched roof of one of these -primitive veranda-like apartments. There is one element of dirt common -in the houses of our own poor which is absent here. Instead of the mass -of old musty bedding, a nest for vermin, the Indians have their cool -hammocks, slung from side to side of the room. One feature in their mode -of building deserves to be mentioned. Owing to the submerged state of -the ground on which they live, the Indians often raise their houses on -piles sunk in the water. Here we have the old lacustrine buildings, so -much discussed of late years, reproduced for us. One even sees sometimes -a little garden lifted in this way above the water. - -But to return to our walk. One of the Indians invited us to continue our -ramble to his house, which he said was not far beyond, in the forest. We -readily complied, for the path he pointed out to us looked tempting in -the extreme, leading into the depth of the wood. Under his guidance we -continued for some distance, every now and then crossing one of the -forest creeks on the logs. Seeing that I was rather timid, he cut for me -a long pole, with the aid of which I felt quite brave. But at last we -came to a place where the water was so deep that I could not touch -bottom with my pole, and as the round log on which I was to cross was -rather rocking and unsteady, I did not dare to advance. I told him, in -my imperfect Portuguese, that I was afraid. “Naō, mia branca” (No, my -white) he said, reassuringly; “naō tem medo” (don’t be afraid). Then, as -if a thought struck him, he motioned me to wait, and, going a few steps -up the creek, he unloosed his boat, brought it down to the spot where we -stood, and put us across to the opposite shore. Just beyond was his -pretty, picturesque home, where he showed me his children, telling me -their ages, and introduced me to his wife. There is a natural courtesy -about these people which is very attractive, and which Major Coutinho, -who has lived among them a great deal, tells me is a general -characteristic of the Amazonian Indians. When we took leave of them and -returned to the canoe, I supposed our guide would simply put us across -to the other shore, a distance of a few feet only, as he had done in -coming. Instead of that he headed the canoe up the creek into the wood. -I shall never forget that row, the more enchanting that it was so -unexpected, through the narrow water-path, overarched by a solid roof of -verdure, and black with shadows; and yet it was not gloomy, for outside, -the sun was setting in crimson and gold, and its last beams struck in -under the boughs and lit the interior of the forest with a warm glow. -Nor shall I easily forget the face of our Indian friend, who had -welcomed us so warmly to his home, and who evidently enjoyed our -exclamations of delight and the effect of the surprise he had given us. -The creek led by a detour back into the river, a few rods above the -landing where our steamer lay. Our friendly boatman left us at the -stairway with a cordial good-by, and many thanks from us at parting. - -We left our landing early this morning, and at about half past ten -turned into the main Amazons. Thus far we have been in what is called -the Pará river, and the branches connecting it with the Amazons proper. -The proportions of everything in nature amaze one here, however much one -may have heard or read about them. For two days and nights we have been -following the isle of Marajo, which, though but an island in the mouth -of the Amazons, is half as large as Ireland. I add here a second letter -from Mr. Agassiz to Mr. Pimenta Bueno, giving a short summary of his -scientific progress. - - MON CHER AMI:—Je suis exténué de fatigue, mais je ne veux pas aller - me reposer avant de vous avoir écrit un mot. Hier soir nous avons - obtenu vingt-sept espèces de poissons à Gurupá et ce matin, - cinquante-sept à Porto do Moz, en tout quatre-vingt-quatre espèces - en moins de douze heures et, sur ce nombre, il y en à cinquante et - une nouvelles. C’est merveilleux. Je ne puis plus mettre en ordre ce - qu’on m’apporte au fur et à mesure que cela arrive; et quant à - obtenir des dessins coloriés du tout, il n’en est plus question, à - moins qu’à notre retour nous ne passions une semaine entière ici. - - Tout à vous, - - L. AGASSIZ.[54] - -_August 23d._—Yesterday morning, before reaching the little town of -Gurupá, we passed a forest of Miriti palms; it is the first time we have -seen a palm wood exclusive of other trees. In the afternoon we stopped -at Gurupá and went on shore; but just as we landed, a violent -thunder-storm burst upon us with sheets of rain, and we saw little of -the town except the inside of the house where we took shelter. Mr. -Agassiz obtained a most valuable collection of “forest fishes,” -containing a number of new species; the Indians enumerate, however, some -seventy distinct species of forest fishes in this vicinity, so that, -notwithstanding his success, he leaves much to be done by those who -shall come after him. We left during the night, and this morning we -entered the river Xingu, stopping at Porto do Moz. The water is very -blue and dark as compared with the muddy waters of the main river. Here -Mr. Agassiz found two collections, one of forest fishes, the other of -river fishes, awaiting him, Mr. Pimenta Bueno having sent messengers by -the last steamer to a number of ports, desiring that collections should -be in readiness for him. The harvest of this morning, however, was such -an one as makes an era in the life of a naturalist, for it contained -forty-eight new species,—more, Mr. Agassiz said, than it had ever fallen -to his lot to find in the course of a single day. Ever since we entered -the Amazons the forest seems to me, though more luxuriant, less sombre -than it did about Rio. It is more transparent and more smiling; one sees -into it, and sees the sunshine glimmering through it and lighting up its -depths. The steamer has just left behind the first open land we have -passed,—wide, extensive flats, with scarcely a tree, and covered with -thick, coarse grass. - -_August 24th._—Yesterday afternoon we saw, on the north side of the -river, the first elevations of any consequence one meets on the Amazons, -the singular flat-topped hills of Almeirim. They are cut off as squarely -on the top as if levelled with a plane, and divided from each other by -wide openings, the sides being shaved down with the same evenness as the -summits. Much has been said about the geology of these singular hills, -but no one has fairly investigated it. Von Martius landed, and -ascertained their height to be about eight hundred feet above the level -of the river, but beyond this, no one seems to know anything of their -real nature. They are generally represented as spurs of the higher -table-land of Guiana.[55] Last evening was the most beautiful we have -seen on the Amazons. We sat on the front upper deck as the crimson sun -went down, his broad red pathway across the water followed presently by -the pale trembling line of light from the crescent moon above. After the -sun had vanished, broad rays of rose-color, shooting almost to the -zenith, still attested his power, lending something of their glow also -to a great mass of white clouds in the east, the reflection of which -turned the yellow waters of the river to silver, while between glory and -glory the deep blue sky of night gathered over the hills of Almeirim. -This morning at dawn we stopped at the little settlement of Prainha, but -did not land, and we are now on our way to Monte Alégre, where we shall -pass a day and a half. - -_August 25th._—Monte Alégre. We arrived before this town, situated on -the north side of the Amazons, at the mouth of the river Gurupatuba, -yesterday at about midday, but the heat was so great that I did not go -on shore till towards evening. The town is situated on the summit of a -hill sloping rather steeply upward from the shore, and it takes its name -from a mountain some four leagues to the northwest of it. But though the -ground is more broken and various than we have seen it hitherto, the -place does not seem to me to deserve its name of Monte Alégre (the gay -mountain). To me the aspect of the country here is, on the contrary, -rather sombre; the soil consists everywhere of sand, the forest is low, -while here and there intervene wide, swampy flats, covered with coarse -grass. The sand rests above the same reddish drift, filled with smooth -rounded quartz pebbles, that we have followed along our whole road. Here -and there the pebbles are disposed in undulating lines, as if a partial -stratification had taken place; and in some localities we saw -indications of the drift having been worked over by water, though not -absolutely stratified. Both at sunset and sunrise I took a walk to the -village churchyard, which commands the prettiest view in the -neighborhood. It is enclosed in a picket fence, a large wooden cross -stands in the centre, and there are a few other small crosses marking -graves; but the place looked uncared for, grown over, wherever the sand -was not bare, by the same coarse, rank shrubs which spring up everywhere -in this ungenial soil.[56] At a little distance from the churchyard, the -hill slopes abruptly down, and from its brow one looks across a wide -plain covered with low forest, to the mountain on the other side, from -which the town takes its name. Looking southward, the foreground is -filled with lakes divided from each other by low alluvial lands, forming -the level flats alluded to above. Though one of the earliest settlements -on the Amazons, this town is, by all accounts, rather decreasing than -increasing in population. In the midst of its public square stands what -seems at first to be the ruin of a large stone church, but which is, in -fact, the framework of a cathedral begun forty years ago, and standing -unfinished to this day. Cows were pastured in its grass-grown aisles, -and it seemed a rather sad memorial, bespeaking a want of prosperity in -the place. We were most kindly entertained in the house of Senhor -Manuel, who, finding that the mosquitoes were likely to be very thick on -board the steamer, invited us to pass the night under his roof. This -morning we are sailing about in the neighborhood, partly for the sake of -getting fish, but passing also a couple of hours at a cattle-farm near -by, in order to bring on board a number of cows and oxen for the Manaos -market. It seems that one of the chief occupations here is the raising -of cattle. This, with the sale of fish, cacáo, and India-rubber, -constitutes the commerce of the place. - -_August 26th._—This morning found us again on the southern side of the -river, off Santarem, at the mouth of one of the great branches of the -Amazons, the Tapajoz. Here we leave a number of our party. Mr. Dexter, -Mr. James, and Mr. Talisman, a young Brazilian who joined our party at -Pará, go on a collecting expedition up the Tapajoz. Mr. Bourget and Mr. -Hunnewell remain at Santarem, the former to make collections, the latter -to attend to the repairs of his photographing apparatus, which has met -with some disasters. We are all to meet again at Manaos for our farther -voyage up to Tabatinga.[57] We remained at Santarem only long enough to -see the party fitted out with a canoe and the necessary supplies, and as -they put off from the steamer we weighed anchor and proceeded on our -way, reserving our visit to Santarem for our return. As we left the port -the black waters of the Tapajoz met the yellow stream of the Amazons, -and the two ran together for a while, like the waters of the Arve and -Rhone in Switzerland, meeting but not mingling. Instead of returning at -once to the main river, the Captain, who omits nothing which can add to -the pleasure or the profit of our voyage, put the steamer through a -narrow channel, which, on the Mississippi, would be called a “bayou,” -but goes here by the name of an “Igarapé.” Nothing could be prettier -than this “Igarapé Assú,” hardly more than wide enough to admit the -steamer, and bordered on either side by a thick wood, in which are -conspicuous the Munguba, with its oval, red fruit, the Imbauba-tree, -neither so lofty nor so regular in form as about Rio, and the Taxi, with -its masses of white flowers and brown buds. For two days past we have -lost the palms in a great degree; about Monte Alégre they were -comparatively few, and here we see scarcely any. - -The shore between Santarem and Obydos, where we shall arrive this -evening, seems more populous than the regions we have been passing -through. As we coast along, keeping close to the land, the scenes revive -all our early visions of an ancient pastoral life. Groups of -Indians—men, women, and children—greet us from the shore, standing under -the overarching trees, usually trained or purposely chosen to form a -kind of arbor over the landing-place,—the invariable foreground of the -picture, with the “montaria” moored in front. One or two hammocks are -often slung in the trees, and between the branches one gets a glimpse of -the thatched roof and walls of the little straw cottage behind. Perhaps -if we were to look a little closer at these pictures of pastoral life, -we should find they have a coarse and prosaic side. But let them stand. -Arcadia itself would not bear a too minute scrutiny, nor could it -present a fairer aspect than do these Indian homes on the banks of the -Amazons. The primitive forest about the houses is usually cleared, and -they stand in the midst of little plantations of the cacáo-tree, mingled -with the mandioca shrub, from the roots of which the Indians make their -flour, and occasionally also with the India-rubber-tree, though, as the -latter grows plentifully in the forest, it is not often cultivated. The -cacáo and the India-rubber they send to Pará, in exchange for such -domestic goods as they require. We have passed so close to the shore -to-day that it has been easy to make geological observations from the -deck. For a considerable distance above Santarem we have followed drift -cliffs, resting upon sandstone; the drift of the same reddish color, and -pasty, clayey consistence, and the sandstone seemingly the same in -character, as that of Monte Alégre. - -_August 27th._—Villa Bella. Last evening we stopped to wood at the town -of Obydos, but without landing; keeping straight on to this port, on the -southern side of the river, at the mouth of the river Tupinambaranas. -Here we were very cordially received by Dr. Marcus, an old correspondent -of Mr. Agassiz, who has several times sent specimens from the Amazons to -the Cambridge Museum. To-night we are to start in canoes on an excursion -to some of the lakes in the neighborhood of this port. - -_August 28th._—In the porch of an Indian house on the lake José Assú. We -passed a pleasant day yesterday at the house of Dr. Marcus, keeping the -Sabbath rather after the Jewish than the Christian rule, as a veritable -day of rest, lounging in hammocks, and the gentlemen smoking. We -returned to the steamer at five o’clock, intending to start at six, in -order to have the benefit of the night fishing, said to be always the -most successful. But a violent thunder-storm, with heavy rain, lasting -almost till midnight, delayed our departure. We loaded the boats, -however, before night, that we might be ready to start whenever the -weather should clear. We have two canoes, in one of which Mr. Agassiz, -myself, and Mr. Burkhardt have our quarters, while Major Coutinho, Dr. -Marcus, who accompanies us, and Mr. Thayer occupy the other. The former, -which is rather the larger of the two, has a tiny cabin at one end, some -three feet high and six feet long, roofed in with wood; the other has -also one end covered in, but with thatch instead of wood. In the larger -boat we have our luggage, compressed to the utmost, the live stock,—a -small sheep, a turkey, and several fowls,—besides a number of barrels -and kegs, containing alcohol, for specimens. The Captain has supplied us -not only with all the necessaries, but, so far as is possible, with -every luxury, for a week’s voyage. All our preparations being made, and -no prospect of clear weather, at nine o’clock we betook ourselves to our -hammocks,—or those of us who had stowed their hammocks out of reach,—to -chairs and benches, and had a broken sleep till three o’clock. The stars -were then shining, and everything looked fair for our voyage. The wind -had gone down, the river was smooth as glass when we paddled away from -the side of the steamer, and, though we had no moon, one or two planets -threw a bright reflection across the water to cheer our way. After -keeping for some time down the river, we turned, just at dawn, into a -very narrow channel leading through the forest. It was hardly day, but -perhaps the scene was none the less impressive for the dim half-light in -which we saw it. From the verdant walls, which rose on either side and -shut us in, lofty trees, clothed from base to summit in vines, stood out -here and there like huge green columns, in bold relief against the -morning sky; hidden flowers filled the air with fragrance, great roots -stretched out into the water, and now and then a floating log narrowed -the passage so as just to leave room for the canoe to pass. After a -while a broader, fuller light shone under the boughs, and we issued from -this narrow pathway into an extensive lake. Here it was found that the -large net, which was to have made a part of the outfit of the canoe, had -been left behind, and, after calling at two or three Indian houses to -see if we could supply the deficiency, we were obliged to send back to -Villa Bella for it. In the mean time we moored our boats at the foot of -a little hill, on which stands an Indian house, where we stopped to -breakfast, and where we are still waiting for the return of our -messengers. I must say, that a near view of Arcadia tends to dispel -illusions; but it should be added, that this specimen is by no means a -favorable one. The houses at Tajapurú were far more attractive, and the -appearance of their inhabitants much neater and more respectable, than -those of our friends here. Yet at this moment the scene is not -altogether uninviting. Some of the party are lounging in the hammocks, -which we have slung under the great porch, as we are to pass several -hours here; an improvised rustic table, consisting of a board resting on -forked sticks, stands at one side; the boatmen are clearing away the -remains of our late repast; the Indian women, dirty, half clad, with -their hair hanging uncombed around their faces, are tending their naked -children, or kneading the mandioca in a huge trough. The men of the -house have just returned from fishing, the morning having been more -successful in that respect than was expected, and are now fitting up a -rough forge, in which they are repairing some of their iron instruments. -In the mean time Science has its sacred corner, where Mr. Agassiz is -investigating new species, the result of the morning’s fishing, while -Mr. Burkhardt is drawing them. - -_August 29th._—Finding yesterday that our shelter grew more -uncomfortable as the day wore on, and being obliged to wait for the -night fishing, we determined to cross the lake to a “Sitio” (as the -inhabitants call their plantations) on the other side of the lake. Here -we found one of the better specimens of Indian houses. On one side of -the house is the open porch, quite gay at this moment with our brightly -colored hammocks; adjoining this is a large chamber, opening into the -porch by a wide straw, or rather palm-leaf door; which does not swing on -hinges, however, but is taken down and put up like a mat. On the other -side of the room is an unglazed window, closed at will in the same way -by a palm-leaf mat. For the present this chamber is given up to my use. -On the other side of the porch is another veranda-like room, also open -at the sides, and apparently the working-room of the family; for here is -the great round oven, built of mud, where the farinha is dried, and the -baskets of mandioca-root are standing ready to be picked and grated, and -here also is the rough log table where we take our meals. Everything has -an air of decency and cleanliness; the mud-floors are swept, the ground -about the house is tidy and free from rubbish, the little plantation -around it of cacáo and mandioca, with here and there a coffee-shrub, is -in nice order. The house stands on a slightly rising ground, sloping -gently upward from the lake, and just below, under some trees on the -shore, are moored the Indian’s “Montaria” and our two canoes. We were -received with the most cordial friendliness, the Indian women gathering -about me and examining, though not in a rough or rude way, my dress, the -net on my hair, touching my rings and watch-chain, and evidently -discussing the “branca” between themselves. In the evening, after -dinner, I walked up and down outside the house, enjoying the -picturesqueness of the scene. The husband had just come in from the -lake, and the fire on the ground, over which the fresh fish was broiling -for the supper of the family, shone on the figures of the women and -children as they moved about, and shed its glow under the thatched roof -of the working-room, making its interior warm and ruddy; a lantern in -the corner of the porch threw a dim, uncertain light over hammocks and -half-recumbent figures, and without, the moon shone over lake and -forest. The mosquitoes, however, presently began to disturb the romance -of the scene, and, as we were all rather tired from our broken rest the -night before, we retired early. My own sleep, under an excellent -mosquito-net, was very quiet and refreshing, but there were some of the -party who had not provided themselves with this indispensable -accompaniment of a hammock, and they passed the night in misery, -affording a repast to the voracious hordes buzzing about them. I was -awakened shortly after daylight by the Indian women, bringing me a -bouquet of roses and jessamine from the vines which grew about the -cottage, and wishing me good morning. After such a kindly greeting, I -could not refuse them the pleasure of assisting at my toilet, of -watching the opening of my valise, and handling every article as it came -out. - -The night fishing was unfavorable, but this morning the fishermen have -brought in new species enough to keep Mr. Agassiz and his artist busy -for many hours, so that we are likely to pass another night among these -hospitable people. I must say that the primitive life of the better -class of Indians on the Amazons is much more attractive than the -so-called civilized life in the white settlements. Anything more bald, -dreary, and uninviting than life in the Amazonian towns, with an attempt -at the conventionalisms of civilization, but without one of its graces, -I can hardly conceive. This morning my Indian friends have been showing -me the various processes to which the Mandioca is subjected. This plant -is invaluable to these people. It gives them their farinha,—a coarse -kind of flour, their only substitute for bread,—their tapioca, and also -a kind of fermented juice called tucupi,—a more questionable blessing, -perhaps, since it affords them the means of getting intoxicated. After -being peeled, the roots of the mandioca are scraped on a very coarse -grater; in this condition they make a moist kind of paste, which is then -packed in elastic straw tubes, made of the fibres of the Jacitará Palm -(Desmonchus). When her tube, which has always a loop at either end, is -full, the Indian woman hangs it on the branch of a tree; she then passes -a pole through the lower loop and into a hole in the trunk of the tree, -and, sitting down on the other end of the pole, she thus transforms it -into a primitive kind of lever, drawing out the tube to its utmost -length by the pressure of her own weight. The juice is thus expressed, -flowing into a bowl placed under the tube. This juice is poisonous at -first, but after being fermented becomes quite harmless, and is then -used for the tucupi. The tapioca is made by mixing the grated mandioca -with water. It is then pressed on a sieve, and the fluid which flows out -is left to stand. It soon makes a deposit like starch, and when hardened -they make it into a kind of porridge. It is a favorite article of food -with them. - -_August 30th._—As time goes on, we grow more at home with our rustic -friends here, and begin to understand their relations to each other. The -name of our host is Laudigári (I spell the name as it sounds), and that -of his wife Esperança. He, like all the Indians living upon the Amazons, -is a fisherman, and, with the exception of such little care as his small -plantation requires, this is his only occupation. An Indian is never -seen to do any of the work of the house, not even to bring wood or water -or lift the heavy burdens, and as the fishing is done chiefly at certain -seasons, he is a very idle fellow for a great part of the time. The -women are said, on the contrary, to be very industrious; and certainly -those whom we have an opportunity of seeing here justify this -reputation. Esperança is always busy at some household work or -other,—grating mandioca, drying farinha, packing tobacco, cooking or -sweeping. Her children are active and obedient, the older ones making -themselves useful in bringing water from the lake, in washing the -mandioca, or in taking care of the younger ones. Esperança can hardly be -called pretty, but she has a pleasant smile and a remarkably sweet -voice, with a kind of child-like intonation, which is very winning; and -when sometimes, after her work is over, she puts on her white chemise, -falling loose from her brown shoulders, her dark skirt, and a rose or a -sprig of white jessamine in her jetty hair, she is by no means -unattractive in her personal appearance, though I must confess that the -pipe which she is apt to smoke in the evening injures the general -effect. Her husband looks somewhat sombre; but his hearty laugh -occasionally, and his enjoyment of the glass of cachaça which rewards -him when he brings in a new lot of specimens, shows that he has his -bright side. He is greatly amused at the value Mr. Agassiz attaches to -the fishes, especially the little ones, which appear to him only fit to -throw away. It seems that the other family who have been about here -since our arrival are neighbors, who have come in to help in the making -of mandioca. They come in the morning with all their children and remain -through the day. The names of the father and mother are Pedro Manuel and -Michelina. He is a tall, handsome fellow, whose chief occupation seems -to be that of standing about in picturesque attitudes, and watching his -rather pretty wife, as she bustles round in her various work of grating -or pressing or straining the mandioca, generally with her baby astride -on her hip,—the Indian woman’s favorite way of carrying her child. -Occasionally, however, Pedro Manuel is aroused to bear some part in the -collecting; and the other day, when he brought in some specimens which -seemed to him quite valueless, Mr. Agassiz rewarded him with a chicken. -His surprise and delight were great, perhaps a little mingled with -contempt for the man who would barter a chicken for a few worthless -fishes, fit only to throw into the river. - -[Illustration: Esperança’s Cottage.] - -Last evening, with some difficulty, we induced Laudigári to play for us -on a rough kind of lute or guitar,—a favorite instrument with the -country people, and used by them as an accompaniment for dancing. When -we had him fairly _en train_ with the music, we persuaded Esperança and -Michelina to show us some of their dances; not without reluctance, and -with an embarrassment which savored somewhat of the self-consciousness -of civilized life, they stood up with two of our boatmen. The dance is -very peculiar; so languid that it hardly deserves the name. There is -almost no movement of the body; they lift the arms, but in an angular -position with no freedom of motion, snapping the fingers like castanets -in time to the music, and they seem rather like statues gliding from -place to place than like dancers. This is especially true of the women, -who are still more quiet than the men. One of the boatmen was a -Bolivian, a finely formed, picturesque-looking man, whose singular dress -heightened the effect of his peculiar movements. The Bolivian Indians -wear a kind of toga; at least I do not know how otherwise to designate -their long straight robe of heavy twilled cotton cloth. It consists of -two pieces, hanging before and behind, fastened on the shoulder; leaving -only an aperture for the head to pass through. It is belted around the -waist, leaving the sides open so that the legs and arms are perfectly -free. The straight folds of his heavy white drapery gave a sort of -statuesque look to our Bolivian as he moved slowly about in the dance. -After it was over, Esperança and the others urged me to show them the -dance “of my country,” as they said, and my young friend R—— and I -waltzed for them, to their great delight. It seemed to me like a strange -dream. The bright fire danced with us, flickering in under the porch, -fitfully lighting its picturesque interior and the group of wondering -Indians around us, who encouraged us every now and then with a “Mûito -bonito, mia branca, mûito bonito” (Very pretty, my white, very pretty). -Our ball kept up very late, and after I had gone to my hammock I still -heard, between waking and sleeping, the plaintive chords of the guitar, -mingling with the melancholy note of a kind of whippoorwill, who sings -in the woods all night. This morning the forest is noisy with the -howling monkeys. They sound very near and very numerous; but we are told -that they are deep in the forest, and would disappear at the slightest -approach. - -_September 1st._—Yesterday morning we bade our friendly hosts good-by, -leaving their pretty picturesque home with real regret. The night before -we left, they got together some of their neighbors in our honor, and -renewed the ball of the previous evening. Like things of the same kind -in other classes, the second occasion, got up with a little more -preparation than the first, which was wholly impromptu, was neither so -gay nor so pretty. Frequent potations of cachaça made the guests rather -noisy, and their dancing, under this influence, became far more -animated, and by no means so serious and dignified as the evening -before. One thing which occurred early in the entertainment, however, -was interesting, as showing something of their religious observances. In -the morning Esperança’s mother, a hideous old Indian woman, had come -into my room to make me a visit. Before leaving, I was rather surprised -to see her kneel down by a little trunk in the corner, and, opening the -lid slightly, throw in repeated kisses, touching her lips to her fingers -and making gestures as if she dropped the kisses into the trunk, -crossing herself at intervals as she did so. In the evening she was -again at the dance, and, with the other two women, went through with a -sort of religious dance, chanting the while, and carrying in their hands -a carved arch of wood which they waved to and fro in time to the chant. -When I asked Esperança the meaning of this, she told me that, though -they went to the neighboring town of Villa Bella for the great fête of -our Lady of Nazareth, they kept it also at home on their return, and -this was a part of their ceremonies. And then she asked me to come in -with her, and, leading the way to my room, introduced me to the contents -of the precious trunk; there was our Lady of Nazareth, a common coarse -print, framed in wood, one or two other smaller colored prints and a few -candles; over the whole was thrown a blue gauze. It was the family -chapel, and she showed me all the things, taking them up one by one with -a kind of tender, joyful reverence, only made the more touching by their -want of any material value. - -We are now at another Indian house on the bank of an arm of the river -Ramos, connecting the Amazons, through the Mauhes, with the Madeira. Our -two hours’ canoe-journey yesterday, in the middle of the day, was -somewhat hot and wearisome, though part of it lay through one of the -shady narrow channels I have described before. The Indians have a pretty -name for these channels in the forest; they call them Igarapés, that is, -boat-paths, and they literally are in many places just wide enough for -the canoe. At about four o’clock we arrived at our present lodging, -which is by no means so pretty as the one we have left, though it -stands, like that, on the slope of a hill just above the shore, with the -forest about it. But it lacks the wide porch and the open working-room -which made the other house so picturesque. Mosquitoes are plentiful, and -at nightfall the house is closed and a pan of turf burned before the -door to drive them away. Our host and hostess, by name José Antonio Maia -and Maria Joanna Maia, do what they can, however, to make us -comfortable, and the children as well as the parents show that natural -courtesy which has struck us so much among these Indians. The children -are constantly bringing me flowers and such little gifts as they have it -in their power to bestow, especially the painted cups which the Indians -make from the fruit of the Crescentia, and use as drinking-cups, basins, -and the like. One sees numbers of them in all the Indian houses along -the Amazons. My books and writing seem to interest them very much, and -while I was reading at the window of my room this morning, the father -and mother came up, and, after watching me a few minutes in silence, the -father asked me, if I had any leaves out of some old book which was -useless to me, or even a part of any old newspaper, to leave it with him -when I went away. Once, he said, he had known how to read a little, and -he seemed to think if he had something to practise upon, he might -recover the lost art. His face fell when I told him all my books were -English: it was a bucket of cold water to his literary ambition. Then he -added, that one of his little boys was very bright, and he was sure he -could learn, if he had the means of sending him to school. When I told -him that I lived in a country where a good education was freely given to -the child of every poor man, he said if the “branca” did not live so far -away, he would ask her to take his daughter with her, and for her -services to have her taught to read and write. The man has a bright, -intelligent face, and speaks with genuine feeling of his desire to give -an education to his children. - -_September 3d._—Yesterday we started on our return, and after a warm and -wearisome row of four hours reached our steamer at five o’clock in the -afternoon. The scientific results of this expedition have been most -satisfactory. The collections, differing greatly from each other in -character, are very large from both our stations, and Mr. Burkhardt has -been indefatigable in making colored drawings of the specimens while -their tints were yet fresh. This is no easy task, for the mosquitoes -buzz about him and sometimes make work almost intolerable. This morning -Maia brought in a superb Pirarara (fish parrot). This fish is already -well known to science; it is a heavy, broad-headed hornpout, with a bony -shield over the whole head; its general color is jet black, but it has -bright yellow sides, deepening into orange here and there. Its -systematic name is Phractocephalus bicolor. The yellow fat of this fish -has a curious property; the Indians tell us that when parrots are fed -upon it they become tinged with yellow, and they often use it to render -their “papagaios” more variegated.[58] - -During our absence the commander of our steamer, Captain Anacleto, and -one or two gentlemen of the town, among others Senhor Augustinho, and -also Father Torquato, whose name occurs often in Bates’s work on the -Amazons, have been making a collection of river fishes, in which Mr. -Agassiz finds some fifty new species. Thus the harvest of the week has -been a rich one. To-day we are on our way to Manaos, where we expect to -arrive in the course of to-morrow. - ------ - -Footnote 51: - - Senhor Sepeda, a most hospitable and courteous gentleman, to whom we - were indebted then and afterwards for much kindness, and also for - valuable collections put up during our journey to the Upper Amazons. - -Footnote 52: - - August 22d, morning: between Tajapurú and Gurupá. - - MY DEAR FRIEND:—Yesterday was a most instructive day,—above all, in - the “forest fishes.” We have obtained fifteen species in all. Out of - this number ten are new, four are found also in Pará, and one has been - already described by me in the voyage of Spix and Martius; but what is - most interesting is the proof furnished by these species, taken in - their totality, that the fishes inhabiting the waters west of the - group of islands called Marajó, when considered as a whole, differ - from those of the Pará river. The list of names which we have asked - from the Indians shows, further, that the number of species found in - these localities exceeds greatly that which we have been able to - procure; for this reason we have left cans at Breves and at Tajapurú - in order to complete the collection. I add some remarks which will - help you to appreciate these differences, if you wish to compare them - with the catalogue of the Pará species which I left with you. - Considering all, it seems to me already apparent that our voyage will - make a revolution in Ichthyology. In the first place, the Jacundá of - Tajapurú is different from those of Pará; so is the Acará; then we - have a new species of Sarapó, and also one of Jeju; a new species of - Rabeca, a new species of Anojá, a new genus of Candiru, a new genus of - Bagre, a new genus of Acary, and a new species of Acary belonging to - the same genus as that of Pará; also a new species of Matupirim. Add - to this a species of Aracú, already described, but which is not found - at Pará, and you will have at Tajapurú eleven species which do not - exist at Pará, to which must be added four species which are found at - Tajapurú as well as at Pará, and one which occurs at Pará, Breves, and - Tajapurú. In all twenty species, of which fifteen are new, in two - days. Unhappily, the Indians have misunderstood our directions, and - have brought us but one specimen of each species. There remains, then, - much to do in these localities, judging from the catalogue of names - collected by Major Coutinho, which includes twenty-six species from - the forest and forty-six from the river. We are still lacking at least - fifty-two species from Tajapurú, even supposing that this locality - contains also the five species from Breves. You see that we shall yet - leave a large share of the work to our successors. - - Adieu for to-day, your affectionate - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 53: - - The opportunity of watching these fishes in their natural element, and - keeping many of them alive for hours or days in our glass tanks, was - very instructive, and suggested comparisons not dreamed of before. Our - arrangements were very convenient; and as the commander of the steamer - allowed me to encumber the deck with all sorts of scientific - apparatus, I had a number of large glass dishes and wooden tubs in - which I kept such specimens as I wished to investigate with special - care and to have drawn from life. One of the most striking changes - made by J. Müller, in the classification of the spiny fishes, was the - separation into a distinct order, under the name of Pharyngognathi, of - all those in which the pharyngeal bones are soldered together. With - these the illustrious German anatomist has associated a number of - soft-rayed types, formerly united with the Pickerels and Herrings, and - characterized by the same structure. It would thus seem that there is - here a definite anatomical character easily traceable, by the aid of - which a vast number of fishes might be correctly classified. But the - question at once arises, Are these fishes truly related to one - another, and so combined in this new order of Pharyngognathi as to - include all which properly belong with them, and none others? I think - not. I believe that Müller has always placed too much value upon - isolated anatomical characters; and, while he was undoubtedly one of - the greatest anatomists and physiologists of our age, he lacked - zoölogical tact. This is especially evident with reference to the - order of Pharyngognathi, for though the Scomberesoces have fixed - pharyngeals like Chromides, Pomacentrides, Labroids, Holconotes, and - Gerrides, they have no real affinities with these families. Again, the - character assigned to this order is not constant even in the typical - Pharyngognathi. I have found Chromides and Gerrides with movable - pharyngeals; in the genus Cychla they are normally so. It is therefore - not out of place to state here that the Chromides of South America are - in reality closely related to a group of fishes very generally found - in the United States, known as Pomotis, Bryttus, Centrarchus, etc., - and usually referred to the family of Perches, from which they have, - however, been separated by Dr. Holbrook under the name of - Helichthyoids. They not only resemble the Chromides in their form, but - even in their habits, mode of reproduction, peculiar movements, and - even in their coloration. Cuvier has already shown that Enoplosus is - not a member of the family of Chætodonts, and I may now add that it is - a near relative of the Chromides, and should stand by the side of - Pterophyllum in a natural system. Monocirrus of Heckel, which I - consider as the type of a small family under the name of Folhidæ, is - also closely allied to these, though provided with a barbel, and - should be placed with Polycentrus side by side with the Chromides and - Helichthyoids. The manner in which Pterophyllum moves is quite - peculiar. The profile of the head and the extended anterior margin of - the high dorsal are brought on a level, parallel to the surface of the - water, when the long ventrals and high anal hang down vertically, and - the fish progresses slowly by the lateral beating of the tail.—L. A. - -Footnote 54: - - ON THE XINGU, August 23d, 1865. - - MY DEAR FRIEND:—I am worn out with fatigue, but I will not go to rest - before writing you a word. Yesterday evening we obtained twenty-seven - species of fish at Gurupá and this morning fifty-seven at Porto do - Moz,—eighty-four species in all, in less than twelve hours, and of - this number fifty-one are new. It is wonderful. I can no longer put in - order what is brought to me as fast as it arrives, and as to obtaining - colored drawings of all, it is no longer possible, unless we pass a - whole week here on our return. - - Wholly yours, - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 55: - - Representations of these hills may be found in the Atlas of Martius - and in Bates’s “Naturalist on the Amazons.” - -Footnote 56: - - Afterwards I made a longer stay at Monte Alégre, and learned to know - its picturesque nooks and dells, where a luxuriant vegetation is - watered by delicious springs. I feel that the above description is - superficial; but I let it remain, as perfectly true to my first - impressions. - -Footnote 57: - - I soon became convinced after leaving Pará that the faunæ of our - different stations were not repetitions of each other. On the - contrary, at Breves, Tajapurú, Gurupá,—in short, at each - stopping-place, as has been seen,—we found another set of inhabitants - in the river, if not wholly different from the last, at least - presenting so many new species that the combination was no longer the - same. It became at once very important to ascertain whether these - differences were permanent and stationary, or were, in part at least, - an effect of migration. I therefore determined to distribute our - forces in such a way as to keep collecting parties at distant points, - and to repeat collections from the same localities at different - seasons. I pursued this method of investigation during our whole stay - in the Amazons, dividing the party for the first time at Santarem, - where Messrs. Dexter, James, and Talisman separated from us to ascend - the Tapajoz, while Mr. Bourget remained at Santarem, and I, with the - rest of my companions, kept on to Obydos and Villa Bella.—L. A. - -Footnote 58: - - I was especially interested in seeing living Gymnotini. I do not here - allude to the electric Gymnotus, already so fully described by - Humboldt that nothing remains to be said about it; but to the smaller - representatives of that curious family, known as Carapus, Sternopygus, - Sternarchus and Rhamphichthys. The Carapus, called Sarapos throughout - Brazil, are very numerous, and the most lively of the whole group. - Their motions are winding and rapid like those of the Eel, but yet - different, inasmuch as they do not glide quickly forward, but, like - Cobitis and Petromyzon, turn frequent somersets and change their - direction constantly. This is also the case with the Sternopygus and - Sternarchus, and even the larger and more slender Rhamphichthys have a - kind of rolling motion. Though I had expected to find many - Cyprinodonts, yet their great variety astonished me, and still more - was I struck by their resemblance to Melanura, Umbra, and the - Erythrinoids. The presence of Belone and allied forms also surprised - me. Our stay on the shores of José Assú and Lago Maximo was - particularly instructive on account of the numerous specimens of each - species daily brought in by Laudigári and Maia. It afforded me a - welcome opportunity for studying the differences exhibited by these - fishes at different periods of life. No type passes, in that respect, - through greater changes than the Chromides, and among them the genus - Cychla is perhaps the most variable. I am sure that no ichthyologist - could at first sight believe that their young are really the early - stage of the forms known in our ichthyological works as Cychla - monocolus, Cychla temensis, and Cychla saxatilis. The males and - females also vary greatly during the spawning season, and the hump on - the top of the head described as a specific character in Cychla - nigro-maculata is a protuberance only found in the male, swelling - during the period of spawning and soon disappearing. Once familiar - with the young brood of some species of Chromides, it became easy for - me to distinguish a great variety of small types, no doubt hitherto - overlooked by naturalists travelling in this region, simply under the - impression that they must be the young of larger species. A similar - investigation of the young of Serrasalmo, Myletes, Tetragonopterus, - Cynodon, Anodus, &c. led me to the discovery of an equally large - number of diminutive types of Characines, many of which, when full - grown, do not exceed one inch in length; among them are some of the - most beautiful fishes I have ever seen, so far as the brilliancy and - variety of their colors are concerned. Thus everything contributed to - swell the collections,—the localities selected as well as the mode of - investigating. I should add here, that, several years before my own - journey on the Amazons, I had been indebted to the Rev. Mr. Fletcher - for a valuable collection of fishes from this and other Amazonian - localities. The familiarity thus obtained with them was very useful to - me in pursuing my studies on the spot.—L. A. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - LIFE AT MANAOS.—VOYAGE FROM MANAOS TO TABATINGA. - - ARRIVAL AT MANAOS.—MEETING OF THE SOLIMOENS WITH THE RIO - NEGRO.—DOMESTICATED AT MANAOS.—RETURN OF PARTY FROM THE - TAPAJOZ.—GENEROSITY OF GOVERNMENT.—WALKS.—WATER-CARRIERS.—INDIAN - SCHOOL.—LEAVE MANAOS.—LIFE ON BOARD THE STEAMER.—BARREIRA DAS - CUDAJAS.—COARI.—WOODING.—APPEARANCE OF BANKS.—GEOLOGICAL - CONSTITUTION.—FOREST.—SUMAUMEIRA-TREE.—ARROW-GRASS.—RED DRIFT - CLIFFS.—SAND-BEACHES.—INDIAN HUTS.—TURTLE-HUNTING.—DRYING - FISH.—TEFFÉ.—DOUBTS ABOUT THE JOURNEY.—UNEXPECTED ADVISER.—FONTE - BÔA.—GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF BANKS.—LAKES.—FLOCKS OF WATER - BIRDS.—TONANTINS.—PICTURESQUE GROUPING OF INDIANS.—SAN - PAOLO.—LAND-SLIDES.—CHARACTER OF SCENERY.—SCANTY - POPULATION.—ANIMAL LIFE.—TABATINGA.—ASPECT OF THE - SETTLEMENT.—MOSQUITOES.—LEAVE ONE OF THE PARTY TO MAKE - COLLECTIONS.—ON OUR WAY DOWN THE RIVER.—PARTY TO THE RIVERS IÇA - AND HYUTAHY.—AGROUND IN THE AMAZONS.—ARRIVAL AT TEFFÉ. - - -_September 5th._—Manaos. Yesterday morning we entered the Rio Negro and -saw the meeting of its calm, black waters with the rushing yellow -current of the Amazons, or the Solimoens, as the Upper Amazon is called. -They are well named by the Indians the “living and the dead river,” for -the Solimoens pours itself down upon the dark stream of the Rio Negro -with such a vital, resistless force, that the latter does indeed seem -like a lifeless thing by its side. It is true, that at this season, when -the water in both the rivers is beginning to subside, the Rio Negro -seems to offer some slight resistance to the stronger river; it -struggles for a moment with the impetuous flood which overmasters it, -and, though crowded up against the shore, continues its course for a -little distance side by side with the Solimoens. But at the season when -the waters are highest, the latter closes the mouth of the Rio Negro so -completely that not a drop of its inky stream is seen to mingle with the -yellow waters outside. It is supposed that at this season the Rio Negro -sinks at once under the Solimoens; at all events, the latter flows -across its mouth, seeming to bar it completely. It must not be supposed, -from the change of name, that the Solimoens is anything more than the -continuation of the Amazons; just as the so-called river Marañon is its -continuation above Nauta, after crossing the Brazilian frontier. It is -always the same gigantic stream, traversing the continent for its whole -breadth; but it has received in its lower, middle, and upper course the -three local names of the Amazons, the Solimoens, and the Marañon. At the -point where the Brazilians give it the name of Solimoens it takes a -sudden turn to the south, just where the Rio Negro enters it from the -north, so that the two form a sharp angle. - -We landed at Manaos and went at once to the house which Major Coutinho, -with his usual foresight, has provided for us. As the day of our arrival -was uncertain, the arrangements were not completed, and the house was -entirely empty when we entered it. In about ten minutes, however, chairs -and tables—brought, I believe, from the house of a friend—made their -appearance, the rooms were promptly furnished, and presently assumed a -very cosey and comfortable look, notwithstanding their brick floors and -bare walls. We have some pleasant neighbors in a family living almost -next door to us, old and intimate friends of Major Coutinho, who receive -us for his sake as if we also had a claim on their affection. Here we -rest from our wanderings, for a week at least, until the steamer sails -for Tabatinga. - -_September 9th._—We have passed such quiet days here, so far as any -variety of incident is concerned, that there is little to record. Work -has gone on as usual; the whole collection of fishes, made since we left -Pará, has been so repacked as to leave it in readiness to be shipped for -that port. Our companions have rejoined us on their return from the -Tapajoz, bringing with them considerable collections from that river -also. They seem to have enjoyed their excursion greatly, and describe -the river as scarcely inferior to the Amazons itself in breadth and -grandeur, having wide sand-beaches where the waves roll in, when the -wind is high, almost as upon a sea-shore. Mr. Agassiz has done nothing -in the way of collecting here, with the exception of securing such -fishes as are to be had in the immediate neighborhood; he reserves his -voyage on the Rio Negro for our return. And, by the way, we are met here -by another practical evidence of the good-will of the Brazilian -government. On leaving Rio, the Emperor had offered Mr. Agassiz the use -of a small government steamer to make explorations on the Negro and -Madeira rivers. On our arrival at Pará he was told that the steamer had -been found to be so much out of repair that she was considered unsafe. -Under these circumstances, he supposed that we should be obliged to -resort to the small boats generally used. But to-day an official -communication informs him that, as the Piraja is found not to be -serviceable, another steamer will be furnished, which will meet us at -Manaos on our return from the Upper Amazons. The following letter, -acknowledging this favor, to the President of Pará, through whom it was -received, contains some account of the scientific results thus far, and -may not be uninteresting. - - MANAOS, 8 Septembre, 1865. - - _A Son Excellence M. Couto de Magalhaēs, Président du Pará._ - - MON CHER MONSIEUR:—Je vous remercie infiniment de l’aimable lettre - que vous avez eu la bonté de m’écrire la semaine dernière et je - m’empresse de vous faire part des succès extraordinaires qui - continuent à couronner nos efforts. Il est certain dès-à-présent que - le nombre des poissons qui peuplent l’Amazone excède de beaucoup - tout ce que l’on avait imaginé jusqu’ici et que leur distribution - est très limitée en totalité, bien qu’il y ait un petit nombre - d’espèces qui nous suivent depuis Pará et d’autres pour une étendue - plus ou moins considérable. Vous vous rappelez peut-être qu’en - faisant allusion à mes espérances je vous dis un jour que je croyais - à la possibilité de trouver deux cent cinquante à trois cents - espèces de poissons dans tout le bassin de l’Amazone; et bien - aujourd’hui, même avant d’avoir franchi le tiers du cours principal - du fleuve et remonté par ci par là seulement quelques lieues au delà - de ses bords j’en ai déjà obtenu plus de trois cents. C’est inouï; - surtout si l’on considère que le nombre total connu des naturalistes - ne va pas au tiers de ce que j’ai déjà recueilli. Ce résultat laisse - à peine entrevoir ce qu’on découvrira un jour lorsqu’on explorera - avec le même soin tous les affluents du grand fleuve. Ce serait une - entreprise digne de vous de faire explorer l’Araguay dans tout son - cours pour nous apprendre combien d’assemblages differents d’espèces - distinctes se rencontrent successivement depuis ses sources jusqu’à - sa jonction avec le Tocantins et plus bas jusqu’à l’Amazone. Vous - avez déjà une sorte de propriété scientifique sur ce fleuve à - laquelle vous ajouteriez de nouveaux droits en fournissant à la - science ces renseignements. - - Permettez moi de vous exprimer toute ma gratitude pour l’intérêt que - vous prenez à mon jeune compagnon de voyage. M. Ward le mérite - également par sa grande jeunesse, son courage et son dévouement à la - science. M. Epaminondas vient de me faire part de vos généreuses - intentions à mon égard et de me dire que vous vous proposez - d’expédier un vapeur à Manaos pour prendre la place du Piraja et - faciliter notre exploration du Rio Negro et du Rio Madeira. Je ne - sais trop comment vous remercier pour une pareille faveur; tout ce - que je puis vous dire dès-à-présent c’est que cette faveur me - permettra de faire une exploration de ces fleuves qui me serait - impossible sans cela. Et si le résultat de ces recherches est aussi - favorable que je l’attends, l’honneur en reviendra avant tout à la - libéralité du gouvernement Brésilien. Entraîné par les résultats que - j’ai obtenus jusqu’ici, je pense que si les circonstances nous sont - favorables en arrivant à Tabatinga, nous ferons une poussée jusque - dans la partie inférieure du Pérou[59] tandis que mes compagnons - exploreront les fleuves intermédiaires entre cette ville et Teffé; - en sorte que nous ne serons probablement pas de retour à Manaos - avant la fin du mois d’Octobre. - - Agréez, mon cher Monsieur, l’assurance de ma haute consideration et - de mon parfait dévouement. - - L. AGASSIZ.[60] - -There is little to be said of the town of Manaos. It consists of a small -collection of houses, half of which seem going to decay, and indeed one -can hardly help smiling at the tumble-down edifices, dignified by the -name of public buildings, the treasury, the legislative hall, the -post-office, the custom-house, the President’s mansion, &c. The position -of the city, however, at the junction of the Rio Negro, the Amazons, and -the Solimoens, is commanding; and, insignificant as it looks at present, -Manaos will no doubt be a great centre of commerce and navigation at -some future time.[61] - -But when we consider the vast extent of land covered by almost -impenetrable forest and the great practical difficulties in the way of -the settler here, arising from the climate, the insects, the obstacles -to communication, the day seems yet far distant when a numerous -population will cover the banks of the Amazons, when steamers will ply -between its ports as between those of the Mississippi, and when all -nations will share in the rich products of its valley.[62] One of my -greatest pleasures in Manaos has been to walk toward the neighboring -forest at nightfall, and see the water-carriers, Indian and negro, -coming down from the narrow pathways with their great red earthen jars -on their heads. They make quite a procession at morning and evening; for -the river water is not considered good, and the town is chiefly supplied -from pools and little streamlets in the woods. Many of these pools, very -prettily situated and embowered in trees, are used as bathing-places; -one, which is quite large and deep, is a special favorite; it has been -thatched over with palm, and has also a little thatched shed adjoining, -to serve as a dressing-room. - -Yesterday we passed an interesting morning at a school for Indian -children a little way out of the city. We were astonished at the aptness -they showed for the arts of civilization so uncongenial to our North -American Indians: it reminded one that they are the successors, on the -same soil, of the races who founded the ancient civilizations of Peru -and Mexico, so much beyond any social organization known to have existed -among the more northern tribes. In one room they were turning out very -nice pieces of furniture,—chairs, tables, book-stands, &c., with a -number of smaller articles, such as rulers and paper-knives. In another -room they were working in iron, in another making fine fancy articles of -straw. Besides these trades, they are taught to read, write, and cipher, -and to play on various musical instruments. For music they are said to -have, like the negro, a natural aptitude. In the main building were the -school-rooms, dormitories, store-rooms, kitchen, &c. We were there just -at the breakfast hour, and had the satisfaction of seeing them sit down -to a hearty meal, consisting of a large portion of bread and butter and -a generous bowl of coffee. I could not help contrasting the expression -of these boys, when they were all collected, with that of a number of -negro children assembled together; the latter always so jolly and -careless, the former shy, serious, almost sombre. They looked, however, -very intelligent, and we were told that those of pure Indian descent -were more so than the half-breeds. The school is supported by the -province, but the fund is small, and the number of pupils is very -limited. Our pleasure in this school was somewhat marred by hearing -that, though it purports to be an orphan asylum, children who have -parents loath to part with them are sometimes taken by force from the -wild Indian tribes to be educated here. The appearance of a dark cell, -barred up like the cell of a wild animal, which was used as a prison for -refractory scholars, rather confirmed this impression. Whenever I have -made inquiries about these reports, I have been answered, that, if such -cases occur, it is only where children are taken from an utterly savage -and degraded condition, and that it is better they should be civilized -by main force than not civilized at all. It may be doubted, however, -whether any providence but the providence of God is so wise and so -loving that it may safely exercise a compulsory charity. Speaking of the -education of the Indians reminds me that we have been fortunate enough -to meet a French padre here who has furnished Mr. Agassiz with a package -of simple elementary Portuguese books, which he has already sent to our -literary Indian friend, José Maia. This kind priest offers also to take -the boy, for whom Maia was so anxious to secure an education, into the -seminary of which he is director, and where he receives charity -scholars. - -_September 12th._—On Sunday we left Manaos in the steamer for Tabatinga, -and are again on our way up the river. I insert here a letter which -gives a sort of _résumé_ of the scientific work up to this moment, and -shows also how constantly we were attended by the good-will of the -employés on the Amazonian line of steamers, and that of their excellent -director, Mr. Pimenta Bueno. - - MANAOS, 8 Septembre, 1865. - - _Senhor Pimenta Bueno._ - - MON CHER AMI:—Vous serez probablement surpris de recevoir seulement - quelques lignes de moi après le temps qui s’est écoulé depuis ma - dernière lettre. Le fait est que depuis Obydos je suis allé de - surprise en surprise et que j’ai à peine eu le temps de prendre soin - des collections que nous avons faites, sans pouvoir les étudier - convenablement. C’est ainsi que pendant le semaine que nous avons - passée dans les environs de Villa Bella, au Lago José Assú et Lago - Maximo, nous avons recueilli cent quatre-vingts espèces de poissons - dont les deux tiers au moins sont nouvelles et ceux de mes - compagnons qui sont restés à Santarem et dans le Tapajoz en ont - rapporté une cinquantaine, ce qui fait déjà bien au delà de trois - cents espèces en comptant celles de Porto do Moz, de Gurupá, de - Tajapurú et de Monte Alégre. Vous voyez qu’avant même d’avoir - parcouru le tiers du cours de l’Amazone, le nombre des poissons est - plus du triple de celui de toutes les espèces connues jusqu’à ce - jour, et je commence à m’apercevoir que nous ne ferons qu’effleurer - la surface du centre de ce grand bassin. Que sera-ce lorsqu’on - pourra étudier à loisir et dans l’époque la plus favorable tous ses - affluents. Aussi je prends dès-à-présent la résolution de faire de - plus nombreuses stations dans la partie supérieure du fleuve et de - prolonger mon séjour aussi long-temps que mes forces me le - permettront. Ne croyez pas cependant que j’oublie à qui je dois un - pareil succès. C’est vous qui m’avez mis sur la voie en me faisant - connaître les ressources de la fôret et mieux encore en me - fournissant les moyens d’en tirer parti. Merci, mille fois, merci. - Je dois aussi tenir grand compte de l’assistance que m’ont fournie - les agents de la compagnie sur tous les points où nous avons touché. - Notre aimable commandant s’est également évertué, et pendant que - j’explorais les lacs des environs de Villa Bella il a fait lui-même - une très belle collection dans l’Amazone même, où il a recueilli de - nombreuses petites espèces que les pecheurs négligent toujours. A - l’arrivée du Belem, j’ai reçu votre aimable lettre et une partie de - l’alcohol que j’avais demandé à M. Bond. Je lui écris aujourd’hui - pour qu’il m’en envoie encore une partie à Teffé et plus tard - davantage à Manaos. Je vous remercie pour le catalogue des poissons - du Pará; je vous le restituerai à notre retour, avec les additions - que je ferai pendant le reste du voyage. Adieu, mon cher ami. - - Tout à vous, - - L. AGASSIZ.[63] - -Although no longer on board an independent steamer, we are still the -guests of the company, having government passages. Nothing can be more -comfortable than the travelling on these Amazonian boats. They are clean -and well kept, with good-sized state-rooms, which most persons use, -however, only as dressing-rooms, since it is always more agreeable to -sleep on the open deck in one’s hammock. The table is very well kept, -the fare good, though not varied. Bread is the greatest deficiency, but -hard biscuit makes a tolerable substitute. Our life is after this -fashion. We turn out of our hammocks at dawn, go down stairs to make our -toilets, and have a cup of hot coffee below. By this time the decks are -generally washed and dried, the hammocks removed, and we can go above -again. Between then and the breakfast hour, at half past ten o’clock, I -generally study Portuguese, though my lessons are somewhat interrupted -by watching the shore and the trees, a constant temptation when we are -coasting along near the banks. At half past ten or eleven o’clock -breakfast is served, and after that the glare of the sun becomes trying, -and I usually descend to the cabin, where we make up our journals, and -write during the middle of the day. At three o’clock I consider that the -working hours are over, and then I take a book and sit in my -lounging-chair on deck, and watch the scenery, and the birds and the -turtles, and the alligators if there are any, and am lazy in a general -way. At five o’clock dinner is served, (the meals being always on deck,) -and after that begins the delight of the day. At that hour it grows -deliciously cool, the sunsets are always beautiful, and we go to the -forward deck and sit there till nine o’clock in the evening. Then comes -tea, and then to our hammocks; I sleep in mine most profoundly till -morning. - -To-day we stopped at a small station on the north side of the river -called Barreira das Cudajas. The few houses stand on a bank of red -drift, slightly stratified in some parts, and affording a support for -the river-mud, shored up against it. Since then, in our progress, we -have seen the same formation in several localities. - -_September 13th._—This morning the steamer dropped anchor at the little -town of Coari on the Coari River,—one of the rivers of black water. We -were detained at this place for some hours, taking in wood; so slow a -process here, that an American, accustomed to the rapid methods of work -at home, looks on in incredulous astonishment. A crazy old canoe, with -its load of wood, creeps out from the shore, the slowness of its advance -accounted for by the fact that of its two rowers one has a broken -paddle, the other a long stick, to serve as apologies for oars. When the -boat reaches the side of the steamer, a line of men is formed some eight -or ten in number, and the wood is passed from hand to hand, log by log, -each log counted as it arrives. Mr. Agassiz timed them this morning, and -found that they averaged about seven logs a minute. Under these -circumstances, one can understand that stopping to wood is a long -affair. Since we left Coari we have been coasting along close to the -land, the continental shore, and not that of an island. The islands are -so large and numerous in the Amazons, that often when we believe -ourselves between the northern and southern margins of the river, we are -in fact between island shores. We have followed the drift almost -constantly to-day,—the same red drift with which we have become so -familiar in South America. Sometimes it rises in cliffs and banks above -the mud deposit, sometimes it crops out through the mud, occasionally -mingling with it and partially stratified, and in one locality it -overlaid a gray rock in place, the nature of which Mr. Agassiz could not -determine, but which was distinctly stratified and slightly tilted. The -drift is certainly more conspicuous as we ascend the river; is this -because we approach its source, or because the nature of the vegetation -allows us to see more of the soil? Since we left Manaos the forest has -been less luxuriant; it is lower on the Solimoens than on the Amazons, -more ragged and more open. The palms are also less numerous than -hitherto, but there is a tree here which rivals them in dignity. Its -flat dome, rounded but not conical, towers above the forest, and, when -seen from a distance, has an almost architectural character, so regular -is its form. This majestic tree, called the Sumaumeira (Eriodendron -Sumauma), is one of the few trees in this climate which shed their -leaves periodically, and now it lifts its broad rounded summit above the -green mass of vegetation around it, quite bare of foliage. Symmetrical -as it is, the branches are greatly ramified and very knotty. The bark is -white. It would seem that the season approaches when the Sumaumeiras -should take on their green garb again, for a few are already beginning -to put out young leaves. Beside this giant of the forest, the Imbauba -(Cecropia), much lower here, however, than in Southern Brazil, and the -Taxi, with its white flowers and brown buds, are very conspicuous along -the banks. Close upon the shore the arrow-grass, some five or six feet -in height, grows in quantity; it is called “frexas” here, being used by -the Indians to make their arrows. - -_September 14th._—For the last day or two the shore has been higher than -we have seen it since leaving Manaos. We constantly pass cliffs of red -drift with a shallow beach of mud deposit resting against them; not -infrequently a gray rock, somewhat like clay slate, crops out below the -drift; this rock is very distinctly stratified, tilting sometimes to the -west, sometimes to the east, always unconformable with the overlying -drift.[64] The color of the drift changes occasionally, being sometimes -nearly white in this neighborhood instead of red. We are coming now to -that part of the Amazons where the wide sand-beaches occur, the -breeding-places of the turtles and alligators. It is not yet quite the -season for gathering the turtle-eggs, making the turtle-butter, &c., but -we frequently see the Indian huts on the beaches, and their stakes set -up for spreading and drying fish, which is one of the great articles of -commerce here. This morning we have passed several hours off the town of -Ega, or Teffé as the Brazilians call it. It takes its name from the -river Teffé, but the town itself stands on a small lake, formed by the -river just before it joins the Amazons. The entrance to the lake, which -is broken by a number of little channels or igarapés, and the approach -to the town, are exceedingly pretty. The town itself, with a wide beach -in front, standing on the slope of a green hill, where sheep and cattle, -a rare sight in this region, are grazing, looks very inviting. We -examined it with interest, for some of the party at least will return to -this station for the purpose of making collections. - -_September 15th._—For the last two or three days we have been holding -frequent discussions as to the best disposition of our forces after -reaching Tabatinga;—a source of great anxiety to Mr. Agassiz, the time -we have to spend being so short, and the subjects of investigation so -various and so important. Should he give up the idea of continuing, in -person, his study of the fishes in the upper Amazons, leaving only some -parties to make collections, and going himself into Peru, to visit at -least the first spur of the Andes, with the purpose of ascertaining -whether any vestiges of glaciers are to be found in the valleys, and -also of making a collection of fishes from the mountain streams; or -should he renounce the journey into Peru for the present, and, making a -station somewhere in this region for the next month or two, complete, as -far as may be, his investigation of the distribution and development of -fishes in the Solimoens? Had the result of the Peruvian journey been -more certain, the decision would have been easier; but it is more than -likely that the torrential rains of this latitude have decomposed the -surface and swept away all traces of glaciers, if they ever existed at -so low a level. To go on, therefore, seemed a little like giving up a -certain for an uncertain result. Earnestly desirous of making the best -use of his time and opportunities here, this doubt has disturbed Mr. -Agassiz’s waking and sleeping thoughts for several days past. Yesterday -morning, at Teffé, a most unexpected adviser appeared in the midst of -our council of war. Insignificant in size, this individual, -nevertheless, brought great weight to the decision. The intruder was a -small fish with his mouth full of young ones. The practical plea was -irresistible,—embryology carried the day. A chance of investigating so -extraordinary a process of development, not only in this species but in -several others said to rear their young in the same fashion, was not to -be thrown away; and, besides, there was the prospect of making a -collection and a series of colored drawings, from the life, of the -immense variety of fishes in the river and lake of Teffé, and perhaps of -studying the embryology of the turtles and alligators in their breeding -season. Mr. Agassiz, therefore, decides to return to Teffé with his -artist and two or three other assistants, and to make a station there -for a month at least, leaving Mr. Bourget, with our Indian fisherman, at -Tabatinga to collect in that region, and sending Mr. James and Mr. -Talisman to the river Putumayo, or Iça, and afterwards to the Hyutahy -for the same purpose. This dispersion of parties to collect -simultaneously in different areas, divided from each other by -considerable distances, will show how the fishes are distributed, and -whether their combinations differ in these localities as they have been -found to do in the Lower Amazons. - -I insert here a letter to the Emperor on the subject of this curious -fish, which happened to be one which Mr. Agassiz had formerly dedicated -to him. - - TEFFÉ, 14 Septembre, 1865. - - SIRE:—En arrivant ici ce matin j’ai eu la surprise la plus agréable - et la plus inattendue. Le premier poisson qui me fut apporté était - l’Acara que votre Majesté a bien voulu me permettre de lui dédier et - par un bonheur inouï c’était l’époque de la ponte et il avait la - bouche pleine de petits vivants, en voie de développement. Voilà - donc le fait le plus incroyable en embryologie pleinement confirmé, - et il ne me reste plus qu’à étudier en detail et à loisir tous les - changements que subissent ces petits jusqu’au moment où ils quittent - leur singulier nid, afin que je puisse publier un récit complet de - cette singulière histoire. Mes prévisions sur la distribution des - poissons se confirment; le fleuve est habité par plusieurs faunes - ichthyologiques très distinctes, qui n’ont pour lien commun qu’un - très petit nombre d’espèces qu’on rencontre partout. Il reste - maintenant à préciser les limites de ces régions ichthyologiques et - peut-être me laisserai-je entraîner à consacrer quelque temps à - cette étude, si je trouve les moyens d’y parvenir. Il y a maintenant - une question qui devient fort intéressante, c’est de savoir jusqu’à - quel point le même phénomène se reproduit dans chacun des grands - affluents du Rio Amazonas, ou en d’autres termes si les poissons des - régions supérieures du Rio Madeira et du Rio Negro, etc., etc., sont - les mêmes que ceux du cours inférieur de ces fleuves. Quant à la - diversité même des poissons du bassin tout entier mes prévisions - sont de beaucoup dépassées. Avant d’arriver à Manaos j’avais déjà - recueilli plus de trois cents espèces, c. à. d. le triple des - espèces connues jusqu’à ce jour au moins. La moitié environ out pu - être peintes sur le vivant par M. Burkhardt; en sorte que si je puis - parvenir à publier tous ces documents, les renseignements que je - pourrai fournir sur ce sujet dépasseront de beaucoup tout ce que - l’on a publié jusqu’à ce jour. - - Je serais bien heureux d’apprendre que Votre Majesté n’a pas - rencontré de difficultés dans son voyage et qu’Elle a atteint - pleinement le but qu’Elle se proposait. Nous sommes ici sans - nouvelles du Sud, depuis que nous avons quitté Rio, et tout ce que - nous avions appris alors était qu’après une traversée assez orageuse - votre Majesté avait atteint le Rio Grande. Que Dieu protège et - bénisse votre Majesté! Avec les sentiments du plus profond respect - et de la reconnaissance la plus vive, - - Je suis de votre Majesté - - le très humble et très obéissant serviteur, - - L. AGASSIZ.[65] - -The character of the banks yesterday and to-day continues unchanged; -they are rather high, rising now and then in bluffs and presenting the -same mixture of reddish drift and mud deposit, with the gray, slaty rock -below, cropping out occasionally. This morning we are stopping to wood -at a station opposite the village of Fonte Bôa. Here Mr. Agassiz has had -an opportunity of going on shore and examining this formation. He finds -a thick bed of ferruginous sandstone underlying a number of thinner beds -of mud clay, resembling old clay slate with cleavage. These beds are -overlaid by a bank of ochre-colored sandy clay (designated as drift -above), with hardly any signs of stratification. Yesterday we passed -several lakes, shut out from the river by mud-bars, and seemingly -haunted by waterfowl. In one we saw immense flocks of what looked at -that distance either like red Ibises or red spoonbills, and also numbers -of gulls. Our sportsmen looked longingly at them, and are impatient for -the time when we shall be settled on land, and they can begin to make -havoc among the birds. - -_September 17th._—Last evening we took in wood from the shore some miles -below the town of Tonantins. I sat watching the Indians on the bank, of -whom there were some fifteen or twenty, men, women, and children; the -men loading the wood, the women and children being there apparently to -look on. They had built a fire on the bank, and hung their nets or -cotton tents, under which they sleep, on the trees behind. They made a -wild group, passing to and fro in the light of the fire, the care of -which seemed the special charge of a tall, gaunt, weird-looking woman, -who would have made a good Meg Merrilies. She seemed to have but one -garment,—a long, brown, stuff robe, girt round the waist; as she strode -about the fire, throwing on fresh logs and stirring the dying embers, -the flames blazed up in her face, lighting her tawny skin and long, -unkempt hair, flickering over the figures of women and children about -her, and shedding a warm glow over the forest which made the setting to -the picture. This is the only very tall Indian woman I have seen; -usually the women are rather short of stature. When the Indians had made -their preparations for the night, they heaped damp fuel on the fire till -it smouldered down and threw out thick clouds of smoke, enveloping the -sleeping-tents, and no doubt driving off effectually the clouds of -mosquitoes, from which the natives seem as great sufferers as strangers. -These upper stations on the Amazons are haunted by swarms of mosquitoes -at night, and during the day by a little biting fly called Pium, no less -annoying. - -_September 18th._—Another pause last evening at the village of San -Paolo, standing on a ridge which rises quite steeply from the river and -sinks again into a ravine behind. Throughout all this region the banks -are eaten away by the river, large portions falling into the water at a -time, and carrying the trees with them. These land-slides are so -frequent and so extensive as to make travelling along the banks in small -boats quite dangerous. The scenery of the Solimoens is by no means so -interesting as that of the Lower Amazons. The banks are ragged and -broken, the forest lower, less luxuriant, and the palm growth very -fitful. For a day or two past we have scarcely seen any palms. One kind -seems common, however, namely, the Paxiuba Barriguda—Pa-shee-oo-ba -(Iriartea ventricosa), a species not unlike the Assai in dignity of -port, but remarkable for the swelling of its stem at half height, giving -it a sort of spindle shape. The cut of the foliage is peculiar also, -each leaflet being wedge-shaped. The steamer is often now between the -shores of the river itself instead of coasting along by the many lovely -islands which make the voyage between Pará and Manaos so diversified; -what is thus gained in dimensions is lost in picturesqueness of detail. -Then the element of human life and habitations is utterly wanting; one -often travels for a day without meeting even so much as a hut. But if -men are not to be seen, animals are certainly plenty; as our steamer -puffs along, great flocks of birds rise up from the shore, turtles pop -their black noses out of the water, alligators show themselves -occasionally, and sometimes a troop of brown Capivari scuttles up the -bank, taking refuge in the trees at our approach. To-morrow morning we -reach Tabatinga, and touch the farthest point of our journey. - -_September 20th._—On Monday evening we arrived at Tabatinga, remaining -there till Wednesday morning to discharge the cargo,—a lengthy process, -with the Brazilian method of working. Tabatinga is the frontier town -between Brazil and Peru, and is dignified by the name of a military -station, though when one looks at the two or three small mounted guns on -the bank, the mud house behind them constituting barracks, with half a -dozen soldiers lounging in front of it, one cannot but think that the -fortification is not a very formidable one.[66] The town itself standing -on a mud bluff, deeply ravined and cracked in many directions, consists -of some dozen ruinous houses built around an open square. Of the -inhabitants I saw but little, for it was toward evening when I went on -shore, and they were already driven under shelter by the mosquitoes. One -or two looked out from their doors and gave me a friendly warning not to -proceed unless I was prepared to be devoured, and indeed the buzzing -swarm about me soon drove me back to the steamer. The mosquitoes by -night and the Piums by day are said to render life almost intolerable -here. Under these circumstances we could form little idea of the -character of the vegetation in our short stay. But we made the -acquaintance of one curious palm, the Tucum, a species of Astrocaryum, -the fibre of which makes an excellent material for weaving hammocks, -fishing-nets, and the like. It is gradually becoming an important -article of commerce. The approach to Tabatinga, with two or three -islands in the neighborhood, numerous igarapés opening out of the river, -and the Hyavary emptying into it, is, however, one of the prettiest -parts of the Solimoens. We found here four members of a Spanish -scientific commission, who have been travelling several years in South -and Central America, and whose track we have crossed several times -without meeting them. They welcomed the arrival of the steamer with -delight, having awaited their release at Tabatinga for two or three -weeks. The party consisted of Drs. Almagro, Spada, Martinez, and Isern. -They had just accomplished an adventurous journey, having descended the -Napo on a raft, which their large collection of live animals had turned -into a sort of Noah’s ark. After various risks and exposures they had -arrived at Tabatinga, having lost almost all their clothing, except what -they wore, by shipwreck. Fortunately, their papers and collections were -saved.[67] We are now on our way down the river again, having left Mr. -Bourget at Tabatinga to pass a month in making collections in that -region, and dropped Mr. James and Mr. Talisman last evening at San -Paolo, where they are to get a canoe and Indians for their further -journey to the Iça. This morning, while stopping to wood at Fonte Bôa, -Mr. Agassiz went on shore and collected a very interesting series of -fossil plants in the lower mud deposit; he was also very successful in -making a small collection of fishes, containing several new species, -during the few hours we passed at this place. - -_September 25th._—Teffé. On Friday, the day after my last date, we were -within two or three hours of Teffé; we had just finished packing our -various effects, and were closing our letters to be mailed from Manaos, -when the steamer came to a sudden pause with that dead, sullen, -instantaneous stop which means mischief. The order to reverse the -engines was given instantly, but we had driven with all our force into -the bed of the river, and there we remained, motionless. This is -sometimes rather a serious accident at the season when the waters are -falling, steamers having been occasionally stranded for a number of -weeks. It is not easily guarded against, the river bottom changing so -constantly and so suddenly that even the most experienced pilots cannot -always avoid disaster. They may pass with perfect safety in their upward -voyage over a place where, on their return, they find a formidable bank -of mud. During three hours the crew worked ineffectually, trying to back -the steamer off, or sinking the anchor at a distance to drag her back -upon it. At five o’clock in the afternoon the sky began to look black -and lowering, and presently a violent squall, with thunder and rain, -broke upon us. The wind did, in an instant, what man and steam together -had failed to do in hours. As the squall struck the steamer on her side, -she vibrated, veered and floated free. There was a general stir of -delight at this sudden and unexpected liberation, for the delay was -serious to all. One or two of the passengers were merchants, to whom it -was important to meet the steamer of the 25th at Manaos, which connects -with other steamers all along the coast; and the members of the Spanish -scientific commission, if they could not at once transfer their effects -to the other steamer, would not only miss the next European steamer, but -must be at the expense and care of storing their various luggage and -maintaining their live stock at Manaos for a fortnight. And lastly, to -Mr. Agassiz himself it was a serious disappointment to lose two or three -days out of the precious month for investigations at Teffé. Therefore, -every face beamed when the kindly shock of the wind set us afloat again; -but the work, so vainly spent to release us, was but too efficient in -keeping us prisoners. The anchor, which had been sunk in the mud at some -distance, was so deeply buried that it was difficult to raise it, and in -the effort to do so we grounded again. Indeed, environed as we were by -mud and sand, it was no easy matter to find a channel out of them. We -now remained motionless all night, though the Captain was unremitting in -his efforts and kept the men at work till morning, when, at about seven -o’clock, the boat worked herself free at last, and we thought our -troubles fairly over. But the old proverb “There’s many a slip ‘twixt -the cup and the lip” never was truer; on starting once more we found -that, in the strain and shock to which the ship had been submitted, the -rudder was broken. In view of this new disaster, the passengers for Pará -gave up all hope of meeting the steamer at Manaos, and the rest resigned -themselves to waiting with such philosophy as they could muster. The -whole of that day and the following night were spent in rigging up a new -rudder, and it was not until eight o’clock on Sunday morning that we -were once more on our way, arriving at Teffé at eleven o’clock. - ------ - -Footnote 59: - - As will be seen hereafter, want of time and the engrossing character - of his work in the Amazons, compelled Mr. Agassiz to renounce the - journey into Peru, as also the ascent of the river Madeira. - -Footnote 60: - - _To His Excellency M. Couto de Magalhaēs, President of Pará._ - - MY DEAR SIR:—I thank you sincerely for the kind letter you were so - good as to write me last week, and I hasten to inform you of the - extraordinary success which continues to crown our efforts. It is - certain from this time forth, that the number of fishes inhabiting the - Amazons greatly exceeds all that has hitherto been imagined, and that - their distribution is very limited on the whole, though a small number - of species have followed us since we left Pará and others have a range - more or less extensive. You remember, perhaps, that, when alluding to - my hopes, I told you one day that I believed in the possibility of - finding from two hundred and fifty to three hundred species of fish in - the whole basin of the Amazons; even now, having passed over less than - one third of the main stream, and only diverged here and there to some - points beyond its shores, I have already obtained more than three - hundred. It is incredible, above all, if one considers that the total - number known to naturalists does not reach one third of what I have - already collected. This result scarcely allows one to foresee the - discoveries to be made whenever the affluents of the great river are - explored with the same care. An exploration of the Araguay for its - whole course, in order to teach us how many different combinations of - distinct species occur in succession, from its sources to its junction - with the Tocantins and lower down till it meets the Amazons, would be - an enterprise worthy of you. You have already a sort of scientific - property in this river, to which you would add new rights in - furnishing science with this information. - - Permit me to express to you all the gratitude I feel for the interest - you take in my young travelling companion. Mr. Ward is worthy of it, - alike from his youth, his courage, and his devotion to science. Mr. - Epaminondas has just communicated to me your generous intentions - towards myself, and your purpose of sending a steamer to Manaos to - take the place of the Piraja, and facilitate our exploration of the - Rio Negro and the Rio Madeira. I do not know how to thank you enough; - all that I can say is, that this favor will allow me to make an - exploration of these rivers which would be otherwise impossible. If - the result of these researches be as favorable as my hopes, the honor - will be due, in the first instance, to the liberality of the Brazilian - government. Encouraged by the results thus far obtained, I think that, - if the circumstances are favorable, on arriving at Tabatinga, we shall - make a push into the lower part of Peru, while my companions will - explore the rivers intermediate between this town and Teffé; so that - we shall probably not return to Manaos before the end of October. - - Accept, my dear Sir, the assurance of my high regard, &c., &c. - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 61: - - Some English travellers have criticised the position of the town, and - regretted that it is not placed lower down, at the immediate junction - of the Rio Negro with the Solimoens. But its actual situation is much - better, on account of the more quiet port, removed as it is from the - violent currents caused by the meeting of the two rivers.—L. A. - -Footnote 62: - - When this was written there was hardly any prospect of the early - opening of the Amazons to the free commerce of the world. The - circumstance that since the 7th of September last this great - fresh-water ocean has been made free to the mercantile shipping of all - nations will, no doubt, immensely accelerate the development of - civilization in these desert regions. No act could have exhibited more - unequivocally the liberal policy which actuates the Brazilian - government than this. To complete the great work, two things are still - wanting,—a direct high road between the upper tributaries of the Rio - Madeira and Rio Paraguay, and the abolition of the subsidies granted - to privileged companies, that the colossal traffic of which the whole - basin is susceptible may truly be thrown open to a fair - competition.—L. A. - -Footnote 63: - - _Senahor Pimenta Bueno._ - - MY DEAR FRIEND:—You will probably be surprised to receive only a few - lines from me after the time which has elapsed since my last letter. - The truth is, that, since Obydos, I have passed from surprise to - surprise, and that I have scarcely had time to take care of the - collections we have made, without being able to study them properly. - Thus, during the week we spent in the environs of Villa Bella, at Lago - José Assú and Lago Maximo, we have collected one hundred and eighty - species of fishes, two thirds of which, at least, are new, while those - of my companions who remained at Santarem and upon the Tapajoz have - brought back some fifty more, making already more than three hundred - species, including those of Porto do Moz, of Gurupá, of Tajapurú, and - of Monte Alégre. You see that before having ascended the Amazons for - one third of its course, the number of fishes is more than triple that - of all the species known thus far, and I begin to perceive that we - shall not do more than skim over the surface of the centre of this - great basin. What will it be when it becomes possible to study all its - affluents at leisure and in the most favorable season! I have resolved - to make more numerous stations in the upper part of the river and to - stay as long as my strength and means will allow. Do not think, - however, that I forget to whom I owe such a success. It is you who - have put me on the path, by making known to me the resources of the - forest, and, better still, by furnishing me with the means to profit - by them. Thanks, a thousand times, thanks. I ought also to acknowledge - the assistance afforded me by the agents of the Company, at all the - points where we have touched. Our amiable commander has also exerted - himself, and while I explored the lakes in the neighborhood of Villa - Bella, he made a very fine collection in the Amazons, especially of - the numerous small species always overlooked by fishermen. On the - arrival of the Belem I received your kind letter and a part of the - alcohol I had asked from Mr. Bond. I am writing to-day to ask him to - send me a part to Teffé, and, somewhat later, more to Manaos. Thank - you for the catalogue of Pará fishes; I shall give it back on our - return, with the additions I shall make during the remainder of the - voyage. Adieu, my dear friend. - - Ever yours, - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 64: - - In the course of the investigation, I have ascertained that this slaty - rock, as well as the hard sandstone seen along the river-banks at - Manaos, forms part of the great drift formation of the Amazons, and - that there is neither old red sandstone, nor trias, here, as older - observers supposed.—L. A. - -Footnote 65: - - TEFFÉ, 14 September, 1865. - - SIRE:—On arriving here this morning I had the most agreeable and - unexpected surprise. The first fish brought to me was the Acara, which - your Majesty kindly permitted me to dedicate to you, and by an - unlooked-for good fortune it was the breeding season, and it had its - mouth full of little young ones in the process of development. Here, - then, is the most incredible fact in embryology fully confirmed, and - it remains for me only to study, in detail and at leisure, all the - changes which the young undergo up to the moment when they leave their - singular nest, in order that I may publish a complete account of this - curious history. My anticipations as to the distribution of fishes are - confirmed; the river is inhabited by several very distinct - ichthyological faunæ, which have, as a common link, only a very small - number of species to be met with everywhere. It remains now to - ascertain with precision the limits of these ichthyological regions, - and I may perhaps be drawn on to devote some time to this study, if I - find the means of accomplishing it. There is a question which now - becomes very interesting; it is to know how far the same phenomenon is - reproduced in each one of the great affluents of the river Amazons, - or, in other words, whether the fishes of the upper regions of the Rio - Madeira, the Rio Negro, &c., &c., are the same as those of the lower - course of these rivers. As to the diversity of fishes in the whole - basin, my expectations are far surpassed. Before arriving at Manaos I - had already collected more than three hundred species, that is to say, - at least three times the number of species thus far known. About half - have been painted from life by Mr. Burkhardt; if I can succeed in - publishing all these documents, the information I shall be able to - furnish on this subject will exceed all that has been thus far made - known. I should be very glad to learn that your Majesty has not met - with difficulties on the voyage, and has been able fully to accomplish - the ends proposed. We are here without news from the South since we - left Rio, and all we had learned then was, that after a very stormy - passage your Majesty had reached the Rio Grande. May God protect and - bless your Majesty! - - With sentiments of the most profound respect and the liveliest - gratitude, I am - - Your Majesty’s very humble and obedient servant, - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 66: - - At this point the Amazonian meets the Peruvian steamer, and they - exchange cargoes. Formerly the Brazilian company of Amazonian steamers - extended its line of travel to Laguna, at the mouth of the Huallaga. - Now this part of the journey has passed into the hands of a Peruvian - company, whose steamers run up to Urimaguas on the Huallaga. They are, - however, by no means so comfortable as the Brazilian steamers, having - little or no accommodation for passengers. The upper Marañon is - navigable for large steamers as far as Jaen, as are also its - tributaries, the Huallaga and Ucayali on the south, the Moronha, - Pastazza, and Napo on the north, to a great distance above their - junction with the main stream. There is reason to believe that all - these larger affluents of the Amazons will before long have their - regular lines of steamers like the great river itself. The opening of - the Amazons, no doubt, will hasten this result.—L. A. - -Footnote 67: - - These gentlemen descended the river with us as far as Teffé, and we - afterwards heard of their safe arrival in Madrid. They had, however, - suffered much in health, and Mr. Isern died soon after his return to - his native land. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - LIFE IN TEFFÉ. - - ASPECT OF TEFFÉ.—SITUATION.—DESCRIPTION OF HOUSES.—FISHING - EXCURSION.—ASTONISHING VARIETY OF FISHES.—ACARA.—SCARCITY OF - LABORERS.—OUR INDOORS MAN.—BRUNO.—ALEXANDRINA.—PLEASANT - WALKS.—MANDIOCA-SHED IN THE FOREST.—INDIAN ENCAMPMENT ON THE - BEACH.—EXCURSION TO FISHING LODGE ON THE SOLIMOENS.—AMAZONIAN - BEACHES.—BREEDING-PLACES OF TURTLES, FISHES, ETC.—ADROITNESS OF - INDIANS IN FINDING THEM.—DESCRIPTION OF A “SITIO.”—INDIAN - CLAY-EATERS.—CUIEIRA-TREE.—FISH HUNT.—FOREST LAKE.—WATER - BIRDS.—SUCCESS IN COLLECTING.—EVENING SCENE IN SITIO.—ALEXANDRINA - AS “AIDE SCIENTIFIQUE.”—FISH ANECDOTE.—RELATIONS BETWEEN FISHES AS - SHOWN BY THEIR EMBRYOLOGY.—NOTE UPON THE MARINE CHARACTER OF THE - AMAZONIAN FAUNÆ.—ACARA.—NEWS FROM THE PARTIES IN THE - INTERIOR.—RETURN OF PARTY FROM THE IÇA.—PREPARATIONS FOR - DEPARTURE.—NOTE ON GENERAL RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC WORK IN - TEFFÉ.—WAITING FOR THE STEAMER.—SKETCH OF - ALEXANDRINA.—MOCUIM.—THUNDER-STORM.—REPIQUETE.—GEOLOGICAL - OBSERVATIONS. - - -_September 27th._—Of all the little settlements we have seen on the -Amazons, Teffé looks the most smiling and pleasant. Just now the town, -or, as it should rather be called, the village, stands, as I have said, -above a broad sand-beach; in the rainy season, however, we are told that -the river covers this beach completely, and even encroaches on the -fields beyond, coming almost to the threshold of some of the dwellings. -The houses are generally built of mud, plastered over and roofed with -tiles, or thatched with palm. Almost all have a little ground about -them, enclosed in a picket fence, and planted with orange-trees and -different kinds of palms,—Cocoa-nut, Assais, and Pupunhas or -peach-palms. The latter bears, in handsome clusters, a fruit not unlike -the peach in size and coloring; it has a mealy character when cooked, -and is very palatable, eaten with sugar. The green hill behind the town, -on which cows and sheep are grazing,[68] slopes up to the forest, and -makes a pretty background to the picture. In approaching the village, -many little inlets of the lake and river give promise of pleasant canoe -excursions. Through our friend Major Coutinho we had already bespoken -lodgings, and to-day finds us as comfortably established as it is -possible for such wayfarers to be. Our house stands on an open green -field, running down to the water, and is enclosed only on two sides by -buildings. In front, it commands a pretty view of the beach and of the -opposite shore across the water. Behind, it has a little open ground -planted with two or three orange-trees, surrounding a turtle-tank, which -will be very convenient for keeping live specimens. A well-stocked -turtle-tank is to be found in almost every yard, as the people depend -largely upon turtles for their food. The interior of the house is very -commodious. On the right of the flagged entry is a large room already -transformed into a laboratory. Here are numerous kegs, cans, and barrels -for specimens, a swinging-shelf to keep birds and insects out of the way -of the ants, a table for drawing, and an immense empty packing-case, one -side of which serves as a table for cleaning and preparing birds, while -the open space beneath makes a convenient cupboard for keeping the -instruments and materials of one sort and another, used in the process. -After a little practice in travelling one learns to improvise the -conveniences for work almost without the accessories which seem -indispensable at home. Opposite to the laboratory on the other side of -the entry is a room of the same size, where the gentlemen have slung -their hammocks; back of this is my room, from the window of which, -looking into the court behind, I get a glimpse of some lovely Assai -palms and one or two orange-trees in full flower; adjoining that is the -dining-room, with a large closet leading out of it, used as a -storage-place for alcohol, and serving at this moment as a prison-house -for two live alligators who are awaiting execution there. The news of -our arrival has already gone abroad, and the fishermen and boys of the -village are bringing in specimens of all sorts,—alligators, turtles, -fish, insects, birds. Enough is already gathered to show what a rich -harvest may be expected in this neighborhood. - -[Illustration: Veranda and Dining-room at Teffé.] - -_September 28th._—Yesterday afternoon, between sunset and moonlight, our -neighbor Dr. Romualdo invited us to go with him and his friend Senhor -Joaō da Cunha on a fishing excursion into one of the pretty bayous that -open out to the lake. As our canoe entered it, lazy alligators were -lying about in the still glassy water, with their heads just resting -above the surface; a tall, gray heron stood on the shore, as if watching -his reflection, almost as distinct as himself, and a variety of -water-birds sailed over our heads as we intruded upon their haunts. When -we had reached a certain point, the Indians sprang up to their necks in -the water, (which was, by the way, unpleasantly warm,) and stretched the -net. After a few minutes, they dragged it into shore with a load of -fish, which seemed almost as wonderful as Peter’s miraculous draught. As -the net was landed the fish broke from it in hundreds, springing through -the meshes and over the edges, and literally covering the beach. The -Indians are very skilful in drawing the net, going before it and lashing -the water with long rods to frighten the fish and drive them in. Senhor -da Cunha, who is a very ardent lover of the sport, worked as hard as any -of the boatmen, plunging into the water to lend a hand at the net or -drive in the fish, and, when the draught was landed on the beach, -rushing about in the mud to catch the little fishes which jumped in -myriads through the meshes, with an enthusiasm equal to that of Mr. -Agassiz himself. The operation was repeated several times, always with -the same success, and we returned by moonlight with a boat-load of fish, -which Mr. Agassiz is examining this morning, while Mr. Burkhardt makes -colored drawings of the rarer specimens. Here, as elsewhere in the -Amazonian waters, the variety of species is bewildering. The collections -already number more than four hundred, including those from Pará, and, -while every day brings in new species, new genera are by no means -infrequent. The following letter to Professor Milne Edwards, of the -Jardin des Plantes, gives some account of the work in this department. - - TEFFÉ, le 22 Septembre, 1865. - -MON CHER AMI ET TRÈS HONORÉ CONFRÈRE:—Me voici depuis deux mois dans le -bassin de l’Amazone et c’est ici que j’ai eu la douleur de recevoir la -nouvelle de la mort de mon vieil ami Valenciennes. J’en suis d’autant -plus affecté que personne plus que lui n’aurait apprécié les résultats -de mon voyage, dont je me réjouissais déjà de lui faire part -prochainement. Vous concevrez naturellement que c’est à la classe des -poissons que je consacre la meilleure partie de mon temps et ma récolte -excède toutes mes prévisions. Vous en jugerez par quelques données. En -atteignant Manaos, à la jonction du Rio Negro et de l’Amazonas, j’avais -déjà recueilli plus de trois cents espèces de poissons, dont la moitié -au moins ont été peintes sur le vivant c. à. d. d’après le poisson -nageant dans un grand vase en verre devant mon dessinateur. Je suis -souvent peiné de voir avec quelle légèreté on a publié des planches -coloriées de ces animaux. Ce n’est pas seulement tripler le nombre des -espèces connues, je compte les genres nouveaux par douzaines et j’ai -cinq ou six familles nouvelles pour l’Amazone et une voisine des -Gobioides entièrement nouvelle pour l’Ichthyologie. C’est surtout parmi -les petites espèces que je trouve le plus de nouveautés. J’ai des -Characins de cinq à six centimètres et au-dessous, ornés des teintes les -plus élégantes, des Cyprinodontes, se rapprochant un peu de ceux de Cuba -et des Etats-Unis, des Scomberésoces voisins du Bélone de la -Méditerranée, un nombre considérable de Carapoides, des Raies de genres -differents de ceux de l’océan, et qui par conséquent ne sont pas des -espèces qui remontent le fleuve. Une foule de Goniodontes et de -Chromides de genres et d’espèces inédits. Mais ce que j’apprécie surtout -c’est la facilité que j’ai d’étudier les changements que tous ces -poissons subissent avec l’âge et les différences de sexe qui existent -entr’eux et qui sont souvent très considérables. C’est ainsi que j’ai -observé une espèce de Geophagus dont le mâle porte sur le front une -bosse très-saillante qui manque entièrement à la femelle et aux jeunes. -Ce même poisson a un mode de reproduction des plus extraordinaires. Les -œufs passent, je ne sais trop comment, dans la bouche dont ils tapissent -le fond, entre les appendices intérieurs des arcs branchiaux et surtout -dans une poche formée par les pharyngiens supérieurs qu’ils remplissent -complètement. Là ils éclosent et les petits, libérés de leur coque, se -développent jusqu’à ce qu’ils soient en état de fournir à leur -existence. Je ne sais pas encore combien de temps cela va durer; mais -j’ai déjà rencontré des exemplaires dont les jeunes n’avaient plus de -sac vitellaire, qui hébergeaient encore leur progéniture. Comme je -passerai environ un mois à Teffé, j’espère pouvoir compléter cette -observation. L’examen de la structure d’un grand nombre de Chromides m’a -fait entrevoir des affinités entre ces poissons et diverses autres -familles dont on ne s’est jamais avisé de les rapprocher. Et d’abord je -me suis convaincu que les Chromides, répartis autrefois parmi les -Labroides et les Sciènoides, constituent bien réellement un groupe -naturel, reconnu à peu près en même temps et d’une manière indépendante -par Heckel et J. Müller. Mais il y a plus; les genres Enoplosus, -Pomotis, Centrarchus et quelques autres genres voisins, rangés parmi les -Percoides par tous les Ichthyologistes, me paraissent, d’ici et sans -moyen de comparaison directe, tellement voisins des Chromides que je ne -vois pas comment on pourra les en séparer, surtout maintenant que je -sais que les pharyngiens inférieurs ne sont pas toujours soudés chez les -Chromides. Et puis l’embryologie et les métamorphoses des Chromides que -je viens d’étudier m’ont convaincu que les “Poissons à branchies -labyrinthiques” séparés de tous les autres poissons par Cuvier comme une -famille entièrement isolée, à raison de la structure étrange de ses -organes respiratoires, se rattachent de très-près aux Chromides. Ce -groupe devient ainsi par ses affinités variées, l’un des plus -intéressants de la classe des poissons, et le bassin de l’Amazone paraît -être la vraie patrie de cette famille. Je ne veux pas vous fatiguer de -mes recherches ichthyologiques; permettez moi seulement d’ajouter que -les poissons ne sont point uniformément répandus dans ce grand bassin. -Déjà j’ai acquis la certitude qu’il faut y distinguer plusieurs faunes -ichthyologiques, très-nettement caractérisées; c’est ainsi que les -espèces qui habitent la rivière du Pará, des bords de la mer jusque vers -l’embouchure du Tocantins, diffèrent de celles que l’on rencontre dans -le réseau d’anastomoses qui unissent la rivière de Pará à l’Amazone -propre. Les espèces de l’Amazone, au-dessous du Xingu, diffèrent de -celles que j’ai rencontrées plus haut; celles du cours inférieur du -Xingu, diffèrent de celles du cours inférieur du Tapajos. Celles des -nombreux igarapés et lacs de Manaos diffèrent également de celles du -cours principal du grand fleuve et de ses principaux affluents. Il reste -maintenant à étudier les changements qui peuvent survenir dans cette -distribution, dans le cours de l’année, suivant la hauteur des eaux et -peut-être aussi suivant l’époque à laquelle les différentes espèces -pondent leurs œufs. Jusqu’à présent je n’ai rencontré qu’un petit nombre -d’espèces qui aient une aire de distribution très étendue. C’est ainsi -que le Sudis gigas se trouve à-peu-près partout. C’est le poisson le -plus important du fleuve; celui qui comme aliment remplace le bétail -pour les populations riveraines. Un autre problème à résoudre c’est de -savoir jusqu’à quel point les grands affluents de l’Amazone répètent ce -phénomène de la distribution locale des poissons. Je vais chercher à le -résoudre en remontant le Rio Negro et le Rio Madeira et comme je -reviendrai à Manaos, je pourrai comparer mes premières observations dans -cette localité, avec celles d’une autre saison de l’année. Adieu, mon -cher ami. Veuillez faire mes amitiés à M. Elie de Beaumont et me -rappeler aux bons souvenirs de ceux de mes collègues de l’Académie qui -veulent bien s’intéresser à mes travaux actuels. Faites aussi, je vous -prie, mes amitiés à M. votre fils. - - Tout à vous, - - L. AGASSIZ.[69] - -Mr. Agassiz has already secured quite a number of the singular type of -Acarà, which carries its young in its mouth, and he has gathered a good -deal of information about its habits. The fishermen here say that this -mode of caring for the young prevails more or less in all the family of -Acarà. They are not all born there, however; some lay their eggs in the -sand, and, hovering over their nest, take up the little ones in their -mouth, when they are hatched. The fishermen also add, that these fish do -not always keep their young in the mouth, but leave them sometimes in -the nest, taking them up only on the approach of danger.[70] - -Our household is now established on a permanent basis. We had at first -some difficulty in finding servants; at this fishing season, when the -men are going off to dry and salt fish, and when the season for hunting -turtle-eggs and making turtle-butter is coming on, the town is almost -deserted by the men. It is like haying-time in this country, when every -arm is needed in the fields. Then the habits of the Indians are so -irregular, and they care so little for money, finding, as they do, the -means of living almost without work immediately about them, that even if -one does engage a servant, he is likely to disappear the next day. An -Indian will do more for good-will and a glass of cachaça (rum) than he -will do for wages, which are valueless to him. The individual, who has -been supplying the place of indoors man while we have been looking for a -servant, is so original in his appearance that he deserves a special -description. He belongs to a neighbor who has undertaken to provide our -meals, and he brings them when they are prepared and waits on the table. -He is rather an elderly Indian, and his dress consists of a pair of -cotton drawers, originally white, but now of many hues and usually -rolled up to the knees, his feet being bare; the upper part of his -person is partially (very partially) concealed by a blue rag, which I -suppose in some early period of the world’s history must have been a -shirt; this extraordinary figure is surmounted by an old straw hat full -of holes, bent in every direction, and tied under the chin by a red -string. Had he not been a temporary substitute, we should have tried to -obtain a more respectable livery for him; but to-day he gives place to -an Indian lad, Bruno by name, who presents a more decent appearance, -though he seems rather bewildered by his new office. At present his idea -of waiting on the table seems to be to sit on the floor and look at us -while we eat. However, we hope to break him in gradually. He looks as if -he had not been long redeemed from the woods, for his face is deeply -tattooed with black, and his lips and nose are pierced with holes, -reminding one of the becoming vanities he has renounced in favor of -civilization.[71] Besides Bruno we have a girl, Alexandrina by name, -who, by her appearance, has a mixture of Indian and black blood in her -veins. She promises very well, and seems to have the intelligence of the -Indian with the greater pliability of the negro. - -_September 29th._—One of the great charms of our residence here is, that -we have so many pleasant walks within easy reach. My favorite walk in -the early morning is to the wood on the brow of the hill. From the -summit, the sunrise is lovely over the village below, the lake with its -many picturesque points and inlets, and the forests on the opposite -shores. From this spot a little path through the bushes brings one at -once into a thick, beautiful wood. Here one may wander at will, for -there are a great many paths, worn by the Indians, through the trees; -and one is constantly tempted on by the cool, pleasant shade, and by the -perfume of moss and fern and flower. The forest here is full of life and -sound. The buzz of insects, the shrill cry of the cicadas, the -chattering talk of the papagaios, and occasionally busy voices of the -monkeys, make the woods eloquent. The monkeys are, however, very -difficult of approach, and though I hear them often, I have not yet seen -them on the trees; but Mr. Hunnewell told me that the other day, when -shooting in this very wood, he came upon a family of small white monkeys -sitting on a bough together, and talking with much animation. One of the -prettiest of the paths, with which my daily walks made me familiar, -leads over an igarapé to a house, or rather to a large thatched shed, in -the forest, used for preparing mandioca. It is supplied with four large -clay ovens, having immense shallow pans fitted on to the top, with -troughs for kneading, sieves for straining, and all the apparatus for -the various processes to which the mandioca is subjected. One utensil is -very characteristic; the large, empty turtle-shells, which may be seen -in every kitchen, used as basins, bowls, &c. I suppose this little -establishment is used by a number of persons, for in my morning walks I -always meet troops of Indians going to it, the women with their deep -working baskets,—something like the Swiss “hotte,”—in which they carry -their tools, on their backs, supported by a straw band fastened across -the forehead, and their babies astride on their hips, so as to leave -their hands perfectly free. They always give me a cordial morning -greeting and stop to look at the plants and flowers with which I am -usually laden. Some of the women are quite pretty, but as a general -thing the Indians in this part of the country do not look very healthy, -and are apt to have diseases of the eyes and skin. It is a curious thing -that the natives seem more liable to the maladies of the country than -strangers. They are very subject to intermittent fevers, and one often -sees Indians worn to mere skin and bone by this terrible scourge. - -If the morning walk in the woods is delightful, the evening stroll on -the beach in front of the house is no less so, when the water is dyed in -the purple sunset, and the quiet of the scene is broken here and there -by a fire on the sands, around which a cluster of Indians are cooking -their supper. As Major Coutinho and I were walking on the shore last -evening we came on such a group. They were a family who had come over -from their home on the other side of the lake, with a boat-load of fish -and turtle to sell in the village. When they have disposed of their -cargo, they build their fire on the beach, eat their supper of salted or -broiled fish, farinha, and the nuts of a particular kind of palm -(Atalea), and then sleep in their canoe. We sat down with them, and, -that they should not think we came merely out of curiosity, we shared -their nuts and farinha, and they were soon very sociable. I am -constantly astonished at the frank geniality of these people, so -different from our sombre, sullen Indians, who are so unwilling to talk -with strangers. The cordiality of their reception, however, depends very -much on the way in which they are accosted. Major Coutinho, who has -passed years among them, understands their character well, and has -remarkable tact in his dealings with them. He speaks their language a -little also, and this is important here where many of the Indians speak -only the “lingua geral.” This was the case with several of the family -whose acquaintance we made last evening, though some of them talked in -Portuguese fluently enough, telling us about their life in the forest, -their success in disposing of their fish and turtle, and inviting us to -come to their house. They pointed out to us one of the younger girls, -who they said had never been baptized, and they seemed to wish to have -the rite performed. Major Coutinho promised to speak to the priest about -it for them. So far as we can learn, the white population do little to -civilize the Indians beyond giving them the external rites of religion. -It is the old sad story of oppression, duplicity, and license on the -part of the white man, which seems likely to last as long as skins shall -differ, and which necessarily ends in the degradation of both races. - -_October 4th._—On Saturday morning at four o’clock, Major Coutinho, Mr. -Agassiz, and myself left Teffé in company with our neighbor and landlord -Major Estolano, on our way to his “sitio,” a rough sort of Indian lodge -on the other side of the Solimoens, where he goes occasionally with his -family to superintend the drying and salting of fish, a great article of -commerce here. It had rained heavily all night, but the stars were -bright, and the morning was cool and fresh when we put off in the canoe. -When we issued from Teffé lake it was already broad day, and by the time -we entered the Solimoens we began to have admonitions that -breakfast-time was approaching. There is something very pleasant in -these improvised meals; the coffee tastes better when you have made it -yourself, setting up the coffee-machine under the straw-roof of the -canoe, dipping up the water from the river over the side of the boat, -and cooking your own breakfast. One would think it a great bore at home, -with all the necessary means and appliances; but with the stimulus of -difficulty and the excitement of the journey it is quite pleasant, and -gives a new relish to ordinary fare. After we had had a cup of hot -coffee and a farinha biscuit, being somewhat cramped with sitting in the -canoe, we landed for a walk on a broad beach along which we were -coasting. There is much to be learned on these Amazonian beaches; they -are the haunts and breeding-places of many different kinds of animals, -and are covered by tracks of alligators, turtles, and capivari. Then -there are the nests, not only of alligators and turtles, but of the -different kind of fishes and birds that lay their eggs in the mud or -sand. It is curious to see the address of the Indians in finding the -turtle-nests; they walk quickly over the sand, but with a sort of -inquiring tread, as if they carried an instinctive perception in their -step, and the moment they set their foot upon a spot below which eggs -are deposited, though there is no external evidence to the eye, they -recognize it at once, and, stooping, dig straight down to the eggs, -generally eight or ten inches under the surface. Besides these tracks -and nests, there are the rounded, shallow depressions in the mud, which -the fishermen say are the sleeping-places of the skates. They have -certainly about the form and size of the skate, and one can easily -believe that these singular impressions in the soft surface have been -made in this way. The vegetation on these beaches is not less -interesting than these signs of animal life. In the rainy season more -than half a mile of land, now uncovered along the margins of the river, -is entirely under water, the river rising not only to the edge of the -forest, but penetrating far into it. At this time of the year, however, -the shore consists, first of the beach, then of a broad band of tall -grasses, beyond which are the lower shrubs and trees, leading up, by a -sort of gradation, to the full forest growth. During this dry season the -vegetation makes an effort to recover its lost ground; one sees the -little Imbauba (Cecropia) and a kind of willow-tree (Salix humboldiana), -the only familiar plant we met, springing up on the sand, and creeping -down to the water’s edge, only to be destroyed again with the next rise -of the river. While we were walking, the boatmen were dragging the net, -and though not with such astonishing success as the other day, yet it -landed not only an ample supply of fresh fish for breakfast, but also a -number of interesting specimens. At about eleven o’clock we turned from -the Solimoens into the little river on which Mr. Estolano’s -fishing-lodge is situated, and in a few minutes found ourselves at the -pretty landing, where a rough flight of steps led up to the house. In -this climate a very slight shelter will serve as a house. Such a -dwelling is indeed nothing but a vast porch; and a very airy, pleasant, -and picturesque abode it makes. A palm-thatched roof to shed the rain -and keep off the sun, covering a platform of split logs that one may -have a dry floor under foot; these, with plenty of posts and rafters for -the swinging of hammocks, are the essentials. It was somewhat after this -fashion that Major Estolano’s lodge was built. The back part of it -consisted of one very large, high chamber, to which the family retired -in the hottest part of the day, when the sun was most scorching; all the -rest was roof and platform, the latter stretching out considerably -beyond the former, thus leaving an open floor on one side for the -stretching and drying of fish. The whole structure was lifted on piles -about eight feet above the ground, to provide against the rising of the -river in the rainy season. In front of the house, just on the edge of -the bank, were several large, open, thatched sheds, used as kitchen and -living-rooms for the negroes and Indians employed in the preparation of -the fish. In one of these rooms were several Indian women who looked -very ill. We were told they had been there for two months, and they were -worn to skin and bone with intermittent fever. Major Coutinho said they -were, no doubt, suffering in part from the habit so prevalent among -these people of eating clay and dirt, for which they have a morbid love. -They were wild-looking creatures, lying in their hammocks or squatting -on the ground, often without any clothes, and moaning as if in pain. -They were from the forest, and spoke no Portuguese. - -We were received most cordially by the ladies of the family, who had -gone up to the lodge the day before, and were offered the refreshment of -a hammock, the first act of hospitality in this country, when one -arrives from any distance. After this followed an excellent breakfast of -the fresh fish we had brought with us, cooked in a variety of ways, -broiled, fried, and boiled. The repast was none the less appetizing that -it was served in picnic fashion, the cloth being laid on the floor, upon -one of the large palm-mats, much in use here to spread over the -uncarpeted brick floors or under the hammocks. For several hours after -breakfast the heat was intense, and we could do little but rest in the -shade, though Mr. Agassiz, who works at all hours if specimens are on -hand, was busy in making skeletons of some fish too large to be -preserved in alcohol. Towards evening it grew cooler, and we walked in -the banana plantation near the house, and sat under an immense -gourd-tree on the bank, which made a deep shade; for it was clothed not -only by its own foliage, but the branches were covered with parasites, -and with soft, dark moss, in contrast with which the lighter green, -glossy fruit seemed to gain new lustre. I call it a gourd-tree, simply -from the use to which the fruit is put. But it goes here by the name of -the Cuieira-tree (Crescentia Cajeput), the cup made from the fruit being -called a Cuia. The fruit is spherical, of a light green, shiny surface, -and grows from the size of an apple to that of the largest melon. It is -filled with a soft, white pulp, easily removed when the fruit is cut in -halves; the rind is then allowed to dry. Very pretty cups and basins, of -many sizes, are made in this way; and the Indians, who understand how to -prepare a variety of very brilliant colors, are very skilful in painting -them. It would seem that the art of making colors is of ancient date -among the Amazonian Indians, for in the account of Francisco Orellana’s -journey down the Amazons in 1541, “the two fathers of the expedition -declare that in this voyage they found all the people to be both -intelligent and ingenious, which was shown by the works which they -performed in sculpture and painting in bright colors.”[72] Their paints -are prepared from a particular kind of clay and from the juices of -several plants which have coloring properties. In an Amazonian cottage -one hardly sees any utensils for the table except such as the Indians -have prepared and ornamented themselves from the fruits of the -Cuieira-tree. I longed to extend my walk into the woods which surrounded -us on all sides; but the forest is very tantalizing here, so tempting -and so impenetrable. The ladies told me there were no paths cut in the -neighborhood of the house. - -The next morning we were off early in the canoes on a fish hunt; I call -it a hunt advisedly, for the fish are the captives of the bow and spear, -not of the net and line. The Indians are very adroit in shooting the -larger fish with the bow and arrow, and in harpooning some of the -veritable monsters of their rivers, such as the Peixe-boi (“fish-cow”), -Manatee or Dugon, with the spear. We made two parties this morning, some -of us going in the larger canoe to drag a forest lake with the net, -while some of the fishermen took a smaller, lighter boat, to be able to -approach their larger prey. Our path lay through a pretty igarapé, -where, for the first time, I saw monkeys in a tree by the water-side. On -coming to the Amazons we expect to see monkeys as frequently as -squirrels are seen at home; but, though very numerous, they are so shy -that one rarely gets a fair view of them. After an hour’s row we landed -at a little point jutting out into the water, and went through the -forest, the men cutting the way before us, clearing the path of -branches, fallen trees, and parasitic vines which obstructed it. I was -astonished to see the vigor and strength with which Dona Maria, the -mother-in-law of our host, made her way through the tangled trees, -helping to free the road, and lopping off branches with her great -wood-knife. We imagine all the ladies in this warm country to be very -indolent and languid; and in the cities, as a general thing, their -habits are much less vigorous than those of our women. But here, in the -Upper Amazons, the women who have been brought up in the country and in -the midst of the Indians are often very energetic, bearing a hand at the -oar or the fishing-net with the strength of a man. A short walk brought -us out upon a shallow forest lake, or, as the Indians call it, “round -water.” The Indian names are often very significant. I have mentioned -the meaning of igarapé, “boat path”; to this, when they wish to indicate -its size more exactly, they affix either the word “assù” (large) or -“mirim” (small). But an igarapé, whether large or small, is always a -channel opening out of the main river and having no other outlet. For a -channel connecting the upper and lower waters of the same river, or -leading from one river to another, they have another word, “Paraná” -(signifying river), which they modify in the same way, as Paraná-assú or -Paraná-mirim. Paraná-assú, the big river, means also the sea. A still -more significant name for a channel connecting two rivers is the -Portuguese word “fúro,” meaning bore. - -The lake was set in the midst of long, reed-like grass, and, as we -approached it, thousands of white water-birds rustled up from the margin -and floated like a cloud above us. The reason of their numbers was plain -when we reached the lake: it was actually lined with shrimps; one could -dip them out by the bucketful. The boatmen now began to drag the net, -and perhaps nowhere, from any single lake or pond, has Mr. Agassiz made -a more valuable collection of forest fishes. Among them was a pipe-fish, -one of the Goniodont family, very similar to our ordinary Syngnathus in -appearance, but closely related to Acestra, and especially interesting -to him as throwing light on certain investigations of his, made when -quite a young man. This specimen confirmed a classification by which he -then associated the pipe-fish with the Garpikes and Sturgeons, a -combination which was scouted by the best naturalists of the time, and -is even now repudiated by most of them. Without self-glorification, it -is impossible not to be gratified when the experience of later years -confirms the premonitions of youth, and shows them to have been not mere -guesses, but founded upon an insight into the true relations of things. -Wearied after a while with watching the fishing in the sun, I went back -into the forest, where I found the coffee-pot already boiling over the -fire. It was pleasant to sit down on a fallen, moss-grown trunk, and -breakfast in the shade. Presently the fishermen came back from the lake, -and we found our way to the boats again, laden with an immense number of -fishes. The gentlemen returned to the house in one of the smaller -montarias, taking the specimens with them, and leaving me to return in -the larger canoe with the Senhoras. It seemed to me strange on this -Sunday morning, when the bells must be ringing and the people trooping -to church under the bright October sky, in our far-off New England home, -to be floating down this quiet igarapé, in a boat full of half-naked -Indians, their wild, monotonous chant sounding in our ears as they kept -time to their oars. In these excursions one learns to understand the -fascination this life must have for a people among whom civilization is -as yet but very incomplete; it is full of physical enjoyment, without -any mental effort. Up early in the morning and off on their fishing or -hunting excursions long before dawn, they return by the middle of the -day, lie in their hammocks and smoke during the hours of greatest heat; -cook the fish they have brought with them, and, unless sickness comes to -them, know neither want nor care. We reached the house in time for a -twelve o’clock breakfast of a more solid character than the lighter one -in the forest, and by no means unacceptable after our long row. In the -course of the day two “Peixe-bois” (Manatees) were brought in, also a -Boto (porpoise), and some large specimens of Pirarucu (Sudis). All these -are too clumsy to preserve in alcohol, especially when alcohol is so -difficult to obtain and so expensive as it is here; but Mr. Agassiz has -had skeletons made of them, and will preserve the skins of the -Peixe-bois for mounting. He obtained at the same time an entirely new -genus of the Siluroid family. It is a fish weighing some ten pounds, -called here the Pacamum, and of a bright canary color. - -The evening scene at the “Sitio” was always very pretty. After dinner, -when the customary “boa noite,” the universal greeting at the close of -the day, had been exchanged, the palm-mats, spread over the platforms, -had each their separate group, Indians or negroes, children, members of -the family or guests, the central figure being usually that of Major -Coutinho, who was considered to be especially successful in the making -of coffee and who generally had a mat to himself, where he looked, as -the blue flame of his alcohol lamp flickered in the wind, not unlike a -magician of old, brewing some potent spell. Little shallow cups, like -open antique lamps, filled with oil and having a bit of wick hanging -over the edge, were placed about the floors, and served to light the -interior of the porch, though after a glimmering and uncertain fashion. -On Monday morning we left the “Sitio” and returned to Teffé, where Mr. -Agassiz had the pleasure of receiving all his collections, both those he -had sent on before him and those which accompanied us, in good -condition. - -_October 9th._—Alexandrina turns out to be a valuable addition to the -household, not only from a domestic, but also from a scientific point of -view. She has learned to prepare and clean skeletons of fish very -nicely, and makes herself quite useful in the laboratory. Besides, she -knows many paths in the forest, and accompanies me in all my botanizing -excursions; with the keen perceptions of a person whose only training -has been through the senses, she is far quicker than I am in discerning -the smallest plant in fruit or flower, and now that she knows what I am -seeking, she is a very efficient aid. Nimble as a monkey, she thinks -nothing of climbing to the top of a tree to bring down a blossoming -branch; and here, where many of the trees shoot up to quite a height -before putting out their boughs, such an auxiliary is very important. -The collections go on apace, and every day brings in new species; more -than can be easily cared for,—far more than our artist can find time to -draw. Yesterday, among other specimens, a hollow log was brought in, -some two feet and a half in length, and about three inches in diameter, -crowded with Anojas (a common fish here) of all sizes, from those -several inches long to the tiniest young. The thing was so extraordinary -that one would have been inclined to think it was prepared in order to -be passed off as a curiosity, had not the fish been so dexterously -packed into the log from end to end, that it was impossible to get them -out without splitting it open, when they were all found alive and in -perfectly good condition. They could not have been artificially jammed -into the hollow wood, in that way, without injuring them. The fishermen -say that this is the habit of the family; they are often found thus -crowded into dead logs at the bottom of the river, making their nests as -it were in the cavities of the wood.[73] - -_October 14th._—Mr. Agassiz has a corps of little boys engaged in -catching the tiniest fishes, so insignificant in size that the regular -fishermen, who can never be made to understand that a fish which is not -good to eat can serve any useful purpose, always throw them away. -Nevertheless, these are among the most instructive specimens for the -ichthyologist, because they often reveal the relations not only between -parent and offspring, but wider relations between different groups. Mr. -Agassiz’s investigations on these little fish here have shown repeatedly -that the young of some species resemble closely the adult of others. -Such a fish, not more than half an inch long, was brought to him -yesterday. It constitutes a new genus, Lymnobelus, and belongs to the -bill-fish family, Scomberesoces, with Belone and others,—that long, -narrow type, with a long beak, which has such a wide distribution over -the world. In the Northern United States, as well as in the -Mediterranean, it has a representative of the genus Scomberesox, in -which the jaws of its long snout are gaping; in the Mediterranean, and -almost everywhere in the temperate and torrid zones, Belones are found -in which, on the contrary, the bill is closed; in Florida and on the -Brazilian coast, as well as in the Pacific, species of Hemirhamphus -occur in which the two jaws are unequal, the upper one being very short -and the lower one enormously long, while the Amazonian bill-fish has a -somewhat different cut of the bill from either of those mentioned above, -though both jaws are very long, as in Belone. When, then, the young of -this Amazonian species was brought to Mr. Agassiz, he naturally expected -to find it like its parent. On the contrary, he found it far more like -the species of Florida and the Brazilian coast, having the two jaws -unequal, the upper one excessively short, the lower enormously long, -showing that the Amazonian species, before taking on its own -characteristic features, passes through a stage resembling the permanent -adult condition of the Hemirhamphus. It is interesting to find that -animals, which have their natural homes so far from each other that -there is no possibility of any material connection between them, are yet -so linked together by structural laws, that the development of one -species should recall the adult form of another.[74] The story of the -Acaras, the fish which carries its young in its mouth, grows daily more -wonderful. This morning Mr. Agassiz was off before dawn, on a fishing -excursion with Major Estolano, and returned with numerous specimens of a -new species of that family. These specimens furnished a complete -embryological series, some of them having their eggs at the back of the -gills, between the upper pharyngeals and the branchial arches, others -their young in the mouth in different stages of development, up to those -a quarter of an inch long and able to swim about, full of life and -activity, when removed from the gills and placed in water. The most -advanced were always found outside of the gills, within the cavity -formed by the gill-covers and the wide branchiostegal membrane. In -examining these fishes Mr. Agassiz has found that a special lobe of the -brain, similar to those of the Triglas, sends large nerves to that part -of the gills which protects the young; thus connecting the care of the -offspring with the organ of intelligence. The specimens of this morning -seem to invalidate the statement of the fishermen, that the young, -though often found in the mouth of the parent, are not actually -developed there, but laid and hatched in the sand. The series, in these -specimens, was too complete to leave any doubt that in this species at -least the whole process of development is begun and completed in the -gill-cavity. - -_October 17th._—Teffé. Yesterday, to our great pleasure, our companions, -Mr. James and Mr. Talisman, returned from their canoe expedition on the -rivers Iça and Hyutahy, bringing most valuable collections. Mr. Agassiz -has felt some anxiety about their success, as, in consequence of their -small supply of alcohol, for preserving specimens, which was, -nevertheless, all he could spare from the common store, a great deal of -judgment in the choice of specimens was required in order to make a -truly characteristic collection. The commission could not have been -better executed, and the result raises the number of species from the -Amazonian waters to more than six hundred, every day showing more -clearly how distinctly the species are localized, and that this immense -basin is divided into numerous zoölogical areas, each one of which has -its own combination of fishes. Our stay at Teffé draws to a close, and -to-day begins the great work of packing, in preparation for the arrival -of the steamer at the end of the week. These days are the most laborious -of all; on leaving every station, all the alcoholic specimens have to be -overhauled, their condition ascertained, the barrels, kegs, and cans -examined, to make sure that the hoops are fast, and that there are no -leakages. Fortunately, there are some of our party who are very -dexterous as coopers and joiners, and at these times the laboratory is -turned into a workshop. We were reminded of the labors of the day by a -circular distributed at breakfast this morning:— - - “SIR:—The ‘United Coopers’ Association’ will meet in the laboratory - after breakfast. You are particularly requested to attend. - - “TEFFÉ, Oct. 17th, 1865.” - -And at this moment the laboratory rings with click of hammer, and nails, -and iron hoops. As usual, there are a number of uninvited spectators -watching the breaking up of the scientific establishment, which has -been, during the past month, a source of constant entertainment to the -vagrant population of Teffé. In this country of open doors and windows -one has not the same protection against intrusion as in a colder -climate, and we have had a constant succession of curious visitors -hanging about our premises. - -I have dwelt especially on the fish collection; but we do not go away -empty-handed in other respects. Mr. Dexter has prepared a large number -of the forest birds for mounting,—papagaios, toucans, and a great -variety of smaller species of very brilliant plumage, not to speak of -the less showy water-birds. He has been often in the woods shooting, -with Mr. Hunnewell and Mr. Thayer, and has employed several sportsmen of -the place to assist him. Turtles, jacarés, and snakes are also largely -represented in the collections; and Mr. Agassiz has obtained, by -purchase, a large and well-preserved collection of insects, made by a -Frenchman during a several years’ residence in this little town. In -Teffé and its neighborhood we constantly tread in the footsteps of the -English naturalist, Mr. Bates, “Senhor Henrique,” as the people call him -here, whose charming book, “The Naturalist on the Amazons,” has been a -very pleasant companion to us in our wanderings.[75] - -[Illustration: Head of Alexandrina.] - -_October 21st._—Since Thursday afternoon our canoe has been loaded, all -the specimens, amounting to something more than thirty barrels, kegs, -and boxes, packed and waiting the arrival of the steamer. We have paid -our parting visits to friends and acquaintances here. I have taken my -last ramble in the woods where I have had so many pleasant walks, and -now we are sitting in the midst of valises and carpet-bags, waiting to -see the steamer round the wooded point in front of the house, before we -turn the key on our four weeks’ home, and close this chapter of our -Amazonian life. In this country, where time seems to be of comparatively -little importance, one is never sure whether the boat will leave or -arrive on the appointed day. One has only to make the necessary -preparations, and then practise the favorite Brazilian virtue, -“paciencia.” The adjoining sketch is a portrait of my little house-maid, -Alexandrina, who, from her mixture of Negro and Indian blood, is rather -a curious illustration of the amalgamation of races here. She consented -yesterday, after a good deal of coy demur, to have her portrait taken. -Mr. Agassiz wanted it especially on account of her extraordinary hair, -which, though it has lost its compact negro crinkle, and acquired -something of the length and texture of the Indian hair, retains, -nevertheless, a sort of wiry elasticity, so that, when combed out, it -stands off from her head in all directions as if electrified. In the -examples of negro and Indian half-breeds we have seen, the negro type -seems the first to yield, as if the more facile disposition of the -negro, as compared with the enduring tenacity of the Indian, showed -itself in their physical as well as their mental characteristics. A few -remarks, gathered from Mr. Agassiz’s notes on the general character of -the population in this region may not be without interest. - -“Two things are strongly impressed on the mind of the traveller in the -Upper Amazons. The necessity, in the first place, of a larger -population, and, secondly, of a better class of whites, before any fair -beginning can be made in developing the resources of the country; and, -as an inducement to this, the importance of taking off all restraint on -the navigation of the Amazons and its tributaries, opening them to the -ambition and competition of other nations. Not only is the white -population too small for the task before it, but it is no less poor in -quality than meagre in numbers. It presents the singular spectacle of a -higher race receiving the impress of a lower one, of an educated class -adopting the habits and sinking to the level of the savage. In the towns -of the Solimoens the people who pass for the white gentry of the land, -while they profit by the ignorance of the Indian to cheat and abuse him, -nevertheless adopt his social habits, sit on the ground and eat with -their fingers as he does. Although it is forbidden by law to enslave the -Indian, there is a practical slavery by which he becomes as absolutely -in the power of the master as if he could be bought and sold. The white -man engages an Indian to work for him at a certain rate, at the same -time promising to provide him with clothes and food until such time as -he shall have earned enough to take care of himself. This outfit, in -fact, costs the employer little; but when the Indian comes to receive -his wages he is told that he is already in debt to his master for what -has been advanced to him; instead of having a right to demand money, he -owes work. The Indians, even those who live about the towns, are -singularly ignorant of the true value of things. They allow themselves -to be deceived in this way to an extraordinary extent, and remain bound -to the service of a man for a lifetime, believing themselves under the -burden of a debt, while they are, in fact, creditors. Besides this -virtual slavery, an actual traffic of the Indians does go on: but it is -so far removed from the power of the authorities that they cannot, if -they would, put a stop to it. A better class of emigrants would suppress -many of these evils. Americans or Englishmen might be sordid in their -transactions with the natives; their hands are certainly not clean in -their dealings with the dark-skinned races; but they would not degrade -themselves to the social level of the Indians as the Portuguese do; they -would not adopt his habits.” - -I cannot say good by to Teffé without a word in commemoration of one -class of its inhabitants who have interfered very seriously with our -comfort. There is a tiny creature called the Mocuim, scarcely visible -except for its bright vermilion color, which swarms all over the grass -and low growth here. It penetrates under the skin so that one would -suppose a red rash had broken out over the body, and causes excessive -itching, ending sometimes in troublesome sores. On returning from a walk -it is necessary to bathe in alcohol and water, in order to allay the -heat and irritation produced by these little wretches. Mosquitoes are -annoying, piums are vexatious, but for concentrated misery commend me to -the Mocuim. - -_October 23d._—We left Teffé on Saturday evening on board the Icamiaba, -which now seems quite like a home to us; we have passed so many pleasant -hours in her comfortable quarters since we left Pará. We are just on the -verge of the rainy season here, and almost every evening during the past -week has brought a thunder-storm. The evening before leaving Teffé we -had one of the most beautiful storms we have seen on the Amazons. It -came sweeping up from the east; these squalls always come from the east, -and therefore the Indians say “the path of the sun is the path of the -storm.” The upper, lighter layer of cloud, travelling faster than the -dark, lurid mass below, hung over it with its white, fleecy edge, like -an avalanche of snow just about to fall. We were all sitting at the -doorstep watching its swift approach, and Mr. Agassiz said that this -tropical storm was the most accurate representation of an avalanche on -the upper Alps he had ever seen. It seems sometimes as if Nature played -upon herself, reproducing the same appearances under the most dissimilar -circumstances. It is curious to mark the change in the river. When we -reached Teffé it was rapidly falling at the rate of about a foot a day. -It was easy to measure its retreat by the effect of the occasional rains -on the beach. The shower of one day, for instance, would gully the sand -to the water’s edge, and the next day we would find the water about a -foot below the terminus of all the cracks and ruts thus caused, their -abrupt close showing the line at which they met the water the previous -day. Ten days or a fortnight before we left, and during which we had -heavy rains at the close of every day, continuing frequently through the -night, those oscillations in the river began, which the people here call -“repiquete,” and which, on the Upper Amazons, precede the regular rise -of the water during the winter. The first repiquete occurs in Teffé -toward the end of October, accompanied by almost daily rains. After a -week or so the water falls again; in ten or twelve days it begins once -more to ascend, and sinks again after the same period. In some seasons -there is a third rise and fall, but usually the third repiquete begins -the permanent annual rise of the river. On board the steamer we were -joined by Mr. Bourget, with his fine collections from Tabatinga. He, -like both the other parties, has been hindered, by want of alcohol, from -making as large collections as he might otherwise have done; but they -are, nevertheless, very valuable, exceedingly well put up, and embracing -a great variety of species, from the Marañon as well as from the -Hyavary. Thus we have a rich harvest from all the principal tributaries -of the Upper Amazons, within the borders of Brazil, above the Rio Negro, -except the Purus, which must be left unexplored for want of time and a -sufficient working force. - -On leaving Teffé I should say something of the nature of the soil in -connection with Mr. Agassiz’s previous observations on this subject. -Although he has been almost constantly occupied with his collections, he -has, nevertheless, found time to examine the geological formations of -the neighborhood. The more he considers the Amazons and its tributaries, -the more does he feel convinced that the whole mass of the reddish, -homogeneous clay, which he has called drift, is the glacial deposit -brought down from the Andes and worked over by the melting of the ice -which transported it. According to his view, the whole valley was -originally filled with this deposit, and the Amazons itself, as well as -the rivers connected with it, are so many channels worn through the -mass, having cut their way just as the igarapé now wears its way through -the more modern deposits of mud and sand. It may seem strange that any -one should compare the formation of these insignificant forest-streams -with that of the vast river which pours itself across a whole continent; -but it is, after all, only a reversal of the microscopic process of -investigation. We magnify the microscopically small in order to see it, -and we must diminish that which transcends our apprehension by its great -size, in order to understand it. The naturalist who wishes to compare an -elephant with a Coni (Hyrax),[76] turns the diminishing end of his glass -upon the former, and, reducing its clumsy proportions, he finds that the -difference is one of size rather than structure. The essential features -are the same. So the little igarapé, as it wears its channel through the -forest to-day, explains the early history of the great river and feebly -reiterates the past. - ------ - -Footnote 68: - - It is a curious fact, that though a large number of cows were owned in - Teffé, and were constantly seen feeding about the houses, milk was - among the unattainable luxuries. Indeed, milk is little used in - Brazil, so far as our observation goes. It is thought unhealthy for - children, and people will rather give coffee or tea to a two-year-old - baby than pure milk. The cows are never milked regularly, but the - quantity needed for the moment is drawn at any time. - -Footnote 69: - - TEFFÉ, September 22, 1865. - - MY DEAR FRIEND AND HONORED COLLEAGUE:—Here I have been for two months - in the basin of the Amazons, and it is here that I have heard with - sorrow of the death of my old friend Valenciennes. I am the more - affected by it, because no one would have appreciated more than he the - results of my journey, which I had hoped soon to share with him. You - will naturally understand that it is to the class of fishes I - consecrate the better part of my time, and my harvest exceeds all my - anticipations. You will judge of it by a few statements. - - On reaching Manaos, at the junction of the Rio Negro and the Amazons, - I had already collected more than three hundred species of fishes, - half of which have been painted from life, that is, from the fish - swimming in a large glass tank before my artist. I am often pained to - see how carelessly colored plates of these animals have been - published. Not only have we tripled the number of species, but I count - new genera by dozens, and I have five or six new families for the - Amazons, and one allied to the Gobioides entirely new to Ichthyology. - Among the small species especially I have found novelties. I have - Characines of five or six centimetres and less, adorned with the most - beautiful tints, Cyprinodonts resembling a little those of Cuba and - the United States, Scomberesoces allied to the Belone of the - Mediterranean, a considerable number of Carapoides, and Rays of - different genera from those of the ocean, and therefore not species - which ascend the river; and a crowd of Goniodonts and Chromides of - unpublished genera and species. But what I appreciate most highly is - the facility I have for studying the changes which all these fishes - undergo with age and the differences of sex among them; which are - often very considerable. Thus I have observed a species of Geophagus - in which the male has a very conspicuous protuberance on the forehead, - wholly wanting in the female and the young. This same fish has a most - extraordinary mode of reproduction. The eggs pass, I know not how, - into the mouth, the bottom of which is lined by them, between the - inner appendages of the branchial arches, and especially into a pouch, - formed by the upper pharyngials, which they completely fill. There - they are hatched, and the little ones, freed from the egg-case, are - developed until they are in a condition to provide for their own - existence. I do not yet know how long this continues; but I have - already met with specimens whose young had no longer any vitelline - sac, but were still harbored by the progenitor. As I shall still pass - a month at Teffé I hope to be able to complete this observation. The - examination of the structure of a great number of Chromides has led me - to perceive the affinities between these fishes and several other - families with which we have never thought of associating them. In the - first place, I have convinced myself that the Chromides, formerly - scattered among the Labroides and the Sciænoids, really constitute a - natural group recognized nearly at the same time and in an independent - manner by Heckel and J. Müller. But, beside these, there are the - genera Enoplosus, Pomotis, Centrarchus, and some other neighboring - genera, classed among the Percoids by all Ichthyologists, which seem - to me, from this distance and without means of direct comparison, so - near the Chromides that I do not see how they can be separated, - especially now that I know the lower pharyngials not to be invariably - soldered in the Chromides. And then the embryology and metamorphoses - of the Chromides, which I have just been studying, have convinced me - that the fishes with labyrinthic branchiæ, separated from all other - fishes by Cuvier, as a family entirely isolated on account of the - strange structure of its respiratory organs, are closely related to - the Chromides. Thus this group becomes, by its various affinities, one - of the most interesting of the class of fishes, and the basin of the - Amazons seems to be the true home of this family. I will not fatigue - you with my ichthyological researches; let me only add, that the - fishes are not uniformly spread over this great basin. I have already - acquired the certainty that we must distinguish several ichthyological - faunæ very clearly characterized. Thus the species inhabiting the - river of Pará, from the borders of the sea to the mouth of the - Tocantins, differ from those which are met in the network of - anastomoses uniting the river of Pará with the Amazons proper. The - species of the Amazons below the Xingu differ from those which occur - higher up; those of the lower course of the Xingu differ from those of - the lower course of the Tapajoz. Those of the numerous igarapés and - lakes of Manaos differ as much from those of the principal course of - the great river and of its great affluents. It remains now to study - the changes which may take place in this distribution in the course of - the year, according to the height of the waters, and perhaps also - according to the epoch at which the different species lay their eggs. - Thus far I have met but a small number of species having a very - extensive area of distribution. One of those is the Sudis gigas, found - almost everywhere. It is the most important fish of the river, that - which, as food, corresponds to cattle for the population along the - banks. Another problem to be solved is, how far this phenomenon of the - local distribution of fishes is repeated in the great affluents of the - Amazons. I shall try to solve it in ascending the Rio Negro and Rio - Madeira, and as I return to Manaos I shall be able to compare my first - observations in this locality with those of another season of the - year. Adieu, my dear friend. Remember me to M. Elie de Beaumont and to - those of my colleagues of the Academy who are interested in my present - studies. My kind remembrance also to your son. - - Always yours, - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 70: - - We found that this information was incorrect, at least for some - species, as will be seen hereafter. I let the statement stand in the - text, however, as an instance of the difficulty one has in getting - correct facts, and the danger of trusting to the observations even of - people who mean to tell the real truth. No doubt some of these Acaras - do occasionally deposit their young in the sand, and continue a - certain care of them till they are able to shift for themselves. But - the story of the fisherman was one of those half truths as likely to - mislead, as if it had been wholly false. I will add here a few details - concerning these Acaras, a name applied by the natives to all the - oval-shaped Chromides. The species which lay their eggs in the sand - belong to the genera Hydrogonus and Chætobranchus. Like the North - American Pomotis, they build a kind of flat nest in the sand or mud, - in which they deposit their eggs, hovering over them until the young - are hatched. The species which carry their young in the mouth belong - to several genera, formerly all included under the name of Geophagus - by Heckel. I could not ascertain how the eggs are brought into the - mouth, but the change must take place soon after they are laid, for I - have found in that position eggs in which the embryo had just begun - its development as well as those in a more advanced stage of growth. - Occasionally, instead of eggs, I have found the cavity of the gills, - as also the space enclosed by the branchiostegal membrane, filled with - a brood of young already hatched. The eggs before hatching are always - found in the same part of the mouth, namely, in the upper part of the - branchial arches, protected or held together by a special lobe or - valve formed of the upper pharyngeals. The cavity thus occupied by the - eggs corresponds exactly to the labyrinth of that curious family of - fishes inhabiting the East Indian Ocean, called Labyrinthici by - Cuvier. This circumstance induces me to believe that the branchial - labyrinth of the eastern fishes may be a breeding pouch, like that of - our Chromides, and not simply a respiratory apparatus for retaining - water. In the Amazonian fish a very sensitive network of nerves - spreads over this marsupial pouch, the principal stem of which arises - from a special nervous ganglion, back of the cerebellum, in the - medulla oblongata. This region of the central nervous system is - strangely developed in different families of fishes, and sends out - nerves performing very varied functions. From it arise, normally, the - nerves of movement and sensation about the face; it also provides the - organs of breathing, the upper part of the alimentary canal, the - throat and the stomach. In the electric fishes the great nerves - entering the electric battery arise from the same cerebral region, and - now I have found that the pouch in which the egg of the Acara is - incubated and its young nursed for a time, receives its nerves from - the same source. This series of facts is truly wonderful, and only - shows how far our science still is from an apprehension of the - functions of the nervous system.—L. A. - -Footnote 71: - - It is a very general habit among the South American Indians to pierce - the nose, ears, and lips with holes, in which they hang pieces of wood - and feathers, as ornaments. - -Footnote 72: - - See “Expeditions into the Valley of the Amazons,” published by the - Hakluyt Society. - -Footnote 73: - - This species belongs to one of the subdivisions of the genus - Auchenipterus; it is undescribed, and Mr. Burkhardt has made five - colored sketches of a number of specimens of different sizes, varying - in their markings.—L. A. - -Footnote 74: - - When I attempted to record my impression of the basin of the Amazons, - and characterized it as a fresh-water ocean with an archipelago of - islands, I did not mean to limit the comparison to the wide expanse of - water and the large number of islands. The resemblance extends much - further, and the whole basin may be said to be oceanic also, in the - character of its fauna. It is true, we are accustomed to consider the - Chromides, the Characines, the Siluroids, and the Goniodonts, which - constitute the chief population of this network of rivers, as - fresh-water fishes; but in so doing we shut our eyes to their natural - affinities, and remember only the medium in which they live. Let any - one enter upon a more searching comparison, and he will not fail to - perceive that, under the name of Chromides, fishes are united which in - their form and general appearance recall several families of the - class, only known as inhabitants of the sea. The genus Pterophyllum, - for instance, might be placed side by side with the Chætodonts, - without apparently violating its natural affinities, since even Cuvier - considered it as a Platax. The genera Symphysodon and Uaru would not - seem very much out of place, by the side of Brama. The genus Geophagus - and allied forms recall at once the Sparoids, with which some of them - were associated by earlier ichthyologists; while the genus Crenicichla - forms a striking counterpart to the genus Malacanthus. Finally, the - genus Acara and their kindred closely resemble the Pomacentroids. - Indeed, had not the fresh-water genera Pomotis, Centrarchus, and the - like, been erroneously associated with the Percoids, the intimate - relations which bind them to the Chromides, and these again to the - marine types mentioned above, would long ago have been acknowledged. - The genus Monocirrus is a miniature Toxotes, with a barbel. - Polycentrus, which is also found in the Amazons, stands nearest to - Acara and Heros; it has only a larger number of anal spines. In this - connection it ought not to be overlooked that these fishes are not - pelagic, like the Scomberoids, but rather archipelagic, if I may use - this word to designate fishes dwelling among low islands. If we - discard the long-prevailing idea of a close relationship between the - Characines and Salmonides, based solely upon the presence of an - adipose fin, we may at once perceive how manifold are the affinities - between the Characines on one hand, and on the other the Scopelines - and Clupeoids, all of which are essentially marine. These relations - may be traced to the details of the genera; Gasteropelecus, from the - family of Characines, is the pendant of Pristigaster among the - Clupeoids, as Chalcinus recalls Pellona. In the same way may Stomias - and Chauliodus be compared to Cynodon and the like; or Sudis and - Osteoglossum to Megalops, and Erythrinus to Ophicephalus, &c., &c. The - Goniodonts may at first sight hardly seem to have any kindred among - marine fishes; but if we take into account the affinity which - unquestionably links the genus Loricaria and its allies with Pegasus, - and further remember that to this day all the ichthyologists, with the - sole exception of C. Duméril, have united Pegasus in one order with - the Pipe-fishes, it will no longer be doubted that the Goniodonts have - at least a remarkable analogy with the Lophobranches, if they should - not be considered as bearing a close structural relation to them. But - this relation truly exists. The extraordinary mode of rearing their - young, which characterizes the various representatives of the old - genus Syngnathus, is only matched by the equally curious incubation of - the eggs in Loricaria. And as to the other families represented in the - basin of the Amazons, such as the Skates, the Sharks, the Tetraodonts, - the Flat-fishes (Pleuronectides), the Bill-fishes (Scomberesoces), the - Anchovis, Herrings, and other forms of the family of Clupeoids, the - Murænoids, the genuine Sciænoids, the Gobioids, &c., &c., they are - chiefly known as marine types; while the Cyprinodonts occur elsewhere - both in salt and fresh water. The Gymnotines are thus far only known - as fresh-water fishes, nor do I see any ground for comparing them to - any marine type. They cannot be compared to the Murænoids, with which - they have thus far been associated. The only real affinity I can trace - in them is with the Mormyri of the Nile and Senegal, and with the - Notopteri of the Sunda Islands. Eel-shaped fishes are by no means all - related to one another, and their elongated form, with a variety of - patterns, is no indication of their relationship. It may, - nevertheless, be inferred from what precedes, that the fishes of the - Amazons have, as a whole, a marine character peculiarly their own, and - not at all to be met with among the inhabitants of the other great - rivers of the world. - - These peculiarities extend to other classes besides fishes. Among the - Bivalve shells, it has long been known that the Amazons nourishes - genera of Naiades peculiar to its waters, or only found besides in the - other great rivers of South America; such as Hyria, Castalia, and - Mycetopus, to which I would add another genus, founded upon slender, - sickle-shaped Unios, common to North and South America. But what seems - to have escaped the attention of conchologists is the striking - resemblance of Hyria and Avicula, of Castalia and Arca, of Mycetopus - and Solen, &c. Thus exhibiting another repetition of marine types in a - family exclusively limited to fresh waters, and having structural - characters of its own, entirely distinct from the marine genera, the - appearance of which they so closely ape. In this connection I cannot - suppress the remark, that it would be puerile to consider such mimicry - as indicative of a community of origin. Some of the land shells even - recall marine forms; such are some of the Bulimus tribe, which - resemble the genus Phasianella and Littorina far more than their own - relatives. The similarity of the fringes of the anterior margin of the - foot is particularly striking. The Ampullariæ remind one also, in a - measure, of the marine genera Struthiolaria, Natica, &c., and many - fossils of the latter family have been confounded with fresh-water - Ampullariæ. - - The most noticeable feature of the Amazonian fauna, considered with - reference to its oceanic character, is, however, the abundance of - Cetaceans through its whole extent. Wherever I have navigated these - waters, from Pará, where the tides still send the salt brine up the - river, to Tabatinga on the borders of Peru, in all the larger and - smaller tributaries of the great stream as well as in the many lakes - connected with their ever-changing course, I have seen and heard them, - gamboling at the surface and snoring rhythmically, when undisturbed in - their breathing. At night, especially, when quietly at anchor in the - river, you hardly ever fail to be startled by the noise they make, - when reaching the surface to exhale forcibly the air they have long - retained in their lungs while under water. I have noticed five - different species of this order of animals in the waters of the - Amazons, four of which belong to the family of Porpoises and one to - that of Manatees. Mr. Burkhardt has drawn three of them from fresh - specimens for me, and I hope before long to secure equally faithful - representations of the others, when I shall describe them all - comparatively. One of the Porpoises belongs to the genus Inia, and may - be traced on the upper tributaries of the Amazons to Bolivia, another - resembles more our common Porpoise, while still another recalls the - Dolphin of the sea-coast; but I have been unable to ascertain whether - any one of them is identical with the marine species. At all events, - the black Porpoise of the bay of Marajo, frequently seen in the - vicinity of Pará, is totally different from the gray species seen - higher up the stream.—L. A. - -Footnote 75: - - As from the beginning our arrangements were made to stay at least a - month in Teffé, it became possible to lay out our work in a more - systematic form than during our rambling travels. It was here that I - secured the largest number of fish skeletons and had several of the - larger animals of the country prepared for the Museum; such as - Manatees, Porpoises, Pirarucus, Sorubims, and the like. I also - undertook here, for the first time, a regular search for the young of - all the species of fishes that could be obtained. Here again my - neighbors, and indeed all the inhabitants of the place, vied with one - another in their efforts to procure specimens for me. Senhor Joaō da - Cunha and Dr. Romualdo made frequent fishing excursions for my - benefit; and when I could not accompany them, a boatful of fish was - nevertheless moored to the shore, in the evening, from which I could - select whatever was useful or interesting. The grocer of the place, - Mr. Pedro Mendez, who employed a skilful fisherman daily to supply his - large family, gave directions that all the fishes caught should be - brought in, and before the kitchen received its provisions, I had my - choice of everything. This was a great favor, especially since the - Indian fisherman, José, whom I had engaged in Manaos to accompany me - through the rest of my journey, was now at Tabatinga, assisting Mr. - Bourget, who had been left there when I returned to Teffé. An old - Passé Indian, who was as familiar with the fishes of the waters as - with the animals of the forest, and whom Major Coutinho had befriended - for many years, rendered also great service in hunting particular - kinds of fishes and reptiles, the haunts of which he alone seemed to - know. The schoolmaster and his boys, in short, everybody who knew how - to catch fish or fowl, was out at work, and, with the assistance of my - young friends Dexter, Hunnewell, and Thayer, and the co-operation of - Major Coutinho and Mr. Burkhardt, our daily progress was unmistakable. - They generally took care of the collections of land animals, while I - reserved the fishes to myself, and Major Coutinho was busy with - geological and meteorological observations. Even the servants helped - in cleaning the skeletons. I made here a very extensive collection of - fish brains, embracing most genera found in this locality, but it was - unfortunately lost on arriving at Manaos. Aware of the difficulty of - transporting preparations so delicate, I kept them always by my side, - simply packed in an open barrel, in the hope of bringing them safely - home, and also that I might, without difficulty, add to the number. In - an unguarded moment, however, while landing, one of our attendants - capsized the whole into the Rio Negro. It is the only part of my - collections which was completely lost. - - After setting my whole party well under way in Teffé, I made the very - instructive excursion with Major Estolano, of which an account is - given in the text, to the Lago do Boto, a small sheet of water, by the - side of his sitio on the banks of the main course of the Amazons, - where I had a fair opportunity of ascertaining how widely different - the fishes may be that inhabit adjoining faunæ in the same - hydrographic basin. To this day I have not yet recovered from my - surprise at finding that shores which, from a geographic point of - view, must be considered simply as opposite banks of the same stream, - were, nevertheless, the abode of an essentially different - ichthyological population. Among the most curious fishes obtained - here, I would mention a new genus, allied to Phractocephalus, of which - I know only a single very large species, remarkable for its uniform - canary-yellow color. Doras, Acestra, Pterygoplichthys, &c., were - particularly common. Small as this lake is, the largest animals known - in the whole basin are found in it: such as Manatees Botos,—the - Porpoise of the Amazons, which has given its name to the lake, - Alligators, Pirarucus,—the Sudis gigas of systematic writers; - Sorubims, the large flat-headed Hornpouts; Pacamums, the large, yellow - Siluroid above alluded to, &c., &c.—L. A. - -Footnote 76: - - It was Cuvier who first ascertained that the small Hyrax belongs to - the same order as the elephant. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - RETURN TO MANAOS.—AMAZONIAN PICNIC. - - ARRIVAL AT MANAOS.—NEW QUARTERS.—THE “IBICUHY.”—NEWS FROM - HOME.—VISIT TO THE CASCADE.—BANHEIRAS IN THE FOREST.—EXCURSION TO - LAKE HYANUARY.—CHARACTER AND PROSPECTS OF THE AMAZONIAN - VALLEY.—RECEPTION AT THE LAKE.—DESCRIPTION OF SITIO.—SUCCESSFUL - FISHING.—INDIAN VISITORS.—INDIAN BALL.—CHARACTER OF THE - DANCING.—DISTURBED NIGHT.—CANOE EXCURSION.—SCENERY.—ANOTHER - SITIO.—MORALS AND MANNERS.—TALK WITH THE INDIAN WOMEN.—LIFE IN THE - FOREST.—LIFE IN THE TOWNS.—DINNER-PARTY.—TOASTS.—EVENING ROW ON - THE LAKE.—NIGHT SCENE.—SMOKING AMONG THE SENHORAS.—RETURN TO - MANAOS. - - -_October 24th._—Manaos. We reached Manaos yesterday. As we landed in the -afternoon, and as our arrival had not been expected with any certainty, -we had to wait a little while for lodgings; but before night we were -fairly established, our corps of assistants and all our scientific -apparatus, in a small house near the shore, Mr. Agassiz and myself in an -old, rambling edifice, used when we were here before for the public -treasury, which is now removed to another building. Our abode has still -rather the air of a public establishment, but it is very quaint and -pleasant inside, and, from its open, spacious character, is especially -agreeable in this climate. The apartment in which we have taken up our -quarters, making it serve both as drawing-room and chamber, is a long, -lofty hall, opening by a number of doors and windows on a large, green -enclosure, called by courtesy a garden, but which is, after all, only a -ragged space overgrown with grass, and having a few trees in it. -Nevertheless, it makes a pleasant background of shade and verdure. At -the upper end of our airy room hang our hammocks, and here are disposed -our trunks, boxes, &c.; in the other half are a couple of -writing-tables, a Yankee rocking-chair that looks as if it might have -come out of a Maine farmer’s house, a lounging-chair, and one or two -other pieces of furniture, which give it a domestic look and make it -serve very well as a parlor. There are many other apartments in this -rambling, rickety castle of ours, with its brick floors and its -rat-holes, its lofty, bare walls, and rough rafters overhead; but this -is the only one we have undertaken to make habitable, and to my eye it -presents a very happy combination of the cosey and the picturesque. We -have been already urged by some of our hospitable friends here to take -other lodgings; but we are much pleased with our quarters, and prefer to -retain them, at least for the present. - -On our arrival we were greeted by the tidings that the first steamer of -the line recently opened between New York and Brazil had touched at Pará -on her way to Rio. According to all accounts, this has been made the -occasion of great rejoicing; and, indeed, there appears to be a strong -desire throughout Brazil to strengthen in every way her relations with -the United States. The opening of this line seems to bring us nearer -home, and its announcement, in connection with excellent news, public -and private, from the United States, made the day of our return to -Manaos a very happy one. A few hours after our own arrival the steamer -“Ibicuhy,” provided by the government for our use, came into port. To -our great pleasure, she brings Mr. Tavares Bastos, deputy from Alagoas, -whose uniform kindness to us personally ever since our arrival in -Brazil, as well as his interest in the success of the expedition, make -it a great pleasure to meet him again. This morning Mr. Agassiz received -the official document placing the steamer at his disposition, and also a -visit from her commander, Captain Faria. - -_October 26th._—Yesterday morning at six o’clock we made our first -excursion to a pretty spot much talked of in Manaos on account of its -attractions for bathing, picnics, and country enjoyments of all sorts. -It is called the “little cascade,” to distinguish it from a larger and, -it is said, a much more picturesque fall, half a league from the city on -the other side. Half an hour’s row through a winding river brings you to -a rocky causeway, over which the water comes brawling down in a shallow -rapid. Here you land, and a path through the trees leads along the edge -of the igarapé to a succession of “banheiras,” as they call them here; -and they are indeed woodland bathing-pools fit for Diana and her nymphs, -completely surrounded by trees, and so separated from each other by -leafy screens, that a number of persons may bathe in perfect seclusion. -The water rushes through them with a delicious freshness, forming a -little cascade in each. The inhabitants make the most of this forest -bathing establishment while it lasts; the rise of the river during the -rainy season overflows and effaces it completely for half the year. -While we were bathing, the boatmen had lighted a fire, and when we -returned to the landing we found a pot of coffee simmering very -temptingly over the embers. Thus refreshed, we returned to town just as -the heat of the day was beginning to be oppressive. - -_October 28th._—Yesterday morning, at about half past six o’clock, we -left Manaos on an excursion to the Lake of Hyanuary on the western side -of the Rio Negro. The morning was unusually fresh for these latitudes, -and a strong wind was blowing up so heavy a sea in the river, that, if -it did not make one actually sea-sick, it certainly called up very vivid -and painful associations. We were in a large eight-oared custom-house -barge, our company consisting of His Excellency Dr. Epaminondas, -President of the province, his Secretary, Senhor Codicera, Senhor -Tavares Bastos, Major Coutinho, Mr. Agassiz and myself, Mr. Burkhardt, -Mr. Dexter, and Mr. James. We were preceded by a smaller boat, an Indian -montaria, in which was our friend Senhor Honorio, who has been so kind -as to allow us to breakfast and dine with him during our stay here, and -who, having undertaken to provide for our creature comforts, had the -care of a boatful of provisions. After an hour’s row we left the rough -waters of the Rio Negro, and, rounding a wooded point, turned into an -igarapé which gradually narrowed up into one of those shaded, winding -streams, which make the charm of such excursions in this country. A -ragged drapery of long, faded grass hung from the lower branches of the -trees, marking the height of the last rise of the river to some eighteen -or twenty feet above its present level. Here and there a white heron -stood on the shore, his snowy plumage glittering in the sunlight, and -numbers of Ciganas (Opistocomus), the pheasants of the Amazons, -clustered in the bushes; once a pair of large king vultures -(Sarcorhamphus papa) rested for a moment within gunshot, but flew out of -sight as our canoe approached; and now and then an alligator showed his -head above water. As we floated along through this picturesque channel, -so characteristic of the wonderful region to which we were all more or -less strangers, Dr. Epaminondas and Senhor Tavares Bastos being here -also for the first time, the conversation turned naturally enough upon -the nature of this Amazonian valley, its physical conformation, its -origin and resources, its history past and to come, both alike obscure, -both the subject of wonder and speculation. Senhor Tavares Bastos, -although not yet thirty years of age, is already distinguished in the -politics of his country, and from the moment he entered upon public life -to the present time the legislation of the Amazons, its relation to the -future progress and development of the Brazilian Empire, have been the -object of his deepest interest. He is a leader in that class of men who -advocate the most liberal policy with regard to this question, and has -already urged upon his countrymen the importance, even from selfish -motives, of sharing their great treasure with the world. He was little -more than twenty years of age when he published his papers on the -opening of the Amazons, which have done more, perhaps, than anything -else, of late years, to attract attention to the subject.[77] There are -points where the researches of the statesman and the investigator meet, -and natural science is not without a voice even in the practical -bearings of this question. Shall this region be legislated for as sea or -land? Shall the interests of agriculture or navigation prevail in its -councils? Is it essentially aquatic or terrestrial? Such were some of -the inquiries which came up in the course of the discussion. A region of -country which stretches across a whole continent and is flooded for half -the year, where there can never be railroads or highways, or even -pedestrian travelling to any great extent, can hardly be considered as -dry land. It is true that in this oceanic river-system the tidal action -has an annual instead of a daily ebb and flow, that its rise and fall -obey a larger orb, and is ruled by the sun and not the moon; but it is, -nevertheless, subject to all the conditions of a submerged district, and -must be treated as such. Indeed, these semiannual changes of level are -far more powerful in their influence on the life of the inhabitants than -any marine tides. People sail half the year above districts where for -the other half they walk, though hardly dry shod, over the soaked -ground; their occupations, their dress, their habits are modified in -accordance with the dry and wet seasons. And not only the ways of life, -but the whole aspect of the country, the character of the landscape, are -changed. The two picturesque cascades, at one of which we took our bath -the other morning, and at this season such favorite resorts with the -inhabitants of Manaos, will disappear in a few months, when the river -rises for some forty feet above its lowest level. Their bold rocks and -shady nooks will have become river bottom. All that we hear or read of -the extent of the Amazons and its tributaries fails to give an idea of -its immensity as a whole. One must float for months upon its surface, in -order to understand how fully water has the mastery over land along its -borders. Its watery labyrinth is rather a fresh-water ocean, cut up and -divided by land, than a network of rivers. Indeed, this whole valley is -an aquatic, not a terrestrial basin; and it is not strange, when looked -upon from this point of view, that its forests should be less full of -life, comparatively, than its rivers. - -While we were discussing these points, talking of the time when the -banks of the Amazons will teem with a population more active and -vigorous than any it has yet seen,—when all civilized nations will share -in its wealth, when the twin continents will shake hands and Americans -of the North come to help Americans of the South in developing its -resources,—when it will be navigated from north to south as well as from -east to west, and small steamers will run up to the head-quarters of all -its tributaries,—while we were speculating on these things, we were -approaching the end of our journey; and as we neared the lake, there -issued from its entrance a small two-masted canoe, evidently bound on -some official mission, for it carried the Brazilian flag, and was -adorned with many brightly-colored streamers. As it drew near we heard -music, and a salvo of rockets, the favorite Brazilian artillery on all -festive occasions, whether by day or night, shot up into the air. Our -arrival had been announced by Dr. Canavaro, of Manaos, who had come out -the day before to make some preparations for our reception, and this was -a welcome to the President on his first visit to the Indian village. -When they came within speaking distance, a succession of hearty cheers -went up for the President, for Tavares Bastos, whose character as the -political advocate of the Amazons makes him especially welcome here, for -Major Coutinho, already well known from his former explorations in this -region, and for the strangers within their gates,—for the Professor and -his party. After this reception they fell into line behind our boat, and -so we came into the little port with something of state and ceremony. - -This pretty Indian village is hardly recognized as a village at once, -for it consists of a number of sitios scattered through the forest; and -though the inhabitants look on each other as friends and neighbors, yet -from our landing-place only one sitio is to be seen,—that at which we -are staying. It stands on a hill sloping gently up from the lake-shore, -and consists of a mud-house containing two rooms, besides several large, -open palm-thatched rooms outside. One of these outer sheds is the -mandioca kitchen, another is the common kitchen, and a third, which is -just now used as our dining-room, serves on festal days and occasional -Sundays as a chapel. It differs from the others in having the upper end -closed in with a neat thatched wall, against which, in time of need, the -altar-table may stand, with candles and rough prints or figures of the -Virgin and saints. We were very hospitably received by the Senhora of -the mud-house, an old Indian woman, whose gold ornaments, necklace, and -ear-rings were rather out of keeping with her calico skirt and cotton -waist. This is, however, by no means an unusual combination here. Beside -the old lady, the family consists, at this moment, of her “afilhada”[78] -(god-daughter), with her little boy, and several other women employed -about the place; but it is difficult to judge of the population of the -sitios now, because a great number of the men have been taken as -recruits for the war with Paraguay and others are hiding in the forest -for fear of being pressed into the same service. The situation of this -sitio is exceedingly pretty, and as we sit around the table in our open, -airy dining-room, surrounded by the forest, we command a view of the -lake and wooded hillside opposite and of the little landing below, where -are moored our barge with its white awning, the gay canoe, and two or -three Indian montarias. After breakfast our party dispersed, some to -rest in their hammocks, others to hunt or fish, while Mr. Agassiz was -fully engaged in examining a large basket of fish, Tucanarés (Cichla), -Acaras (Heros and other genera), Curimatas (Anodus), Surubims -(Platystoma), &c., just brought up from the lake for his inspection, and -showing again, what every investigation demonstrates afresh, namely, the -distinct localization of species in each different water basin, be it -river, lake, igarapé, or forest pool. - -[Illustration: Dining Room at Hyanuary.] - -One does not see much of the world between one o’clock and four, in this -climate. These are the hottest hours of the day, and there are few who -can resist the temptation of the cool, swinging hammock, slung in some -shady spot within doors or without. After a little talk with our Indian -hostess and her daughter, I found a quiet retreat by the lake-shore, -where, though I had a book in my hand, the wind in the trees overhead, -the water rippling softly around the montarias moored at my side, lulled -me into that mood of mind when one may be lazy without remorse or ennui. -The highest duty seems then to be to do nothing. The monotonous notes of -a “Viola” came to me from a group of trees at a little distance, where -our boatmen were resting in the shade, the red fringes of their hammocks -giving to the landscape just the bit of color which it needed; -occasionally a rustling flight of parroquets or ciganas overhead -startled me for a moment, or a large pirarucu plashed out of the water, -but except for these sounds nature was still, and animals as well as men -seemed to pause in the heat and seek shelter. Dinner brought us all -together again at the close of the afternoon. As we are with the -President of the province, our picnic is of a much more magnificent -character than our purely scientific excursions have been. Instead of -our usual makeshifts,—teacups doing duty as tumblers, and empty barrels -acting as chairs,—we have a silver soup-tureen, and a cook, and a -waiter, and knives and forks enough to go round, and many other luxuries -which such wayfarers as ourselves learn to do without. While we were -dining, the Indians began to come in from the surrounding forest to pay -their respects to the President, for his visit was the cause of great -rejoicing, and there was to be a ball in his honor in the evening. They -brought an enormous cluster of game as an offering. What a mass of color -it was!—more like a gorgeous bouquet of flowers than a bunch of birds. -It was composed entirely of Toucans, with their red and yellow beaks, -blue eyes, and soft white breasts bordered with crimson; and of parrots, -or papagaios as they call them here, with their gorgeous plumage of -green, blue, purple, and red. When we had dined, we took coffee outside, -while our places around the table were filled by the Indian guests, who -were to have a dinner-party in their turn. It was pleasant to see with -how much courtesy several of the Brazilian gentlemen of our party waited -upon these Indian Senhoras, passing them a variety of dishes, helping -them to wine, and treating them with as much attention as if they had -been the highest ladies of the land. They seemed, however, rather shy -and embarrassed, scarcely touching the nice things placed before them, -till one of the gentlemen, who has lived a good deal among the Indians, -and knows their habits perfectly, took the knife and fork from one of -them, exclaiming, “Make no ceremony, and don’t be ashamed; eat with your -fingers as you’re accustomed to do, and then you’ll find your appetites -and enjoy your dinner.” His advice was followed, and I must say they -seemed much more comfortable in consequence, and did more justice to the -good fare. Although the Indians who live in the neighborhood of the -towns have seen too much of the conventionalities of life not to -understand the use of a knife and fork, no Indian will eat with one if -he can help it. - -When the dinner was over, the room was cleared of the tables and swept; -the music, consisting of a viola, flute, and violin, was called in, and -the ball was opened. The forest belles were rather shy at first in the -presence of strangers; but they soon warmed up and began to dance with -more animation. They were all dressed in calico or muslin skirts, with -loose, cotton waists, finished around the neck with a kind of lace they -make themselves by drawing the threads from cotton or muslin, so as to -form an open pattern, sewing those which remain over and over to secure -them. Some of this lace is quite elaborate and very fine. Many of the -women had their hair dressed either with white jessamine or with roses -stuck into their round combs, and several wore gold beads and ear-rings. -The dances were different from those I saw in Esperança’s cottage, and -much more animated; but the women preserved the same air of quiet -indifference which I noticed there. Indeed, in all the Indian dances I -have seen the man makes the advances, while the woman is coy and -retiring, her movements being very languid. Her partner throws himself -at her feet, but does not elicit a smile or a gesture; he stoops and -pretends to be fishing; making motions as if he were drawing her in with -a line, he dances around her, snapping his fingers as if he were playing -on castanets, and half encircling her with his arms, but she remains -reserved and cold. Now and then they join together in something like a -waltz, but this is only occasionally and for a moment. How different -from the negro dances which we saw frequently in the neighborhood of -Rio, and in which the advances generally come from the women, and are -not always of the most modest character. The ball was gayer than ever at -ten o’clock when I went to my room,—or rather to the room where my -hammock was slung, and which I shared with Indian women and children, -with a cat and her family of kittens, who slept on the edge of my -mosquito-net and made frequent inroads upon the inside, with hens and -chickens and sundry dogs, who went in and out. The music and dancing, -the laughter and talking outside, continued till the small hours. Every -now and then an Indian girl would come in to rest for a while, take a -nap in a hammock, and then return to the dance. When we first arrived in -South America we could hardly have slept soundly under such -circumstances; but one soon becomes accustomed, on the Amazons, to -sleeping in rooms with mud floors and mud walls, or with no walls at -all, where rats and birds and bats rustle about in the thatch overhead, -and all sorts of unwonted noises in the night suggest that you are by no -means the sole occupant of your apartment. There is one thing, however, -which makes it far pleasanter to lodge in the houses of the Indians here -than in those of our poorer class at home. One is quite independent in -the matter of bedding; nobody travels without his own hammock, and the -net which in many places is a necessity on account of the mosquitoes. -Beds and bedding are almost unknown; and there are none so poor as not -to possess two or three of the strong and neat twine hammocks made by -the Indians themselves from the fibres of the palm. Then the open -character of the houses and the personal cleanliness of the Indians make -the atmosphere fresher and purer in their houses than in those of our -poor. However untidy they may be in other respects, they always bathe -once or twice a day, if not oftener, and wash their clothes frequently. -We have never yet entered an Indian house where there was any -disagreeable odor, unless it might be the peculiar smell from the -preparation of the mandioca in the working-room outside, which has, at a -certain stage of the process, a slightly sour smell. We certainly could -not say as much for many houses where we have lodged when travelling in -the West, or even “Down East,” where the suspicious look of the bedding -and the close air of the room often make one doubtful about the night’s -rest. - -This morning we were up at five o’clock, and at six we had had coffee -and were ready for the various projects suggested for our amusement. Our -sportsmen were already in the forest, others had gone off on a fishing -excursion in a montaria, and I joined a party on a visit to a sitio -higher up on the lake. Mr. Agassiz was obliged to deny himself all these -parties of pleasure, for the novelty and variety of the fish brought in -kept him and his artist constantly at work. In this climate the process -of decomposition goes on so rapidly, that, unless the specimens are -attended to at once, they are lost; and the paintings must be made while -they are quite fresh, in order to give any idea of their vividness of -tint. Mr. Burkhardt is indefatigable, always busy with his drawing, in -spite of heat, mosquitoes, and other discomforts; occasionally he makes -not less than twenty colored sketches of fishes in one day. Of course, -made with such rapidity, they are mere records of color and outline; but -they will be of immense service in working up the finished drawings.[79] -Leaving Mr. Agassiz, therefore, busy with the preparation of his -collections, and Mr. Burkhardt painting, we went up the lake through a -strange, half-aquatic, half-terrestrial region, where land seemed at -odds with water. Groups of trees rose directly from the lake, their -roots hidden below its surface, while numerous blackened and decayed -trunks stood up from the water in all sorts of picturesque and fantastic -forms. Sometimes the trees had thrown down from their branches those -singular aerial roots so common here, and seemed standing on stilts. -Here and there, where we coasted along by the bank, we had a glimpse -into the deeper forest, with its drapery of lianas and various creeping -vines, and its parasitic sipos twining close around the trunks or -swinging themselves from branch to branch like loose cordage. But -usually the margin of the lake was a gently sloping bank, covered with a -green so vivid and yet so soft, that it seemed as if the earth had been -born afresh in its six months’ baptism, and had come out like a new -creation. Here and there a palm lifted its head above the line of -forest, especially the light, graceful Assai, its crown of feathery -leaves vibrating above the tall, slender, smooth stem with every breeze. -Half an hour’s row brought us to the landing of the sitio for which we -were bound. Usually the sitios stand on the bank of the lake or river, a -stone’s throw from the shore, for convenience of fishing, bathing, &c. -But this one was at some distance, with a very nicely kept path winding -through the forest. It stood on the brow of a hill which dipped down on -the other side into a wide and deep ravine; through this ravine ran an -igarapé, beyond which the land rose again in an undulating line of hilly -ground, most refreshing to the eye after the flat character of the Upper -Amazonian scenery. The fact that this sitio, standing now on a hill -overlooking the valley and the little stream at its bottom, will have -the water nearly flush with the ground around it, when the igarapé is -swollen by the rise of the river, gives an idea of the difference of -aspect between the dry and wet seasons. The establishment consisted of a -number of buildings, the most conspicuous being a large open room, which -the Indian Senhora who did the honors of the house told me was their -reception-room, and was often used, she said, by the “brancas” from -Manaos and the neighborhood for an evening dance, when they came out in -a large company and passed the night. A low wall, some three or four -feet in height, ran along the sides, wooden benches being placed against -them for their whole length. The two ends were closed from top to bottom -with a wall made of palm-thatch, exceedingly pretty, fine, and smooth, -and of a soft straw color. At the upper end stood an immense -embroidery-frame, looking as if it might have served for Penelope’s web, -but in which was stretched an unfinished hammock of palm-thread, the -Senhora’s work. She sat down on a low stool before it and worked a -little for my benefit, showing me how the two layers of transverse -threads were kept apart by a thick, polished piece of wood, something -like a long, broad ruler. Through the opening thus made the shuttle is -passed with the cross thread, which is then pushed down and straightened -in its place by means of the same piece of wood. After we had rested for -a while, hammocks of various color and texture being immediately brought -and hung up for our accommodation, the gentlemen went down to bathe in -the igarapé, while the Senhora and her daughter, a very pretty Indian -woman, showed me the rest of the establishment. The elder of the two had -the direction of everything now, as the master of the house was absent, -having a captain’s commission in the army. - -In the course of our conversation I was reminded of a social feature -which strikes us as the more extraordinary the longer we remain on the -Amazons, on account of its generality. Here were people of gentle -condition, although of Indian blood, lifted above everything like want, -living in comfort and, as compared with people about them, with a -certain affluence,—people from whom, therefore, in any other society, -you might certainly expect a knowledge of the common rules of morality. -Yet when I was introduced to the daughter, and naturally asked something -about her father, supposing him to be the absent captain, the mother -answered, smiling, quite as a matter of course, “Naō tem pai; é filha da -fortúna,”—“She hasn’t any father; she is the daughter of chance.” In the -same way, when the daughter showed me two children of her own,—little -fair people, many shades lighter than herself,—and I asked whether their -father was at the war, like all the rest of the men, she gave me the -same answer, “They haven’t any father.” It is the way the Indian or -half-breed women here always speak of their illegitimate children; and -though they say it without an intonation of sadness or of blame, -apparently as unconscious of any wrong or shame as if they said the -father was absent or dead, it has the most melancholy significance; it -seems to speak of such absolute desertion. So far is this from being an -unusual case, that among the common people the opposite seems the -exception. Children are frequently quite ignorant of their parentage. -They know about their mother, for all the care and responsibility falls -upon her, but they have no knowledge of their father; nor does it seem -to occur to the woman that she or her children have any claim upon him. - -But to return to the sitio. The room I have described stood on one side -of a cleared and neatly swept ground, about which, at various distances, -stood a number of little thatched “casinhas,” as they call them, -consisting mostly of a single room. But beside these there was one -larger house, with mud walls and floor, containing two or three rooms, -and having a wooden veranda in front. This was the Senhora’s private -establishment. At a little distance farther down on the hill was the -mandioca kitchen and all the accompanying apparatus. Nothing could be -neater than the whole area of this sitio, and while we were there two or -three black girls were sent out to sweep it afresh with their stiff -twig-brooms. Around lay the plantation of mandioca and cacao, with here -and there a few coffee-shrubs. It is difficult to judge of the extent of -these sitio plantations, because they are so irregular and comprise such -a variety of trees,—mandioca, coffee, cacao, and often cotton, being -planted pellmell together. But this one, like the whole establishment, -seemed larger and better cared for than those usually seen. On the -return of the gentlemen from the igarapé we took leave, though very -warmly pressed to stay and breakfast. At parting, our Indian hostess -presented me with a wicker-basket of fresh eggs and some abacatys, or -alligator pears as we call them.[80] We reached the house just in time -for a ten o’clock breakfast, which assembled all the different parties -once more from their various occupations, whether of work or play. The -sportsmen returned from the forest, bringing a goodly supply of toucans, -papagaios, and parroquets, with a variety of other birds, and the -fisherman brought in new treasures for Mr. Agassiz. - -_October 29th._—Yesterday, after breakfast, I retreated to the room -where we had passed the night, hoping to find time and quiet for writing -letters and completing my journal. But I found it already occupied by -the old Senhora and her guests, who were lounging in the hammocks or -squatting on the floor and smoking their pipes. The house is indeed full -to overflowing, as the whole party assembled for the ball are to stay -during the President’s visit. But in this way of living it is an easy -matter to accommodate any number of people, for if they cannot all be -received under the roof, they can hang their hammocks under the trees -outside. As I went to my room last evening, I stopped to look at a -pretty picture of an Indian mother with her two little children asleep -on either arm, all in one hammock, in the open air. My Indian friends -were too much interested in my occupations to allow of my continuing -them uninterruptedly. They were delighted with my books (I happened to -have “The Naturalist on the Amazons” with me, in which I showed them -some pictures of Amazonian scenery and insects), and asked me many -questions about my country, my voyage, and my travels here. In return -they gave me much information about their own way of life. They said the -present gathering of neighbors and friends was no unusual occurrence, -for they have a great many festas, which, though partly religious in -character, are also occasions of great festivity. These festas are -celebrated at different sitios in turn, the saint of the day being -carried, with all his ornaments, candles, bouquets, &c., to the house -where the ceremony is to take place, and where all the people of the -village congregate. Sometimes the festa lasts for several days, and is -accompanied with processions, music, and dances in the evening. But the -women said the forest was very sad now, because their men had all been -taken as recruits, or were seeking safety in the woods. The old Senhora -told me a sad story of the brutality exercised in recruiting the -Indians. She assured me that they were taken wherever found, without -regard to age or circumstances, women and children often being dependent -upon them; and if they made resistance, were carried off by force, and -frequently handcuffed or had heavy weights attached to their feet. Such -proceedings are entirely illegal; but these forest villages are so -remote, that the men employed to recruit may practice any cruelty -without being called to account for it. If the recruits are brought in -in good condition, no questions are asked. These women said that all the -work of the sitios—the making of farinha, the fishing, the -turtle-hunting—was stopped for want of hands. The appearance of things -certainly confirms this, for we scarcely see any men in the villages, -and the canoes we meet are mostly rowed by women. - -Yet I must say that the life of the Indian woman, so far as we have seen -it, seems enviable, in comparison with that of the Brazilian lady in the -Amazonian towns. The former has a healthful out-of-door life; she has -her canoe on the lake or river and her paths through the forest, with -perfect liberty to come and go; she has her appointed daily occupations, -being busy not only with the care of her house and children, but in -making farinha or tapioca, or in drying and rolling tobacco, while the -men are fishing and turtle-hunting; and she has her frequent festa-days -to enliven her working life. It is, on the contrary, impossible to -imagine anything more dreary and monotonous than the life of the -Brazilian Senhora in the smaller towns. In the northern provinces -especially the old Portuguese notions about shutting women up and making -their home-life as colorless as that of a cloistered nun, without even -the element of religious enthusiasm to give it zest, still prevail. Many -a Brazilian lady passes day after day without stirring beyond her four -walls, scarcely ever showing herself at the door or window; for she is -always in a slovenly dishabille, unless she expects company. It is sad -to see these stifled existences; without any contact with the world -outside, without any charm of domestic life, without books or culture of -any kind, the Brazilian Senhora in this part of the country either sinks -contentedly into a vapid, empty, aimless life, or frets against her -chains, and is as discontented as she is useless. - -On the day of our arrival the dinner was interrupted by the entrance of -the Indians with their greetings and presents of game to the President; -yesterday it was enlivened by quite a number of appropriate toasts and -speeches. I thought, as we sat around the dinner-table, there had -probably never been gathered under the palm-roof of an Indian house on -the Amazons just such a party before, combining so many different -elements and objects. There was the President, whose chief interest was -of course in administering the affairs of the province, in which the -Indians shared largely his attention; there was the young statesman, -whose whole heart is in the great national question of peopling the -Amazons and opening it to the world, and the effect this movement is to -have upon his country; there was the able engineer, much of whose -scientific life has been passed in surveying the great river and its -tributaries with a view to their future navigation; and there was the -man of pure science, come to study the distribution of animal life in -their waters, without any view to practical questions. The speeches -touched upon all these different interests, and were received with -enthusiasm, each one closing with a toast and music; for our little band -of the night before was brought in to enliven the occasion. The -Brazilians are very happy in their after-dinner speeches, expressing -themselves with great facility, either from a natural gift or because -speech-making is an art in which they have had much practice. The habit -of drinking healths and giving toasts is very general throughout the -country, and the most informal dinner among intimate friends does not -conclude without some mutual greetings of this kind. - -As we were taking coffee under the trees afterwards, having yielded our -places, in the primitive dining-room, to the Indian guests, the -President suggested a sunset row on the lake. The hour and the light -were most tempting, and we were soon off in the canoe, taking no -boatmen, the gentlemen preferring to row themselves. We went through the -same lovely region, half water, half land, which we had passed in the -morning, floating between patches of greenest grass, and by large forest -trees, and blackened trunks standing out of the lake like ruins. We did -not go very fast nor very far, for our amateur boatmen found the evening -warm, and their rowing was rather play than work; they stopped, too, -every now and then, to get a shot at a white heron or to shoot into a -flock of parroquets or ciganas, whereby they wasted a good deal of -powder to no effect. As we turned to come back we were met by one of the -prettiest sights I have ever seen. The Indian women, having finished -their dinner, had taken the little two-masted canoe, dressed with flags, -which had been prepared for the President’s reception, and had come out -to meet us. They had the music on board and there were two or three men -in the boat; but the women were some twelve or fifteen in number, and -seemed, like genuine Amazons, to have taken things into their own hands. -They were rowing with a will; and as the canoe drew near, with music -playing and flags flying, the purple lake, dyed in the sunset and smooth -as a mirror, gave back the picture. Every tawny figure at the oars, -every flutter of the crimson and blue streamers, every fold of the green -and yellow national flag at the prow, was as distinct below the surface -as above it. The fairy boat—for so it looked—floating between glowing -sky and water, and seeming to borrow color from both, came on apace; and -as it approached, our friends greeted us with many a _Viva_, to which we -responded as heartily. Then the two canoes joined company and we went on -together, the guitar sometimes being taken into one canoe and sometimes -into the other, while Brazilian and Indian songs followed each other. -Anything more national, more completely imbued with tropical coloring -and character than this evening scene on the lake, can hardly be -conceived. When we reached the landing, the gold and rose-colored clouds -were fading into soft masses of white and ashen gray, and moonlight was -taking the place of sunset. As we went up the green slope to the sitio, -a dance on the grass was proposed, and the Indian girls formed a -quadrille; for thus much of civilization has crept into their native -manners, though they throw into it so much of their own characteristic -movements, that it loses something of its conventional aspect. Then we -returned to the house, where the dancing and singing were renewed, while -here and there groups sat about on the ground laughing and talking, the -women smoking with as much enjoyment as the men. Smoking is almost -universal among the common women here, yet is not confined to the lower -classes. Many a Senhora (at least in this part of Brazil, for we must -distinguish between the civilization on the banks of the Amazons and in -the interior and that in the cities along the coast) enjoys her pipe, -while she lounges in her hammock through the heat of the day. - -_October 30th._—Yesterday our party broke up. The Indian women came to -bid us good-by after breakfast, and dispersed to their several homes, -going off in various directions through the forest-paths in little -groups, their babies, of whom there were a goodly number, astride on -their hips, as usual, and the older children following. Mr. Agassiz -passed the morning in packing and arranging his fishes, having collected -in those two days more than seventy new species.[81] His studies have -been the subject of great curiosity to the people about the sitio; one -or two were always hovering about to look at his work and to watch Mr. -Burkhardt’s drawing. They seemed to think it extraordinary that any one -should care to take the portrait of a fish. The familiarity of these -children of the forest with the natural objects about them—plants, -birds, insects, fishes, etc.—is remarkable. They frequently ask to see -the drawings; and in turning over a pile containing several hundred -colored sketches of fishes, they scarcely make a mistake,—even the -children giving the name instantly, and often adding, “É filho d’este,” -(it is the child of such an one,) thus distinguishing the young from the -adult, and pointing out their relation. - -We dined rather earlier than usual, our chief dish being a stew of -parrots and toucans, and left the sitio at about five o’clock, in three -canoes, the music accompanying us in the smaller boat. Our Indian -friends stood on the shore as we left, giving us farewell greetings, -waving their hats and hands, and cheering heartily. The afternoon row -through the lake and igarapé was delicious; but the sun had long set as -we issued from the little river, and the Rio Negro, where it opens -broadly out into the Amazons, was a sea of silver. The boat with the -music presently joined our canoe, and we had a number of the Brazilian -“modinhas,” as they call them,—songs which seem especially adapted for -the guitar. These modinhas have a quite peculiar character. They are -little graceful, lyrical snatches of song, with a rather melancholy -cadence; even those of which the words are gay not being quite free from -this undertone of sadness. This put us all into a somewhat dreamy mood, -and we approached the end of our journey rather silently. But as we drew -near the landing, we heard the sound of a band of brass instruments, -effectually drowning our feeble efforts, and saw a crowded canoe coming -towards us. They were the boys from the Indian school which we visited -on our previous stay at Manaos. The canoe looked very pretty as it came -towards us in the moonlight; it seemed full to overflowing, the children -all dressed in white uniforms and standing up. This little band comes -always on Sunday evenings and festa-days to play before the President’s -house. They were just going home, it being nearly ten o’clock; but the -President called to them to turn back, and they accompanied us to the -beach, playing all the while. Thus our pleasant three days’ picnic ended -with music and moonlight. - ------ - -Footnote 77: - - The most accurate information upon the industrial resources of the - Valley of the Amazons may be found in a work published by Senhor - Tavares Bastos, on his return to Rio de Janeiro, after this journey, - entitled “O Valle do Amazonas—Estudo sobre a livre Navegaçaō do - Amazonas, Estatistica, Producçöes, Commercio, Questöes Fiscaes do - Valle do Amazonas.” Rio de Janeiro, 1866. - -Footnote 78: - - This relation is a much nearer one throughout Brazil than with us. A - god-child is treated as a member of their own family by its sponsors. - -Footnote 79: - - In the course of our journey on the Amazons, Mr. Burkhardt made more - than eight hundred paintings of fishes, more or less finished.—L. A. - -Footnote 80: - - The fruit of the Persea gratissima. - -Footnote 81: - - I was indebted to the President for many valuable specimens on this - excursion, many of the birds and fishes brought in by the Indians for - the table being turned over to the scientific collections. My young - friends Dexter and James were also efficient, passing always a part of - the day in the woods, and assisting me greatly in the preparation and - preservation of the specimens. Among others we made a curious skeleton - of a large black Doras, a species remarkable for the row of powerful - scales extending along the side, each one provided with a sharp hook - bent backward. It is the species I have described, in Spix and - Martius’s great work, under the name of Doras Humboldti. The anterior - vertebræ form a bony swelling of a spongeous texture, resembling - drums, on each side of the backbone.—L. A. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - MANAOS AND ITS NEIGHBORHOOD. - - PHOTOGRAPHIC ESTABLISHMENT.—INDIAN PORTRAITS.—EXCURSION TO THE - “GREAT CASCADE.”—ITS GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.—BATHING POOL.—PARASITIC - PLANTS.—RETURN BY THE IGARAPÉ.—PUBLIC BALL.—SEVERITY IN - RECRUITING, AND ITS EFFECTS.—COLLECTING PARTIES.—SCENES OF INDIAN - LIFE.—FÊTE CHAMPÊTRE AT THE “CASA DOS EDUCANDOS.”—PRISON - AT MANAOS.—PRISON DISCIPLINE ON THE AMAZONS.—EXTRACTS - FROM PRESIDENTIAL REPORTS ON THIS SUBJECT.—PRISON AT - TEFFÉ.—GENERAL CHARACTER OF BRAZILIAN INSTITUTIONS.—EMPEROR’S - BIRTHDAY.—ILLUMINATIONS AND PUBLIC FESTIVITIES.—RETURN OF - COLLECTING PARTIES.—REMARKS ON THE RACES.—LEAVE MANAOS FOR MAUHES. - - -_Saturday, November 4th._—Manaos. This week has been rather uneventful. -Mr. Agassiz is prevented from undertaking new expeditions by the want of -alcohol. The next steamer will bring a fresh supply from Pará; and -meanwhile, being interrupted in his collections, he is making a study of -the various intermixture of races, Indians and Negroes, with their -crossings, of which a great number are found here. Our picturesque -barrack of a room, which we have left for more comfortable quarters in -Mr. Honorio’s house, serves as a photographic saloon, and here Mr. -Agassiz is at work half the day with his young friend Mr. Hunnewell, who -spent almost the whole time of our stay in Rio in learning photography, -and has become quite expert in taking likenesses. The grand difficulty -is found in the prejudices of the people themselves. There is a -prevalent superstition among the Indians and Negroes that a portrait -absorbs into itself something of the vitality of the sitter, and that -any one is liable to die shortly after his picture is taken. This notion -is so deeply rooted that it has been no easy matter to overcome it. -However, of late the desire to see themselves in a picture is gradually -gaining the ascendant, the example of a few courageous ones having -emboldened the more timid, and models are much more easily obtained now -than they were at first. - -Yesterday our quiet life was interrupted by an excursion to the great -cascade, where we went with a party of friends to breakfast and dine. We -were called with the dawn, and were on the road at six o’clock, the -servants following laden with baskets of provisions. The dewy walk -through the woods in the early morning was very pleasant, and we arrived -at the little house above the cascade before the heat of the day began. -This house stands on a hill in a cleared ground entirely surrounded by -forest; just below it the river comes rushing through the wood, and -falls some ten feet over a thin platform of rock. By its formation, this -cascade is a Niagara in miniature; that is, the lower layer of rock -being softer than the upper, the water has worn it away until there now -remains only a thin slab of harder rock across the river. Deprived of -its support, this slab must break down eventually, as Table-rock has -done, when the cascade will, of course, retreat by so much and begin the -same process a little higher up. It has, no doubt, thus worn its way -upward already from a distant point. The lower deposit is clay, the -upper consists of the constantly recurring reddish sandstone,—in other -words, drift worked over by water. Below the fall, the water goes -tearing along through a narrow passage, over boulders, fallen trees, and -decaying logs, which break it into rapids. At a little distance from the -cascade there is a deep, broad basin in the wood, with a sand bottom, so -overshadowed by great trees that it looks dark even in tropical midday. -The bathing here, as we found by experience at a later hour, is most -delicious. The shade over the pool is so profound and the current runs -through it so swiftly that the water is exceedingly cold,—an unusual -thing here,—and it seems very refreshing to those coming from the hot -sun outside. At the side of this pool I saw a very large parasitic plant -in flower. Since we have been on the Amazons most of these parasites -have been out of bloom, and, though we have seen beautiful collections -in private gardens, we have not met them in the woods. This one was -growing in the lofty notch of a great tree, overhanging the water; a -tuft of dark green leaves with large violet and straw-colored blossoms -among them. It was quite out of reach, and the little garden looked so -pretty in its airy perch, that I was almost glad we had no power to -disturb it. After breakfast some of the guests, and Mr. Agassiz among -them, were obliged to return to town on business. They rejoined us in -time for a late dinner, arriving in a canoe instead of coming on foot, -an experiment which we had been prevented from trying in the morning, -because we had been told that, as the igarapé was low and the bottom -very rocky, it would be impossible to ascend the whole distance in a -boat. They came, however, in perfect safety, and were delighted with the -picturesque beauty of the row. After a very cheerful dinner, closing -with a cup of coffee in the open air, we started at twilight for town, -by different roads. Desirous to see the lower course of the igarapé, -which Mr. Agassiz reported as so beautiful, and being assured that there -was no real danger, I returned in the little canoe with Mr. Honorio. It -was thought best not to overload it, so the others took the forest road -by which we had come in the morning. I must say that as I went down the -rough steps to the landing, in the very pool where we had bathed, it -struck me that the undertaking was somewhat perilous; if this -overshadowed nook was dark at noonday, it was black at nightfall, and -the turbulent little stream, rushing along over rocks and logs, looked -mischievous. The rest of the party went with us to the embarkation, and, -as we disappeared in the darkness under the overhanging branches, one of -them called after us, laughingly, - - “Lasciate ogni speranza, voi che ’ntrate.” - -However, there was only danger enough to laugh at, none to give real -concern, and I enjoyed the row through the narrow channel, where the -trees met overhead, and where the boatmen were obliged to jump into the -water to guide the canoe among the boulders and fallen trunks. We -reached home in perfect safety, and in time to welcome the others when -they arrived on foot. - -_November 8th._—Manaos has been in unwonted agitation, for the last few -days, on the subject of a public ball to be given in honor of Mr. -Tavares Bastos. Where it should take place, what should be the day and -hour, and, among the Senhoras, what one should wear, have been the -subjects of discussion. The doubtful questions were at last settled, and -it was appointed for the fifth of the month, in the President’s palace. -“Palace” is the name always given to the residence of the President of -the province, however little the house may be in keeping with the title. -The night was not so auspicious as could have been wished; it was very -dark, and, as no such luxury as a carriage is known here, the different -parties might be seen groping through the streets at the appointed hour, -lighted with lanterns. Every now and then, as we were on our way, a -ball-dress would emerge from the darkness of an opposite corner, picking -its way with great care along the muddy ruts. When we had all assembled, -however, I did not see that any toilet had suffered seriously on the -road. The dresses were of every variety, from silks and satins to stuff -gowns, and the complexions of all tints, from the genuine negro through -paler shades of Indian and negro to white. There is absolutely no -distinction of color here; a black lady, always supposing her to be -free, is treated with as much consideration and meets with as much -attention as a white one. It is, however, rare to see a person in -society who can be called a genuine negro; but there are many mulattoes -and mamelucos, that is, persons having black or Indian blood. There is -little ease in Brazilian society, even in the larger cities; still less -in the smaller ones, where, to guard against mistakes, the -conventionalities of town life are exaggerated. The Brazilians, indeed, -though so kind and hospitable, are a formal people, fond of etiquette -and social solemnities. On their arrival, all the Senhoras were placed -in stiff rows around the walls of the dancing-room. Occasionally an -unfortunate cavalier would stray in and address a few words to this -formidable array of feminine charms; but it was not until the close of -the evening, when the dancing had broken up the company into groups, -that the scene became really gay. At intervals, trays of “doces” and tea -were handed round, and at twelve there was a more solid repast, at which -all the ladies were seated, their partners standing behind their chairs -and waiting upon them. Then began the toasts and healths, which were -given and received with great enthusiasm. After supper the dancing was -renewed and continued till after midnight, when the steamer from Pará -was seen coming into port, throwing up rockets and burning blue-lights -as she advanced, to announce that she was the bearer of good tidings -from the war. This, of course, gave general satisfaction, and the ball -broke up in great hilarity. There were some who did not sleep at all -that night, for many of the gentlemen went from the ball-room to the -steamer in search of the papers, which brought the news of a decided -victory over the Paraguayans, at Uruguayana, where the Emperor commanded -in person. It is said that seven thousand prisoners were taken. The next -night the ball was renewed in honor of this victory; so that Manaos, -whose inhabitants complain of the life as very dull, has had a most -unwonted rush of gayety this week. - -_November 9th._—The severity in recruiting, of which we heard so much at -the Lake of Hyanuary, is beginning to bear its fruits in general -discontent. Some of the recruits have made their escape, and, on Tuesday -and Wednesday, before the steamer in which they were to go down to Pará -sailed, the disturbance was so great among them that they were kept -under lock and key. The impression seems to be general here that the -province of the Amazonas has been called upon to bear more than its -share of the burden, and that the defencelessness of the Indians in the -scattered settlements has made them especially victims. As there was no -other armed force here, several of the crew of the “Ibicuhy” were taken -to go down to Pará as guard over the unruly troops. Partly in -consequence of this, we have resolved to remain at Manaos till the end -of the month; a delay which Mr. Agassiz does not regret, as it enables -him to continue the comparison of the races which he has begun, and for -which the circumstances here are unusually favorable. In the mean time -the President has provided him with canoes and men for three separate -expeditions, on which he sends off three parties this week: Mr. Talisman -and Mr. Dexter to the Rio Negro and Rio Branco, to be absent six weeks; -Mr. Thayer and Mr. Bourget to Lake Cudajas, to be gone ten days; Mr. -James to Manacapuru, for about the same time. We feel the generosity of -this conduct the more, knowing how greatly the administration stands in -need of men and of all the resources at its command in the present -disturbed state of things. - -_November 18th._—One can hardly walk in any direction out of the town -without meeting something characteristic of the people and their ways of -living. At seven o’clock, to-day, I took my morning walk through the -wood near the house to an igarapé, which is the scene of much of the -out-of-doors life here,—fishing, washing, bathing, turtle-shooting. As I -returned along the little path leading by the side of the stream, two -naked Indian boys were shooting fish with bow and arrows from a fallen -tree which jutted out into the stream. Like bronze statues they looked, -as they stood quiet and watchful, in attitudes full of grace and -strength, their bows drawn ready to let the arrow fly the moment they -should catch sight of the fish. The Indian boys are wonderfully skilful -in this sport, and also in shooting arrows through long blow-pipes -(Sarabatanas) to kill birds. This is no bad way of shooting, for the -report of the gun startles the game so effectually in these thick -forests, that after a few shots the sportsman finds the woods in his -immediate neighborhood deserted; whereas the Indian boy creeps -stealthily up to the spot from which he takes aim and discharges his -noiseless arrow with such precision, that the bird or monkey drops down -from among its companions, without their perceiving the cause of its -disappearance. While I was watching the boys, a canoe came up the -stream, paddled by women, and loaded with fruit and vegetables, on the -top of which sat two bright green parrots. Two of the women were old and -hideous, very wrinkled and withered, as these people usually are in old -age; but the third was the handsomest Indian woman I have ever seen, -with a tinge of white blood to be sure, for her skin was fairer and her -features more regular than those of the Indians generally. They were -coming from their sitio, as I learned afterwards. When they had moored -their boat to a tree, the younger woman began to unload, tucking her -petticoat about her hips, and wading to and fro with baskets of fruit -and vegetables on her head. Her hair was dressed with flowers, as is -usual with these women; however scanty their clothing, they seldom -forget this ornament. - -_November 20th._—The President, Dr. Epaminondas, added yesterday to the -many kindnesses by which he has rendered our stay here doubly pleasant, -in giving an exceedingly pretty fête in honor of Mr. Agassiz. The place -chosen was the asylum for Indian children already described, well -adapted for the purpose on account of its large, airy rooms and -beautiful situation; and the invitation was given out in the name of the -“Province of the Amazonas.”[82] The day was most propitious; a rain -during the night had cooled the air, and a slightly overcast sky, -combined with the freshness of the atmosphere, gave just the conditions -most desirable for any such excursion in this climate. When we reached -the beach from which we were to leave, people were beginning to -assemble, and a number of canoes were already on their way, looking very -gay with their white awnings above and the bright dresses inside. Twenty -minutes’ row brought us to our destination. The scene was very pretty; -the path from the landing to the main house was lined with flags and -with palm-trees brought from the forest for the occasion, and the open -sides of the large rooms outside, usually working-rooms, but now fitted -up for the breakfast, were all filled in with green arches built of -trees and flowers, so that the whole space was transformed, for the time -being, into an arbor. We were received with music and conducted to the -main building, where all the guests gradually assembled, some two -hundred in number. At about one o’clock the President led the way to the -green arcades which, as yet, we had seen only from a distance. Nothing -could be more tasteful than the arrangements. The tables were placed -around a hollow square, in the centre of which was the American flag, -with the Brazilian on either side of it; while a number of other flags -draped the room and made the whole scene bright with color. The -landscape, framed in the open green arches, made so many pictures, -pretty glimpses of water and wood, with here and there a palm-thatched -roof among the trees on the opposite side of the river. A fresh breeze -blew through the open dining-room, stirring the folds of the flags, and -making a pleasant rustle in the trees, which added their music to that -of the band outside. Since we are on the Amazons, a thousand miles from -its mouth, it is worth while to say a word of the breakfast itself. -There is such an exaggerated idea of the hardships and difficulty of a -voyage on the Amazons, (at least so I infer from many remarks made to -us, not only at home, but even in Rio de Janeiro by Brazilians -themselves, when we were on the eve of departure for this journey,) that -it will hardly be believed that a public breakfast, given in Manaos, -should have all the comforts, and almost all the luxuries, of a similar -entertainment in any other part of the world. It is true, that we had -neither ices nor champagne, the former being of course difficult to -obtain in this climate; but these two exceptions were more than -compensated for by the presence of tropical fruits not to be had -elsewhere at any price,—enormous Pineapples, green and purple Abacatys -(alligator pears), crimson Pitangas, Attas (fruta do Conde), Abios, -Sapotis, Bananas of the choicest kinds and in the greatest profusion, -and a variety of Maracujas (the fruit of the passion-flower).[83] The -breakfast was gay, the toasts were numerous, the speeches animated, and -long after the Senhoras had left the table the room still echoed with -Vivas, as health followed health. At the close of the dinner there was a -little scene which struck us as very pretty; I do not know whether it is -a custom here, but, as it excited no remark, I suppose it may be. When -the gentlemen returned to the house, bringing the music with them, all -the waiters assembled in line before the door, decanter and glass in -hand, to finish the remains of the wine with a toast on their own -account. The head-waiter then stood in front of them and gave the -health, first, of the persons for whom the banquet was given, followed -by that of the President, all of which were answered with Vivas as they -filled their glasses. Then one of the gentlemen stepping forward gave, -amid shouts of laughter, the health of the head-waiter himself, which -was drank in a closing bumper with perhaps more animation than either of -the others. The afternoon closed with dancing, and at sunset the canoes -assembled and we returned to the city, all feeling, I believe, that the -festival had been a very happy one. It certainly was so for those to -whom it was intended to give pleasure, and could hardly fail to be -likewise for those who had planned and executed it. It will seem strange -to many of my readers that Sunday should be chosen for such a fête; but -here, as in many parts of continental Europe, even in Protestant -districts, Sunday is a holiday and kept as such. - -_November 27th._—Yesterday I visited the prison where the wife of the -chief of police had invited me to see some of the carved articles, straw -work, &c., made by the prisoners. I had expected to be pained, because I -thought, from the retrograde character of things in general here, the -prison system would be bad. But the climate in these hot countries -regulates the prison life in some degree. Men cannot be shut up in -close, dark cells, without endangering not only their own lives, but the -sanitary condition of the establishment also. Therefore the prison is -light and airy, with plenty of doors and windows, secured by bars, but -not otherwise closed. I infer, however, from a passage on the prisons of -the province, contained in one of the able reports of President Adolfo -de Barros (1864), that within the last year there has been a great -improvement, at least in the prison of Manaos. He says: “The state of -the prisons exceeds all that can be said to their disadvantage. Not only -is it true that there is not to be found throughout the province a -prison which fulfils the conditions imposed by the law, but there is not -one which deserves the name of prison with the exception of that in the -capital. And even this one, while it does not possess one of the -conditions exacted by similar institutions, contains so disproportionate -a number of prisoners of all classes, so indiscriminately mingled, that, -setting aside the other difficulties arising from this association, it -is only by the mercy of Providence that the jail has not been converted -into a focus of epidemics during the great heat prevailing in this city -for a great part of the year. In four small rooms, insufficiently -ventilated and lighted, are assembled forty prisoners (including the -sick) of various classes and conditions. Without air, without -cleanliness, almost without room to move in their smothered and damp -enclosure, these unhappy beings, against all precepts of law and -humanity, suffer far more than the simple and salutary rigor of -punishment.” These strictures must have led to a great amendment, for -the prison does not now appear to be deficient in light or in -ventilation, and there is a hospital provided apart for the sick. Some -of the prisoners, especially those who were there for political -offences, having been concerned in a recent revolt at Serpa, were very -heavily ironed; but, excepting this, there were no signs, visible at -least to the transient observer, of cruelty or neglect. After some -remarks on the best modes of reforming these abuses and the means to be -employed for that object, Dr. Adolfo goes on to speak of the ruinous -condition of the prisons in other cities of the province. “Such is the -state of the prison in the town of Teffé. The edifice in which it is -established is an old and crumbling house, belonging to the -municipality, thatched with straw, and so ruinous, that it seemed to me, -when I visited it, rather like a deserted habitation than like a -building destined for the detention of criminals. There were but a few -prisoners, some of whom were already condemned. I formed a favorable -judgment of them all, for it seemed to me they must have either great -confidence in their own innocence, or scruples as to compromising the -few soldiers who acted as guards. In no other way could I explain the -fact that they remained in prison, when flight seemed so easy.” I well -remember one evening when walking in Teffé seeing a number of men -leaning against the wooden grating of a dimly lighted room in a ruinous -thatched house, and being told that this was the prison. I asked myself -the same question which presented itself to the President’s mind,—why -these wild-looking, half-naked creatures had not long ago made their -escape from a prison whose bars and bolts would hardly have imposed -restraint upon a child. The report continues: “A more decent and, above -all, a more secure prison at this point, the most important in the whole -Solimoens, is an urgent and even indispensable necessity. Of the sixteen -prisons in the whole province, only two, that of the capital and of -Barcellos, have their own buildings. With these exceptions, the -prisoners occupy either a part of the houses of the legislative -chambers, or are placed in private houses hired for the purpose, or in -the quarters of the military detachments. In these different prisons 538 -prisoners were received during the current year, inclusive of recruits -and deserters.” This last clause, “inclusive of recruits and deserters,” -and the association of the two classes of men together, as if equally -delinquent, touches upon a point hardly to be overlooked by the most -superficial observer, and which makes a very painful impression on -strangers. The system of recruiting, or rather the utter want of system, -leads to the most terrible abuse of authority in raising men for the -army. I believe that the law provides for a constitutional draft levied -equally on all classes, excluding men below or above a certain age, or -having certain responsibilities at home. But if such a law exists it is -certainly not enforced; recruiting parties, as bad as the old -“press-gangs” of England, go out into the forest and seize the Indians -wherever they can find them. All who resist this summary treatment or -show any inclination to escape are put into prison till the steamer -leaves, by which they are despatched to Pará and thence to the army. The -only overcrowded room I saw at the prison was that where the recruits -were confined. Coming from a country where the soldier is honored, where -men of birth and education have shown that they are not ashamed to serve -in the line if necessary, it seemed to me strange and sad to see these -men herded with common criminals. The record of the province of the -Amazonas will read well in the history of the present war, for the -number of troops contributed is very large in proportion to the -population. But as most of them are obtained in this way, it may be -doubted whether the result is a very strong evidence of patriotism. The -abuses mentioned above are not, however, confined to these remote -regions.[84] It is not uncommon, even in the more populous and central -parts of Brazil, to meet recruits on the road, so-called volunteers, -chained two and two by the neck like criminals, under an armed guard. -When we first met a squad of men under these circumstances, on the Juiz -de Fora road, we supposed them to be deserters, but the Brazilians who -were with us, and who seemed deeply mortified at the circumstance, said -that they were no doubt ordinary recruits, arrested without inquiry on -the one side, or power of resistance on the other. They asserted that -this mode of recruiting was illegal, but that their chains would be -taken off before entering the city, and no questions asked. A Brazilian -told me that he had known an instance in which a personal pique against -an enemy had been gratified by pointing out its object to the recruiting -officer, who had the man at once enlisted, though a large family was -entirely dependent upon him. Our informant seemed to know no redress for -tyranny like this. - -The hospitality we have received in Brazil, the sympathy shown to Mr. -Agassiz in his scientific undertakings, as well as our own sentiments of -gratitude and affection for our many friends here, forbid us to enter -into any criticism of Brazilian manners or habits which could have a -personal application. Neither do I believe that a few months’ residence -in a country entitles any one to a judgment upon the national character -of its people. Yet there are certain features of Brazilian institutions -and politics which cannot but strike a stranger unfavorably, and which -explain the complaints one constantly hears from foreign residents. The -exceedingly liberal constitution, borrowed in great part from our own, -prepares one to expect the largest practical liberty. To a degree this -exists; there is no censorship of the press; there is no constraint upon -the exercise of any man’s religion; nominally, there is absolute freedom -of thought and belief. But in the practical working of the laws there is -a very arbitrary element, and a petty tyranny of the police against -which there seems to be no appeal. There is, in short, an utter want of -harmony between the institutions and the actual condition of the people. -May it not be, that a borrowed constitution, in no way the growth of the -soil, is, after all, like an ill-fitting garment, not made for the -wearer, and hanging loosely upon him? There can be no organic relation -between a truly liberal form of government and a people for whom, taking -them as a whole, little or no education is provided, whose religion is -administered by a corrupt clergy, and who, whether white or black, are -brought up under the influence of slavery. Liberty will not abide in the -laws alone; it must have its life in the desire of the nation, its -strength in her resolve to have and to hold it. Another feature which -makes a painful impression on the stranger is the enfeebled character of -the population. I have spoken of this before, but in the northern -provinces it is more evident than farther south. It is not merely that -the children are of every hue; the variety of color in every society -where slavery prevails tells the same story of amalgamation of race; but -here this mixture of races seems to have had a much more unfavorable -influence on the physical development than in the United States. It is -as if all clearness of type had been blurred, and the result is a vague -compound lacking character and expression. This hybrid class, although -more marked here because the Indian element is added, is very numerous -in all the cities and on the large plantations; perhaps the fact, so -honorable to Brazil, that the free negro has full access to all the -privileges of any free citizen, rather tends to increase than diminish -the number.[85] - -_December 3d._—Yesterday was the Emperor’s birthday, always kept as a -holiday throughout Brazil, and this year with more enthusiasm than -usual, because he has just returned from the army, and has made himself -doubly dear to his people, not only by the success which attended his -presence there, but by his humanity toward the soldiers. We had our -illuminations, bouquets, music, &c., as well as the rest of the world; -but as Manaos is not overflowing with wealth, the candles were rather -few, and there were long lapses of darkness alternating with the -occasional brilliancy. We went out in the evening to make a few calls, -and listen to the music in the open ground dignified by the name of the -public square. Here all the surrounding buildings were brightly -illuminated; there was a very pretty tent in the centre, where the band -of Indian children from the Casa dos Educandos was playing; preparations -were making for the ascension of a lighted balloon at a later hour, and -so on. But whenever we have been present at public festivities in -Brazil,—and our observation is confirmed by other foreigners,—we have -been struck with the want of gayety, the absence of merriment. There is -a kind of lack-lustre character in their fêtes, so far as any -demonstration of enjoyment is concerned. Perhaps it is owing to their -enervating climate, but the Brazilians do not seem to work or play with -a will. They have not the activity which, while it makes life a restless -fever with our people, gives it interest also; neither have they the -love of amusement of the continental Europeans. - -_December 6th._—Manaos. Mr. Thayer returned to-day from Lake Alexo, -bringing a valuable collection of fish, obtained with some difficulty on -account of the height of water; it is rapidly rising now, and the fish -are in consequence daily scattered over a wider space. This addition -with the collections brought in by Mr. Bourget and Mr. Thayer from -Cudajas, by Mr. James from Manacapuru, and by Major Coutinho from Lake -Hyanuary, José-Fernandez, Curupira, &c., &c., brings the number of -Amazonian species up to something over thirteen hundred. Mr. Agassiz -still carries out his plan of dispersing his working force in such a -manner as to determine the limits of the distribution of species; to -ascertain, for instance, whether those which are in the Amazons at one -season may be in the Solimoens at another or at the same time, and also -whether those which are found about Manaos extend higher up in the Rio -Negro. For this reason, as we have seen, while at Teffé himself he kept -parties above in various localities,—at Tabatinga and on the rivers Iça -and Hyutahy; and now, while he and some of his assistants are collecting -in the immediate neighborhood of Manaos, Mr. Dexter and Mr. Talisman are -on the Rio Negro and Rio Branco. Following the same plan in descending -the river, he intends to establish one station at Serpa, another at -Obydos, another at Santarem, while he will go himself to the river -Mauhes, which connects the Amazons with the Madeira. - -_December 10th._—To-day Mr. Dexter and Mr. Talisman returned from their -canoe excursion to the Rio Branco. They are rather disappointed in the -result of their expedition, having found the state of the waters most -extraordinary for the season and very unfavorable for their purpose. The -Rio Negro was so full that the beaches had entirely disappeared, and it -was impossible to draw the nets; while on the Rio Branco the people -stated that the water had not fallen during the whole year,—an -unheard-of phenomenon, and unfortunate for the inhabitants, who were -dreading famine for want of their usual supply of dried and salted fish, -on which they so largely depend for food. This provision is always made -when the waters are lowest, and when the large fish, driven into -shallower and narrower basins, are easily caught. Though their -collection of fish is therefore small, including only twenty-eight new -species, Mr. Dexter and Mr. Talisman bring several monkeys, a very large -alligator, some beautiful birds, among them the blue Mackaw, and a -number of very fine palms. To-morrow we leave Manaos in the Ibicuhy, on -an excursion to the little town of Mauhes, where we are to pass a week -or ten days. Though we return for a day or two on our way to the Rio -Negro, yet we feel that our permanent stay in Manaos is over. The six -weeks we have passed here have been very valuable in scientific results. -Not only has Mr. Agassiz largely increased his knowledge of the fishes, -but he has had an opportunity of accumulating a mass of new and -interesting information on the many varieties of the colored races, -produced by the crossing of Indians, negroes, and whites, which he has -recorded not only in notes, but in a very complete series of -photographs. Perhaps nowhere in the world can the blending of types -among men be studied so fully as in the Amazons, where mamelucos, -cafuzos, mulattoes, cabocos, negroes, and whites are mingled in a -confusion that seems at first inextricable. I insert below a few -extracts from his notes on this subject, which he purposes to treat more -in detail, should he find time hereafter to work up the abundant -material he has collected. - -“However naturalists may differ respecting the origin of species, there -is at least one point on which they agree, namely, that the offspring -from two so-called different species is a being intermediate between -them, sharing the peculiar features of both parents, but resembling -neither so closely as to be mistaken for a pure representative of the -one or the other. I hold this fact to be of the utmost importance in -estimating the value and meaning of the differences observed between the -so-called human races. I leave aside the question of their probable -origin, and even that of their number; for my purpose, it does not -matter whether there are three, four, five, or twenty human races, and -whether they originated independently from one another or not. The fact -that they differ by constant permanent features is in itself sufficient -to justify a comparison between the human races and animal species. We -know that, among animals, when two individuals of different sex and -belonging to distinct species produce an offspring, the latter does not -closely resemble either parent, but shares the characteristics of both; -and it seems to me of the highest significance that this fact is equally -true of any two individuals of different sexes, belonging to different -human races. The child born of negro and white parents is neither black -nor white, but a mulatto; the child born of white and Indian parents is -neither white nor Indian, but a mameluco; the child born of negro and -Indian parents is neither a negro nor an Indian, but a cafuzo; and the -cafuzo, mameluco, and mulatto share the peculiarities of both parents, -just as the mule shares the characteristics of the horse and ass. With -reference to their offspring, the races of men stand, then, to one -another in the same relation as different species among animals; and the -word _races_, in its present significance, needs only to be retained -till the number of human species is definitely ascertained and their -true characteristics fully understood. I am satisfied that, unless it -can be shown that the differences between the Indian, negro and white -races are unstable and transient, it is not in keeping with the facts to -affirm a community of origin for all the varieties of the human family, -nor in keeping with scientific principles to make a difference between -human races and animal species in a systematic point of view. In these -various forms of humanity there is as much system as in anything else in -nature, and by overlooking the thoughtful combinations expressed in them -we place ourselves at once outside of the focus from which the whole may -be correctly seen. In consequence of their constancy, these differences -are so many limitations to prevent a complete melting of normal types -into each other and consequent loss of their primitive features. That -these different types are genetically foreign to one another, and do not -run together by imperceptible, intermediate degrees, appears plain when -their mixtures are compared. White and negro produce mulattoes, white -and Indian produce mamelucos, negro and Indian produce cafuzos, and -these three kinds of half-breeds are not connecting links between the -pure races, but stand exactly in that relation to them in which all -hybrids stand to their parents. The mameluco is as truly a half-breed -between white and Indian, the cafuzo as truly a half-breed between negro -and Indian, as is the mulatto, commonly so called, a half-breed between -white and negro. They all share equally the peculiarities of both -parents, and though more fertile than half-breeds in other families of -the animal kingdom, there is in all a constant tendency to revert to the -primary types in a country where three distinct races are constantly -commingling, for they mix much more readily with the original stocks -than with each other.[86] Children between mameluco and mameluco, or -between cafuzo and cafuzo, or between mulatto and mulatto, are seldom -met with where the pure races occur; while offspring of mulattoes with -whites, Indians and negroes, or of mamelucos with whites, Indians, and -negroes, or of cafuzos with whites, Indians, and negroes, form the bulk -of these mixed populations. The natural result of an uninterrupted -contact of half-breeds with one another is a class of men in which pure -type fades away as completely as do all the good qualities, physical and -moral, of the primitive races, engendering a mongrel crowd as repulsive -as the mongrel dogs, which are apt to be their companions, and among -which it is impossible to pick out a single specimen retaining the -intelligence, the nobility, or the affectionateness of nature which -makes the dog of pure type the favorite companion of civilized man. The -question respecting the relation of the human races to each other is -complicated by the want of precision in the definition of species. -Naturalists differ greatly in their estimation of the characters by -which species are to be distinguished, and of their natural limitations. -I have published elsewhere my own views on this subject. I believe the -boundaries of species to be precise and unvarying, based upon a category -of characters quite distinct from those on which the other groups of the -animal kingdom, as genera, families, orders, and classes, are founded. -This category of characters consists chiefly in the relation of -individuals to one another and to their surroundings, and in the -relative dimensions and proportions of parts. These characters are no -less permanent and constant in the different species of the human family -than in those of any other family in the animal kingdom, and my -observations upon the cross-breeds in South America have convinced me -that the varieties arising from contact between these human species, or -so-called races, differ from true species just as cross-breeds among -animals differ from true species, and that they retain the same -liability to revert to the original stock as is observed among all -so-called varieties or breeds.” - -Our visit to Mauhes will be the pleasanter and doubtless the more -successful, because Dr. Epaminondas, who has already done so much to -facilitate the objects of the expedition, takes this opportunity of -visiting a region with which, as President of the province, he is -desirous of becoming acquainted. He is accompanied by our host, Mr. -Honorio, whose house has been such a pleasant home for us during our -stay in Manaos, and also by Mr. Michelis, Lieutenant-Colonel of the -National Guard of Mauhes, returning to his home there, after a stay of -several weeks in Manaos. Besides these, our party consists of Major -Coutinho, Mr. Burkhardt, and ourselves. The position of Mauhes, on the -southern side of the Amazons, and its proximity to Manaos and Serpa, may -make this excursion especially instructive, with reference to the study -of the geographical distribution of the Fishes in the great network of -rivers connecting the Rio Madeira and the Rio Tapajoz with the Amazons. - ------ - -Footnote 82: - - I trust that the motive will not be misunderstood which induces me to - add here a translation of the general cards of invitation distributed - on this occasion. The graceful expression of a thought so kind, and - the manner in which the President merges his own personality in the - name of the Province of which he is the administrative head, are so - characteristic of his mingled courtesy and modesty, that I am tempted - to insert the note, notwithstanding its personal character. - Unfortunately, I cannot always do full justice to the kindness shown - Mr. Agassiz throughout our journey, or to the general appreciation of - his scientific objects, without introducing testimonials into this - narrative which it would perhaps be more becoming in me to suppress. - But I do not know how otherwise to acknowledge our obligations, and I - trust it will be attributed, by candid readers, to the true motive,—to - gratitude and not to egotism. - - “The scientific labors undertaken at this time by the learned and - illustrious Professor Agassiz in this Province, merit from the - Amazonenses the most sincere gratitude and acknowledgment, and elicit - on our part a manifestation by which we seek to show due appreciation - of his high intellectual merit. I wish that for this object I could - dispose of more abundant resources, or that the Province had in - readiness better means of showing the veneration and cordial esteem we - all bear to him, the respect and admiration we feel for his scientific - explorations. But the uncertainty of his stay among us obliges me to - offer at once some proof, however insignificant, of our profound - esteem for this most deserving American. - - “To this end, the accomplishment of which I cannot longer defer, I - invite all to join me in offering to Professor Agassiz and to his - wife, in the name of the Province of the Amazonas, a modest rural - breakfast (_almoço campestre_) in the Casa dos Educandos, on Sunday, - the 18th of this month, at 11 o’clock in the morning. I hereby invite - you and your family to be present, in order that this festival, great - in the earnestness of our intentions, however small as compared with - the importance of those to whom it is offered, should be gay and - brilliant. - - “ANTONIO EPAMINONDAS DE MELLO. - - “_Palace of the Government at Manaos, 13 November, 1865._” - -Footnote 83: - - As I do not wish to mislead, and this narrative may perhaps influence - some one to make a journey in this region, I should add, that, while - the above is strictly true, there are many things essential to the - comfort of the traveller not to be had. There is not a decent hotel - throughout the whole length of the Amazons, and any one who thinks of - travelling there must provide himself with such letters as will secure - accommodation in private houses. So recommended, he may safely depend - upon hospitality, or upon such assistance from individuals as will - enable him to find a private lodging. - -Footnote 84: - - Much of what follows upon social abuses, tyranny of the local police, - prison discipline, &c., though not quoted in his own words, has been - gathered from conversations with Mr. Agassiz, or from discussions - between him and his Brazilian friends. The way in which this volume - has grown up, being as it were the result of a double experience, - makes it occasionally difficult to draw the exact line marking the - boundaries of authorship; the division being indeed somewhat vague in - the minds of the writers themselves. But since criticisms of this sort - would have little value, except as based upon larger opportunities for - observation than fell to my share, I am the more anxious to refer - them, wherever I can, to their right source. - -Footnote 85: - - Let any one who doubts the evil of this mixture of races, and is - inclined, from a mistaken philanthropy, to break down all barriers - between them, come to Brazil. He cannot deny the deterioration - consequent upon an amalgamation of races, more wide-spread here than - in any other country in the world, and which is rapidly effacing the - best qualities of the white man, the negro, and the Indian, leaving a - mongrel nondescript type, deficient in physical and mental energy. At - a time when the new social status of the negro is a subject of vital - importance in our statesmanship, we should profit by the experience of - a country where, though slavery exists, there is far more liberality - toward the free negro than he has ever enjoyed in the United States. - Let us learn the double lesson: open all the advantages of education - to the negro, and give him every chance of success which culture gives - to the man who knows how to use it; but respect the laws of nature, - and let all our dealings with the black man tend to preserve, as far - as possible, the distinctness of his national characteristics, and the - integrity of our own.—L. A. - -Footnote 86: - - For some remarks concerning the structural peculiarities of the - Indians and Negroes, see Appendix No. V. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - EXCURSION TO MAUHES AND ITS NEIGHBORHOOD. - - LEAVE MANAOS.—ON BOARD THE “IBICUHY.”—NAVIGATION OF THE RIVER - RAMOS.—ASPECT OF THE BANKS.—ARRIVAL AT MAUHES.—SITUATION OF - MAUHES.—TUPINAMBARANAS.—CHARACTER OF POPULATION.—APPEARANCE OF - THE VILLAGES OF MAUHES.—BOLIVIAN INDIANS.—GUARANÀ.—EXCURSION - TO MUCAJA-TUBA.—MUNDURUCU INDIANS.—ASPECT OF - VILLAGE.—CHURCH.—DISTRIBUTION OF PRESENTS.—GENEROSITY OF THE - INDIANS.—THEIR INDIFFERENCE.—VISIT TO ANOTHER - SETTLEMENT.—RETURN TO MAUHES.—ARRIVAL OF MUNDURUCUS IN THE - VILLAGE.—DESCRIPTION OF TATTOOING.—COLLECTION.—BOTO.—INDIAN - SUPERSTITIONS.—PALM COLLECTION.—WALK IN THE FOREST.—LEAVE - MAUHES.—MUNDURUCU INDIAN AND HIS WIFE.—THEIR MANNERS AND - APPEARANCE.—INDIAN TRADITION.—DISTINCTIONS OF CASTE. - - -_December 12th._—We left Manaos, according to our intention, on Sunday -evening (the 10th), raising the anchor with military exactness at five -o’clock, the very moment appointed, somewhat to the disappointment of a -boatful of officials from the National Guard, who were just on their way -to pay their parting compliments to the President, at the hour fixed for -his departure. In Brazil it may safely be assumed that things will -always be a little behind time; on this occasion, however, our -punctuality was absolute, and the officers were forced to wave their -adieux as we proceeded on our way, leaving their canoe behind. The hour -was of good omen,—a cool breeze, the one blessing for which the -traveller sighs in these latitudes, blowing up the Amazons; and as we -left the Rio Negro, it lay behind us, a golden pathway to the setting -sun, which was going down in a blaze of glory. We were received on board -with all possible hospitality by the commander, Captain Faria. He has -made every arrangement for our comfort which a vessel of war, not -intended for passengers, can afford, giving up his own quarters for my -accommodation. On deck he has arranged a little recess, sheltered by a -tarpaulin from the sun and rain, to serve as a dining-room, that we may -take our meals in the fresh air instead of dining in the close cabin -below decks intended for this purpose. - -The morning following our departure was an interesting one, because we -found ourselves at the mouth of the Ramos, unknown to steam navigation, -and about which the Captain had some apprehensions, as he was by no -means sure that he should find water enough for his vessel. It was, -therefore, necessary to proceed with great caution, sounding at every -step and sending out boats in advance, to ascertain the direction of the -channel. Once within the river, we had depth of water enough to float -much larger vessels. The banks of this stream are beautiful. The forest -was gay with color, and the air laden with the rich perfume of flowers, -which, when we came up the Amazons six months ago, were not yet in -bloom. We were struck also with the great abundance and variety of the -palms, so much more numerous on the lower course of the Amazons than on -the Solimoens. The shores were dotted with thrifty-looking plantations, -laid out with a neatness and care which bespeak greater attention to -agriculture than we have seen elsewhere. Healthy-looking cattle were -grazing about many of the sitios. As the puff of our steam was heard, -the inhabitants ran out to gaze in amazement at the unwonted visitant, -standing in groups on the shores, almost too much lost in wonder to -return our greetings. The advent of a steamer in their waters should be -to them a welcome harbinger of the time, perhaps not far distant, when, -instead of their present tedious and uncertain canoe journeys to Serpa -or Villa Bella, they will be able to transport their produce to either -of these points in a few hours, in small steamboats, connecting all -these settlements, and adapted to the navigation. Any such prophetic -vision was, however, no doubt very far from their thoughts; if they had -any idea as to the object of our coming, it was probably a fear lest we -should be on a recruiting expedition. If so, it is certainly a very -innocent one, fishes being the only recruits we aim at entrapping. From -the Ramos we turned into the Mauhes, ascending to the town of the same -name, where to-day we are enjoying the hospitality of Mr. Michelis. - -If any of my readers are as ignorant as I was myself before making this -voyage, a bit of geography may not be out of place here. As everybody -knows, the river Madeira, that great affluent of the Amazons, all whose -children are giants, except when compared with their royal father, -enters the main stream on its southern side at a point nearly opposite -Serpa. But this is not its only connection with the Amazons. The river -Mauhes starting about twenty-five leagues from its mouth, runs from the -river Madeira almost parallel with the Amazons until it joins the river -Ramos, which continues its course in the same direction to a lower -point, where it empties into the main stream. The district of land thus -enclosed between four rivers, having the Madeira on the west, the -Amazons on the north, and the Ramos and the Mauhes on the south, is -known on the map as the island of Tupinambaranas. It is a network of -rivers, lakes, and islands; one of those watery labyrinths which would -be in itself an extensive river system in any other country, but is here -absolutely lost in the world of waters of which it forms a part. Indeed, -the vastness of the Amazons is not felt chiefly when following its main -course, but rather on its lesser tributaries, where streams to which a -place on the map is hardly accorded are found to be in fact large -rivers. - -The region of Mauhes is comparatively little known, because it is off -the line of steam navigation; but, thanks to the efforts of its most -prominent citizen, Mr. Michelis, who has made his home there for -twenty-five years, and contributed, by his energy, intelligence, and -honorable character, to raise the tone of the whole district, it is one -of the most prosperous in the province. It is melancholy to see how -little is done in other districts, when an instance like this shows what -one man can do to improve the forest population along the banks of the -Amazons. His example and its successful results should be an -encouragement to all intelligent settlers on the Amazons. The little -village of Mauhes stands on a sort of terrace, in front of which, at -this season when the waters are still considerably below high-water -mark, runs a broad, white beach, rendered all the prettier at the moment -of our arrival by a large party of Bolivian Indians, who had built their -camp-fires on its sands. We looked at these people with a kind of -wonder, thinking of the perilous voyages they constantly make in their -heavily-laden canoes, forced to unload their cargo over and over again -as they shoot the cataracts of the Madeira on their way down, or drag -their boats wearily up them on their return. It seems strange, when this -river is the highway of commerce from Bolivia, Matto-Grosso, and through -Matto-Grosso from Paraguay to the Amazons, that the suggestion made by -Major Coutinho in his interesting account of his journey on the Rio -Madeira, has not been adopted. He says that a road carried along the -shore of the river for a distance of forty leagues would obviate all the -difficulty and danger of this arduous journey. - -[Illustration: Mauhes River.] - -Mauhes is not a cluster of houses, but is built in line along a broad, -grass-grown street running the length of the terrace formed by the top -of the river-bank. In an open space, at one end of this village street, -stands the church, a small but neat-looking building, with a wooden -cross in front. Most of the houses are low and straw-thatched, but here -and there a more substantial house, with tiled roof, like that of Mr. -Michelis, breaks the ordinary level of the buildings. Notwithstanding -the modest appearance of this little town, all who know something of its -history speak of it as one of the most promising of the Amazonian -settlements, and as having a better moral tone than usually prevails. -One of its great staples is the Guaraná. This shrub, or rather vine,—for -it is a trailing plant somewhat like our high-bush blackberry,—is about -eight feet high when full grown, and bears a bean the size of a -coffee-bean, two being enclosed in each envelope. This bean, after being -roasted, is pounded in a small quantity of water, until it becomes, when -thoroughly ground, a compact paste, and when dry is about the color of -chocolate, though much harder. In this state it is grated, (the grater -being always the rough tongue of the Pirarucu,) and when mixed with -sugar and water it makes a very pleasant, refreshing drink. It is said -to have medicinal properties also, and is administered with excellent -effect in cases of diarrhœa. In certain parts of Brazil it is very -extensively used as well as in Bolivia, and will, no doubt, have a wider -distribution when its value is more generally known. The Indians display -no little fancy in the manufacture of this article, moulding the paste -into the shape of mounted soldiers, horses, birds, serpents, &c. - -This morning I was attracted by voices in the street, and going to the -window I saw the door of the house where the President is lodged -besieged by a crowd of Bolivian Indians. They had brought some of their -robes to sell, and it was not long before several of our party, among -whom were ready purchasers, made their appearance in Bolivian costume. -This dress is invariable; always the long robe, composed of two pieces, -one hanging before, the other behind, belted around the waist and -fastened on the shoulders, with an opening for the head to pass through. -Such a robe, with a broad-brimmed, coarse straw hat, constitutes the -whole dress of these people. Their ordinary working garb is made of -bark; their better robe, for more festive occasions, consists of a -twilled cotton of their own manufacture, exceedingly soft and fine, but -very close and strong. These dresses may be more or less ornamented, but -are always of the same shape. The Bolivian Indians seem to be more -industrious than those of the Amazons, or else they are under more -rigorous discipline. - -_December 14th._—At the settlement of Mucaja-Tuba. Mucaja signifies a -particular kind of palm, very abundant here; Tuba means a place. Thus we -are among the woods of Acrocomia. Yesterday we were to have left Mauhes -with the dawn on an excursion to this place, but at the appointed hour a -flood of rain, such as is seen only in these latitudes, was pouring down -in torrents, accompanied by thunder and lightning. The delay occasioned -by this interruption, however, proved a good fortune in the end. By -eleven o’clock the storm was over, but the sky continued overcast during -the rest of the day. Our way lay up the river Mauhes, past the mouths of -nameless streams and lakes,—broad sheets of water, perfectly unknown out -of their immediate neighborhood. Night brought us to our destination, -and at about eight o’clock we anchored before this little village. As we -approached it a light or two was seen glimmering on the shore, and we -could not help again wondering what was the feeling of the people who -saw and heard for the first time one of these puffing steam monsters. -This morning, with a boat-load of goods of all sorts, intended by the -President as presents for the Indians, we put off for the shore. Landing -on the beach we went at once to the house of the chief, a most -respectable looking old man, who stood at the door to receive us. He was -an old acquaintance of Major Coutinho, having formerly accompanied him -on his exploration of the Rio Madeira. The inhabitants of this village -are Mundurucu Indians, one of the most intelligent and kindly disposed -of the Amazonian tribes. Although they are too civilized to be -considered as illustrating in any way the wild life of the primitive -Indians, yet, as it is the first time we have seen one of their isolated -settlements, removed from every civilizing influence except the -occasional contact of the white man, the visit was especially -interesting to us. It is astonishing to see the size and solidity of -their houses, with never a nail driven, the frame consisting of rough -trunks bound together by withes made of long, elastic sipos, the cordage -of the forest. Major Coutinho tells us that they know very well the use -of nails in building, and say to one another derisively, when they want -another sipo, “Hand me a nail.” The ridge-pole of this chief’s house -could not have been less than twenty-five to thirty-eight feet high, and -the room was spacious in proportion. Hammocks were hung in the corners, -one of which was partitioned off by a low wall of palm-thatch; bows and -arrows, guns and oars, hung on the walls or were leaning against them, -and adjoining this central apartment was the mandioca kitchen. There -were a number of doors and windows in the room, closed by large -palm-mats. The house of the chief stood at the head of a line of houses -differing from his only in being somewhat smaller; they made one side of -an open square, on the opposite side of which was a corresponding row of -buildings. With a few exceptions these houses were empty, for the -population gather only three or four times in the course of the year, at -certain festival seasons. Generally they are scattered about in their -different sitios, attending to their plantations. But at these fêtes -they assemble to the number of several hundred, all the dwellings are -crowded with families, and the square in the centre is cleared of grass, -swept and garnished for their evening dances. Such festivities last for -ten days or a fortnight; then they all disperse to their working life -again. At this time there are not more than thirty or forty persons in -the village. The most interesting object we saw was their church, which -stands at the head of the square, and was built entirely by the Indians -themselves. It is quite a large structure, capable of holding an -assembly of five or six hundred persons. The walls are of mud, very -neatly finished inside, and painted in colors made by the Indians from -the bark, roots, and fruits of certain trees, and also from a particular -kind of clay. The front part of the church is wholly unfurnished, except -for the rough wooden font standing just within the door. But the farther -end is partitioned off to make a neat chancel, within which several -steps lead up to the altar and niche above, where is placed the rude -image of the Mother and the Child. Of course the architecture and the -ornaments are of the coarsest description; the painting consists only of -stripes or lines of blue, red, and yellow, with here and there an -attempt at a star or a diamond, or a row of scalloping; but there is -something touching in the idea that these poor, uneducated people of the -forest have cared to build themselves a temple with their own hands, -lavishing upon it such ideas of beauty and taste as they have, and -bringing at least their best to their humble altar. None of our city -churches, on which millions have been expended, have power to move one -like this church, the loving work of the worshippers themselves, with -its mud walls so coarsely painted, its wooden cross before the door, and -little thatched belfry at one side. It is sad that these people, with so -much religious sensibility, are not provided with any regular service. -At long intervals a priest, on his round of visitations, makes his way -to them, but, except on such rare occasions, they have no one to -administer the rites of burial or baptism, or to give religious -instruction to them or to their children. And yet their church was -faultlessly clean, the mud floor was strewn with fresh green leaves, and -everything about the building showed it to be the object of solicitude -and care. Their houses were very neat, and they themselves were decently -dressed in the invariable costume of the civilized Indian,—the men in -trousers and white cotton shirts, the women in calico petticoats, with -short, loose chemises, either of cotton or calico, and their long, thick -black hair drawn up and fastened on the top of their head by a -semicircular comb, brought so far forward that the edge is about on a -line with the forehead. A bunch of flowers is generally stuck under the -comb on one side. I have never seen an Indian woman who did not wear one -of these round combs; although of foreign manufacture, they find their -way to the most isolated forest settlements, brought, I suppose, by the -travelling pedlers, “regataō.” These gentry are known everywhere on the -banks of the Amazons and its tributaries, and are said to be most -unprincipled in their dealings with the Indians, who fall readily into -the traps set for them by the wily traders. In one of the reports of Dr. -Adolfo, who, during his short but able administration, exposed, and as -far as it was in his power reformed, abuses in the province of the -Amazonas, he says, after speaking of the great need of religious -instruction in the more remote settlements: “To-day who goes to seek the -Indian in the depth of his virgin forests along the shores of these -endless rivers? No one, if it be not the ‘regataō,’ less barbarous -certainly than he, but much more corrupt; who spies upon him, depraves -and dishonors him, under the pretext of trading.” After our visit to the -church, the whole population, men, women, and children, accompanied us -down to the beach to receive their presents, distributed by the -President in person: common jewelry, which they appreciate highly, -calico dresses, beads, scissors, needles, and looking-glasses for the -women; knives, fish-hooks, hatchets, and other working tools for the -men; and a variety of little trinkets and playthings for the children. -But though a cordial, kindly people, they have the impassiveness of the -genuine Indian. I did not see a change of expression on any face or hear -a word of acknowledgment or pleasure. The only smile was when, being -tired with standing in the sun, I sat down among the women, and, as the -things were passed rapidly around the circle, I was taken for one of -them, and received a very gay gown for my share. This caused a general -shout of laughter, and seemed to delight them greatly. We returned to -the steamer to breakfast at ten o’clock, and in the afternoon the whole -village came out to satisfy their curiosity about the vessel. They are a -generous people. I never go among them without receiving some little -present, which it would be an insult to refuse. Such as they have they -offer to the stranger; it may be a fruit, or a few eggs, or a chicken, a -cuia, a basket or a bunch of flowers, but their feelings would be -wounded were you to go away empty-handed. On this occasion the daughter -of the chief brought me a fine fat fowl, another woman gave me a basket, -and another a fruit which resembles very much our winter squash, and is -used in the same way. I was glad to have with me some large beads and a -few little pictures of saints with which to acknowledge their gifts. But -I believe they do not think of any return; it is simply a rite of -hospitality with them to make their guest a present. They went over the -vessel, heard the cannon fired off, and, as the captain took them on a -little excursion, they saw the machine and the wheels in action; but -they looked at all with the same calm, quiet air of acceptance, above, -or perhaps one should rather say below, any emotion of surprise. For is -not the readiness to receive new impressions, to be surprised, -delighted, moved, one of the great gifts of the white race, as different -from the impassiveness of the Indian as their varying complexion from -the dark skin, which knows neither blush nor pallor? We could have but -little conversation with these people, for, with the exception of the -chief and one or two men who acted as interpreters, they spoke only the -“lingua geral,” and did not understand Portuguese. - -_December 15th._—After the Indians had left us yesterday, we proceeded -on our way to another settlement, where we expected to find a -considerable village. We arrived after dark, and some of the party went -on shore; but they found only a grass-grown path and deserted houses. -The whole population was in the forest. To-day, however, two or three -canoesful of people have come off to the steamer to greet the President -and receive their presents. Among them was an old woman who must have -come originally from some more primitive settlement. The lower part of -her face was tattooed in a bluish-black tint, covering the mouth and -lower part of the cheeks to the base of the ears. Below this the chin -was tattooed in a kind of network, no doubt considered very graceful and -becoming in her day and generation. A black line was drawn across the -nose, and from the outer corner of the eyes to the ears, giving the -effect of a pair of spectacles. The upper part of the breast was -tattooed in an open-work, headed by two straight lines drawn around the -shoulders as if to represent a coarse lace finish, such as one -constantly sees around the necks of their chemises. They left us at -breakfast, and we are now on our way back to Mauhes, after a most -interesting excursion. - -[Illustration: Mundurucu Indian (Male).[87]] - -_December 16th._—Mauhes. We arrived here yesterday at midday, and, as it -happened, we found in the village an Indian and his wife, who, as -specimens of the genuine Mundurucus, were more interesting than those we -had visited. They came on trading business from a distant settlement -some twenty days’ journey from Mauhes. The man’s whole face is tattooed -in bluish black, this singular mask being finished on the edge by a -fine, open pattern, about half an inch broad, running around the jaws -and chin. His ears are pierced with very large holes, from which, when -his costume is complete, pieces of wood are suspended, and his whole -body is covered with a neat and intricate network of tattooing. At -present, however, being in civilized regions, he is dressed in trousers -and shirt. In the woman the mask of tattooing covers only the lowest -part of the face, the upper part being free, with the exception of the -line across the nose and eyes. Her chin and neck are also ornamented -like that of the old woman we saw yesterday. They speak no Portuguese, -and seem rather reluctant to answer the questions of the interpreter. - -[Illustration: Mundurucu Indian (Female).] - -Mr. Agassiz has been very fortunate in collecting in this region. -Although we are at so short a distance from Manaos, where he already -knows the fishes tolerably well, he finds a surprising number of new -genera and species about Mauhes and its neighborhood. As usual, wherever -we go, everybody turns naturalist in his behalf. Our kind friend, the -President, always ready to do everything in his power to facilitate his -researches, has several boats out, manned by the best fishermen of the -place, fishing for him. The commander, while his ship lies at anchor, -has his men employed in the same way; and Mr. Michelis and his friends -are also indefatigable. Occasionally, however, in the midst of his -successes, he has to bear disappointments, arising from the ignorance -and superstition of the working people. Ever since he came to the -Amazons he has been trying to obtain a specimen of a peculiar kind of -porpoise, native to these waters. It is, however, very difficult to -obtain, because, being useless for food, there is nothing to induce the -Indian to overcome the difficulty of catching it. Mr. Michelis has, -however, impressed upon the fishermen the value of the prize, and, -yesterday evening, just as we were rising from the dinner-table, it was -announced that one was actually on its way up from the beach. Followed -by the whole party of sympathizing friends,—for all had caught the -infection,—Mr. Agassiz hastened out to behold his long-desired treasure; -and there was his Boto, but sadly mutilated, for one Indian had cut off -a piece of the fin as a cure for a sick person, another had taken out an -eye as a love-charm, which, if it could be placed near the person of the -girl he loved, would win him her favor, and so on. Injured as it was, -Mr. Agassiz was, nevertheless, very glad to have the specimen; but he -locked it up carefully for the night, not knowing what other titbits -might be coveted by the superstitious inhabitants. - -_December 18th._—In the midst of the zoölogical work, the collection of -palms, which is now becoming very considerable, is not forgotten. This -morning we went into the forest for the purpose of gathering young palms -to compare with the full-grown ones, already cut down and put up for -transportation. In these woods a thousand objects attract the eye, -beside that which you especially seek. How many times we stopped to -wonder at some lofty tree which was a world of various vegetation in -itself, parasites established in all its nooks and corners, sipos -hanging from its branches or twining themselves so close against the -bark that they often seem as if sculptured on its trunk; or paused to -listen to the quick rustle of the wind in palm-leaves fifty feet above -our heads, not at all like the slow, gathering rush of the wind in -pine-trees at home, but like rapidly running water. Through the narrow -path an immense butterfly, of that vivid blue which excites our wonder -in collections of Brazilian insects, came sailing towards us. He -alighted in our immediate neighborhood, folding all his azure glories -out of sight, and looking, when still, like a great brown moth, spotted -with white. We crept softly nearer, but the first leaf trodden under -foot warned him, and he was off again, dazzling us with the beauty of -his wonderful coloring as he opened his wings and, bidding us a gay -good-by, vanished among the trees. The sailing motion of these Morphos, -though rapid, contrasts strikingly with the more fluttering flight of -the Heliconians. The former give broad, strong strokes with their wide -wings, the latter beat the air with quick, impatient, tremulous -movements. - -_December 20th._—This morning we left Mauhes, accompanied by our -Mundurucu Indian and his wife. The President takes them to Manaos, in -the hope of obtaining their portraits to enlarge Mr. Agassiz’s -collection. I am interested in watching the deportment of these people, -which is marked by a striking propriety that wins respect. They have -remained in the seat where the Captain has placed them, not moving, -except to bring their little baggage, from which the woman has taken out -her work and is now busy in sewing, while her husband makes cigarette -envelopes from a bark used by the Indians for this purpose;—certainly -very civilized occupations for savages. As they speak no Portuguese, we -can only communicate with them through the interpreter or through Mr. -Coutinho, who has considerable familiarity with the “lingua geral.” They -seem more responsive, more ready to enter into conversation now than -when we first saw them; but the woman, when addressed, or when anything -is offered to her, invariably turns to her husband, as if the decision -of everything rested with him. It might be thought that the fantastic -ornaments of these Indians would effectually disguise all pretence to -beauty; but it is not so with this pair. Their features are fine, the -build of the face solid and square, but not clumsy, and there is a -passive dignity in their bearing which makes itself felt, spite of their -tattooing. I have never seen anything like the calm in the man’s face; -it is not the stolidity of dulness, for his expression is sagacious and -observant, but a look of such abiding tranquillity that you cannot -imagine that it ever has been or ever will be different. The woman’s -face is more mobile; occasionally a smile lights it up, and her -expression is sweet and gentle. Even her painted spectacles do not -destroy the soft, drooping look in the eyes, very common among the -Indian women here, and, as it would seem, characteristic of the women in -the South American tribes; for Humboldt speaks of it in those of the -Spanish provinces to the north. - -Major Coutinho tells us that the tattooing has nothing to do with -individual taste, but that the pattern is appointed for both sexes, and -is invariable throughout the tribe. It is connected with their caste, -the limits of which are very precise, and with their religion. The -tradition runs thus, childish and inconsequent, like all such primitive -fables. The first man, Caro Sacaibu, was also divine. Associated with -him was his son, and an inferior being named Rairu, to whom, although he -was as it were his prime minister and executed his commands, Caro -Sacaibu was inimical. Among other stratagems he used to get rid of him -was the following. He made a figure in imitation of a tatu (armadillo), -and buried it partly in the earth, leaving only the tail exposed. He -covered the tail with a kind of oil, which when touched adheres to the -skin. He then commanded Rairu to drag the half-buried tatu out of its -hole and bring it to him. Rairu seized it by the tail, but was of course -unable to withdraw his hand, and the tatu, suddenly endowed with life by -the Supreme Being, dived into the earth, dragging Rairu with him. The -story does not say how Rairu found his way out of the earth again, but, -being a spirit of great cunning and invention, he contrived to reach the -upper air once more. On his return, he informed Caro Sacaibu that he had -found in the earth a great many men and women, and that it would be an -excellent thing to get them out to till the soil and make themselves -useful above ground. This advice seems to have found favor in the sight -of Caro Sacaibu, who forthwith planted a seed in the ground. From this -seed sprang a cotton-tree, for into this fantastic tale is thus woven -the origin of cotton. The tree throve and grew apace, and from the soft -white contents of its pods Caro Sacaibu made a long thread, with one end -of which Rairu descended once more into the earth by the same hole -through which he had entered before. He collected the people together, -and they were dragged up through the hole by means of the thread. The -first who came out were small and ugly, but gradually they improved in -their personal appearance, until at last the men began to be finely -formed and handsome, and the women beautiful. Unfortunately, by this -time the thread was much worn, and being too weak to hold them, the -greater number of handsome people fell back into the hole and were lost. -It is for this reason that beauty is so rare a gift in the world. Caro -Sacaibu now separated the population he had thus drawn from the bowels -of the earth, dividing them into different tribes, marking them with -distinct colors and patterns, which they have since retained, and -appointing their various occupations. At the end there remained over a -residue, consisting of the ugliest, smallest, most insignificant -representatives of the human race; to these he said, drawing at the same -time a red line over their noses, “You are not worthy to be men and -women,—go and be animals.” And so they were changed into birds, and ever -since, the Mutums, with their red beaks and melancholy wailing voices, -wander through the woods. - -The tattooing of the Mundurucus is not only connected with this dim idea -of a primitive creative command; it is also indicative of aristocracy. A -man who neglected this distinction would not be respected in his tribe; -and so strong is this traditional association, that, even in civilized -settlements where tattooing is no longer practised, an instinctive -respect is felt for this mark of nobility. A Mundurucu Indian, tattooed -after the ancient fashion of his tribe, arriving in a civilized village, -such as the one we visited, is received with the honor due to a person -of rank. “Il faut souffrir pour être beau,” was never truer than among -these savages. It requires not less than ten years to complete the -tattooing of the whole face and body; the operation being performed, -however, only at intervals. The color is introduced by fine puncturings -over the whole surface; a process which is often painful, and causes -swelling and inflammation, especially on such sensitive parts as the -eyelids. The purity of type among the Mundurucus is protected by -stringent laws against close intermarriages. The tribe is divided into -certain orders or classes, more or less closely allied; and so far do -they carry their respect for that law, which, though recognized in the -civilized world, is so constantly sinned against, that marriage is -forbidden, not only between members of the same family, but between -those of the same order. A Mundurucu Indian treats a woman of the same -order with himself as a sister; any nearer relation between them is -impossible. Major Coutinho, who has made a very careful study of the -manners and habits of these people, assures us that there is no law more -sacred among them, or more rigidly observed, than this one. Their fine -physique, for which they are said to be remarkable, is perhaps owing to -this. They are free from one great source of degeneration of type. It is -to be hoped that Major Coutinho, who, while making his explorations as -an engineer on the Amazonian rivers, has also made a careful study of -the tribes living along their margins, will one day publish the result -of his investigations. It is to him we owe the greater part of the -information we have collected on this subject. - ------ - -Footnote 87: - - I did not succeed in getting good likenesses of this Mundurucu pair. - The above wood-cuts do no justice to their features and expression, - though they give a faithful record of the peculiar mode of - tattooing.—L. A. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - RETURN TO MANAOS.—EXCURSION ON THE RIO NEGRO.—LEAVE MANAOS. - - CHRISTMAS EVE AT MANAOS.—CEREMONIES OF THE INDIANS.—CHURCHES ON - THE AMAZONS.—LEAVE MANAOS FOR THE RIO NEGRO.—CURIOUS RIVER - FORMATION.—ASPECT OF THE RIVER.—ITS VEGETATION.—SCANTY - POPULATION.—VILLAGE OF TAUA PÉASSU.—PADRE OF THE - VILLAGE.—PALMS.—VILLAGE OF PEDREIRA.—INDIAN CAMP.—MAKING - PALM-THATCH.—SICKNESS AND WANT AT PEDREIRA.—ROW IN THE - FOREST.—TROPICAL SHOWER.—GEOLOGY OF PEDREIRA.—INDIAN - RECRUITS.—COLLECTION OF PALMS.—EXTRACTS FROM MR. AGASSIZ’S - NOTES ON THE VEGETATION OF THE AMAZONS AND THE RIO - NEGRO.—RETURN TO MANAOS.—DESOLATION OF THE RIO NEGRO.—ITS - FUTURE PROSPECTS.—HUMBOLDT’S ANTICIPATIONS.—WILD - FLOWERS.—DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN THE AMAZONIAN WATERS.—HOW - FAR DUE TO MIGRATION.—HYDROGRAPHIC SYSTEM.—ALTERNATION BETWEEN - THE RISE AND FALL OF THE SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN TRIBUTARIES. - - -_December 25th._—Manaos. The Indians have a pretty observance here for -Christmas eve. At nightfall, from the settlements at Hyanuary, two -illuminated canoes come across the river to Manaos; one bearing the -figure of Our Lady, the other of Saint Rosalia. They look very brilliant -as they come towards the shore, all the light concentrated about the -figures carried erect in the prows. On landing, the Indians, many of -whom have come to the city in advance, form a procession,—the women -dressed in white, and with flowers in their hair, the men carrying -torches or candles; and they follow the sacred images, which are borne -under a canopy in front of the procession, to the church, where they are -deposited, and remain during Christmas week. We entered with them, and -saw the kneeling, dusky congregation, and the two saints,—one a wooden, -coarsely painted image of the Virgin, the other a gayly dressed -doll,—placed on a small altar, where was also a figure of the infant -Jesus, surrounded by flowers. At a later hour the midnight mass was -celebrated; less interesting to me than the earlier ceremony, because -not so exclusively a service of the Indians, though they formed a large -part of the congregation; and the music, as usual, was performed by the -band of Indian boys from the Casa dos Educandos. But there is nothing -here to make the Catholic service impressive; the churches on the -Amazons generally are of the most ordinary kind, and in a ruinous -condition. There is a large unfinished stone church in Manaos, standing -on the hill, and occupying a commanding position, which will make it a -conspicuous object if it is ever completed; but it has stood in its -present state for years, and seems likely to remain so for an indefinite -length of time. It is a pity they have not the custom here of dressing -their churches with green at Christmas, because they have so singularly -beautiful and appropriate a tree for it in the palms. The Pupunha palm, -for instance, so architectural in its symmetry, with its columnar-like -stem and its dark-green vault of drooping leaves, would be admirable for -this purpose. To-morrow we leave Manaos in the “Ibicuhy,” in order to -ascend the Rio Negro as far as Pedreira, where the first granitic -formation is said to occur. - -_December 27th._—On board the “Ibicuhy.” There was little incident to -mark our day yesterday, and yet it was one full of enjoyment. The day -itself was such as rarely occurs in these regions; indeed, I should say -it is the only time, during the whole six months we have passed on the -Amazons, when we have had cool weather with a clear sky. Cool weather -here is usually the result of rain. As soon as the sun shows his face -the heat is great. But yesterday a strong wind was blowing down the Rio -Negro; and its usually black, still waters were freshened to blue, and -their surface broken by white caps. It is a curious fact in the history -of this river, that, while tributary to the Amazons, it also receives -branches from it. A little above its junction with the Solimoens, the -latter sends several small affluents into the Rio Negro, the entrance to -which we passed yesterday. The contrast between their milky-white waters -and the clear, dark, amber tint of the main river makes them very -conspicuous. It would seem that this is not a solitary instance of river -formation in this gigantic fresh-water system; for Humboldt says, -speaking of the double communication between the Cassiquiare and the Rio -Negro, and the great number of branches by which the Rio Branco and the -Rio Hyapura enter into the Rio Negro and the Amazons: “At the confluence -of the Hyapura there is a much more extraordinary phenomenon. Before -this river joins the Amazons, the latter, which is the principal -recipient, sends off three branches, called Uaranapu, Manhama, and -Avateparana, to the Hyapura, which is but a tributary stream. The -Portuguese astronomer, Ribeiro, has proved this important fact. The -Amazons gives waters to the Hyapura itself before it receives that -tributary stream.” So does it also to the Rio Negro. - -The physiognomy of the Rio Negro is peculiar, and very different from -that of the Amazons or the Solimoens. The shores jut out in frequent -promontories, which, while they form deep bays between, narrow the river -from distance to distance, and, as we advance towards them, look like -the entrances to harbors or lakes. Indeed, we have already passed -several large lakes; but great sheets of water so abound here that they -are nameless, and hardly attract attention. The vegetation also is -different from that of the Amazons. As yet we have seen few palms; and -the forest is characterized by a great number of trees, the summits of -which are evenly and gently arched, forming flattened domes. The most -remarkable of these, on account of its lofty height and spreading -foliage, is the Sumauméra, to which I have alluded before. But this -umbrella-like mode of growth is by no means confined to one tree, but, -like the buttressed trunks, characterizes a number of Brazilian trees. -It is, however, more frequent here than we have seen it elsewhere. The -shores seem very scantily inhabited; indeed, during our whole journey -yesterday, we met but one canoe, which we hailed, in order to inquire -our distance from the little hamlet of Taua Péassu, where we meant to -drop anchor for the night. It was the boat of an Indian family going -down the river. We were reminded that we were leaving inhabited regions, -for the man who was rowing was quite naked; his wife and children peeped -out from under the tolda in the stern of the boat. We received from them -the welcome intelligence that we were not far from our destination, -where we accordingly arrived soon after nightfall. At this hour we could -form but little idea of the appearance of the place; yet, by the -moonlight, we could see that its few houses (some eight or ten, perhaps) -stood on a crescent-shaped terrace, formed by the bank of a little bay -which puts in just at this point. The gentlemen went on shore, and -brought back the padre of the village to tea. He seems a man of a good -deal of intelligence, and was eloquent upon the salubrity of the -village, its freedom from mosquitoes, piums, and all kinds of noxious -insects. At first a life so remote and isolated seems a hard lot, and -one would think only the greatest devotion could induce a man to -undertake it. But there is hardly a corner so remote in Brazil as not to -be reached by the petty local politics; and the padre is said to be a -great politician, his campaign before election among the poor people -with whom his lot is cast being as exciting to him as that of any man -who canvasses in a more distinguished arena; the more satisfactory, -perhaps, because he has the game very much in his own hands. We left -Taua Péassu with the dawn, and are again on our way to Pedreira. The -weather still continues most favorable for travelling,—an overcast sky -and a cool breeze. But to-day the black river sleeps without a ripple; -and, as we pass along, the trees meet the water, and are so perfectly -reflected in it that we can hardly distinguish the dividing line. I have -said that the forest is not characterized by palms, and yet we see many -species which we have not met before; among these is the Jara-assú, with -its tall, slender stem, and broom-like tuft of stiff leaves. Mr. Agassiz -has just gone on shore in the montaria, to cut down some palms of -another kind, new to him. As he returns, the little boat seems to have -undergone some marvellous change; it looks like a green raft floating on -the water, and we can hardly see the figures of the rowers for the -beautiful crowns of the palm-trees. - -_December 29th._—Pedreira. I have said little about the insects and -reptiles which play so large a part in most Brazilian travels, and, -indeed, I have had much less annoyance from this source than I had -expected. But I must confess the creature who greeted my waking sight -this morning was not a pleasant object to contemplate. It was an -enormous centipede close by my side, nearly a foot in length, whose -innumerable legs looked just ready for a start, and whose two horns or -feelers were protruded with a most venomous expression. These animals -are not only hideous to look upon, but their bite is very painful, -though not dangerous. I crept softly away from my sofa without -disturbing my ugly neighbor, who presently fell a victim to science; -being very adroitly caught under a large tumbler, and consigned to a -glass jar filled with alcohol. Captain Faria says that centipedes are -often brought on board with the wood, among which they usually lie -concealed, seldom making their appearance, unless disturbed and driven -out of their hiding-place. To less noxious visitors of this kind one -gets soon accustomed. As I shake out my dress, I hear a cold flop on the -floor, and a pretty little house-lizard, who has found a warm retreat in -its folds, makes his escape with all celerity. Cockroaches swarm -everywhere, and it would be a vigilant housekeeper who could keep her -closets free of them. Ants are the greatest nuisance of all, and the -bite of the fire-ant is really terrible. I remember once, in Esperança’s -cottage, having hung some towels to dry on the cord of my hammock; I was -about to remove them, when suddenly my hand and arm seemed plunged into -fire. I dropped the towels as if they had been hot coals, which for the -moment they literally seemed to be, and then I saw that my arm was -covered with little brown ants. Brushing them off in all haste, I called -Laudigari, who found an army of them passing over the hammock, and out -of the window, near which it hung. He said they were on their way -somewhere, and, if left undisturbed, would be gone in an hour or two. -And so it proved to be. We saw no more of them. Major Coutinho says -that, in certain Amazonian tribes, the Indian bridegroom is subjected to -a singular test. On the day of his marriage, while the wedding -festivities are going on, his hand is tied up in a paper bag filled with -fire-ants. If he bears this torture smilingly and unmoved, he is -considered fit for the trials of matrimony. - -Yesterday we arrived at Pedreira, a little village consisting of some -fifteen or twenty houses hemmed in by forest. The place certainly -deserves its name of the “place of stones,” for the shore is fringed -with rocks and boulders. We landed at once, and Mr. Coutinho and Mr. -Agassiz spent the morning in geologizing and botanizing. In the course -of our ramble we came upon an exceedingly picturesque Indian camp. The -river is now so high that the water runs far up into the forest. In such -an overflowed wood, a number of Indian montarias were moored; while, on -a tract of dry land near by, the Indians had cleared a little grove, -cutting down the inner trees, and leaving only the outer ones standing, -so as to make a shady, circular arbor. Within this arbor the hammocks -were slung; while outside were the kettles and water-jugs, and utensils -of one sort and another. In this little camp were several Indian -families, who had left their mandioca plantations in the forest, to pass -the Christmas festa in the village. I asked the women what they did, -they and their babies, of which there were a goodly number, when it -rained; for a roof of foliage is poor shelter in these tropical rains, -descending, not in drops, but in sheets. They laughed, and, pointing to -their canoes, said they crept under the tolda, the arched roof of -palm-thatch which always encloses the stern of an Indian montaria, and -were safe. Even this, in the open river, would not be a protection; but, -moored as the boats are in the midst of a thick wood, they do not -receive the full force of the showers. In returning from our walk we -stopped at a house where an Indian was making palm-thatch from the -leaflets of the Curua palm. When quite young, they are packed closely -around the midrib. The Indians turn them down, leaving them attached to -the axis by a few fibres only, so that, when the midrib is held up, they -hang from it like so many straw-colored ribands, being, at that age, of -a very delicate color. With these leaves they thatch their walls and -roofs, setting the midrib, which is strong and sometimes four or five -yards long, across, to serve as a support, and binding down the pendent -leaves. Such a thatch will last for years, and is an excellent -protection from rain as well as sun. I should add, that, in other parts -of the country, different kinds of palms are used for this purpose. - -On our return to the village we were met by the padre, who invited us to -rest at his house, stopping on the way, at our request, to show us the -church. The condition of a settlement is generally indicated by the -state of the church. This one was sadly in want of repairs, the mud -walls being pierced with more windows than they were originally intended -to possess; but the interior was neat, and the altar prettier than one -would expect to find in so poor a place as Pedreira appears to be. -Perhaps the church was in better order than usual, being indeed in -festival trim. Christmas week was not yet over, and the baby Christ lay -on his green bed in a little arbor of leaves and flowers, evidently made -expressly for the purpose. The padre of this little village, Father -Samuel, an Italian priest, who has passed many years of his life among -the Indians of South America, partly in Bolivia and partly in Brazil, -had not so much to say in favor of the healthfulness of his parish as -the padre whom we had seen the night before in Taua Péassu. He told us -that intermittent fever, from which he had suffered much himself, is -frequent, and that the people are poorly and insufficiently fed. When -they have had no recent arrival from Manaos, neither coffee, sugar, tea, -nor bread are to be had in the village. As there is no beach here, the -fishing is done at a distance on the other side of the river; and when -the waters are very high, fish are not obtained even there. At such -times the Indians live exclusively on farinha d’agua and water. This -meagre diet, though injurious to the health, satisfies the cravings of -hunger with those accustomed to it; but the few whites in this solitary -place suffer severely. What a comment is this scarcity of food on the -indolence and indifference of the population in a region where an -immense variety of vegetables might be cultivated with little labor, -where the pasturage is excellent (as is attested by the fine condition -of the few cows at Pedreira), and where coffee, cacao, cotton, and sugar -have a genial climate and soil, and yield more copious crops than in -many countries from which large exports of these productions are made! -And yet, in this land of abundance, the people live in dread of actual -want. The village consists, as I have said, of some fifteen or twenty -houses, all of which are at this moment occupied; but Father Samuel -tells us that we see the little place at its flood-tide, Christmas week -having brought together the inhabitants of the neighborhood. They will -disperse again, after a few days, to their palm-houses and mandioca -plantations in the forest; and the padre says that, on many a Sunday -throughout the year, his congregation consists only of himself and the -boys who assist at the service. - -After we had rested for half an hour at the priest’s house, he proposed -to send us to his little mandioca plantation at a short distance in the -forest, where a particular kind of palm, which Mr. Agassiz greatly -coveted, was to be obtained. Such a proposition naturally suggests a -walk; but in this country of inundated surfaces land journeys, as will -be seen, are often made by water. We started in a montaria, and, after -keeping along the river for some time, we turned into the woods and -began to navigate the forest. The water was still and clear as glass: -the trunks of the trees stood up from it, their branches dipped into it; -and as we wound in and out among them, putting aside a bough here and -there, or stooping to float under a green arbor, the reflection of every -leaf was so perfect that wood and water seemed to melt into each other, -and it was difficult to say where the one began and the other ended. -Silence and shade so profound brooded over the whole scene that the mere -ripple of our paddles seemed a disturbance. After half an hour’s row we -came to dry land, where we went on shore, taking our boatmen with us; -and the wood soon resounded with the sound of their hatchets, as the -palms fell under their blows. We returned with a boat-load of palms, -besides a number of plants of various kinds which we had not seen -elsewhere. We reached the “Ibicuhy” just in time; for scarcely were we -well on board and in snug quarters again, when the heavens opened and -the floods came down. I am not yet accustomed to the miraculous force -and profusion of these torrents of water, and every shower is a fresh -surprise. Yet the rainy season is no such impediment to travelling and -working as we had supposed it would be. The rain is by no means -continuous, and there are often several days together of clear weather. -Indeed, it no more rains all the time in the rainy season here than it -snows all the time in the winter with us. One word of the geology. The -Pedreira granite, of which we had heard, proves to be a granitoid -mica-slate,—a highly metamorphic rock, indistinctly stratified, but -resembling granite in its composition. It is in immediate contact with -the red drift which rests above it. - -This morning we had a melancholy proof of the brutality of recruiting -here, of which we have already heard so much. Several Indians, who had -been kept in confinement in Pedreira for some days, waiting for an -opportunity to send them to Manaos, were brought out to the ship. These -poor wretches had their feet passed through heavy blocks of wood, the -holes being just large enough to fit around the ankles. Of course they -could only move with the greatest difficulty; and they were half pushed, -half dragged up the side of the vessel, one of them having apparently -such a fit of ague upon him that, when he was fairly landed on his feet, -I could see him shake from my seat at a distance of half the deck. These -Indians can speak no Portuguese: they cannot understand why they are -forced to go; they only know that they are seized in the woods and -treated as if they were the worst criminals; punished with barbarity for -no crime, and then sent to fight for the government which so misuses -them. To the honor of our commander be it said, that he showed the -deepest indignation at the condition in which these men were delivered -into his hands: he caused the blocks of wood to be sawed off their feet -immediately, gave them wine and food, and showed them every kindness. He -protested that the whole proceeding was illegal, and contrary to the -intentions of the central authority. It is, however, the way in which -the recruiting is accomplished throughout this Indian district; and the -defence made by those who justify it is, that the Indians, like any -other citizens, must fight for the maintenance of the laws which protect -them; that the government needs their services; and that this is the -only way to secure them, as they are very unwilling to go, and very -cunning and agile in escaping. Beside these three men, there were two -others; one a volunteer, and the other from a better class, the pilot of -the cataract on the Rio Branco. A man so employed ought, for the sake of -the community, to be exempt from military service, as few persons -understand the dangerous navigation of the river, where broken by -cascades. He will doubtless be sent back when his case is represented to -the President of the province. - -_December 31st._—Again on our way back to Manaos, having made, on our -return, another short stay at Taua Péassu, where, during the two days of -our absence, the padre of the village had prepared a large collection of -palms for Mr. Agassiz. Our collection of palms is becoming quite -numerous; and though they must of course, in the process of drying, lose -all their beauty of coloring, we hope they may retain something of the -grace and dignity of their bearing. But even should this not be the -case, they will answer every purpose of study, as with each one -specimens of its fruit and flowers are preserved in alcohol. A palm has -just been brought on board—the Baccába, or wine-palm (Œnocarpus)—from -which the flowers droop in long crimson cords, with bright-green berries -from distance to distance along their length, like an immense coral -tassel, flecked here and there with green, hanging from the dark trunk -of the tree. The mode of flowering of the cocoa-nut palm, which we see -everywhere though it is not indigenous here, is very beautiful. The -flowers burst from the sheath in a long plume of soft, creamy-white -blossoms: such a plume is so heavy with the weight of pendent flowers -that it can hardly be lifted; and its effect is very striking, hanging -high up on the trunk, just under the green vault of leaves. I think -there is nothing among the characteristic features of tropical scenery -of which one forms less idea at home than of the palms. Their name is -legion; the variety of their forms, of their foliage, fruit, and -flowers, is perfectly bewildering; and yet, as a group, their character -is unmistakable. The following extracts are taken from Mr. Agassiz’s -notes on palms, written during this excursion on the Rio Negro. - -[Illustration: Fan Baccába (Œnocarpus distychius).] - -“The palms, as a natural group, stand out among all other plants with -remarkable distinctness and individuality. And yet this common -character, uniting them so closely as a natural order, does not prevent -the most striking difference between various kinds of palms. As a whole, -no family of trees is more similar; generically and specifically none is -more varied, even though other families include a greater number of -species. Their differences seem to me to be determined in a great -measure by the peculiar arrangement of their leaves; indeed, palms, with -their colossal leaves, few in number, may be considered as ornamental -diagrams of the primary laws according to which the leaves of all plants -throughout the whole vegetable kingdom are arranged; laws now recognized -by the most advanced botanists of the day, and designated by them as -Phyllotaxis. The simplest arrangement in these mathematics of the -vegetable world is that of the grasses, in which the leaves are placed -alternately on opposite sides of the stem, thus dividing the space -around it in equal halves. As the stem of the grasses elongates, these -pairs of leaves are found scattered along its length; and it is only in -ears or spikes of some genera that we find them growing so compactly on -the axis as to form a close head. Of this law of growth the palm known -as the Baccába of Pará (Œnocarpus distychius) is an admirable -illustration; its leaves being disposed in pairs one above another at -the summit of the stem, but in such immediate contact as to form a thick -crown. On account of this disposition of the leaves, its appearance is -totally different from that of any other palm with which I am -acquainted. I do not know any palm in which the leaves are arranged in -three directions only, as in the reeds and sedges of our marshes, unless -it be the Jacitara (Desmonchus), whose winding slender stem, however, -makes the observation uncertain. An arrangement in five different -directions is common in all those palms which, when young, have only a -cluster of five fully developed leaves above the ground, with a -spade-like sixth leaf rising from the centre. When full grown, they -usually exhibit a crown of ten or fifteen leaves and more, divided into -tiers of five, one above the other, but so close together that the whole -appears like a rounded head. Sometimes, however, the crown is more open, -as in the Maximiliana regia (Inaja), for instance, in which the stem is -not very high, and the leaves, always in cycles of five, spread -slightly, so as to form an open vase rising from a slender stem. The -Assai (Euterpe edulis) has an eight-leaved arrangement, and has never -more than a single cycle of leaves, though it may sometimes have seven -leaves when the first of the old cycle has dropped, before the ninth, -with which the new cycle begins, has opened; or nine, if the first leaf -of the new cycle (the ninth in number) has opened, before the first of -the old cycle has dropped. These leaves, of a delicate, pale green, are -cut into a thousand leaflets, which tremble in the lightest breeze, and -tell you that the air is stirring even when the heat seems breathless. A -more elegant and attractive diagram of the Phyllotaxis of ⅜ probably -does not exist in nature. The common Cocoa-nut tree has its leaves -arranged according to the fraction of 5/13; but, though the crown -consists of several cycles of leaves, they do not form a close head, -because the older ones become pendent, while the younger are more erect. -The Pupunha, or peach palm (Guilielma), follows the Phyllotaxis of 8/21; -but in this instance all the leaves are evenly arched over, so that the -whole forms a deep-green vault, the more beautiful from the rich color -of the foliage. When the heavy cluster of ripe, red fruit hangs under -this dark vault, the tree is in its greatest beauty. As the leaves of -this palm are not so closely set in the younger specimens as in the -older ones, its aspect changes at different stages of growth; the leaves -in the younger trees being distributed over a greater length of the -trunk, while, in the adult taller ones, they are more compact. This -arrangement is repeated in the Javari and Tucuma (Astrocaryum); but in -these the closely-set leaves stand erect, broom-like, at the head of the -long stalk. In the Mucaja (Acrocomia) the leaves are arranged according -to the fraction 13/34. Thus, under the same fundamental principle of -growth, an infinite variety is introduced, among trees of one order, by -the slight differences in the distribution and constitution of the -leaves themselves. In the Musaceæ, or Scytamineæ, the Bananas, another -order of the same class of plants, a diversity equally remarkable is -produced in the same way, namely, by slight modifications of this -fundamental law. What can differ more in appearance than the common -Banana (Musa paradisiaca), with its large simple leaves, so loosely -arranged around the stem, so graceful and easy in their movements, and -the Banana of Madagascar (Ravenala madagascariensis), commonly known as -the Traveller’s tree, which, like the Baccába of Pará, has its leaves -alternating regularly on opposite sides of the trunk, and so closely -packed together as to form an immense flat fan on a colossal stem? Yet, -in all these plants the arrangement of leaves obeys the same law, which -is illustrated with equal distinctness by each one. This mathematical -disposition of leaves is thus shown to be compatible with a great -variety of essentially different structures; and though the law of -Phyllotaxis prevails in all plants, being limited neither to class, -orders, families, genera, nor species, but running in various -combinations through the whole kingdom, I believe it can be studied to -especial advantage in the group of palms, on account of the prominence -of their few large leaves. The most abundant and characteristic palms of -the Rio Negro are the Javari (Astrocaryum Javari), the Muru-Muru -(Astrocaryum Murumuru), the Uauassu (Attalea speciosa), the Inaja -(Maximiliana regia), the Baccába (Œnocarpus Baccába), the Paxiuba -(Iriartea exorhiza), the Carana (Mauritia Carana), the Caranai (Mauritia -horrida), the Ubim (Geonoma), and the Curua (Attalea spectabilis); of -these the two latter are the most useful. The remarkable Piassaba -(Leopoldinia Piassaba) occurs only far above the junction of the Rio -Negro and Rio Branco. We obtained, however, a specimen that had been -planted at Itatiassu. The many small kinds of Ubim (Geonoma), and Maraja -(Bactris), and even the Jara (Leopoldinia), are so completely -overshadowed by the larger trees that they are only noticed where -clustered along the river-banks. Bussus (Manicaria), Assais (Euterpe) -Mucaja (Acrocomia), grow also on the Rio Negro, but it remains to be -ascertained whether they are specifically identical with those of the -Lower Amazons. So peculiar is the aspect of the different species of -palms that, from the deck of the steamer, they can be singled out as -easily as the live-oaks or pecan-nut trees, so readily distinguished on -the lower course of the Mississippi, or the different kinds of oaks, -birches, beeches, or walnut-trees which attract observation when sailing -along the shores of our Northern lakes. It seems, however, impossible to -discriminate between all the trees of this wonderful Amazonian forest; -partly because they grow in such heterogeneous associations. In the -temperate zone we have oak-forests, pine-forests, birch, beech, and -maple woods, the same kinds of trees congregating together on one soil. -Not so here; there is the most extraordinary diversity in the -combination of plants, and it is a very rare thing to see the soil -occupied for any extent by the same kind of tree. A large number of the -trees forming these forests are still unknown to science, and yet the -Indians, those practical botanists and zoölogists, are well acquainted, -not only with their external appearance, but also with their various -properties. So intimate is their practical knowledge of the natural -objects about them, that I believe it would greatly contribute to the -progress of science if a systematic record were made of all the -information thus scattered through the land; an encyclopædia of the -woods, as it were, taken down from the tribes which inhabit them. I -think it would be no bad way of collecting, to go from settlement to -settlement, sending the Indians out to gather all the plants they know, -to dry and label them with the names applied to them in the locality, -and writing out, under the heads of these names, all that may thus be -ascertained of their medicinal and otherwise useful properties, as well -as their botanical character. A critical examination of these -collections would at once correct the information thus obtained, -especially if the person intrusted with the care of gathering these -materials had so much knowledge of botany as would enable him to -complete the collections brought in by the Indians, adding to them such -parts as might be wanted for a complete systematic description. The -specimens ought not to be chosen, however, as they have hitherto been, -solely with reference to those parts which are absolutely necessary to -identify the species; the collections, to be complete, ought to include -the wood, the bark, the roots, and the soft fruits in alcohol. The -abundance and variety of timber in the Amazonian Valley strikes us with -amazement. We long to hear the saw-mill busy in these forests, where -there are several hundred kinds of woods, admirably suited for -construction as well as for the finest cabinet-work; remarkable for the -beauty of their grain, for their hardness, for the variety of their -tints and their veining, and for their durability. And yet so ignorant -are the inhabitants of the value of timber that, when they want a plank, -they cut down a tree, and chop it to the desired thickness with a -hatchet. There are many other vegetable products, besides those already -exported from the Amazons, which will one day be poured into the market -from its fertile shores. The clearest and purest oils are made from some -of the nuts and palm fruits, while many of the palms yield the most -admirable fibrous material for cordage, singularly elastic and -resistant. Besides its material products,—and of these the greater part -rot on the ground for want of hands to gather them,—the climate and soil -are favorable for the growth of sugar, coffee, cocoa, and cotton; and I -may add, that the spices of the East might be cultivated in the valley -of the Amazons as well as in the Dutch possessions of Asia.” - -_Sunday, 31st._—Manaos. We had wished exceedingly to extend our -excursion on the Rio Negro to the mouth of the Rio Branco, but our pilot -would not undertake to conduct the “Ibicuhy” beyond Pedreira, as he said -the stones in the bed of the river were numerous and large and the -channel at this season not very deep. We were, therefore, obliged to -return without accomplishing the whole object of this voyage; but though -short, it was nevertheless most interesting, and has left with us a -vivid impression of the peculiar character of this great stream. -Beautiful as are the endless forests, however, we could not but long, -when skirting them day after day without seeing a house or meeting a -canoe, for the sight of tilled soil, for pasture-lands, for open ground, -for wheat-fields and haystacks,—for any sign, in short, of the presence -of man. As we sat at night in the stern of the vessel, looking up this -vast river, stretching many hundred leagues, with its solitary, -uninhabited shores and impenetrable forests, it was difficult to resist -an oppressive sense of loneliness. Though here and there an Indian -settlement or a Brazilian village breaks the distance, yet the -population is a mere handful in such a territory. I suppose the time -will come when the world will claim it, when this river, where, in a six -days’ journey, we have passed but two or three canoes, will have its -steamers and vessels of all sorts going up and down, and its banks will -be busy with life; but the day is not yet. When I remember the poor -people I have seen in the watch-making and lace-making villages of -Switzerland, hardly lifting their eyes off their work from break of day -till night, and even then earning barely enough to keep them above -actual want, and think how easily everything grows here, on land to be -had for almost nothing, it seems a pity that some parts of the world -should be so overstocked that there is not nourishment for all, and -others so empty that there are none to gather the harvest. We long to -see a vigorous emigration pour into this region so favored by Nature, so -bare of inhabitants. But things go slowly in these latitudes; great -cities do not spring up in half a century, as with us. Humboldt, in his -account of his South-American journey, writes: “Since my departure from -the banks of the Orinoco and the Amazon, a new era has unfolded itself -in the social state of the nations of the West. The fury of civil -dissensions has been succeeded by the blessings of peace, and a freer -development of the arts of industry. The bifurcations of the Orinoco, -the isthmus of Tuamini, so easy to be made passable by an artificial -canal, will erelong fix the attention of commercial Europe. The -Cassiquiare, as broad as the Rhine, and the course of which is one -hundred and eighty miles in length, will no longer form uselessly a -navigable canal between two basins of rivers which have a surface of one -hundred and ninety thousand square leagues. The grain of New Granada -will be carried to the banks of the Rio Negro; boats will descend from -the sources of the Napo and the Ucuyale, from the Andes of Quito and of -Upper Peru, to the mouths of the Orinoco,—a distance which equals that -from Timbuctoo to Marseilles.” Such were the anticipations of Humboldt -more than sixty years ago; and at this day the banks of the Rio Negro -and the Cassiquiare are still as luxuriant and as desolate, as fertile -and as uninhabited, as they were then. - -_January 8th._—Manaos. The necessity for some days of rest, after so -many months of unintermitted work, has detained Mr. Agassiz here for a -week. It has given us an opportunity of renewing our walks in the -neighborhood of Manaos, of completing our collection of plants, and also -of refreshing our memory of scenes which we shall probably never see -again, and among which we have had a pleasant home for nearly three -months. The woods are much more full of flowers than they were when I -first became acquainted with their many pleasant paths. Passion-flowers -are especially abundant. There is one kind which has a delicious -perfume, not unlike Cape Jessamine. It hides itself away in the shade, -but its fragrance betrays it; and if you put aside the branches of the -trees, you are sure to find its large white-and-purple flowers, and -dark, thick-leaved vine, climbing up some neighboring trunk. Another, -which seems rather to court than avoid observation, is of a bright red; -and its crimson stars are often seen set, as it were, in the thick -foliage of the forest. But, much as I enjoy the verdure here, I -appreciate, more than ever before, the marked passage of the seasons in -our Northern hemisphere. In this unchanging, green world, which never -alters from century to century, except by a little more or less -moisture, a little more or less heat, I think with the deepest gratitude -of winter and spring, summer and autumn. The circle of nature seems -incomplete, and even the rigors of our climate are remembered with -affection in this continual vapor-bath. It is literally true that you -cannot move ten steps without being drenched in perspiration. However, -this character of the heat prevents it from being scorching; and we have -no reason to change our first impression, that, on the whole, the -climate is much less oppressive than we expected to find it, and the -nights are invariably cool. - -At the end of this week we resume our voyage on board the “Ibicuhy,” -going slowly down to Pará, stopping at several points on the way. Our -first station will be at Villa Bella, where Mr. Agassiz wishes to make -another collection of fishes. It may seem strange that, after having -obtained, nearly five months ago, very large collections from the -Amazons itself at this point, as well as from the lakes in the -neighborhood, he should return to the same locality, instead of choosing -another region for investigation. Were his object merely or mainly to -become acquainted with the endless diversity of fishes he now knows to -exist in this immense fresh-water basin, such a repetition of specimens -from the same locality would certainly be superfluous, since it is -probable that a different point would be more prolific in new species. -The mere accumulation of species is, however, entirely subordinate to -the object which he has kept in view ever since he began his present -researches, namely, that of ascertaining by direct observation the -geographical range of the fishes, and determining whether their -migrations are so frequent and extensive as they are said to be. I make -an extract from Mr. Agassiz’s notes on this subject. - -“I have been frequently told here that the fishes were very nomadic, the -same place being occupied at different seasons of the year by different -species. My own investigations have led me to believe that these reports -are founded on imperfect observations, and that the localization of -species is more distinct and permanent in these waters than has been -supposed; their migrations being, indeed, very limited, consisting -chiefly in rovings from shallower to deeper waters, and from these to -shoals again, at those seasons when the range of the shore in the same -water-basin is affected by the rise and fall of the river;—that is to -say, the fishes found at the bottom of a lake covering perhaps a square -mile in extent, when the waters are lowest, will appear near the shores -of the same lake when, at the season of high waters, it extends over a -much wider area. In the same way, fishes which gather near the mouth of -a rivulet, at the time of low waters, will be found as high as its -origin at the period of high waters; while fishes which inhabit the -larger igarapés on the sides of the Amazons when they are swollen by the -rise of the river, may be found in the Amazons itself when the stream is -low. There is not a single fish known to ascend from the sea to the -higher courses of the Amazons at certain seasons, and to return -regularly to the ocean. There is no fish here corresponding to the -salmon, for instance, which ascends the streams of Europe and North -America to deposit its spawn in the cool head-waters of the larger -rivers, and then returns to the sea. The wanderings of the Amazonian -fishes are rather a result of the alternate widening and contracting of -their range by the rise and fall of the waters, than of a migratory -habit; and may be compared to the movements of those oceanic fishes -which, at certain seasons, seek the shoals near the shore, while they -spend the rest of the year in deeper waters. - -“Take our shad as an example. It is caught on the coast of Georgia in -February, on the Carolina shores a little later; in March it may be -found in Washington and Baltimore, next in Philadelphia and New York; -and it does not make its appearance in the Boston market (except when -brought from farther south) before the latter part of April, or the -beginning of May. This sequence has led to the belief that the shad -migrates from Georgia to New England. An examination of the condition of -these fishes, during the months when they are sold in our markets, shows -at once that this cannot be the case. They are always full of roe, and, -being valued for the table at this period, they are brought to market at -each locality until the spawning season is over. Now, as they cannot -breed twice within a few weeks, it is evident that the shad which make -their appearance successively along the Atlantic coast from February to -May are not the same. It is the spring which migrates northward, calling -up the shoals of shad from the deeper sea, as it touches in succession -different points along the shore. Such movements, if thus connected with -the advancing spring along a whole coast, appear to be migrations from -south to north, when they are, in fact, only the successive rising of -the same species from deeper to shallower waters at the breeding season. -In the same way it is probable that the inequality in the seasons of -rise and fall, between the different tributaries of the Amazons and the -various parts of its own course, may give a sequence to the appearance -of the fish in certain localities, which seems like migration without -being so, in fact. - -“Keeping in view all the information I could obtain upon this subject, I -have attempted, wherever it was possible to do so, to make collections -simultaneously at different points of the Amazons: thus, while I was -collecting at Villa Bella six months ago, some of my assistants were -engaged in the same way at Santarem, and higher up on the Tapajoz; while -I was working at Teffé, parties were busy in the Hyavary, the Iça, and -the Hyutahy; and during my last stay at Manaos, parties have been -collecting at Cudajas and at Manacaparu, and higher up on the Rio Negro, -as well as at some lower points on the main river. At some of these -stations I have been able to repeat my investigations at different -seasons, though the intervals between the earlier and later collections -made at the same localities have, of course, not been the same. Between -the first collections made at Teffé and the last, hardly two months -intervened, while those made on our first arrival at Manaos in September -up to the present time cover an interval of four months; from the first -to the last at Villa Bella more than five months will have elapsed. On -this account I attach great importance to the renewal of my -investigations at that place, as well as to the later collections from -Obydos, Santarem, Monte Alegre, Porto do Moz, Gurupá, Tajapurú, and -Pará. As far as these comparisons have gone, they show that the distinct -faunæ of the above-named localities are not the result of migrations; -for not only have different fishes been found in all these basins at the -same time, but at different times the same fishes have been found to -recur in the same basins, whenever the fishing was carried on, not -merely in favored localities, but as far as possible over the whole area -indiscriminately, in deep and shoal waters. Should it prove that at -Pará, as well as at the intervening stations, after an interval of six -months, the fishes are throughout the same as when we ascended the -river, the evidence against the supposed extensive migrations of the -Amazonian fishes will certainly be very strong. The striking limitation -of species within definite areas does not, however, exclude the presence -of certain kinds of fish simultaneously throughout the whole Amazonian -basin. The Pirarucu, for instance, is found everywhere from Peru to -Pará; and so are a few other species more or less extensively -distributed over what may be considered distinct ichthyological faunæ. -But these wide-spread species are not migratory; they have normally and -permanently a wide range, just as some terrestrial animals have an -almost cosmopolite character, while others are circumscribed within -comparatively narrow limits. Though most quadrupeds of the United -States, for instance, differ from those of Mexico and Brazil, -constituting several distinct faunæ, there is one, the puma or red lion, -the panther of the North, which is found on the east of the Rocky -Mountains and the Andes, from Patagonia to Canada. - -“The movement of the waters, which affects so powerfully the -distribution of the fishes, forms in itself a very curious phenomenon. -There is, as it were, a rhythmical correspondence in the rise and fall -of the affluents on either shore of the Amazons, causing the great body -of the water, in its semiannual tides, to sway alternately more to the -north or to the south. On the southern side of the valley, the rains -begin in the months of September and October. They pour down from the -table-lands of Brazil and the mountains of Bolivia with cumulative -force, gathering strength as the rainy season progresses, swelling the -head-waters of the Purus, Madeira, Tapajoz, and other southern -tributaries, and gradually descending to the main stream. The process is -a slow one, however, and the full force of the new flood is not felt in -the Amazons until February and March. During the month of March, in the -region below the confluence of the Madeira, for instance, the rise of -the Amazons averages a foot in twenty-four hours, so great is the -quantity of water poured into it. At about the same period with the -southern rains, or a little earlier, say in the months of August and -September, the snows in the Andes begin to melt and flow down towards -the plain. This contribution from the Cordilleras of Peru and Equador, -coinciding with that from the highlands of Brazil and Bolivia, swells -the Amazons in its centre and on its southern side to such an extent -that the bulk of the water pushes northward, crowding upon its northern -shore, and flowing even into the tributaries which open on that side of -the river, and are now at their lowest ebb. Presently, however, the -rains on the table-lands of Guiana, and on the northern spurs of the -Andes, where the rainy season prevails chiefly in February and March, -repeat the same process in their turn. During April and May the northern -tributaries are rising, and they reach their maximum in June. Thus, at -the end of June, when the southern rivers have already fallen -considerably, the northern rivers are at their flood-tide. The Rio -Negro, for instance, rises at Manaos to about forty-five feet above its -lowest level. This mass of water from the north now presses against that -in the centre, and bears it southward again. The rainy season along the -course of the Amazons is from December till March, corresponding very -nearly, in the time of the year and in duration, with our winter. It -must be remembered that the valley of the Amazons is not a valley in the -ordinary sense, bordered by walls or banks enclosing the waters which -flow between. It is, on the contrary, a plain some seven or eight -hundred miles wide and between two and three thousand miles long, with a -slope so slight that it hardly averages more than a foot in ten miles. -Between Obydos and the sea-shore, a distance of about eight hundred -miles, the fall is only forty-five feet; between Tabatinga and the -sea-shore, a distance of more than two thousand miles in a straight -line, the fall is about two hundred feet. The impression to the eye is, -therefore, that of an absolute plain; and the flow of the water is so -gentle that, in many parts of the river, it is hardly perceptible. -Nevertheless, it has a steady movement eastward, descending the gentle -slope of this wide plain, from the Andes to the sea; this movement, -aided by the interflow from the south and north at opposite seasons, -presses the bulk of the water to its northernmost reach during our -winter months, and to its southernmost limit during our summer months. -In consequence of this, the bottom of the valley is constantly shifting, -and there is a tendency to form channels from the main river to its -tributaries, such as we have seen to exist between the Solimoens and the -Rio Negro,—such as Humboldt mentions between the Hyapura and the -Amazons. Indeed, all these rivers are bound together by an extraordinary -network of channels, forming a succession of natural highways which will -always make artificial roads, to a great degree, unnecessary. Whenever -the country is settled, it will be possible to pass from the Purus, for -instance, to the Madeira, from the Madeira to the Tapajoz, from the -Tapajoz to the Xingu, and thence to the Tocantins, without entering the -course of the main river. The Indians call these passes ‘_furo_,’ -literally, a bore,—a passage pierced from one river to another. -Hereafter, when the interests of commerce claim this fertile, overflowed -region, these channels will be of immense advantage for -intercommunication.” - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - DESCENDING THE RIVER TO PARÁ.—EXCURSIONS ON THE COAST. - - FAREWELL VISIT TO THE GREAT CASCADE AT MANAOS.—CHANGE - IN ITS ASPECT.—ARRIVAL AT VILLA BELLA.—RETURN TO THE - HOUSE OF THE FISHERMAN MAIA.—EXCURSION TO THE LAGO - MAXIMO.—QUANTITY OF GAME AND WATERFOWL.—VICTORIA REGIA.—LEAVE - VILLA BELLA.—ARRIVE AT OBYDOS.—ITS SITUATION AND - GEOLOGY.—SANTAREM.—VISIT TO THE CHURCH.—ANECDOTE OF - MARTIUS.—A ROW OVERLAND.—MONTE ALÉGRE.—PICTURESQUE - SCENERY.—“BANHEIRAS.”—EXCURSION INTO THE COUNTRY.—LEAVE MONTE - ALÉGRE.—ANECDOTE OF INDIANS.—ALMEYRIM.—NEW GEOLOGICAL FACTS.—PORTO - DO MOZ.—COLLECTIONS.—GURUPÁ.—TAJAPURÚ.—ARRIVE AT PARÁ.—RELIGIOUS - PROCESSION.—EXCURSION TO MARAJO.—SOURÉS.—JESUIT MISSIONS.—GEOLOGY - OF MARAJO.—BURIED FOREST.—VIGIA.—IGARAPÉ.—VEGETATION AND ANIMAL - LIFE.—GEOLOGY.—RETURN TO PARÁ.—PHOTOGRAPHING PLANTS.—EXTRACT FROM - MR. AGASSIZ’S NOTES ON THE VEGETATION OF THE AMAZONS.—PREVALENCE - OF LEPROSY. - - -_January 15th._—To-day finds us on our way down the Amazons in the -“Ibicuhy.” The day before leaving Manaos we paid a last visit to the -great cascade, bathed once more in its cool, delicious waters, and -breakfasted by the side of the fall. Before many weeks are over, the -cascade will have disappeared; it will be drowned out, as it were, for -the igarapé is filling rapidly with the rise of the river, and will soon -reach the level of the sandstone shelf over which the water is -precipitated. Already the appearance of the spot is greatly changed -since we were there before. The banks are overflowed; the rocks and logs -which stood out from the water are wholly covered; and where there was -only a brawling stream, so shallow that it hardly afforded depth for the -smallest canoe, there is now a not insignificant river. Indeed, -everywhere we see signs of the changes wrought by the “enchente.” The -very texture of the Amazons is changed; it is thicker and yellower than -when we ascended it, and much more laden with floating wood, detached -grasses, and _débris_ of all sorts washed from the shore. Wild-flowers -are also more abundant than they were when we came up the river in -September; not delicate, small plants, growing low among moss and grass, -as do our violets, anemones, and the like; but large blossoms, covering -tall trees, and resembling exotics at home, by their rich color and -powerful odor. Indeed, the flowers of the Amazonian forests always -remind me of hot-house plants: and there often comes a warm breath from -the depths of the woods, laden with moisture and perfume, like the air -from the open door of a conservatory. - -_January 17th._—We reached Villa Bella at eight o’clock yesterday -morning, but waited there only a few hours to make certain necessary -arrangements, and then kept on to the mouth of the river Ramos, an -hour’s sail from the town,—the same river which we had ascended from its -upper point of juncture with the Amazons, on our excursion to Mauhes. We -anchored at a short distance from the entrance, before the house of our -old acquaintances, the Maias, where, it may be remembered, we passed a -few days when collecting in this neighborhood before. Fortunately, Maia -himself was in Manaos when we left, employed as a soldier in the -National Guard; and the President kindly gave him leave to accompany us, -that Mr. Agassiz might have the advantage of his familiarity with the -locality, and his experience in fishing. The man himself was pleased to -have an opportunity of visiting his family, to whom his coming was an -agreeable surprise. We went on shore this morning to make them a visit, -taking with us some little souvenirs, such as beads, trinkets, knives, -&c. We were received as old friends, and made welcome to all the house -would afford; but, though as clean as ever, it looked poorer than on our -former visit. I saw neither dried fish nor mandioca nor farinha, and the -woman told me that she found it very hard to support her large family, -now that the husband and father was away. - -The quantity of detached grass, shrubs, &c. carried past the vessel, as -we lie here at anchor, is amazing,—floating gardens, sometimes half an -acre in extent. Some of these green rafts are inhabited; water-birds go -sailing by upon them, and large animals are occasionally carried down -the river in this way. The commander told me that, on one occasion, when -an English vessel was lying at anchor in the Parana, one of these grassy -gardens was seen coming down the river with two deer upon it. The -current brought it directly against the ship, and the captain had only -to receive on board the guests who arrived thus unexpectedly to demand -his hospitality. In the same river another floating island brought with -it a less agreeable inhabitant: a large tiger had possessed himself of -it and was sailing majestically with the current, passing so near the -shores that he was distinctly seen from the banks; and people went out -in montarias to get a nearer view of him, though keeping always at a -respectful distance. The most conspicuous of the plants thus detached -from the shore are the Canarana (a kind of wild cane), a variety of -aquatic Aroides, Pistia among the number, Ecornia, and a quantity of -graceful floating Marsileaceæ. - -_January 18th._—To-day we have been on a hunt after the Victoria regia. -We have made constant efforts to see this famous lily growing in its -native waters; but, though frequently told that it was plenty at certain -seasons in the lakes and igarapés, we have never been able to find it. -Yesterday some of the officers of the ship, who had been on an excursion -to a neighboring lake, returned laden with botanical treasures of all -sorts, and, among other plants, an immense lily-leaf, which, from its -dimensions, we judged must be the Victoria regia, though it had not the -erect edge so characteristic of it. This morning, accompanied by two or -three of yesterday’s party, who kindly undertook to be our guides, we -went to visit the same lake. A short walk from the river-bank brought us -to the shore of a large sheet of water,—the Lago Maximo,—which connects -with the Ramos by a narrow outlet, but at a point so distant from our -anchorage that it would have been necessary to make a great detour in -order to reach it in a canoe. We found an old montaria, with one or two -broken paddles, left, as it seemed, at the lake-shore for whom it might -concern, and in that we embarked at once. The banks of this lake are -bordered with beautiful forests, which do not, however, rise immediately -from the water, but are divided from it by a broad band of grass. We saw -many water-birds on this grassy edge, as well as on several dead trees, -the branches of which were completely covered with gulls, all in exactly -the same attitude, facing one way, to meet the wind which blew strongly -against them. Ducks and ciganas were plenty; and once or twice we -startled up from the woods small flocks of mackaws,—not only the gaudy -red, green, and yellow species, but the far more beautiful blue mackaw. -They flew by us, with their gorgeous plumage glittering in the sun, and -disappeared again among the trees, seeking deeper and more undisturbed -retreats. From the reedy grasses came also the deep note of the unicorn, -so greatly prized in Brazil,—a large bird, half wader, half fowl, -belonging to the genus Palamedea; but as we were only prepared for a -botanizing expedition, we could not avail ourselves of any of the -opportunities thus offered; and the birds, however near and tempting the -shots, had little to fear from us. At the upper end of the lake we came -upon the bed of water-lilies from which the trophies of yesterday had -been gathered. The leaves were very large, many of them from four to -five feet in diameter; but, perhaps from having lost their first -freshness and something therefore of their natural texture, the edge of -the leaf was scarcely perceptibly raised, and in most instances lay -perfectly flat upon the water. We found buds, but no perfect flower. In -the afternoon, however, one of the daughters of our fisherman Maia, -hearing that we wished to see one of the flowers, brought us a very -perfect specimen from another more distant locality, which we had not -time to visit. The Indians, by the way, have a characteristic name for -the leaf. They call it “forno,” on account of its resemblance to the -immense shallow pans in which they bake their farinha over the mandioca -ovens. The Victoria regia, with its formidable armor of spines, its -gigantic leaves, and beautiful flowers, deepening in color from the -velvety white outer leaves through every shade of rose to deepest -crimson, and fading again to a creamy, yellowish tint in the heart of -the flower, has been described so often that I hardly dare dwell upon -it, for fear of wearying the reader. And yet we could not see it growing -in its native waters—a type, as it were, of the luxuriance of tropical -nature—without the deepest interest. Wonderful as it is when seen in the -tank of a greenhouse, and perhaps even more impressive, in a certain -sense, from its isolation, in its own home it has the charm of harmony -with all that surrounds it,—with the dense mass of forest, with palm and -parasite, with birds of glowing plumage, with insects of all bright and -wonderful tints, and with fishes which, though hidden in the water -beneath it, are not less brilliant and varied than the world of life -above. I do not remember to have seen an allusion, in any description, -to the beautiful device by which the whole immense surface of the adult -leaf is contained within the smaller dimensions of the young one; though -it is well worth notice, as one of the neatest specimens of Nature’s -packing. All know the heavy scaffolding of ribs by which the colossal -leaf, when full grown, is supported on its under side. In the young leaf -these ribs are comparatively small, but the whole green expanse of the -adult leaf is gathered in between them in regular rows of delicate -puffings. At this period, the leaf is far below the surface of the -water, growing slowly up from the base of the stock from which it -springs. Thus drawn up, it has the form of a deep cup or vase; but in -proportion as the ribs grow, their ramifications stretching in every -direction, the leaf lets out one by one its little folds, to fill the -ever-widening spaces; till at last, when it reaches the surface of the -water, it rests horizontally above it, without a wrinkle. Mr. Agassiz -caused several stocks to be dragged up from the bottom (no easy matter, -on account of the spines), and found the leaf-buds just starting between -the roots,—little white caps, not more than half an inch in height. -There was another lily growing in this lake, which, though diminutive by -the side of the Victoria, would be a giant among our water-lilies. The -leaf measured more than a foot in diameter, and was slightly scolloped -around the edge. There were no open flowers, but the closed buds -resembled those of our common white water-lilies, and were no larger. -The stalk and ribs, unlike those of the Victoria, were quite smooth, and -free from thorns. After our visit to the lilies, we paddled in among the -trees along the overflowed margin of the lake, in order that the boatmen -might cut down several palms new to us. While waiting under the trees in -the boat, we had cause to admire the variety and beauty of the insects -fluttering about us; the large blue butterflies (Morpho), and the -brilliant dragon-flies, with crimson bodies and burnished wings, -glittering with metallic lustre.[88] - -_January 21st._—Obydos. We left Villa Bella yesterday with a large -collection of fishes, and some valuable additions to the collection of -palms. The general character of the fish collections, both from the -river Ramos and the Lago Maximo, shows the faunæ to be the same now as -when we were here five months ago. Certainly, during this interval, -migration has had no perceptible influence upon the distribution of life -in these waters. Leaving Villa Bella at night, we reached Obydos early -this morning. This pretty town is one of the most picturesque in -position, on the Amazons. It stands on a steep bluff, commanding an -extensive view of the river west and east, and is one of the few points -at which the southern and northern shores are seen at the same time. The -bluff of Obydos is crowned by a fortress, which has stood here for many -years without occasion to test its power. It may be doubted whether it -would be very effectual in barring the river against a hostile force, -inasmuch as its guns, though they carry perfectly well to the opposite -side, are powerless nearer home. The slope of the cliff on which the -fortress stands intervenes between it and the water below, so that by -keeping well in to shore the enemy could pass with impunity immediately -under the guns. The hill consists entirely of the same red drift so -constantly recurring on the banks of the Amazons and its tributaries. -Here it is more full of pebbles than at Manaos or at Teffé; and we saw -these pebbles disposed in lines or horizontal beds, such as are found in -the same deposit along the coast and in the neighborhood of Rio. The -city of Obydos is prettily laid out, its environs are very picturesque, -its soil extremely fertile; but it has the same aspect of neglect and -hopeless inactivity so painfully striking in all the Amazonian towns. - -_January 23d._ Yesterday, in the early morning, we arrived at Santarem, -and went on shore for a walk at half past seven. The town stands on a -point of land dividing the black waters of the Tapajoz, on the one side, -from the yellow flood of the Amazons on the other, and has a very -attractive situation, enhanced by its background of hills stretching -away to the eastward. Our first visit was to the church, fronting on the -beach and standing invitingly open. We had, however, a special object in -entering it. In 1819 Martius, the naturalist, on his voyage of -exploration on the Amazons, since made famous by his great work on the -Natural History of Brazil, was wrecked off the town of Santarem, and -nearly lost his life. In his great danger he took a vow to record his -gratitude, should he live, by making a gift to the church of Santarem. -After his return to Europe, he sent from Munich a full-length figure of -Christ upon the cross, which now hangs against the wall, with a simple -inscription underneath, telling in a few words the story of his peril, -his deliverance, and his gratitude. As a work of art it has no special -value, but it attracts many persons to the church who never heard of -Martius or his famous journey; and to Mr. Agassiz it was especially -interesting, as connected with the travels and dangers of his old friend -and teacher. - -After a walk through the town, which is built with more care, and -contains some houses having more pretensions to comfort and elegance -than we have seen elsewhere on the Amazons, we returned to the ship for -breakfast. At a later hour we went on a very pleasant canoe excursion to -the other side of the Tapajoz, again in search of the Victoria regia, -said to grow in great perfection in this neighborhood. Our guide was -Senhor Joachim Rodriguez, to whom Mr. Agassiz has been indebted for much -personal kindness, as well as for a very valuable collection made since -we stopped here on our way up the river, partly by himself and partly by -his son, a bright boy of some thirteen years of age. Crossing to the -opposite side of the river, we came upon a vast field of coarse, high -grass, looking like an extensive meadow. To our surprise, the boatmen -turned the canoe into this green field, and we found ourselves -apparently navigating the land, for the narrow boat-path was entirely -concealed by the long reedy grasses and tall mallow-plants with large -pink blossoms rising on either side, and completely hiding the water -below. This marshy, overflowed ground, above which the water had a depth -of from four to six feet, was full of life. As the rowers pushed our -canoe through the mass of grass and flowers, Mr. Agassiz gathered from -the blades and stalks all sorts of creatures; small bright-colored toads -of several kinds, grasshoppers, beetles, dragon-flies, aquatic snails, -bunches of eggs,—in short, an endless variety of living things, most -interesting to the naturalist. The harvest was so plentiful that we had -only to put out our hands and gather it; the oarsmen, when they saw Mr. -Agassiz’s enthusiasm, became almost as interested as he was; and he had -soon a large jar filled with objects quite new to him. After navigating -these meadows for some time, we came upon open water-spaces where the -Victoria regia was growing in great perfection. The specimens were much -finer than those we had seen before in the Lago Maximo. One leaf -measured five feet and a half in diameter, and another five feet, the -erect edge being three inches and a half in height. A number of leaves -grew from the same stalk; and seen thus together they are very -beautiful, the bright rose-color of the outer edge contrasting with the -vivid green of the inner surface of the leaf. As before, there were no -open flowers to be seen; Senhor Rodriguez told us that they are cut by -the fishermen almost as soon as they open. When Mr. Agassiz expressed a -wish to get the roots, two of our boatmen plunged into the water with an -alacrity which surprised me, as we had just been told that these marshes -are the haunts of Jacarés. They took turns in diving to dig up the -plants, and succeeded in bringing to the surface three large stalks, one -with a flower-bud. We returned well pleased with our row overland. - -Our live-stock is increasing as we descend the river, and we have now -quite a menagerie on board; a number of parrots, half a dozen monkeys, -two exquisite little deer from the region of Monte Alégre, and several -Agamis, as tame and gentle as barn-yard fowls, stepping about the deck -with graceful, dainty tread, and feeding from the hand. Their voices are -singularly harsh, however, and out of keeping with their pretty looks -and ways. Every now and then they raise their heads, stretch their long -necks, and utter a loud, gurgling sound, more like the roll of a drum -than the note of a bird. Last, but not least, we have a sloth on board, -the most fascinating of all our pets to me, not certainly for his -charms, but for his oddities. I am never tired of watching him, he looks -so deliciously lazy. His head sunk in his arms, his whole attitude lax -and indifferent, he seems to ask only for rest. If you push him, or if, -as often happens, a passer-by gives him a smart tap to arouse him, he -lifts his head and drops his arms so slowly, so deliberately, that they -hardly seem to move, raises his heavy lids and lets his large eyes rest -upon your face for a moment with appealing, hopeless indolence; then the -lids fall softly, the head droops, the arms fold heavily about it, and -he collapses again into absolute repose. This mute remonstrance is the -nearest approach to activity I have seen him make. These live animals -are not all a part of the scientific collections; many of them belong to -the captain and officers. The Brazilians are exceedingly fond of pets, -and almost every house has its monkeys, its parrots, and other tame -animals and birds. - -_January 26th._—Monte Alégre. Leaving Santarem on Tuesday we arrived -here on Wednesday morning, and, as on our former visit, were received -most hospitably at the house of Senhor Manuel. Mr. Agassiz and Mr. -Coutinho have gone on a geologizing excursion to the Serra d’Ereré, that -picturesque range of hills bounding the campos, or open sandy plain, to -the northwest of the town. They took different routes, Major Coutinho, -with Captain Faria and one or two other friends, crossing the campos on -horseback, while Mr. Agassiz went by canoe. They will meet at the foot -of the Serra, and pass two or three days in that neighborhood. Little is -as yet known of the geological structure of the Amazonian Serras,—those -of Santarem, of Monte Alégre, and of Almeyrim. Generally they have been -considered as prolongations either of the table-land of Guiana on the -north, or that of Brazil on the south. Mr. Agassiz believes them to be -independent of both, and more directly connected with the formation of -the Amazonian Valley itself. The solution of this question is his -special object, while Major Coutinho has taken barometers to determine -the height of the range. In the mean time, I am passing a few quiet days -here, learning to be more familiar with the scenery of a region very -justly called one of the most picturesque on the borders of the Amazons. -Not only are the views extensive, but the friable nature of the soil, so -easily decomposed, combined with the heavy rains, has led to the -formation of a variety of picturesque dells and hollows, some of which -have springs running into them, surrounded by rocky banks and overhung -with trees. One of these is especially pretty; the excavation is large, -and has the form of an amphitheatre; its rocky walls are crowned with -large forest-trees, palms, mimosas, etc., making a deep shade; and at -one side the spring flows down from the top of the cliff, with a -pleasant ripple. Here the negro or Indian servants come to fill their -water-jars. They often have with them the children under their charge; -and you may sometimes see the large red jars standing under the mouth of -the spring above, while white babies and dark nurses splash about in the -cool water-basin below. Although in the campos the growth is low, and -the soil but scantily covered with coarse grass and shrubs, yet, in some -localities, and especially in the neighborhood of the town, the forest -is beautiful. We have seen nowhere larger and more luxuriant mimosas, -sometimes of a green so rich and deep, and a foliage so close that it is -difficult to believe, at a distance, that its dense mass is formed by -the light, pinnate leaves of a sensitive plant. The palms are also very -lofty and numerous, including some kinds which we have not met before. - -_January 28th._—Yesterday our kind host arranged an excursion into the -country, for my especial pleasure, that I might see something of the -characteristic amusements of Monte Alégre. One or two neighbors joined -us, and the children, a host of happy little folks, for whom anything -out of the common tenor of every-day life is “_festa_,” were not left -behind. We started on foot to walk out into a very picturesque Indian -village called Surubiju. Here we were to breakfast, returning afterwards -in one of the heavy carts drawn by oxen, the only conveyance for women -and children in a country where a carriage-road and a side-saddle are -equally unknown. Our walk was very pleasant, partly through the woods, -partly through the campos; but as it was early in the day, we did not -miss the shade when we chanced to leave the trees. We lingered by the -wayside, the children stopping to gather wild fruits, of which there -were a number on the road, and to help me in making a collection of -plants. It was about nine o’clock when we reached the first straw-house, -where we stopped to rest. Though it has no longer the charm of novelty -for me, I am always glad to visit an Indian cottage. You find a cordial -welcome; the best hammock, the coolest corner, and a _cuia_ of fresh -water are ready for you. As a general thing, the houses of the Indians -are also more tidy than those of the whites; and there is a certain -charm of picturesqueness about them which never wears off. - -After a short rest, we went on through the settlement, where the sitios -are scattered at considerable distances, and so completely surrounded by -trees that they seem quite isolated in the forest. Although the Indians -are said to be a lazy people, and are unquestionably fitful and -irregular in their habits of work, in almost all these houses some -characteristic occupation was going on. In two or three the women were -making hammocks, in one a boy was plaiting the leaves of the Curua palm -into a tolda for his canoe, in another the inmates were making a coarse -kind of pottery; and in still another a woman, who is quite famous in -the neighborhood for her skill in the art, was painting cuias. It was -the first time I had seen the prepared colors made from a certain kind -of clay found in the Serra. It is just the carnival season, and, as -every one has a right to play pranks on his neighbors, we did not get -off without making a closer acquaintance than was altogether pleasant -with the rustic artist’s colors. As we were leaving the cottage, she -darted out upon us, her hands full of blue and red paints. If they had -been tomahawks, they could not have produced a more sudden rout; and it -was a complete _sauve qui peut_ of the whole company across the little -bridge which led to the house. As a stranger, I was spared; but all were -not fortunate enough to escape, and some of the children carried their -blue and red badges to the end of the day. - -The prettiest of all these forest sitios was one at the bottom of a deep -dell, reached by a steep, winding path through a magnificent wood -abounding in palms. But though the situation was most picturesque, the -sickly appearance of the children and the accounts of prevailing illness -showed that the locality was too low and damp to be healthful. After a -very pleasant ramble we returned to breakfast at our first -resting-place, and at about one o’clock started for town in two ox-carts -which had come out to meet us. They consist only of a floor set on very -heavy, creaking wooden wheels, which, from their primitive, clumsy -character, would seem to be the first wheels ever invented. On the floor -a straw-mat was spread, an awning was stretched over a light scaffolding -above, and we were soon stowed away in our primitive vehicle, and had a -very gay and pleasant ride back to town. Yesterday evening Mr. Agassiz -returned from his excursion to the Serra Ereré. I add here a little -account of the journey, written out from his notes, and containing some -remarks on the general aspect of the country, its vegetation and -animals. A summary of the geological results of the excursion will be -found in a separate chapter at the close of our Amazonian journey. - -“I started before daylight; but as the dawn began to redden the sky -large flocks of ducks, and of the small Amazonian goose, might be seen -flying towards the lakes. Here and there a cormorant sat alone on the -branch of a dead tree, or a kingfisher poised himself over the water, -watching for his prey. Numerous gulls were gathered in large companies -on the trees along the river-shore; alligators lay on its surface, -diving with a sudden plash at the approach of our canoe; and -occasionally a porpoise emerged from the water, showing himself for a -moment and then disappearing again. Sometimes we startled a herd of -capivaras, resting on the water’s edge; and once we saw a sloth, sitting -upon the branch of an Imbauba tree (Cecropia), rolled up in its peculiar -attitude, the very picture of indolence, with its head sunk between its -arms. Much of the river-shore consisted of low, alluvial land, and was -covered with that peculiar and beautiful grass known as Capim; this -grass makes an excellent pasturage for cattle, and the abundance of it -in this region renders the district of Monte Alégre very favorable for -agricultural purposes. Here and there, where the red-clay soil rose -above the level of the water, a palm-thatched cabin stood on the low -bluff, with a few trees about it. Such a house was usually the centre of -a cattle-farm, and large herds might be seen grazing in the adjoining -fields. Along the river-banks, where the country is chiefly open, with -extensive low, marshy grounds, the only palm to be seen is the Maraja -(Geonoma). After keeping along the Rio Gurupatuba for some distance, we -turned to the right into a narrow stream, which has the character of an -igarapé in its lower course, though higher up it drains the country -between the serra of Ereré and that of Tajury, and assumes the -appearance of a small river. It is named after the serra, and is known -as the Rio Ereré. This stream, narrow and picturesque, and often so -overgrown with capim that the canoe pursued its course with difficulty, -passed through a magnificent forest of the beautiful fan-palm, called -the Miriti (Mauritia flexuosa). This forest stretched for miles, -overshadowing, as a kind of underbrush, many smaller trees and -innumerable shrubs, some of which bore bright, conspicuous flowers. It -seemed to me a strange spectacle,—a forest of monocotyledonous trees -with a dicotyledonous undergrowth; the inferior plants thus towering -above and sheltering the superior ones. Among the lower trees were many -Leguminosæ,—one of the most striking, called Fava, having a colossal -pod. The whole mass of vegetation was woven together by innumerable -lianas and creeping vines, in the midst of which the flowers of the -Bignonia, with its open, trumpet-shaped corolla, were conspicuous. The -capim was bright with the blossoms of the mallow, growing in its midst; -and was often edged with the broad-leaved Aninga, a large aquatic Arum. - -“Through such a forest, where the animal life was no less rich and -varied than the vegetation, our boat glided slowly for hours. The number -and variety of birds struck me with astonishment. The coarse, sedgy -grasses on either side were full of water birds, one of the most common -of which was a small chestnut-brown wading bird, the Jaçana (Parra), -whose toes are immensely long in proportion to its size, enabling it to -run upon the surface of the aquatic vegetation, as if it were solid -ground. It was now the month of January, their breeding season; and at -every turn of the boat we started them up in pairs. Their flat, open -nests generally contained five flesh-colored eggs, streaked in zigzag -with dark brown lines. The other waders were a snow-white heron, another -ash-colored, smaller species, and a large white stork. The ash-colored -herons were always in pairs; the white ones always single, standing -quiet and alone on the edge of the water, or half hidden in the green -capim. The trees and bushes were full of small warbler-like birds, which -it would be difficult to characterize separately. To the ordinary -observer they might seem like the small birds of our woods; but there -was one species among them which attracted my attention by its numbers, -and also because it builds the most extraordinary nest, considering the -size of the bird itself, that I have ever seen. It is known among the -country people by two names, as the Pedreiro or the Forneiro; both names -referring, as will be seen, to the nature of its habitation. This -singular nest is built of clay, and is as hard as stone (_pedra_), while -it has the form of the round mandioca oven (_forno_) in which the -country people prepare their farinha, or flour, made from the mandioca -root. It is about a foot in diameter, and stands edgewise upon a branch, -or in the crotch of a tree. Among the smaller birds I noticed bright -Tanagers, and also a species resembling the Canary. Besides these, there -were the wagtails; the black and white widow-finches; the hang-nests, or -Japi, as they are called here, with their pendent, bag-like dwellings, -and the familiar “Bem ti vi.” Humming-birds, which we are always apt to -associate with tropical vegetation, were very scarce. I saw but a few -specimens. Thrushes and doves were more frequent, and I noticed also -three or four kinds of woodpeckers, beside parrots and paroquets; of -these latter there were countless numbers along our canoe path, flying -overhead in dense crowds, and at times drowning every other sound in -their high, noisy chatter. - -“Some of these birds made a deep impression upon me. Indeed, in all -regions, however far away from his own home, in the midst of a fauna and -flora entirely new to him, the traveller is startled occasionally by the -song of a bird or the sight of a flower so familiar that it transports -him at once to woods where every tree is like a friend to him. It seems -as if something akin to what in our own mental experience we call -reminiscence or association existed in the workings of Nature; for -though the organic combinations are so distinct in different climates -and countries, they never wholly exclude each other. Every zoölogical -and botanical province retains some link which binds it to all the -others, and makes it part of the general harmony. The Arctic lichen is -found growing under the shadow of the palm on the rocks of the tropical -serra; and the song of the thrush and the tap of the woodpecker mingle -with the sharp, discordant cries of the parrot and paroquet. - -“Birds of prey, also, were not wanting. Among them was one about the -size of our kite, and called the Red Hawk, which was so tame that, even -when our canoe passed immediately under the low branch on which he was -sitting, he did not fly away. But, of all the groups of birds, the most -striking as compared with corresponding groups in the temperate zone, -and the one which reminded me the most distinctly of the fact that every -region has its peculiar animal world, was that of the gallinaceous -birds. The most frequent is the Cigana, to be seen in groups of fifteen -or twenty, perched upon trees overhanging the water, and feeding upon -berries. At night they roost in pairs, but in the daytime are always in -larger companies. In their appearance they have something of the -character of both the pheasant and peacock, and yet do not closely -resemble either. It is a curious fact, that, with the exception of some -small partridge-like gallinaceous birds, all the representatives of this -family in Brazil, and especially in the valley of the Amazons, belong to -types which do not exist in other parts of the world. Here we find -neither pheasants, nor cocks of the woods, nor grouse; but in their -place abound the Mutum, the Jacu, the Jacami, and the Unicorn (Crax, -Penelope, Psophia, and Palamedea), all of which are so remote from the -gallinaceous types found farther north that they remind one quite as -much of the bustard, and other ostrich-like birds, as of the hen and -pheasant. They differ also from northern gallinaceous birds in the -greater uniformity of the sexes, none of them exhibiting those striking -differences between the males and females which we see in the pheasants, -the cocks of the woods, and in our barn-yard fowls, though the plumage -of the young has the yellowish-mottled color distinguishing the females -of most species of this family. While birds abounded in such numbers, -insects were rather scarce. I saw but few and small butterflies, and -beetles were still more rare. The most numerous insects were the -dragon-flies,—some with crimson bodies, black heads, and burnished -wings; others with large green bodies, crossed by blue bands. Of -land-shells I saw but one, creeping along the reeds; and of water-shells -I gathered only a few small Ampullariæ. - -“Having ascended the river to a point nearly on a line with the serra, I -landed, and struck across the campos on foot. Here I entered upon an -entirely different region,—a dry, open plain, with scanty vegetation. -The most prominent plants were clusters of Cacti and Curua palms, a kind -of stemless, low palm, with broad, elegant leaves springing vase-like -from the ground. In these dry, sandy fields, rising gradually toward the -serra, I observed in the deeper gullies formed by the heavy rains the -laminated clays which are everywhere the foundation of the Amazonian -strata. They here presented again so much the character of ordinary -clay-slates that I thought I had at last come upon some old geological -formation. Instead of this I only obtained fresh evidence that, by -baking them, the burning sun of the tropics may produce upon laminated -clays of recent origin the same effect as plutonic agencies have -produced upon the ancient clays,—that is, it may change them into -metamorphic slates. As I approached the serra, I was again reminded how, -under the most dissimilar circumstances, similar features recur -everywhere in nature. I came suddenly upon a little creek, bordered with -the usual vegetation of such shallow water-courses, and on its brink -stood a sand-piper, which flew away at my approach, uttering its -peculiar cry, so like what we hear at home that, had I not seen him, I -should have recognized him by his voice. After an hour’s walk under the -scorching sun, I was glad to find myself at the hamlet of Ereré, near -the foot of the serra, where I rejoined my companions. This is almost -the only occasion in all my Amazonian journey when I have passed a day -in the pure enjoyment of nature, without the labor of collecting, which -in this hot climate, where specimens require such immediate and constant -attention, is very great. I learned how rich a single day may be in this -wonderful tropical world, if one’s eyes are only open to the wealth of -animal and vegetable life. Indeed, a few hours so spent in the field, in -simply watching animals and plants, teaches more of the distribution of -life than a month of closet study; for under such circumstances all -things are seen in their true relations. Unhappily, it is not easy to -present the picture as a whole; for all our written descriptions are -more or less dependent on nomenclature, and the local names are hardly -known out of the districts where they belong, while systematic names are -familiar to few.” - -_January 30th._—On board the “Ibicuhy.” Yesterday we parted from our -kind hosts, and bade good by to Monte Alégre. I shall long retain a -picture, half pleasant, half sad, of its shady, picturesque walks and -dells; of its wide green square, with the unfinished cathedral in the -centre, where trees and vines mantle the open doors and windows, and -grass grows thick over the unfrequented aisles; of its neglected -cemetery, and the magnificent view it commands over an endless labyrinth -of lakes on one side, beyond which glitter the yellow waters of the -Amazons, while, on the other, the level campos is bordered by the -picturesque heights of the distant Serra. I have never been able to -explain quite to my own satisfaction the somewhat melancholy impression -which this region, lovely as it unquestionably is, made upon me when I -first saw it,—an impression not wholly destroyed by a longer residence. -Perhaps it is the general aspect of incompleteness and decay, the -absence of energy and enterprise, making the lavish gifts of Nature of -no avail. In the midst of a country which should be overflowing with -agricultural products, neither milk, nor butter, nor cheese, nor -vegetables, nor fruit, are to be had. You constantly hear people -complaining of the difficulty of procuring even the commonest articles -of domestic consumption, when, in fact, they ought to be produced by -every land-owner. The agricultural districts in Brazil are rich and -fertile, but there is no agricultural population. The nomad Indian, -floating about in his canoe, the only home to which he has a genuine -attachment, never striking root in the soil, has no genius for -cultivating the ground. As an illustration of the Indian character, it -may not be amiss to record an incident which occurred yesterday when we -were leaving Monte Alégre. On his journey to Ereré, Major Coutinho had -been requested by an Indian and his wife, whose acquaintance he had made -in former excursions there, to take one of their boys, a child about -eight years of age, with him to Rio. This is very common among the -Indians; they are not unwilling to give up their children, if they can -secure a maintenance for them, and perhaps some advantages of education -besides. On the day of departure, the mother and father and two sisters -accompanied the child to the steamer, but I think, as the sequel showed, -rather for the sake of seeing the ship, and having a day of amusement, -than from any sentiment about parting with the child. When the moment of -separation came, the mother, with an air of perfect indifference, gave -the little boy her hand to kiss. The father seemed to be going off -without remembering his son at all; but the little fellow ran after him, -took his hand and kissed it, and then stood crying and broken-hearted on -the deck, while the whole family put off in the canoe, talking and -laughing gayly, without showing him the least sympathy. Such traits are -said to be very characteristic of the Indians. They are cold in their -family affections; and though the mothers are very fond of their babies, -they seem comparatively indifferent to them as they grow up. It is, -indeed, impossible to rely upon the affection of an Indian, even though -isolated cases of remarkable fidelity have been known among them. But I -have been told over and over again, by those who have had personal -experience in the matter, that you may take an Indian child, bring him -up, treat him with every kindness, educate him, clothe him, and find him -to be a useful and seemingly faithful member of the household; one day -he is gone, you know not where, and in every probability you will never -hear of him again. Theft is not one of their vices. On the contrary, -such an Indian, if he deserts the friend who has reared him and taken -care of him, is very likely to leave behind him all his clothes, except -those he has on, and any presents he may have received. The only thing -he may be tempted to take will be a canoe and a pair of oars: with these -an Indian is rich. He only wants to get back to his woods; and he is -deterred by no sentiment of affection, or consideration of interest. - -To-day we are passing the hills of Almeyrim. The last time we saw them -it was in the glow of a brilliant sunset; to-day, ragged edges of clouds -overhang them, and they are sombre under a leaden, rainy sky. It is -delightful to Mr. Agassiz, in returning to this locality, to find that -phenomena, which were a blank to him on our voyage up the river, are -perfectly explicable now that he has had an opportunity of studying the -geology of the Amazonian Valley. When we passed these singular -flat-topped hills before, he had no clew to their structure or their -age,—whether granite, as they have been said to be, or sandstone or -limestone; whether primitive, secondary, or tertiary: and their strange -form made the problem still more difficult. Now he sees them simply as -the remnants of a plain which once filled the whole valley of the -Amazons, from the Andes to the Atlantic, from Guiana to Central Brazil. -Denudations on a colossal scale, hitherto unknown to geologists, have -turned this plain into a labyrinth of noble rivers, leaving only here -and there, where the formation has resisted the rush of waters, low -mountains and chains of hills to tell what was its thickness.[89] - -_February 1st._—On Tuesday evening we reached Porto do Moz, on the river -Xingú, where we had expected to be detained several days, as Mr. Agassiz -wished especially to obtain the fishes from this river, and, if -possible, from its upper and lower course, between which rapids -intervene. He found, however, his harvest ready to his hand. Senhor -Vinhas, with whom, when stopping here for a few hours on his voyage up -the river, he had had some conversation respecting the scientific -objects of his visit to the Amazons, has made during our absence one of -the finest collections obtained in the whole course of our journey, -containing, in separate lots, the fishes from above and below the -cascade. By means of this double collection, which Mr. Agassiz has -already examined carefully, he ascertains the fact that the faunæ on -either side of the falls are entirely distinct from each other, as are -those of the upper and lower courses of the Amazons, and also those of -its tributaries, lakes, and igarapés. This is a most important addition -to the evidence already obtained of the distinct localization of species -throughout the waters of the Amazonian Valley. We regretted that, on -account of the absence of Senor Vinhas from the town, we could not thank -him in person for this valuable contribution. Finding that the efforts -of this gentleman had really left nothing to be done in this locality, -unless, indeed, we could have stayed long enough to make collections in -all the water-basins connected with the Xingu, we left early in the -morning and reached Gurupá yesterday. This little town stands on a low -cliff some thirty feet above the river. On a projecting point of this -cliff there is an old, abandoned fort; and in the open place adjoining -it stands a church of considerable size, and seemingly in good repair. -But the settlement is evidently not prosperous. Many of its houses are -ruinous and deserted, and there is even less of activity in the aspect -of the place than in most of the Amazonian villages. We heard much of -its insalubrity, and found very severe cases of intermittent fever in -one or two of the houses we entered. While Mr. Agassiz made a call upon -the subdelegado, who was himself confined to his room with fever, I was -invited to rest in the open veranda of a neighboring house, which looked -pretty and attractive enough; for it opened into a sunny garden, where -bananas and oranges and palm-trees were growing. But the old woman who -received me complained bitterly of the dampness, to which, indeed, her -hoarse cough and rheumatism bore testimony; and a man was lying in his -hammock, slung under the porch, who was worn to mere skin and bone with -fever. Here also we received some valuable specimens, collected, since -our previous visit, by the subdelegado and one or two other residents. - -_February 3d._—On Thursday we reached Tajapuru, where we were detained -for two days on account of some little repair needed on the steamer. The -place is interesting as showing what may be done on the Amazons in a -short time by enterprise and industry. A settler in these regions may, -if he has the taste and culture to appreciate it, surround himself with -much that is attractive in civilized life. Some seventeen years ago -Senhor Sepeda established himself at this spot, then a complete -wilderness. He has now a very large and pleasant country-house, with a -garden in front and walks in the forest around. The interior of the -house is commodious and tasteful; and we could not but wish, while we -enjoyed Senhor Sepeda’s hospitality, that his example might be followed, -and that there might be many such homes on the banks of the Amazons. -This morning we are again on our way down the river. - -_February 4th._—We reached Pará to-day, parting, not without regret, -from the “Ibicuhy,” on board of which we have spent so many pleasant -weeks. Before we left the vessel, Captain Faria ordered the carpenter to -take down our little pavilion on deck. It had been put up for our -accommodation, and had served as our dining-room and our working-room, -our shelter from the sun, and our snug retreat in floods of rain.[90] On -arriving in Pará we found ourselves at once at home in the house of our -kind friend, Senhor Pimenta Bueno, where we look forward to a pleasant -rest from our wanderings. I insert here a letter to the Emperor, written -two or three weeks later, and containing a short summary of the -scientific work on the Amazons. - - PARÁ, 23 Février, 1866. - - SIRE:—En arrivant à Pará, au commencement de ce mois j’ai eu le - bonheur d’y trouver l’excellente lettre de Votre Majesté, qui - m’attendait depuis quelques jours. J’aurais dû y répondre - immédiatement; mais je n’étais pas en état de le faire, tant j’étais - accablé de fatigue. Il y a trois ou quatre jours seulement que je - commence de nouveau à m’occuper de mes affaires. J’avouerai même que - le pressentiment des regrets qui m’auraient poursuivi le reste de - mes jours m’a seul empêché de retourner directement aux Etats-Unis. - Aujourd’hui encore j’ai de la peine à vaquer aux occupations les - plus simples. Et cependant je ne suis pas malade; je suis seulement - épuisé par un travail incessant et par la contemplation tous les - jours plus vive et plus impressive des grandeurs et des beautés de - cette nature tropicale. J’aurais besoin pour quelque temps de la vue - monotone et sombre d’une forêt de sapins. - - Que vous êtes bon, Sire, de penser à moi au milieu des affaires - vitales qui absorbent votre attention et combien vos procédés sont - pleins de délicatesse. Le cadeau de nouvel-an que vous m’annoncez - m’enchante. La perspective de pouvoir ajouter quelques comparaisons - des poissons du bassin de l’Uruguay à celles que j’ai déjà faites - des espèces de l’Amazone et des fleuves de la côte orientale du - Brésil a un attrait tout particulier. Ce sera le premier pas vers la - connaissance des types de la zône tempérée dans l’Amérique du Sud. - Aussi est-ce avec une impatience croissante que je vois venir le - moment où je pourrai les examiner. En attendant, permettez-moi de - vous donner un aperçu rapide des résultats obtenus jusqu’à ce jour - dans le voyage de l’Amazone. - - Je ne reviendrai pas sur ce qu’il y a de surprenant dans la grande - variété des espèces de poissons de ce bassin, bien qu’il me soit - encore difficile de me familiariser avec l’idée que l’Amazone - nourrit à peu-près deux fois plus d’espèces que la Méditerrannée et - un nombre plus considérable que l’Océan Atlantique d’un pôle à - l’autre. Je ne puis cependant plus dire avec la même précision quel - est le nombre exact d’espèces de l’Amazone que nous nous sommes - procurées, parceque depuis que je reviens sur mes pas, en descendant - le grand fleuve, je vois des poissons prêts à frayer que j’avais vus - dans d’autres circonstances et vice versâ, et sans avoir recours aux - collections que j’ai faites il y a six mois et qui ne me sont pas - accessibles aujourd’hui, il m’est souvent impossible de déterminer - de mémoire si ce sont les mêmes espèces ou d’autres qui m’avaient - échappé lors de mon premier examen. J’estime cependant que le nombre - total des espèces que je possède actuellement dépasse dix-huit cents - et atteint peut-être à deux mille. Mais ce n’est pas seulement le - nombre des espèces qui surprendra les naturalistes; le fait qu’elles - sont pour la plupart circonscrites dans des limites restreintes est - bien plus surprenant encore et ne laissera pas que d’avoir une - influence directe sur les idées qui se répandent de nos jours sur - l’origine des êtres vivants. Que dans un fleuve comme le - Mississippi, qui, du Nord au Sud, passe successivement par les zones - froide, tempérée et chaude, qui roule ses eaux tantôt sur une - formation géologique, tantôt sur une autre, et traverse des plaines - couvertes au Nord d’une végétation presque arctique et au Sud d’une - flore subtropicale,—que dans un pareil bassin on rencontre des - espèces d’animaux aquatiques différentes, sur différents points de - son trajet, ça se comprend dès qu’on s’est habitué à envisager les - conditions générales d’existence et le climat en particulier comme - la cause première de la diversité que les animaux et les plantes - offrent entre eux, dans les différentes localités; mais que, de - Tabatinga au Pará, dans un fleuve où les eaux ne varient ni par leur - température, ni par la nature de leur lit, ni par la végétation qui - les borde, que dans de pareilles circonstances on rencontre, de - distance en distance, des assemblages de poissons complètement - distincts les uns des autres, c’est ce qui a lieu d’étonner. Je - dirai même que dorénavant cette distribution, qui peut être vérifiée - par quiconque voudra s’en donner la peine, doit jeter beaucoup de - doute sur l’opinion qui attribue la diversité des êtres vivants aux - influences locales. - - Un autre côté de ce sujet, encore plus curieux peut-être, est - l’intensité avec laquelle la vie s’est manifestée dans ces eaux. - Tous les fleuves de l’Europe réunis, depuis le Tage jusqu’au Volga, - ne nourissent pas cent cinquante espèces de poissons d’eau douce; et - cependant, dans un petit lac des environs de Manaos, nommé Lago - Hyanuary, qui a à peine quatre ou cinq-cents mètres carrés de - surface, nous avons découvert plus de deux-cents espèces distinctes, - dont la plupart n’ont pas encore été observées ailleurs. Quel - contraste! - - L’étude du mélange des races humaines qui se croisent dans ces - régions m’a aussi beaucoup occupé et je me suis procuré de - nombreuses photographies de tous les types que j’ai pu observer. Le - principal résultat auquel je suis arrivé est que les races se - comportent les unes vis-à-vis des autres comme des espèces - distinctes; c. à. d. que les hybrides qui naissent du croisement - d’hommes de race différente sont toujours un mélange des deux types - primitifs et jamais la simple reproduction des caractères de l’un ou - de l’autre des progéniteurs, comme c’est le cas pour les races - d’animaux domestiques. - - Je ne dirai rien de mes autres collections qui ont pour la plupart - été faites par mes jeunes compagnons de voyage, plutôt en vue - d’enrichir notre musée que de résoudre quelques questions - scientifiques. Mais je ne saurais laisser passer cette occasion sans - exprimer ma vive reconnaissance pour toutes les facilités que j’ai - dues à la bienveillance de Votre Majesté, dans mes explorations. - Depuis le Président jusqu’au plus humbles employés des provinces que - j’ai parcourues, tous ont rivalisé d’empressement pour me faciliter - mon travail et la Compagnie des vapeurs de l’Amazone a été d’une - libéralité extrême à mon égard. Enfin, Sire, la générosité avec - laquelle vous avez fait mettre un navire de guerre à ma disposition - m’a permis de faire des collections qui seraient restées - inaccessibles pour moi, sans un moyen de transport aussi vaste et - aussi rapide. Permettez-moi d’ajouter que de toutes les faveurs dont - Votre Majesté m’a comblé pour ce voyage, la plus précieuse a été la - présence du Major Coutinho, dont la familiarité avec tout ce qui - regarde l’Amazone a été une source intarissable de renseignements - importants et de directions utiles pour éviter des courses oiseuses - et la perte d’un temps précieux. L’étendue des connaissances de - Coutinho, en ce qui touche l’Amazone, est vraiment encyclopédique, - et je crois que ce serait un grand service à rendre à la science que - de lui fournir l’occasion de rédiger et de publier tout ce qu’il a - observé pendant ses visites répétées et prolongées dans cette partie - de l’Empire. Sa coopération pendant ce dernier voyage a été des plus - laborieuses; il s’est mis à la zoologie comme si les sciences - physiques n’avaient pas été l’objet spécial de ses études, en même - temps qu’il a fait par devers lui de nombreuses observations - thermométriques, barométriques, et astronomiques, qui ajouteront de - bons jalons à ce que l’on possède déjà sur la météorologie et la - topographie de ces provinces. C’est ainsi que nous avons les - premiers porté le baromètre au milieu des collines d’Almeyrim, de - Monte Alégre, et d’Ereré et mesuré leurs sommets les plus élevés. - - L’étude de la formation de la vallée de l’Amazone m’a naturellement - occupé, bien que secondairement, dès le premier jour que je l’ai - abordée. - - * * * * * - - Mais il est temps que je finisse cette longue épître en demandant - pardon à Votre Majesté d’avoir mis sa patience à une aussi rude - épreuve. - - De Votre Majesté le serviteur le plus dévoué et le plus affectueux, - - L. AGASSIZ.[91] - -_February 24th._—Pará, Nazareth. Our time has passed so quietly here -that it gives me nothing to record. Mr. Agassiz has found himself in -such absolute need of rest, after having arranged and put in order for -transportation to the United States the collections accumulated, that -our intended trip to the island of Marajo has been postponed day after -day. Yesterday I witnessed a religious procession in Pará,—one of the -many festas said to be gradually dying out, and to be already shorn of -much of their ancient glory. It represented a scene from the passion of -Christ. The life-size figure of the Saviour, sinking under the cross, is -borne on a platform through the streets. Little girls, dressed as -angels, walk before it, and it is accompanied by numerous dignitaries of -the Church. Altars are illuminated in the different churches; the -populace, even down to the children, are dressed in black; and the -balconies of every house filled with figures in mourning, waiting for -the sad procession to pass by. - -_February 28th._—Off Marajo, in the steamer Tabatinga. All great rivers, -as the Nile, the Mississippi, the Ganges, the Danube, have their deltas; -but the largest river in the world, the Amazons, is an exception to this -rule. What, then, is the geological character of the great island which -obstructs its opening into the ocean? This is the question which has -made a visit to Marajo of special interest to Mr. Agassiz. Leaving Pará -at midnight, we reached the little town of Sourés early this morning. It -is a village lying on the southeastern side of the island, and so far -seaward that, in the dry season, when the diminished current of the -Amazonian waters is overborne by the tides, the water is salt enough to -afford excellent sea-bathing, and is resorted to for that purpose by -many families from Pará. At this moment, however, the water has not even -a brackish character. The only building of any interest in the town is -the old Jesuit church, a remnant of the earliest chapter in the -civilization of South America. However tinged with ambition and a love -of temporal power, the work of the Jesuits in Brazil tended toward the -establishment of an organized system of labor, which one cannot but wish -had been continued. All that remains of the Jesuit missions goes to -prove that they were centres of industry. These men contrived to impart, -even to the wandering Indian, some faint reflection of their own -persistency and steadfastness of purpose. Farms were connected with all -the Indian missions; under the direction of the fathers, the Indians -learned something of agriculture, which the Jesuits readily saw to be -one of the great civilizing influences in a country so fertile. They -introduced a variety of vegetables and grains, and had herds of cattle -where cattle now are hardly known. Humboldt, speaking of the destruction -of the Jesuit missions, says, in reference to the Indians of Atures, on -the Orinoco: “Formerly, being excited to labor by the Jesuits, they did -not want for food. The fathers cultivated maize, French beans, and other -European vegetables. They even planted sweet oranges and tamarinds round -the villages; and they possessed twenty or thirty thousand head of cows -and horses in the savannas of Atures and Carichana.... Since the year -1795, the cattle of the Jesuits have entirely disappeared. There now -remain as monuments of the ancient cultivation of these countries, and -the active industry of the first missionaries, only a few trunks of the -orange and tamarind in the savannas, surrounded by wild trees.”[92] - -Our walk through the little village of Sourés brought us to the low -cliffs on the shore, which we had already seen from the steamer. The -same formations prevail all along the coast of this island that we have -found everywhere on the banks of the Amazons. Lowest, a well-stratified, -rather coarse sandstone, immediately above which, and conformable with -it, are finely laminated clays, covered by a crust. Upon this lies the -highly ferruginous sandstone, in which an irregular cross stratification -frequently alternates with the regular beds; above this, following all -the undulations of its surface, is the well-known reddish sandy clay, -with quartz pebbles scattered through its mass, and only here and there -faint traces of an indistinct stratification. This afternoon Mr. Agassiz -has been again on shore, examining the formation of both banks of the -Igarapé Grande, the river at the mouth of which stands the town of -Sourés. He has returned delighted with the result of his day’s work, -having not only obtained the most complete evidence that the geological -formation of Marajo corresponds exactly with that of the Amazonian -Valley, but having also obtained some very important data with respect -to the present encroachments of the sea upon the shore. He found upon -the beach, partially covered by sea-sand, the remains of a forest which -evidently grew in a peat-bog, and which the ocean is gradually laying -bare. - -_February 29th._—Early this morning we crossed the Pará River, and -anchored at the entrance of the bay within which stands the town of -Vigia. We landed, and while the boatmen were dragging the net, we -wandered along the beach, which is bordered by thick forest, now full of -flowers. Here we found the same geological formations as on the Marajo -shore, and on the beach the counterpart of the ancient forest which Mr. -Agassiz unearthed yesterday on the opposite coast. There can hardly be -more convincing evidence that the rivers which empty into the Amazons -near its mouth, like all those higher up, as well as the main stream -itself, have cut their way through identical formations, which were once -continuous. Evidently these remains of forests on the beaches of Vigia -Bay and at the mouth of the Igarapé Grande are parts of one forest, -formerly uninterrupted and covering the whole of the intervening space -now filled by the so-called Pará River. We followed the beach to the -entrance of an igarapé, which here opens into the river, and which -looked most tempting with the morning shadows darkening its cool -recesses. As the boatmen had not been very successful in fishing, I -proposed we should put their services to better use and row up this -inviting stream. To this day, though I have become accustomed to these -forest water-paths and have had so many excursions in them, they have -lost none of their charm. I never see one without longing to follow its -picturesque windings into the depths of the wood; and to me the igarapé -remains the most beautiful and the most characteristic feature of the -Amazonian scenery. This one of Vigia was especially pretty. Clumps of -the light, exquisitely graceful Assai palm shot up everywhere from the -denser forest; here and there the drooping bamboo, never seen in the -higher Amazons, dipped its feathery branches into the water, covered -sometimes to their very tips with purple bloom of convolvulus; yellow -Bignonias carried their golden clusters to the very summits of some of -the more lofty trees; while white-flowering myrtles and orange-colored -mallows bordered the stream. Life abounded in this quiet retreat. Birds -and butterflies were numerous; and we saw an immense number of crabs of -every variety of color and size upon the margin of the water. However, -it was not so easy to catch them as it seemed. They would sit quietly on -the trunks of all the old trees or decaying logs projecting from the -bank, apparently waiting to be taken; but the moment we approached them, -however cautiously, they vanished like lightning either under the water -or into some crevice near by. Notwithstanding their nimbleness, however, -Mr. Agassiz succeeded in making a considerable collection. We saw also -an immense army of caterpillars, evidently following some concerted plan -of action. They were descending the trunk of a large tree in a solid -phalanx about two handbreadths in width, and six or eight feet in -length; no doubt coming down to make their chrysalids in the sand. We -returned to the steamer at ten o’clock; and, after breakfast, finding -our anchorage-ground somewhat rough as the tide came in, we went a -little higher up, and entered the Bahia do Sul. Here again we went on -shore to see the net drawn, this time more successfully. We should have -had a delightful walk on the beach again, had it not been for hosts of -minute flies which hovered about us, and had a power of stinging quite -disproportionate to their size. On returning we met with an unforeseen -difficulty. The tide had been falling during our walk, and the canoe -could not approach the beach within several yards. The gentlemen plunged -in, and walked out over knees in water; while the boatmen made a chair -of their arms and carried me through the surf. - -_March 5th._—Our excursion in the harbor closed with a visit to the -small island of Tatuatuba, distant about six miles from Pará. In order -to examine the shores, we made the circuit of the island on foot. Here -again the same geological structure presented itself; and there was one -spot in particular where the sharp, vertical cut of the bank facing the -beach presented an admirable section of the formations so characteristic -of the Amazonian Valley; the red, sandy clay of the upper deposit -filling in all the undulations and inequalities of the sandstone below, -the surface of which was remarkably irregular. The sea is making great -encroachments on the shore of this island. Senhor Figueiredo, who lives -here with his family and by whom we were received with much hospitality, -told us that during the last eighteen or twenty years, the beach had -receded considerably in some places; the high-water line being many -yards beyond its former limit. The result of this excursion has shown -that, with the exception of some low mud-islands nearly level with the -water, all the harbor islands lying in the mouth of the Amazons are, -geologically speaking, parts of the Amazonian Valley, having the same -structure. They were, no doubt, formerly continuous with the shore, but -are separated now, partly by the fresh waters cutting their way through -the land to the ocean, partly by the progress of the sea itself. - -_March 24th._—Our quiet life at Nazareth, though full of enjoyment for -tired travellers, affords little material for a journal. A second -excursion along the coast has furnished Mr. Agassiz with new evidence of -the rapid changes in the outline of the shore, produced by the -encroachment of the sea. So fast is this going on that some of the -public works near the coast are already endangered by the advance of the -ocean upon the land. During the past week he has been especially -occupied in directing the work of a photographist employed by Senhor -Pimenta Bueno, who, with his usual liberality towards the scientific -objects of the expedition, is collecting in this way the portraits of -some remarkable palms and other trees about his house and grounds. One -of the most striking is a huge Sumauméra, with buttressed trunk. These -buttresses start at a distance of about eight or ten feet from the -ground, spreading gradually toward the base; they are from ten to twelve -feet in depth. The lower part of the trunk is thus divided into open -compartments, sometimes so large that two or three persons can stand -within them. This disposition to throw out flanks or wings is not -confined to one kind of tree, but occurs in many families; it seems, -indeed, a characteristic feature of forest vegetation here. Occasionally -the buttresses partially separate from the main trunk, remaining -attached to it only at the point from which they start, so that they -look like distinct supports propping the tree. I copy here an extract -from Mr. Agassiz’s notes upon the vegetation of the Amazons, in which -allusion is made to the Sumauméra. - -[Illustration: Buttressed Tree (Eriodendrum Sumauma).] - -“Any one coming from the North to the Tropics, if he has been in the -habit of observing the vegetation about him, even without having made -botany a special study, is, in a measure, prepared to appreciate the -resemblances and the differences between plants of the tropical and -those of the temperate regions. An acquaintance with the Robinia -(Locust-trees), for instance, or with the large shrub-like Lotus, and -other woody Leguminosæ, will enable him to recognize the numerous -representatives of that family, forming so large a part of the -equatorial vegetation; and, even should he never have seen specimens of -the Mimosa in gardens or hot-houses, their delicate, susceptible foliage -will make them known to him; he cannot fail to be struck with the -inexhaustible combinations and forms of their pinnate leaves, as well as -with the variety in their tints of green, the diversity in their -clusters of leaves and in their pods and seeds. But there are families -with which he fancies himself equally familiar, the tropical -representatives of which will never seem to him like old acquaintances. -Thus the tree which furnishes the Indian rubber belongs to the Milk-weed -family. Every one knows the Milk-weeds of the North, to be seen, as -humble herbs, all along the roadsides, on the edges of our woods and in -the sands of our beaches. Yet on the Amazons, the Euphorbiaceæ, so small -and unobtrusive with us, assume the form of colossal trees, constituting -a considerable part of its strange and luxuriant forest-growth. The -giant of the Amazonian woods, whose majestic flat crown towers over all -other trees, while its white trunk stands out in striking relief from -the surrounding mass of green (the Sumauméra), is allied to our mallows. -Some of the most characteristic trees of the river-shore belong to these -two families. Our paleontologists who attempt to restore the forests of -older geological times should keep in mind this fact of the striking -contrasts presented under different latitudes by the same families. Of -course the equatorial regions teem with plants and trees belonging to -families either entirely unknown or but poorly represented in more -temperate latitudes; and these distinct groups naturally arrest the -attention of the botanist, and perhaps awaken his interest more than -those with which he is already familiar under other forms. But, while -these different families are recognized as distinct, and no doubt -deserve to be considered by themselves as natural groups, I believe that -much might be learned of the deeper relations of plants by studying, not -only the representatives of the same families in different latitudes, -such as the Mimosas and the Milk-weeds, but also what I may call -botanical equivalents,—groups which balance each other in the different -climatic zones. This idea is suggested to me by my zoölogical studies in -the Amazons, which have led me to perceive new relations between the -animals of the temperate and the tropical zone: it seems probable that -corresponding relations should exist in the vegetable world also. -Struck, for instance, by the total absence of sturgeons, perches, -pickerels, trouts, carps and other white fishes, cusks, sculpins, &c., I -have asked myself, while studying the fishes of the Amazons, what -analogy could exist between those of our Western rivers and those of the -tropics, as well as between the latter and those of the intermediate -latitudes. Looking at them with this view, I have been surprised to find -how closely related the Goniodonts are to the Sturgeons; so much so, -that the Loricariæ may be considered as genuine Sturgeons, with more -extensive shields upon the body. I am satisfied also that the Cychla is -a perch to all intents and purposes, that the Acaras are Sunfishes, the -Xiphorhamphus (Pirà pucu) Pickerels, and the Curimatas genuine Carps. -Now, may not a similar relation exist between the families of plants -belonging to the North and those forming the most prominent vegetation -of the South? What are the tropical trees which take the place of our -elms, maples, lindens? By what families are our oaks, chestnuts, -willows, poplars, represented under the burning sun of the equinoctial -regions? The Rosaceæ in the temperate and the Myrtaceæ in the tropical -regions seem to me such botanical equivalents. The family of Rosaceæ -gives to the North its pears, its apples, its peaches, its cherries, its -plums, its almonds; in short, all the most delicious fruits of the Old -World, as well as its most beautiful flowers. The trees of this family, -by their foliage, play a distinguished part in the vegetation of the -temperate zone, and impart to it a character of their own. The Myrtaceæ -give to the South its guavas, its pitangas, its araçàs, the juicy -plum-like fruit of the swamp-myrtles, many of its nuts, and other -excellent fruits. This family, including the Melastomaceæ, abounds in -flowering shrubs, like the purple Queresma and many others not less -beautiful; and some of its representatives, such as the Sapucaia and the -Brazilian nut-tree, rise to the height of towering trees. Both of these -families sink to insignificance in the one zone, while they assume a -dignified port and perform an important part in the other. If this -investigation be extended to the shrubs and humbler plants, I believe -the botanist who undertakes it will reap a rich harvest.” - -The day after to-morrow we leave Pará in the Santa Cruz for Ceará. It -will be like leaving a sort of home to say good by to our kind friends -in the Rua de Nazareth. We have become attached to this neighborhood -also from its beauty. The wide street, bordered for two or three miles -with mangueiras, leads into the wooded country, where many a narrow -green path in the forest tempts one to long rambles. One of these paths -has been a favorite walk of mine on account of the beauty and luxuriance -of the vegetation, making some parts of it shady even at noonday. I have -often followed it for two or three miles in the early morning, between -six and eight o’clock, when the verdant walls on either side are still -fresh and dewy. Beautiful as it is, it leads to one of the saddest of -all abodes. For a long time I could not understand why this lane was -always in such good condition, the heavy rains making unfrequented -forest-paths almost impassable in the wet season. I found on inquiry -that it led to a hospital for lepers, and was kept in good repair -because the various stores and supplies for the hospital were constantly -carried over it. The prevalence of leprosy has made it necessary to -provide separate establishments for its victims; and both at Pará and -Santarem, where it is still more common, there are hospitals devoted -exclusively to this purpose. This terrible disease is not confined -wholly to the lower classes, and where it occurs in families whose -circumstances are good the invalid is often kept at home under the care -of his own friends. Bates states that leprosy is supposed to be -incurable, and also adds that, during his eleven years’ residence on the -Amazons, he has never known a foreigner to be attacked by it. We have, -however, been told by a very intelligent German physician in Rio de -Janeiro, that he has known several cases of it among his own countrymen -there, and has been so fortunate as to effect permanent cures in some -instances. He says it is a mistake to suppose that it does not yield to -treatment when taken in time, and the statistics of the disease show -that, where there are good physicians, it is found to be gradually -disappearing. - -We must not leave Pará without alluding to our evening concerts from the -adjoining woods and swamps. When I first heard this strange confusion of -sounds, I thought it came from a crowd of men shouting loudly, though at -a little distance. To my surprise, I found that the rioters were the -frogs and toads in the neighborhood. I hardly know how to describe this -Babel of woodland noises; and if I could do it justice, I am afraid my -account would hardly be believed. At moments it seems like the barking -of dogs, then like the calling of many voices on different keys, but all -loud, rapid, excited, full of emphasis and variety. I think these frogs, -like ours, must be silent at certain seasons of the year; for, on our -first visit to Pará, we were not struck by this singular music, with -which the woods now resound at nightfall. - - * * * * * - - NOTE.—Before leaving the Amazons, I wish to acknowledge attentions - received from several friends, whose names do not appear in the - narrative. - - To Senhor Danin, Chef de Police at Pará, I was indebted for valuable - Indian curiosities, and for specimens of other kinds; to Doctor - Malcher for a collection of birds; to Senhor Penna for important - additions to my collection of fishes; to Senhor Laitaō da Cunha for - aid in collecting, and for many introductions to persons of - influence along our route; and to Mr. Kaulfuss, a German resident at - Pará, for fossils from the Andes. - - I have to thank Mr. James Bond, United States Consul at Pará, for - unwearied efforts in my behalf during the whole time of my stay in - the Amazons. He supplied me with alcohol; received the collections - on their arrival at Pará; examined the cases and barrels, causing - those which were defective to be repaired, that they might reach - their destination in safety, and finally despatched them to the - United States, free of charge, on board sailing-vessels in which he - had an interest. We owe it in great degree to him that our immense - Amazonian collections arrived in Cambridge in good condition, - suffering little loss or injury in the process of transportation.—L. - A. - ------ - -Footnote 88: - - During my short stay in the neighborhood of Villa Bella and Obydos I - was indebted to several residents of these towns for assistance in - collecting; especially to Padre Torquato and to Padre Antonio Mattos. - My friend, Mr. Honorio, who accompanied me to this point, with the - assistance of the Delegado, at Villa Bella, made also a very excellent - collection of fishes in this vicinity. At Obydos Colonel Bentos - contributed a very large collection of fishes from the Rio - Trombetas.—L. A. - -Footnote 89: - - See Chapter XIII., on the Physical History of the Amazons. - -Footnote 90: - - It is but fitting that I should express here my thanks to Captain - Faria for the courteous manner in which he accomplished the task - assigned him by the government. He was not only a most hospitable host - on board his vessel, but he allowed me to encumber his deck with all - kinds of scientific apparatus, and gave me very efficient assistance - in collecting.—L. A. - -Footnote 91: - - PARÁ, February 23, 1866. - - SIRE:—On arriving at Pará in the beginning of this month, I had the - pleasure to find your Majesty’s kind letter, which had been awaiting - me for several days. I ought to have acknowledged it immediately, but - I was not in a condition to do so, being overcome by fatigue. It is - only during the last two or three days that I begin once more to - occupy myself as usual. I confess that nothing but the presentiment of - regrets which would have pursued me to the end of my days has - prevented me from returning directly to the United States. Even now I - find it difficult to take up the most simple occupations. And yet I am - not ill; I am only exhausted by incessant work, and by the - contemplation, each day more vivid and impressive, of the grandeur and - beauty of this tropical nature. I need to look for a time upon the - sombre and monotonous aspect of a pine forest. - - How good you are, Sire, to think of me in the midst of the vital - affairs which absorb your attention, and how considerate are your - acts! The New Year’s present you announce enchants me.[93] The - prospect of being able to add some comparisons of the fishes from the - basin of the Uruguay to such as I have already made between the - Amazonian species and those of the rivers on the eastern coast of - Brazil has a special attraction for me. It will be the first step - towards a knowledge of the types of the temperate zone in South - America. I wait with increasing impatience for the moment when I shall - be able to examine them. In the mean while allow me to give you a - rapid sketch of the results thus far obtained in my voyage on the - Amazons. - - I will not return to the surprising variety of species of fishes - contained in this basin, though it is very difficult for me to - familiarize myself with the idea that the Amazons nourishes nearly - twice as many species as the Mediterranean, and a larger number than - the Atlantic, taken from one pole to the other. I can no longer say, - however, with precision, what is the exact number of species which we - have procured from the Amazons, because, on retracing my steps as I - descended the great river, I have seen fishes about to lay their eggs - which I had seen at first under other conditions, and _vice versa_; - and without consulting the collections made six months ago, and which - are not now accessible to me, it is often impossible for me to - determine from memory whether they are the same species, or different - ones which escaped my observation in my first examination. However, I - estimate the total number of species which I actually possess at - eighteen hundred, and it may be two thousand.[94] But it is not only - the number of species which will astonish naturalists; the fact that - they are for the most part circumscribed within definite limits is - still more surprising, and cannot but have a direct influence on the - ideas now prevalent respecting the origin of living beings. That in a - river like the Mississippi, which from the north to the south passes - successively through cold, temperate, and warm zones,—whose waters - flow sometimes over one geological formation, sometimes over another, - and across plains covered at the north by an almost arctic vegetation, - and at the south by a sub-tropical flora,—that in such a basin aquatic - animals of different species should be met at various points of its - course is easily understood by those who are accustomed to consider - general conditions of existence, and of climate especially, as the - first cause of the difference between animals and plants inhabiting - separate localities. But that from Tabatinga to Pará, in a river where - the waters differ neither in temperature nor in the nature of their - bed, nor in the vegetation along their borders,—that under such - circumstances there should be met, from distance to distance, - assemblages of fishes completely distinct from each other, is indeed - astonishing. I would even say that henceforth this distribution, which - may be verified by any one who cares to take the trouble, must throw - much doubt on the opinion which attributes the diversity of living - beings to local influences. Another side of this subject, still more - curious perhaps, is the intensity with which life is manifested in - these waters. All the rivers of Europe united, from the Tagus to the - Volga, do not nourish one hundred and fifty species of fresh-water - fishes; and yet, in a little lake near Manaos, called Lago Hyanuary, - the surface of which covers hardly four or five hundred square yards, - we have discovered more than two hundred distinct species, the greater - part of which have not been observed elsewhere. What a contrast! - - The study of the mixture of human races in this region has also - occupied me much, and I have procured numerous photographs of all the - types which I have been able to observe. The principal result at which - I have arrived is, that the _races_ bear themselves towards each other - as do distinct species; that is to say, that the hybrids, which spring - from the crossing of men of different races, are always a mixture of - the two primitive types, and never the simple reproduction of the - characters of one or the other progenitor, as is the case among the - races of domestic animals. - - I will say nothing of my other collections, which have been made for - the most part by my young companions, rather with a view to enrich our - Museum than to solve scientific questions. But I cannot allow this - occasion to pass without expressing my lively gratitude for all the - facilities, in my explorations, which I have owed to the kindness of - your Majesty. From the President to the most humble employés of the - provinces I have visited, all have competed with each other to render - my work more easy; and the steamship company of the Amazons has shown - an extreme liberality towards me. Finally, Sire, the generosity with - which you have placed at my disposition a vessel of war has allowed me - to make collections which, with less ample and rapid means of - transport, must have remained utterly inaccessible to me. Permit me to - add, that, of all the favors with which your Majesty has crowned this - voyage, the most precious has been the presence of Major Coutinho, - whose familiarity with all which concerns the Amazons has been an - inexhaustible source of important information and of useful - directions; by means of which the loss of time in unremunerative - excursions has been avoided. His co-operation during this journey has - been most laborious; he has applied himself to zoölogy as if the - physical sciences had not hitherto been the special object of his - study, while at the same time he has made numerous thermometric, - barometric, and astronomical observations, which will furnish - important additions to what is already known concerning the - meteorology and topography of these provinces. We have, for instance, - been the first to carry the barometer into the midst of the hills of - Almeyrim, of Monte Alégre and Ereré, and to measure their highest - summits. The study of the formation of the valley of the Amazons has - naturally occupied me, though in a secondary degree, from the first - day of my arrival.[95] - - * * * * * - -But it is time that I should close this long letter, begging your -Majesty to pardon me for putting your patience to so hard a trial. - - Your Majesty’s most humble and most affectionate servant, - - L. AGASSIZ. - -Footnote 92: - - Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, Bohn’s Scientific Library, Vol. II. - Chap. XX. p. 267. - -Footnote 93: - - The Emperor had written to Mr. Agassiz that, during the time when he - took command of the Brazilian army on the Rio Grande, he had caused - collections of fishes to be made for him from several of the southern - rivers. - -Footnote 94: - - To-day I cannot give a more precise account of the final result of my - survey. Though all my collections are safely stored in the Museum, - every practical zoölogist understands that a critical examination of - more than eighty thousand specimens cannot be made in less than - several years.—L. A. - -Footnote 95: - - The rest of this letter is omitted, as its substance is contained in - Chapter XIII., on the Physical History of the Amazons. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE AMAZONS. - - DRIFT ABOUT RIO DE JANEIRO.—DECOMPOSITION OF UNDERLYING - ROCK.—DIFFERENT ASPECT OF GLACIAL PHENOMENA IN DIFFERENT - CONTINENTS.—FERTILITY OF THE DRIFT.—GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF - MESSRS. HARTT AND ST. JOHN.—CORRESPONDENCE OF DEPOSITS ALONG THE - COAST WITH THOSE OF RIO AND THOSE OF THE VALLEY OF THE - AMAZONS.—PRIMITIVE FORMATION OF THE VALLEY.—FIRST KNOWN CHAPTER OF - ITS HISTORY.—CRETACEOUS FOSSIL FISHES.—FORMER EXTENT OF THE - SOUTH-AMERICAN COAST.—CRETACEOUS FOSSILS FROM THE RIO - PURUS.—COMPARISON BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA.—GEOLOGICAL - FORMATIONS ALONG THE BANKS OF THE AMAZONS.—FOSSIL LEAVES.—CLAYS - AND SANDSTONES.—HILLS OF ALMEYRIM.—MONTE ALÉGRE.—SITUATION AND - SCENERY.—SERRA ERERÉ.—COMPARISON WITH SWISS SCENERY.—BOULDERS OF - ERERÉ.—ANCIENT THICKNESS OF AMAZONIAN DEPOSITS.—DIFFERENCE BETWEEN - DRIFT OF THE AMAZONS AND THAT OF RIO.—INFERENCES DRAWN FROM THE - PRESENT CONDITION OF THE DEPOSITS.—IMMENSE EXTENT OF SANDSTONE - FORMATION.—NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THESE DEPOSITS.—REFERRED - TO THE ICE-PERIOD.—ABSENCE OF GLACIAL MARKS.—GLACIAL - EVIDENCE OF ANOTHER KIND.—CHANGES IN THE OUTLINE OF THE - SOUTH-AMERICAN COAST.—SOURÉ.—IGARAPÉ GRANDE.—VIGIA.—BAY OF - BRAGANZA.—ANTICIPATION. - - -A few days before we left Pará, Senhor Pimenta Bueno invited his friends -and acquaintances, who had expressed a wish to hear Mr. Agassiz’s views -on the geological character of the Amazonian Valley, to meet at his -house in the evening for that purpose. The guests were some two hundred -in number, and the whole affair was very unceremonious, assuming rather -the character of a meeting for conversation or discussion than that of -an audience collected to hear a studied address. The substance of this -talk or lecture, as subsequently written out by Mr. Agassiz, afterward -appeared in the Atlantic Monthly, and is inserted here, with some few -alterations under the head of a separate chapter. The reader will find -occasional repetitions of facts already stated in the earlier part of -the narrative; but they are retained for the sake of giving a complete -and consistent review of the subject at this point of our journey, where -it became possible to compare the geological structure of the Amazonian -Valley with that of the southern provinces of Brazil and of those -bordering on the Atlantic coast. - - * * * * * - -The existence of a glacial period, however much derided when first -announced, is now a recognized fact. The divergence of opinion -respecting it is limited to a question of extent; and after my recent -journey in the Amazons, I am led to add a new chapter to the strange -history of glacial phenomena, taken from the southern hemisphere, and -even from the tropics themselves. - -I am prepared to find that the statement of this new phase of the -glacial period will awaken among my scientific colleagues an opposition -even more violent than that by which the first announcement of my views -on this subject was met. I am, however, willing to bide my time; feeling -sure that, as the theory of the ancient extension of glaciers in Europe -has gradually come to be accepted by geologists, so will the existence -of like phenomena, both in North and South America, during the same -epoch, be recognized sooner or later as part of a great series of -physical events extending over the whole globe. Indeed, when the -ice-period is fully understood, it will be seen that the absurdity lies -in supposing that climatic conditions so different could be limited to a -small portion of the world’s surface. If the geological winter existed -at all, it must have been cosmic; and it is quite as rational to look -for its traces in the Western as in the Eastern hemisphere, to the south -of the equator as to the north of it. Impressed by this wider view of -the subject, confirmed by a number of unpublished investigations which I -have made during the last three or four years in the United States, I -came to South America, expecting to find in the tropical regions new -evidences of a bygone glacial period, though, of course, under different -aspects. Such a result seemed to me the logical sequence of what I had -already observed in Europe and in North America. - -On my arrival in Rio de Janeiro,—the port at which I first landed in -Brazil,—my attention was immediately attracted by a very peculiar -formation consisting of an ochraceous, highly ferruginous, sandy clay. -During a stay of three months in Rio, whence I made many excursions into -the neighboring country, I had opportunities of studying this deposit, -both in the province of Rio de Janeiro and in the adjoining province of -Minas Geraes. I found that it rested everywhere upon the undulating -surfaces of the solid rocks in place, was almost entirely destitute of -stratification, and contained a variety of pebbles and boulders. The -pebbles were chiefly quartz, sometimes scattered indiscriminately -throughout the deposit, sometimes lying in a seam between it and the -rock below; while the boulders were either sunk in its mass, or resting -loosely on the surface. At Tijuca, a few miles out of the city of Rio, -among the picturesque hills lying to the southwest of it, these -phenomena may be seen in great perfection. Near Bennett’s Hotel there -are a great number of erratic boulders, having no connection whatever -with the rock in place; and also a bluff of this superficial deposit -studded with boulders, resting above the partially stratified -metamorphic rock.[96] Other excellent opportunities for observing this -formation, also within easy reach from the city, are afforded along the -whole line of the Dom Pedro Segundo Railroad, where the cuts expose -admirable sections, showing the red, unstratified, homogeneous mass of -sandy clay resting above the solid rock, and often divided from it by a -thin bed of pebbles. There can be no doubt, in the mind of any one -familiar with similar facts observed in other parts of the world, that -this is one of the many forms of drift connected with glacial action. I -was, however, far from anticipating, when I first met it in the -neighborhood of Rio, that I should afterwards find it spreading over the -surface of the country from north to south and from east to west, with a -continuity which gives legible connection to the whole geological -history of the continent. - -It is true that the extensive decomposition of the underlying rock, -penetrating sometimes to a considerable depth, makes it often difficult -to distinguish between it and the drift; and the problem is made still -more puzzling by the fact that the surface of the drift, when baked by -exposure to the hot sun, often assumes the appearance of decomposed -rock, so that great care is required for a correct interpretation of the -facts. A little practice, however, trains the eye to read these -appearances aright; and I may say that I have learned to recognize -everywhere the limit between the two formations. There is indeed one -safe guide, namely, the undulating line, reminding one of _roches -moutonnées_,[97] and marking the irregular surface of the rock on which -the drift was accumulated; whatever modifications the one or the other -may have undergone, this line seems never to disappear. Another -deceptive feature, arising from the frequent disintegration of the rocks -and from the brittle character of some of them, is the presence of loose -fragments, which simulate erratic boulders, but are in fact only -detached masses of the rock in place. A careful examination of their -structure, however, will at once show the geologist whether they belong -where they are found, or have been brought from a distance to their -present resting-place. - -But, while the features to which I have alluded are unquestionably drift -phenomena, they present in their wider extension, and especially in the -northern part of Brazil, some phases of glacial action hitherto -unobserved. Just as the investigation of the ice-period in the United -States has shown us that ice-fields may move over open level plains, as -well as along the slopes of mountain valleys, so does a study of the -same class of facts in South America reveal new and unlooked-for -features in the history of the ice-period. Some will say that the fact -of the advance of ice-fields over an open country is by no means -established, inasmuch as many geologists believe all the so-called -glacial traces—viz. striæ, furrows, polish, etc., found in the United -States—to have been made by floating icebergs at a time when the -continent was submerged. To this I can only answer that, in the State of -Maine, I have followed, compass in hand, the same set of furrows, -running from north to south in one unvarying line, over a surface of one -hundred and thirty miles, from the Katahdin Iron Range to the -sea-shore.[98] These furrows follow all the inequalities of the country, -ascending ranges of hills varying from twelve to fifteen hundred feet in -height, and descending into the intervening valleys only two or three -hundred feet above the sea, or sometimes even on a level with it. I take -it to be impossible that a floating mass of ice should travel onward in -one rectilinear direction, turning neither to the right nor to the left, -for such a distance. Equally impossible would it be for a detached mass -of ice, swimming on the surface of the water, or even with its base sunk -considerably below it, to furrow in a straight line the summits and -sides of the hills, and the bottoms of the intervening valleys. It would -be carried over the inequalities of the country without touching the -lowest depressions. Instead of ascending the mountains, it would remain -stranded against any elevation which rose greatly above its own base, -and, if caught between two parallel ridges, would float up and down -between them. Moreover, the action of solid, unbroken ice, moving over -the ground in immediate contact with it, is so different from that of -floating ice-rafts or icebergs that, though the latter have -unquestionably dropped erratic boulders, and made furrows and striæ on -the surface where they happened to be grounded, these phenomena will -easily be distinguished from the more connected tracks of glaciers, or -extensive sheets of ice, resting directly upon the face of the country -and advancing over it. - -There seems thus far to be an inextricable confusion in the ideas of -many geologists as to the respective action of currents, icebergs, and -glaciers. It is time that they should learn to distinguish between -classes of facts so different from each other, and so easily recognized -after the discrimination has once been made. As to the southward -movement of an immense field of ice, extending over the whole North, it -seems inevitable, the moment we admit that snow may accumulate around -the pole in such quantities as to initiate a pressure radiating in every -direction. Snow, alternately thawing and freezing, must, like water, -find its level at last. A sheet of snow ten or fifteen thousand feet in -thickness, extending all over the northern and southern portions of the -globe, must necessarily lead, in the end, to the formation of a northern -and southern cap of ice, moving toward the equator. - -I have spoken of Tijuca and the Dom Pedro Railroad as favorable -localities for studying the peculiar southern drift; but one meets it in -every direction. A sheet of drift, consisting of the same homogeneous, -unstratified paste, and containing loose materials of all sorts and -sizes, covers the country. It is of very uneven thickness,—sometimes -thrown into relief, as it were, by the surrounding denudations, and -rising into hills; sometimes reduced to a thin layer; sometimes, as, for -instance, on steep slopes, washed entirely away, leaving the bare face -of the rock exposed. It has, however, remained comparatively undisturbed -on some very abrupt ascents; as may be seen on the Corcovado, along the -path leading up the mountain, where there are some very fine banks of -drift, the more striking from the contrast of their deep-red color with -the surrounding vegetation. I have myself followed this sheet of drift -from Rio de Janeiro to the top of the Serra do Mar, where, just outside -the pretty town of Petropolis, the river Piabanha may be seen flowing -between banks of drift, in which it has excavated its bed; thence I have -traced it along the beautiful macadamized road leading to Juiz de Fora -in the province of Minas Geraes, and beyond this to the farther side of -the Serra da Babylonia. Throughout this whole tract of country the drift -may be seen along the roadside, in immediate contact with the native -crystalline rock. The fertility of the land, also, is a guide to the -presence of drift. Wherever it lies thickest over the surface, there are -the most flourishing coffee-plantations; and I believe that a more -systematic regard to this fact would have a most beneficial influence -upon the agricultural interests of the country. No doubt the fertility -arises from the great variety of chemical elements contained in the -drift, and the kneading process it has undergone beneath the gigantic -ice-plough,—a process which makes glacial drift everywhere the most -fertile soil. Since my return from the Amazons, my impression as to the -general distribution of these phenomena has been confirmed by the -reports of some of my assistants, who have been travelling in other -parts of the country. Mr. Frederick C. Hartt, accompanied by Mr. -Copeland, one of the volunteer aids of the expedition, has been making -collections and geological observations in the province of Spiritu -Santo, in the valley of the Rio Doce, and afterwards in the valley of -the Mucury. He informs me that he has found everywhere the same sheet of -red, unstratified clay, with pebbles and occasional boulders overlying -the rock in place. Mr. Orestes St. John, who, taking the road through -the interior, has visited, with the same objects in view, the valleys of -the Rio San Francisco and the Rio das Velhas, and also the valley of -Piauhy, gives the same account, with the exception that he found no -erratic boulders in these more northern regions. The rarity of erratic -boulders, not only in the deposits of the Amazons proper, but in those -of the whole region which may be considered as the Amazonian basin, is -accounted for, as we shall see hereafter, by the mode of their -formation. The observations of Mr. Hartt and Mr. St. John are the more -valuable, because I had employed them both, on our first arrival in Rio, -in making geological surveys of different sections on the Dom Pedro -Railroad, so that they had a great familiarity with those formations -before starting on their separate journeys. Recently, Mr. St. John and -myself met in Pará on our return from our respective explorations, and I -have had an opportunity of comparing on the spot his geological sections -from the valley of the Piauhy with the Amazonian deposits. There can be -no doubt of the absolute identity of the formations in these valleys. - -Having arranged the work of my assistants, and sent several of them to -collect and make geological examinations in other directions, I myself, -with the rest of my companions, proceeded up the coast to Pará. I was -surprised to find at every step of my progress the same geological -phenomena which had met me at Rio. It was my friend, Major Coutinho, -already an experienced Amazonian traveller, who first told me that this -formation continued through the whole valley of the Amazons, and was -also to be found on all of its affluents which he had visited, although -he had never thought of referring it to so recent a period. And here let -me say that the facts I now state are by no means exclusively the result -of my own investigations. They are in great part due to Major Coutinho, -a member of the Brazilian government corps of engineers, who, by the -kindness of the Emperor, was associated with me in my Amazonian -expedition. I can truly say that he has been my good genius throughout -the whole journey, saving me, by his previous knowledge of the ground, -from the futile and misdirected expenditure of means and time often -inevitable in a new country, where one is imperfectly acquainted both -with the people and their language. We have worked together in this -investigation; my only advantage over him being my greater familiarity -with like phenomena in Europe and North America, and consequent -readiness in the practical handling of the facts and in perceiving their -connection. Major Coutinho’s assertion, that on the banks of the Amazons -I should find the same red, unstratified clay as in Rio and along the -southern coast, seemed to me at first almost incredible, impressed as I -was with the generally received notions as to the ancient character of -the Amazonian deposits, referred by Humboldt to the Devonian, and by -Martius to the Triassic period, and considered by all travellers to be -at least as old as the Tertiaries. The result, however, confirmed his -report, at least so far as the component materials of the formation are -concerned; but, as will be seen hereafter, the mode of their deposition, -and the time at which it took place, have not been the same at the north -and south; and this difference of circumstances has modified the aspect -of a formation essentially the same throughout. At first sight, it would -indeed appear that this formation, as it exists in the valley of the -Amazons, is identical with that of Rio; but it differs from it in the -rarity of its boulders, and in showing occasional signs of -stratification. It is also everywhere underlaid by coarse, -well-stratified deposits, resembling somewhat the _Recife_ of Bahia and -Pernambuco; whereas the unstratified drift of the south rests -immediately upon the undulating surface of whatever rock happens to make -the foundation of the country, whether stratified or crystalline. The -peculiar sandstone on which the Amazonian clay rests exists nowhere -else. Before proceeding, however, to describe the Amazonian deposits in -detail, I ought to say something of the nature and origin of the valley -itself. - -The valley of the Amazons was first sketched out by the elevation of two -tracts of land; namely, the plateau of Guiana on the north, and the -central plateau of Brazil on the south. It is probable that, at the time -these two table-lands were lifted above the sea-level, the Andes did not -exist, and the ocean flowed between them through an open strait. It -would seem (and this is a curious result of modern geological -investigations) that the portions of the earth’s surface earliest raised -above the ocean have trended from east to west. The first tract of land -lifted above the waters in North America was also a long continental -island, running from Newfoundland almost to the present base of the -Rocky Mountains. This tendency may be attributed to various causes,—to -the rotation of the earth, the consequent depression of its poles, and -the breaking of its crust along the lines of greatest tension thus -produced. At a later period, the upheaval of the Andes took place, -closing the western side of this strait, and thus transforming it into a -gulf, open only toward the east. Little or nothing is known of the -earlier stratified deposits resting against the crystalline masses first -uplifted along the borders of the Amazonian Valley. There is here no -sequence, as in North America, of Azoic, Silurian, Devonian, and -Carboniferous formations, shored up against each other by the gradual -upheaval of the continent; although, unquestionably, older palæozoic and -secondary beds underlie, here and there, the later formations. Indeed, -Major Coutinho has found palæozoic deposits, with characteristic -Brachiopods, in the valley of the Rio Tapajos, at the first cascade, and -carboniferous deposits have been noticed along the Rio Guapore and the -Rio Mamore. But the first chapter in the valley’s geological history -about which we have connected and trustworthy data is that of the -cretaceous period. It seems certain, that, at the close of the secondary -age, the whole Amazonian basin became lined with a cretaceous deposit, -the margins of which crop out at various localities on its borders. They -have been observed along its southern limits, on its western outskirts -along the Andes, in Venezuela along the shore-line of mountains, and -also in certain localities near its eastern edge. I well remember that -one of the first things which awakened my interest in the geology of the -Amazonian Valley was the sight of some cretaceous fossil fishes from the -province of Ceará. These fossil fishes were collected by Mr. George -Gardner, to whom science is indebted for the most extensive information -yet obtained respecting the geology of that part of Brazil. In this -connection, let me say that I shall speak of the provinces of Ceará, -Piauhy, and Maranham as belonging geologically to the valley of the -Amazons, though their shore is bathed by the ocean and their rivers -empty directly into the Atlantic. But I entertain no doubt that, at an -earlier period, the north-eastern coast of Brazil stretched much farther -seaward than in our day; so far, indeed, that in those times the rivers -of all these provinces must have been tributaries of the Amazons in its -eastward course. The evidence for this conclusion is substantially -derived from the identity of the deposits in the valleys belonging to -these provinces with those of the valleys through which the actual -tributaries of the Amazons flow; as, for instance, the Tocantins, the -Xingu, the Tapajos, the Madeira, etc. Besides the fossils above alluded -to from the eastern borders of this ancient basin, I have had recently -another evidence of its cretaceous character from its southern region. -Mr. William Chandless, on his return from a late journey on the Rio -Purus, presented me with a series of fossil remains of the highest -interest, and undoubtedly belonging to the cretaceous period. They were -collected by himself on the Rio Aquiry, an affluent of the Rio Purus. -Most of them were found in place between the tenth and eleventh degrees -of south latitude, and the sixty-seventh and sixty-ninth degrees of west -longitude from Greenwich, in localities varying from four hundred and -thirty to six hundred and fifty feet above the sea-level. There are -among them remains of Mosasaurus, and of fishes closely allied to those -already represented by Faujas in his description of Maestricht, and -characteristic, as is well known to geological students, of the most -recent cretaceous period. - -Thus in its main features the valley of the Amazons, like that of the -Mississippi, is a cretaceous basin. This resemblance suggests a further -comparison between the twin continents of North and South America. Not -only is their general form the same, but their framework, as we may call -it,—that is, the lay of their great mountain-chains and of their -table-lands, with the extensive intervening depressions,—presents a -striking similarity. Indeed, a zoölogist, accustomed to trace a like -structure under variously modified animal forms, cannot but have his -homological studies recalled to his mind by the coincidence between -certain physical features in the northern and southern parts of the -Western hemisphere. And yet here, as throughout all nature, these -correspondences are combined with a distinctness of individualization -which leaves its respective character, not only to each continent as a -whole, but also to the different regions circumscribed within its -borders. In both, however, the highest mountain-chains, the Rocky -Mountains and the Western Coast Range, with their wide intervening -table-land in North America, and the chain of the Andes, with its lesser -plateaux in South America, run along the western coast; both have a -great eastern promontory, Newfoundland in the Northern continent, and -Cape St. Roque in the Southern: and though the resemblance between the -inland elevations is perhaps less striking, yet the Canadian range, the -White Mountains, and the Alleghanies may very fairly be compared to the -table-lands of Guiana and Brazil, and the Serra do Mar. Similar -correspondences may be traced among the river-systems. The Amazons and -the St. Lawrence, though so different in dimensions, remind us of each -other by their trend and geographical position; and while the one is fed -by the largest river-system in the world, the other drains the most -extensive lake surfaces known to exist in immediate contiguity. The -Orinoco, with its bay, recalls Hudson’s Bay and its many tributaries, -and the Rio Magdalena may be said to be the South-American Mackenzie; -while the Rio de la Plata represents geographically our Mississippi, and -the Paraguay recalls the Missouri. The Parana may be compared to the -Ohio; the Pilcomayo, Vermejo, and Salado rivers, to the river Platte, -the Arkansas, and the Red River in the United States; while the rivers -farther south, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, represent the rivers of -Patagonia and the southern parts of the Argentine Republic. Not only is -there this general correspondence between the mountain elevations and -the river-systems, but as the larger river-basins of North America—those -of the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, and the Mackenzie—meet in the low -tracts extending along the foot of the Rocky Mountains, so do the basins -of the Amazons, the Rio de la Plata, and the Orinoco join each other -along the eastern slope of the Andes. - -But while in geographical homology the Amazons compares with the St. -Lawrence, and the Mississippi with the Rio de la Plata, the Mississippi -and the Amazons, as has been said, resemble each other in their local -geological character. They have both received a substratum of cretaceous -beds, above which are accumulated more recent deposits, so that, in -their most prominent geological features, both may be considered as -cretaceous basins, containing extensive deposits of a very recent age. -Of the history of the Amazonian Valley during the periods immediately -following the Cretaceous, we know little or nothing. Whether the -Tertiary deposits are hidden under the more modern ones; or whether they -are wholly wanting, the basin having, perhaps, been raised above the -sea-level before that time; or whether they have been swept away by the -tremendous inundations in the valley, which have certainly destroyed a -great part of the cretaceous deposit,—they have never been observed in -any part of the Amazonian basin. Whatever Tertiary deposits are -represented in geological maps of this region are so marked in -consequence of an incorrect identification of strata belonging, in fact, -to a much more recent period. - -A minute and extensive survey of the valley of the Amazons is by no -means an easy task, and its difficulty is greatly increased by the fact -that the lower formations are only accessible on the river margins -during the _vasante_, or dry season, when the waters shrink in their -beds, leaving a great part of their banks exposed. It happened that the -first three or four months of my journey (August, September, October, -and November) were those when the waters are lowest,—reaching their -minimum in September and October, and beginning to rise again in -November,—so that I had an excellent opportunity, in ascending the -river, of observing its geological structure. Throughout its whole -length, three distinct geological formations may be traced, the two -lower of which have followed in immediate succession, and are -conformable with one another, while the third rests unconformably upon -them, following all the inequalities of the greatly denudated surface -presented by the second formation. Notwithstanding this seeming -interruption in the sequence of these deposits, the third, as we shall -presently see, belongs to the same series, and was accumulated in the -same basin. The lowest set of beds of the whole series is rarely -visible; but it seems everywhere to consist of sandstone, or even of -loose sands well stratified, the coarser materials lying invariably -below, and the finer above. Upon this lower set of beds rests everywhere -an extensive deposit of fine laminated clays, varying in thickness, but -frequently dividing into layers as thin as a sheet of paper. In some -localities they exhibit, in patches, an extraordinary variety of -beautiful colors,—pink, orange, crimson, yellow, gray, blue, and also -black and white. It is from these beds that the Indians prepare their -paints. These clay deposits assume occasionally a peculiar appearance, -and one which might mislead the observer as to their true nature. When -their surface has been long exposed to the action of the atmosphere and -to the heat of the burning sun, they look so much like clay-slates of -the oldest geological epochs that, at first sight, I took them for -primary slates, my attention being attracted to them by a regular -cleavage as distinct as that of the most ancient clay-slates. And yet at -Tonantins, on the banks of the Solimoens, in a locality where their -exposed surfaces had this primordial appearance, I found in these very -beds a considerable amount of well-preserved leaves, the character of -which proves their recent origin. These leaves do not even indicate as -ancient a period as the Tertiaries, but resemble so closely the -vegetation of to-day that I have no doubt, when examined by competent -authority, they will be identified with living plants. The presence of -such an extensive clay formation, stretching over a surface of more than -three thousand miles in length and about seven hundred in breadth, is -not easily explained under any ordinary circumstances. The fact that it -is so thoroughly laminated shows that, in the basin in which it was -formed, the waters must have been unusually quiet, containing identical -materials throughout, and that these materials must have been deposited -over the whole bottom in the same way. It is usually separated from the -superincumbent beds by a glazed crust of hard, compact sandstone, almost -resembling a ferruginous quartzite. - -Upon this follow beds of sand and sandstone, varying in the regularity -of their strata, reddish in color, often highly ferruginous, and more or -less nodulous or porous. They present frequent traces of -cross-stratification, alternating with regularly stratified horizontal -beds, with here and there an intervening layer of clay. It would seem as -if the character of the water-basin had now changed, and as if the -waters under which this second formation was deposited had vibrated -between storm and calm, had sometimes flowed more gently, and again had -been tossed to and fro, giving to some of the beds the aspect of true -torrential deposits. Indeed, these sandstone formations present a great -variety of aspects. Sometimes they are very regularly laminated, or -assume even the appearance of the hardest quartzite. This is usually the -case with the uppermost beds. In other localities, and more especially -in the lowermost beds, the whole mass is honeycombed, as if drilled by -worms or boring shells, the hard parts enclosing softer sands or clays. -Occasionally the ferruginous materials prevail to such an extent that -some of these beds might be mistaken for bog-ore, while others contain a -large amount of clay, more regularly stratified, and alternating with -strata of sandstone, thus recalling the most characteristic forms of the -Old Red or Triassic formations. This resemblance has, no doubt, led to -the identification of the Amazonian deposits with the more ancient -formations of Europe. At Monte Alégre, of which I shall presently speak -more in detail, such a clay bed divides the lower from the upper -sandstone. The thickness of these sandstones is extremely variable. In -the basin of the Amazons proper, they hardly rise anywhere above the -level of high water during the rainy season; while at low water, in the -summer months, they may be observed everywhere along the river-banks. It -will be seen, however, that the limit between high and low water gives -no true measure of the original thickness of the whole series. - -In the neighborhood of Almeyrim, at a short distance from the northern -bank of the river, and nearly parallel with its course, there rises a -line of low hills, interrupted here and there, but extending in evident -connection from Almeyrim through the region of Monte Alégre to the -heights of Obydos. These hills have attracted the attention of -travellers, not only from their height, which appears greater than it -is, because they rise abruptly from an extensive plain, but also on -account of their curious form; many of them being perfectly level on -top, like smooth tables, and very abruptly divided from each other by -low, intervening spaces.[99] Nothing has hitherto been known of the -geological structure of these hills, but they have been usually -represented as the southernmost spurs of the table-land of Guiana. On -ascending the river, I felt the greatest curiosity to examine them; but -at the time I was deeply engrossed in studying the distribution of -fishes in the Amazonian waters, and in making large ichthyological -collections, for which it was very important not to miss the season of -low water, when the fishes are most easily obtained. I was, therefore, -obliged to leave this most interesting geological problem, and content -myself with examining the structure of the valley so far as it could be -seen on the river-banks and in the neighborhood of my different -collecting stations. On my return, however, when my collections were -completed, I was free to pursue this investigation, in which Major -Coutinho was as much interested as myself. We determined to select Monte -Alégre as the centre of our exploration, the serra in that region being -higher than elsewhere. As I was detained by indisposition at Manaos for -some days at the time we had appointed for the excursion, Major Coutinho -preceded me, and had already made one trip to the serra, with some very -interesting results, when I joined him, and we took a second journey -together. Monte Alégre lies on a side arm of the Amazons, a little off -from its main course. This side arm, called the Rio Gurupatuba, is -simply a channel, running parallel with the Amazons, and cutting through -from a higher to a lower point. Its dimensions are, however, greatly -exaggerated in all the maps thus far published, where it is usually made -to appear as a considerable northern tributary of the Amazons. The town -stands on an elevated terrace, separated from the main stream by the Rio -Gurupatuba and by an extensive flat, consisting of numerous lakes -divided from each other by low, alluvial land, and mostly connected by -narrow channels. To the west of the town this terrace sinks abruptly to -a wide sandy plain called the Campos, covered with a low forest-growth, -and bordered on its farther limit by the picturesque serra of Ereré. The -form of this mountain is so abrupt, its rise from the plains so bold and -sudden, that it seems more than twice its real height. Judging by the -eye and comparing it with the mountains I had last seen,—the Corcovado, -the Gavia, and Tijuca range in the neighborhood of Rio,—I had supposed -it to be three or four thousand feet high, and was greatly astonished -when our barometric observations showed it to be somewhat less than nine -hundred feet in its most elevated point. This, however, agrees with -Martius’s measurement of the Almeyrim hills, which he says are eight -hundred feet in height. - -We passed three days in the investigation of the Serra of Ereré, and -found it to consist wholly of the sandstone deposits already described, -and to have exactly the same geological constitution. In short, the -Serra of Monte Alégre, and of course all those connected with it on the -northern side of the river, lie in the prolongation of the lower beds -forming the banks of the river, their greater height being due simply to -the fact that they have not been worn to the same low level. The -opposite range of Santarem, which has the same general outline and -character, shares, no doubt, the same geological structure. In one word, -all these hills were formerly part of a continuous formation, and owe -their present outline and their isolated position to a colossal -denudation. The surface of the once unbroken strata, which in their -original condition must have formed an immense plain covered by water, -has been cut into ravines or carried away over large tracts, to a -greater or less depth, leaving only such portions standing as, from -their hardness, could resist the floods which swept over it. The -longitudinal trend of these hills is to be ascribed to the direction of -the current which caused the denudation, while their level summits are -due to the regularity of the stratification. They are not all -table-topped, however; among them are many of smaller size, in which the -sides have been gradually worn down, producing a gently rounded surface. -Of course, under the heavy tropical rains this denudation is still going -on, though in a greatly modified form. - -I cannot speak of this Serra without alluding to the great beauty and -extraordinary extent of the view to be obtained from it. Indeed, it was -here that for the first time the geography of the country presented -itself to my mind as a living reality in all its completeness. -Insignificant as is its actual height, the Serra of Ereré commands a -wider prospect than is to be had from many a more imposing mountain; for -the surrounding plain, covered with forests and ploughed by countless -rivers, stretches away for hundreds of leagues in every direction, -without any object to obstruct the view. Standing on the brow of the -Serra, with the numerous lakes intersecting the lowlands at its base, -you look across the valley of the Amazons, as far as the eye can reach, -and through its centre you follow for miles on either side the broad -flood of the great river, carrying its yellow waters to the sea. As I -stood there, panoramas from the Swiss mountains came up to my memory, -and I fancied myself on the Alps, looking across the plain of -Switzerland instead of the bed of the Amazons; the distant line of the -Santarem hills on the southern bank of the river, and lower than the -northern chain, representing the Jura range. As if to complete the -comparison, Alpine lichens were growing among the cacti and palms, and a -crust of Arctic cryptogamous growth covered rocks, between which sprang -tropical flowers. On the northern flank of this Serra I found the only -genuine erratic boulders I have seen in the whole length of the -Amazonian Valley from Pará to the frontier of Peru, though there are -many detached masses of rock, as, for instance, at Pedreira, near the -junction of the Rio Negro and Rio Branco, which might be mistaken for -them, but are due to the decomposition of the rocks in place. The -boulders of Ereré are entirely distinct from the rock of the Serra, and -consist of masses of compact hornblende. - -It would seem that these two ranges skirting a part of the northern and -southern banks of the Lower Amazons are not the only remnants of this -arenaceous formation in its primitive altitude. On the banks of the Rio -Japura, in the Serra of Cupati, Major Coutinho has found the same beds -rising to the same height. It thus appears, by positive evidence, that -over an extent of a thousand miles these deposits had a very -considerable thickness, in the present direction of the valley. How far -they extended in width has not been ascertained by direct observation; -for we have not seen how they sink away to the northward, and towards -the south the denudation has been so complete that, except in the very -low range of hills in the neighborhood of Santarem, they do not rise -above the plain. But the fact that this formation once had a thickness -of more than eight hundred feet within the limits where we have had an -opportunity of observing it, leaves no doubt that it must have extended -to the edge of the basin, filling it to the same height throughout its -whole extent. The thickness of the deposits gives a measure for the -colossal scale of the denudations by which this immense accumulation was -reduced to its present level. Here, then, is a system of high hills, -having the prominence of mountains in the landscape, produced by causes -to whose agency inequalities on the earth’s surface of this magnitude -have never yet been ascribed. We may fairly call them denudation -mountains. - -At this stage of the inquiry we have to account for two remarkable -phenomena,—first, the filling of the Amazonian bottom with coarse -arenaceous materials and finely laminated clays, immediately followed by -sandstones rising to a height of more than eight hundred feet above the -sea, the basin meanwhile having no rocky barrier towards the ocean on -its eastern side; secondly, the wearing away and reduction of these -formations to their present level by a denudation more extensive than -any thus far recorded in the annals of geology, which has given rise to -all the most prominent hills and mountain-chains along the northern bank -of the river. Before seeking an explanation of these facts, let us look -at the third and uppermost deposit. - -This deposit is essentially the same as the Rio drift; but in the north -it presents itself under a somewhat different aspect. As in Rio, it is a -clayey deposit, containing more or less sand, and reddish in color, -though varying from deep ochre to a brownish tint. It is not so -absolutely destitute of stratification here as in its more southern -range, though the traces of stratification are rare, and, when they do -occur, are faint and indistinct. The materials are also more completely -comminuted, and, as I said above, contain hardly any large masses, -though quartz pebbles are sometimes scattered throughout the deposit, -and occasionally a thin seam of pebbles, exactly as in the Rio drift, is -seen resting between it and the underlying sandstone. In some places -this bed of pebbles intersects even the mass of the clay, giving it, in -such instances, an unquestionably stratified character. There can be no -doubt that this more recent formation rests unconformably upon the -sandstone beds beneath it; for it fills all the inequalities of their -denudated surfaces, whether they be more or less limited furrows, or -wide, undulating depressions. It may be seen everywhere along the banks -of the river, above the stratified sandstone, sometimes with the -river-mud accumulated against it; at the season of the _enchente_, or -high water, it is the only formation left exposed above the water-level. -Its thickness is not great; it varies from twenty or thirty to fifty -feet, and may occasionally rise nearly to a hundred feet in height, -though this is rarely the case. It is evident that this formation also -was once continuous, stretching over the whole basin at one level. -Though it is now worn down in many places, and has wholly disappeared in -others, its connection may be readily traced; since it is everywhere -visible, not only on opposite banks of the Amazons, but also on those of -all its tributaries, as far as their shores have been examined. I have -said that it rests always above the sandstone beds. This is true, with -one exception. Wherever the sandstone deposits retain their original -thickness, as in the hills of Monte Alégre and Almeyrim, the red clay is -not found on their summits, but occurs only in their ravines and -hollows, or resting against their sides. This shows that it is not only -posterior to the sandstone, but was accumulated in a shallower basin, -and consequently never reached so high a level. The boulders of Ereré do -not rest on the stratified sandstone of the Serra, but are sunk in the -unstratified mass of the clay. This should be remembered, as it will -presently be seen that their position associates them with a later -period than that of the mountain itself. The unconformability of the -ochraceous clay and the underlying sandstones might lead to the idea -that the two formations belong to distinct geological periods, and are -not due to the same agency acting at successive times. One feature, -however, shows their close connection. The ochraceous clay exhibits a -remarkable identity of configuration with the underlying sandstones. An -extensive survey of the two, in their mutual relations, shows clearly -that they were both deposited by the same water-system within the same -basin, but at different levels. Here and there the clay formation has so -pale and grayish a tint that it may be confounded with the mud deposits -of the river. These latter, however, never rise so high as the -ochraceous clay, but are everywhere confined within the limits of high -and low water. The islands also, in the main course of the Amazons, -consist invariably of river-mud; while those arising from the -intersection and cutting off of portions of the land by diverging -branches of the main stream always consist of the well-known sandstones, -capped by the ochre-colored clay. - -It may truly be said that there does not exist on the surface of the -earth a formation known to geologists resembling that of the Amazons. -Its extent is stupendous; it stretches from the Atlantic shore, through -the whole width of Brazil, into Peru, to the very foot of the Andes. -Humboldt speaks of it “in the vast plains of the Amazons, in the eastern -boundary of Jaen de Bracamoros,” and says, “This prodigious extension of -red sandstone in the low grounds stretching along the east of the Andes -is one of the most striking phenomena I observed during my examination -of rocks in the equinoctial regions.”[100] When the great natural -philosopher wrote these lines, he had no idea how much these deposits -extended beyond the field of his observations. Indeed, they are not -limited to the main bed of the Amazons; they have been followed along -the banks of its tributaries to the south and north as far as these have -been ascended. They occur on the margins of the Huallaga and the -Ucayale, on those of the Iça, the Hyutahy, the Hyurua, the Hyapura, and -the Purus. On the banks of the Hyapura, where Major Coutinho has traced -them, they are found as far as the Cataract of Cupati. I have followed -them along the Rio Negro to its junction with the Rio Branco; and -Humboldt not only describes them from a higher point on this same river, -but also from the valley of the Orinoco. Finally, they may be tracked -along the banks of the Madeira, the Tapajos, the Xingu, and the -Tocantins, as well as on the shores of the Guatuma, the Trombetas, and -other northern affluents of the Amazons. The observations of Martius, -those of Gardner, and the recent survey above alluded to, made by my -assistant, Mr. St. John, of the valley of the Rio Guruguea and that of -the Rio Paranahyba, show that the great basin of Piauhy is also -identical in its geological structure with the lateral valleys of the -Amazons. The same is true of the large island of Marajo, lying at the -mouth of the Amazons. And yet I believe that even this does not cover -the whole ground, and that some future writer may say of my estimate, as -I have said of Humboldt’s, that it falls short of the truth; for, if my -generalizations are correct, the same formation will be found extending -over the whole basin of the Paraguay and the Rio de la Plata, and along -their tributaries, to the very heart of the Andes. - -Such are the facts. The question now arises, How were these vast -deposits formed? The easiest answer, and the one which most readily -suggests itself, is that of a submersion of the continent at successive -periods, to allow the accumulation of these materials, and its -subsequent elevation. I reject this explanation for the simple reason -that the deposits show no sign whatever of a marine origin. No -sea-shells, nor remains of any marine animal, have as yet been found -throughout their whole extent, over a region several thousand miles in -length and from five to seven hundred miles in width. It is contrary to -all our knowledge of geological deposits to suppose that an ocean basin -of this size, which must have been submerged during an immensely long -period in order to accumulate formations of such a thickness, should not -contain numerous remains of the animals formerly inhabiting it.[101] The -only fossil remains of any kind truly belonging to it, which I have -found in the formation, are leaves taken from the lower clays on the -banks of the Solimoens at Tonantins; and these show a vegetation similar -in general character to that which prevails there to-day. Evidently, -then, this basin was a fresh-water basin; these deposits are fresh-water -deposits. But as the valley of the Amazons exists to-day, it is widely -open to the ocean on the east, with a gentle slope from the Andes to the -Atlantic, determining a powerful seaward current. When these vast -accumulations took place, the basin must have been closed; otherwise the -loose materials would constantly have been carried down to the ocean. - -It is my belief that all these deposits belong to the ice-period in its -earlier or later phases, and to this cosmic winter, which, judging from -all the phenomena connected with it, may have lasted for thousands of -centuries, we must look for the key to the geological history of the -Amazonian Valley. I am aware that this suggestion will appear -extravagant. But is it, after all, so improbable that, when Central -Europe was covered with ice thousands of feet thick; when the glaciers -of Great Britain ploughed into the sea, and when those of the Swiss -mountains had ten times their present altitude; when every lake in -Northern Italy was filled with ice, and these frozen masses extended -even into Northern Africa; when a sheet of ice, reaching nearly to the -summit of Mount Washington in the White Mountains (that is, having a -thickness of nearly six thousand feet), moved over the continent of -North America,—is it so improbable that, in this epoch of universal -cold, the valley of the Amazons also had its glacier poured down into it -from the accumulations of snow in the Cordilleras, and swollen laterally -by the tributary glaciers descending from the table-lands of Guiana and -Brazil? The movement of this immense glacier must have been eastward, -determined as well by the vast reservoirs of snow in the Andes as by the -direction of the valley itself. It must have ploughed the valley-bottom -over and over again, grinding all the materials beneath it into a fine -powder or reducing them to small pebbles, and it must have accumulated -at its lower end a moraine of proportions as gigantic as its own; thus -building a colossal sea-wall across the mouth of the valley. I shall be -asked at once whether I have found here also the glacial -inscriptions,—the furrows, striæ, and polished surfaces so -characteristic of the ground over which glaciers have travelled. I -answer, not a trace of them; for the simple reason that there is not a -natural rock-surface to be found throughout the whole Amazonian Valley. -The rocks themselves are of so friable a nature, and the decomposition -caused by the warm torrential rains and by exposure to the burning sun -of the tropics so great and unceasing, that it is hopeless to look for -marks which in colder climates and on harder substances are preserved -through ages unchanged. With the exception of the rounded surfaces so -well known in Switzerland as the _roches moutonnées_ heretofore alluded -to, which may be seen in many localities, and the boulders of Ereré, the -direct traces of glaciers as seen in other countries are wanting in -Brazil. I am, indeed, quite willing to admit that, from the nature of -the circumstances, I have not here the positive evidence which has -guided me in my previous glacial investigations. My conviction in this -instance is founded, first, on the materials in the Amazonian Valley, -which correspond exactly in their character to materials accumulated in -glacier bottoms; secondly, on the resemblance of the upper or third -Amazonian formation to the Rio drift,[102] of the glacial origin of -which there cannot, in my opinion, be any doubt; thirdly, on the fact -that this fresh-water basin must have been closed against the sea by -some powerful barrier, the removal of which would naturally give an -outlet to the waters, and cause the extraordinary denudations, the -evidences of which meet us everywhere throughout the valley. - -On a smaller scale, phenomena of this kind have long been familiar to -us. In the present lakes of Northern Italy, in those of Switzerland, -Norway, and Sweden, as well as in those of New England, especially in -the State of Maine, the waters are held back in their basins by -moraines. In the ice-period these depressions were filled with glaciers, -which, in the course of time, accumulated at their lower end a wall of -loose materials. These walls still remain, and serve as dams to prevent -the escape of the waters. But for their moraines, all these lakes would -be open valleys. In the Roads of Glen Roy, in Scotland, we have an -instance of a fresh-water lake, which has now wholly disappeared, formed -in the same manner, and reduced successively to lower and lower levels -by the breaking down or wearing away of the moraines which originally -prevented its waters from flowing out. Assuming then that, under the low -temperature of the ice-period, the climatic conditions necessary for the -formation of land-ice existed in the valley of the Amazons, and that it -was actually filled with an immense glacier, it follows that, when these -fields of ice yielded to a gradual change of climate, and slowly melted -away, the whole basin, then closed against the sea by a huge wall of -_débris_, was transformed into a vast fresh-water lake. The first effect -of the thawing process must have been to separate the glacier from its -foundation, raising it from immediate contact with the valley bottom, -and thus giving room for the accumulation of a certain amount of water -beneath it; while the valley as a whole would still be occupied by the -glacier. In this shallow sheet of water under the ice, and protected by -it from any violent disturbance, those finer triturated materials always -found at a glacier bottom, and ground sometimes to powder by its action, -would be deposited, and gradually transformed from an unstratified paste -containing the finest sand and mud, together with coarse pebbles and -gravel, into a regularly stratified formation. In this formation the -coarse materials would of course fall to the bottom, while the most -minute would settle above them. It is at this time and under such -circumstances that I believe the first formation of the Amazonian -Valley, with the coarse, pebbly sand beneath, and the finely laminated -clays above, to have been accumulated. - -I shall perhaps be reminded here of my fossil leaves, and asked how any -vegetation would be possible under such circumstances. But it must be -remembered, that, in considering all these periods, we must allow for -immense lapses of time and for very gradual changes; that the close of -this first period would be very different from its beginning; and that a -rich vegetation springs on the very borders of the snow and ice fields -in Switzerland. The fact that these were accumulated in a glacial basin -would, indeed, at once account for the traces of vegetable life, and for -the absence, or at least the great scarcity, of animal remains in these -deposits. For while fruits may ripen and flowers bloom on the very edge -of the glaciers, it is also well known that the fresh-water lakes formed -by the melting of the ice are singularly deficient in life. There are, -indeed, hardly any animals to be found in glacial lakes. - -The second formation belongs to a later period, when, the whole body of -ice being more or less disintegrated, the basin contained a larger -quantity of water. Beside that arising from the melting of the ice, this -immense valley bottom must have received, then as now, all which was -condensed from the atmosphere above, and poured into it in the form of -rain or dew at present. Thus an amount of water equal to that flowing in -from all the tributaries of the main stream must have been rushing -towards the axis of the valley, seeking its natural level, but spreading -over a more extensive surface than now, until, finally gathered up as -separate rivers, it flowed in distinct beds. In its general movement -toward the central and lower part of the valley, the broad stream would -carry along all the materials small enough to be so transported, as well -as those so minute as to remain suspended in the waters. It would -gradually deposit them in the valley bottom in horizontal beds more or -less regular, or here and there, wherever eddies gave rise to more rapid -and irregular currents, characterized by torrential stratification. Thus -has been consolidated in the course of ages the continuous sand -formation spreading over the whole Amazonian basin, and attaining a -thickness of eight hundred feet. - -While these accumulations were taking place within this basin, it must -not be forgotten that the sea was beating against its outer -wall,—against that gigantic moraine which I suppose to have closed it at -its eastern end. It would seem that, either from this cause, or perhaps -in consequence of some turbulent action from within, a break was made in -this defence, and the waters rushed violently out. It is very possible -that the waters, gradually swollen at the close of this period by the -further melting of the ice, by the additions poured in from lateral -tributaries, by the rains, and also by the filling of the basin with -loose materials, would overflow, and thus contribute to destroy the -moraine. However this may be, it follows from my premises that, in the -end, these waters obtained a sudden release, and poured seaward with a -violence which cut and denuded the deposits already formed, wearing them -down to a much lower level, and leaving only a few remnants standing out -in their original thickness, where the strata were solid enough to -resist the action of the currents. Such are the hills of Monte Alégre, -of Obydos, Almeyrim, and Cupati, as well as the lower ridges of -Santarem. This escape of the waters did not, however, entirely empty the -whole basin; for the period of denudation was again followed by one of -quiet accumulation, during which was deposited the ochraceous sandy clay -resting upon the denudated surfaces of the underlying sandstone. To this -period I refer the boulders of Ereré, sunk as they are in the clay of -this final deposit. I suppose them to have been brought to their present -position by floating ice at the close of the glacial period, when -nothing remained of the ice-fields except such isolated -masses,—ice-rafts as it were; or perhaps by icebergs dropped into the -basin from glaciers still remaining in the Andes and on the edges of the -plateaus of Guiana and Brazil. From the general absence of -stratification in this clay formation, it would seem that the -comparatively shallow sheet of water in which it was deposited was very -tranquil. Indeed, after the waters had sunk much below the level which -they held during the deposition of the sandstone, and the currents which -gave rise to the denudation of the latter had ceased, the whole sheet of -water would naturally become much more placid. But the time arrived when -the water broke through its boundaries again, perhaps owing to the -further encroachment of the sea and consequent destruction of the -moraine.[103] In this second drainage, however, the waters, carrying -away a considerable part of the new deposit, furrowing it to its very -foundation, and even cutting through it into the underlying sandstone, -were, in the end, reduced to something like their present level, and -confined within their present beds. This is shown by the fact that in -this ochre-colored clay, and penetrating to a greater or less depth the -sandstone below, are dug, not only the great longitudinal channel of the -Amazons itself, but also the lateral furrows through which its -tributaries reach the main stream, and the network of anastomosing -branches flowing between them; the whole forming the most extraordinary -river system in the world. - -My assumption that the sea has produced very extensive changes in the -coast of Brazil—changes more than sufficient to account for the -disappearance of the glacial wall which I suppose to have closed the -Amazonian Valley in the ice period—is by no means hypothetical. This -action is still going on to a remarkable degree, and is even now rapidly -modifying the outline of the shore. When I first arrived at Pará, I was -struck with the fact that the Amazons, the largest river in the world, -has no delta. All the other rivers which we call great, though some of -them are insignificant as compared with the Amazons,—the Mississippi, -the Nile, the Ganges, and the Danube,—deposit extensive deltas, and the -smaller rivers also, with few exceptions, are constantly building up the -land at their mouths by the materials they bring along with them. Even -the little river Kander, emptying into the lake of Thun, is not without -its delta. Since my return from the Upper Amazons to Pará, I have made -an examination of some of the harbor islands, and also of parts of the -coast, and have satisfied myself that, with the exception of a few -small, low islands, never rising above the sea-level, and composed of -alluvial deposit, they are portions of the main-land detached from it, -partly by the action of the river itself, and partly by the encroachment -of the ocean. In fact, the sea is eating away the land much faster than -the river can build it up. The great island of Marajo was originally a -continuation of the valley of the Amazons, and is identical with it in -every detail of its geological structure. My investigation of the island -itself, in connection with the coast and the river, leads me to suppose -that, having been at one time an integral part of the deposits described -above, at a later period it became an island in the bed of the Amazons, -which, dividing in two arms, encircled it completely, and then, joining -again to form a single stream, flowed onward to the sea-shore, which in -those days lay much farther to the eastward than it now does. I suppose -the position of the island of Marajo at that time to have corresponded -very nearly to the present position of the island of Tupinambaranas, -just at the junction of the Madeira with the Amazons. It is a question -among geographers whether the Tocantins is a branch of the Amazons, or -should be considered as forming an independent river system. It will be -seen that, if my view is correct, it must formerly have borne the same -relation to the Amazons that the Madeira River now does, joining it just -where Marajo divided the main stream, as the Madeira now joins it at the -head of the island of Tupinambaranas. If in countless centuries to come -the ocean should continue to eat its way into the Valley of the Amazons, -once more transforming the lower part of the basin into a gulf, as it -was during the cretaceous period, the time might arrive when -geographers, finding the Madeira emptying almost immediately into the -sea, would ask themselves whether it had ever been indeed a branch of -the Amazons, just as they now question whether the Tocantins is a -tributary of the main stream or an independent river. But to return to -Marajo, and to the facts actually in our possession. - -The island is intersected, in its southeastern end, by a considerable -river called the Igarapé Grande. The cut made through the land by this -stream seems intended to serve as a geological section, so perfectly -does it display the three characteristic Amazonian formations above -described. At its mouth, near the town of Souré, and at Salvaterra, on -the opposite bank, may be seen, lowest, the well-stratified sandstone, -with the finely laminated clays resting upon it, overtopped by a crust; -then the cross-stratified, highly ferruginous sandstone, with quartz -pebbles here and there; and, above all, the well-known ochraceous, -unstratified sandy clay, spreading over the undulating surface of the -denudated sandstone, following all its inequalities, and filling all its -depressions and furrows. But while the Igarapé Grande has dug its -channel down to the sea, cutting these formations, as I ascertained, to -a depth of twenty-five fathoms, it has thus opened the way for the -encroachments of the tides, and the ocean is now, in its turn, gaining -upon the land. Were there no other evidence of the action of the tides -in this locality, the steep cut of the Igarapé Grande, contrasting with -the gentle slope of the banks near its mouth, wherever they have been -modified by the invasion of the sea, would enable us to distinguish the -work of the river from that of the ocean, and to prove that the -denudation now going on is due in part to both. But besides this, I was -so fortunate as to discover, on my recent excursion, unmistakable and -perfectly convincing evidence of the onward movement of the sea. At the -mouth of the Igarapé Grande, both at Souré and at Salvaterra, on the -southern side of the Igarapé, is a submerged forest. Evidently this -forest grew in one of those marshy lands constantly inundated, for -between the stumps is accumulated the loose, felt-like peat -characteristic of such grounds, and containing about as much mud as -vegetable matter. Such a marshy forest, with the stumps of the trees -still standing erect in the peat, has been laid bare on both sides of -the Igarapé Grande by the encroachments of the ocean. That this is the -work of the sea is undeniable, for all the little depressions and -indentations of the peat are filled with sea-sand, and a ridge of tidal -sand divides it from the forest still standing behind. Nor is this all. -At Vigia, immediately opposite to Souré, on the continental side of the -Pará River, just where it meets the sea, we have the counterpart of this -submerged forest. Another peat-bog, with the stumps of innumerable trees -standing in it, and encroached upon in the same way by tidal sand, is -exposed here also. No doubt these forests were once all continuous, and -stretched across the whole basin of what is now called the Pará River. - -Since I have been pursuing this inquiry, I have gathered much -information to the same effect from persons living on the coast. It is -well remembered that, twenty years ago, there existed an island, more -than a mile in width, to the northeast of the entrance of the Bay of -Vigia, which has now entirely disappeared. Farther eastward, the Bay of -Braganza has doubled its width in the last twenty years, and on the -shore, within the bay, the sea has gained upon the land for a distance -of two hundred yards during a period of only ten years. The latter fact -is ascertained by the position of some houses, which were two hundred -yards farther from the sea ten years ago than they now are. From these -and the like reports, from my own observations on this part of the -Brazilian coast, from some investigations made by Major Coutinho at the -mouth of the Amazons on its northern continental shore near Macapa, and -from the reports of Mr. St. John respecting the formations in the valley -of the Paranahyba, it is my belief that the changes I have been -describing are but a small part of the destruction wrought by the sea on -the north-eastern shore of this continent. I think it will be found, -when the coast has been fully surveyed, that a strip of land not less -than a hundred leagues in width, stretching from Cape St. Roque to the -northern extremity of South America, has been eaten away by the ocean. -If this be so, the Paranahyba and the rivers to the northwest of it, in -the province of Maranham, were formerly tributaries of the Amazons; and -all that we know thus far of their geological character goes to prove -that this was actually the case. Such an extensive oceanic denudation -must have carried away not only the gigantic glacial moraine here -assumed to have closed the mouth of the Amazonian basin, but the very -ground on which it formerly stood. Although the terminal moraine has -disappeared, there is, however, no reason why parts of the lateral -moraines should not remain. And I expect in my approaching visit to -Ceará to find traces of the southern lateral moraine in that -neighborhood. - -During the last four or five years I have been engaged in a series of -investigations, in the United States, upon the subject of the -denudations connected with the close of the glacial period there, and -the encroachments of the ocean upon the drift deposits along the -Atlantic coast. Had these investigations been published in detail, with -the necessary maps, it would have been far easier for me to explain the -facts I have lately observed in the Amazonian Valley, to connect them -with facts of a like character on the continent of North America, and to -show how remarkably they correspond with facts accomplished during the -same period in other parts of the world. While the glacial epoch itself -has been very extensively studied in the last half-century, little -attention has been paid to the results connected with the breaking up of -the geological winter and the final disappearance of the ice. I believe -that the true explanation of the presence of a large part of the -superficial deposits lately ascribed to the agency of the sea, during -temporary subsidences of the land, will be found in the melting of the -ice-fields. To this cause I would refer all those deposits which I have -designated as remodelled drift. When the sheet of ice, extending from -the Arctic regions over a great part of North America and coming down to -the sea, slowly melted away, the waters were not distributed over the -face of the country as they now are. They rested upon the bottom -deposits of the ice-fields, upon the glacial paste, consisting of clay, -sand, pebbles, boulders, etc., underlying the ice. This bottom deposit -did not, of course, present an even surface, but must have had extensive -undulations and depressions. After the waters had been drained off from -the more elevated ridges, these depressions would still remain full. In -the lakes and pools thus formed, stratified deposits would be -accumulated, consisting of the most minutely comminuted clay, deposited -in thin laminated layers, or sometimes in considerable masses, without -any sign of stratification; such differences in the formation being -determined by the state of the water, whether perfectly stagnant or more -or less agitated. Of such pool deposits overlying the drift there are -many instances in the Northern United States. By the overflowing of some -of these lakes, and by the emptying of the higher ones into those on a -lower level, channels would gradually be formed between the depressions. -So began to be marked out our independent river-systems,—the waters -always seeking their natural level, gradually widening and deepening the -channels in which they flowed, as they worked their way down to the sea. -When they reached the shore, there followed that antagonism between the -rush of the rivers and the action of the tides,—between continental -outflows and oceanic encroachments,—which still goes on, and has led to -the formation of our Eastern rivers, with their wide, open estuaries, -such as the James, the Potomac, and the Delaware. All these estuaries -are embanked by drift, as are also, in their lower course, the rivers -connected with them. Where the country was low and flat, and the drift -extended far into the ocean, the encroachment of the sea gave rise, not -only to our large estuaries, but also to the sounds and deep bays -forming the most prominent indentations of the continental coast, such -as the Bay of Fundy, Massachusetts Bay, Long Island Sound, and others. -The unmistakable traces of glacial action upon all the islands along the -coast of New England, sometimes lying at a very considerable distance -from the main-land, give an approximate, though a minimum, measure of -the former extent of the glacial drift seaward, and the subsequent -advance of the ocean upon the land. Like those of the harbor of Pará, -all these islands have the same geological structure as the continent, -and were evidently continuous with it at some former period. All the -rocky islands along the coast of Maine and Massachusetts exhibit the -glacial traces wherever their surfaces are exposed by the washing away -of the drift; and where the drift remains, its character shows that it -was once continuous from one island to another, and from all the islands -to the main-land. - -It is difficult to determine with precision the ancient limit of the -glacial drift, but I think it can be shown that it connected the shoals -of Newfoundland with the continent; that Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, -and Long Island made part of the main-land; that, in like manner Nova -Scotia, including Sable Island, was united to the southern shore of New -Brunswick and Maine, and that the same sheet of drift extended thence to -Cape Cod, and stretched southward as far as Cape Hatteras;—in short, -that the line of shallow soundings along the whole coast of the United -States marks the former extent of glacial drift. The ocean has gradually -eaten its way into this deposit, and given its present outlines to the -continent. These denudations of the sea no doubt began as soon as the -breaking up of the ice exposed the drift to its invasion; in other -words, at a time when colossal glaciers still poured forth their load of -ice into the Atlantic, and fleets of icebergs, far larger and more -numerous than those now floated off from the Arctic seas, were launched -from the north-eastern shore of the United States. Many such masses must -have stranded along the shore, and have left various signs of their -presence. In fact, the glacial phenomena of the United States and -elsewhere are due to two distinct periods: the first of these was the -glacial epoch proper, when the ice was a solid sheet; while to the -second belongs the breaking up of this epoch, with the gradual -disintegration and dispersion of the ice. We talk of the theory of -glaciers and the theory of icebergs in reference to these phenomena, as -if they were exclusively due to one or the other, and whoever accepted -the former must reject the latter, and _vice versa_. When geologists -have combined these now discordant elements, and consider these two -periods as consecutive,—part of the phenomena being due to the glaciers, -part to the icebergs and to freshets consequent on their breaking -up,—they will find that they have covered the whole ground, and that the -two theories are perfectly consistent with each other. I think the -present disputes upon this subject will end somewhat like those which -divided the Neptunic and Plutonic schools of geologists in the early -part of this century; the former of whom would have it that all the -rocks were due to the action of water, the latter that they were wholly -due to the action of fire. The problem was solved, and harmony restored, -when it was found that both elements have been equally at work in -forming the solid crust of the globe. To the stranded icebergs alluded -to above, I have no doubt, is to be referred the origin of the many -lakes without outlets existing all over the sandy tract along our coast, -of which Cape Cod forms a part. Not only the formation of these lakes, -but also that of our salt marshes and cranberry-fields, I believe to be -connected with the waning of the ice period. - -I hope at some future time to publish in detail, with the appropriate -maps and illustrations, my observations upon the changes of our coast, -and other phenomena connected with the close of the glacial epoch in the -United States. To give results without an account of the investigations -which have led to them, inverts the true method of science; and I should -not have introduced the subject here except to show that the fresh-water -denudations and the oceanic encroachments which have formed the -Amazonian Valley, with its river system, are not isolated facts, but -that the process has been the same in both continents. The extraordinary -continuity and uniformity of the Amazonian deposits are due to the -immense size of the basin enclosed, and the identity of the materials -contained in it. - -A glance at any geological map of the world will show the reader that -the Valley of the Amazons, so far as an attempt is made to explain its -structure, is represented as containing isolated tracts of Devonian, -Triassic, Jurassic, cretaceous, tertiary, and alluvial deposits. This is -wholly inaccurate, as is shown by the above sketch, and whatever may be -thought of my interpretation of the actual phenomena, I trust that, in -presenting for the first time the formations of the Amazonian basin in -their natural connection and sequence, as consisting of three uniform -sets of comparatively recent deposits, extending throughout the whole -valley, the investigations here recorded have contributed something to -the results of modern geology. - ------ - -Footnote 96: - - See Chapter III. p. 86. - -Footnote 97: - - The name consecrated by De Saussure to designate certain rocks in - Switzerland which have had their surfaces rounded under the action of - the glaciers. Their gently swelling outlines are thought to resemble - sheep resting on the ground, and for this reason the people in the - Alps call them _roches moutonnées_. - -Footnote 98: - - See “Glacial Phenomena in Maine,” Atlantic Monthly, 1866. - -Footnote 99: - - The atlas in Martius’s “Journey to Brazil,” or the sketch accompanying - Bates’s description of these hills in his “Naturalist on the Amazons,” - will give an idea of their aspect. - -Footnote 100: - - Bohn’s edition of Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, Chap. II. p. 134. - Humboldt alludes to these formations repeatedly: it is true that he - refers them to the ancient conglomerates of the Devonian age, but his - description agrees so perfectly with what I have observed along the - banks of the Amazons and the Rio Negro that there can be no doubt he - speaks of the same thing. He wrote at a time when many of the results - of modern geology were unknown, and his explanation of the phenomena - was then perfectly natural. The passage from which the few lines in - the text are taken shows that these deposits extend even to the - Llanos. - -Footnote 101: - - I am aware that Bates mentions having heard that at Obydos calcareous - layers, thickly studded with marine shells, had been found - interstratified with the clay, but he did not himself examine the - strata. The Obydos shells are not marine, but are fresh-water Unios, - greatly resembling Aviculas, Solens, and Arcas. Such would-be marine - fossils have been brought to me from the shore opposite to Obydos, - near Santarem, and I have readily recognized them for what they truly - are,—fresh-water shells of the family of Naiades. I have myself - collected specimens of these shells in the clay-beds along the banks - of the Solimoens, near Teffé, and might have mistaken them for fossils - of that formation had I not known how Naiades burrow in the mud. Their - resemblance to the marine genera mentioned above is very remarkable, - and the mistake as to their true zoölogical character is as natural as - that by which earlier ichthyologists, and even travellers of very - recent date, have confounded some fresh-water fishes from the Upper - Amazons, of the genus Pterophyllum (Heckel), with the marine genus - Platax. - -Footnote 102: - - As I have stated in the beginning, I am satisfied that the - unstratified clay deposit of Rio and its vicinity is genuine glacial - drift, resulting from the grinding of the loose materials interposed - between the glacier and the solid rock in place, and retaining to this - day the position in which it was left by the ice. Like all such - accumulations, it is totally free from stratification. If this be so, - it is evident, on comparing the two formations, that the ochraceous - sandy clay of the valley of the Amazons has been deposited under - different circumstances; that, while it owes its resemblance to the - Rio drift to the fact that its materials were originally ground by - glaciers in the upper part of the valley, these materials have - subsequently been spread throughout the whole basin and actually - deposited under the agency of water. A survey of the more southern - provinces of Brazil, extending to the temperate zone, where the - combined effects of a tropical sun and of tropical rains must - naturally be wanting, will, I trust, remove all the difficulties still - attending this explanation. The glacial phenomena, with all their - characteristic features, are already known to cover the southernmost - parts of South America. The intervening range, between 22° and 36° of - south latitude, cannot fail to exhibit the transition from the drift - of the cold and temperate zone to the formations of a kindred - character described above from the tropical zone. The knowledge of - these deposits will definitely settle the question; and either prove - the correctness of my generalizations or show their absurdity. I feel - no anxiety as to the result. I only long for a speedy removal of all - doubts. - -Footnote 103: - - I would here remind the reader of the terraces of Glen Roy, which - indicate successive reductions of the barrier encasing the lake, - similar to those assumed to have taken place at the mouth of the - Amazons. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - CEARÁ. - - LEAVING PARÁ.—FAREWELL TO THE AMAZONS.—EASE OF TRAVELLING ON THE - AMAZONS.—ROUGH PASSAGE.—ARRIVAL AT CEARÁ.—DIFFICULTY OF - LANDING.—ASPECT OF THE TOWN.—RAINY SEASON.—CONSEQUENT - SICKLINESS.—OUR PURPOSE IN STOPPING AT CEARÁ.—REPORT OF DR. - FELICE ABOUT MORAINES.—PREPARATIONS FOR JOURNEY INTO THE - INTERIOR.—DIFFICULTIES AND DELAYS IN GETTING OFF.—ON THE - WAY.—NIGHT AT ARANCHO.—BAD ROADS.—CARNAUBA PALM.—ARRIVAL AT - MONGUBA.—KIND RECEPTION BY SENHOR FRANKLIN DE LIMA.—GEOLOGY OF THE - REGION.—EVENING GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS.—PACATUBA.—TRACES OF ANCIENT - GLACIERS.—SERRA OF ARATANHA.—CLIMB UP THE SERRA.—HOSPITALITY OF - SENHOR DA COSTA.—PICTURESQUE VIEWS.—THE SERTAŌ.—DROUGHT AND - RAINS.—EPIDEMICS.—RETURN TO MONGUBA.—DETAINED BY EXTRAORDINARY - RAINS.—RETURN TO CEARÁ.—OVERFLOWED ROADS.—DIFFICULTY OF - FORDING.—ARRIVAL AT CEARÁ.—LIBERALITY OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE - PROVINCE TOWARD THE EXPEDITION. - - -_April 2d._—Ceará. We left Pará on the 26th of March, in the evening, -feeling for the first time that we were indeed bidding good by to the -Amazons. Our pleasant voyages on its yellow waters, our canoe excursions -on its picturesque lakes and igarapés, our lingerings in its -palm-thatched cottages, belonged to the past; except in memory, our -Amazonian travels were over. When we entered upon them, what vague -anticipations, what visions of a new and interesting life, not, as we -supposed, without its dangers and anxieties, were before us. So little -is known, even in Brazil, of the Amazons, that we could obtain only very -meagre and, usually, rather discouraging information concerning our -projected journey. In Rio, if you say you are going to ascend their -great river, your Brazilian friends look at you with compassionate -wonder. You are threatened with sickness, with intolerable heat, with -the absence of any nourishing food or suitable lodgings, with -mosquitoes, with Jacarés and wild Indians. If you consult a physician, -he gives you a good supply of quinine, and tells you to take a dose -every other day as a preventive against fever and chills; so that if you -escape intermittent fever you are at least sure of being poisoned by a -remedy which, if administered incautiously, may cause a disease worse -than the one it cures. It will take perhaps from the excitement and -novelty of Amazonian travelling to know that the journey from Pará to -Tabatinga may be made with as much ease as a reasonable traveller has a -right to expect, though of course not without some privations, and also -with no more exposure to sickness than the traveller incurs in any hot -climate. The perils and adventures which attended the voyages of Spix -and Martius, or even of more recent travellers, like Castelnau, Bates, -and Wallace, are no longer to be found on the main course of the -Amazons, though they are met at every step on its great affluents. On -the Tocantins, on the Madeira, on the Purus, on the Rio Negro, the -Trombetas, or any of the large tributaries, the traveller must still -work his way slowly up in a canoe, scorched by the sun or drenched by -the rain; sleeping on the beach, hearing the cries of the wild animals -in the woods around him, and waking perhaps in the morning, to find the -tracks of a tiger in unpleasant proximity to his hammock. But along the -course of the Amazons itself, these days of romantic adventure and -hair-breadth escapes are over; the wild beasts of the forest have -disappeared before the puff of the engine; the canoe and the encampment -on the beach at night have given place to the prosaic conveniences of -the steamboat. It is no doubt true of the Amazons, as of other tropical -regions, that a long residence may reduce the vigor of the constitution, -and perhaps make one more liable to certain diseases; but during our -journey of eight months none of our large company suffered from any -serious indisposition connected with the climate, nor did we see in any -of our wanderings as many indications of intermittent fever as are to be -met constantly on our Western rivers. The voyage on the Amazons proper -has now become accessible to all who are willing to endure heat and -mosquitoes for the sake of seeing the greatest river in the world, and -the magnificent tropical vegetation along its shores. The best season -for the journey is from the close of June to the middle of -November,—July, August, September, and October being the four driest -months of the year, and the most salubrious throughout that region. - -We had a rough and boisterous passage from Pará to Ceará, with unceasing -rain, in consequence of which the decks were constantly wet. Indeed, the -cabins were not free from water, and it was only by frequent bailing -that the floor of our state-room was kept tolerably dry. At Maranham we -had the relief of a night on shore; and Mr. Agassiz and Major Coutinho -profited by the occasion the following morning to examine the geology of -the coast more carefully than they had formerly done. They found the -structure identical with that of the Amazonian Valley, except that the -formations were more worn down and disturbed. We arrived before Ceará at -two o’clock on Saturday, March 31st, expecting to go on shore at once; -but the sea ran high, the tide was unfavorable, and during the day not -even a “jangada,” those singular rafts that here take the place of -boats, ventured out to our steamer as she lay rocking in the surf. Ceará -has no harbor, and the sea drives in with fearful violence on the long -sand-beach fronting the town, making it impossible, at certain states of -the tide and in stormy weather, for any boat to land, unless it be one -of these jangadas (catamarans), over which the waves break without -swamping them. At about nine o’clock in the evening a custom-house boat -came out, and, notwithstanding the lateness of the hour and the rough -sea, we determined to go on shore, for we were told that in the morning -the tide would be unfavorable, and if the wind continued in the present -quarter it might be still more difficult, if not impossible, to land. It -was not without some anxiety that I stood waiting my turn to enter the -boat; for though at one moment it rose, on the swell of the sea, close -to the stair, in the twinkling of an eye it was a couple of yards away. -Some presence of mind and agility were needed in order to make the leap -just at the right instant; and I was glad to find myself in the boat and -not in the water, the chances being about even. As we rode in over the -breakers, the boatmen entertained us with so many stories of the -difficulty of landing, the frequent accidents, and especially of one -which had occurred a few days before when three Englishmen had been -drowned, that I began to think reaching the shore must be more perilous -than leaving the ship. As we approached the town the scene was not -without its picturesque charm. The moon, struggling through gray, watery -clouds, threw a fitful light over the long sand-beach, on which the -crested waves were driving furiously. A number of laden boats were -tossing in the surf, and the roar of the breakers mingled with the cries -of the black porters, as they waded breast high through the water, -unloading the cargoes and carrying their burdens to the shore on their -heads. We were landed much in the same way, the boatmen carrying us over -the surf. This is the ordinary mode of embarking or landing passengers; -it is but rarely, and at particular states of the tide, that it is -possible to disembark at the pier which has been thrown out from the -shore. Major Coutinho had written to a friend to engage lodgings for us, -and we found a house ready. I was glad to sink into my comfortable -hammock, to exchange the pitching and rolling of the steamer for its -gentle rocking, to be out of reach of the hungry waves, and yet to hear -their distant rush on the shore as I fell asleep. - -The next morning was rainy, but in the afternoon it cleared, and toward -evening we took a long drive with our host, Dr. Felice. I like the -aspect of Ceará. I like its wide, well-paved, cleanly streets, which are -bright with color, for the substantial houses on either side are of many -hues. If it chance to be a Sunday or a festa day, every balcony is -filled with gayly-dressed girls, while groups of men sit smoking and -talking on the sidewalks before the doors. This town has not the -stagnant, inanimate look of many Brazilian towns. It tells of movement, -life, prosperity.[104] Beyond the city the streets stretch out into the -campos, bordered on its inland side by beautiful serras; the Serra -Grande and the Serra de Baturité. In front of the city stretches the -broad sand-beach, and the murmur of the surf comes up into the heart of -the town. It seems as if, so lying between sea and mountain, Ceará -should be a healthy place, and it is usually so reputed. But at this -moment, owing, it is thought, to the unusual continuance of the dry -season and the extraordinary violence of the rains, now that they have -begun, the town is very sickly. Yellow-fever is prevalent, and there -have been a good many deaths from it recently, though it is said not to -have assumed the character of an epidemic as yet. Still more fatal is -the malignant dysentery, which has been raging both in town and country -for the last two months. - -We are trying to hasten the arrangements for our inland journey, but do -not find it very easy. Mr. Agassiz’s object in stopping here is to -satisfy himself by direct investigation of the former existence of -glaciers in the serras of this province, and, if possible, to find some -traces of the southern lateral moraine, marking the limit of the mass of -ice which he supposes to have filled the Amazonian basin in the glacial -period. In the Amazonian Valley itself he has seen that all the -geological phenomena are connected with the close of the glacial period, -with the melting of the ice and the immense freshets consequent upon its -disappearance. On leaving the Amazons, the next step in the -investigation was to seek the masses of loose materials left by the -glacier itself. On arriving here he at once made inquiries to this -effect, from a number of persons who have travelled a great deal in the -province, and are therefore familiar with its features. The most -valuable information he has obtained,—valuable from the fact, that the -precision with which it is given shows that it may be relied upon,—is -from Dr. Felice. His occupation as land-surveyor has led him to travel a -great deal in the region of the Serra Grande. He has made a valuable map -of this portion of the province, and he tells Mr. Agassiz that there is -a wall of loose materials, boulders, stones, &c., running from east to -west for a distance of some sixty leagues from the Rio Aracaty-Assù to -Bom Jesu, in the Serra Grande. From his account, this wall resembles -greatly the “Horsebacks” in Maine, those remarkable ridges accumulated -by the ancient glaciers, and running sometimes uninterruptedly for -thirty or forty miles. The horsebacks are, however, covered with soil -and turf, whereas Dr. Felice describes this wall as rough and bare. Mr. -Agassiz has no doubt that this accumulation or dike of loose materials, -the position and direction of which corresponds exactly with his -conjecture based upon the evidence obtained in the Amazonian Valley, is -a portion of the lateral moraine, marking the southeastern limit of the -great Amazonian glacier. Unhappily, it is impossible for him to visit it -himself, for even could he devote the time necessary for so long a -journey in the interior, we are told that at this season the state of -the roads makes it almost impossible. He must therefore leave the -identification of this colossal moraine to some younger and more -fortunate investigator, and content himself with a direct examination of -the next link in the chain of evidence, namely, the traces of local -glaciers in the serras in the more immediate neighborhood of Ceará. If -the basin of the Amazons was actually filled with ice, all the mountains -lying outside of its limits in the neighboring provinces must have had -their glaciers also. It is in search of these local glaciers that we -undertake our present journey, hoping to reach the Serra of Baturité. - -_April 6th._—Pacatuba (at the foot of the Serra of Aratanha). After -endless delays and difficulties about horses, servants, and other -preparations for our journey, we succeeded in getting off on the -afternoon of the 3d. The mode of travelling in the interior as well as -the character of the people, makes it almost impossible to accomplish -any journey with promptness and punctuality. While the preparations for -our excursion were going on, neighbors and acquaintances would stroll in -to see how things were advancing; one would propose that we should -postpone our departure till the day after to-morrow, on account of some -trouble about the horses; another that we should wait a week or two for -more favorable weather. Evidently it did not occur to any one that it -could be of much importance whether we started to-day or to-morrow, or -next week or next month. The lotus-eaters in the “land in which it -seemed always afternoon” could not have been more happily indifferent to -the passage of time. Now this calm superiority to laws obeyed by the -rest of mankind, this ignoring of the great dictum “_tempus fugit_,” is -rather exasperating to a man who has only the fortnight intervening -between two steamers in which to accomplish his journey, and knows the -time to be all too short for the objects he has in view. These habits of -procrastination are much less marked in those parts of Brazil where -railroad and steam travel have been introduced; though it cannot be said -that promptness and despatch are anywhere familiar qualities in this -country. Our delays in this particular instance were in no way owing to -any want of interest in our plans; on the contrary, we met here, as -everywhere, the most cordial sympathy with the objects of the -expedition, and the President of the province, as well as other persons, -were ready to give every assistance in their power. But a stranger -cannot of course expect the habits of the people to be changed to suit -his convenience, and we did but share in the general slowness of -movement. However, we were at last on the way; our party consisting of -Major Coutinho, Senhor Pompeo, Government Engineer of the province, whom -the President had kindly detailed to accompany us, Mr. Agassiz, and -myself. We had a servant, also provided by the President, one of his -guard, and two men, with a couple of pack-mules for baggage and -provisions. We started so late in the day, that our first ride was but a -league or so out of the town; short as it was, however, we did not -escape several showers, always to be expected at this season. Yet the -ride was pleasant; a smell as of huckleberry meadows came from the low -growth of shrubs covering the fields for miles around, and the very -earth was fragrant from the rain. As we left the city, low clouds, full -of distant showers, hung over the serras, and gave them a sombre beauty, -more impressive, if less cheerful, than their sunshine look. At six -o’clock we reached Arancho, a village where we were to pass the night. -As we rode in at dusk, it seemed to me only a little cluster of low -mud-houses; but I found, by daylight, there were one or two buildings of -more pretentious character. We stopped at the end of the principal -street, before the venda (village inn). At the door, which opened across -the middle, allowing its lower half to serve as a sort of gate, stood -the host, little expecting guests on this dark, rainy night. He was a -fat old man, with a head as round as a bullet, covered with very short -white curly hair, and a face beaming with good nature, but reddened also -by many potations. He was dressed in white cotton drawers with a shirt -hanging loose over them; his feet were stockingless, but he had on a -pair of the wooden-soled slippers, down at heel, of which you hear the -“clack, clack” in every town and village during the rainy season. He -opened the gate and admitted us into a small room furnished with a -hammock, a sofa, and a few chairs, the mud walls adorned with some -coarse prints, of which the old gentleman seemed very proud. He said if -we could be satisfied with such accommodation as he had, the gentlemen -to sling their hammocks in the sitting-room with him, the Senhora to -sleep with his wife and the children in the only other room he had to -offer, he should be happy to receive us. I confess that the prospect was -not encouraging; but I was prepared to meet with inconveniences, knowing -that even a short journey into the interior involved discomforts, and -when the hostess presently entered and made me heartily welcome to a -corner of her apartment, I thanked her with such cordiality as I could -muster. She was many years younger than her husband, and still very -handsome, with an Oriental kind of beauty, rather enhanced by her dress. -She wore a red muslin wrapper, somewhat the worse for wear, but still -brilliant in color; and her long black hair hung loose and unbraided -over her shoulders. An hour or two later supper was announced. We had -brought the greater part of it with us from the city, but we invited all -the family to sup with us, according to the fashion of the country. The -old gentleman completed his toilet by adding to it a gaudy-flowered -cotton dressing-gown, and seating himself at the table, contemplated the -roast-chickens and claret with no little satisfaction. From the -appearance of things, such a meal must have been a rarity in his house. -The mud floor of the kitchen where we supped was sloppy, and its leaky -roof and broken walls were but dimly lighted by the coarse guttering -candles made from the Carnauba palm. I presently heard a loud gobbling -close by my side; and, looking down, saw by the half-light a black pig -feeding at a little table with the two children, assisted also by the -dog and the cat. Supper over, I proposed to go to the common sleeping -apartment, preferring to be in advance of my companions. It was a little -room, some ten feet square, behind the one where we had been received, -and without any window. This is not, however, so great an objection -here, where the roofs are so open that a great deal of air comes from -above. Once ensconced in my hammock I began to watch the arrival of my -room-mates with some curiosity. First entered a young girl and her -little sister, who stowed themselves away in one of the beds; then came -the servant-maid and hung herself up in her hammock in a corner; and -lastly arrived the landlady, who took possession of the other bed, and -completed the charms of the scene by lighting her pipe to have a quiet -smoke before she went to sleep. I cannot say the situation was favorable -to rest; the heavy showers which rattled on the tiles throughout the -night penetrated the leaky roof, and, however I changed my position in -the hammock, it rained into my face; fleas were abundant; the silence -was occasionally broken by the crying of the children, or the grunting -of the pig at the door, and for my part I was very glad when five -o’clock called us all to get up, our plan being to start at six and ride -three leagues before breakfast. However, on a journey of this kind, it -is one thing to intend going anywhere at a particular time and quite -another to accomplish it. When we met at six o’clock in readiness for -our journey, two of the horses were not to be found; they had strayed -away during the night. Though accidents of this kind are a constant -subject of complaint, it does not seem to occur to any one to secure the -horses for the night; it is indeed far easier to let them roam about and -provide for themselves. The servants were sent to look for them, and we -sat waiting, and losing the best hours of the morning, till, in their -own good time, men and beasts reappeared. We were at last on the road at -half past eight o’clock; but, unhappily, it was just during our two -hours of inaction that the rain, which had been pouring in torrents all -night, had ceased for a time. We had scarcely started when it began -again, and accompanied us for a great part of the way on our long three -leagues’ ride. We came now for the first time on the Carnauba palm -(Copernicia cerifera), so invaluable for its many useful properties. It -furnishes an admirable timber, strong and durable, from which the -rafters of all the houses in this region are made; it yields a wax -which, if the process of refining and bleaching it were understood, -would make an excellent candle, and which, as it is, is used for light -throughout the province; from its silky fibre very strong thread and -cordage are manufactured; the heart of the leaves, when cooked, makes an -excellent vegetable, resembling delicate cabbage; and, finally, it -provides a very nourishing fodder for cattle. It is a saying in the -province of Ceará, that where the Carnauba palm abounds a man has all he -needs for himself and his horse. The stem is tall, and the leaves so -arranged around the summit as to form a close spherical crown, entirely -unlike that of any other palm.[105] - -If we had to lament the rain, we were fortunate in not having the sun on -our journey, for the forest is low and affords but little shade. The -road was in a terrible condition from the long-continued rains, and -though there are no rivers of any importance between the town and the -Serra of Monguba, to which we were bound, yet in several places the -little streams were swollen to a considerable depth; and, owing to the -broken condition of the bottom, full of holes and deep ruts, they were -by no means easy to ford. After a fatiguing ride of four hours, during -which we inquired, two or three times, how far we had still to go, and -always received the same answer, “uma legua,” that league never seeming -to diminish with our advance, we were delighted to find ourselves at the -little bridle-path which turned off from the main road and led us to the -fazenda of Senhor Franklin de Lima. The traveller is always welcome who -asks hospitality at a Brazilian country house, but Major Coutinho had -already stayed at this fazenda on previous journeys, and we shared the -welcome given to him as an old friend. The hospitality of our excellent -hosts repaid us for all the fatigues of our journey, and our luggage -being still on the road, their kindness supplied the defects of our -toilet, which was in a lamentable condition after splashing through -muddy water two or three feet deep. Mr. Agassiz, however, could not -spare time to rest; we had followed a morainic soil for a great part of -our journey, had passed many boulders on the road, and he was anxious to -examine the Serra of Monguba, on the slope of which Senhor Franklin has -his coffee plantation, and at the foot of which his house stands. He -was, therefore, either on foot or on horseback the greater part of this -day and the following one, examining the geological structure of the -mountain, and satisfying himself that, here too, all the valleys have -had their glaciers, and that these valleys have brought down from the -hillsides into the plains boulders, pebbles, and _débris_ of all sorts. -In this pleasant home, in the midst of the bright, intelligent circle -composing the family of Senhor Franklin, we passed two days. After -breakfast we dispersed to our various occupations, the gentlemen being -engaged in excursions in the neighborhood; the evening brought us -together again, and was enlivened with music, dancing, and games. The -Brazilians are fond of games, and play them with much wit and animation. -One of their favorite games is called “the market of saints”; it is very -amusing when there are two or three bright people to act the prominent -parts. One person performs the salesman, another the padre who comes to -purchase a saint for his chapel; the company enact the saints, covering -their faces with their handkerchiefs, and remaining as motionless as -possible. The salesman brings in the padre, and, taking him from one to -another in turn, describes all their extraordinary miraculous qualities, -their wonderful lives and pious deaths. After a few introductory remarks -on the subject of the purchase, the handkerchief is drawn off, and if -the saint keeps his countenance and remains immovable during all the -ridiculous things that are said about him, he comes off scot free; but -if he laughs he is subject to a forfeit. There are indeed few who stand -the test; for if the salesman has any tact in the game, he knows how to -seize upon any funny incident or characteristic quality connected with -the individual, and give it prominence. Perhaps the reader, knowing -something of our hunt for glaciers, may guess this saint, Major Coutinho -being salesman. “This, Senhor Padre, is rather a stout saint, but still -of most pious disposition, and, O meu Padre! a wonderful worker of -miracles; he can fill these valleys with ice, he covers the mountains -with snow in the hottest days, he brings the stones from the top of the -serra to the bottom, he finds animals in the bowels of the earth and -brings out their bones.” “Ah!” replies the padre, “a wonderful saint, -truly! such an one as I need for my chapel; let me look upon his face.” -Handkerchief withdrawn, and the saint in question of course loses his -forfeit. Yesterday, after breakfast, we left our pleasant friends and -came on to the little village of Pacatuba, a league farther inland, and -most picturesquely situated at the foot of the Serra of Aratanha. Here -we are fortunate in finding an empty “sobrada” (two-storied house), in -which we shall establish ourselves for the two or three days we mean to -spend in this neighborhood. We have had it swept out, have hung our -hammocks in the vacant rooms, which, with the exception of a straw sofa -and a few chairs, are innocent of furniture; and if we find it rather -forlorn within doors, we have at least beautiful views from all our -windows. - -_April 7th._—Pacatuba. We have already ascertained that our exploration -must be confined to the serras in the midst of which we find ourselves; -for every one tells us that, in the present state of the roads, it would -be impossible to go to Baturité and return in the short time we have at -our disposal. However, Mr. Agassiz is not disappointed; for he says a -farther journey could only give him glacial phenomena on a larger scale, -which he finds here immediately about him in the greatest perfection. On -this very Serra of Aratanha, at the foot of which we happen to have -taken up our quarters, the glacial phenomena are as legible as in any of -the valleys of Maine, or in those of the mountains of Cumberland in -England. It had evidently a local glacier, formed by the meeting of two -arms, which descended from two depressions spreading right and left on -the upper part of the serra, and joining below in the main valley. A -large part of the medial moraine formed by the meeting of these two arms -can still be traced in the central valley. One of the lateral moraines -is perfectly preserved, the village road cutting through it; while the -village itself is built just within the terminal moraine, which is -thrown up in a long ridge in front of it. It is a curious fact that, in -the centre of the medial moraine, formed by a little mountain stream -making its way through the ridge of rocks and boulders, is a delicious -bathing pool, overgrown by orange-trees and palms. As Mr. Agassiz came -down from the serra yesterday, heated with his hunt after glaciers under -a tropical sun, he stopped to bathe in this pool. He said, as he enjoyed -its refreshing coolness, he could not but be struck with the contrast -between the origin of this basin and the vegetation which now surrounds -it; to say nothing of the odd coincidence that he, a naturalist of the -nineteenth century, should be bathing under the shade of palms and -orange-trees on the very spot where he sought and found the evidence of -a cold so intense that it heaped the mountains with ice. - -_April 9th._—Yesterday, at seven o’clock in the morning, we left -Pacatuba for the house of Senhor da Costa, lying half-way up the serra, -at a height of about eight hundred feet above the level of the sea. The -path up the serra is wild and picturesque, lined with immense boulders, -and shaded with large trees; while here and there a little cascade comes -brawling down over the rocks. In this climate, a road so broken by -boulders is especially beautiful, on account of the luxuriance of the -vegetation. Exquisite vines, shrubs, and even trees spring up wherever -they can find the least soil in which to strike root; and many of these -isolated rocks are gardens in themselves. One immense boulder in the -path is split, and from its centre springs a palm all draperied in -vines. Of the native trees, the Genipapu (Genipa braziliensis), the -Imbauba (Cecropia), the Carnauba (Copernicia cerifera), the Catolé -(Attalea humilis), and the Paō d’Arco (Tecoma speciosa) are most -prominent. The latter is so named because the Indians make their bows -from its tough, elastic wood. Though not native to the soil, bananas, -cocoa-nut palms, orange-trees, as well as cotton and coffee shrubs, are -abundant. The cultivation of coffee, which thrives admirably on the -slopes of all the serras, is the great source of prosperity here; but, -at least in the sitios we have visited, it is difficult to judge of the -extent of the plantations on account of the irregular manner of -planting. The crops are, however, very large, and the coffee superior in -quality. I found the climb up the precipitous serra exceedingly -fatiguing. The people who live on the mountain come and go constantly, -even with their children, on horseback; but as our horses were from the -city, and unaccustomed to mountain paths, we had preferred ascending on -foot, especially as the rains had made the road more rough and broken -than usual. A mountain scramble in this country is very different from -the same thing in temperate climates. The least exertion induces -excessive perspiration; and if, when thus drenched to the skin, you stop -to rest, you are chilled by the slightest breeze. I was very glad when, -after about an hour’s climbing, we reached the sitio of Senhor da Costa, -on the slope of the serra. Donna Maria laughed at me for coming up on -foot, and said I should have mounted like a man, as she does, and -ascended the serra on horseback. Indeed, I think a lady who is obliged -to make a journey in the interior of Brazil should dress Bloomer-fashion -and mount _en cavalier_. A lady’s seat on horseback is too insecure for -dangerous mountain roads, or for fording streams; and her long skirt is -another inconvenience. - -Nothing can be more picturesque than the situation of this sitio. It is -surrounded by magnificent masses of rock, which seem embedded in the -forest, as it were; and by its side a cascade comes leaping down through -the trees, so hidden by them that, though you hear the voice of the -water constantly, you only see its glimmer here and there among the -green foliage. The house itself stands on a fine specimen of moraine, -flanked on one side by a bank of red morainic soil, overtopped by -boulders. It is so built in among huge masses of rock that its walls -seem half natural. At the foot of the mountain spreads the Sertaō, -stretching level for the most part to the ocean, though broken here and -there by billowy hills rising isolated from its surface. Beyond it many -miles away may be seen the yellow lines of the sand-dunes on the shore, -and the white glitter of the sea. The Sertaō (desert) is beautifully -green now, and spreads out like a verdant prairie below. But in the dry -season it justifies its name and becomes a very desert indeed, being so -parched that all vegetation is destroyed. The drought is so great during -eight months of the year, that the country people living in the Sertaō -are often in danger of famine from the drying up of all the crops.[106] -After this long dry season the rains often set in with terrible -violence, and it is at this time that epidemics are developed, such as -prevail now. It rains day and night for weeks at a time, till everything -is penetrated with dampness; and when the hot sun comes out upon the -soaked and steaming earth, it is far more injurious than in the dry -season. One cannot wonder at the prevailing sickness, for the humidity -seems to permeate everything with subtle power. The walls, the floors, -the very furniture,—your hammock at night and your clothes in the -morning,—feel damp and have a sort of clammy chill; and the sun comes -out with such fitful gleams, that, intense as is its heat while it -lasts, nothing becomes thoroughly dried. - -Toward nightfall we went to see the sunset from a boulder of enormous -size, which seems to have stopped inexplicably on the steep descent. It -juts out from the mountain-side, and commands even a more extensive view -than the house above. I could not help thinking, as we stood on the edge -of this immense mass of rock, that, as it seemed to have stopped for no -particular reason, it might start again at any minute, and bring one to -the bottom of the serra with unpleasant rapidity. - -_April 10th._—Yesterday afternoon we returned to Pacatuba, descending -the serra much more rapidly and with far less fatigue than we had -ascended. We would gladly have availed ourselves longer of the pleasant -hospitality of our hosts, who very graciously urged us to stay; but time -is precious, and we are anxious not to miss the next steamer. Donna -Maria’s kindness followed us down the mountain, however, for scarcely -had we reached the house before an excellent dinner—stewed fowls, beef, -vegetables, etc.—arrived, borne on the heads of two negroes. When I saw -the load these men had brought so steadily down the same path over which -I had come rolling, pitching, tumbling, sliding,—any way, in short, but -walking,—I envied their dexterity, and longed to be as sure-footed as -these shoeless, half naked, ignorant blacks. To-day we leave Pacatuba -for the house of Senhor Franklin, on our way back to Ceará. - -_April 12th._—On the 10th we returned to Monguba, where we passed that -day and the following night at the fazenda of our friends, the -Franklins. The next morning we had intended to start at six o’clock on -our way to the city. No sooner were the horses at the door, however, and -the pack-mules ready, than a pouring rain began. We waited for it to -pass, but it was followed by shower after shower, falling in solid -sheets. So the day wore on till twelve o’clock, when there was a lull, -with a prospect of fine weather, and we started. I could not help -feeling some anxiety, for I remembered the streams we had forded in -coming, and wondered what they would be after these torrents. -Fortunately, before we reached the first of them, we met two negroes, -who warned us that there was a great deal of water on the road. We hired -them to come on with us, and guide my horse. When we reached the spot it -really looked appalling. The road was inundated to a considerable -distance, and the water rushed across it with great violence, having in -many places a depth of four or five feet, and a strong current. If there -had been a sound bottom to rely upon, the wetting would have been -nothing; but the road, torn up by the rains, was full of holes and deep -gullies, so that the horses, coming unexpectedly on these inequalities, -would suddenly flounder up to their necks in water, and recover their -footing only by kicking and plunging. We crossed four such streams, one -man leading my horse while the gentlemen followed close behind, and the -second negro walking in front to see where it was possible to pass -without getting completely out of depth. These streams, not quite deep -enough to allow the horse to swim, and with such a broken bottom that he -is in constant danger of falling, are sometimes more difficult of -passage than a river. We met with only one accident, however, which, as -it did no harm, was rather ludicrous than otherwise. The negroes had -left us, saying there was no more deep water in the road, and when we -came presently to a shallow stream we entered it quite confidently. It -was treacherous, however, for just on its edge was a soft, adhesive -bog-mud. In entering, the horses stepped across this quagmire, but their -hind legs were instantly caught in it. Major Coutinho, who was riding at -my side, seized my bridle, and, spurring his own horse violently, both -the animals extricated themselves at once by a powerful effort. Our -servant, who followed behind, was not so fortunate; he was mounted on a -small mule, which seemed likely to be swallowed up bodily for a moment, -so suddenly did it disappear in the mire; the man fell off, and it was -some minutes before he and his animal regained the road, a mass of mud -and dripping with water. We reached Ceará at five in the afternoon, -having made a journey of five leagues. Every one tells us that the state -of the roads is most unusual, such continuous rains not having been -known for many years. The sickness in the city continues unabated, and a -young man who was attacked with yellow-fever in the next house before we -left has died in our absence. Everywhere on our journey we have heard -the same complaints of prevalent epidemics, and the authorities are -beginning to close the schools in the town on account of them. The -steamer is due in a day or two, and we are making our preparations for -departure. We should not bid good by to Ceará without acknowledging the -sympathy shown by the President of the Province, Senhor Homem de Mello, -in the objects of the expedition. Mr. Agassiz has received a collection -of palms and fishes, the directions for which he had given before -starting for the Serra, but the expenses of which are defrayed by the -President, who insists upon their being received as a contribution from -the province. Mr. Agassiz is also greatly indebted to Senhor Felice, at -whose house we have lodged, for efficient help in collecting, and to -Senhor Cicero de Lima for a collection of fishes and insects from the -interior. I conclude this chapter with a few passages from notes made by -Mr. Agassiz during his examination of the Serra of Aratanha and the site -of Pacatuba. - -“I spent the rest of the day in a special examination of the right -lateral moraine, and part of the front moraine of the glacier of -Pacatuba; my object was especially to ascertain whether what appeared a -moraine at first might not, after all, be a spur of the serra, -decomposed in place. I ascended the ridge to its very origin, and there -crossed into an adjoining depression, immediately below the Sitio of -Captain Henriquez, where I found another glacier bottom of smaller -dimensions, the ice of which probably never reached the plain. -Everywhere in the ridges encircling these depressions the loose -materials and large boulders are so accumulated and embedded in clay or -sand that their morainic character is unmistakable. Occasionally, where -a ledge of the underlying rock crops out, in places where the drift has -been removed by denudation, the difference between the moraine and the -rock decomposed in place is recognized at once. It is equally easy to -distinguish the boulders which here and there have rolled down from the -mountain and stopped against the moraine. The three things are side by -side, and might at first be easily confounded; but a little familiarity -makes it easy to distinguish them. Where the lateral moraine turns -toward the front of the ancient glacier, near the point at which the -brook of Pacatuba cuts through the former, and a little to the west of -the brook, there are colossal boulders leaning against the moraine, from -the summit of which they have probably rolled down. Near the cemetery -the front moraine consists almost entirely of small quartz pebbles; -there are, however, a few larger blocks among them. The medial moraine -extends nearly through the centre of the village, while the left-hand -lateral moraine lies outside of the village, at its eastern end, and is -traversed by the road leading to Ceará. It is not impossible that -eastwards a third tributary of the serra may have reached the main -glacier of Pacatuba. I may say, that in the whole valley of Hasli there -are no accumulations of morainic materials more characteristic than -those I have found here,—not even about the Kirchet; neither are there -any remains of the kind more striking about the valleys of Mount Desert -in Maine, where the glacial phenomena are so remarkable, nor in the -valleys of Lough Fine, Lough Augh, and Lough Long in Scotland, where the -traces of ancient glaciers are so distinct. In none of these localities -are the glacial phenomena more legible than in the Serra of Aratanha. I -hope that before long some members of the Alpine Club, thoroughly -familiar with the glaciers of the Old World, not only in their present, -but also in their past condition, will come to these mountains of Ceará -and trace the outlines of their former glaciers more extensively than it -has been possible for me to do in this short journey. It would be an -easy excursion, since steamers from Liverpool and Bordeaux reach -Pernambuco in about ten days, arriving twice a month, while Brazilian -steamers make the trip from Pernambuco to Ceará in two days. The nearest -serra in which I have observed traces of ancient glaciers is reached -from Ceará in one day on horseback. The best season for such a journey -would be June and July, at the close of the rainy season, and before the -great droughts of the dry season have began.” - ------ - -Footnote 104: - - The prosperous province of Ceará has found in Senator Pompeo a worthy - exponent of its interests; not only does he represent the province at - Rio de Janeiro, but, by the publication of careful statistics, has - largely contributed to its progress.—L. A. - -Footnote 105: - - For a very interesting treatise on this palm, and the various branches - of industry it may be made to subserve, see “Notice sur le Palmier - Carnauba,” par M. A. de Macedo, Paris, 1867, 8º. - -Footnote 106: - - But for the existence of a shrub allied to our hawthorn, and known to - botanists as Zizyphus Joazeiro, the cattle would suffer excessively - during the drought. This shrub is one of the few plants common to this - latitude which does not lose its foliage during the dry season, and, - happily for the inhabitants, all the herbivorous domesticated animals - delight to feed upon it.—L. A. - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS OF RIO DE JANEIRO.—ORGAN MOUNTAINS. - - VOYAGE FROM CEARÁ.—FRESHETS AT PERNAMBUCO.—ARRIVAL AT - RIO.—COLLECTIONS.—VEGETATION ABOUT RIO AS COMPARED WITH THAT ON - THE AMAZONS.—MISERICORDIA HOSPITAL.—CHARITIES CONNECTED WITH - IT.—ALMSGIVING IN BRAZIL.—INSANE ASYLUM.—MILITARY SCHOOL.—THE - MINT.—ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS.—HEROISM OF A NEGRO.—PRIMARY SCHOOL FOR - GIRLS.—NEGLECTED EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN BRAZIL.—BLIND - ASYLUM.—LECTURES.—CHARACTER OF THE BRAZILIAN AUDIENCE.—ORGAN - MOUNTAINS.—WALK UP THE SERRA.—THERESOPOLIS.—VISIT TO THE “ST. - LOUIS” FAZENDA.—CLIMATE OF THERESOPOLIS.—DESCENT OF THE - SERRA.—GEOLOGY OF THE ORGAN MOUNTAINS.—THE LAST WORD. - - -_May 29th._—We arrived in Rio more than a month ago, having left Ceará -on the 16th of April. There was nothing worth recording in our voyage -down the coast, except that at Pernambuco we found the country even more -overflowed by the recent rains than it had been at Ceará. Going to -breakfast with our friends, Mr. and Mrs. R——, only four or five miles -from the city, we passed through portions of the road where the water -was nearly level with the floor of the carriage; and temporary ferries -were established by negroes, who were plying rafts and canoes between -the shores for the benefit of foot-passengers. A mile or two beyond Mr. -R——’s house we were told that the road, though one of the most -frequented in the neighborhood of the city, had become quite impassable. -We saw many overflowed gardens and houses abandoned because the water -was already above the windows of the ground-floor. - -We had a warm welcome back to the beautiful bay of Rio, on board the -“Susquehanna,” just then in the harbor. Captain Taylor sent his boat at -once to our steamer, and we were soon on his deck, received so cordially -by him and his officers, and by a party of American friends who were -making a visit to his ship, that it seemed like an anticipation of our -arrival at home. There is nothing so pleasant as an unexpected meeting -with one’s own fellow-citizens on coming into a foreign port, and this -was a delightful surprise to us. - -We are again in our old quarters in the Rua Direita, and, except that -our fellow-travellers are all scattered, it would seem as if we had -stepped back a year. Since our return, Mr. Agassiz has been arranging -and despatching to the United States the numerous specimens which have -been sent in during our absence. Among them is the large and very -complete collection made for him by the Emperor last summer, when in -command of the army at the South. It contains fishes from several of the -southern fresh-water basins, and includes a great number of new species. -Taken in connection with the Amazonian collections and those from the -interior, it affords material for an extensive comparison of the faunæ -of the southern and northern fresh-waters in Brazil. - -Our excursions since our return have been only in the neighborhood of -the city to Petropolis and the Dom Pedro Railroad. We are surprised, on -returning to this road while our Amazonian impressions are fresh in our -minds, to find that the vegetation, the richness of which amazed us when -we first arrived in Brazil, looks almost meagre in comparison to that -with which we have since been familiar. It is dwarfed, to our eye, by -the still more luxuriant growth of the north. - -Yesterday was Mr. Agassiz’s birthday, again made very bright to us by -the cordial testimony of kind feeling and sympathy from his friends and -country people. In the evening we were pleasantly surprised by a -torchlight procession in his honor, formed by the German and Swiss -residents of Rio de Janeiro. The festivities concluded with a serenade -under our windows by the German club. - -_June 4th._—When we were in Rio de Janeiro last year, Mr. Agassiz was so -much occupied with the plans of the expedition that he was unable to -visit the schools of the city, its charitable institutions, and the -like. Being unwilling to leave Brazil without knowing something of the -public works in its largest capital, we are now engaged in -“sight-seeing.” This morning we visited the Misericordia Hospital. -Perhaps it will give a better idea of this institution, and of the -influences under which it at present exists, to speak of it first as it -was formerly. Nearly forty years ago there was in Rio de Janeiro a -hospital called “De la Misericordia.” Its wards were low, its entries -were confined and close, its staircases steep and narrow. According to -the accounts of physicians who were medical students there in those -days, its internal organization was as sordid as its general aspect. The -floors were wet and dirty, the beds wretched, the linen soiled; and the -absence of a system of ventilation made itself the more felt on account -of the want of general cleanliness. The corpses awaited burial in a room -where the rats held high festival; and a physician, who has since -occupied a distinguished position in Rio de Janeiro, told us that when, -as a student, he went to seek there the materials for his anatomical -studies, he often found life stirring in this chamber of the dead, and -startled away these unseemly visitors. Such, in brief, was the -Misericordia Hospital at the time when Brazil secured her independence. -Let us see what it is now. On the same spot, though occupying a much -larger space, stands the present hospital. When completed, it will -consist of three parallel buildings, long in proportion to their -breadth, connected by cross corridors enclosing courts between them. The -central edifice, intended for male patients, has been long in use. The -front building, looking on the bay, is nearly completed, and is to be -devoted to the stores, to accommodations for hospital physicians, -nurses, &c. The rear building, not yet begun, will be for the use of -women and children, who now occupy the old hospital. Let us look first -at the central division. We enter a spacious hall tiled with marble. A -smaller hall, leading out of it, connects with one or two -reception-rooms, where visitors are received, and medicines given out -gratis to poor applicants. A broad staircase of dark wood brings us to -the wide corridors, on which the wards open, and which look out upon -green gardens enclosed between the buildings, where convalescents may be -seen strolling about, or resting in the shade. At the first ward we are -received by a Sister of Charity, who, in the absence of the Superior, is -to show us the establishment. A description of one ward will answer for -all, since they are identical. It is a long, lofty room, the beds in -rows on either side, facing outward, and having a broad, open space down -the centre. The beds are arranged two and two in pairs, each pair being -divided by a door or window. Between every two beds is a little niche in -the wall, with a shelf to draw out underneath. In the niche are one or -two pitchers or goblets holding the patient’s drink; on the shelf is his -mug, ready to his hand. To a height of some six or eight feet the wall -is wainscoted with blue-and-white porcelain tiles. They are easily -washed, do not contract dampness, and look very cool and fresh. The -floor is made of the dark Brazilian wood, partly inlaid, and waxed -carefully; not a stain is to be seen anywhere on its shining surface. -The bedding consists of a well-stuffed straw-mattress below, with a -thick hair-mattress above. The sheets and pillow-cases are spotless. -Indeed, everything in this fresh, well-aired, spacious room bespeaks an -exquisite order and neatness. The bath-rooms are in convenient relation -to the wards, furnished with large marble bath-tubs, and with hot and -cold water in abundance. From the public wards we pass into large -corridors, upon which open private apartments for the use of persons -who, not having convenient arrangements at home, or being strangers in -the city, prefer, in case of illness, to go to the hospital. The rent of -these chambers is exceedingly moderate;—for a room to one’s self, $1.50 -a day; for a room shared with one other person, $1 a day; for a bed in a -larger room occupied by half a dozen, but withdrawn from the general -throng, 75 cents. These charges include medical attendance, nursing, and -food. From the wards devoted to ordinary diseases, fevers and the like, -we went to the surgical wards. It need not be said that here the same -neatness and care prevailed; the operating rooms, the surgery lined with -cases containing instruments, lint, bandages, &c. were all in faultless -order. - -From this building—looking, as we went, into the kitchen, where the -contents of the great shiny copper kettles smelt very invitingly—we -passed through a paved court to the old hospital, in which are the wards -for women and children. This gave us an opportunity of comparing, at -least in its general arrangement, the ancient establishment with the -modern one. The neatness and order prevailing throughout make even this -part of the hospital attractive and cheerful; but one feels at once the -difference between the high, airy rooms and open corridors of the new -building and the more confined quarters of the old one. In both parts of -the hospital the mingling of color impresses the stranger. Blacks and -whites lie side by side, and the proportion of negroes is considerable, -both among the men and women. - -The charity of the Misericordia is a very comprehensive one; it includes -not only maladies susceptible of cure, but has also its ward for old and -infirm persons, who will never leave it except for their last home. The -day before our visit a very aged woman had been buried thence, who had -lived under this roof for seventeen years. There is also a provision for -children whose parents die in the hospital, and who have no natural -protector. They remain there, receive an elementary education, being -taught to read, write, and cipher; and are not turned into the world -until they are of age to marry or to enter into service. There is a -chapel connected with the hospital, and many of the wards are furnished -with an altar at one end, above which is placed a statue of the Virgin, -a crucifix, or a picture of some saint. I could not help asking myself -if regular religious services would not be a wise addition to all -charitable institutions of this kind, whether Protestant or Catholic. To -the respectable poor, their church is a great deal. Many a convalescent -would be glad to hear the Sunday hymn, to join in the prayer put up for -his recovery; and would think himself the better, body and soul, because -he had listened to a sermon. To be sure, in our country, where creeds -are so various, and almost every patient might have his own doctrinal -speciality, there might be some difficulties which do not exist where -there is a state religion, and one form of service is sure to suit all. -Still, many would be comforted and consoled, and would come without -asking whether the clergyman were of this or that denomination, if they -felt him to be genuine and truly devout. - -I have presented the old hospital and the present one in direct -contrast, because the comparison gives a measure of the progress which, -in some directions at least, has taken place during the last thirty or -forty years in Rio de Janeiro. It is true, that all their institutions -have not advanced in proportion to their benevolent establishments; -charity, like hospitality, may be said to be a national virtue among the -Brazilians. They hold almsgiving a religious duty, and are more liberal -to their churches and to the public charities connected with them than -to their institutions of learning. Unhappily, a great deal of their -liberality of this kind is expended upon church festas, street -processions, saint days, and the like, more calculated to feed -superstition than to stimulate pure religious sentiment. - -We should not leave the Misericordia without some allusion to the man to -whom it chiefly owes its present character. José Clemente Pereira would -have been gratefully remembered by the Brazilians as a statesman of -distinguished merit, who was intimately associated with more than one of -the most important events in their history, even had he no other claim -on their esteem. He was born in Portugal, and distinguished himself as a -young man in the Peninsular war. Though he was already twenty-eight -years of age when he left Europe, he seems to have been as true a lover -of Brazil as if born on her soil. His merit was soon recognized in his -adopted country, and he occupied, at different times, some of the -highest offices of the realm. The early part of his political career -fell upon the stormy times when Brazil was struggling for her national -existence as an independent Empire; but during the more tranquil close -of his life he seems to have been chiefly occupied in works of -benevolence, in founding charitable institutions, and even in personal -attendance upon the sick and suffering. - -The name of this benevolent Brazilian is associated not only with the -Misericordia hospital, but also with the admirable asylum for the insane -at Botafogo, which bears the name of the present Emperor. A great part -of the funds for this establishment were obtained in an original way, -which shows that Pereira knew how to turn the weaknesses of his -countrymen to good account. The Brazilians are addicted to titles, and -the government offered distinctions of this kind to wealthy citizens who -would endow the insane asylum. They were to be either commendadores or -barons, the importance of the title being in proportion to the magnitude -of their donations. Large sums were actually obtained in this way, and -several of the titled men of Rio thus purchased their patents of -nobility. When I first arrived in Rio de Janeiro, mere chance led me to -visit this asylum. Entering as a stranger, I saw only the outer rooms, -listened to the evening service in the chapel for a few moments, and was -struck with the order and quiet which seemed to prevail. It certainly -never would have occurred to me that I was in an insane hospital. To-day -Mr. Agassiz and myself, accompanied by our friend Dr. Pacheco da Silva, -passed several hours there, and saw the whole establishment in detail. -The building faces upon Botafogo Bay, having the beach immediately -before it; on its right the picturesque gap, one side of which is made -by the Paō de Assucar, and on its left the beautiful valley running up -toward Corcovado. Thus, looking on the sea and surrounded by mountains, -it commands exquisite views on every side. The plan of the building, in -its general arrangement, is not unlike that of the Misericordia. It is a -handsome solid stone structure, rather long in proportion to its height, -and consists of two parallel buildings, connected by cross corridors. -These corridors enclose courts, planted with trees and flowers, and -making very pleasant gardens. The entrance hall is in the centre, and -has on either side the statues of Pinel and Esquirol, the two French -masters in the treatment of mental diseases. The statues have no merit -as works of art; but it was pleasant to see them there, as showing a -recognition of what these men have done for science and for humanity. A -broad, low staircase of dark wood leads up to the chapel. Here we looked -with interest at the ornaments on the altar, because they are the work -of the patients, who take great pleasure in making artificial flowers -and other decorations for the church. On the same floor with the chapel -is a large hall, where stands the statue of the youthful Emperor Dom -Pedro Segundo. Opposite to it is that of Pereira. It is worthy of note -that this statue was presented by the Emperor, and at his request placed -opposite his own. The face, quite in keeping with the history of the -man, is expressive both of great benevolence and remarkable decision. -Connected with this hall are several reception-halls, parlors, and -antechambers; indeed, too much room is assigned to mere state apartments -in an establishment where space must be precious. One of this suite of -rooms was devoted to the various fancy-work made by the -patients,—embroidery of all sorts, artificial flowers and the like. -Thence we passed to the wards. As in the Misericordia, the rooms are -very large and high, wainscoted with tiles, and opening upon wide -corridors, which look out into the enclosed gardens. Some of the -dormitories have fifteen or twenty beds, but many of the sleeping-rooms -are smaller, it being better, no doubt, to separate the patients at -night. We saw but little indication of suffering or distress among them. -There were one or two cases of religious melancholy, with the look of -fixed, absorbed sadness characteristic of that form of insanity. We were -met once or twice by the vacant stare, and heard the senseless chatter -and laugh always to be found in these saddest of all asylums for human -suffering. But, on the whole, an air of cheerfulness prevailed; with few -exceptions all the patients were occupied, the women with plain sewing -or embroidery, the men with carpentering, shoemaking, or tailoring, -making cigars for the use of the establishment, or picking over old -cordage. The Superior told us that occupation was found to be the most -efficient remedy, and that though work was not compulsory, with few -exceptions all the patients preferred to share in it. The whole service -of the house—washing, sweeping, waxing the floors, cleaning the chambers -and putting them in order—is performed by them. Sunday is found to be -the most difficult day, because much of the ordinary occupation is -suspended, and the patients become unruly in proportion as they are -unemployed. From these apartments, where all were busy and comparatively -quiet, we passed to a corridor enclosing a large court, where some of -the lunatics, too restless for employment, were walking about, -gesticulating and talking loudly. The corridor was lined on its inner -side with chambers devoted to the use of those whose violence made it -necessary to confine them. The doors and windows were grated, the rooms -empty of furniture, but well lighted, spacious, and airy; not at all -like cells, except in being so strongly secured. They were mostly -without occupants; but as we passed one of them a man rushed to the -door, and called out to us that he was not a prisoner because he was -mad, but that he had killed Lopez, and was now the rightful Emperor of -Brazil. This corridor led us to the bath-rooms, which are really on a -magnificent scale. A number of immense marble tubs are sunk in the tiled -floors. They are of different depths, adapted for standing, sitting, or -lying down, and have every variety of arrangement for douche, shower, or -sponge baths. - -This hospital, like the Misericordia, is under the care of the Sisters -of Charity, and is a model of neatness and order. The Superior has a -face remarkable for its serenity, expressive at once of sweetness and -good sense. From her we learned some interesting facts respecting -insanity in this country. She says furious maniacs are rare, and that -violence generally yields readily to treatment. She also told us that -insanity is more common among the poor than among the better classes. -Though the asylum contains apartments for private patients, there are -seldom more than eight or ten persons of this description to occupy -them. This is not because they have any choice of establishments, for -there is no other insane hospital in Rio de Janeiro, though there are -one or two “Maisons de Santé” where insane persons are received. There -were more blacks among the patients than we had expected to see, the -general impression being that insanity is rare among the negroes. We -left this hospital impressed by its superiority. A country which has so -high a standard of excellence in its charities can hardly fail, sooner -or later, to bring its institutions of learning and its public works -generally up to the same level. Excellence in one department leads to -excellence in all. - -From the hospital we continued our walk to the military school, some -quarter of a mile farther. It stands in the gap between the Paō de -Assucar and the opposite range of hills, and has the Botafogo Bay on one -side, the Praia Vermelha on the other. Here, as elsewhere in the public -schools of Rio de Janeiro, there is a progressive movement; but old and -theoretical methods still prevail to a great degree. The maps are poor; -there are no bas-reliefs, no large globes, few dissections or chemical -analyses, no philosophical experiments, and no library deserving the -name. The school, however, has been in efficient operation only six -years, and improvements in the building, as well as in the apparatus for -instruction, are made daily. So far as its domestic economy is -concerned, the appointments of the establishment are excellent; indeed, -one is rather inclined to criticise it as over-luxurious for boys -educated to be soldiers. The school-rooms and dormitories, as well as -the dining-room, where the tables were laid with a nice service of -crockery and glass, and also the kitchens, were clean and orderly. We -cannot but wonder that the streets of Rio de Janeiro should be dirtier -and more offensive than those of any other city we have visited, when we -see the scrupulous neatness characteristic of all its public -establishments. The observance of cleanliness in this respect shows that -the Brazilians recognize its importance, and it seems strange that they -should tolerate nuisances in their streets which make it almost -impossible to pass through many of them on foot. - -_June 7th._—Yesterday we visited the Mint, the Academy of Fine Arts, and -a primary school for girls. Of the Mint it is scarcely fair to judge in -its present condition; a new building is nearly completed, and all -improvements in machinery are wisely deferred until the establishment is -removed. When this change takes place, much that is antiquated will be -improved, and its many deficiencies supplied. - -There is little knowledge of, or interest in, art in Brazil. Pictures -are as rare as books in a Brazilian house; and though Rio de Janeiro has -an Academy of Fine Arts, including a school of design and sculpture, it -is still in too elementary a condition to warrant criticism. The only -interesting picture in the collection derives its attraction wholly from -the circumstances connected with it, not at all from any merit in the -execution. It is a likeness of a negro who, in a shipwreck off the -coast, saved a number of lives at the risk of his own. When he had -brought several passengers to the shore, he was told that two children -remained in the ship. He swam back once more and brought them safely to -the beach, but sank down himself exhausted, and was seized with -hemorrhage. A considerable sum was raised for him in the city of Rio, -and his picture was placed in the Academy to commemorate his heroism. - -Of the public school for girls not much can be said. The education of -women is little regarded in Brazil, and the standard of instruction for -girls in the public schools is low. Even in the private schools, where -the children of the better class are sent, it is the complaint of all -teachers that they are taken away from school just at the time when -their minds begin to develop. The majority of girls in Brazil who go to -school at all are sent at about seven or eight years of age, and are -considered to have finished their education at thirteen or fourteen. The -next step in their life is marriage. Of course there are exceptions; -some parents wisely leave their children at school, or direct their -instruction at home, till they are seventeen or eighteen years of age, -and others send their girls abroad. But usually, with the exception of -one or two accomplishments, such as French or music, the education of -women is neglected, and this neglect affects the whole tone of society. -It does not change the general truth of this statement, that there are -Brazilian ladies who would be recognized in the best society as women of -the highest intelligence and culture. But they are the exceptions, as -they inevitably must be under the present system of instruction, and -they feel its influence upon their social position only the more -bitterly. - -Indeed, many of the women I have known most intimately here have spoken -to me with deep regret of their limited, imprisoned existence. There is -not a Brazilian senhora, who has ever thought about the subject at all, -who is not aware that her life is one of repression and constraint. She -cannot go out of her house, except under certain conditions, without -awakening scandal. Her education leaves her wholly ignorant of the most -common topics of a wider interest, though perhaps with a tolerable -knowledge of French and music. The world of books is closed to her; for -there is little Portuguese literature into which she is allowed to look, -and that of other languages is still less at her command. She knows -little of the history of her own country, almost nothing of that of -others, and she is hardly aware that there is any religious faith except -the uniform one of Brazil; she has probably never heard of the -Reformation, nor does she dream that there is a sea of thought surging -in the world outside, constantly developing new phases of national and -individual life; indeed, of all but her own narrow domestic existence -she is profoundly ignorant. - -On one occasion, when staying at a fazenda, I took up a volume which was -lying on the piano. A book is such a rare sight, in the rooms occupied -by the family, that I was curious to see its contents. As I stood -turning over the leaves (it proved to be a romance), the master of the -house came up, and remarked that the book was not suitable reading for -ladies, but that here (putting into my hand a small volume) was a work -adapted to the use of women and children, which he had provided for the -senhoras of his family. I opened it, and found it to be a sort of -textbook of morals, filled with commonplace sentiments, copybook -phrases, written in a tone of condescending indulgence for the feminine -intellect. Women being, after all, the mothers of men, and understood to -have some little influence on their education, I could hardly wonder, -after seeing this specimen of their intellectual food, that the wife and -daughters of our host were not greatly addicted to reading. Nothing -strikes a stranger more than the absence of books in Brazilian houses. -If the father is a professional man, he has his small library of -medicine or law, but books are never seen scattered about as if in -common use; they make no part of the daily life. I repeat, that there -are exceptions. I well remember finding in the sitting-room of a young -girl, by whose family we had been most cordially received, a -well-selected library of the best literary and historical works in -German and French; but this is the only instance of the kind we met with -during our year in Brazil. Even when the Brazilian women have received -the ordinary advantages of education, there is something in their -home-life so restricted, so shut out from natural contact with external -influences, that this in itself tends to cripple their development. -Their amusements are as meagre and scanty as their means of instruction. - -In writing these things I but echo the thought of many intelligent -Brazilians, who lament a social evil which they do not well know how to -reform. If among our Brazilian friends there are some who, familiar with -the more progressive aspect of life in Rio de Janeiro, question the -accuracy of my statements, I can only say that they do not know the -condition of society in the northern cities and provinces. Among my own -sex, I have never seen such sad lives as became known to me there,—lives -deprived of healthy, invigorating happiness, and intolerably -monotonous,—a negative suffering, having its source, it is true, in the -absence of enjoyment rather than in the presence of positive evils, but -all the more to be deplored because so stagnant and inactive. - -Behind all defects in methods of instruction, there lies a fault of -domestic education, to be lamented throughout Brazil. This is the -constant association with black servants, and, worse still, with negro -children, of whom there are usually a number in every house. Whether the -low and vicious habits of the negroes are the result of slavery or not, -they cannot be denied; and it is singular to see persons, otherwise -careful and conscientious about their children, allowing them to live in -the constant companionship of their blacks, waited upon by the older -ones, playing all day with the younger ones. It shows how blind we may -become, by custom, to the most palpable dangers. A stranger observes at -once the evil results of this contact with vulgarity and vice, though -often unnoticed by the parents. In the capital, some of these evils are -fast disappearing; indeed, those who remember Rio de Janeiro forty years -ago have witnessed, during that short period, a remarkable change for -the better in the state of society. Nor should it be forgotten that the -highest authority in the community is exerted in the cause of a liberal -culture for women. It is well known that the education of the Imperial -princesses has been not only superintended, but in a great measure -personally conducted, by their father. - -_July 8th._—I was prevented yesterday from going to the Blind Asylum -with Mr. Agassiz, but I transcribe his notes upon this, as well as upon -the Marine Arsenal, which he also visited without me. - -“The building is old and in a ruinous condition. I was not allowed to go -over it, everything being brought to the reception-room for my -inspection, though I told the director that I did not care about the -external arrangements, but simply wished to know by what means the -privations of the blind were alleviated in his establishment. The same -processes of routine prevail here as in other schools and colleges I -have seen in Rio. This, however, is not peculiar to Portuguese or -Brazilian habits of instruction. The old habit of overrating memory, and -neglecting the more active and productive faculties of the mind, still -prevails more or less in education everywhere. I learned little of the -general system pursued. The teachers were more anxious to show off the -ability of special pupils in reading, writing from dictation, and music, -than to explain their methods of instruction. Vocal and instrumental -music seemed the favorite occupation; but though it is very pathetic to -hear the blind deplore their misfortune and express their craving for -light in harmonious sounds, it does not, after all, give much -information as to the way in which their calamity is relieved. I should -add, that their musical performance is excellent, and does great credit -to their German professor. It struck me that very little use was made of -object-teaching, such as is so much in vogue for children in Germany. -There are not as many models in the whole establishment as would be -found in any nursery in certain parts of Germany. The maps also are very -poor. - -“One of the most interesting of the public establishments at Rio de -Janeiro is the Marine Arsenal. From the Gulf of Mexico to Cape Horn -there is not to be found on the Atlantic coast another port where a -vessel of war, or even a merchant vessel of large tonnage, could undergo -important repairs. The machine-shops and saw-mills are well directed, -and are deficient in none of the improvements belonging to modern -establishments of the kind. The dock is large and constructed of -granite. A considerable number of large vessels have been built at this -shipyard during the last few years, and all its appointments have been -constantly improving under the direction of several successive ministers -of the navy. Such an establishment is, in fact, a necessity for Brazil; -possessing as she does eleven hundred leagues of coast, it is impossible -for her to depend upon other countries for her maritime supplies. The -Marine Arsenal sends out from its school and shipyard many able -engineers and clever artisans, who carry into ordinary branches of -industry the ability they have acquired in the public service. Indeed, -this establishment may be considered as a sort of school of industrial -arts, furnishing the country with good workmen in various departments of -labor.” - -This week Mr. Agassiz has concluded another course of six lectures given -at the College of Dom Pedro II.; the subject, “The Formation of the -Amazonian Valley, and its Productions.” It is worthy of remark, that the -appearance of ladies on such occasions no longer excites comment. There -were many more senhoras among the listeners than at the previous -lectures, when their presence was a novelty. A Brazilian audience is -very sympathetic; in this they resemble a European assembly more than -our own quiet, undemonstrative crowds. There is always a little stir, a -responsive thrill, when anything pleases them, and often a spoken word -of commendation or criticism. - -_June 10th._—Theresopolis. Yesterday, accompanied by Mr. Glaziou, -Director of the Passeio Publico, and Dr. Nägeli, we started on an -excursion to the Organ Mountains, leaving Rio in the boat for Piedade, -and stopping on our way at the little island of Paquetá. This is one of -the prettiest islands of the harbor, abounding in palms, populous with -pleasant country-houses, and having a very picturesque shore, broken -into bays and inlets. We reached the little cluster of houses called -Piedade about five o’clock, and took the omnibus to the foot of the -serra. The hours of public conveyance on this road seem ingeniously -arranged to prevent the traveller from seeing its beauties. The greater -part of the four hours’ drive is made after nightfall; and the return -offers no compensation, the second journey taking place before daybreak. -We passed the night at the foot of the serra, and started at seven -o’clock the next morning to walk up the mountain. It is impossible to -describe the beauty of this walk, especially on such a day as we were -favored with, varying between sunshine and shade, and with a fresh -breeze which saved us any discomfort from the heat. The road winds -gently up the serra, turning sometimes with so sharp an angle that below -we could see all the ground we had travelled over. On one hand is the -mountain-side, clothed with a vegetation of surpassing beauty, bright -with crimson parasites, with the rich purple flowers of the Quaresma and -the delicate blue blossoms of the Utricularia, as fragile and as -graceful as the harebell. On the other hand, we looked down sometimes -into narrow gorges, clothed with magnificent forest, from which huge -masses of rock projected here and there; sometimes into wider valleys -opening out into the plain below, and giving a distant view of the -harbor and its archipelago of islands surrounded by mountains, the whole -scene glittering in the sunshine, or veiled by shadows, as the fitful -day showed it to us. - -[Illustration: Garrafaō, among the Organ Mountains.] - -The ascent may be easily accomplished on foot in three or four hours. We -had nothing to urge us forward, however, except a growing desire for -breakfast, appeased every now and then by an orange, of which we had a -good supply in the tin case for plants, and many a slow train of laden -mules passed us in their upward march, and left us far behind as we -loitered along, though not lazily. On the contrary, Mr. Agassiz and his -friends found plenty of occupation in botanizing and geologizing. They -stopped constantly to gather parasites, to study ferns and mosses, to -break boulders, to collect insects and the little land-shells found here -and there along the road. We saw one most beautiful insect, hardly -larger than a lady-bug, but of the most exquisite colors and gleaming -like a jewel on the leaf where it had alighted. In breaking the stones -along the roadside Mr. Agassiz found many evidences of erratics, several -of them being Diorite, entirely distinct from the rock in place. The -surfaces of the boulders were universally decomposed and covered with a -uniform crust, so that it was necessary to split them in order to -ascertain their true nature. From distance to distance along the road -were immense fragments of rock, sometimes twenty or thirty feet in -height. These huge masses were frequently seen hanging on the brink of -steep declivities, as if, having broken off from the heights above, and -rolled down, they had been prevented from advancing farther by some -obstacle, and had become gradually embedded in the soil. Many of these -boulders were clothed in soft, thick reindeer moss, so like the reindeer -moss of the Arctics that, if specifically distinct, the difference could -not be detected except by the most careful examination. It suggests the -question whether there are any representatives of the tropical flora -among the lichens and pines of the high north. As we advanced, the -character of the vegetation changed considerably, and we began to feel, -by the increasing freshness of the air, that we were getting into higher -regions. The near view became more beautiful as we approached the heart -of the mountains, coming under the shadow of their strange peaks, which -looked sharp and attenuated from a distance, but changed into wonderful -masses of bare rock, very grand in their effect, as we drew closer to -them. We reached the hotel at Theresopolis at about two o’clock. After -our long walk, the answer we received to our inquiry about breakfast at -the little grocery adjoining the inn was rather discouraging. What could -they give us on short notice? “Only four eggs and some sausage.” -However, the master of the hotel made his appearance, opened his house, -where, to judge from its closed doors and windows, the advent of guests -is rare, and comforted us with the information that breakfast “pode se -arranjar.” Indeed, from the dish of eggs which made its appearance soon -afterwards, we might have supposed that all the hens in the village had -been called upon to contribute, and we enjoyed a breakfast for which -mountain air and exercise had supplied the best sauce. - -The village of Theresopolis is very prettily situated, lying in a dip -between the mountains and commanding a magnificent view of the peaks, -one of which stands out like a tall, narrow tower against the sky. Near -it is another sharp summit, on the extreme point of which a large -boulder is placed. It looks as if a touch would dislodge it; and yet for -how many a long year has it held its place there through storm and -sunshine! We looked up at this huge fragment of rock on its dizzy -height, and wondered whether it was erratic, or simply an effect of -decomposition on the spot,—a point impossible of decision at that -distance. If the latter, it seems strange that the weather should have -worn and excavated such a mass underneath, without destroying its upper -surface, thus detaching it from the mountain, till it stands, as now, in -bold relief, only supported by a single point of attachment on the -extreme summit. We spent the rest of the day in a walk to a very pretty -cascade which comes rushing down through the wood a mile or two from the -village. - -_June 11th._—We left the inn at half past seven this morning, to pass -the day again in rambling. Following the main road for a quarter of a -mile or so beyond the village, we presently turned to the left into a -narrow, shady pathway. It led us through the woods to the edge of a deep -basin sunk between the mountains, on the slopes of which were strewn -many immense boulders. A curious feature of the Organ Mountains which we -have observed repeatedly even in this short excursion is, that between -their strangely fantastic forms the country sinks down into well-defined -basins, which usually have no outlet. Following the brink of such a -basin for a couple of miles, and crossing an intervening ridge, we came -out upon a kind of plateau overhanging another depression of the same -character, and commanding a magnificent view of the chain, in the very -centre of which it seems to be, for the mountains rise tier upon tier -around it on every side. On this plateau stands the fazenda called St. -Louis, belonging to Mr. d’Escragnolle. The exquisite beauty of the site -and the hospitality of its owner have made this fazenda a favorite -resort for travellers. The grounds are laid out with much taste, and Mr. -d’Escragnolle’s success in raising many of the European fruits and -vegetables, as well as those of his own country, makes it the more to be -regretted that this beautiful region should be so little cultivated. -Pears, peaches, strawberries, thrive admirably, as also do green peas, -asparagus, artichokes, and cauliflowers. The climate strikes a happy -medium between the heat in the neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro, which -brings these products to too rapid a development, drying them up before -they have time to mature, and the sharp cold of higher mountain regions. -But though at so short a distance from the capital, the transport is so -difficult and expensive that Mr. d’Escragnolle, instead of sending the -produce of his farm to the city market, as he would gladly do, feeds his -pigs with cauliflowers. We passed the rest of the day most delightfully -in this charming country place. Mr. Agassiz and Mr. Glaziou ascended one -of the near mountain summits, but did not gain so extensive a view as -they had hoped, on account of an intervening spur. They were able to -distinguish three parallel ridges, however, separated by intervening -depressions. Toward evening, while the mountains were still bright with -the purple glory of the sunset, though shadows were settling over the -valleys, we started on our return, bidding good by with great regret to -our kind host, who warmly pressed us to stay. The path we had followed -in the morning, without giving a thought to its irregularities, seemed -quite broken and difficult by night. The slopes along which it ran were -changed, in the dim light, to sudden precipices, and we picked our steps -with care between rocks and over fallen logs and rivulets. It was bright -starlight as we came out of the woods upon the high road. The village -lay below, its lights twinkling cheerily, and the peaks and towers -behind it drawn with strange distinctness against the night sky. - -[Illustration: Organ Mountains.] - -_June 12th._—Barreira. This morning at seven o’clock we were on our way -down the serra. Mr. Agassiz deplores the necessity which obliges him to -leave this region after so short an examination of its striking -features. A naturalist might pass months here, and find every day rich -in results. As we left the hotel the sun was just gilding the highest -summits, while white clouds rose softly from the valleys, and, floating -upward, broke into fleecy fragments against the mountain-sides. Having -the day before us, we descended as slowly as we had mounted the serra, -stopping almost at every step to gather plants, to examine rocks, to -wonder at the strange position of the immense boulders hanging often -just on the brow of some steep declivity. I wandered on beyond the -others and sat down to wait for them on the low stone wall, forming a -parapet on the edge of the road. Directly before me rose the bare, rocky -surface of one of the great peaks; a vapory white cloud hung midway upon -it; shadows floated over it. On the other side I looked down upon wooded -valleys and mountains in strange confusion, while far below, stretching -out to the sea, lay the billowy plain tossed into endless soft green -waves. The stillness made the scene more impressive, the silence being -only occasionally broken by the click of hoofs, as a train of mules came -cautiously down the flagged road. While I sat there a liteira passed me -slung between mules; a mode of travelling fast disappearing with the -improvements of the roads, but still in use for women and children in -certain parts of the country. We stopped to breakfast at a little venda -about half-way down the serra; here the boulders are most remarkable -from their great size and singular position. We reached the inn at the -bottom of the serra between two and three o’clock, and are now sitting -in the little piazza, while a drenching rain, which fortunately did not -begin till we were under shelter, swells the stream near by, and is fast -changing it to a rapid torrent. I will add here such observations -respecting the geological structure of this mountain range as Mr. -Agassiz has been able to make in our short excursion. - -“The chain is formed by the sharp folding up of strata, sometimes quite -vertically, in other instances with a slope more or less steep, but -always rather sudden. To one standing on the hill to the east of -Theresopolis, the whole range presents itself in a perfect profile; the -axis, on either side of which dip the almost vertical beds of -metamorphic rocks composing the chain, occupies about the centre of the -range. To the north, though very steeply inclined, the beds are not so -vertical as in the southern prolongation of the range. The consequence -of this difference is the formation of more massive and less -disconnected summits on the north side; while on the south side, where -the strata are nearly or quite vertical, the harder sets of beds alone -have remained standing, the softer intervening beds having been -gradually disintegrated. By this process have been formed those strange -peaks which appear from a distance like a row of organ-pipes, and have -suggested the name by which the chain is known. They consist of vertical -beds isolated from the general mass in consequence of the disappearance -of contiguous strata. The aspect of these mountains from Rio is much the -same as from Theresopolis, only that from the two points of view—one -being to the northeast, the other to the southwest of the range—their -summits present themselves in the reverse order. When seen in complete -profile their slender appearance is most striking. Viewed from the side, -the broad surfaces of the strata, though equally steep, exhibit a -triangular form rather than that of vertical columns. It is strange that -the height of the Organ Mountain peaks, so conspicuous a feature in the -landscape of Rio de Janeiro, should not have been accurately measured. -The only precise indication I have been able to find is recorded by -Liais, who gives 7,000 feet as the maximum height observed by him. - -“These abrupt peaks frequently surround closed basins, very symmetrical -in shape, but without any outlet. On account of this singular formation, -the glacial phenomena which abound in the Organ Mountains are of a -peculiar character. At first, I was at a loss to explain how loose -masses of rock, descending from the heights above, should be caught on -the edges of these basins, instead of rolling to the bottom. But their -position becomes quite natural when we remember that the ice must have -remained in these depressions long after it had disappeared, or nearly -disappeared, from the slopes above. Hindered from advancing, these huge -masses of rock have become gradually embedded in the soil, and are now -solidly fixed in positions which would be perfectly inexplicable, unless -we suppose the basin to have been formerly filled with something which -offered an obstacle to their farther descent. Moraines also abut upon -these depressions, coming to an abrupt close upon their margin. Morainic -soil—that is, masses of drift with all sorts of loose materials buried -in it—abounds everywhere in this region; but, on the whole, the glacial -phenomena are difficult to study, because the heavy growth of forest has -covered all inequalities of the soil, and, except where sections have -been made or ground has been cleared, the outlines are lost.” - -This was our final excursion in Brazil. The next morning we returned to -the city; and the few remaining days were spent in preparations for -departure, and in bidding farewell to the friends who had made Rio de -Janeiro almost like a home to us. Among the pleasant incidents of this -last week, was a breakfast given by Mr. Ledgerwood, who was then -conducting the business of the American legation in the temporary -absence of our Minister, General Webb. This occasion, at which Mr. -Agassiz was invited to meet several members of the Brazilian -administration, gave him an opportunity of expressing his sense of their -uniform kindness and consideration in furthering to the utmost the -scientific objects which had brought him to Brazil. On the following day -(the 2d of July), we sailed for the United States, carrying with us to -our northern home a store of pleasant memories and vivid pictures to -enrich our life hereafter with tropical warmth and color. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - GENERAL IMPRESSIONS OF BRAZIL. - - RELIGION AND CLERGY.—EDUCATION.—LAW, MEDICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC - SCHOOLS.—HIGH AND COMMON SCHOOLS.—PUBLIC LIBRARY AND MUSEUM IN RIO - DE JANEIRO.—HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL INSTITUTE.—SOCIAL AND - DOMESTIC RELATIONS.—PUBLIC FUNCTIONARIES.—AGRICULTURE.—ZONES OF - VEGETATION.—COFFEE.—COTTON.—TIMBER AND OTHER PRODUCTS OF THE - AMAZONS.—CATTLE.—TERRITORIAL SUBDIVISION OF THE GREAT - VALLEY.—EMIGRATION.—FOREIGNERS.—PARAGUAYAN WAR. - - -I cannot close this book, written for the most part by another hand, -without a few words as to my general impressions of Brazil. No one will -expect from me an essay on the social and political aspects of the whole -country, even had I remained there long enough to acquire the right of -judgment on these matters. I am so unaccustomed to dealing with them -that my opinions would be entitled to little weight. There is, however, -another point of view, more general, but perhaps more comprehensive -also, from which every intelligent man may form an estimate of the -character of a people which, if sincere, will be in the main sound and -just, without including an intimate knowledge of their institutions, or -the practical working of their laws. My scientific life has brought me -into relations with a world wholly unknown to me before; under -conditions more favorable than were possible for my predecessors in the -same region, I have studied this tropical nature, so rich, so grandiose, -so instructive; I have seen a great Empire founded in the midst of -unlimited material resources, and advancing to higher civilization under -the inspiration of a sovereign as enlightened as he is humane. I must -have been blind to everything except my science, had I not a word to say -of Brazil as a nation,—of her present condition and her future -prospects. - -There is much that is discouraging in the aspect of Brazil, even for -those who hope and believe as I do, that she has before her an honorable -and powerful career. There is much also that is very cheering, that -leads me to believe that her life as a nation will not belie her great -gifts as a country. Should her moral and intellectual endowments grow -into harmony with her wonderful natural beauty and wealth, the world -will not have seen a fairer land. At present there are several obstacles -to this progress; obstacles which act like a moral disease upon the -people. Slavery still exists among them. It is true that it is on the -wane; true that it has received a mortal blow; but the natural death of -slavery is a lingering illness, wasting and destroying the body it has -attacked. Next to this I would name, among the influences unfavorable to -progress, the character of the clergy. In saying this I disclaim any -reference to the national religion. It is of the character of the clergy -I speak, not of the church they represent. Whatever be the church -organization in a country where instruction is still so intimately -linked with a state religion as it is in Brazil, it is of infinite -importance that the clergy themselves should not only be men of high -moral character, but of studious, thoughtful lives. They are the -teachers of the people, and as long as they believe that the mind can be -fed with tawdry street processions, with lighted candles, and cheap -bouquets; and as long as the people accept this kind of instruction, -they will be debased and enfeebled by it. Shows of this kind are of -almost daily occurrence in all the large cities of Brazil. They -interfere with the ordinary occupations, and make working days the -exception rather than the rule. It must be remembered that in Brazil -there is no laborious, cultivated class of priests, such as have been an -honor to ecclesiastical literature in the Old World; there are no fine -institutions of learning connected with the Church. As a general thing, -the ignorance of the clergy is universal, their immorality patent, their -influence very extensive and deep-rooted. There are honorable -exceptions, but they are not numerous enough to elevate the class to -which they belong. But if their private life is open to blame, the -Brazilian priests are distinguished for their patriotism. At all times -they have occupied high public stations, serving in the Legislative -Assembly, in the Senate, and even nearer to the throne; yet their power -has never been exerted in favor of Ultramontane tendencies. Independent -religious thought seems, however, rare in Brazil. There may perhaps be -scepticism; but I think this is not likely to be extensively the case, -for the Brazilians are instinctively a believing people, tending rather -to superstition than to doubt. Oppression in matters of faith is -contrary to the spirit of their institutions. Protestant clergymen are -allowed to preach freely; but, as a general thing, Protestantism does -not attract the Southern nations, and it may be doubted whether its -advocates will have a very wide-spread success. However this may be, -every friend to Brazil must wish to see its present priesthood replaced -by a more vigorous, intelligent, and laborious clergy. - -In order to form a just estimate of the present condition of education -in Brazil, and its future prospects, we must not consider it altogether -from our own stand-point. The truth is that all steady progress in -Brazil dates from her declaration of independence, and that is a very -recent fact in her history. Since she has passed from colonial to -national life her relations with other countries have enlarged, -antiquated prejudices have been effaced, and with a more intense -individual existence she has assumed also a more cosmopolitan breadth of -ideas. But a political revolution is more rapidly accomplished than the -remoulding of the nation which is its result,—its consequence rather -than its accompaniment. Even now, after half a century of independent -existence, intellectual progress in Brazil is manifested rather as a -tendency, a desire, so to speak, giving a progressive movement to -society, than as a positive fact. The intellectual life of a nation when -fully developed has its material existence in large and various -institutions of learning, scattered throughout the country. Except in a -very limited and local sense, this is not yet the case in Brazil. - -I did not visit San Paolo, and I cannot therefore speak from personal -observation of the Faculty which stands highest in general estimation; I -can, however, testify to the sound learning and liberal culture of many -of its graduates whom it has been my good fortune to know, and whose -characters as gentlemen and as students bear testimony to the superior -instruction they have received at the hands of their Alma Mater. I was -told that the best schools, after those of San Paolo, were those of -Bahia and Pernambuco. I did not visit them, as my time was too short; -but I should think that the presence of the professional faculties -established in both these cities would tend to raise the character of -the lower grades of education. The regular faculties embrace only -medical and legal studies. The instruction in both is thorough, though -perhaps limited; at least I felt that, in the former, in which my own -studies have prepared me to judge, those accessory branches which, after -all, lie at the foundation of a superior medical education, are either -wanting or are taught very imperfectly. Neither zoölogy, comparative -anatomy, botany, physics, nor chemistry is allowed sufficient weight in -the medical schools. The education is one rather of books than of facts. -Indeed, as long as the prejudice against manual labor of all kinds -exists in Brazil, practical instruction will be deficient; as long as -students of nature think it unbecoming a gentleman to handle his own -specimens, to carry his own geological hammer, to make his own -scientific preparations, he will remain a mere dilettante in -investigation. He may be very familiar with recorded facts, but he will -make no original researches. On this account, and on account of their -personal indolence, field studies are foreign to Brazilian habits. -Surrounded as they are by a nature rich beyond comparison, their -naturalists are theoretical rather than practical. They know more of the -bibliography of foreign science than of the wonderful fauna and flora -with which they are surrounded. - -Of the schools and colleges in Rio de Janeiro I have more right to judge -than of those above mentioned. Several of them are excellent. The Ecole -Centrale deserves a special notice. It corresponds to what we call a -scientific school, and nowhere in Brazil have I seen an educational -institution where improved methods of teaching were so highly -appreciated and so generally adopted. The courses of mathematics, -chemistry, physics, and the natural sciences are comprehensive and -thorough. And yet even in this institution I was struck with the -scantiness of means for practical illustration and experiment; its -professors do not yet seem to understand that it is impossible to teach -any of the physical sciences wholly or mainly from text-books. The -facilities granted to pupils in this school, and perhaps still more in -the military school, are very great. The instruction is entirely -gratuitous, and in the military school the students are not only fed and -clothed, etc.; they are even paid for their attendance, being considered -as belonging to the army from the time they enter the school. - -The Dom Pedro Segundo College is the best school of that class I have -seen in Brazil. It may be compared to our New England high schools, and -fully deserves the reputation it enjoys. - -Of the common schools I saw little. Of course, in a country where the -population is sparsely scattered over very extensive districts, it must -be difficult to gather the children in schools, outside of the large -cities. Where such schools have been organized the instruction is -gratuitous; but competent teachers are few, the education very limited, -and the means of instruction scanty. Reading, writing, and ciphering, -with the least possible smattering of geography, form the groundwork of -all these schools. The teachers labor under great difficulties, because -they have not the strong support of the community. There is little -general appreciation of the importance of education as the basis without -which all higher civilization is impossible. I have, however, noticed -throughout Brazil a disposition to give a practical education, a -training in some trade, to the poor children. Establishments of this -kind exist in almost all the larger cities. This is a good sign; it -shows that they attach a proper value to labor, at least for the lower -classes, and aim at raising a working population. In these schools -blacks and whites are, so to speak, industrially united. Indeed, there -is no antipathy of race to be overcome in Brazil, either among the -laboring people or in the higher walks of life. I was pleased to see -pupils, without distinction of race or color, mingling in the exercises. - -It is surprising that, in a country so rich in mineral wealth, there -should exist no special Mining School, and that everything connected -with the working of the mines should be under the immediate supervision -of the Minister of Public Works, without the assistance of a special -office for the superintendence of mining operations. Nothing would more -speedily increase the value of the mineral lands of the whole country -than a regular geological survey, which has not yet been begun.[107] - -The Imperial Library at Rio de Janeiro should not be omitted from an -enumeration of its educational establishments. It is very fairly -supplied with books in all departments of learning, and is conducted in -a very liberal spirit, suffering no limitation from religious or -political prejudice. In fact, tolerance and benevolence are common -characteristics of the institutions of learning in Brazil. The Imperial -Museum of Natural History in the Capital is antiquated; to any one -acquainted with Museums which are living and progressive, it is evident -that the collections it contains have been allowed to remain for years -in their present condition, without additions or improvements. The -mounted animals, mammalia and birds, are faded; and the fishes, with the -exception of a few beautifully stuffed specimens from the Amazons, give -no idea of the variety to be found in the Brazilian waters. A better -collection might be made any morning in the fish-market. The Museum -contains some very fine fossil remains from the valley of the San -Francisco and from Ceará, but no attempt has as yet been made to arrange -them. - -The only learned society deserving a special mention is the Historical -and Geographical Institute. Its Transactions are regularly published, -and form already a series of many volumes, full of valuable documents, -chiefly relative to the history of South America. The meetings are held -in the Imperial Palace of Rio, and are habitually presided over by his -Majesty the Emperor. - -I cannot close what I have to say of instruction in Brazil without -adding that, in a country where only half the nation is educated, there -can be no complete intellectual progress. Where the difference of -education makes an intelligent sympathy between men and women almost -impossible, so that their relation is necessarily limited to that of the -domestic affections, never raised except in some very exceptional cases -to that of cultivated companionship, the development of the people as a -whole must remain imperfect and partial. I believe, however, that, -especially in this direction, a rapid reform may be expected. I have -heard so many intelligent Brazilians lament the want of suitable -instruction for women in their schools, that I think the standard of -education for girls will steadily be raised. Remembering the antecedents -of the Brazilians, their inherited notions as to what is becoming in the -privacy and restraint of a woman’s life, we are not justified, however -false these ideas may seem to us, in considering the present generation -as responsible for them; they are also too deeply rooted to be changed -in a day. - -On several occasions I have alluded in terms of praise to the working of -the institutions of Brazil. Nothing can be more liberal than the -Constitution of the land; every guaranty is therein secured to the -freest assertion of all the natural rights of man. And yet there are -some features in the habits of the people, probably the results of an -antiquated social condition, which impede the progress of the nation. It -should not be forgotten that the white population of Brazil is chiefly -descended from the Portuguese, and that of all Europe Portugal is the -country which at the time of the discovery and settlement of Brazil, had -least been affected by the growth of our modern civilization. Indeed, -the great migrations which convulsed Europe in the Middle Ages, and the -Reformation, upon which the new social order chiefly rests, have -scarcely affected Portugal; so that Roman ways, Roman architecture, and -a degenerate Latin were still flourishing when her Transatlantic -colonies were founded; and, as in all colonies, the conditions of the -mother country were but slowly modified. No wonder, therefore, that the -older structures of Rio de Janeiro should recall, in the most surprising -manner, the architecture of ancient Rome, as disclosed by the -excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and that the social condition of -Brazil should remind us of the habits of a people among whom women -played so subordinate a part. It seems to me that even now the -administration of the provinces, as in the Roman civilization, is -calculated to enforce the law, rather than to develop the material -resources of the country. I have been surprised to find young lawyers -almost invariably at the head of the administration of the provinces, -where practical men, conversant with the interests of agriculture, -commerce, and the mechanical arts, would, in my opinion, have been -better adapted to the pressing duty of stimulating all pursuits -connected with the active life of a young and aspiring nation. - -The exaggerated appreciation of political employment prevailing -everywhere is a misfortune. It throws into the shade all other -occupations, and loads the government with a crowd of paid officials who -uselessly encumber the public service and are a drain upon the public -funds. Every man who has received an education seeks a political career, -as at once the most aristocratic and the easiest way of gaining a -livelihood. It is but recently that gentlemen have begun to engage in -mercantile pursuits. - -It seems to me, that, though the character and habits of the Brazilians -are not those of an agricultural people, Brazil is an essentially -agricultural country, and some occurrences in her recent history confirm -this view. Brazil had formerly a great variety of agricultural products, -but now the number of plants under culture is rather limited. -Agricultural operations are at present centred upon coffee, cotton, -sugar, tobacco, mandioca, some cereals, beans, and cocoa. Owing to her -climate and her geographical position, the vegetable zones of Brazil are -not so marked as those of other countries. It would not be difficult to -divide the whole Empire, with reference to its productions, into three -great regions. The first of these, stretching from the borders of Guiana -to Bahia, along the great rivers, is more especially characterized by -the wild products of the forest: Indian-rubber, cocoa, vanilla, -sarsaparilla, and an infinite variety of gums, resins, barks, and -textile fibres still unknown to commerce in Europe and the United -States. To these Brazil might add spices, the monopoly of which belongs -now to the Sunda Islands. The second region, extending from Bahia to -Santa Catarina, is that of coffee. The third, from Santa Catarina to Rio -Grande, and in the interior of the high plateaux, is that of the grains; -and, in connection with their culture, the raising of cattle. Rice, -which is easily grown throughout Brazil, and cotton, which yields -magnificent crops in all the provinces, bind together these three zones, -sugar and tobacco following in their train. An important step with -reference to agriculture, which has scarcely been thought of as yet, is -the cultivation of the heights of the Organ Mountains, as well as those -of the Serra do Mar and the Serra do Mantiqueira. On these high lands -might be raised all the products characteristic of the warmer portions -of the temperate zones, and Rio de Janeiro would receive daily from the -mountains in her immediate neighborhood all those vegetables and garden -fruits which she now procures in small quantities and at high prices -from the provinces bordering on the La Plata. The slopes of these Serras -might also be covered with plantations of cascarilla, and, as the -production of quinine must sooner or later be greatly diminished by the -devastation of the Cinchora-trees on the upper Amazonian tributaries, it -is the more important that their culture should be introduced upon the -largest scale on the heights above Rio. The attempts of Mr. Glaziou in -that direction deserve every encouragement. - -The sugar-cane has long been the chief object of cultivation in Brazil, -and the production of sugar is still considerable; but within several -years the planting of sugar-cane has given way in many districts to that -of coffee. I have taken pains to ascertain the facts respecting the -culture of coffee during the last fifty years; the immense development -of this branch of industry and the rapidity of the movement, especially -in a country where labor is so scarce, is among the most striking -economical phenomena of our century. Thanks to their perseverance and to -the favorable conditions presented by the constitution of their soil, -the Brazilians have obtained a sort of monopoly of coffee. More than -half the coffee consumed in the world is of Brazilian growth. And yet -the coffee of Brazil has little reputation, and is even greatly -underrated. Why is this? Simply because a great deal of the best produce -of Brazilian plantations is sold under the name of Java or Mocha, or as -the coffee of Martinique or Bourbon. Martinique produces only six -hundred sacks of coffee annually; Guadaloupe, whose coffee is sold under -the name of the neighboring island, yields six thousand sacks, not -enough to provide the market of Rio de Janeiro for twenty-four hours, -and the island of Bourbon hardly more. A great part of the coffee which -is bought under these names, or under that of Java coffee, is Brazilian, -while the so-called Mocha coffee is often nothing but the small round -beans of the Brazilian plant found at the summits of the branches and -very carefully selected. If the fazendeiros, like the Java planters, -sold their crops under a special mark, the great purchasers would learn -with what merchandise they have to deal, and the agriculture of Brazil -would be greatly benefited. But there intervenes between the fazendeiro -and the exporter a class of merchants—half bankers, half brokers—known -as commissarios, who, by mixing different harvests, lower the standard -of the crop, thus relieving the producer of all responsibility and -depriving the product of its true characteristics. - -If the provinces adjacent to Rio de Janeiro offer naturally the most -favorable soil for the culture of coffee, it must not be forgotten that -coffee is planted with advantage in the shade of the Amazonian forest, -and even yields two annual crops wherever pains are taken to plant it. -In the province of Ceará, where the coffee is of a superior quality, it -is not planted on the plains, or in the low grounds, or in the shadow of -the forest, as in the valley of the Amazons, but on the slopes of the -hills and on the mountain heights, to an elevation of from fifteen -hundred to two thousand feet and more above the level of the sea, in the -Serras of Aratanha and Baturité and in the Serra Grande. The channels -opened to these products should augment their importance, and should -give rise to numerous establishments in the valley of the Amazons. - -The increased exportation of cotton from Brazil during the last few -years is a still more marked feature in its industrial history than the -large coffee crops. When, towards the close of the last century, cotton -began to assume in England an importance which has ever since been -increasing, Brazil naturally became one of the great providers of the -English market. But it soon lost this advantage, because our Southern -States acquired, with an extraordinary rapidity, an almost complete -monopoly of this product. Favored by exceptional circumstances, North -America succeeded, about the year 1846, in furnishing cotton at such low -rates that all competition became impossible, and the culture of cotton -was almost abandoned in other countries. Brazil, however, persisted. Her -annual production showed a slow but steady progress; even the cessation -of the slave-trade did not interrupt this advance. Indeed, it is a -striking fact, which may well be mentioned in this connection, that the -statistics of Brazilian agriculture have been steadily rising ever since -the abolition of the slave-trade. When the Rebellion broke out in our -Southern States, Brazil thus found herself prepared to give a -considerable impulse to the cultivation of a product as much sought for -as bread in time of famine. Spite of the want of population, which is an -obstacle to all industrial enterprises in Brazil, she found labor, and, -what was still more important, free labor, for this object. It seemed as -if it were a point of national honor to show what could be done. -Provinces like San Paolo, where a foot of ground had never before been -planted with cotton; others, as for instance Alagoas, Parahyba do Norte, -Ceará, where the cultivation of cotton had been abandoned, produced -extraordinary quantities,—so large, indeed, that two lines of steamers -were established, and have prospered, between Liverpool and the -above-mentioned ports, chiefly for the transport of this crop. It will -be remembered that during the whole of this time Brazil was in want of -laborers, that she received no foreign capital for this undertaking, -that she imported neither Coolies nor Chinese, that almost immediately -after the movement began her war with Paraguay broke out, and yet her -production of cotton has quadrupled and quintupled. This fact assumed -such importance in the estimate of industrial interests at the late -Paris Exposition, that an exceptional prize was awarded to Brazil, on -the ground that, in supplying the European market so largely with this -indispensable staple, she had rendered it independent of the former -monopoly of the United States. It is true that the same prize was also -granted to Algeria and to Egypt. But the Brazilian planter had not, like -the colonists of Africa, the stimulus of a large subsidy from -government; he could not, like the Viceroy of Egypt, seize 80,000 men in -a single district and transport them to his plantations; neither did he, -like the Egyptian fellah, abandon all other branches of agriculture in -order to devote himself exclusively to that of cotton. In fact, the -general interests of agriculture prospered in Brazil, in the midst of -this new enterprise. - -I have insisted on these facts, which I think are little known, because -they seem to me to show a greater energy and vitality than is usually -supposed to exist in the productive forces of Brazil. To stimulate this -movement, the government has recently taken the initiatory steps in the -organization of an Agricultural School in the vicinity of Bahia, in -which all the modern improvements suggested by the progress of science -and invention, are to be tested in their application to the natural -products of the tropics. - -The importance of the basin of the Amazons to Brazil, from an industrial -point of view, can hardly be overestimated. Its woods alone have an -almost priceless value. Nowhere in the world is there finer timber, -either for solid construction or for works of ornament; and yet it is -scarcely used even for the local buildings, and makes no part whatever -of the exports. It is strange that the development of this branch of -industry should not even have begun in Brazil, for the rivers which flow -past these magnificent forests seem meant to serve, first as a -water-power for the saw-mills which ought to be established along their -borders, and then as a means of transportation for the material so -provided. Setting aside the woods as timber, what shall I say of the -mass of fruits, resins, oils, coloring matters, textile fibres, which -they yield? When I stopped at Pará, on my way home to the United States, -an exhibition of Amazonian products, brought together in preparation for -the World’s Fair at Paris, was still open. Much as I had admired, during -my journey, the richness and variety of the materials native to the -soil, I was amazed when I saw them thus side by side. There I noticed, -among others, a collection of no less than one hundred and seventeen -different kinds of highly valuable woods, cut from a piece of land less -than half a mile square. Of these many were dark-colored, veined woods -susceptible of a high polish,—as beautiful as rosewood or ebony. There -was a great variety of vegetable oils, all remarkable for their -clearness and purity. There were a number of fabrics made from the -fibres of the palm, and an endless variety of fruits. An empire might -esteem itself rich in any one of the sources of industry which abound in -this valley, and yet the greater part of its vast growth rots on the -ground, and goes to form a little more river-mud or to stain the waters -on the shores of which its manifold products die and decompose. But what -surprised me most was to find that a great part of this region was -favorable to the raising of cattle. Fine sheep are fed on the grassy -plains and on the hills which stretch between Obydos and Almeyrim, and I -have rarely eaten better mutton than at Ereré, in the midst of these -serras. And yet the inhabitants of this fertile region suffer from -hunger. The insufficiency of food is evident; but it arises solely from -the inability of the people to avail themselves of the natural -productions of the soil. As an instance of this, I may mention that, -though living on the banks of rivers which abound in delicious fish, -they make large use of salt cod, imported from other countries! - -While travelling upon the Amazons, I have often asked myself what would -be the best plan for developing the natural resources of that -incomparable region. No doubt the opening of the great river to the -commerce of all nations was a first step in the right direction; and -this measure in itself shows what extraordinary progress Brazil is -making, for it is hardly more than half a century, since, owing to the -narrow policy and jealous disposition of the Portuguese government, the -greatest traveller of modern times was forbidden to enter the valley of -the Amazons; while to-day a scientific errand of a similar character is -welcomed and fostered in every possible way by the government of a -nation now independent of Europe. But a free competition is a necessary -complement to the freedom already granted, and competition is scarcely -possible where monopolies are kept up. I hold, therefore, that all the -exceptional facilities granted by the Brazilian government to private -companies are detrimental to its best interests. There is, however, -another direct obstacle to progress which ought at once to be removed, -since the change could in no way injure the general welfare. The present -limitation of the provinces of Pará and of the Amazons is entirely -unnatural. The whole valley is cut in two transversely, so that its -lower half is of necessity a bar to the independent growth of the upper -half. Pará, being made the centre of everything, drains the whole -country without vitalizing the interior. The great river which should be -an international highway has become an inland stream. But suppose for a -moment that the Amazons, like our Mississippi, were made the boundary -between a succession of independent provinces on either side of it; -suppose that on the southern banks of the Amazons the province of Teffé -should extend from the borders of Peru to the banks of the Madeira, the -province of Santarem from the Madeira to the Xingu, and that of Pará be -reduced to the country east of the Xingu, including the Island of -Marajo; each of these separate provinces would then be at once bounded -and traversed by great streams, securing the double activity of -competition and the stimulus of internal conveniences. In like manner -should the lands on the northern banks of the Amazons form several -independent provinces; that of Monte Alégre, for instance, extending -from the Rio Trombetas to the sea; that of Manaos, from the Rio -Trombetas to the Rio Negro; and perhaps that of the Hyapura, enclosing -the present wilderness between the Rio Negro and the Solimoens. It will, -no doubt, be objected that such a change would involve an administrative -staff quite disproportionate to the present population; but the -government of such provinces, even with the few inhabitants they might -number, if organized upon the plan of the territorial governments of our -infant States, would only stimulate local energies, and develop local -resources, without interfering in the least with the central government. -Moreover, any one familiar with the working of the present system in the -valley of the Amazons must be aware that all the cities started during -the past century along the great river and its tributaries, far from -progressing, are going to ruin and decay; and this is unquestionably -owing to the centralization at Pará of all the real activity of the -whole country. - -Without a much denser population, the best efforts of Brazil to increase -its prosperity must be slow and ineffective. No wonder, then, that, -immediately after the declaration of independence, Dom Pedro I. -attempted to attract German emigrants to his new empire. From that -period dates the Colony of San Leopoldo, near Porto Alégre, on the Rio -Grande do Sul. It was not, however, till the year 1850, when the -slave-trade was actually abolished, and it was no longer possible to -import labor from Africa, that these colonization schemes assumed a more -definite and settled character. In this attempt the planters and the -government were agreed, but with a different object. The plan of the -government, undertaken in perfect good faith, was to create a laboring -population, and a class of small landed proprietors. The planters, on -the contrary, accustomed to compulsory labor, thought only of recruiting -their slave ranks by substituting Europeans for Africans. This led to -terrible abuses; under pretence of advancing their passage-money, poor -emigrants, and especially the ignorant Portuguese from the Azores, were -virtually sold under a contract which they subsequently found it very -difficult to break. These abuses have thrown discredit upon the attempts -of the Brazilian government to colonize the interior, but the iniquities -practised under the name of emigration are now corrected. In fact, the -colonies established directly by the government, on public lands, have -never suffered wrong; on the contrary, the German settlements in Sta -Catherina, on the Rio Grande do Sul and on the San Francisco do Sul are -very prosperous. The best evidence of the improvement in the condition -of the colonists, and of the more liberal spirit of the nation towards -them, is the spontaneous formation in Rio de Janeiro of an international -society of emigration independent of all government influence, -consisting of Brazilians, Portuguese, Germans, Swiss, Americans, French, -&c. The objects of this society, of which Mr. Tavares Bastos is one of -the most influential members, are, first, to reform the constitution in -all which may place the foreigner at a disadvantage; second, to redress -the wrongs of the emigrants; third, to provide them with such assistance -and information as they may need on arriving. This society has been in -existence only two years, but has already rendered valuable services. It -is to be hoped that the government will persevere in the liberal course -it has entered upon, and, above all, put an end to the unnecessary legal -formalities by which the emigrant is prevented from taking immediate -possession of his new home. This is especially important in the region -of the Amazons, where the new-comer finds none of those facilities which -welcome the emigrant in the United States. I cannot too often repeat, -also, that all monopoly of transport in the Amazons should speedily be -abolished. As soon as the wild products of its shores are subjected to a -regular culture, even of a very imperfect kind, and are no longer -gathered at random,—as soon as organized labor, directed by an -intelligent activity, takes the place of the thoughtless and uncertain -efforts of the Indians, the variety and excellence of its staples will -be increased beyond all expectation. As it is, a little foresight would -prevent an immense deal of suffering in this fertile region, where food -abounds and people die of hunger. Accustomed to live upon fish, the -natives make little use either of milk or meat, and the fine pasturage -which might maintain herds of cattle is allowed to run to waste. -Careless of the inclemency of the weather when gathering the harvest of -the forest, they scarcely build a shelter against the heavy rains, allow -their wet clothes to dry upon their skin, and expose themselves to -constant alternations of heat and cold. Add to this, that they do not -hesitate to drink stagnant water, if it be nearer at hand than spring -water, and we have causes enough for the prevalence of intermittent -fever and malarious diseases, without attributing them to a climate -which is in the main salubrious, and far more moderate in temperature -than is generally supposed. The false notions generally current, even in -Brazil, in regard to the climate of the Amazons might have been removed -long ago, were the public officers of the northern provinces of the -Empire not interested in keeping up the delusion. The Amazonian -provinces are made stepping-stones to higher employments. The young -candidates who accept these posts claim a reward for the -disinterestedness they have shown in exposing themselves to disease, and -make the reputed fatality of the climate an excuse for leaving these -remote stations after a few months’ sojourn. The northern provinces of -Brazil need an administration less liable to change, and based upon -patient study of their local interests, and a faithful adherence to -them. It is impossible that the president who comes for six months, and -is daily longing for his return to the society and amusements of the -larger cities, should even initiate, far less complete, any systematic -improvements. Like every country struggling for recognition among the -self-reliant nations of the world, Brazil has to contend with the -prejudiced reports of a floating foreign population, indifferent to the -welfare of the land they temporarily inhabit, and whose appreciations -are mainly influenced by private interest. It is much to be regretted -that the government has not thought it worth while to take decided -measures to correct the erroneous impressions current abroad concerning -its administration, and that its diplomatic agents do so little to -circulate truthful and authoritative statements of their domestic -concerns. As far as I know, the recent World’s Fair at Paris was the -first occasion when an attempt was made to present a comprehensive -report of the resources of the Empire, and the prizes awarded to the -Brazilians testify to their success. - -Imperfect as is this sketch, I trust I have been able to show, what I -deeply feel, that there are elements of a high progress in Brazil, that -it has institutions which are shaping the country to worthy ends, that -it has a nationality already active, showing its power at the present -moment in carrying on one of the most important wars ever undertaken in -South America. Neither is this struggle maintained by Brazil for selfish -ends; in her conflict with Paraguay she may truly be counted among the -standard-bearers of civilization. The facts which have come to my -knowledge respecting this war have convinced me that it originated in -honorable purposes, and, setting aside the selfish intrigues of -individuals, inevitably connected with such movements, is carried on -with disinterestedness. It deserves the sympathy of the civilized world, -for it strikes at a tyrannical organization, half clerical, half -military, which, calling itself a republic, disgraces the name it -assumes. - - * * * * * - -Will my Brazilian friends who read this summary say that I have given -but grudging praise to their public institutions, accompanied by an -unkind criticism of their social condition? I hope not. I should do -myself great wrong did I give the impression that I part from Brazil -with any feeling but that of warm sympathy, a deep-rooted belief in her -future progress and prosperity, and sincere personal gratitude toward -her. I recognize in the Brazilians as a nation their susceptibility to -lofty impulses and emotions, their love of theoretical liberty, their -natural generosity, their aptness to learn, their ready eloquence; if -also I miss among them something of the stronger and more persistent -qualities of the Northern races, I do but recall a distinction which is -as ancient as the tropical and temperate zones themselves. - ------ - -Footnote 107: - - I deeply regret that I could not visit the mining districts of Brazil. - Especially would I have liked to examine for myself the Cascalho, in - which the diamonds are found. From collections which I owe to the - kindness of Dr. Vieira de Mattos in Rio de Janeiro, and Senhor Antonio - de Lacerda in Bahia, I am prepared to find that the whole - diamond-bearing formation is glacial drift. I do not mean the rocks in - which the diamonds occur in their primary position, but the secondary - agglomerations of loose materials from which they are washed. - - - - - APPENDIX. - - - I.—THE GULF STREAM. - -As the results of the systematic investigation of the Gulf Stream upon a -plan laid out by Dr. A. D. Bache, and executed, under his direction, by -his most able assistants, have hardly yet been presented in a popular -form, a sketch of the whole may not be out of place here. This -investigation embraced not only surface-phenomena, but the whole -internal structure and movement of this wonderful current. It is well -known that the Gulf Stream has its origin in the equatorial current -which, starting from the Gulf of Guinea, flows for a time in a westerly -direction, till it approaches Cape St. Roque. This great projection of -the eastern coast of South America interrupts its onward progress, and -causes it to divide into two branches, one of which follows the coast of -Brazil, in a southerly direction, while the other continues its course -to the northwest, until it reaches the Caribbean Sea. After pouring into -that basin, the great stream turns to the east to enter the Atlantic -again off Cape Florida. The high temperature of the equatorial current -is owing to its origin in the tropical zone, its westward course being -determined by the rotation of the earth and by the trade-winds. On -issuing from the Gulf of Mexico the stream is encased between the island -of Cuba and the Bahamas on one side and the coast of Florida on the -other. Here it meets the Atlantic in a latitude where the ocean-waters -have no longer the high temperature of the tropics, whereas the stream -itself has acquired an increased warmth on the shoals of the Gulf. This -accounts for the great difference of temperature between the waters of -the stream and those of the ocean to the east of it; while the still -greater cold of the sea-water on its western side, between the Gulf -Stream and the continental shore, is explained by the great Arctic -current, pouring down from Baffin’s Bay, and skirting the shore of North -America as far as the Coast of Florida, until it is lost in that -latitude under the Gulf Stream. The object of Dr. Bache’s investigation -was to trace the mutual relations of these two great currents of warm -and cold water, flowing side by side in opposite directions, and to -discover the conditions which regulate their movements and keep them -within definite limits. - -The investigation is even now by no means complete, though it has been -going on for many years. It has, however, been ascertained that, while -the ocean-bed deepens more or less rapidly as we recede from the shore, -forming a trough in which the Gulf Stream flows, this trough is limited -on its eastern side by a range of hills trending in the direction of the -current, outside of which is another depression or valley. Indeed, the -sea-bottom exhibits parallel ridges and depressions, running like the -shore of the continent itself, in a northeasterly direction. The water -presents differences of temperature, not only on the surface, but at -various depths below. These inequalities have been determined by a -succession of thermometric observations along several lines, crossing -the Gulf Stream from the shore to the ocean water on its eastern side, -at intervals of about a hundred miles. The observations have been made -first at the surface, and then at successively greater depths, varying -from ten to twenty, thirty, one hundred, two hundred, and even three and -four hundred fathoms. This survey has shown that, while the Gulf Stream -has a temperature higher than that of the waters on either side, it is -also alternately warmer and colder within itself, being made up as it -were of distinct streaks of water of different temperature. These -alternations continue to as great a depth as the observations have been -carried, and are found to extend even to the very bottom of the sea, -where this has been reached. The most surprising part of this result is -the abruptness of the change along the line where the two great currents -touch each other. So sharp is this division that the boundary of the -Arctic current is now technically designated as the “Cold wall” of the -Gulf Stream. Of course as the latter flows northward and eastward it -gradually widens, and its temperature is lowered; but even as far north -as Sandy Hook the difference between its temperature at the surface and -that of the surrounding waters is still marked. - -Off Cape Florida the width of the Gulf Stream is not over forty miles; -off Charleston it is one hundred and fifty miles; while at Sandy Hook it -exceeds three hundred miles. - -The inequality of the bottom may be appreciated by the soundings off -Charleston, where, from the shore to a distance of two hundred miles, -the following depth was successively measured: 10, 25, 100, 250, 300, -600, 350, 550, 450, 475, 450, and 400 fathoms. - -The following table may give some idea of the temperature of the stream -in connection with its depth:— - - Off Sandy Hook, at successive distances from the coast, of - - 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, and 400 miles, - - the temperature near the surface to a depth of thirty fathoms averages: - - 65°, 66°, 64°, 81°, 80°, and 75° Fahr.; - - at a depth of between forty and a hundred fathoms it averages: - - 50°, 52°, 50°, 47°, 72°, 68°, and 65° Fahr.; - - at a depth below three hundred fathoms it averages: - - 37°, 39°, 40°, 37°, 55°, 57°, and 55° Fahr. - -The rapid rise of the temperature after the fourth column of figures -indicates the position of the Cold wall. - -For further details see the United States Coast Survey Report for 1860, -page 165, and the accompanying maps,—which should be copied into all our -school atlases. - - - II.—FLYING-FISHES. - -The motions of animals vary greatly with reference to the medium in -which they live. Our present knowledge renders it, however, necessary -that we should weigh these differences with reference to the structural -character of the organs of locomotion themselves, as well as to that of -the peculiar resistance of the element in which they move. When we speak -of the flight of Birds, of Insects, of Fishes, of Bats, &c., and -designate their locomotive organs indiscriminately as wings, it is -evident that the character of the motion and not the special structure -of the organs has determined our nomenclature. We are influenced by the -same consideration when we give the name of fins to the organs of all -animals which swim in the water, be they Whales, Turtles, Fishes, -Crustacea, or Mollusks. It requires but a superficial acquaintance with -the anatomy of the flying-fishes to perceive that their organs of flight -are built upon exactly the same pattern as the pectoral fins of most -fishes, and differ entirely from the wing of birds, as also from the -wing of bats, the latter being in all essentials a paw, identical with -the paw of ordinary quadrupeds, save the length of the fingers and the -absence of nails on the longest of them. No wonder, then, that the -flight of the flying-fishes should entirely differ from that of birds or -bats. - -I have had frequent occasions to observe the flying-fishes attentively. -I am confident not only that they change the direction of their flight, -but that they raise or lower their line of movement repeatedly, without -returning to the water. I avoid the word falling designedly, for all the -acts of these fishes during their flight seem to me completely -voluntary. They raise themselves from the surface of the water by -rapidly repeated blows with the tail, and more than once have I seen -them descend again to the surface of the water in order to repeat this -movement; thus renewing the impulse and enabling themselves to continue -for a longer time their passage through the air. Their changes of -direction, either to the right and left or in rising and descending, are -not due to the beating of the wings, that is to say, of the great -pectoral fins, but simply to an inflexion of the whole surface, in one -or the other direction, by the contraction of the muscles controlling -the action of the fin-rays, their pressure against the air determining -the movement. The flying-fish is in fact a living shuttlecock, capable -of directing its own course by the bending of its large fins. It -probably maintains itself in the air until the necessity of breathing -compels it to return to the water. The motive of its flight seems to me -to be fear; for it is always in the immediate neighborhood and in front -of the vessel that they are seen to rise; or perhaps at a distance when -they are pursued by some large fish. Now that I have studied their -movements, I am better able to appreciate the peculiarities of their -structure, especially the inequality of the caudal fin. It is perfectly -clear that the greater length of the lower lobe of the caudal is -intended to facilitate the movements by which the whole body is thrown -out of water and carried through the air; while the amplitude of the -pectoral fins affords only a support during the passage through the -lighter medium. Nothing shows more plainly the freedom of their -movements than the fact that, when the surface of the sea is swelling -into billows, the flying-fishes may hug its inequalities very closely -and do not move in a regular curve, first ascending from and then -descending again to the level of the water. Nor do they appear to fall -into their natural element, as if the power that had impelled them was -exhausted; they seem rather to dive voluntarily into the water, -sometimes after a very short and sometimes after a rather protracted -flight, during which they may change their direction, as well as the -height at which they move. - -The most common flying-fishes of the Atlantic belong to the genus -Exocetus, and are closely allied to our Billfish (Belone). J. Müller has -shown that they differ greatly from the Herrings, with which they were -formerly associated, and should form a distinct family, to which he has -given the name of Scomberesoces. The other flying-fishes belong to the -family of the Cottoids, of which our common Sculpins are the chief -representatives. - - - III.—RESOLUTIONS PASSED ON BOARD THE COLORADO. - -_Resolved_, That the cordial thanks of this meeting are due to Professor -Agassiz for the highly interesting and instructive lectures which he has -delivered daily during our voyage, and which, though intended more -immediately to prepare his party for their proposed expedition, have -furnished to all of us a rich repast. - -_Resolved_, That the Professor and his companions will carry with them -to their beneficent work the earnest prayers and good wishes of all with -whom they have been associated on board this ship, that health and -abundant success may be vouchsafed to them. - -_Resolved_, That in this mission of science from one country convulsed -by war to another not entirely at peace, we behold the humanizing and -pacific influence of its aims and studies, and that we cannot but look -forward to a day when nations engaged in the common pursuits of science -and industry, and bound together by commerce and by enlightened views of -interest and of Christian duty, will refer all questions in dispute to -peaceful arbitrament rather than to one of violence and bloodshed. - -_Resolved_, That in the facilities afforded by the government of the -United States to this scientific expedition, in the munificent -contribution of a single citizen of Boston towards its expenses, and in -the generous manner in which the owners of this ship have placed its -unsurpassed comforts and luxuries at the free use of Professor Agassiz -and his party, this meeting beholds a pledge of the profound and growing -interest of our entire people in the advancement of liberal and useful -knowledge. - -_Resolved_, That we cannot approach the capital of Brazil for the -purpose of leaving this party, without expressing our admiration for the -personal and political character of him who presides over this vast -Empire, and who may well be held forth to all rulers as a model of -intelligence, of virtue, and devotion to the public weal. - -_Resolved_, That we cannot close this part of our voyage without -tendering to Captain Bradbury, and his subordinate officers, our special -thanks, not only for the masterly manner with which their vessel is -handled, but for their unwearied devotion to the comfort of their -guests. - - - IV.—DOM PEDRO SEGUNDO RAILROAD. - -The part taken by American engineers in this great undertaking induces -me to give here a short account of its history. - -The decree conceding to one or more companies the entire or partial -construction of a railway which, commencing in the municipality of Rio -de Janeiro, should terminate in such points in the Provinces of Minas -and St. Paulo as should be most advantageous, was promulgated in 1852. A -company was organized with a capital of thirty-eight thousand Contos of -reis, or nineteen millions of dollars; the general plan being to -construct a trunk line from the city of Rio de Janeiro to the River -Parahyba, a distance of about 67 miles from the coast. A contract was -made with an English engineer, Mr. Edward Price, for the building of the -first section of this road, extending a distance of 38½ miles, from Rio -de Janeiro to Belem. For the construction of the second section, which -embraced the mountain barrier separating the valley of Parahyba from the -sea-coast, and in which the greatest difficulties were therefore to be -encountered, it was proposed by Senhor Christiano B. Ottoni, President -of the road, to employ American engineers, and if possible to engage the -services of men who had actually constructed railways across mountain -ranges in the United States. To this effect, Colonel C. F. M. Garnett -was engaged as chief engineer, and came to Brazil in 1856, accompanied -by Major A. Ellison, as his principal assistant. Colonel Garnett -remained in the country somewhat more than two years, during which time -the portion of the road known as the second section, and extending from -Belem to Parahyba, was laid out and its construction commenced, surveys -being also made of the branches up and down the river, constituting the -third and fourth sections. On Colonel Garnett’s departure, Major Ellison -remained as chief engineer, having his brother, Mr. Wm. S. Ellison, -associated with him in the direction of the road. In July, 1865, at -which time the road was actually completed as far as Barro de Pirahy, -the company being unable to raise funds for the continuation of the -work, it was assumed by the government, as a national undertaking, and -Major Ellison, resigning his position, was succeeded by Mr. Wm. S. -Ellison as chief engineer. - -The difficulties of construction throughout the second section were -immense; indeed, there was an almost universal distrust of the -practicability of the work. Even after it was considerably advanced, it -would probably have been abandoned but for the energy of the President, -who shared the confidence of the engineers, and pushed forward the -enterprise almost single-handed, in spite of the incredulity of its -friends and the objections of its opponents. The sharpness of the -mountain spurs rendering it impossible in many cases to pass around -them, tunnels became necessary, and fifteen were actually made, varying -from 300 to more than 7,300 feet in length, forming, in the aggregate, -three miles of subterraneous line. Of those tunnels, three pass through -rock decomposed to such a degree that lining throughout was necessary, -while the rest are pierced, for the greater part, through solid rock, -though requiring the same precaution occasionally. The total length of -lining with masonry is 5,700 feet. In the course of this operation -constant danger and difficulty arose from the breaking in of the rock, -and in one instance the whole mountain spur through which the tunnel had -been driven parted from the main mass and, sliding down, obliterated the -work, so that it was necessary to begin the perforation again, -contending continually against the enormous pressure of the loose -superincumbent _débris_. Were this the fitting place, it would be -interesting to give the history of this enterprise more in detail; -especially that of the work connected with building the great tunnel and -the temporary track which was in use when I first passed over the road. -Suffice it to say, that all that portion of the road which is included -within the second section is a triumph of engineering, which excites the -admiration of the most competent judges, and is in the highest degree -creditable to those under whose direction it has been accomplished. - - - V.—PERMANENCE OF CHARACTERISTICS IN DIFFERENT HUMAN SPECIES. - -As my special object of study in the Amazons had reference to the -character and distribution of the fluviatile faunæ, I could not -undertake those more accurate investigations of the human races, based -upon minute measurements repeated a thousand-fold, which characterize -the latest researches of anthropologists. A thorough study of the -different nations and cross-breeds inhabiting the Amazonian Valley would -require years of observation and patient examination. I was forced to be -satisfied with such data as I could gather aside from my other labors, -and to limit myself in my study of the races to what I would call the -natural history method; viz. the comparison of individuals of different -kinds with one another, just as naturalists compare specimens of -different species. This was less difficult in a hot country, where the -uncultivated part of the population go half naked, and are frequently -seen entirely undressed. During a protracted residence in Manaos, Mr. -Hunnewell made a great many characteristic photographs of Indians and -Negroes, and half-breeds between both these races and the Whites. All -these portraits represent the individuals selected in three normal -positions, in full face, in perfect profile, and from behind. I hope -sooner or later to have an opportunity of publishing these -illustrations, as well as those of pure negroes made for me in Rio by -Messrs. Stahl and Wahnschaffe. - -What struck me at first view, in seeing Indians and Negroes together, -was the marked difference in the relative proportions of the different -parts of the body. Like long-armed monkeys the Negroes are generally -slender, with long legs, long arms, and a comparatively short body, -while the Indians are short-legged, short-armed, and long-bodied, the -trunk being also rather heavy in build. To continue the comparison, I -may say that if the Negro by his bearing recalls the slender, active -Hylobates, the Indian is more like the slow, inactive, stout Orang. Of -course there are exceptions to this rule; short, thick-built Negroes are -occasionally to be seen, as well as tall, lean Indians; but, so far as -my observation goes, the essential difference between the Indian and -Negro races, taken as a whole, consists in the length and square build -of the trunk and the shortness of limbs in the Indian as compared with -the lean frame, short trunk, deep-cleft legs, and long arms of the -Negro. - -Another feature not less striking, though it does not affect the whole -figure so much, is the short neck and great width of the shoulders in -the Indian. This peculiarity is quite as marked in the female as in the -male, so that, when seen from behind, the Indian woman has a very -masculine air, extending indeed more or less to her whole bearing; for -even her features have rarely the feminine delicacy of higher womanhood. -In the Negro, on the contrary, the narrowness of chest and shoulder -characteristic of woman is almost as marked in the man; indeed, it may -well be said, that, while the Indian female is remarkable for her -masculine build, the Negro male is equally so for his feminine aspect. -Nevertheless, the difference between the sexes in the two races is not -equally marked. The female Indian resembles in every respect much more -the male than is the case with the Negroes; the females among the latter -having generally more delicate features than the males. - -On following out the details concomitant with these general differences, -we find that they agree most strikingly. In a front view of an Indian -woman and a Negress the great difference is in the width between the -breasts of the former as compared with their close approximation in the -latter. In the Indian the interval between the two breasts is nearly -equal to the diameter of one of them; while in the Negro they stand in -almost immediate contact. But this is not all; the form of the breast -itself is very different in the two. The Indian woman has a conical -breast, firm and well supported, the point being turned so far sideways -that the breast seems to arise under the arm-pit, the nipple being -actually projected on the arm in a full-faced view of the chest. In the -negress the breast is more cylindrical, looser, and more flaccid, the -nipple being turned forward and downward, so that in a front view it is -projected on the chest. In the Indian the inguinal region is broad and -distinctly set off from the prominence of the abdomen, while in the -Negro it is a mere fold. As to the limbs, they are not only much longer -in proportion in the Negro than the Indian; their form and carriage -differs also. The legs of the Indians are remarkably straight, in the -Negro the knees are bent in, and the hip as well as knee-joint -habitually flexed. Similar differences in other parts of the body are -visible from behind; in the Indians the interval between the two -shoulders, the shoulder-blades being comparatively short in themselves, -is much greater than in any other race. In this respect the women do not -differ from the men, but share in a feature characteristic of the whole -race. This peculiarity is especially noticeable in a profile view of the -figure, in which the broad rounded shoulder marks the outline in the -upper part of the trunk and tapers gradually to a well-shaped arm, -terminating usually in a rather small hand; the little finger is -remarkably short. In the Negro, on the contrary, the shoulder-blades are -long and placed more closely together, the shoulder being rather slim -and narrow, and the hand disproportionately slender, though the fingers -are more extensively webbed than in any other race. In this respect -there is little difference between male and female, the build of the -male being more muscular, but hardly stouter; in both, a profile view -shows the back and breast projected forwards and backwards of the arm. -The proportions between the length and width of the trunk, as compared -with each other, and, measured from the shoulder to the base of the -trunk, hardly differ in the Indian and Negro; this renders the -difference in the relative length and strength of the arms and legs the -more apparent. - -I need not allude to the difference of the hair; everybody knows the -heavy, straight black hair of the Indian, and the wrinkled, woolly hair -of the Negro. Nor is it necessary for me to recall the characteristic -features of the Whites in order to contrast them with what has been said -above of the Indians and Negroes. - -Only a few words more concerning half-breeds are needed to show how -deeply seated are the primary differences between the pure races. Like -distinct species among animals, different races of men, when crossing, -bring forth half-breeds; and the half-breeds between these different -races differ greatly. The hybrid between White and Negro, called -Mulatto, is too well known to require further description. His features -are handsome, his complexion clear, and his character confiding, but -indolent. The hybrid between the Indian and Negro, known under the name -of Cafuzo, is quite different. His features have nothing of the delicacy -of the Mulatto; his complexion is dark; his hair long, wiry, and curly; -and his character exhibits a happy combination between the jolly -disposition of the Negro and the energetic, enduring powers of the -Indian. The hybrid between White and Indian, called Mammeluco in Brazil, -is pallid, effeminate, feeble, lazy, and rather obstinate; though it -seems as if the Indian influence had only gone so far as to obliterate -the higher characteristics of the White, without imparting its own -energies to the offspring. It is very remarkable how, in both -combinations, with Negroes as well as Whites, the Indian impresses his -mark more deeply upon his progeny than the other races, and how readily, -also, in further crossings, the pure Indian characteristics are -reclaimed and those of the other races thrown off. I have known the -offspring of an hybrid between Indian and Negro with an hybrid between -Indian and White resume almost completely the characteristics of the -pure Indian. - - - VI.—SKETCH OF SEPARATE JOURNEYS UNDERTAKEN BY DIFFERENT MEMBERS OF THE - EXPEDITION. - -It is not possible for me to give here at length the narrative of the -separate journeys undertaken by my young companions. To do them any -justice, their reports should be illustrated by the accompanying maps, -geological sections, &c., which are more appropriate in a special -scientific account. I trust that I shall hereafter find resources for -publishing all these materials in a fitting manner; but, in the mean -while, I should do a wrong to my own feelings as well as to my -assistants, did I not add to this volume such a sketch of their separate -work as will show with how much energy, perseverance, and intelligence -they carried out the instructions I had given them. It will be -remembered by the reader that one object was kept constantly in view -throughout this expedition,—namely, that of ascertaining how the -fresh-water fishes are distributed throughout the great river-systems of -Brazil. All the independent journeys, of which short sketches are given -in this summary, were laid out with reference to this idea; the whole -expedition being, in fact, a unit so far as its purpose and general plan -were concerned. In this sense my own exploration, and those of all my -assistants, belong together, as parts of one connected scheme. - -That detachment of the party which was conducted by Mr. Orestes St. John -left Rio de Janeiro on the 9th of June, 1865. This company consisted of -Messrs. St. John, Allen, Ward, and Sceva. The first two were to reach -the Atlantic coast by way of the Rio San Francisco and the Rio -Paranahyba; while Mr. Ward was to descend the Tocantins to the Amazons, -and Mr. Sceva to remain for some time in the fossiliferous region about -Lagoa Sancta for the purpose of collecting. As far as Juiz de Fora they -followed the road described in the foregoing narrative. Thence they -crossed the Serra do Mantiqueira to Barbacena, and kept on from that -place through Lagoa Dourada and Prados across the Rio Carandahy to the -divide separating the head-waters of the Rio Grande on the south from -those of the Rio Paraopeba on the north. They crossed the Paraopeba just -above the water gap of the Serras of Piedade and Itatiaiassu, traversing -the former Serra into the mountain valley in which the village of Morro -Velho is situated. They thus found themselves successively in the basins -of the Rio Parahyba, the Rio La Plata, and the Rio San Francisco; all -these great streams being fed by rivulets which arise in this vicinity. -On leaving the mountainous districts they continued their route through -alternate campos and wooded tracts to Gequitibá, passing through Saburá, -Santa Luzia, Lagoa Sancta, and Sette Lagoas. - -At Lagoa Sancta, as had been previously agreed, Mr. Sceva left the -party, with the purpose of exploring the caves of that region in search -of fossil bones, and making skeletons of mammalia. He remained for some -time in this neighborhood, and brought away a number of specimens, -though he did not succeed in finding many fossils, the caves having been -already despoiled of their fossil remains by Dr. Lund, whose -indefatigable researches in this direction are so well known. Mr. Sceva, -however, made very valuable collections of other kinds, and I am -indebted to him for numerous carefully prepared specimens of Brazilian -mammalia, which now await mounting in the Museum. On leaving Lagoa -Sancta, Mr. Sceva returned to Rio de Janeiro, taking his collections -with him. He passed some days there, in order to repack and put in -safety his own specimens as well as those which had been sent back to -Rio by other members of the party. He then proceeded to Canta-Gallo, and -passed the remainder of the time in collecting and preparing specimens -from that part of the country, until he joined me subsequently at Rio -just before we returned to the United States. His contributions to our -stores were exceedingly valuable, both on account of the localities from -which they came and from the care with which they were put up. - -Mr. Ward had already separated from his fellow-travellers at Barbacena, -on his way to the Tocantins, taking the route by Ouro-Preto and -Diamantina. And in order to keep together the adventures of the little -band who left Rio in company, I may give here a short sketch of his -journey, before completing the account of the route pursued by Messrs. -St. John and Allen. After leaving the valley of the Rio Parahyba and -crossing the Mantiqueira the party found itself in the water-basin of -the Rio Grande, one of the principal tributaries of the Rio Parana, -which, emptying into the Rio La Plata, reaches the ocean below Buenos -Ayres. Eastward of this basin, on the ocean-side of the great ridge -which bounds the valley of the Rio San Francisco, arise several large -rivers,—the Rio Doce, the Rio Mucury, and the Rio Jequitinhonha. It was -one of my most earnest desires to secure the means of comparing their -inhabitants with each other and with those of the great rivers flowing -north and east. As will be seen hereafter, Mr. Hartt, with the -assistance of Mr. Copeland, had undertaken to explore the lower course -of these rivers; but it was equally important that specimens should be -obtained from their head-waters. While, therefore, Mr. St. John and his -companion pursued their way across the region drained by the head-waters -of the Rio San Francisco, Mr. Ward crossed the mountains, passing from -one river-basin into another, in order to examine as many of the -tributaries of the Rio Doce and the Rio Jequitinhonha as possible. To -him I owe the materials necessary for a general comparison of the river -faunæ in these different basins. His journey was a laborious and a -lonely one. Separating from his companions at Barbacena he kept on by -Ouro-Preto and Santa Barbara into the basin of the Rio Doce, which he -followed nearly to the point where the Rio Antonio empties into it. This -part of the journey gave him an opportunity of making a collection not -only in the head-waters of the Rio Doce, but in one of its principal -tributaries also. Thence crossing the Serra das Esmeraldas Mr. Ward -entered the water-basin of the Rio Jequitinhonha, commonly called Rio -Belmonte on the maps, and after passing Diamantina explored several arms -of this great stream. The collections he made in this region are of -special interest with reference to those gathered by Messrs. Hartt and -Copeland on the lower course of the same rivers, and in many other -streams along the Atlantic coast between Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. -Having accomplished this part of his journey, Mr. Ward crossed the San -Francisco at Januaria, making a number of excursions in that vicinity; -then passing in a northwesterly direction over the ridges which separate -the valley of the San Francisco from that of the Tocantins, he followed -the whole course of this great stream to the Amazons. It was a daring -and adventurous journey to be accomplished with no other companionship -than that of the camarado who served him as guide, or the Indian boatmen -who rowed his canoe, and it was a day of rejoicing for our whole party -when we heard, in the month of January, 1866, of his safe arrival in -Pará, whence he embarked a few weeks later for the United States. - -From Lagoa Sancta, where they parted from Mr. Sceva, Messrs. St. John -and Allen kept on to Januaria together, but at this point Mr. Allen, -whose health had been failing from the time he left Rio de Janeiro, -found himself unable to prosecute the journey farther, and he resolved -to strike across the country to Bahia, taking in charge the collections -they had brought together thus far. After a short rest at Januaria, he -made his way to Chique-Chique on the Rio San Francisco; and his separate -journal begins from the time he left this point, on his journey to -Bahia. It gives a very full account of the physical features of the -region through which he passed, of the geographical character of the -soil, and of the distribution of plants and animals, including many -original observations concerning the habits of birds, with a detailed -itinerary of the route through Jacobina, Espelto, and Caxoeira. -Prostrated by illness as he was, he has nevertheless furnished a report -the character of which shows how completely his interest in the work -overcame the lassitude of disease. - -From Januaria Mr. St. John followed the San Francisco to the Villa do -Barra, where he made a short stay, and then resumed his journey by land -through the valley of the Rio Grande to the Villa da Santa Rita, thence -to Mocambo and across the table-land separating the basin of the Rio San -Francisco from that of the Rio Paranahyba. At Paranaguá he remained -several days, and made a considerable collection from this vicinity. -Thence he followed the valley of the Rio Gurugueia to Manga, one hundred -and twenty leagues from Paranaguá. At Manga he embarked on one of the -singular river-boats made of the leafstalks of the Buriti palm, and -descended the Paranahyba to the villa of San Gonçallo. Here he stayed -for some time to collect, and forwarded from this vicinity a -considerable number of specimens, chiefly reptiles, birds, and insects. -His next station was at Therezina, the capital of the province of -Piauhy, where he made one of the most interesting collections of the -whole journey from the waters of the Rio Poty. The Poty is a tributary -of the Paranahyba, into which it empties below Therezina. In examining -this collection, I was particularly struck with the general similarity -of the fishes contained in it to those of the Amazons. They exhibit -throughout the same kind of combination of genera and families, although -the species are entirely distinct. Thus, from a zoölogical point of -view, the basin of the Parahyba, though completely separated from it by -the ocean, would seem to belong to the Amazonian basin, as it -unquestionably does from a geological point of view. The character of -the drift deposits along the Rio Gurugueia and the Rio Paranahyba shows -this area to have been continuous with the basin in which the Amazonian -drift was deposited; and the similarity of their zoölogical features is -but another evidence, from an entirely different source, of the -extensive denudations which have isolated these regions from one another -by removing the tracts which formerly made them a unit. - -From Therezina Mr. St. John proceeded to Caxias, and finally arrived in -Maranham, by the way of the Rio Itapicurú, on the 8th January, 1866; -having completed a journey of more than seven hundred leagues in seven -months, over a route the greater part of which had never been examined -from a zoölogical or geological point of view. His collections, though -necessarily limited by the difficulty of transport and the insufficient -provision of alcohol, were very valuable, and arrived at their -destination in good condition. Of his geological observations I have -said little; but it is from him I have obtained the data which have -enabled me to compare the basin of Piauhy with that of the Amazons. He -made careful geological surveys wherever he was able to do so, and has -recorded the result of his observations in a manner which shows that he -never lost sight of the general relations between the great structural -features of the country through which he passed. At Maranham, the -intermittent fever, under which Mr. St. John had been suffering during -the latter part of his journey, culminated in a severe illness, from -which he recovered under the care of Dr. Braga, who took him into his -own house, and did not allow him to leave his roof until he was restored -to health. From Maranham Mr. St. John joined me at Pará, where I had an -opportunity of comparing notes with him on the spot. - -During the first two months of his stay in Rio de Janeiro, Mr. Hartt was -chiefly occupied with Mr. St. John in examining sections of the Dom -Pedro Railroad, of which he prepared a very clear and careful geological -survey, with ample illustrations. On the 19th of June, 1865, he left the -city to explore the coast between the Rio Parahyba do Sul and Bahia; -being accompanied by Mr. Edward Copeland, one of our volunteers, who -gave him very efficient assistance in collecting, during the whole time -they remained together. At Campos, on the Rio Parahyba, they obtained a -large number of fishes, beside other specimens. From that point they -went up the Rio Muriahy for some distance, and then, returning to -Campos, ascended the Rio Parahyba to San Fidelis, where they again added -largely to their collections. Taking mules at San Fidelis, they -traversed the forest northward to Bom-Jesu, on the Rio Itabapuana, and -then descended that river, stopping to collect at Porto da Limeira and -at the Barra. Thence they followed the coast to Victoria; and it was -their intention to have proceeded northward to the Rio Doce, but, for -want of mules and money (their supplies having given out), they were -obliged to make Nova Almeida, their farthest point. Thence they returned -by way of Victoria to Rio de Janeiro in a sailing-vessel. In the course -of this journey they obtained valuable collections both on the Rio -Itapemérim and at Guarapary. Mr. Hartt also made a careful study of the -geology of the coast, the result of which forms an interesting portion -of his report. - -On their return to Rio, Mr. Hartt and Mr. Copeland were detained for -some time by the failure of a steamer. They occupied themselves in the -mean while in various work for the expedition, making excursions in the -vicinity, and collecting in the harbor of Rio. Disappointed in the -steamer, they started on board a sailing-vessel, and had a slow and -tedious voyage to San Matheos, collecting on their way wherever the -stopping of the vessel enabled them to do so. Neither did Mr. Hartt -neglect, on every such occasion, to examine the coast, and the phenomena -connected with its general rise, of which he obtained unquestionable -evidence. From San Matheos, where they made considerable collections, -they took conveyance to the Rio Doce, and ascended this river for ninety -miles to the first fall, Porto de Souza. Descending its course again to -Linhares, they explored the river and lake of Juparanaā, and then -returned to San Matheos; making large marine collections at Barra Secca, -half-way between the Rio Doce and San Matheos. Thence they proceeded to -the Rio Mucury, stopping a few days at its mouth to collect, and then -ascending the river to Santa Clara. Here Mr. Copeland remained, and -secured a fine collection of fishes; while Mr. Hartt crossed over the -river Peruhype to the Colonia Leopoldina. On his return he was detained -for some days by illness, but was soon able to resume his journey; and -he and Mr. Copeland then went on with Mr. Schïeber[108] to Philadelphia, -in the province of Minas Geraes, collecting on the way at the Rio Urucu, -and afterwards at Philadelphia. Along the coast, and indeed throughout -his whole journey, Mr. Hartt continued his geological observations, -which he carefully recorded. From Philadelphia he and his companion -proceeded by land to Calháo, on the Rio Arassuahy; making a detour from -Alahú to Alto dos Bois, in order to study the drift and the geological -structure of the elevated Chapadas. At Calháo they also made good -collections of fishes. Returning to Calháo from a visit to Minas Novas -and a study of its gold-mines, Mr. Hartt descended the Rio Jequitinhonha -three hundred and sixty miles to the sea. Mr. Copeland had preceded him -in order to make an excursion to Caravellas; and they met again at -Cannavieiras. - -At Cannavieiras they made good collections, and then ascended the Rio -Pardo to its first fall, fishing and geologizing along their route. They -visited also Belmonte, and then went southward to Porto Seguro, where -they stayed for several days, collecting corals and marine -invertebrates. Here, as at several other points along the coast, Mr. -Hartt made a careful examination of the stone-reefs. His researches on -these “recifes,” which constitute so remarkable a feature along the -Atlantic coast of Brazil, are exceedingly interesting; and I do not know -that any geologist has made a more careful and connected examination of -them. He believes them to be formed by the solidification of beach -ridges; the lower part of which being cemented by the lime dissolved -from the shells contained in them remains intact, while the upper -portion was carried off by storms; thus leaving a solid wall running -along the coast, broken through here and there, and divided from the -land by a narrow channel. He studied the coast reefs both at Santa Cruz -and at Porto Seguro, and ascertained their southward extension to the -Abrolhos. From Porto Seguro Messrs. Hartt and Copeland went northward to -Bahia, touching at several points along the coast, and thence returned -to Rio de Janeiro, whence we sailed together for the United States in -the month of July, 1866. - ------ - -Footnote 108: - - This gentleman, who is thoroughly familiar with the whole country, was - untiring in his attentions to Messrs. Hartt and Copeland, and gave - them, so far as he could, every facility for their researches. - - - Cambridge: Stereotyped and Printed by Welch, Bigelow, & Co. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors. - 2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Journey in Brazil, by -Louis Agassiz and Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A JOURNEY IN BRAZIL *** - -***** This file should be named 56171-0.txt or 56171-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/1/7/56171/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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