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diff --git a/old/56168-0.txt b/old/56168-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 929c124..0000000 --- a/old/56168-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26432 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Viking Age. Volume 2 (of 2), by Paul B. Du Chaillu - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Viking Age. Volume 2 (of 2) - The early history, manners, and customs of the ancestors - of the English-speaking nations - -Author: Paul B. Du Chaillu - -Release Date: December 13, 2017 [EBook #56168] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIKING AGE. VOLUME 2 (OF 2) *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: - - WAGGON OF THE VIKING AGE. - - One of two waggons found in the Deibjerg bog, Ringkjobing, West - Jutland, ornamented all over with bronze; and on each side - representations of two human heads with heavy moustaches, and with - the triskele and other mystic signs. Length of sides, 5 feet, 4 - inches; straight pole, about 6 feet, including the bent piece; - diameter of wheels, 3 feet. -] - - - - - THE VIKING AGE - - THE EARLY HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE ANCESTORS OF THE - ENGLISH-SPEAKING NATIONS - - ILLUSTRATED FROM - _THE ANTIQUITIES DISCOVERED IN MOUNDS, CAIRNS, AND BOGS AS WELL AS FROM - THE ANCIENT SAGAS AND EDDAS_ - - - BY - - PAUL B. DU CHAILLU - AUTHOR OF “EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA,” “LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT - SUN,” ETC. - - - WITH 1366 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAP - - - IN TWO VOLUMES.—VOL. II - - - NEW YORK: - CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS. - 1889. - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1889, BY - PAUL B. DU CHAILLU. - - - Press of J. J. Little & Co., - Astor Place, New York. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS OF VOL. II. - -[Illustration] - - - CHAPTER I. - - PAGE - - MARRIAGE 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - DIVORCE 25 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE BIRTH AND BRINGING-UP OF CHILDREN 30 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE ARVEL, OR INHERITANCE FEAST 47 - - - CHAPTER V. - - FOSTER-BROTHERHOOD 61 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - WEAPONS 65 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - WAR CUSTOMS 102 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - ROCK-TRACINGS 116 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - WAR-SHIPS 136 - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE FLEETS OF THE NORTHMEN 176 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - MODE OF NAVAL WARFARE OF THE NORTHMEN 181 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - SEA BATTLES 188 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - TRADERS AND TRADING-SHIPS 209 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - DEBTS AND ROBBERY 235 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - HALLS AND BUILDINGS 241 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - FEASTS, ENTERTAINMENTS 274 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - DRESS OF MEN 285 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - DRESS OF WOMEN 301 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - THE BRACTEATES 332 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - OCCUPATIONS AND SPORTS OF MEN 344 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN 362 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - EXERCISES—IDRÓTTIR 369 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - IDRÓTTIR.—POETRY OR SCALDSHIP, MUSIC AND MENTAL EXERCISES 389 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - THE CONDUCT OF LIFE.—THE HÁVAMÁL 401 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - SORROW AND MOURNING 414 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - CHAMPIONS AND BERSERKS 423 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS 433 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS - (_Continued_) 450 - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS - (_Continued_) 462 - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS - (_Continued_) 479 - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS - (_Continued_) 486 - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS - (_Continued_) 499 - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF ICELAND, GREENLAND, AND AMERICA 514 - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - THE ORKNEYS AND HEBRIDES 531 - - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - - APPENDIX I.—FRANKISH CHRONICLES 536 - - APPENDIX II.—FACSIMILES OF SAGAS 544 - - APPENDIX III.—COINS FOUND IN SCANDINAVIA 551 - - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - - INDEX 557 - - - - - THE VIKING AGE. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - MARRIAGE. - - High position of women—Married women’s property—Marriage a civil - compact—The suitor—Qualities looked for in a suitor—The bride’s - dower—Runaway marriages—The marriage settlement—The givers away of - the bride—The betrothal—Breaking a betrothal—Length of a - betrothal—The wedding—The trousseau—Illegality of marriages - without betrothal—Guardians of unmarried sisters—Marriage against - the will of the parents—Age of majority—Widows—Marriage on - insufficient means—Laws relating to marriage—The wedding - feast—Valuation of property—Laws on kissing—Women’s rights. - - -It is particularly striking, in reading the Sagas and the ancient laws -which corroborate them, to see the high position women occupied in -earlier and later pagan times. - -If we are to judge of the civilisation of a people in their daily life -by the position women held with regard to men, we must conclude that in -this respect the earlier Norse tribes could compare favourably with the -most ancient civilised nations whose history has come down to us. - -A maiden was highly respected, and on becoming a wife she was greatly -honoured, and her counsels had great weight; by marrying she became the -companion and not the inferior of her husband. She held property in her -own right, whatever she received by inheritance and by marriage being -her own; though there were restrictions put upon her, as well as upon -her husband, in regard to the use of her property. - -In a word, a retrograde movement in regard to the rights and standing of -women took place after the extinction of the Asa creed. The high -position they had occupied before was lost, and it is only latterly that -they have striven, and in some countries with success, to regain the -authority that once belonged to them in regard to property and other -matters. - -From the earliest time we see the chivalrous regard that men had for -women, and the punishment that any breach of its laws involved. Young -men went into warlike expeditions to attain great fame, so that their -acts of bravery could be known or extolled, and that they might become -worthy of the maiden they wished to woo. The same spirit afterwards -spread from the North to other countries in Europe, where, however, the -opinion only of women of higher rank was valued. Among the earlier -tribes of the North all were respected. - -Marriage was not a religious contract or ceremony. It was simply -regarded as a civil compact, owing to the relations which man and wife -held towards each other in regard to property. It was the means of -joining families together, which was called _tengja saman_,[1] and -therefore the relation was called _tengdir_. Consequently marriage -itself was a bargain and on that account was called _brud-kaup_ -(bride-buying). - -When a man had selected for himself, or by the advice of his parents, a -woman or maiden whom he wanted to marry, he, accompanied by his father, -or nearest relatives or best friends, and by a retinue, according to his -rank, went to get the consent of the father, or of those who were the -guardians of the woman. It was the exception for the suitor himself not -to go on this journey, which was called _bonordsför_ (suit journey).[2] - - -“Njal once said to his son Helgi, ‘I have thought of a match for thee, -kinsman, if thou wilt follow my advice.’ ‘Certainly I will,’ he said, -‘for I know both that thou meanest it well and knowest well how to act; -but what is it?’ ‘We will ask in marriage the daughter of Asgrim -Ellidagrimsson, for she is the best match.’ Shortly afterwards they rode -out across the Thjórsá (a river), until they came to Tunga. Asgrim was -at home, and received them well, and they stayed there over night. The -next day they proceeded to talk the matter over. Njal opened the -subject, and asked for the hand of Thorhalla for his son Helgi. Asgrim -received this well, and said that with no men was he more desirous to -bargain than with them. They then talked about the matter, and at last -Asgrim betrothed his daughter to Helgi, and the wedding feast was agreed -upon” (Njala, c. 26, 27). - - -The suitor, even if present, had a spokesman who spoke on his behalf, -and enumerated his good qualities, deeds of valour, &c., and other -qualifications which might speak well for the suit. If the suit was -favourably received, a talk ensued in regard to the conditions of the -marriage. - -Rut, a chief, went with his brother Höskuld to the _Althing_, and was -told by him that he would like him to marry Unn, the daughter of Mörd -Gigja. They went to his booth at the place of the Althing, and after -awhile Höskuld said:— - - -“‘I should like to make a bargain with thee; Rut wants to buy thy -daughter, and become thy son-in-law, and I shall not spare my property.’ -Mörd answered: ‘I know thou art a great chief, but thy brother is -unknown to me.’ Höskuld said: ‘He is a greater chief than I.’ Mörd -added: ‘Thou must furnish him well, for she is the owner of all my -inheritance.’ ‘Thou needest not wait long for what I shall fix upon,’ -replied Höskuld; ‘he shall have Kambsnes and Rutstadir and the land as -far as Thrandargil; he also has a trading ship on voyages abroad.’ Rut -then said to Mörd: ‘You may think, bondi, that my brother has spoken so -highly of me because he loves me, but if you will take the matter into -consideration I want you to state your conditions.’ Mörd answered: ‘I -have thought of the conditions. She shall have 60 hundreds, and it shall -be increased with one-third from thy farm, but if you have an heir each -of you shall have the half.’ Rut said: ‘These conditions I accept; and -now let us have witnesses’” (Njala, c. 2).[3] - - -The qualities which the parents or guardians took most into -consideration were good birth, powerful and prominent relatives. -Families on both sides had to be well matched in rank, wealth, and -personal bravery, the last being highly prized by the one whose hand was -sought. - - -“The kings (Ingibjörg’s brothers) went to a feast at Framnes[4] with -Fridthjóf, and, as usual, he treated them all better than they were -accustomed to be treated. Ingibjörg was there, and often spoke with -Fridthjóf; she said to him: ‘Thou hast a good gold ring.’ ‘That is -true,’ said Fridthjóf. Then the kings went home, and their envy against -Fridthjóf increased. A little after Fridthjóf became very sad; Björn, -his foster-brother, asked why he was so; he said he had it in mind to -ask Ingibjörg in marriage; ‘though I have lower rank than her brothers, -I am as good a man as they.’ Björn said: ‘Let us do it.’ The kings sat -on their father’s mound, and Fridthjóf saluted them; afterwards he asked -their sister Ingibjörg, Beli’s daughter, in marriage. The kings said: -‘It is very unwise to ask us to give her in marriage to a man of no -rank, and we refuse it.’ Fridthjóf said: ‘Then my errand is ended. I -will never hereafter give you any help though you may need it” -(Fridthjóf’s Saga, c. 2). - - -“And Björn was king over Firdafylki. His jarl was Hróald, and Thorir was -his son. Atli the Thin was then jarl at Gaular. His children were -Hallstein, Hólmstein, Herstein, and Solveig the fair. One autumn many -people were at Gaular at an autumn sacrifice. Then Ölvir Hnúfa saw -Solveig, and liked her well. He asked her in marriage, but the jarl -thought there was inequality of rank and would not consent to the -marriage. Thereupon Ölvir made many songs of love. He loved Solveig so -much that he left off Viking expeditions” (Egil’s Saga, c. 2). - - -“Grimkel, a godi, said: ‘I am told for certain, Valbrand, that thou hast -a daughter called Signy, who is very accomplished; I want to ask her in -marriage, if thou wilt marry her to me.’ Valbrand answered: ‘It is known -to us that thou art of good kin and art wealthy, and a great champion; I -will give a favourable answer to this’” (Hörd’s Saga, c. 3). - - -“I (Harald Fairhair) have thought of a match for thee; it was in my mind -when thou didst endanger thy life for mine. Vigdis, the daughter of -Thorir jarl the Silent, is a most handsome woman, and has much property; -I will marry her to thee. Ingimund thanked him and consented” (Vatnsdæla -Saga, c. 12). - - -In order that marriage should be regarded as perfectly lawful, the woman -had to be “_mundi keypt_”; that is, bought with _mund_[5] acquired by a -legal agreement between the man on one side, and the parents or -guardians of the intended bride on the other, in regard to the dower or -property agreed on both sides as belonging to the bride. - - -“The sons of Hildirid went to Thórólf and presented their claim to the -property of their father Björgólf. Thórólf answered: ‘I know of -Brynjolf, and still better of Bárd, that they were men of such -generosity that they would have given you of the inheritance of Björgólf -as much as they knew you had a right to. I was present when you pressed -this same claim against Bárd, and I heard that he thought there were no -proofs for it, for he called you sons of a concubine.’ Harek said they -would get witnesses that their mother was bought with _mund_. ‘But it is -true that we did not first present this claim to our brother Brynjolf. -There was also to be a division between kinsmen, and from Bárd we -expected honourable treatment in every respect, but our dealings with -him were not long. Now this inheritance has come into the hands of -unrelated men, and we cannot be altogether silent with regard to our -loss. It may be that there yet is as before such difference in power -that we may not get our rights from thee, if thou wilt hear none of the -witnesses, whom we can bring forth that we are odal-born men.’ Thórólf -answered harshly: ‘I count you the less legitimate as I am told your -mother was taken away by force and brought home as a captive’” (Egil’s -Saga, c. 9). - - -_Mund_ was originally the name for all the conditions in regard to the -property of both, especially that of the wife. This agreement was the -most important thing at the _festar_[6] (betrothal, fastening). Children -born without the payment of it were not _inheritance-born_—in a word, -were considered illegitimate. - -If the wife was poor and entirely without property the husband had to -give a _mund_ of twelve _aurar_, in order that the marriage should be -regarded as fully legal. - - -“Next we must know how we shall buy women with _mund_, so that the child -is _inheritance-born_. The man shall give that woman a poor man’s -_mund_, amounting to 12 _aurar_, and have witnesses (at the ceremony). -He shall have bridesmen, and she bridesmaids, and he shall give her a -gift in the morning when they have been together one night, as large as -the one at the betrothal. Then the child born thereafter is -_inheritance-born_” (Gulath., 5). - - -“All men are not inheritance-born though they are free-born. The man -whose mother is not bought with _mund_, with a mark, or still more -property, or not wedded, or not betrothed, is not inheritance-born. A -woman is bought with _mund_ when a mark consisting of _aurar_, of the -value of 12 feet of _vadmal_,[7] or more property, is paid or stipulated -by _hand-shaking_. A wedding is lawfully made if the lawful man betroths -the woman, and six men at least are present” (Gragas, i. 75).[8] - - -If a man married a girl without the consent of her parents or guardians, -or made a runaway match, the husband was outlawed. - - -“Björn, the son of a hersir at Aurland in Sogn, was a great seafaring -man; sometimes he was on Viking expeditions, sometimes on -trade-journeys. One summer he was in Firdafylki at a feast where there -were many people. There he saw a handsome maiden whom he liked much. He -asked of what family she was. He was told that she was the sister of -Thórir hersir, son of Hróald, and was named Thora Hladhönd (lace-hand). -Björn asked her in marriage, but Thorir refused her to him, and so they -parted; but the same autumn Björn got men and went with a full-manned -_skuta_[9] north to Firdafylki, and arrived at Thórir’s when he was not -at home. He took Thora away, and carried her home with him to Aurland. - -“In the autumn ships arrived at Iceland from Norway, bringing the report -that Björn had run away with Thora, without the consent of her kinsmen, -and that the king had for that reason outlawed him from Norway” (Egil’s -Saga, c. 32, 34). - - -The first matter settled was the _heimanfylgja_ (home-following, or -dowry), which follows the bride as given by the parents, or by those who -had the right to give her away; and then what the man had to set against -the dowry of his intended, which was called _tilgjöf_, or counter gift. -This latter stood in a certain proportion to the former, and generally -formed a third of the whole coming to the wife. It was occasionally -decided at the same time what _linfé_[10] (linen fee) the husband should -give to his wife on the morning after their wedding. - - -“The king (Svein of Denmark) and the jarl agreed that Thyri (Svein’s -sister) should have the possessions in Vindland which Gunnhild (deceased -wife of Svein, daughter of Búrisleif) had owned, and also other large -possessions as dower (_tilgjöf_). Thyri wept sorely, and went, very much -against her will. When they came to Vindland Búrisleif made his -wedding-feast and married Thyri, but she would neither take food nor -drink from the heathens for seven days” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 99). - - -The dowry included movable property and lands. - - -“The mother shall take as much property if her daughter dies childless -as she has given her from home, and also the _mund_ without interest. -She and her children shall get this in preference to the father. Every -man who has given anything for the _heimanfylgja_ shall get it back if -the wife dies childless, and also get the mund, if he has declared it at -the betrothal or the wedding” (Gragas, i. 174). - - -The givers-away of the bride were called _giptingar-men_, and were -either parents, kinsmen, or guardians. - -After the preliminaries to the marriage had taken place, and the -agreement had been announced to the witnesses, the _festar_ or betrothal -followed, when the parties became _festarmadr_ or betrothed man, and -_festarkona_ or betrothed woman. This was a legal tie which could not be -broken with impunity. The suitor went over to the father or guardian of -the woman, and the latter betrothed her to him with a “_handsal_” -(hand-shaking); at the same time both parties also named their witnesses -to their betrothal. Gragas gives the formula used at this ceremony, -which is as follows:— - - -“A woman is betrothed according to law if a man recites the agreement -about the _mund_; then the guardian and the man to whom the woman is -betrothed shall name witnesses to it. The man who is betrothed shall -say: ‘We name witnesses that thou N. N. betrothest thyself to me N. N. -with a lawful betrothal, and givest me the _heimanfylgja_ with -_hand-shaking_, as the fulfilment and performance of the whole agreement -which was a while ago recited between us without fraud and tricks.’ This -is a complete and lawful match. It is lawful when the betrother is the -one who has the right to betroth according to law; and it is complete if -the betrothed is in such health that she would be bought at no less -price if she was a bondmaid, or has no other faults or blemishes which -would make her cost less or which she had when sixteen winters old. But -if these faults are found in the woman, the man who knowing it betrothed -the woman is liable to lesser outlawry for it, and the wedding may be -prevented if the man betrothed wishes it, provided he had before -pronounced the words, ‘a complete and lawful match’—but not otherwise. -Now if the betrothed man wants to demand the _mund_ he shall summon the -guardian, because he has betrothed the woman knowing such faults in her -that she would cost less if she were a bondmaid. He shall summon him to -lesser outlawry, and summon nine of his neighbours to the _Thing_. If -the witnesses are against him he is to be outlawed, and the _mund_ -cannot be claimed. If the witnesses say that the guardian knew not the -faults of the woman he can defend himself, but he cannot claim the -_mund_ unless he can get five dwellers at the farm of the woman as -witnesses that she has not these faults; then the _mund_ is to be paid -back” (Gragas, i. 316).[11] - - -If the betrothed woman was injured or wronged in any way the man had the -same right to gain redress as if she were his wife. - - -“Every man has full _rétt_ on the behalf of his betrothed as well as his -wife, as long as it is due; but if she sits at home in the house of a -father or brother they have the full rétt on her behalf which her -betrothed would otherwise have had” (Frostath., xi. 12). - - -“If a man runs away with a betrothed woman he shall pay full _rétt_ to -the betrothed man and also to her father” (Bjarkey law, 125). - - -The virtue of a betrothed woman was very carefully guarded. - - -“If the father dies before the wedding within the twelve months, and the -child is begotten, then that child shall take its father’s inheritance -as if its mother were bought with _mund_. But in no other way is a man -inheritance-born unless his mother is bought with _mund_, or he is led -lawfully into the family (adopted). Though a man betroth his concubine -in order that according to this law his children be inheritance-born, or -delays the wedding on account of this, it does not matter, for neither -shall _inheritance-fraud_ be committed, nor the wedding be dishonoured -by this” (Frostath., 13). - - -The breaking of a betrothal by either party was severely punished, and -the laws on the subject were strict. - - -“If a man will not take his betrothed he shall be summoned home to take -her, and a day be fixed. Thereupon he shall be summoned to the _Thing_ -because he flees from his betrothed. Then the thingmen shall make him an -outlaw, and he is called a runaway (_fudflogi_)” (Gulath., 51). - -“If a man wants a better match, the father shall betroth his daughter -himself if she is a maiden, and the brother shall do it if the father is -dead. If the father will not give his daughter to the man to whom she -has been betrothed, he shall be summoned home and a day be fixed on -which he shall have his betrothed. If the betrother will not let him -have her, he shall demand the dowry of his betrothed, and summon him to -the _Thing_ for robbery; then the thingmen have to outlaw him. The -maiden has no power in this matter, if she does not draw back from the -marriage herself. The man who has charge of the betrothed woman may keep -her from the betrothed man for a twelvemonth. A widow may betroth -herself, but shall take the advice of her kinsmen; then she cannot break -her troth. If she has not taken the advice of her kinsmen, she may break -it and pay three marks for the breach of faith to the one who was -betrothed to her. If a man betroths to a man a woman over whom he has no -betrothing power, he shall pay three marks to the one who was betrothed -to her. Two or more brothers shall have power over their sister; if one -of them betroths her to a man, and the others object, then they shall -draw lots who of them shall rule; if the one who betrothed her draws the -lot, the betrothal shall be kept, otherwise not, and then the betrother -shall pay three marks for breach of faith” (Earlier Gulathing’s Law, c. -51). - - -The length of the betrothal, if no special agreement had been made, was -limited to twelve months, that being the longest time that a woman’s -guardian could defer a marriage against the will of her future husband. -Three years seems to have been the longest delay allowed; during that -time the woman was said to _sit as betrothed_, if the suitor was away -and did not return within that time the agreement was void, and the -woman was free to marry another man. - - -“Björn now rode to Borg to see his kinsman Skúli. When they met, Björn -told him that he wished above all to get Oddny Thorkel’s daughter before -he left. Skúli asked if he had said anything about it to her. Björn -answered he had certainly done so. Then let us go, said Skúli; and they -went. They came to Hjörsey, and saw Thorkel and his daughter Oddny. -Björn then told him the state of his feelings, and asked Oddny in -marriage. Thorkel took it well, and referred it altogether to his -daughter’s decision. As Björn had been known to her before, and they had -loved each other very fondly, she consented. Then the betrothal was -performed at once, and she was to sit betrothed for three winters. And -even if Björn, while staying in the same country (Iceland), was -prevented from marrying her, she was to wait for him nevertheless during -a fourth winter. If he should not come back from Norway in three -winters, Thorkel was to give her in marriage if he liked. Also Björn was -to send men to Iceland to renew the betrothal if he could not come -himself. Skúli contributed as part of the contract so much property with -Björn that it was as much as all the property which Thorkel added to his -daughter’s _mund_”[12] (Björn Hitdælakappi’s Saga). - - -The betrothed who without valid reason did not fulfil her engagement, -and the giver-away who kept back the betrothed woman, were outlawed. If -she of her free will took another man than her betrothed, both she and -the giver-away were outlawed. - - -“If a man betroths a woman he shall have her married within twelve -months if no necessity hinders” (Frostath., iii. 12). - -“The giver-away of a woman may keep her from her betrothed man for -twelve months” (Gulathing’s Law, 51). - -“If she (the betrothed woman) wants to break the betrothal within twelve -months, and says she has been betrothed against her will, he can use his -witnesses against her words and get her. If he lacks witnesses then she -and also her father and mother, or their nearest kinsmen if they do not -exist, shall assure it is against her will with an oath, and pay the -betrothed man as much as was promised. If this takes place after the -wedding she loses her third” (Frostath., iii. 22). - -“If the man to whom a woman is betrothed becomes sick he shall send word -half a month before (the wedding) to the man who has betrothed the woman -that he will not come to the wedding on account of his health, and the -woman need not be brought home to him though it was agreed, and the -reasons must be told. Then the wedding shall not be before the same time -next year, unless the man wants it before, and then word must be sent -half a month or more before, and he shall keep the wedding at his sole -cost. If he does not recover in the next twelvemonth the betrothal is -dissolved, unless both wish otherwise” (Gragas, i. 310). - - -The wedding generally took place at the home of the bride; very seldom -at the bridegroom’s: on the wedding-night the _mund_ became the wife’s -personal property. - -After the marriage the bride and bridegroom were _hjón_, a word which -means man and wife; and then the wife became an _eiginkona_ (own woman, -wife, spouse) and _hùsfreyja_ (housewife), and enjoyed the rights -belonging to that position. - - -“Illugi lived at Hólm in Akranes. He was tall and strong and wealthy; he -went on a wooing-journey to Ölfusvatn, and asked for Thurid, the -daughter of Grimkel by his first wife. Grimkel answered favourably, for -he knew Illugi; the betrothal was performed there; Hörd (Grimkel’s son -by Signy) was not present at this. In the _tvimanad_ (September) the -wedding-feast was to be at Ölfusvatn, and when the appointed day came -Illugi made ready to go with thirty men” (Hörd’s Saga, ch. ii.). - - -No rings were exchanged or given either at the betrothal or the wedding. -That the bride had a special dress for the bridal ceremony seems to be -certain, though in no Saga have we a description of a bridal dress; but -from several passages we see that the bride was _hvit-földud_ -(white-folded), and _lin-bundin_ (linen-bound, enveloped in linen), -which implies that the bridal dress was white. - - -“It is told that the first evening of the wedding the brides (King -Svein’s, and that of Sigvaldi, Jarl of the Jomsvikings) had their -head-dress (_fald_) low down so that their faces could not be distinctly -seen; next morning they were very merry and did not wear any -_skuplas_.”[13] - - -This bridal linen was a long wide head-dress hanging down the back from -the top of the head, or a kind of veil. In _Thrymskvida_ the bride wore -such a head-dress, which was fastened on the head with an ornament. At -the waist a bunch of keys was placed to show her authority as mistress -of the household, and on her breast she had an ornament. - -The jötun Thrym had got Thor’s hammer and would not give it back, unless -Freyja were married to him. Thor was disguised as Freyja, and sent as a -bride to Thrym; he got hold of the hammer, and crushed Thrym and the -jötnar. - - Then said Thor, - The mighty Ás, - The Asar will me - Effeminate call - If I let myself - Be tied in bridal linen. - - Then they tied Thor - In the bridal linen, - And the great - Brisinga-necklace;[14] - Let keys hang - From his belt, - And woman’s clothes - Hang round his knees, - And broad stones[15] - Be on his breast, - And fastened the cloth[16] - On his head with skill. - - (Thrymskvida.) - -We have nothing to show positively that marriage was celebrated with -religious ceremonies, but certain forms may have taken place. In the -later Edda we have the goddess _Vár_, who hears the vows of men and -women. In Helgi Hjörvardson there are also vows called by her name, and -it seems that she was solemnly invoked at weddings, and the sign of the -hammer of Thor made over the bride. - - Then said Thrym, - The chief of Thursar: - Carry in the hammer - To consecrate the bride, - Lay Mjöllnir - In the maiden’s lap. - Wed us together - With the hand of _Var_. - - The mind laughed - In the breast of Hlórridi[17] - As the hard-minded one - Saw the hammer; - Thrym killed he first, - The lord of Thursar, - And thrashed - The Jötun’s whole kin. - - (Earlier Edda; Thrymskvida.)[18] - -Marriage without betrothal proceedings and dowry was called -_skyndibrúdhlaup_ (hasty wedding), or _lausa-brudhlaup_ (loose wedding). -Such an union was illegal, and the children begotten thereby had no -right of inheritance. - - -“Björgólf, a landed man in Halogaland, once in his old age was at a -feast with Högni, a rich bondi, and saw his daughter Hildirid, whom he -liked well. - -“The same autumn Björgólf the old left on his _skuta_ with thirty men. -He came to Leka (Högni’s farm), and twenty men went up to the farm, -while ten guarded the ship. When they came home Högni received him well, -and invited him to stay there with his men; he accepted, and went into -the _stofa_ (daily room). When they had taken off their outer clothes -Högni had a _skap-ker_ (large vessel) with ale carried in. Hildirid, his -daughter, carried ale to the guests. Björgólf called Högni, and said: -‘My errand hither is that I wish thy daughter to go home with me, and I -will marry her in loose wedding.’ Högni saw he could do nothing but what -Björgólf wished. Björgólf bought her with an _eyrir_ of gold.... They -had two sons, Hárek and Hrœrek, and Björgólf died afterwards. Then -Brynjólf, his son by the first wife, sent her away to her father. They -were called Hildirid-sons, and not by the name of the father. Brynjólf -died, and his son Bard got his death wounds in the battle of Hafrsfjord. -Bard had the king called to him, and said: ‘If I die from these wounds I -ask you to allow me to dispose of my inheritance.’ The king consented. -Bard said: ‘I wish my companion and kinsman Thorólf to take all my -inheritance, lands and loose property; I will also give him my wife and -my son to bring up, for I trust him best of all men.’ Thorólf according -to the wish of his friend married this wife, Sigrid, daughter of Sigurd -in Sandnes” (Egil’s Saga, 7). - - -The father or the guardian of the girl had the decision over her -marriage. If the father was dead the brothers were the guardians of the -unmarried sister. If she had neither father nor brothers, her mother in -connection with the nearest uncle could give her away; and as the maiden -had no voice in the matter, she could be forced by her father or -guardians into a marriage against her will. - - -“Thorvald Usvifrsson, a rich man, demanded Hallgerd in marriage from her -father Höskuld, an Icelandic chief. Höskuld told him that she was proud, -but Thorvald said that did not matter. Höskuld did not ask his daughter, -because he intended to give her in marriage and betroth her to Thorvald. -When he told her, she said: ‘Now I have found out what I long suspected, -that thou dost not love me so much as thou always pretendest, as thou -didst not think it worth while to speak to me about this matter; nor do -I think this match as high as you have promised me.’ It could be seen -that she considered herself to be married beneath her rank” (Njala -10).[19] - -“The giver away next to a father or brother is a lawfully wedded mother. -If there is no mother, then the man twenty winters old or more who is -the nearest heir after the woman who is married” (Frostath., law ii. -13). - - -The father did not always exercise his right of deciding about the -marriage; sometimes he left the decision of the suit entirely in the -hands of the daughter, but such cases must be regarded as an exception. - -If a girl married against the will of her parents or kinsmen the latter -could disinherit her, and her progeny were illegitimate, and this act of -disobedience would even get her self-chosen husband declared an outlaw -as a woman-robber. - -When a poor girl was given in marriage to a rich man, one of the -conditions made was that her clothes and ornaments should be provided, -though if she was an heiress and fifteen years of age she could betroth -herself with the advice of her kinsmen. - -The different Sagas and laws place the age of majority of men as well as -of women at fifteen years, and early marriages of women at that age were -not uncommon. - - -“Thorvald (a wealthy Icelander) asked in marriage Gudrún Úsvifr’s -daughter at the _Althing_ when she was fifteen winters old. The answer -was favourable, but Úsvifr said it would be seen by the conditions that -they were not equally high-born. Thorvald took this well, and said he -asked for the woman and not for property. Then Gudrún was betrothed to -Thorvald, and Úsvifr made the agreement. It was that Gudrún alone should -rule over their property after they had come into one bed, and be owner -of one half of all, whether they lived longer or shorter together. He -was also to buy costly things for her, so that no equally rich wife had -better jewels” (Laxdæla, c. 34).[20] - - -“The maiden who becomes an heiress may marry herself to whomever she -likes when she is fifteen winters old, with the counsel of those of her -kinsmen who are the wisest and nearest both on her father’s and mother’s -side” (Frostath., xi. 18). - - -“Glúm, a powerful man, went with his brother (Thorarin) to -Höskuldsstadir with eighteen men to ask in marriage Hallgerd, the -daughter of the chief Höskuld who lived there. When they had stayed -there overnight Glúm’s brother, Thórarin, said: ‘I have come here, -Höskuld, with my brother Glúm to ask thy daughter Hallgerd in marriage -for him. Thou must know that he is high-born.’ ‘I know,’ said Höskuld, -‘that your brothers are of good kin, but I will also tell thee that I -married her once and it became a great misfortune.’ Thórarin answered: -‘We will not let that prevent the bargain, for a single oath is no -evidence for all cases.’” - - -As Hallgerd had been unfortunately married, Hrut said:— - - -“This time Hallgerd must not, as before, be kept in ignorance of the -betrothal; she shall know all this bargain and see Glúm, and have her -way about marrying him or not; then she cannot accuse others if it does -not do well; all this shall be without deceit.’ Thórarin said: ‘Now, as -always, it will be best to take thy advice.’” - - -Hallgerd was sent for; and after coming in with two women— - - -“She sat down between Hrút and her father. She greeted them all with -fine words, and spoke well, and asked for news. Then she grew silent. -Glúm said: ‘I and my brother Thórarin have spoken about a bargain to thy -father, namely, that I should marry thee, Hallgerd, if it is thy will, -as it is theirs. Thou wilt also tell now, as thou art called a highly -accomplished woman, whether it is somewhat to thy mind; but if the -bargain with us is not to thy wish, we will not speak of it.’ Hallgerd -said: ‘I know that your brothers are men of good kin, and that I will -now be married much better than before; but I want to know what you have -said, and how far the matter has advanced; but as thou lookest to me, I -think I will love thee well if our tempers agree.’ Glúm himself told her -all the conditions, and left nothing out, and asked Höskuld and Hrút -whether they were rightly told. Höskuld said they were. Hallgerd said: -‘You, my father, and Hrút have behaved so well to me in this matter that -I will do this at your advice, and this bargain shall be as you have -made it.’ Hrút said: ‘I think it advisable that I and Höskuld should -name witnesses, and that Hallgerd should betroth herself if the lawman -thinks it right.’ Thórarin answered: ‘It is right.’ Then the property of -Hallgerd was valued, and Glúm was to give as much, and there was to be -joint-partnership between them. Then Glúm betrothed Hallgerd to himself, -and they rode home. Höskuld was to hold the wedding feast” (Njala, c. -13). - - -When girls were of age they could transact their own business. - - -“There are maidens called _baugryg_. They shall pay with rings and take -rings when they are only children and inheritance-born, till they sit -down on a bride’s chair. Then they throw this into the lap of their -kinsmen, and shall neither pay nor take rings thereafter” (Frostath., -vi. 4). - - -A widow, who had the same rights as a girl of age, could not be forced -into a new marriage by her father or kinsmen, but on the other hand she -could not marry without their consent; and the conditions of the -marriage were generally settled by the spokesmen of the suitor and her -nearest of kin in the usual manner. - - -“A widow shall betroth herself and take the advice of her kinsmen” -(Gulathing’s Law, 51). - - -“Thorgerd, Thorstein’s daughter, Höskuld’s mother, was still a young and -very beautiful woman. She did not like to stay in Iceland after the -death of Koll (her husband). She declared to her son Höskuld that she -wished to go abroad with the property she owned. Höskuld said he was -sorry to part with her, but would not oppose her will in this any more -than in other things. Then Höskuld bought the half of a ship in -Dögurdarnes for his mother. Thorgerd went on board with much property, -set sail, and after a good journey landed in Norway. She had in Norway a -large family and many highborn kinsmen; they received her well, and -offered her everything she might wish. Thorgerd accepted this -thankfully, and said she intended to settle down there. She was not long -a widow; Herjólf, a wealthy and highly-honoured lendirmadn, asked her in -marriage. She accepted him, although he was not handsome, and a splendid -wedding was celebrated. A son was born to them, who was called Hrut, and -who quickly grew up and became very strong and large. He was fair of -face like his mother’s family. Herjólf fell sick and died, and men -thought it a great loss. After his death Thorgerd did not like to remain -in Norway, but returned to Iceland to her son Höskuld with much -property, and remained there until her death, after which she was buried -in a mound. After her burial Höskuld took all her property, and offered -half of it to Hrut, who had remained in Norway” (Laxdæla, 7). - - -The Icelandic chief Thorkel Eyjolfsson wanted to marry the widow Gudrun, -Usvifr’s daughter. The chief Snorri godi asked her in marriage on his -behalf. - - -“Gudrun answered: ‘My sons Thorleik and Bolli will have most of the -power in this, but thou, Snorri, art the third man to whom I would most -willingly entrust the matters which I think very important, for thou -hast long given me good advice.’ Snorri said it was evident that Thorkel -ought not to be rejected. Thereafter Snorri had the sons of Gudrun -called thither; he told them how much support they could get from -Thorkel on account of his wealth and foresight, and gave good advice -about it. Bolli answered: ‘My mother will be best able to see this; I -shall consent to her will. But surely we think it advisable to take into -account that thou hast supported this matter, Snorri, for thou hast done -many good things for us.’ Gudrun said: ‘We shall carefully heed the -advice of Snorri in this matter, for thy counsels have been good to us.’ -Snorri urged her strongly to do it, and it was settled that the marriage -should take place. Snorri offered to make the wedding-feast. Thorkel was -pleased at that, and said: ‘I have got provisions enough to supply as -much as you like.’ Then Gudrun said: ‘It is my will that the feast shall -be here at Helgafell’” (Laxdæla, 68). - - -People could not marry unless they had means enough to support -themselves in comfort. If they acquired wealth afterwards, then he owned -two-thirds, and she one-third, both of land and movable property, and -the husband could not take his wife’s property out of the country -without her consent. Partnership between husband and wife was said to be -established after a certain time, which according to Frostathing’s Law -was twelve months. - -But according to the Gulathing, man and wife could not, without the -consent of the heirs of both, enter into partnership before they had -children; but when they had, they could make whatever partnership they -liked. When they had been married twenty years they were partners -according to law.[21] - - -“If men marry who have less property than one hundred legal _aurar_, -besides their everyday clothes, and no children, then they are liable to -lesser outlawry unless the woman is barren. No _féránsdóm_[22] shall be -held, and their property is not confiscated, and they shall leave the -land with their children, and not come back unless their property -increases so much that they own a hundred or more, or the woman is -barren” (Gragas, i. 323). - - -“If man and wife have equal property they shall make partnership if they -wish, which is also valid for their heirs. The contract of betrothal is -valid between man and wife while its witnesses live and no other -contracts are made. But if the witnesses remembering it are dead, then -their property is in common, according to law, if he owned a mark or -more, and the _mund_ was paid, and they have lived together three -winters or more. If they are poor and earn property, their property is -in common according to law. According to law the joint partnership is -always thus, that he owns two parts, and she one-third”[23] (Gragas, i. -334). - - -“If a wife loses her husband, and they have lived twelve months -together, she owns one-third of the farm and of all loose property, and -her clothes besides” (Frostathing, xi. 6). - - -“If a man marries a widow or maiden who owns a farm, he owns nothing of -the farm before they have lived together twelve months. Then the laws -lay their property together. - -“If two paupers marry according to the laws of the land, and their -property increases, then he owns two-thirds, and she one-third of lands -and loose property” (Frostathing, ix. 8, 9). - - -“A man shall not take the property of his wife out of the land, except -with her consent. He shall rule over all their property for their use. -Neither of them shall by word or deed forfeit the property of the other. -Every man has the same _rétt_ for his wife as for himself” (Earlier -Gulathing’s Law, 52).[24] - - -“If a man wants to leave the country with the property of his wife, she -may give full powers to any man she wishes to forbid him going, and -prosecute him and the men who take him away, if needed” (Grágás, i. -331). - - -“A wife shall not refuse partnership to her husband. If a man marries a -maiden, they cannot enter into partnership unless the men who have right -to their inheritance assent; but if they have inheritance-born children, -they can enter into such partnership as they like. - -“If a man marries a widow, and she has children (inheritance-born -children) which are under age, and the man nevertheless wants to enter -into partnership with her, ‘then a meeting shall be summoned of the -children nearest of kin on their father’s side, and a partnership be -made according to the worth of their property; land shall be valued -against land, and loose property against loose property,’ and his -property valued also if it is more than hers. It cannot be broken if -thus made. - -“If they enter into partnership in another way, it may be broken, -whether his heirs or hers want it, by going to a _Thing_ before they -have been twenty winters together, and declaring that the partnership is -broken. If this is not done before they have been twenty winters -together, he (the husband) can never change it thereafter. - -“Wherever husband and wife enter into partnership, they shall declare it -before many men. Now if they have lived together twenty winters or more, -they are partners according to the laws, if they were not before. Then -she owns a third of the property, and he two-thirds. Though it (the -partnership) be made, if it is not made public during the twenty -winters, it is as if it had not been made” (Gulathing’s Law, 53). - - -Marriages were forbidden to the fifth degree of relationship. - - -“It is a new law that marriage is not allowed nearer than the fifth -degree in the same degrees of relationship and kinsmanship. If they are -both kinsmen in the fifth degree they may marry if they like, but pay a -larger tithe of all their property” (Grágás, i. 308). - - -The wedding feasts, at which the gods were invoked for the happiness of -the marriage, were often very splendid, and guests, to whom presents -were given, came from long distances. The length of the feasts varied -according to the rank and wealth of the family, and were so gorgeous -that they remained long in the memories of the people. - -The _brúd-kaup_, or wedding, was the fulfilment of the conditions -stipulated at the betrothal. - - -“Sigmund[25] rode to Orradal, and visited Thorkel, and was well -received. He now began his wooing, and asked Thurid in marriage. Thorkel -took this well, and thought it a great honour for his daughter and them -all. Sigmund made his wedding-feast at Hladir with Hakon jarl, and the -jarl made it last for seven nights” (Færeyinga Saga, 26).[26] - - -“Heidrek married Herborg, the daughter of King Hrollaug in Gardariki. -Their wedding-feast was made, and no man had heard of a greater feast in -these lands; it lasted a month; when it ended the chiefs were led away -with gifts. Hrollaug gave his daughter a dower of gold and silver and -costly things; Vindland, which lies next to Reidgotaland, was also to -follow her as dower” (Hervara Saga, c. 14).[27] - - -The celebration of King Olaf’s wedding is thus related:— - - -“Olaf had made preparations, with the best of all kinds of drink and -provisions that could be got. He had invited many high-born men from the -districts. When Rögnvald jarl arrived with his men, the king received -him well, and large, good, and well-furnished rooms were given to him; -the servants took care that there should be lack of nothing which might -be proper for a feast. When the feast had lasted some days, the king and -the jarl and the king’s daughter spoke together; it was agreed that -Rögnvald of Western Gautland should betroth Astrid the daughter of Olaf, -King of Sweden, to Olaf, King of Norway, with the dower which they had -before agreed upon that her sister Ingigerd should have. The king also -was to give Astrid as much as he would have given to her sister -Ingigerd. Then the feast was made larger, and the wedding of Olaf and -Astrid was celebrated with great splendour” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 94). - - -In sparsely-settled countries we find that a bondi was obliged to -shelter the bridal party. - - -“A bondi shall feed at least five of them (the bridesmen and -bridesmaids). He is an outlaw if he refuses to lodge them. This is if -the bride or bridegroom are with them; otherwise he must feed three men” -(Kristinrett Thorláks og Ketils biskupa, p. 94). - - -In the hall where the wedding-feast took place there were bridal -benches, which were probably kept in the family for such an occasion; -just as to-day the bridal crowns are kept in Norway. - -On one of the long benches the bridegroom was seated with his men; on -the other, which was opposite, the father of the bride and his male -guests. On the cross-bench sat the women, with the bride in the middle; -therefore this bench was called _brudbekk_ (bride-bench). - -Sverting Hafr-Bjarnarson was going to marry Húngerd, Thorodd’s daughter, -and invited Hlugi the black, father of Gunnlaug Ormstunga, and his sons -to the wedding-feast. - - -“The women sat on the cross-bench; Helga fagra (the fair) sat next to -the bride, and her eyes often glanced at Gunnlaug, and there the saying -was proved that ‘the eyes do not hide it if a woman loves a man.’ -Gunnlaug was then well dressed, and wore the fine clothes which King -Sigtrygg gave him; he was thought greatly superior to other men, both in -strength, beauty, and stature” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga c. ii.).[28] - - -We find that during the feast the bride was seated between the bridesmen -and bridesmaids, a custom that has come down to this day; the _linfé_ -was then presented to her as she sat under the bridal linen. - - -“Then he (the bridegroom) shall sit between the bridesmen, and she -between the bridesmaids. He shall walk across the floor and give her -_linfé_. That is lawful whether the gift is small or great” (N. G. L., -ii. 305, King Magnus’ Laws). - - -It was the custom to offer to the bride a _bekkjar-gjöf_ (bench-gift) -while she sat on the bridal bench. - -Kjartan Olafsson, a famous Icelandic champion, was taking leave of -Ingibjörg, the sister of King Olaf Tryggvason, as he was going to -Iceland. - - -“At this moment Ingibjörg opened a mead-cask standing at her side, and -took out of it a white and gold woven woman’s head-gear, which she gave -to Kjartan, saying it would be only too good for Gudrún Osvifr’s -daughter to wrap around her head; ‘and thou wilt give it to her as a -bench-gift. I want the Icelandic women to see that she who has been -talking with thee in Norway is not of thrall-kin. It was in a bag of -_gudvef_,[29] and was most costly” (Laxdæla, c. 43). - - -When Olaf Tryggvason kept his wedding-feast with Thyri of Denmark, he -asked her whether he should choose a bench-gift befitting a maiden or a -woman who has been married. She answered that he should do what seemed -to him most beseeming for himself and her. He was pleased with her -answer, and at once sent her a woman’s cloak with very fine furs and -beautifully ornamented.[30] - -We see not only how particular people were in regard to precedence, but -how jealously wives guarded the reputation of their husbands. - - -“The chief Gudmund Riki (the powerful) was present at the wedding-feast -of his overseer Thorstein; he sat in the high-seat, Thorir Helgason (a -chief) opposite to him, and the women on the cross-bench; bright lights -were burning, and tables were placed in front. The bride sat on the -middle of the cross-bench, with Thorlaug (wife of Gudmund) on the one -side, and Geirlaug (wife of Thorir Helgason) on the other. A woman went -with water to the cross-bench, having a cloth on her shoulder, and first -went to Geirlaug because she had been with her the previous winter. -Geirlaug said: ‘Thou actest with goodwill, but in a thoughtless way; -carry the water first to Thorlaug.’ She did so. Thorlaug beckoned it -away with the back of her hand, saying: ‘Too much trouble is taken, -Geirlaug, for the woman is right; there is no jealousy in my mind at -this; it is not certain that any other woman is of higher rank in the -district than thou.’ Geirlaug answered: ‘The trouble is little, -Thorlaug; but if thou hast the ambition to be most honoured, I have -nothing equal to thee, except my marriage.’ Thorlaug replied: ‘Certainly -I think thee well married, though I do not now know another who is -better married than I.’ Geirlaug added: ‘Thou wouldst be well married, -if thy husband were said by all to be courageous or valiant.’ Thorlaug -replied: ‘This is wickedly spoken, and thou art the first to say it.’ -Geirlaug replied: ‘It is true, for many others say it; but Thorkel Hák -said it first, and my husband Thorir and every man who can move his -tongue says it.’ Thorlaug said: ‘Bring the water hither, woman, and let -us end this talk” (Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13). - - -“The famous champion Gunnar of Hlidarendi was to have his wedding, and -had invited to the feast many people. He placed his guests as follows. -He sat himself in the middle of the bench; and to the right of him was -Thráin Sigfússon, Ulf Aurgodi, Valgard the grey, Mörd, Runólf, the sons -of Sigfús, and innermost Lambi. Next to Gunnar on the other side sat -Njál, then Skarphedin, Helgi, Grim, Höskuld, Hafr the wise, Ingjald from -Keldur, and the sons of Thorir from Holt. Thorir wanted to sit outside -all the men of distinction.... Höskuld was in the middle of the other -bench, and his sons inside to the left of him; Rút sat outside to the -right of Höskuld; it is not said how the others were placed. The bride, -Hallgerd, sat in the middle of the cross-bench with her daughter -Thorgerd on one side, and on the other Thórhalla, daughter of Asgrím -Ellidagrímsson” (Njala, c. 34).[31] - - -The man, as the guardian of his wife, had to manage their property; but -nevertheless the property of each was quite separate. At the marriage -the property of both was valued, and the _heimanfylgja_, _tilgjöf_, -_linfé_, and also what she had got or would get by inheritance or other -ways, were regarded as the property of the woman. - -If the husband died first, his natural heir got his property, while the -wife kept hers; but if the wife died first, the husband took back the -_tilgjöf_, and the other property went to her heirs. - -If a man did not value the property of his wife at the marriage, then he -had to pay the value to her heirs if she died before him, and take an -oath that he had not received more. But if he died first, and his -property also had not been valued, and they had been married for twelve -months, then she got one-third of the loose property and land, besides -her clothes. - - -“A man shall rule over his wife’s property while they are married, and -not separated, except that which is stipulated at their betrothal or -their marriage; that property shall she answer for and rule herself. If -an inheritance falls to a man’s wife, and there are _umagi_[32] in that -inheritance but no property,[33] her husband shall take care of these, -and “fit them out,” but her _heimanfylgja_ shall not diminish when it is -made public in a drinking-hall.[34] But if there is property in that -inheritance, the lands and all loose property shall be valued, and he -shall have the care of them and the increase, but he shall pay as much -back as he got, except the land-rents which he got afterwards” (Earlier -Frostathing’s Law, xi. 5). - - -“A gift given to a woman shall be her property, in whatever manner she -may be separated. All the property of a maiden shall be valued, loose -property against loose property, but one half of a widow’s property -shall be valued. The valuation shall be lawful in every case except -two—if she dies childless or leaves him without a protector” (Gulath., -54). - - -The only certain examples of polygamy[35] occur among the great chiefs, -such as Harald Fairhair. Harald Hardradi had two wives, Elizabeth, the -daughter of the King of Gardaríki, and Thora, the daughter of a -Norwegian chief; both enjoyed the name of queen. - -The husband was obliged to protect his wife, and take as much care of -her honour as of his own. - - -“Now is about the rights of women. Every man has claim on behalf of his -wife. A _Hauld_ owns three marks if she is struck; but a widow shall -have the same _rétt_ as her last husband (had), and the one she wishes -shall prosecute. But if a maiden is struck, her nearest kinsman shall -claim her _rétt_ as if it were his own. But if she is to have it -herself, the right plaintiff shall summon a _Thing_” (Earlier -Frostathing’s Law, x., c. 37). - - -The following laws show how strict people were in regard to kisses:— - - -“If a man kisses a woman (belonging to another) secretly, with her will, -he is liable to pay three marks, and the one who would have to prosecute -for seduction has to prosecute. If she gets angry at it, she may -prosecute herself, and the man is then liable to lesser outlawry. If a -man kisses a man’s wife secretly, he is liable to lesser outlawry -whether she allows it or refuses it. Nine neighbours are to be called as -witnesses to this at the _Thing_.... If a man puts on a _fald_ or -_woman’s clothes_ to deceive a woman, he is liable to lesser -outlawry”[36] (Gragas, i. 337). - - -“If a man makes a _song of love_[37] on a woman, he is to be outlawed. -If the woman is twenty years or older, she shall prosecute the case -herself. But if she is younger, or will not prosecute, her legal -guardian has to do it” (Gragas, vol. ii., p. 150). - - -Women’s rights appear to have been not altogether unknown even in these -early days; for women who got their own livelihood and whose kinsmen did -not trouble themselves about their support, were their own masters. - - -“If kinsmen will not take proper care of women, and they (the women) get -their living themselves, then they shall rule over themselves as they -like” (Frostath., xi. 17). - - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - To tie or join together. _Tengdir_ = bonds or ties of affinity; - _tengda-modir_ = mother-in-law; _tengda-fadir_ = father-in-law. - -Footnote 2: - - Powerful chiefs sometimes sent ambassadors to ask for the hand of the - lady they wanted to wed. - -Footnote 3: - - Cf. also c. 13, 98. - -Footnote 4: - - Farm of Fridthjóf’s father. - -Footnote 5: - - The mund was the property or money which the suitor was to give to the - bride. - -Footnote 6: - - The word _festar_ implied that she was fastened, or, in a modern - sense, betrothed to the man; and this important ceremony preliminary - to marriage took place in the presence of six witnesses. - -Footnote 7: - - Common woollen cloth. - -Footnote 8: - - Cf. also Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 51; Njala, c. 2. - -Footnote 9: - - A ship. - -Footnote 10: - - The word seems to imply a gift of linen, in which, perhaps, clothing - was included. Olaf Tryggvason gave a cloak as linfé. - -Footnote 11: - - Cf. Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. 4. - -Footnote 12: - - Cf. also Laxdæla. - -Footnote 13: - - Skupla = a woman’s hood hiding the face. - -Footnote 14: - - This necklace had been made by Dvergar, and belonged to Freyja. - -Footnote 15: - - Stones to make a false breast. - -Footnote 16: - - Cf. also Rigsmal, 23. - -Footnote 17: - - Thor. - -Footnote 18: - - For the whole story of Thor and Thrym, as translated from the Earlier - Edda, see Anderson’s Mythology, pp. 328–335; and especially, in - connection with this, pp. 331, 332. - -Footnote 19: - - Cf. also Hörd, c. 3. - -Footnote 20: - - Cf. also Droplaugar sona Saga, 23, 24. - -Footnote 21: - - Borgarthing’s Law says thirty years; in Iceland after three years - (Gragas, 153). But however these laws differed, they all agree that - the woman owns one-third, the man two-thirds. - -Footnote 22: - - A court of execution or confiscation to be held within a fortnight - after the sentence at the house of a person convicted in one of the - two degrees of outlawry. - -Footnote 23: - - Cf. also Gulathing’s Law, 53. - -Footnote 24: - - Cf. also Gragas, i. 331. - -Footnote 25: - - This Sigmund is the famous champion of the Faroes. - -Footnote 26: - - Cf. also Sturlunga, i., c. 13; Fornmanna Sögur, iv. c. 24–26; Hörd’s - Saga, c. 11. - -Footnote 27: - - Cf. also Vatnsdæla Saga, c. 12; Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13; Hervarar - Saga, c. 10. - -Footnote 28: - - Cf. also Hænsa Thori’s Saga, c. 12. - -Footnote 29: - - Costly woven stuff. - -Footnote 30: - - Cf. Fornmanna Sögur, ii. 133; Laxdæla, 69; Gunnlaug Ormstunga, ch. ii. - -Footnote 31: - - Cf. Hænsa Thori’s Saga, c. 12. - -Footnote 32: - - Umagi, one that cannot support himself. - -Footnote 33: - - Negative inheritance. - -Footnote 34: - - Before people in a hall. - -Footnote 35: - - Concubines were both slaves of high birth who were captured in war and - women of lower birth, and seem to have often lived in the house. Njal - had a concubine whose son by him was killed, and Njal’s wife was - anxious to avenge his death. Their status seems to have depended on - that of the man with whom they lived. - -Footnote 36: - - Another text states that the women also are punished if they do the - opposite. - -Footnote 37: - - This probably means derisive songs. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - DIVORCE. - - Manner of declaring a divorce—Causes for divorce—Divorce easy to - get—Separation—Division of property in case of separation—Penalty - for wife-beating—Restrictions on the extravagance of women. - - -A divorce was declared in the following manner. The wife had to declare -the separation, and the reason of it, three times in three places in the -presence of witnesses—first, in front of them on a bed; secondly, in -front of the men’s door; and, thirdly, at the _Thing_; but separation -did not prevent either party from marrying again afterwards. - -Mörd gave advice to his daughter Unn how she should separate herself -from her husband, Rut, when he was not at home. - - -“When thou art quite ready thou shalt go to thy bed, and with thee the -men who are thy followers; thou shalt name witnesses at the bedside of -thy husband, and declare that thou art separated from him by a lawful -divorce, as fairly as is possible after the rules of the _Althing_ and -the laws of all the people. The same naming of witnesses thou shalt also -have at the men’s door, and then thou shalt ride away” (Njala, c. 7). - - -The causes for divorce were numerous. A cause of divorce was that of -wearing clothes belonging to the opposite sex, as when a man wore a -shirt so open that you could see his breast; or when women wore -breeches; and we find that sometimes these clothes were cunningly made -on purpose to bring about a separation. - -One day Thórd Ingunnarson asked Gudrún what a woman was liable to if she -always wore breeches like men. She answered: - - -“‘They are to be punished for that just as a man is punished who has -such a large opening in his clothes that his bare chest is displayed. -Both are reasons for divorce....’ Thórd at once rushed to the law court -and named witnesses, he declared himself divorced from Aud, because she -wore closed breeches like men” (Laxdæla, c. 35). - - -“Gudrun, Usvifr’s daughter, was forced by her father to marry Thorvald -Halldórsson, of Garpsdal. She always asked him to buy her the most -costly things. Once, when she asked him for something, he said that she -knew no moderation, and gave her a cheek-horse (box on the ear). She -answered: ‘Now thou hast given me what we women think of great -importance, and that is a good complexion, and thou hast cured me of -importunate requests.’ The same evening Thórd (Ingunnarson, a good -friend of hers) came in. Gudrun told him of this disgrace, and asked how -she should take revenge for it. Thórd smiled, and replied: ‘I know a -good way; make a shirt for him with an opening of divorce, and declare -thyself separated from him for this reason.’ Gudrun said nothing against -this, and they left off speaking, but that same spring Gudrun declared -herself separated from Thorvald, and went home to her father at Laugar” -(Laxdæla, ch. 34). - - -Divorce was easy to get,[38] especially for the man, on the ground of -the wife’s infidelity; while the wife could get it on the ground of -repeated ill-treatment from her husband. - - -“If a man does not sleep in the same bed with his wife for six seasons -on account of dislike, then her kinsmen can claim her property and also -her _rétt_, but she shall herself keep her property” (Gragas, i. 329). - - -A man could separate from his wife without a lawful reason, but the -separation was looked upon as a disgrace by her kinsmen, and revenge was -sure to follow. - - -“If a man wants to separate from his wife, he shall declare himself -separated so that each of them may hear the other’s voice, and have -witnesses present” (Gulathing’s Law, 54).[39] - - -If a husband tried to take his wife out of the country against her will -she could separate herself from him. - - -“If a man wants to take his wife against her will out of this land she -shall declare herself separated if she likes, wherever they happen to -be, if she can do it with reason; then he is liable to lose her and her -property as if they had owned no property together, and he has no more -right to that woman after they have separated than to any other woman -with whom he has not lived” (Gragas, i. 331). - - -A wife could not separate without reason,[40] and even if she left her -husband with good reason on her side, he could keep her dower, and could -force her to come back. - -In case of a separation, the wife’s parents or kinsmen could claim the -_mund_ and the _heimanfylgja_. - -A bondi, Thorkel, having heard that his wife Asgerd loved another man, -was, on his remonstrating, told by his wife to choose one of two -alternatives. - - -“Thou mayst choose one of two conditions. To stay with me as if nothing -had happened; otherwise I will at once name witnesses, and declare -myself separated from thee, and let my father claim my mund and -heimanfylgja” (Gisli Sursson’s Saga, p. 16). - - -If a separation took place where neither party could be said to have -been guilty of criminality, then the wife took the same amount of -property as she would have at the death of her husband, or as she would -take in case she left him on account of any unfaithfulness on his part. -If she left him without any valid cause, or he separated from her on -account of her repeated infidelity, then the husband had the right to -retain all her property as long as she lived, and her heir had no claim -to anything of the _tilgjöf_. But if she was unfaithful only once, she -forfeited her _tilgjöf_, and kept the rest of her property. If the man -drove her away against her will for that single offence, she came into -all her rights. - - -“If a wife commits adultery, or separates from her husband without -reason, she has forfeited her mund and her increase of a third -(_thridjungsauki_). If her husband offers to take her back and she will -not accept it he shall keep all her property while she is alive and then -her next heir shall get her heimanfylgja but no increase of a third. If -they are reconciled and he takes her back, their property shall remain -as if there had been no breach between them. If she repeats the crime he -shall keep her property while he is alive, and if he will not take her -back, then it shall be as has already been said. If she does not and -promises redress, and offers to live with her husband and he will not -take her, then she shall get her heimanfylgja but not the increase of a -third. If the husband wants to rob her of her heimanfylgja and says she -has committed this crime before, and people have not before heard him -accuse her of it, she shall take the _einseidi_ (oath of one) and get -her heimanfylgja, but not her increase of a third if he will not take -her back. If a hindrance separates them according to God’s laws each of -them shall have their respective property” (Frostathing’s Law, xi. 14). - - -It was a common provision in all the laws that a man was not allowed to -beat his wife, under a penalty of paying the same indemnity as he had a -right to receive if he himself were beaten. If he had beaten her three -times and did it a fourth, then she could leave him, taking with her her -_heimanfylgja_ and _tilgjöf_. - - -“If a man beats his wife with keys or latches, then he is liable to pay -three marks. Also if he takes another woman and puts her in the house; -she is called _hearth-rival_. Thirdly, if a man beats his wife with a -horn or with the fist on an ale-bench, then he is to pay three marks. If -she three times gets _rétt_ for these reasons, the fourth time she may -separate from him, or not, as she likes” (Borgarthing[41] Laws, ii. 8). - - -“When Börk had left his farm Helgafell Thordis went forward and named -witnesses that she declared herself separated from her husband Börk, and -pleaded as a reason that he had struck her, and she would not put up -with his blows. Their property was divided, and Snorri (a son of her -former marriage) took charge of it on behalf of his mother, for he was -her heir” (Eyrbyggja, c. 14). - - -Restrictions were put upon the extravagance of women.[42] - - -“The wife of a _hauld_ (odal’s bondi) is allowed to buy to the extent of -one eyrir, and not more. If she buys for more the bargain shall not be -kept, except her husband wishes it so” (Earlier Frostathings Law, xi. -22). - - -“If a wife gives away her husband’s property he can claim it all, and -prosecute the man who received it. If a man sends his wife to the Thing -to pay debts or other expenses of theirs, her hand-shaking is valid,[43] -and also when she goes to a ship to make bargains with his consent, but -no other transactions are valid unless he wishes them to be so. When she -buys what is necessary for their household while he is at the Thing, -that is also valid. The woman shall not sell half her land, a farm or -more, or a _godord_ (dignity of godi), or a seagoing ship, except with -the will of her guardian” (Gragas, i. 333). - - ------ - -Footnote 38: - - In Iceland a high degree of poverty after the marriage was a lawful - reason for divorce (Gragas, 40). - -Footnote 39: - - Frostathing Law, xi., xiv. - -Footnote 40: - - According to Borgarthing Law, a wife after waiting three years for the - return of her husband could marry again. - -Footnote 41: - - Cf. also Gulathing’s Law, 54. - -Footnote 42: - - There is an example of a man leaving his wife on account of - extravagance in the household, and for insulting him in the presence - of people (Landnama, ii. 6; Njala, 34). - -Footnote 43: - - A bargain was sealed by hand-shaking, a custom still prevalent in - Norway, where, when the traveller has paid his fare on the post road - from one station to another, the driver shakes hands with him. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - THE BIRTH AND BRINGING UP OF CHILDREN. - - Appearance of the Nornir at a child’s birth—Ceremony attending - birth—Religious rites—Antiquity of the custom of sprinkling water - over a child—The Asa form and the Christian form of baptism—Naming - the child—Birth of Sigurd, Ragnar Lodbrok’s son—Helgi’s - birth—Distinctive names—Belief in predestination—Possession of two - names considered lucky—Presence of the household and of neighbours - at childbirth—Gifts of weapons and animals—Cutting the first - tooth—The _prime sign_—Exposure of children—Reasons for - exposure—The custom continued after the introduction of - Christianity—The bringing up of children—Attention paid to - physical development—Secret adoption not allowed. - - -The _Nornir_ seem to have appeared during the night that followed a -child’s birth, which among the high-born was attended with a great deal -of ceremony. The newly-born infant was placed on the floor, and remained -there without being touched by any one, until taken up and put in the -folds of his cloak, by his father, or in his absence by the nearest of -kin, who by this ceremony acknowledged the legitimacy of his offspring. -After he had received the child in his arms he looked at it, and from -its appearance judged of its temper, proportions, fortune, luck in war, -&c., and decided if the newly-born infant should live or be exposed and -left to die—a custom similar to that of the Spartans. - -Then if the child was to live, a religious or sacred rite called _Ausa -Vatni_,[44] which seems to have consisted either in pouring or -sprinkling water over the child, was performed, a custom so common that -we are not told how the water was poured or sprinkled over, though it -may have been with the hand. - -This ceremony was considered a most sacred rite, and was an integral -part of the Asa creed, and consequently of great antiquity, antedating -Christian baptism, and most binding among the ancestors of the -English-speaking peoples: to expose a child after this ceremony was -considered murder. It was once, no doubt, practised by the Franks who -belonged to the Northern tribes; and certain forms of Christian baptism -of the present day may be based upon this earlier form, which was only -changed in name by the earlier Christian missionaries. That the heathen -or Asa baptism was not recognised by the Christians we have ample proofs -in the Sagas. The Asa form was, as we have seen, called _Ausa Vatni_, -and the Christian, _Skirn_.[45] - - -“It was then the custom to choose the best men to _water-sprinkle_ or -give names to the children of high-born men. When the time came at which -Thora expected to bear her child, she wished to go and find King Harald. -He was then north at Sœheim, while she was at Mostr; she went northward -on Sigurd Jarl’s ship. During the night they lay to near the shore, and -Thora bore a son upon the rock at the end of the bridge. Sigurd Jarl -_water-sprinkled_ the boy, and called him Hákon, after his father, Hakon -Hlada Jarl” (Harald Hárfagr’s Saga, c. 40). - - -“Harald Fairhair when he began to get old gave to his sons the rule of -Norway. He made Eirik king over all his sons, and when he had ruled for -seventy winters, gave the kingship into his hands. At that time Gunnhild -(Eirik’s wife) bore a son, and Harald _water-sprinkled_ him and gave him -his own name, therewith declaring that he should be king after his -father if he should live”[46] (Egil’s Saga, c. 59). - - -The child was often named after some renowned kinsmen or friends; and -sometimes the person who performed the rite gave his own name, and it -was believed that the luck of the namesake would follow the child -through life: thus Sigurd, one of the famous sons of Ragnar Lodbrok, was -named after his grandfather Sigurd Hring.[47] The one who gave a name to -the child always made it a present, which was called _nafnfesti_ -(name-fastening), and consisted either of rings, weapons, farms, or -lands. Helgi, the son of Borghild, at whose birth the Nornir were -present, was given presents at his _name-fastening_. - -The birth of Sigurd, son of Ragnar Lodbrok, is thus described. - - -“The time arrived when she (Kráka or Aslaug) was confined and bore a -son, whom the servant-maids took and showed to her. She bade them carry -him to Ragnar (Lodbrok), and let him see him; the boy was taken into the -hall and placed in the fold of Ragnar’s cloak. When he saw the boy -Ragnar was asked what he should be named; he sang: - - Sigurd shall the boy be named, - He will fight battles, - And be much like his mother, - And be called his father’s son; - He will of Odin’s family - The foremost man be called; - That serpent is in his eye[48] - Which another slew. - -“He drew a gold ring from his hand, and gave it to the boy as -name-fastening” (Ragnar Lodbrok’s Saga, c. 8). - - -The following stanzas give the account of Helgi’s birth:— - - It was in early ages - When eagles screamed, - Holy waters glided - From the heaven-mountains; - Then Borghild bore - The high-minded Helgi - In Brálund. - - It became night in the house; - The nornir came - Who for the hero - Shaped his life; - They bade him become - The most renowned of _Fylkirs_ - And of _Budlungs_— - Seem the best. - - Powerfully they spun - The threads of fate, - When burghs were broken - In Brálund; - They unravelled - The golden threads, - And fastened them - Under the middle of the moon’s hall.[49] - - In the east and the west - They hid the ends; - There owned the _Lofdung_[50] - Land between; - The kinswoman of Neri[51] - Flung one string[52] - On northern roads, - Bid it hold for ever. - - One thing grieved - The son of the Ylfings,[53] - And also the maiden - Who bore the beloved one; - Raven quoth to raven, - Sitting in a high tree, - Wanting food: - This I know. - - The son of Sigmund - One day old - Stands in _brynja_, - Now the day has dawned; - Helgi’s eyes flash - Like those of _Hildings_; - He is the friend of wolves,[54] - Let us be merry. - - The host thought him - A _Dögling_.[55] - They said good years - Had come among men; - The king himself went - From the war-clash - To give garlic[56] - To the young Gram.[57] - - He gave the name of Helgi,[58] - And Hringstadir,[59] - Solfjöll,[60] Snœfjöll,[61] - And Sigarsvellir,[62] - Hringstod,[63] Hatun,[64] - And Himinvangar[65] - An ornamented blood-serpent[66] - He gave to the brother of Sinfjötli. - - (Helga Kvida Hundingsbana, 1). - -Special or characteristic names were often given to grown-up persons as -name-fastenings for one reason or another, in addition to their proper -name, and almost every important man seems to have had one. - - -“The king Ingjald of Naumdæla fylki said: ‘What sounded so shrill, An, -when thou didst enter the door the first time here?’ ‘My bow,’ answered -An, ‘because the door of your hall was so small, king, that it was all -bent together when I had it on my shoulders before I came in; it sounded -loud as it straightened again.’ ‘Thou shalt,’ added the king, ‘be named -An Bogsveigir (bow-bender).’ ‘What dost thou give me as name-fastening?’ -‘Here is a gold ring as name-fastening and Yule gift, because I heard -what thou didst say a little while ago, and thou, tall as thou art, must -also be a very strong man.’ ‘I suppose I am very strong, but I do not -know it,’ said An” (An Bogsveigi’s Saga, c. 3). - - -“King Olaf said: ‘Thou art a _Vandrædaskáld_ (troublesome scald), but -thou shalt be my man.’ Hallfred answered: ‘What wilt thou, king, give me -as name-fastening, if I shall be called _Vandrædaskáld_?’ The king then -gave him a sword, but without a scabbard, and said: ‘Now make a stanza -about the sword, with “_sword_” in every line’:- - - ‘There is one sword of swords - Which made me sword-rich; - Now the wielder of swords - Will have swords enough; - I shall not lack swords, - I deserve three swords, - If there only were - A scabbard to this sword.’ - -Then the king gave him a scabbard and said: ‘“Sword” is not in every -line.’ Hallfred answered: ‘There are three swords in one of them.’ ‘That -is true,’ said the king” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 90; Fornmanna Sögur, ii. -56).[67] - - -All through the old Saga literature we see how strongly the people -believed in predestination. Luck and good fortune were considered -hereditary in certain families, especially in those of kings who were -supposed to have their individual good luck, which they could -communicate to their champions and friends, not only for the execution -of some one adventurous undertaking, for it followed the person during -his whole life. - - -“A death-fated man cannot be saved” (Islendinga Sögur, ii. 103; Fms., -vi. 417). - - -“All is dangerous for the death-fated” (Fafnismál, 11). - - -“A man not death-fated cannot be dealt with (fought against)” (Gisli -Súrsson, 148). - - -“He who is not death-fated escapes in some way” (Fostbrœdra Saga, 171). - - -“Every one must go when he is death-fated” (Gretti’s Saga, 138). - - -Two Norwegian brothers, Thórólf and Thorstein, had a fight against the -Viking Ljót and his men, and were victorious. After they had landed and -were walking up from their ships, Thórólf said: - - -“‘I will now make a stop in my journey; I do not like to walk farther.’ -Thorstein asked: ‘Art thou wounded, brother?’ Thórólf answered: ‘I will -not conceal that when Ljót threw his sword he aimed at thee, and I -covered thee with the shield; then I was unprotected, and it hit my -stomach below the ribs, and pierced it; then I wrapped the clothes -around me, and thus I have walked since; my walking will soon be -finished now.’ Thorstein said: ‘It has happened as I supposed, that one -of us would not return; I would give much not to have gone on this -journey.’ Thórólf added: ‘Let us not reproach ourselves with that now, -for no one can get over his day of fate, and I prefer to die in good -repute than live in the shame of not having followed thee; nevertheless -I want to ask of thee a boon, which shows my pride.’ ‘What is that, -kinsman?’ asked Thorstein. Thórólf said: ‘I will tell thee. It seems to -me my name has not existed long enough, and it will disappear as -withered grass, and I shall never be mentioned when thou art dead; but I -see that thou wilt increase our kin, and live a long time; thou wilt be -a man of great luck. If thou shouldst get a son, I want thee to give him -the name of Thórólf, and all the luck which I have had I will give to -him, for thus I believe my name will live while the world is inhabited.’ -Thorstein answered: ‘I will grant thee this willingly, for I expect it -to be to our honour, and good luck will follow thy name while it remains -in our family.’ Thórólf added: ‘Now I think I have asked what seems most -important to me,’ and then he died” (Svarfdæla, c. 5). - - -“Thorstein had a son by his wife, and, when the boy was born, he was -brought to his father. Thorstein looked at him and said: ‘That boy shall -be named Ingimund, after the father of his mother, and I expect him to -be lucky on account of his name” (Vatnsdæla, c. 7). - - -“Ingimund, son of a famous Viking who had helped King Harald Fairhair in -the battle of Hafrsfjord, had married Vigdis, daughter of Thórir Jarl. -While on her way to Iceland she gave birth to a boy, who was handsome. -Ingimund looked at him and said: ‘He shall be named Thorstein, and I -think my father’s luck will follow him.’ Some time after he had another -son, and said: ‘The boy is large-limbed and has sharp eyes. If he lives -there will not be many to equal him; he will become a great champion, if -I am not much mistaken. I will not forget our kinsman Jökul, as my -father begged of me, and he shall be called Jökul” (Vatnsdæla, c. 13). - - -It was considered lucky to have two names, and it was thought that by -adding the name of a god to a person’s name he would acquire the special -protection of this deity; hence such names as Thorólf, Thorstein, &c., -from _Thor_, the most popular prefix. Sometimes the general name of the -god, such as _As_ or _Gud_, or the word _Ve_ (holy), was added or -prefixed. - - -“Helgi, son of Thorgils, was a tall, strong and hardy man; he was -fine-looking and stout. He did not talk much in his youth, and was even -then overbearing and headstrong; he was ingenious and whimsical. It is -said that one day, when the cattle were at the milking-place, a bull was -there which belonged to the farm, and that another bull came, and they -butted each other. The young Helgi was outside, and saw that their bull -was defeated, so he went away and fetched an iron spike and tied it to -the forehead of the bull, and thus it defeated the other. From this he -was called Brodd-Helgi, and he was more skilled than any other man who -grew up in the district” (Thatt of Thorstein the White, c. 1). - - -“Thorólf in his old age married Unn, and by her had a son named Stein. -This boy Thórólf dedicated to his friend Thór, and he was therefore -called Thórstein” (Eyrbyggja, c. 7). - - -“Thorstein was married to Thóra, and by her had a son, who was -water-sprinkled and named Grim; his father gave him to Thor, saying he -would become _hofgodi_ (temple-priest); he was on that account called -Thorgrim” (Eyrbyggja, c. 20). - - -When a woman gave birth to a child the household and neighbours had to -be present. - - -“Housemaids and neighbouring women shall be at the _bed-journey_ of -every woman until the child is born, and not leave it before they have -laid it to the breast of the mother.... No woman shall have her child at -the breast longer than three fasts,[68] but shall have it until the -third one. If her husband says that she must take her child from the -breast and his wife has such power that she will not obey his words, she -is liable to pay three marks of her own property. If he does not heed it -any more than she, then they are each to pay three marks of their -property” (Borgarthing Law, 3). - - -The children of prominent families were said to be born with weapons, -which seem to have been specially made to be given at the time of birth; -and the animals born that day were also given to the child as a -birth-gift. - - -“Hlöd, the son of King Heidrek, was brought up with King Humli, his -mother’s father, and was the most handsome and bold of men. But it was -an old saying at that time that a man was born with weapons or horses; -this was said about the weapons that were made at the time the man was -born. Also sheep, animals, oxen or horses, if born at the time, were -given to high-born men in their honour, as here is said about Hlödver -Heidreksson: - - Hlöd was then born - In Húnaland, - With sax and sword, - With a long brynja, - With a ring-adorned helmet, - With a sharp sword (mækir), - With a well-broken horse - On the holy field.”[69] - - (Hervarar Saga, c. 13.) - - -When a child cut his first tooth it was the custom to give him a -present. - - The Gods in days of yore - Gave to Frey - Alfheim as a tooth fee. - - (Grimnismal.) - - -“Ásta, Gudbrand’s daughter, bore a boy who was named Olaf when he was -water-sprinkled by Hrani. It was said by some that Gudbrand would not -let him be raised on account of the hatred he had against his father -(Harald Grænski), until Hrani told him that he had seen light over the -house in which the child was born. Gudbrand himself went to look at it. -Then the boy was taken and brought up with great love. Hrani gave him a -belt and a knife as tooth-fee, and when he grew up he gave him a ring -and a sword” (St. Olaf’s Saga, vol. iv.; Fornmanna Sögur). - - -In the battle of Svold, Olaf Tryggvason said to Thyri, his queen:- - - -“Now thou needest not weep, for thou hast got back thy possessions in -Vindland, but I shall to-day claim thy tooth-fee from King Svein, thy -brother, which thou hast often asked me to do.” - - -The goddesses and gods seem to have been called upon to help women in -the pangs of childbirth. - - -“Borgný, a king’s daughter, could not be delivered of her child before -Oddrun, the sister of Atli, came to help her; and then Borgný says: - - Thus may help thee - The kind powers - Frigg and Freyja - And more gods - As thou didst take - The danger from my hands.” - - (Oddrunargrát.) - - -Traders and warriors who lived abroad among Christians had to receive -what was called the _prime sign_, which enabled them to live among -Christians without becoming baptized and forsaking their ancient faith. -These prime-signed men on their return to their native land brought with -them the first notions of Christianity, and undoubtedly paved the way -for its final acceptance. - - -“A man by name Toki came to King Olaf Haraldsson. The king asked him if -he was baptized. Toki answered: ‘I am _prime-signed_ and not baptized, -because I have been in turn with the heathens and the Christians, though -I believe in Hvitikrist (the white Christ). My errand to you is also -that I want to be baptized and have the creed which you preach, for I am -not likely to get it from a better man. The king was glad, when he -wanted to be baptized and serve God. Thereupon Toki was baptized by the -king’s hird-bishop and died in the white garments (of baptism)” -(Flateyjarbok, ii. 137). - - -“In the spring the brothers-in-law Thorgrim and Thorkel made the ship of -the eastmen ready for a voyage abroad, and took it as their property. -These eastmen had been very unruly in Norway and there was no peace -there. They went to sea, and this same summer Gisli and his -brother-in-law Vestein went abroad from Skeljavik in Steingrim’s fjord. -Önund of Medaldal managed the farm of Gisli and Thorkel, and Saka-Stein -that of Thorgrim in Sœból, with the latter’s wife, Thordis. He was a -near kinsman of Thorgrim. At this time Harald Grafeld (gray skin) ruled -over Norway. Thorgrim and Thorkel landed north in Thrandheim and there -met the king, went before him and greeted him, and he received them -well; they became friendly with his men, and it was easy for them to get -property and honour. Gisli and his followers were at sea more than a -hundred days and landed in Hördaland, during the winter-nights (first -three nights of winter), in a heavy snowstorm and violent gale. Their -ship was broken into chips, but they saved their property and lives. -Skegg-Bjalfi had a trading ship, and was going to Denmark. Gisli wanted -to buy half his ship from him, and he said he had heard they were good -men and sold them this half; they at once gave him more than its value -in property. They went south to Denmark, to the trading town called -Vebjörg (Viborg); they stayed there during the winter with Sigrhadd; -they were three together there, Gisli, Vestein, and Bjalfi; they were -good friends and exchanged many gifts. At this time Christianity had -come into Denmark, and Gisli and his companions let themselves be -_prime-signed_; it was a custom at that time much used by the men who -were on trading journeys, for they could then hold free intercourse with -the Christians. Early in the spring Bjalfi made his ship ready for -Iceland. Sigurd, a Norwegian, the companion of Vestein, was then west in -England” (Gisli Sursson’s Saga, pp. 95–97). - - -The exposure of the child depended so entirely upon the will of the -father, that not even the mother dared to oppose it; if the child was -fatherless at its birth, the right was exercised by the person who ruled -over the household or family, and the child was then carried out by a -thrall. Such children as had not been received by the father, or with -his knowledge or consent, were called _úborin börn_ (unborn or -non-accepted children); the exposure itself is called _utburd_ (= -carrying out, _i.e._, out of the house). - -There was a chief in Iceland named Asbjorn Gunnbjarnarson; his wife was -Thorgerd, a fine and accomplished woman. They had a daughter, Thorny, -whom Thorgerd gave in marriage to Skidi without Asbjorn’s consent. - - -“Some years after Asbjorn rode to the _Thing_ and said to Thorgerd: ‘Now -I ride to the _Thing_ as I am wont, and I know that thou art far gone -with a child; now whatever it is, boy or girl, it shall not be raised, -but exposed.’ She said he should not do that, so wise and powerful a man -as he was; ‘for it would be an unheard-of wickedness even if a poor man -did it, but especially as you do not lack goods.’ Asbjorn replied: ‘I -thought when thou gavest our daughter Thorny to Skidi, the eastman, -without my knowing it, that I should not raise more children for thee to -give away against my will, but if thou dost not do as I tell thee, thou -wilt feel it, as will all who break my orders, or do not do what I -want.’ He rode to the _Thing_. A little after Thorgerd gave birth to a -boy; it was large, fat, and very fine; all who saw it, both men and -women, praised it. Though Thorgerd thought the child was fine and loved -it much, nevertheless she wanted it to be exposed, for she knew the -temper of her husband, Asbjorn, that he must have his will. Then she got -men to expose the child, and prepare him, as was the custom. They took -it out of the house, laid it down between two stones, and put a large -slab over it; they left a piece of pork in the child’s mouth, and went -away. Gest, a bondi, heard the child crying, and took it home to his -wife; she was the foster-mother of Thorgerd, and recognised the boy. -They agreed to raise the child as their own” (Finnbogi Rammi’s Saga). - - -Among the chief reasons which led to the exposure of a child were -deformity, and discord between man and wife; dissatisfaction of the -wife’s father with the union of which the child was the fruit; -persuasion of the wife if her husband got a child by a concubine; -superstitions as to evil omens at the time of birth, which were thought -to indicate coming misfortunes caused by the child; and, finally, the -utter inability of the parents to raise the child on account of their -poverty. - - -“Every child which is born into this world shall be raised, baptized, -and carried to the church, except that only which is born so deformed -that the mother cannot give strength to it, whose heels are in the place -of the toes, whose chin is between his shoulders, the neck on his -breast, with the calves on his legs turning forward, his eyes on the -back of his head, and seal’s fins or a dog’s head. It shall be carried -to a beach and buried where neither men nor cattle go; that is the beach -of the evil one. Next is the child which is born with a skin-bag on its -face; it can be seen by every one that it cannot get its food, though it -might grow up; it shall be taken and carried to the church, be -_prime-signed_, laid at the church door; the nearest kinsman shall watch -it till breath is out of it; it shall be buried in the churchyard, and -its soul shall be prayed for as well as is possible”[70] (Earlier -Frostathing’s Law, i. 1). - - -“Signý bore a girl, both large and handsome; her brother Torfi would not -let it be water-sprinkled until he knew how it would go with her life. -She died, and he became so angry[71] that he wanted to have the child -exposed. He asked his foster-father Sigurd to take the child and go with -it to the Reykjardals river and there drown it. Sigurd said this was -very wicked, but could not refuse; so he took the child, and went with -it. It seemed to him so handsome that he had not the heart to throw it -into the river; he turned up to Signýjarstadir, and laid the child down -at the yard gate, thinking it likely that it would soon be found. Grim -bondi Signýjarson was standing outside at the house gable, and saw this. -He went and took it up and brought it in, and gave out that his wife -Helga was sick and had borne a child.... Torfi became angry at this; he -took the girl, but did not dare to kill her, for it was called murder to -kill children after they were water-sprinkled” (Hord’s Saga, c. 8). - - -“Thorstein (son of Egil Skallagrimsson) one summer prepared to go to the -_Thing_, and said to his wife Jófrid: ‘Thou art with child; if it is a -girl thou shalt have it exposed, but raise it if it is a boy.’ It was -the custom, while the country was all over heathen, for those who had -little property to have their children exposed, although it was always -considered very wicked. And when Thorstein had said this, Jófrid -answered: ‘This is unworthy of a man like thee, and thou who art so -rich, oughtest not to do this.’ Thorstein added: ‘Thou knowest well my -temper, and that it will not be well with thee if my order is not -obeyed.’ Then he rode to the _Thing_, and Jófrid gave birth to a girl -which was exceedingly handsome. The women wanted to take it, but she -said they needed not, and called her shepherd Thorvard, and said: ‘Take -my horse and lay a saddle on it, and bring this child to Thorgerd, -daughter of Egil (Skallagrimsson) in Hjardarholt, and ask her to raise -it secretly so that Thorstein may not know it; I look on this child with -such eyes of love that I have not the heart to expose it. Here are three -marks of silver as reward; Thorgerd will send thee abroad.’ Thorvard did -as she said. He rode to Hjardarholt with the child and handed it to -Thorgerd; she had it raised with her tenant at Leysingjastadir in -Hvammsfjord.... When Thorstein came home from the _Thing_ Jófrid told -him that the child had been exposed as he had ordered, but her shepherd -had run away and stolen her horse. Thorstein said this was good, and got -another shepherd. For six winters this was not discovered. A few years -after, when Thorstein was on a visit to his brother-in-law, Thorgerd -told him that the beautiful girl before him was his own daughter, and -how she had come thither. Thorstein said: ‘I cannot blame you for this; -most things that are fated take place, and you have remedied my -foolishness. I like this girl so much that it seems to me great luck to -have so fair a child; but what is her name?’ ‘Helga she is called,’ -answered Thorgerd. ‘Helga the fair,’ added Thorstein. ‘Now thou shalt -make her ready to go home with me’” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. 3). - - -No violent hand was ever laid upon children that were to be exposed. -Only one case is mentioned of a child which was to be thrown into the -water. One custom was to put the child in a covered grave; but the most -common was to leave the death or life of the child to fate, by exposing -it in an out-of-the-way place; for instance, between heaped-up stones, -or in a hollow under the root of a tree, but making it tolerably secure -against wild animals. Sometimes nourishment, mostly pork to suck, was -given, in order to prolong its life, in case any one might possibly find -it and take pity on it. - - -“Thórkatla, Asgrim’s wife, bore a boy, and he ordered it to be exposed. -The thrall who was to dig the grave whetted a hoe, and laid the boy on -the floor. Then they heard the boy sing— - - Let me get to my mother, - It is cold for me on the floor, - What is fitter for a boy - Than his father’s arms. - You need not whet the iron, - Nor cut the turf, - Leave this hideous work, - I shall live yet with men. - - (Landnáma V. c. 6.) - -Thereupon the boy was water-sprinkled, and named Thorstein.” - - -The custom of exposing children was so deeply rooted in the minds of the -people that Christianity itself could not at first prevent it from -taking place. - - -“It was then made law, that all men of the country should become -Christians, and such as were not baptized should be so. But in regard to -child exposure and the eating of horseflesh the old law was to stand; -men would be allowed to sacrifice in secret, if they wished to, but -became outlaws if witnesses saw it” (Islendingabók, c. 7). - - -“Sigvat skáld and other Icelanders were with King Olaf as has been told. -Olaf enquired carefully how Christianity was kept in Iceland. He thought -it was very badly kept when they told him that it was allowed by the -laws to eat horseflesh and expose children as the heathens used to do” -(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 56). - - -It was the general custom among the chiefs and other leading men not to -have the children reared at home, but to have them educated with some -distinguished friend for the future duties of life. Those who received -them were bound to treat them as their own children, with love and -kindness; and there are many examples in the Sagas of the great love of -the foster-parents for their foster-children. - -The general custom was first to have the child _knee-seated_ -(_knésetja_), or put on the knees of him who was to be fosterer; the -child was then called the knee-seated (_knésetningr_) of his -foster-father, who bestowed upon him as much care as if he had been his -own child. - - -“Harald (Gormsson) took Harald, son of Eirik (Blood-axe), to raise him, -and knee-seated him; he was raised in his hird”[72] (Fornmanna Sögur, -i., ch. 19). - - -“Höskuld, an Icelandic chief, having died and his sons having held -_arvel_ after him, one of these, Thorleik by name, was jealous of his -stepbrother Olaf, whose mother was Melkorka, an Irish king’s daughter, -who had been bought as a thrall by Höskuld. To conciliate him, Olaf -offered to foster Thorleik’s son, saying: ‘I will foster thy son, for he -is always called a lesser man who fosters the child of another’”[73] -(Laxdæla, c. 27). - - -To raise another’s child was a proof that the fosterer considered -himself of lower or subordinate position than the father. A very good -example in this respect is that of Harald Fairhair and Athelstan of -England. - - -“At this time there ruled over England a young king, Adalstein -(Athelstan) the Good, who was one of the most high-born men in Northern -lands. He sent men to Norway to King Harald with a message. The -messenger went before the king and gave him a sword the handle and hilt -of which were ornamented with gold. The whole scabbard was ornamented -with gold and silver, and set with precious stones. The messenger held -out the sword-handle towards the king, and said: ‘Here is a sword which -Adalstein, King of England, sent you as a gift.’ The king took hold of -the handle, and at once the messenger said: ‘Now you have taken hold as -our king wanted, and after this you will be his thegn and sword-taker.’ -King Harald felt that this was sent to delude him, thought much over it, -and asked his wise men if the messenger should be killed or the king -disgraced in any other manner, for he would not be the thegn of the -Engla king or any other man in the world. Then King Harald at the -persuasion of his men remembered that it was not king-like to kill the -messengers of another king, who bore the message of their master without -adding to it; but to let plot contend against plot, and word against -word; and he let the men of the Engla king go in peace. The following -summer Harald sent a ship west to England, and gave the command of it to -his best friend, Hauk Hábrók. The king gave into his hands a child which -a bondwoman of the king’s, by name Thora Mostrstöng, had borne. She was -a native of Mostr in Sunnhördaland. This boy was named Hakon, and the -mother said he was the son of King Harald. But Hauk came west to -England, and found King Adalstein in Lundúnir (London), and went before -him when the tables were cleared and greeted him. The king bade him -welcome. Then Hauk said: ‘Lord, Harald, the King of the Northmen, sends -you good greeting, and therewith sends you a white bird well trained, -and asks you to train it better hereafter.’ He took the child from his -cloak and put it on the knee of the king, who looked at him, but Hauk -stood in front of the king, and did not bow to him; he had under the -left side of his cloak a sharp sword, and thus all his men were dressed, -and they were altogether thirty. Then King Adalstein said: ‘Who owns -this child?’ Hauk answered: ‘A bondwoman in Norway, and King Harald said -that thou shouldst raise her child.’ The king answered: ‘This boy has -not the eyes of a thrall!’ Hauk answered: ‘The mother is a bondwoman, -and she says that King Harald is the father, and now the boy is thy -knee-seater, and now thou owest him as much as thy own son.’ The king -answered: ‘Why should I raise the child of King Harald though it were -the child of King Harald’s own wife, much less the child of a -bondwoman?’ and with one hand he grasped a sword lying at his side and -the child with the other. Then Hauk said: ‘Thou hast taken as fosterer -one child of King Harald’s and knee-seated it, and thou mayest murder it -if thou wishest, but thou wilt not therewith kill all the sons of King -Harald, and it will be said hereafter, as has been said before, that he -who fosters the child of another is a lesser man.’ Thereafter Hauk went -away, and took the cloak on his left arm and held his drawn sword in the -other hand; the one of his men who had entered the last went out first. -This done they went down to their ship, and as there was fair wind from -the land out to sea, they made use of it, sailing to Norway. And when -they came to King Harald he thanked Hauk well for his journey. King -Adalstein had Hakon raised at his Court, and he was afterwards called -Athelstan’s foster-son. In these dealings of the kings it was seen that -each of them wanted to be regarded as higher than the other, but there -was no difference made between their rank on this account, and each of -them was king in his realm till his death-day” (Fagrskinna, c. 21–22). - - -In the raising and education of boys, most attention was paid to their -physical development; both physical and intellectual accomplishments -were named _idrottir_. The most important of these were—the skilful -handling of all kinds of weapons, riding, swimming, snow-shoe running, -rowing, wrestling, working in wood and metal, and harp-playing; to which -should sometimes be added skill in training and managing dogs, falcons -and hawks for the hunt. Of intellectual accomplishments are mentioned -knowledge of runes, laws, the art of poetry, so necessary for -remembrance of the deeds of heroes, eloquence, skill in draughts or -checkers, chess, and the use of foreign tongues. - -Kali, the son of Kol, who had settled in the Orkneys, well known as a -kindly and accomplished man, composed the following stanza:— - - I am ready to play chess, - I know nine idrottir, - I shall scarcely forget the runes, - I am a book-reader and smith; - I can slide on snow-shoes, - I shoot and row usefully, - I know too both - Harp-playing and metres. - - (Orkneyinga Saga, c. 49.) - - -“It is told that Hjördis gave birth to a boy, and he was carried to King -Hjalprek. He was glad when he saw the flashing eyes in his head, and -said no one would be his equal, and he was water-sprinkled with the name -Sigurd; all people say the same of him, that in vigour and size no man -was his equal. He was brought up by Hjalprek with great affection. When -all the famous men and kings in the old Sagas are named, Sigurd will be -the foremost in strength and accomplishments, energy and valour, which -he had in a higher degree than any other man in the northern half of the -world. Sigurd grew up there with Hjalprek, and every child loved him; he -betrothed Hjördis to King Alf, and fixed her mund. The foster-father of -Sigurd was Regin, son of Hreidmar; he taught him idrottir, chess, and -runes, and to speak many tongues, as then was the custom with kings’ -sons, and many other things” (Volsunga Saga, c. 13). - - -Raising children secretly seems not to have been allowed. - - -“King Harald Hardradi, during a visit to the Norwegian chief Áslák, -inquired of him if he was not well versed in the laws established by the -late king, Olaf Haraldsson (digri). Áslák saying that he was, the king -asked him if he knew what punishment was given for having a son fostered -in secret. Áslák replied that he did not know, but that a man might have -his child fostered where he pleased. The king answered that he would -lose lands and life. Áslák confessed he could not see why such a severe -punishment should be imposed, but, however, it did not concern him. The -king informed him that it did, as he had been told that he had a son -fostered in secret, at the same time naming the man who told him. Áslák -then acknowledged having had a son named Heming, who at first was very -promising, but after awhile became insane, and therefore had been sent -far away from Torgar (Áslák’s home), and he now did not know whether -this son lived or was dead. The king said he should soon go away, but -would return next season, and then expect to see either Heming or his -bones, if he should be dead” (Flateyjarbók, iii.). - - -The children seem to have amused themselves in a manner very similar to -that which is customary in the present day. - - -“The boys Guthorm and Hálfdán, Ásta’s sons (St. Olaf’s half-brothers) -were playing with large bœr and barns, cattle and sheep, which they had -themselves made. Harald (the third son) was a short way off at a muddy -creek of the lake with many chips of wood floating on the water. (St.) -Olaf asked him what they were for. He said they were his war-ships. The -King laughed and said: ‘It may be, kinsman, thou wilt rule ships in time -to come’ (this boy was Harald Hardradi)” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 75). - - ------ - -Footnote 44: - - The words _ausa moldu_ mean ‘to pour mould on’ (to bury). In - Ynglingatal the expression _ausinn_ (another form of the verb) _haugi_ - is used of a man buried in a mound. - -Footnote 45: - - Some form of water rite under one shape or another was practised by - Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Hebrews, Romans, Hindus, &c. In the - Frankish annals, the Northmen when they were baptized were led into - the rivers, a custom which apparently prevailed among the earlier - Christians with adult people. - -Footnote 46: - - Cf. also Halfdan the Black’s Saga, c. 7; Laxdæla, c. 28; Fornmanna - Sögur, i., p. 31; Olaf Tryggvason, i., pp. 13–14; Fornmanna Sögur. - -Footnote 47: - - Cf. Svarfdæla, c. 5. - -Footnote 48: - - This refers to Sigurd’s name ‘Snake Eye.’ - -Footnote 49: - - Heaven. - -Footnote 50: - - King. - -Footnote 51: - - This is the only place where Neri is mentioned. - -Footnote 52: - - It is probable that this third string northwards was a string of bad - luck or evil fate; but Bugge says it meant Helgi’s fame in the North, - which was to be everlasting. - -Footnote 53: - - Sigmund, Helgi’s father, is here called son of the Ylfings, though he - was of the _Völsunga_ family. Even Helgi himself is called Skjöldung - in the second Helgi lay. - -Footnote 54: - - The friend of wolves—a warrior who by his fights gave food to the - wolves. - -Footnote 55: - - Dögling (1) a descendant of Dag, (2) a chief of any family. - -Footnote 56: - - The giving of garlic at the ceremony of _name-fastening_, seems to - have had some symbolic meaning. From St. Olaf’s Saga we see that it - was used for curing wounds: in Gudrunar Kvida the leek is used as - opposed to grass, perhaps implying that the child to whom it was given - would stand as high among men as it did amongst grass. - -Footnote 57: - - King. - -Footnote 58: - - These estates were given to him with the name-fastening, as was - customary. - -Footnote 59: - - Ring-steads. - -Footnote 60: - - Sun mountains. - -Footnote 61: - - Snow mountains. - -Footnote 62: - - Fields of Sigar. - -Footnote 63: - - Ring-harbour. - -Footnote 64: - - High town. - -Footnote 65: - - Heaven-fields. - -Footnote 66: - - Sword. - -Footnote 67: - - Cf. also Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, c. 42. - -Footnote 68: - - Three fasting-times. - -Footnote 69: - - Probably a field belonging to a temple. - -Footnote 70: - - Cf. also Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 21. - -Footnote 71: - - Torfi had been vexed at Signy’s marriage, because he was away when the - betrothal took place, and had not been consulted about the match. - -Footnote 72: - - Cf. also Harald Fairhair’s Saga, c. 21. - -Footnote 73: - - Cf. also Hord’s Saga, c. 9. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - THE ARVEL, OR INHERITANCE FEAST. - - The inheritance feast—Its duration—Customs of the feast—Right of - sitting in the high seat—The feast after Heidrek’s death—Division - of property—Settlement of debts—Support of paupers—The arvel in - Christian times—Consent of heirs to the disposal of property—Rules - regulating inheritance—Adoption—Ceremony of adoption—Public - announcement of adoption—Female degrees of inheritance—Property of - foreigners. - - -The _erfi-öl_ (ale or inheritance feast) was a very important ceremony -at which the heir took formal possession of the property of his kinsman. -The seventh day after death seems to have been the earliest on which the -arvel, which usually lasted three nights, could legally be held. If the -deceased was a prominent man, sometimes one or more years passed ere the -arvel was held, and numerous guests were then invited from far and near. - - -“Thorolf was laid in a mound with some property suitable to his rank. -Then Thorstein made a feast (arvel) and invited the jarl and many other -high-born men. They sat at it for three nights as was customary. -Thorstein sent them away with good gifts” (Svarfdæla Saga). - - -“If a full-grown man remains quiet for seven days, or till the morning -of the thirtieth day, and does not call for the inheritance, then he -never can get that inheritance. If he remains quiet and is not entitled -to take it (i.e. is not of age) then he shall declare that he is -inheritance-born. Another may declare it on his behalf. He shall claim -this inheritance during the first five years after he is entitled to it. -If he does not he can never claim it afterwards. This is if no necessity -hinders. If he is not in the fylki and not in the land he must claim it -in the first twelve months after he gets into the fylki where the -inheritance is, if no necessity hinders. Necessities shall be taken into -consideration” (Gulath., 122). - - -The high-seat of the deceased stood empty until the arvel. On the first -evening the heir or heirs sat upon a lower seat, generally the steps of -the high-seat, until the memorial toast of the deceased and of the -mightiest of their departed kinsmen and the gods had been proposed. They -then sat down on the high-seat, and by this act took possession of the -inheritance. - -It was the custom for the heir to empty a horn of mead or ale, and make -a vow to perform some great and valorous deed. The feast continued for -several days, with an abundance of drink and eatables as at other -feasts, and presents were given to the guests at their departure, as was -the custom at such entertainments. - - -“Shortly after the great news was heard from Denmark that Strútharald -jarl, the father of Sigvaldi and Thorkel, was dead; the third brother -Heming was young, and King Svein (Tjuguskegg) thought it was his duty to -arrange the arvel of Strútharald jarl if the elder sons did not come, -for Heming was regarded as too young to manage the feast. The king sent -word to Sigvaldi and Thorkel in Jómsborg, that they should come to the -arvel, and make the feast with him, and so arrange it that as much -honour as possible might be done to such a chief as their father -Strútharald. They sent word that they would come, and that he should -prepare everything needed for the feast, and that they would defray the -expenses, and he should take everything he needed from the property of -Strútharald. Most of their men thought it unadvisable that they should -go there, and suspected that the friendship of King Svein and Sigvaldi -and the Jómsvikings was rather shallow, after what had happened between -them before, though they had then behaved becomingly to each other. The -brothers wanted by all means to go there, as they had promised. The -Jómsvikings would not stay at home, but followed them to the feast. - -“They left Jómsborg with a large host; they had a hundred and seventy -ships. They went to Zeeland, where Harald jarl had ruled; Svein was -there, and had prepared the arvel; it was about the time of the -winter-nights. There was a great number of men, and a good feast; the -Jómsvikings drank eagerly the first evening, and the drink intoxicated -them much. After it had gone on for a while, Svein saw that they had -become nearly all dead drunk, as they were very talkative and merry, and -little afraid of saying many things which they else would not have said; -seeing this the king said: ‘Here is great merriment, and many men, and I -propose that you shall find some new and worthy enjoyment to entertain -the people, which will long hereafter be remembered.’ Sigvaldi answered: -‘We think it most becoming, and best for the entertainment that you, -lord (herra), should make the first proposal, for we all have to obey -you, and we all will assent to the entertainment you desire.’ The king -said: ‘I know it has always been customary at great feasts and meetings, -and where select men have met, to make vows to entertain and make -themselves renowned, and I am willing to try that now, for as you, -Jómsvikings, are far more famous than all other men in all the northern -half of the world, it is easy to know that the vows you will make here -will be as much more renowned than others as you are greater than other -men, and it is likely that people will long remember them, and I will -begin. I vow that I will, before the third winter-nights hereafter have -passed, have driven King Ethelred (of England) out of his realm, or else -have slain him, and thus have got his realm. Now is thy turn, Sigvaldi, -and make no less a vow than I” ... (Jomsvikinga Saga, c. 37). - - -“Ingjald had a great feast prepared at Upsala, and intended to give an -arvel after his father Önund, in a hall no less large or stately than -the hall at Upsala. This he called the hall of the seven kings, for -seven high-seats were in it. He sent men throughout Sweden, and invited -kings and jarls and other high-born men; to this arvel came six kings, -who were seated in the new-made hall. One of the high-seats which -Ingjald had had prepared was empty. All the guests were seated in the -new hall, and Ingjald had placed his hird and all his men in -Upsala-hall. It was customary at that time that, where an arvel was made -after the death of kings or jarls, the one who gave it and was to be led -to the inheritance should sit on the step in front of the high-seat -until the horn, called Bragi’s horn, was brought in, then he had to -rise, take the horn, make a vow, and drain it to the bottom. After this -he was to be led to the high-seat of his father, and then he was the -owner of all his inheritance. Thus was it done here; when the horn of -Bragi came in Ingjald rose, and took the large deer’s horn; he vowed -that he would increase his realm by half in every quarter, or else die; -then he drank it off. In the evening when the men were drunk, Ingjald -said to Folkvid and Hulvid, the sons of Svipdag, that they and their men -should arm themselves as was agreed upon. They went out to the new hall -and set it on fire; six kings with all their men were burnt there, and -those who tried to escape were soon slain. Thereupon Ingjald took -possession of all the realms owned by these kings, and took taxes from -them” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 40).[74] - - -It appears that the right of sitting in the high-seat, conveyed with it -the right to rule over household and land. - - -“When King Harald (Fairhair) was eighty winters old he became heavy in -his movements, so that he thought he could not journey about the country -or conduct the affairs of the realm. He then led his son Eirik into his -high-seat, and gave him power over the whole country. - -“When his other sons heard of this, Halfdan the black placed himself in -a king’s high-seat and took the rule over the whole of Thrandheim, and -all the Thrands supported him in this. But when the men of Vikin heard -of it, they took Olaf as king over the whole of Vikin, which Eirik did -not like” (Olaf Tryggvason, vol. i.; Fornmanna Sögur). - - -“It is said that one day when the people went to _lögberg_ (the place of -the court at the _Althing_), Olaf (son of Höskuld, a chief who had died -shortly before) rose and asked for silence, and told the people first of -the decease of his father: ‘Here are now many of his kinsmen and -friends; it is the wish of my brothers that I invite to the arvel after -the death of our father, Höskuld, all temple-priests, for most of his -relatives are likely to be prominent men; I declare that none of the -more highborn men shall go away without gifts; we also want to invite -the bœndr and every one who will accept, rich and poor; ten weeks before -the beginning of winter you will come to a feast lasting half a month at -Höskuldstadir.’ When Olaf ended his speech he was cheered, and his -speech was thought very fine. When Olaf returned to his booth he told -his brothers the plan; they did not like it, and thought too much had -been offered. After the _Althing_ the brothers rode home. The summer -passed, and the brothers made ready for the feast; Olaf contributed the -third part lavishly, and it was prepared in the best manner. Great -preparations were made, for it was believed that many would come. At the -appointed time most men of rank who had promised came; they were so -many, that people say there were not less than nine hundred (1080). This -feast had the greatest number of guests in Iceland, next to that which -the sons of Hjalti made after their father, where twelve hundred were -present (1440). In all respects it was very fine, and the brothers got -much honour, but Olaf, who gave as much as both his brothers, the most; -gifts were given to all men of prominence” (Laxdæla, c. 27). - - -“Every man shall himself rule his property, so long as he can sit in his -high-seat, man as well as woman. If a man gets so much out of wits that -it seems to his kinsmen on male and female side that he know not how to -manage his property, the next heir shall take care of it. It must not be -sold away from the owner, and he shall get his living from it as is -befitting for both” (Frostath., ix. 20). - - -After the death of Heidrek we read an account of the arvel, and see one -of the brothers coming to claim his share of the division, which seems -to have been made by mutual arrangement, but not in this case. - - -“Thereupon Angantýr made a great feast in Danparstadir, at a bœr called -Arheimar, as an arvel alter his father’s death. - - It was said that of yore - Humli ruled the host, - Gizur the Gautar, - Angantýr the Gotar, - Valdar the Danir (Danes), - Kjár the Valir, - Alfrek the renowned - The Ensk-thjód (English nation). - -“Hlöd heard of the death of his father, and that his brother Angantýr -had been made king over the whole realm. King Humli wanted Hlöd to go -and demand his inheritance from his brother Angantýr.... - - Hlöd rode from the east, - The heir of Heidrek; - He came to the hall - Where Gotar live, - To Árheimar - To demand the inheritance; - There Angantýr drank - The arvel of King Heidrek. - He found a man - Outside the high hall - Who was late out - And greeted him: - ‘Warrior, go into - The high hall, - Ask Angantýr - To give me answer.’ - -“The man went in before the king’s table and said:— - - Here has Hlöd come, - The heir of Heidrek; - Thy brother, - The battle-minded one; - He is very high - On horseback; - The chief wants - To speak with thee. - -“When the king heard this he threw his knife on the table and rose and -put on a coat-of-mail, and took a white shield in one hand, and the -sword _Tyrfing_ in the other. Then there arose a great uproar in the -hall, as here is said:— - - Uproar was in the hall; - They (warriors) rose with the high-born one; - Every one wished to hear - What Hlöd said - And the answer - That Angantýr gave. - -“Angantýr said: ‘Welcome! hail to thee! go in and drink with us, and let -us first drink mead after our father to the honour of us all.’ Hlöd -replied: ‘We came hither for another purpose than filling our stomach.’ - - I will have the half - Of what Heidrek owned; - Of tools and weapons, - Also of tribute, - Of cows and of calves, - Of the sounding mills. - - Of bond-women and thralls - And their children, - Of the large forest, - Called Myrkvid, - The holy grave[75] - Which is with the Goth-thjód. - - That beautiful stone[76] - In Danparstadir, - The half of the host-burghs - Which Heidrek owned, - Of lands and people - And bright rings.[77] - - _Angantýr._ - - Brother, the pale-white - Shield will burst, - And the cold spear - Touch other spears, - And many a warrior - In the grass sink - Before I _Tyrfing_ - In two parts divide, - Or to the Humlung - Half of the inheritance give. - - A fine drink I will offer thee, - Property and many gifts - For which thou yearnest most. - I give thee twelve hundred men, - I give thee twelve hundred horses, - I give thee twelve hundred servants - Who carry shields. - - I give every man - Many things to accept; - A maiden I give - To every man; - I clasp a necklace - Around the neck of every maiden. - - With silver - I will measure thee sitting; - And over thee walking - Pour gold, - So that the rings[77] - Roll in every direction; - Over a third part of the Goth-thjód[78] (people) - Thou shalt rule. - -“Gizur Grýtingalidi, the foster-father of Heidrek, was then with -Angantýr; he was very old; when he heard the offer of Angantýr he -thought he offered too much, and said:— - - This is acceptable - To a bond-woman’s child, - Though he is born to the king; - The bastard - Sat on a mound - When the king - Divided the inheritance. - -“Now Hlöd became very angry at being called a bondwoman’s child and a -bastard if he accepted his brother’s offer; he went away with all his -men to Húnaland to Humli, his mother’s father, and told him that his -brother Angantýr had offered him a third of the realm, Humli heard all -they had spoken, and was very angry that his daughter’s son Hlöd should -be called the son of a bondwoman. He said:— - - “We shall sit this winter - And live happily, - Drain and talk over - The costly drink, - Teach the Húnar - To make their weapons ready - Which we boldly - Shall bear forth. - Well shall we, Hlöd, - Dress the warriors - And strongly - Press the shields; - Twelve-winters-old men, - And two-winters-old horses, - Thus shall the host - Of the Húnar be gathered.” - - (Hervarar Saga, c. 16, 17.) - - -Property was divided also by mutual arrangement. - - -“Now that season passed and the moving days came. Thorkel told Gisli -that he wanted to have all the property divided between them, and begin -joint housekeeping with Thorgrim, his brother-in-law. Gisli said: ‘It is -best to see the property of brothers together, brother; and I should be -thankful if we did not divide.’ Thorkel answered: ‘I saw long ago that -we are unequally kept, as thou toilest night and day for our household, -while I am good for nothing.’ Gisli replied: ‘I am well content, and -would willingly let it be thus.’ But Thorkel would listen to nothing but -division, and said: ‘Thou shalt get the homestead in the division, and -our father’s estate, because I ask for the division, but I will take the -loose property.’ Gisli said: ‘We have tried both to agree and to -disagree, kinsman, and both of us have succeeded better when we agreed; -let us not change this, brother, when we agree well.’ ‘It is of no use -talking of it,’ said Thorkel; ‘the property must be divided.’ ‘Then do -whichever thou likest,’ said Gisli; ‘divide or choose; for I do not care -which I do.’ ‘Then I want thee to divide,’ said Thorkel; and it was -done. Thorkel chose the loose property, which was more than the land -which Gisli got. There were two children to be supported by it, a boy -Geirmund and a girl Gudrid; the children of their kinsman Ingjald. -Gudrid went with Gisli, and Geirmund with Thorkel. Thorkel went to his -brother-in-law Thorgrim and lived with him; Gisli remained at Hól, and -did not find that the household was worse than before”[79] (Gisli -Sursson’s Saga, p. 100). - - -At the arvel the debts of the dead were settled, and divisions made if -the heirs were several. If the property left was not sufficient to pay -the debts, then the creditors had to share the loss in proportion to -their claims. If the heirs were sons or daughters of the deceased they -had to pay the debts out of their own property. - - -“When a man is dead his heir shall sit in the high-seat and summon all -the creditors to come there on the seventh day and take away each their -due, as much as witnesses proved. If the property is not enough all -shall share the loss. The one to whom more was due shall lose more. If a -pauper’s and a woman’s share are in the inheritance it holds good if -there is money enough for both; if there is not she shall lose her -_gagngjald_ (_tilgjöf_).... If there are sons or daughters they shall -pay the debts if they have property, but no other man shall do so unless -he inherits property” (Gulathing’s Law, 115). - - -After the debts were paid, then the paupers were distributed between the -heirs (or if only one pauper existed, each heir supported him in turn in -the same proportion as the inheritance), for the community never -intervened in the support of paupers. - - -“If people divide paupers without property between them the division -shall be kept up, however they may divide. They (paupers) shall follow -the heirs”[80] (Gulath., 127). - - -Only children by a lawful union were legitimate _skirborinn_ -(holy-born), and consequently _arfborinn_ (inheritance-born). - - -“The child whose mother is bought with mund is inheritance-born when it -comes into daylight living and receives food” (Gragas, i. 223).[81] - - -“The man who has been carried between the _skaut_ (cloak-skirts) of -father and mother shall have the same rights as his father had” (Earlier -Frostathing’s Law, ix. 15). - - -“If a man lives with his concubine twenty winters or more, and they -never separate during that time, and no hindrances come forward during -the time, then their children are inheritance-born and they are partners -by law” (Gulath., 125). - - -In Christian times the arvel changed its name into that of soul-ale. - - -“Wherever men die and the heir wants to have an arvel, whether it is in -seven days or on the thirtieth morning or later, it is called _erfiöl_. -If they make ale and call it _sálu-öl_ (soul-ale) they shall invite to -it the priest, of whom they buy service, with two other men at least. -The priest shall go to arvels or soul-ales if not hindered by necessity. -If he will not go he shall lose his tithe” (Gulath., 23). - - -No one who had lawful heirs was allowed to dispose of his property -before his death without the assent of these heirs. - - -“No man shall divide a property or inheritance before the owner allows -it, until men see that he spoils it. As long as a man has his wits and -can manage his farm and bargains, and is able to ride on horseback and -drink ale, he shall rule his property, and no man is allowed to divide -it; if it is divided it shall not be kept” (Gulath., 126).[82] - - -“When two daughters inherit from their father, and one has a daughter -and the other a son, the son can redeem (the land) from his kinswomen -according to law. But if this son has only daughters, while the daughter -of his mother’s sister has a son, he can redeem the land from them for -the same sum as was paid to his mother. Then the land shall remain where -it is, for it has come three times under spindle” (Gulath., 275). - - -The nearest of kin inherited the property, and the rules regulating the -inheritance are these:— - - -“A son shall take inheritance after his father if it goes as it ought, -and an adopted son like one family-born; and if things go badly (if the -son dies) the father inherits from his son if the latter has no heir. - -“The second inheritance is the one which a daughter and son’s son take, -if he and also his father are lawfully born. - -“If two lawfully born son’s sons are inheritance-born, and the one’s -father is lawfully born and the other’s not, then the first shall take -the inheritance. - -“Brothers who have the same father inherit from each other. When a -brother dies, the sister born of the same father gets the inheritance. - -“A father’s father, and father’s brother, and brother’s son each inherit -a third. - -“The sixth inheritance is taken by a brother of the same mother -(half-brother), and by a brother’s sons. - -“A lawfully born mother is the heir of her child, and then a lawfully -born father’s sister. - -“A _prisung_[83] and a thrall-born son, and a _hornung_,[84] if freedom -is given to them, take the same inheritance, and each of them inherits -from the other. - -“A mother’s father and daughter’s son both take the same inheritance, -and each inherits from the other. - -“A mother’s brother and sister’s son both take the same inheritance, and -inherit from each other. - -“Men who are sons of sister and brother both take the same inheritance, -and inherit from each other. - -“Sons of two sisters take the same inheritance, and inherit from each -other. - -“It is decided and decreed in the laws of men that if a man slays a man -in order to inherit from him, he has forfeited his inheritance, and it -shall be given according to law as if the man did not exist who slays -another for the sake of inheritance” (Frostath. viii. 1–14). - - -By the so-called _ættleiding_, or leading into the family, i.e. -adoption, a person could give the illegitimately born the right of -inheritance, or at least a right to a certain part of the inheritance, -together with the legal heirs, the consent of the latter being always -necessary. The ceremony appears from different laws to have been the -same all over the country, and its primitive form seems to indicate -great antiquity; a shoe was placed alongside the _skapker_, the large -vat into which the beer was poured in the banqueting hall, and from -which the smaller vats and horns were filled and carried round among the -guests. The ceremony which followed is thus described:— - - -“It is a full adoption, when a father leads into his family his son, and -those men assent who are the next heirs of the one who adopts his son. -Ale from three measures of grain shall be made, and a bull three winters -old be killed, and the skin be flayed off its right hind-leg above the -hough, and therefrom a shoe be made. The father shall let the one to be -adopted step into it, and have in his arms those of his sons who are not -of age, but those of his sons who are full-grown shall step into that -shoe. If he has no inheritance-born sons those who are his nearest heirs -shall step into the shoe. The adopted man shall be led into the embrace -of the man and the wife. Women shall be witnesses as well as a man to a -full adoption, as well as to the shoe if it is kept. The thrall-born son -to whom liberty is given shall be adopted if either father or brother, -or whoever is nearest heir, whether he is young or old, gives him his -liberty, and those being the nearest heirs of the man who wants to adopt -him assent. The son of a freed woman shall be adopted like that of a -thrall-woman” (Earlier Frostathing’s Law, ix.). - - -“No man is allowed to give away an inheritance; a fraudulent bargain -shall be reckoned as no bargain. The father who adopts his own son shall -step into the shoe, and then his full-grown son. That is a full -adoption. If there is no son the one who consents to the adoption shall -step into the shoe. Then he who consents to his ódal rights shall step -into the shoe. He shall say this: ‘I lead this man to the property which -I give him, to payment and gift, to seat and settle, to indemnities and -rings, and to all _rétt_ as if his mother had been bought with mund” -(Earlier Gulathings Law, c. 58). - - -The father[85] had then to declare that he led the adopted son into the -share of the inheritance which he gave him, and with the same rights as -if his mother had been law fully wed. Those present had to bear witness -to this leading into the family, as also to the use of the shoe, by -means of which it had been done. - -The Gulathings Law required the adopted to publicly announce his -adoption at the _Thing_ every twenty years, until he stepped into his -inheritance. - - -“A man shall announce publicly his adoption every twenty winters until -he gets his inheritance, which shall thereafter be his witness” -(Gulath., 58). - - -“A woman could adopt as well as a man, but she could not adopt her -illegitimate son, nor a man his illegitimate daughter. - -“A man must never lead a woman into his family (adopt her), nor a woman -a man” (Frostathings Law, ix. 21). - - -To an illegitimate son a father could not give more than a certain -amount without the consent of his heir. - - -“Höskuld Dala-Kollsson fell sick in his old age. He sent for his sons, -and other friends and kinsmen; when they came he said to the brothers -Bard and Thorleik: ‘I am now ill, but I have been a man not apt to be -taken ill. My third son is not legitimately born, and I ask you, his -brothers, to let Olaf inherit a third of my property, and you the two -other thirds.’ Bard answered first, and said he would do as his father -wanted. ‘I believe Olaf will do us credit in every respect, and the more -so the richer he is.’ Thorleik answered: ‘I do not want Olaf to be made -legitimate heir; he has already more than enough property; thou, father, -hast given him many things, and for a long time hast shared very -unequally between us brothers; I am not willing to give up the honour to -which I am born.’ Höskuld replied: ‘You will not object if I give my son -three mörk[86] (of gold), since he is so high-born on his mother’s -side.’ To this Thorleik consented. Then Höskuld took the gold ring that -Hakon jarl had given him, which weighed two mörk, and the sword which -was the gift of the king, on which was a mörk of gold” (Laxdæla, ch. -26). - - -The Gulathings Law expressly mentions those female degrees to which the -_ódal_ descended. These were: daughter, sister, aunt, father’s sister, -daughter of brothers, and son’s daughters. It adds that if two sisters -inherited an _ódal_, and one had a son and the other a daughter, the -former had a right to purchase the shares of his kinswomen in the -_ódal_. - -The right of inheritance does not seem to have extended further than the -third cousin on the father’s side, or second cousin on the mother’s. - -Where sons existed they always inherited to the exclusion of their -sisters.[87] - -If an _ódal_ by inheritance came to one not entitled to _ódals-right_, -the right of redemption was open to the nearest of kin, who had such -right. - -If one of joint heirs had the right of _ódal_ and the other not, the -former got his share of the inheritance in _ódals land_, the other in -personal property. In case a son’s son and daughter inherited together, -the former had the right of purchasing the latter’s share in the _ódal_. - -Daughters always inherited certain things, such as article of clothing, -household goods, bedding, ornaments, &c. - - -“This shall a daughter take in inheritance after her mother, if her -brother is alive: all clothes except cloaks (_skikkja_) of _gudvef_ -(costly stuff), and all uncut clothes; these her brother owns. And of -clothes the brother shall take gold-lace, if he wants it; but woven -cloaks and all bed-hangings, and lace-clothes (i.e. edged with lace), -brocades and feather-clothes and down-clothes, the daughter shall have. -If a web is in the loom, the son owns that which is woven, and the -daughter that which is not woven. The son owns all mats and -bench-clothes, fur-hoods and house-furniture; the daughter owns the -bed-covers if her mother owned them, and the son if the father owned -them. The daughter owns five sheep, and all linen and yarn, and five -sheepskins with the wool on, and the geese, and the son owns all the -rest. The daughter owns all cloth-chests, if her mother owned them. The -daughter shall have a cross or a brooch, whichever she may want; or the -best breast-ornament, if it is not of gold but of silver; and all -brooches if they weigh one eyrir or less, and are of silver and precious -stones. All vessels out of which women drink to each other across the -floor at home belong to the daughter, though they are ornamented with -silver. The son shall own the silver vessels. The daughter shall have -one washing-basin, unless there be a chain between two, then she shall -have both” (Earlier Frostathings Law, ix. 9). - - -If, during his lifetime, a father gave more property to one of his sons -than to another, such a gift was taken into consideration at the -division of the inheritance on the father’s death. - - -“If a man gives more to one of his sons than to the other then the -latter shall take as much from the undivided property as was given to -the one that got more; then they shall divide equally all that is left” -(Gulath., 129). - - -The property of a foreigner who died in the country went to the country -in which the man died unless the heir came to claim it. - - -“If English (Enskir) men die here or those whose language or tongue is -not known here, then the law does not require that their inheritance be -sent out of the country, unless a father or son or brother of the -deceased has been in this country and claims it. The inheritance of -foreigners received here by law need not be given up except to the heir” -(Gragas, i. 224). - - -“King Svein held this feast in Ringstadir, and took great pains that -nothing should be wanting to render it more splendid than any before it. -The Jomsvikings came on the first day, and King Svein welcomed with -great kindness Sigvaldi jarl and all his men. According to old custom -the arvel had to be held during the year in which the person died for -whom the arvel was made, but the man who gave it could not occupy the -high-seat of him from whom he inherited until the arvel was drunk. On -the first evening of the arvel many horns were to be filled, as is now -done with memorial cups, and there they drank in honour of their -mightiest kinsmen, or of Thor and other gods in the heathen times. The -horn of Bragi was to be filled last then he who gave the arvel was to -make a vow at it, and also all who were at the feast, after which the -heir could sit down in the seat of the man for whom the arvel was made, -and thereafter enjoy his inheritance and honour” (Fagrskinna, ch. 55). - - ------ - -Footnote 74: - - Cf. also Landnama, iii. c. 10. - -Footnote 75: - - The grave probably of the Gothic kings. - -Footnote 76: - - A stone for kings to step on at their election. - -Footnote 77: - - In this passage we see clearly that only rings were used as money. - -Footnote 78: - - God-thjód, Goth-thjód, Got-thjód in different texts, as if connected - with _gods_. - -Footnote 79: - - Cf. also Hervarar Saga, c. 16. - -Footnote 80: - - When paupers have been divided like property, they go from heir to - heir, &c. - -Footnote 81: - - The son of a man who is a freed man and has a wife before his - freedom-ale has been made, and has a son by that woman, shall not take - the inheritance of any man though he is carried between _skauts_ - (cloak-skirts, laps). (Earlier Frostathing Law, ix. 15). - -Footnote 82: - - When a man was unable to manage his property and spoiled it, then it - could be divided without his leave by the heirs. Cf. also Frostathing, - ix. 20. - -Footnote 83: - - Son of a free woman begotten secretly. - -Footnote 84: - - Son of a free woman who has had no _mund_ paid. - -Footnote 85: - - Kinsmen on the father’s side are preferred to kinsmen on the mother’s - side. - -Footnote 86: - - A mörk was probably four ounces. - -Footnote 87: - - The Frostathing Laws give a general rule for the degrees in which - inheritances descended. Kinsmen on the father’s side were preferred to - those on the mother’s side. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - FOSTER-BROTHERHOOD. - - Sacred character of foster-brotherhood—Ceremony of becoming - foster-brothers—The oath—Joint ownership of property—Dissolution - of the tie rare—Love between foster-children and - foster-parents—Obligations. - - -Perhaps the most beautiful, touching, and unselfish trait in the -character of man of which we have any record is the ancient custom of -foster-brotherhood, which prevailed among the earlier Norse tribes. This -relation between two men was of a most sacred and binding character, and -was not even severed by the death of one. - -Foster-brothers were those who in their youth had been brought up -together—the sons of the fosterer and he who was fostered by him—or men -who had fought against each other. Many examples are given of valiant -men who fought against each other admiring each other’s bravery and -becoming foster-brothers, pledging themselves by an oath, attended with -the ceremony of letting their blood flow together on the earth. - -After this impressive ceremony the men considered themselves bound to -each other for life—to be unselfish and true to share the same danger, -and avenge each other’s death; in fact their motto was, “One and the -same fate may come over us.” - - -“In old times it had been the custom of valiant men, who made the -agreement between themselves, that the one who lived the longest should -avenge the other; that they should walk under three _jardarmen_,[88] and -that was their oath (equivalent to an oath). It was done thus: Three -long slices of turf were to be cut up; their ends were to be fastened in -the ground, and the loops raised so high that a man could go under them. -This Thorgeir (Hávarsson) and Thormód (Bersason) did” (Fostbrædra Saga, -1).[89] - - -Gisli was at a Thing with his brother-in-law Vestein. There were also a -Godi named Thorgrim, and Gisli’s brother Thorkel. Gisli said: - - -“‘I think it right that we should bind our friendship still closer than -before, and we four swear one another foster-brotherhood.’ To this they -consented, and went on Eyrarhvolsoddi (point or tongue of land), and -there cut from the ground a loop of turf, both ends being attached to -the ground, and under this placed a spear inlaid with ornaments, so long -that a man could reach with his hand to the spear-nail (_i.e._, the nail -fastening the spear-point to the handle). Under this were to go the -four, Thorgrim, Gisli, Thorkel, and Véstein. They then drew blood from -themselves, and let it run together into the mould, which had been cut -under the loop of turf, and mixed together the earth and the blood; -thereupon they all fell on their knees and swore an oath that each -should avenge the other like a brother, and called all the gods as -witnesses. They all shook hands” (Gisli Súrsson’s Saga, p. 11).[90] - - -When Angantýr and Beli were fighting, the latter became exhausted, and -would have been killed by the former but for Thorstein, who came -forward, and said: - - -“‘I think it right, Angantýr, that you should stop fighting, for I see -that Beli is exhausted, and I will not be so mean as to help him against -thee, but if thou becomest his slayer I will challenge thee to a -hólmganga, and I think we are not less unequal than thou and Beli; I -would kill thee in that hólmganga, and it would be a great loss if both -of you were to die. Now will I offer thee this condition, if thou givest -Beli his life, that we swear each other foster-brotherhood.’ Angantýr -said: ‘It seems to me a fair offer, that I become the foster-brother of -Beli, but it is a great boon for me to become thy foster-brother.’ This -was then agreed upon. They let blood flow from the hollow of their -hands, and went under a sod, and swore oaths that each one should avenge -the other, if any one of them was slain with weapons” (Thorstein -Vikingsson, c. 21). - - -It was usual to swear an oath that whoever survived his foster-brother -should avenge him by weapons if he died, not sparing even his own -relatives. - -Orm Storólfsson, an Icelander, went to Norway, and there met Ásbjörn -Prudi, from Vendilskagi in Jutland. - - -“They soon became friends, and tried many idróttir; they swore each -other _föstbrœdralag_ (foster-brotherhood) according to ancient custom, -that the one who lived the longest should avenge the other, if he was -slain in battle” (Thatt of Orm Storólfsson, Fornmanna Sögur 111). - - -In order that there should not be anything that might awaken the -temptation of ill-feeling or jealousy, foster-brothers owned jointly and -equally all their property, or any which might come into their -possession during their Viking expeditions, so that all either of them -owned or acquired was considered as belonging in equal shares to the -other. - - -“The two kings Högni and Hédin vied with one another in all idróttir; -they tried swimming and shooting, tournaments and skill with weapons, -and were equal in all. - -“After this they swore themselves into foster-brotherhood, and to own -everything by halves” (Sörla Thátt, c. 6). - - -In very rare instances we see that foster-brotherhood could be -dissolved. - - -“Thorgeir and Thormod, after having performed many a deed of valour, one -day had a talk, and the former said to the latter: ‘Knowest thou -anywhere two foster-brothers who are our equals in courage and -manliness?’ Thormod replied: ‘They might perhaps be found, if we were to -look for them far and wide.’ ‘Nowhere in Iceland, I think; but which of -us two, dost thou think, would be the winner, if we were to try each -other?’ Thorgeir inquired. ‘That I do not know,’ Thormod answered; ‘but -this I know, that thy question puts an end to our fellowship and -foster-brotherhood’”[91] (Fostbrædra Saga). - - -This shows the proud spirit of the men of that period. Thormod felt -deeply wounded that such a thought should have entered the heart of one -with whom he had shared so many dangers. - -The love which existed between foster-children and foster-parents is -seen in many instances. When Olaf, son of Höskuld and Melkorka, daughter -of king Mýrkjartan, came to Ireland— - - -“The foster-mother of Melkorka, who was bedridden from sickness and old -age, was most moved by this news; she walked without a stick to see -Olaf. The king (Mýrkjartan) said to Olaf: ‘Here is the foster-mother of -Melkorka, who would like to hear from thee about her condition.’ Olaf -took the old woman in his arms and seated her on his knee, and told her -that her foster-daughter was well-off in Iceland. He handed to her the -knife and the belt, and she recognized them and wept with joy. She said -the son of Melkorka was imposing in appearance, as was likely, he being -her son. The old woman was in good health all that winter” (Laxdæla, c. -21). - - -To carry a foster-brother’s last request and greetings to his relatives -or friends, to bury him in a suitable manner, and to bring to the -funeral pile or to the mound his property with all the love that could -be shown, were considered obligatory by the surviving one. - - -“Asmund being one day in the forest met a man, who called himself Aran, -and after a while proposed that they should try each other in some -idróttir. Asmund saying he was ready, they proceeded with such idróttir -as were customary among young men in those times, and no one could have -determined who was the better man. They then began to wrestle hard, and -neither could excel the other, and after it both were tired. Aran said -to Asmund: ‘We will not try our skill with weapons, for that would be to -the injury of us both. I should like to swear to each other -foster-brotherhood, that each shall avenge the other, and possess in -common property gotten and ungotten.’ They also took oaths that whoever -lived the longest should have a mound thrown up over the other, and -place therein as much property as seemed to him befitting, and the -survivor had to sit with the dead one in the mound for three nights, and -then depart, if he liked. Then both drew their blood and let it flow -together; this was then regarded as an oath” (Egil and Asmund’s Saga, c. -6). - - ------ - -Footnote 88: - - Jardar = of earth, men = necklace. The name of jardarmen (a neck ring, - necklace of earth (turf)) probably meant a loop, the turf being cut in - a semi-circular shape, for any other form of strip could not well have - been raised from the ground without breaking. - -Footnote 89: - - The Saga is called Fostbrædra Saga (Foster-brothers’ Saga) after them. - -Footnote 90: - - Cf. also Sturlaug Starfsami, c. 13, and Hord’s Saga, c. 12. - -Footnote 91: - - Another text adds: “Thorgeir said, ‘This was not seriously meant that - we should try each other.’ Thormod answered: ‘It came across thy mind - while thou saidst it, and we will part.’” - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - WEAPONS. - - Arms of offence—Defensive weapons—Swords: Their rich - ornamentation—Scabbards—Belts—Figurative names of - swords—Supernatural qualities attributed to weapons—Weapons as - heirlooms—Spears: Their figurative names—Axes: Their figurative - names—Bows and arrows: Their figurative names—Mythical - arrows—Slings—Shields: Their figurative names—Coats of mail: Their - figurative names—Helmets: Their figurative names. - - -The finds, as well as the Sagas, fully corroborate the fact that from -the earliest times the Northmen were a very warlike people. - -[Illustration: - - ⅖ real size. - - Fig. 782.—Sword-hilt of iron. The pommel and hilt inlaid with - bronze.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 783.—Hilt of iron inlaid with silver.—Hedemarken, Norway. -] - -Their arms of offence were the sword, the axe, the spear, the bow and -arrow, the sling, &c., &c. Those of defence were the coat of mail, the -shield, and the helmet. The weapons are often described as being -ornamented and inlaid with gold and silver. - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 784.—Double-edged sword of iron inlaid with silver; found with - balance in a tumulus with charcoal, burnt bones, iron pincers, and - remains of twine of lamp-threads.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 785.—Double-edged sword-hilt, inlaid with silver and bronze, with - broken blade. In a tumulus with an axe, a spear-head cut and bent, - three shield-bosses, two horses’ bits, two stirrups, a hammer, the - end of a chain, a piece of a two-edged sword, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 786.—Double-edged sword-hilt. In a round tumulus with fragments - of bronze kettle, two sharpening stones, a pin with a mobile ring of - bronze, amber bead, glass beads, remains of textile stuff with - thread of gold weaved into it, two bronze fibulæ. About 2 feet - higher were found an anvil, several hammers, pincers, two gimlets, a - spear-head, a quantity of rivets; clinch nails and charcoal were - scattered all over in the tumulus.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 787.—Double-edged sword with hilt inlaid with silver; in a - tumulus with a hook of iron, a spear-head cut on purpose on one - side; an axe, a shield-boss damaged with blows of an axe, a horse’s - bit, a scythe blade, fragments of an iron kettle. These antiquities - lay in a kind of sepulchral chamber. A big chain of iron, &c., was - also found.—Norway. -] - -The hilts of the swords were of iron, bronze, or wood, often inlaid and -ornamented with precious metals, garnets, ivory, &c., &c.; when made of -wood they were sometimes adorned with silver-headed nails. The handles -of some of those swords belonging to the period of the earlier iron age -are nearly identical in form with those of the bronze age. - -[Illustration: - - - Fig. 788.—Hilt of a double-edged sword, ⅓ real size, inlaid with - silver, placed over an urn containing burnt bones.—Bohuslan. -] - -[Illustration: - - - Fig. 789.—Hilt of a double-edged iron sword, ⅖ real size, inlaid with - silver, found with a spear-point of iron.—Södermanland, Sweden. -] - -The scabbards were of wood, covered with skins, often richly ornamented -with gold and silver. The men carried them in a belt across the -shoulder, which by means of a double button could be lengthened or -shortened. The luxury of the ornamentation on their weapons corresponds -with that of the countries whence the forefathers of the race claimed to -come.[92] - - -“Eyvind Urarhorn was in the winter at the Yule-feast with King Olaf, and -received rich gifts from him, Brynjolf Ulfaldi was also there, and got -as Yule-gift from the king a gold ornamented sword, and also a farm -called Vettaland, which is a very large farm” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 60). - - -“There were in the house not a few gold ornamented swords. Sigvat made a -stanza, in which he said he would accept a sword if it were given to him -by the king. The king took one and gave it him; the hilt was bound with -gold, and the guards were gold ornamented; it was a very costly weapon” -(St. Olaf’s Saga, 172). - - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 790.—Hilt of a double-edged sword inlaid with silver; in a - tumulus with an axe.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - ⅓ real size. - - Fig. 791.—Hilt of a sword. Hilt of iron ornamented with carved and - raised notches, the first of bronze, the latter of silver, partly - destroyed.—Norway. -] - -The swords were carefully tested before use. - - -“Thórólf took his own sword and gave to Thorstein; it was a fine and -well-made sword. Thorstein took it, drew it, and catching its point, -bent the blade between his hands so that the point touched the guard; he -let it spring back, and it did not straighten again. He gave it back to -Thórólf, and asked for a stronger weapon....” (Svarfdæla, ch. 2). - - -[Illustration: - - - Fig. 792.—Hilt of sword ornamented with silver and gold. ½ real - size.—Scania, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 793.—Double-edged sword handle. ½ real size.—Götland. -] - -From the following we see how careful the people were in polishing their -swords, so that they might be very bright:— - - -“Thorir was the herdman of King Olaf, and was greatly honoured. As a -token of it the king gave him the sword which his kinsmen had owned for -a long time and been very fond of. It was called Thegn; it was both long -and broad, sharper than any other, and three times polished” (An -Bogsveigi’s, Saga, ch. 1). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 794.—⅛ real size. Found in a tumulus with an axe, the teeth of an - iron comb for weaving linen, &c., and a glass bead.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 795.—⅛ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 796.—⅛ real size. Found with a file in a round mound, a fragment - of a shield-boss, three arrow-heads, a horse’s bit, - a gimlet, the end of a chain, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 797.—⅖ real size. Single-edged sword of iron, found with a - spear-head of iron, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 798.—⅙ real size. Sword with runic letters on the blade.—Norway. -] - - Iron Swords. - -Whetstones were used from very early times to sharpen their weapons or -tools of iron, for these are quite common in the finds. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 799.—Sharpening stone, found with 108 Roman coins - (Vitellius-Commodus), with small bits of bones, under a stone which - was part of a double circle of stone.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 800.—Sharpening stone encased with bronze. ⅔ real size.—Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 801.—Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Real size. - - Fig. 802.—Buckle for belt, plated with silver and gilt, ornamented - with coloured glass, found by the side of a skeleton, with fragments - of a sword and spear-heads.—Upland. -] - - Silver Ornaments for Sword Scabbards. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 803.—Bronze button to sword-hilt, ⅔ real size; enamelled in blue, - white, and red, with the centre originally enamelled: found in a - round tumulus with several ornaments of swords of bronze, a - shield-boss of bronze, plaqué with silver, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 804. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 805. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 806. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 807. -] - - Ornaments of silver for scabbard of sword, partly gilt and niellé; - found in a tumulus, with sepulchral chamber of wood, with the - following objects:—Among the principal objects were, a spiral gold - bar used as money, two gold rings, four clay urns, four or five - wooden buckets with bronze fixtures, bronze fixtures for a - drinking horn, bronze fibula inlaid with silver, pieces of a - leather belt with bronze traps, a large mosaic glass bead, - fragments of a two-edged sword, three shield-bosses, fragments of - garments and furs, fragments of a balance, sharpening stone, &c. - Real size.—Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 808.—Ornament for scabbard. Real size.—Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 809.—Ornament of gold for mouth of scabbard; real size.—Vestre - Slidre, Norway. Weight, nearly 2½ oz. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 810. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 811. -] - - Gold ornaments in filigree for sword-handle, found with the - neck-ring. Real size.—Thureholm, Södermanland, Sweden. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 812.—Norway, real size. Silver mounting to a scabbard.—Horseus. - It lay under a large clayurm filled with bones, together with a - damaged double-edged sword, spear-point, arrow-point, shield-boss, - all of iron, fragments of iron shears, and mountings to a drinking - horn of bronze. -] - -Swords seem to have been prized above all other weapons; occasionally -their genealogy was carefully kept. Some swords caused death every time -they inflicted a wound, from which we must infer that their blades had -been poisoned, either during or after the forging. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 813.—Double-edged sword, with handle hilt of silver and bronze - gilt; found by the side of the remains of a skeleton, with a - spear-head, several arrow-heads, and a knife—all of iron; a glass - cup, a gilt bronze fibula, and bones of a dog, &c. ⅙ real - size.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 814.—Pommel of the sword. Real size.—Götland? -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 815.—Ornament of bronze gilt, with round garnets. Real size. - Endregårda, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 816.—Buckle of gilt bronze with garnets _enchassés_. Real - size.—Endregårda, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 817.—Pommel of sword, in gilt bronze and silver.—Falköping, - Vestergötland. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 818.—Part of a massive gold pommel of sword found in a field in - Leijeby, Halland. Real size. -] - -The _mækir_, the _sverd_, and the _sax_ seem to have been the three -kinds of swords used by the people. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 819.—Silver ornament for scabbard, real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 820.—Pommel of sword of massive gold, ornamented with garnets - _enchassés_. Real size. Earlier iron age.—Bohuslan. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 821.—Reverse view of Fig. 822. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 822.—Silver ornament (both sides shown) found in the sand. Real - size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 823.—Silver thong aiguillette. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 824.—Gold ornament of sword belt. Real size.—Thureholm, - Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 825.—Bronze mounting to a belt, found, when ploughing, with a - short single-edged sword, four arrow-heads, a shield-boss, iron bit, - a round fibula of bronze, and thirty glass beads, &c. Real - size.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 826.—Ornament of gilt bronze, with border in silver, found in a - mound. Real size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 827.—Mounting of thong, ⅔ real size, with leather still attached - to it, in gilt bronze with red enamel. With it were an iron sword - with gilt bronze handle, two bits, two stirrups, more than 100 - clinch nails of the size of those in the Ultuna mound, a clay urn - with burnt bones, and the unburnt jaw of a dog, &c.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 828.—Ornament of gilt bronze, real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 829.—Ornament of gilt bronze, ⅔ real size; found in a tumulus, - with fibula, horse’s bit, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 830.—Ornament of solid gold for the mouth of a scabbard.—Malby, - Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 831.—Reverse view of Fig. 830. - - In all ornamentation one side is not similar to the other. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 832.—Massive ring of gold (probably fixed at the mouth of a - scabbard); weight, 5 oz. Real size.—Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 833. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 834.—Reverse of Fig. 833. -] - - Ornaments for the mouthpiece of a scabbard seen from both sides. The - two sides are always unlike. Real size.—Thureholm. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 835.—Double-edged sword-hilt and mounting of scabbard of gilt - bronze and of silver. ½ real size.—Ultuna, Upland. -] - -The sax had only one sharp edge in contrast to the sverd, which had two. - -Upon the swords more than upon all other weapons the poets lavished -their most figurative and poetical names; they are called:— - - Odin’s flame: - The gleam of the battle; - The ice of battle; - The serpent of the wound; - The wolf of the wound; - The dog of the helmet; - The battle snake; - The glow of the war; - The injurer of the shields; - The fire of the shields; - The fire of the battle; - The viper of the host; - The torch of the blood; - The snake of the brynja; - The fire of the sea-kings; - The thorn of the shields; - The fear of the brynja; - The tongue of the scabbard. - -Among the most celebrated swords were _Tyrfing_, the sword of Sigurlami, -son of Odin, which had come down to Angantyr and his descendants. It -shone like a ray of sunshine, and slew a man every time it was drawn. It -was always to be sheathed with man’s blood upon it; it never failed, and -always carried victory with it. - - -“In the battle Heidrek was in the foremost array, and he carried Tyrfing -in his right hand, and cut down the host of the jarl like saplings, and -neither helmet nor armour could resist; he went through the host; he -slew all who were near him” (Hervarar Saga, c. 10). - - -Some weapons had special names given to them, and the great fame they -had acquired was doubtless due to the personal bravery of the warriors -who had owned them, to the great skill with which they were handled, and -to their superior workmanship. People believed in their supernatural -qualities; some were even thought by them to have been forged by the -_Dvergar_, others were supposed to have been given by Odin himself; -while some had become infallible by _akvœdi_, that is, by charms and -incantations used over them while they were being made, or else by -_mal_, _i.e._, mystic signs engraved or inlaid upon them. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 836.—Sword, found in a tumulus with two spear-heads, shield-boss, - and a garniture of a shield handle.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 837.—Found amongst some burnt bones and objects of iron; ⅕ real - size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 838.—Sax found in a small tumulus with a human cranium; two - spear-points; ¼ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 839.—Sword-hilt with an outer sheet of thin silver, very much - injured by fire; nearly ⅓ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 840.—Sword-hilt with wood and bronze bands; nearly ⅓ real - size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 841.—Sax or single-edged sword found with an umbo shield boss of - iron in a cairn. ⅕ real size.—Långlöt, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 842.—Sax or single-edged iron sword, found in a stone cist of - over nine feet in height, with a skeleton, spear-point, clay urn, - &c. ¼ real size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 843.—Double-edged sword, with bronze mounting for scabbard; found - by the side of a skeleton in a tumulus at Hammenhöj, Scania, - together with an iron shield boss, a clay urn, two bone dice, forty - bone checkers and other things. ⅕ of real size. -] - - -“Hraungvid said: ‘I have ravaged for thirty-three years, summer and -winter, and I have fought in sixty battles, generally gaining victory; -the name of my sword is _Brynthvari_, and it has never been dulled” -(Hrómundar Saga Greipssonar, ch. 1). - - -Grettir asked for a weapon, and Asmund, his father, answered: - - -“‘Thou hast not been obedient to me, and as I do not know what thou wilt -do with weapons, so I will not give thee any.’ Grettir replied: ‘Then -there is nothing to repay, where nothing has been given.’ Father and son -parted with little affection. Many wished Grettir farewell, but few safe -return. His mother followed him on the way, and before they parted she -said: ‘Thou art not fitted out from home, my kinsman, as I would like, -able as thou art; it seems to me the greatest want, that thou hast no -weapon fit for use, and my mind tells me that thou wilt need one.’ She -took an ornamented sword from under her cloak; it was very costly, and -said: ‘This sword my grandfather Jökul owned, and the old Vatnsdælir, it -used to give them victory. I will give thee the sword; use it well.’ -Grettir thanked her much for the gift, saying he liked it better than -greater valuables” (Gretti’s Saga, ch. 17). - - -The jarl Viking said to his son Thorstein: - - -“The only thing that gladdens me is that no man will stand over thy -scalp (have thy head at his feet), although thou wilt have a narrow -escape. Here is a sword, kinsman Thorstein, which I want to give thee; -its name is _Angrvadil_, and victory has always followed it; my father -took it from the slain Björn Blue-tooth; I have no other remarkable -weapons, excepting an old spear which I took from Harek Jarnhaus, and I -know it is not manageable by any man” (Thorstein Vikingsson’s Saga, ch. -10). - - -“When Viking drew it (‘Angrvadil’) it was as if lightning flashed from -it. Harek seeing this, said: ‘I should never have fought against thee, -if I had known thou hadst Angrvadil; it is most likely it will be as my -father said, that we brothers and sisters would be short-lived, except -that one only who was named after him; it was the greatest misfortune, -when Angrvadil went out of our family;’ and at that moment Viking struck -down on the head of Harek, and cleft him in two from head to feet, so -that the sword entered the ground up to the hilt” (Thorstein Vikingsson, -ch. 14).[93] - - -“King Athelstan gave him a sword, with hilt and guards of gold, but the -blade was still better; with it Hakon cut a millstone through to the -centre hole,[94] and therefore the sword was afterwards called -_kvernbit_ (mill-biter). It was the best sword that ever came to Norway” -(Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga; Fornmanna Sögur). - - -Many were considered valuable heirlooms in families, and their -possession was so much coveted that even burial mounds were broken open -in order to get them. - -Grettir had broken into the mound of the Norwegian chief Kár, with whose -son, Thorfinn, he was residing, and had taken therefrom a great deal of -property. - - -“Late at night he returned to his house, and placed on the table before -Thorfinn the property he had taken from the mound. Among the treasures -was a sax, such a good weapon that Grettir said he had never seen a -better. He wanted to have this very much, but produced it last of all -(the treasures). Thorfinn’s face brightened when he saw the sax, for it -was a great treasure, and had never gone out of his family; he asked how -he (Grettir) got it, and Grettir told him.... Thorfinn said: ‘Thou must -accomplish something that I think famous, before I will let thee have -the sax, for my father never allowed me to use it’” (Gretti’s Saga, ch. -18). - - -“Arinbjörn gave to Egil a sword called _Dragvandil_, which Thórólf -Skallagrimsson had given to him; Skallagrim had got it from his brother -Thórólf, and Grim Lodinkinni (shaggy-cheek) had given it to Thórólf. -Ketil Hœng, Grim’s father, had owned it, and carried it in -single-fights; it was sharper than any other sword” (Egil’s Saga, c. -64). - - -“He (King Magnus) was girt with a sword called _Leggbit_ (the -leg-biter); its guards were of walrus-tusk, and its hilt was covered -with gold; it was one of the best of weapons” (Magnus Barefoot’s Saga, -ch. 26).[95] - - -In time of peace warriors wrapped round their swords what was called -_Fridbönd_ (peace-band). This was a strap wound round the sheath, and -fastened to the hilt, but unfastened in case of war. - -Thorkel, Gisli’s brother, was well dressed at the Thorskafjardar-thing. - - -“He wore a hat from Gardariki and a grey cloak and a gold fibula on his -shoulder, and he carried a sword in his hand.” - - -Two boys came walking up to him. - - -“The older boy said: ‘Who is the noble-looking man sitting here? Saw -never I a better-looking or more dignified man.’ Thorkel answered: ‘Thou -speakest well; I am called Thorkel.’ The boy said: ‘The sword in thy -hand must be very precious; wilt thou allow me to look at it?’ Thorkel -answered: ‘This is strange, but I will allow thee to look,’ and handed -the sword to him. The boy took the sword, turned a little aside, -unloosed the peace bands and drew the sword. When Thorkel saw this, he -said: ‘I did not allow thee to draw the sword.’ ‘I asked no leave from -thee,’ said the boy; and he brandished the sword and struck at the neck -of Thorkel, taking off his head” (Gisli Sursson’s Saga, ch. 55).[96] - - -A Valkyria says to Helgi: - - I know swords lying - In Sigarsholm - Four less - Than fifty; - One is - The best of them all. - The harmer of war-knittings[97] - Covered with gold. - For him who gets it - A ring is in the guard, - Courage in the middle, - Terror in the point, - A blood-dyed serpent - Lies along the edge, - The serpent throws its tail - On the valbost.[98] - - (Helgi Hjörvardsson.) - -_Spears._—Different kinds of spears are mentioned, such as _kesja_; -_höggspjót_ (hewing-spear); _gaflak_ (javelin); _snœris-spjót_ -(string-spear); which last was thrown with the aid of a string fastened -to the spear; _pál-staf_ (pole-staff), a pole provided with an iron -spike; _skepti-fletta_ (cord-shaft), a shaft with a cord attached to it; -_atgeir_, a kind of halberd. - -The sockets were often richly ornamented with gold or silver inlaid in -beautiful patterns, sometimes with fine notches of silver, or were -covered over with sheets of silver, upon which were engraved the -serpentine ornamentation peculiar to the North. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 844.—⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 845.—Spear-head. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 846.—Damascene spear-head, found with a fragment of a - single-edged sword with hilt, a key, a scythe, iron blade, &c. ⅓ - real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 847.—Spear-head. In a tumulus. The upper line in the handle has - been filled with silver. ⅓ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 848.—Spear-point, with lower part plated with silver and gold. ⅓ - real size.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 849.—Spear-head, found with two swords, iron knife, and three - bronze buckles. ¼ real size.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 850.—Spear-point, ⅓ real size, found in Kragehul bog. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 851.—Spear-head. ½ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 852.—Spear-point. ⅓ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 853.—Spear-point. ⅓ real size. In a tumulus with two bent - double-edged swords, another similar spear-head, &c., &c., and the - bones of two horses.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 854.—Spear-head of iron. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 855.—Spear-point. ½ real size. In a round tumulus with a gold - ring, pieces of a glass cup or vase, fragments of silver repoussé - and gilt, and part of a bracelet.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 856.—Spear-head of iron, found with two other larger spear-heads, - a single-edged sword, and the bottom of a Roman vase in bronze, &c. - ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 857.—Spear-point. ½ real size. Found in a round tumulus with a - two-edged sword, &c.—Norway. -] - -From the more numerous finds of spears, of which great numbers have been -discovered together, we gather that the spear was a more common weapon -than the sword. We also learn that spear-shafts were generally made of -ash, and that they were sometimes more than eleven feet long, while -their thickness rarely exceeded an inch; on some spears the centre of -gravity was marked by nails or strings, in order that the thrower might -quickly give the spear the right position in his hand. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 858.—Triangular arrow-point. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 859.—Iron spear-point. ¼ real size.—Karleby, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 860.—Iron spear-point, found with a skeleton, double-edged sword, - knife, two spear-points, and shield-boss, in a cairn at Folkeslunda, - Öland. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 861.—Iron arrow-head. ½ real size, found with 11 others of the - same shape.—Vestana, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 862.—Spear-point. ¼ real size.—Hade in Gestrikland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 863.—Ornamentation of a spear-handle, ½ real size, from - Thorsbjerg bog. -] - -Spears, like swords, had numerous poetical names. Odin’s spear was -called _Gungnir_. Some other names were— - - The pole of Darrad (Odin). - The sounding fish of the armour. - The snake of the corpse. - The flying dragon of the wounds. - The snake of the attack. - The venom-thong of the fight. - The thorn of the wound. - The serpent of blood. - The serpent of battle. - The serpent of wound. - The serpent of shield. - The shooting-serpent. - -These are of many shapes, and it is impossible to tell those which were -used for war, or for household, or for felling trees. - - -“It was seen from the Thing that a body of men rode down along Gljúfrá -(a river), and that shields glittered there. When these arrived a man in -a blue cloak rode foremost; he had a gilt helmet on his head and a -gold-ornamented shield at his side; in his hand a hooked spear; the -socket of its head was inlaid with gold; he was girt with a sword. This -was Egil Skallagrimsson” (Egil’s Saga, ch. 85). - - -_The axe._—The axe is frequently mentioned in the Sagas, and must often -have been a formidable weapon. Some were artistically and splendidly -made, and inlaid with precious metal, each side being made of different -patterns. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 864.—Axe inlaid with metal, of silver mixed with gold. ½ real - size.—Bjerringhoï mound at Mammen, near Viborg. -] - -One of the earliest forms of this weapon is probably the one here -represented (Fig. 865), for it was found with a bronze sword, and shows -the transition that was taking place, when iron was to supersede bronze -in the making of weapons. - -They also had peculiar figurative names— - - The fiend of the shield. - The witch of the battle. - The witch of the armour. - The witch of the helmet. - The witch of the shield. - The wolf of the wound, &c. - -The most celebrated axe in later times was that of Skarphédin, called -Rimmugýg (the war-witch). - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 865.—Iron axe, ⅓ real size, probably of early iron age, found in - a small stone cist with a short bronze sword and burnt - bones.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 866.—A little less than ¼ real size. Iron axe, with a celt, a - two-edged sword with hilt, a spear-head, an axe, two blades of - knives, a horse-bit, a scythe-blade, &c., all of iron.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 867.—A little less than ¼ real size. Iron axe, in a half-ruined - tumulus, with two other axes, a horse-bit, and a little - bell.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 868.—Axe head, ⅔ real size.—Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 869.—A little less than ¼ real size. Iron axe, in a tumulus with - charcoal, a spear-head, a knife-blade, a fire-steel, a single-edged - sword, and end of an iron chain.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 870.—⅓ real size. Iron axe, found with checkers in a round - tumulus with a stone vessel, which contained burnt bones and a - purposely-broken and bent sword, with hilt inlaid with silver, a - spear-head bent, two shield-bosses, a horse-bit, a pair of stirrups - defaced by blows of a hammer, two buckles, and an iron ornament for - a belt, fragments of bone comb, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 871.—¼ real size. Iron axe.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 872.—¼ real size. Iron axe.—Norway. -] - - -“The jarl (Hakon) asked (Hallfred) who he was? He said: ‘I am an -Icelander; but my errand is, lord, that I have composed a song about -you, and wish you to listen to it.’ The jarl replied: ‘Thou lookest to -be a man who would be bold in the presence of chiefs, and thou shalt -have a hearing.’ Hallfred recited the poem; it was a _drápa_ (laudatory -poem); he delivered it with skill. The jarl thanked him, gave him a -large silver ornamented axe, and good clothes, and invited him to remain -with him over winter; and this Hallfred accepted” (Hallfred’s Saga, ch. -5). - - -“As they parted, the jarl (Hakon) gave him (Olaf Höskuldsson) a most -costly gold ornamented axe” (Laxdæla, ch. 29). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 873.—Iron axe. ¼ real size. Found in a field with another axe, - &c.—Karleby, Upland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 874.—Small axe. ½ real size. Found with double-edged sword, 10 - arrow-points, &c.—Forneby, Vestmanlan. -] - -The bow (_bogi_) and the arrow (_ör_) were among the most important -weapons for war. The bows discovered are generally about six feet long. - -Arrows were called by the poets— - - The bird of the string. - The swift-flyer. - The hail of the battle. - The hail of the wound. - The herrings of the corpse. - The ice of the bow. - The rain of the string. - The twigs of the corpse. - The clutching one (one of three arrows of Orvar Odd). - The glad flyer. - The weapon of the Finns. - The work of Gusi (king of the Finns). - The followers of Gusi. - The flowing streams of the bow. - The rain of the bow. - The quick one of the shaft. - The fire of the bow, &c. - -The quivers from the earlier iron age were occasionally of wood, -sometimes with bronze mountings, and were made to hold a score of -arrows. Some arrows were ornamented with gold, were long, and often -barbed with iron or bone. The arrow-shafts, of wood, were two or three -feet long, with four rows of feathers, fastened into pitched thread; -they, as well as the spears, often bore the marks of ownership; while -some were engraved with runes. - -Svein (England’s conqueror), King Harald’s son, Pálnatóki’s foster-son, -went on warfare in his father’s realm and fought a battle at sea against -him near Bornholm. He was defeated and shut up in a bay, Harald’s ships -lying across it, each stem being fastened to the other. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 875. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 876. -] - - Arrow-heads. ⅔ real size.—Norway. - - -“The same evening Pálnatóki came to the island with twenty-four ships. -He laid his ships on the other side of the cape, and there tented over -his host (on board). Thereupon he went ashore alone with his bow and -arrows, and his sword at his belt. Now it must be told of King Harald -that he went ashore with eleven men. They walked into the wood, made a -fire there, and warmed themselves at it. They sat on a felled tree, and -it had become dark as the night fell on. Pálnatóki went into the wood -opposite where the king sat, and stood there. The king warmed himself at -the fire, and came with his back close to it. Clothes were laid under -him. He was on his knees, and stooped forward so low while warming his -back and shoulders that the hind part of his thighs stood out. Pálnatóki -heard the king’s voice, and recognised that of his father’s brother, -Fjölnir. He laid an arrow on his (bow) string and shot at the king, and, -it is told, that the arrow hit the king straight between his thighs and -came out of his mouth. The king fell dead, as was to be expected. When -his followers saw what had happened, Fjölnir said: ‘A great mishap has -occurred to the man who has done this deed, or caused it to be done. A -strange wonder is the way in which this deed has been committed.’ He -asked what should be done. They left to him to decide that, for he was -the wisest of them. It is told that he took the arrow out of the king’s -mouth, and put it by as it was. It was easy to know, for it was bound -with gold. Fjölnir said to the men: ‘I think it advisable that we all -tell the same tale about this event, and it seems to me we cannot do -better than say he was shot in the battle to-day. That is more likely -than the wonder which has occurred here.’ They all bound themselves -firmly to tell the same story” (Jomsvikinga Saga). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 877.—½ real size. Arrow-head. In a round tumulus, with fragments - of two stone vases, pincers of iron for blacksmith, a two-edged - sword with hilt inlaid with silver, the blade bent and the inlaid - silver half melted; a bent spear-head, one axe, one shield-boss, - fifteen arrow-heads, a horse-bit, two stirrups, two spears, four - buckles for belts, and many ornaments for harness; two hammers, an - anvil, fragments of a stone mould, remains of a bronze balance, two - files, two blades of knives, and two celts of iron, a gimlet, two - sharpening stones, a piece of flint, an iron key, fragments of - checkers of bones, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 878.—½ real size. Arrow-head of iron.—Norway. -] - -The most celebrated mythical arrows[99] of the Sagas were the Gusi -arrows, which had come into the possession of Ketil Hœng, and were owned -afterwards by his grandson, Orvar Odd. - -There are several accounts of these wonderful arrows in the Sagas. - - -“Grím (father of Orvar-Odd) followed them (Odd, Gudmund, Sigurd) to the -ships and said: ‘Here are the costly things which I want to give thee, -Odd, my kinsman; they are three arrows which have a name and are called -Gusi’s nautar (Gusi’s followers).’ He gave the arrows to Odd, who looked -at them and said: ‘They are very costly.’ The feathers were gilded, and -the arrows flew off and on the string by themselves, and one never needs -to search for them. These arrows Ketil Hœng took from Gusi, the king of -the Finnar; they bite everything they are aimed at, for they are forged -by _Dvergar_. Odd said: ‘No gifts have I which I think equally fine.’ He -thanked his father, and they parted with friendship” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, -c. 4).[100] - - -_Slings and stones thrown._—Stone-throwing was an important means of -attack. Stones were sometimes thrown by hand, but oftener with slings, -particularly in sea-fights, and the art was brought to great perfection. -Slings were also used on land by bodies of men who had no other -weapons.[101] The stone-throwers are mentioned as occupying the flanks -in King Hedin’s army; and the slingers stood in the last ranks of King -Hring’s order of battle on Brávalla heath. - -As heavy stones could not be thrown any great distance by mere muscular -strength, machines were employed, called _Valslöngva_. - -The chief Sturla Sighvatsson was attacking his enemies, who defended -themselves inside a high wall. - - -“Sturla walked about outside, and took a stone; he threw stones better -than any man, and usually hit the mark. He said: ‘It seems to me if I -wished to throw a stone, that I, rather than you, would choose where it -should hit; but I will not try it now,’ and he then threw down the -stone” (Sturlunga, v., ch. 17). - - -“Búi (the son of Andrid, in Brautarholt) would never carry any weapon -but a sling, which he always wore tied round him. Búi was outlawed -because he did not want to sacrifice. Once when he was on a journey, -Thorstein, a son of the chief Thorgrim, attacked him with eleven men. -Búi had come to a hill called Kleberg, where he saw them pursuing him; -he stopped and gathered some stones. Thorstein and his men went fast, -and when they had passed a brook which was there, they heard the sling -of Búi whistle and a stone flew; it struck the breast of one of -Thorstein’s men and killed him. Búi sent more stones, and hit a man with -each one. By this time Thorstein had almost come up to him; Búi -retreated down the hill on the other side” (Kjalnesinga Saga, ch. 3). - - -_Defensive weapons._—The shield, the form of which, as we see from the -finds, was always round, and somewhat convex. Almost all shields were -probably covered with leather. They were of wood, the boards surrounded -on the rim by a ring of metal, sometimes of gold, and they were braced -and furnished with a boss and handle of iron or bronze. Many were -painted in different colours, or richly ornamented, and sometimes -covered with gold. - -Many figurative names were given to them:— - - The sun of the battle. - The moon of the battle. - The sun of Odin. - The moon of Odin. - The cloud of the battle. - The wall of the battle. - The board of victory. - The net of the spears. - The wheel of Hild (a Valkyria). - Hild’s wall. - The sun of the sea kings. - The leaf of the Vikings. - The land of the arrows. - The path of the spears. - The fence of the bardi (ironclad ship). - The hall-roof of Odin. - The one that shelters. - The battle-shelterer. - The glittering sun. - The fire-shelterer. - The burgh of the swords. - -Thjódolf of Hvin, one of Harald Fairhair’s scalds, got as a gift from -the Norwegian chief Thorleif[102] a shield. The shield was painted with -subjects from Norse mythology. On these Thjódolf wrote the poem -_Haustlöng_ (autumn-long), which is preserved in the later Edda in two -parts. The first part tells about the journey of Odin, Loki, and Hœnir; -how on their way they met the Jötun Thjassi; and it also describes the -rape of Idun, and Thjassi’s death. This part of the poem winds up thus:— - - This is painted - On my shield; - I received the coloured shield - From Thorleif. - -The second part of the poem tells the fight of Thor with the Jötun -Hrungnir, and Thjódolf ends it with these words:— - - I see distinctly - These events on the shield; - I got the coloured shield - From Thorleif. - - (Later Edda.) - - -“When the jarl heard the poem, he gave Einar a most costly shield. It -was painted with old Sagas, and all the spaces between the paintings -were covered with plates of gold and set with stones. - -“When he was ready he went to the seat of Egil, and hung the costly -shield there, telling the servants that he gave it to Egil, and then -rode away. - -“It is said that Egil took the shield on a bridal journey to Vidimyri, -where it was spoiled by being thrown into a tub of sour milk; he had the -ornaments taken off, and there were twelve aurar of gold in the plates” -(Egil’s Saga, ch. 82).[103] - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 879.—Shield-boss of bronze, with handle of iron covered with - bronze. ½ real size.—Ultuna. -] - - -“Sigurd rode away, his shield had many layers, and was covered with red -gold, and on it was painted a dragon. It was dark brown on the upper -part, and light red on the lower, and in the same way were coloured his -helmet, saddle, and armour. He had a gold coat-of-mail (gullbrynja), and -all his weapons were ornamented with gold and marked with a dragon, so -that every one who saw the dragon might know who the man was, if he had -heard that Sigurd slew the large dragon which the Vœrings call Fafnir” -(Volsunga Saga, ch. 22). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 880. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 881. -] - - Shield boss with handle of bronze, found with the iron spear-point. - ½ real size.—Folkeslunda, Öland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 882.—Shield boss of iron. ½ real size.—Hammenhoj, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 883.—Button of shield boss of bronze, plated with silver gilt; - the heads of the nails or notches are not gilt. ¾ real size—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 884.—Shield boss. ⅓ real size. Found in round tumulus with a - spear-head, &c.—Norway. -] - -The shield of Bragi Boddason, presented to him as a gift by the famous -Ragnar Lodbrók, seems to have been divided into four sections, each -containing a separate subject:—Sörli and Hamdir killing Jórmunrek and -avenging Svanhild;[104] Gefjon ploughing Selund out of Sweden;[105] Thór -fishing the serpent (Midgardsorm); the everlasting fight between Högni -and Hédin, which last is as follows:— - - -“King Hédin, son of Hjarrandi, took Hild, daughter of King Högni, away -while he was absent from home. When Högni heard this he pursued him, and -found him on Háey (Hoy, High Island), one of the Orkneys. Hédin offered -him much gold as indemnity, but Högni said: ‘Thou offerest peace too -late, for now I have drawn the sword _Dáinsleif_, which was made by the -Dvergar, which causes a man’s death every time it is unsheathed; the -wounds cut by it are never healed.’ Hédin said: ‘Thou boasteth of thy -sword, and not of victory; I call every sword good which is faithful to -its master’ (owner). Then they began the battle called Hjadninga-fight, -and they fought all that day, and at night went to their ships. During -the night Hild went to the field of the slain, and with witchcraft -called all the dead to life again. The next day the kings went to the -battle-field, and all those who had been killed the day before fought -with them. Day after day the battle went on, and all the slain and all -the weapons in the battle-field and the armour changed into stones. But -at daybreak all the dead men rose and fought, and all their weapons -could be used. It is told in songs that the Hjadnings shall remain thus -till _ragnarök_ (the last fight of the gods)” (Later Edda, -Skaldskaparmál, ch. 50). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 885.—Shield, Gokstad ship; about 3 feet in diameter. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 886.—Front view of shield handle of bronze, found by the side of - a skeleton.—Skogsby, Öland. ½ real size. -] - -From some passages in the Sagas it seems that some of the shields were -so large that men could be laid on them, and that some were oblong, as -represented in wood-carvings and on the Bayeux tapestry. - - -“Then the king made ready and went along the valley; he selected a -resting-place for the night where all his men came together and lie in -the open air under their shields” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 219). - - -“When Olaf was in the Syllingar (Scilly Islands) a hermit prophesied to -him ‘that he would get severely wounded in a fight, and be carried on a -shield on board his ship; that he would be cured in seven nights, and -then be baptized;’ and this proved to be true” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga -(Heimskringla), ch. 32). - - -_Brynja_, or ring coats-of-mail, are often alluded to, and the benches -in Odin’s hall were covered with them. We have seen from the finds that -_Brynjas_ were used at a very early period, probably even before the -Christian era. They were made long and short—some, in fact, were so -short as not to cover the stomach. Only in two instances is the -_spanga-brynja_, or plate coat-of-mail, mentioned. Occasionally brynjas -are described as being made of gold. We read that the loss of the famous -battle of Stamford Bridge by Harald Hardradi was attributed to his men -having left their coats-of-mail on board their ship. Many coats-of-mail -are described as being impervious to weapons, owing, no doubt, to their -wonderful workmanship and the hardness of the rings. - -Some of the poetical names given to brynjas are:— - - The woof of spears. - War-woof. - Ring-shirt. - Tent of Hlokk. - Shirt of Gunnar. - Shirt of Odin. - Grey clothes of Odin. - Cloak of kings. - Blue shirt. - Battle-cloak. - -From the following account we see that some of these coats-of-mail were -made thicker than others:— - - -“Hjálmar said: ‘I want to fight Angantyr, for I have a brynja in which I -have never been wounded; it is set with fourfold rings’” (Orvar Odd’s -Saga, ch. 14). - - -In the sea-fight between Olaf and Svein jarl— - - -“The latter had more men, but the king had picked men on his ship, and -they were so well equipped that every one had a brynja; and on this -occasion they did not get wounded” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 47).[106] - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 887. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 888. -] - - Bronze plates, with raised figures, found in Öland. ¾ real size. - Frey’s boar. The horned helmet similar to one in the British - Museum. - -Helgi Hardbeinsson, was told by his herdsman that he had seen many armed -men, who had come to kill him, and he thus described the war-dress of -one of them, as they sat in a circle taking their morning meal -(day-meal):— - - -“He had on a coat of plate-mail[107] and a steel cap, the brim of which -was as wide as a hand’s breadth, and a shining axe on his shoulder, the -edge of which seemed to be two feet long. He had black eyes, and was -very viking-like in appearance” (Laxdœla Saga, c. 63). - - -Helmets (_hjálm_) are often mentioned; they were generally gilt, or of -gold. On the front of them was a _herkumbl_ (war-mark). From several -bronze plates we see that they were sometimes made in the shape of -animals. The Saga says of King Adils that he had a helmet called -_Hildigölt_ (war-boar). In the finds they are extremely rare; one of -silver has been found, and a fragment of another inlaid with gold, and -one or two of iron. - - -The viking Framar is thus described: “He wore a helmet on his head, and -was girt with a sword; had a gold-enamelled gull-smeltr shield, and a -spear in his hand” (Sturlaug Starfsamis Saga, ch. 11). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 889.—Helmet of iron, ¼ real size, found in the decayed remains of - a small ship buried in the Ultuna mound not far from Upsala. -] - -Olaf Haraldsson, when he was about to fight the battle at Ness against -Svein jarl: - - -“Had on his ship one hundred men, and they had on ring coats-of-mail and -Welsh (foreign) helmets. Most of his men had white shields, and on them -was the holy cross in gold, but some were painted with red or blue; he -had painted crosses in white on the front of all helmets. He had a white -standard which was a serpent” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 47).[108] - - ------ - -Footnote 92: - - In the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg there is a short, - double-edged sword, dug up in Southern Russia, the scabbard of which - is entirely of gold. - -Footnote 93: - - Cfr. also Thorstein Vikingsson’s Saga, ch. 15, 20. - -Footnote 94: - - Hole in middle of millstone. - -Footnote 95: - - Cfr. also An’s Saga Bogsveigis, ch. 1. - -Footnote 96: - - Cfr. Sturlunga, 111. - -Footnote 97: - - Harmer of brynjas = sword. - -Footnote 98: - - Valböst, an unknown part of the sword. - -Footnote 99: - - It was only in later times that cross-bows (_lás bogi)_ were used, - with a trigger or spring. They are mentioned about the year 1200. - -Footnote 100: - - Cf. also Ketil Hœng’s Saga, c. 3. - -Footnote 101: - - See Magnus the Good’s Saga, c. 31; also Sturlunga, v. c. 17; Færeyinga - Saga, c. 18. - -Footnote 102: - - Thorleif is mentioned in Hakon Adalsteinsfóstri’s Saga, ch. 11, as - “Thorleif the Wise,” who helped the king to establish the - Gulathing-laws. - -Footnote 103: - - Cf. Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 13. - -Footnote 104: - - Völsunga and Snorra Edda. - -Footnote 105: - - Ynglinga Saga. - -Footnote 106: - - Cf. also Færeyinga Saga, c. 24 - -Footnote 107: - - _Spanga-brynja._ - -Footnote 108: - - Cf. Olaf’s Saga, 216; Fornmanna Sögur, viii. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - WAR CUSTOMS. - - Marking and choosing the battle-field—The war arrow—Peace and war - shields—Age when called to arms—The guest expected to fight for - his host—War horses—Formation of an army—Standards—War - booty—Chivalry in war. - - -To such warlike people, well-regulated laws or customs in regard to war -were necessary. It seems to have been the right, from very ancient -times, of the chief whose land was invaded to choose the -battle-field[109] where the conflict was to take place. The battle-field -was marked with poles, and no plundering was allowed before the end of -the decisive battle. The messengers who brought the summons for the -conflict, and those who afterwards came to announce that the combatants -were ready, were protected. - - -“King Hakon sent word to the sons of Eirik (Blood-axe), and asked them -to go ashore, as he had enhazeled a field for them at Rastarkalf; there -are level and large plains, on the top of which is a long but low -hillside. Then Eirik’s men left their ships” (Hakon the Good’s Saga, c. -24; Heimskringla). - - -After the declaration of war the war-arrow was sent, to summon the -warriors, when all who were able to carry arms had to turn out, whether -thralls or free men. The sending of the war-arrow seems to imply that -the message should be carried swiftly. - - -“When a man carries war-news he shall raise an iron arrow at the end of -the land. That arrow shall go with the lendirmen, and be carried on a -manned ship both by night and by day (i.e., never stop) along the high -road (on the sea). Those who drop that arrow are to be outlaws. A wooden -arrow shall go into the fjords from the high road, and be carried with -witnesses, and each man shall carry it on to the other. The one who -drops it must pay a fine of three marks. When it comes where a woman -lives alone, she must procure ships and food and men if she can. But if -she cannot, the arrow shall be carried onwards. Every man in whose house -the arrow comes is summoned within five days on board a ship. If any one -sits quiet he is outlawed, for both thegn and thrall shall go”[110] -(Earlier Gulathing Law, c. 312). - - -“When news came to Einar Thambarskeltir about King Olaf’s journey, he at -once took a war-arrow and sent it in four directions, summoning thegn -and thrall with full war-dress to come and defend the country against -the king. The arrow summons went to Orkadal, and then to Ganlardal, and -all the host gathered together”[111] (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 37). - - -Every warrior went to battle combed and washed, and after having eaten -well. - -There were peace and war shields, the former white and the latter red; -when the first was hoisted on a ship it was a sign for a cessation of -the conflict, while the appearance of the later on the masthead, or in -the midst of a body of men, was a sign of hostility. Another sign was -the throwing of a spear or shooting of an arrow over the host. The -battles always began by the blowing of the horns. The horn seems to have -been the earliest instrument known. No horns belonging to the iron age -have been found, though so often mentioned in the Sagas, from which we -must suppose that, unlike those of the bronze age, they were of wood. - -When the Volsungs approached to attack the sons of Hunding with their -fleet, and neared the shores, and were asked what they came for, - - Sinfjötli replied— - Hoisted up to the yard - A red shield; - The rim was of gold. - - (Helgakvida Hundingsbana, i. 33.) - -Their standards stood by the leaders, and were protected by a shield -burgh, that is, surrounded by a circle of men armed, besides their -offensive weapons, with shields. - - -“King Magnus Barefoot went from Vikin with some of his lendirmen to -procure the submission of Sveinki, a powerful bondi, who resided near -the Gauta river. When they came ashore they saw Sveinki coming from his -bu with a host of well-equipped men. The lendirmen raised a white -shield, and when Steinki noticed this he stopped his band, and they met” -(Magnus Barefoot, c. 8).[112] - - -“As the host of Snorri passed below by the mountain-side, Steinthor -threw a spear over the host of Snorri, according to ancient custom, for -the sake of good luck” (Eyrbyggja, c. 44). - - -It seems that the age at which the youth of the country were called to -bear arms was fifteen years, when they became of age. If the country was -in great peril they could be called out at the age of twelve; but from -eighteen upwards seems to have been the age when young men were most -appreciated. - - A short time the king - Waited for a fight - When he was - Fifteen winters old - He slew - The hard Hunding, - Who long ruled over - Lands and men. - -The guest, like the hostage, was expected to fight and help his host. - - -“Next spring Half was twelve winters old, and no man was as tall or as -strong as he. Then he made ready to go on warfare, and had a new and -well-outfitted ship. In Hördaland there was a Jarl named Alf the old. He -was married to Gunnlöd, daughter of the Berserk Hromund, sister of the -hersir Hámund the valiant. They had two sons, both named Stein. The -elder was then eighteen winters old. He was at that time the -advice-giver of King Half. No one could go on expeditions who was -younger or more youthful than he. A large stone lay in the yard, and no -one was allowed to go who could not lift it from the ground; nor could -any one go who was not so hardy that he never was afraid, or who spoke -words of fear, or drew back his lips (changed countenance) on account of -wounds.” - -“Stein the younger, Gunnlöd’s son, was not able to go on account of his -age, for he was only twelve winters old” (Half, and Half’s Champions’ -Saga, c. 10). - - -Horses used for war could not be less than three years old, except in -cases of great danger, when they could be taken at the age of two years. - -One of the formations of an army was that of “_Svinfylking_” -(swine-array), or a triangle. This array was adopted in the Bravalla -battle,[113] where it is said to have been introduced by Odin himself, -thus showing its great antiquity. - -Sigmund Brestisson, the famous champion of the Faroes, in the time of -Hakon Jarl made a raid into Sweden. One of the chiefs of the King of -Sweden, by name Björn, gathered a numerous host and cut Sigmund off from -his ships. One day when they saw the host of the land, the men of -Sigmund talked of what they should resolve to do. Sigmund said: - - -“‘There are yet many good chances, and very often the more numerous host -does not gain the victory, if there are fearless men against them. Now -we will make a resolve to arrange our host in swine-array. We kinsmen, I -and Thorir, will be foremost, and then three and five white shielded men -shall stand on the flanks; and I think it our best plan to rush at their -array, and see if we can thus get through it, and the Swedes will not -stand firmly on the field.’ This they did, rushed at the array of the -Swedes, and broke through it” (Flateyjarbok, i., p. 140). - - -It seems the shieldburg was at the apex of the triangle. - - -“If thou art in a battle on shore, and hast to fight on foot, and art at -the point of the _svin-fylking_, then it is very important in the -earlier part of the battle that good care is taken that the locked -shieldburgh be not broken or opened” (Konung’s Skuggsja, p. 85). - - -They had their army formations like trained soldiers. - -The hosts, when in order of battle, were divided into _sveitir_ -(detachments), and a number of these formed a _fylking_; the strength of -each probably varied according to the number of men who took part in the -war. - - -“King Olaf made the following speech to his host before the battle of -Stiklastadir:—‘We have a large and fine host. Now I will tell you how I -want to array my men. I want to let my standard move forward in the -middle of the host, and my hird and gestir shall follow it, together -with those who joined me from Upplönd and Thrándheim. To the right of my -standard Dag Hringsson shall stand, and the men with whom he joined us. -He shall have another standard. To the left of my fylking shall stand -the men from the King of Sweden and all those who joined us in -Sviaveldi. They shall have the third standard. I want my men to form -detachments, and friends and kinsmen shall stand together, for then each -will defend the other best, and they will know each other. - -“‘We shall mark all our men by making a war-sign on our helmets and -shields, namely, paint on them the holy cross in white. - -“‘When we come forward into battle we shall all have the same watchword: -“Forward, forward, Christ-men, cross-men, king’s men.” We must have thin -arrays if we have fewer men, for I do not want them to surround us. - -“‘Now form sveitir. Then the sveitir shall be put together to form -fylkings, and each man must then know his place and mind in what -direction he stands from the standard to which he belongs. We will keep -our fylking and be fully armed day and night till we know where we meet -the bœndr.’ When he had spoken they arrayed themselves, and arranged as -the king had told them” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 216). - - -“The chief Kalf Arnason raised his banner, and placed his _huskarls_ and -Harek of Thjotta and his men round it. Thorir Hund with his host was in -front of the host, and in front of the standards” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. -233). - - -_Standards_, often very elaborately worked, were used both on sea and -land; some of these had great reputations, and picked warriors were -always chosen to carry them, each fylking having one. The poets or -scalds seem to have stood close to them in the shieldburg. - - -“He, Egil Ullserk, was an old bondi who had been a great warrior, and -for a long time carried the banner of Harald the Fairhaired. He said: ‘I -feared for some time, while this great peace lasted, that I should die -from old age on my bench, and I wished rather to fall in battle with my -chief; now it may happen so’” (Heimskringla, Hakon the Good, c. 23). - - -“One summer the Scotch Jarl Finnleik staked out with hazels a -battle-field for Sigurd at Skidamyri on an appointed day. Sigurd went to -consult his mother, who knew many things. He told her that there would -be against him not less than seven to one. She replied: ‘I would have -raised thee in my wool chest if I had been certain that thou wouldst -live for ever. Better is it to die with honour, than to live in shame. -Take this _merki_ (standard), which I have made with my best skill, and -which I believe will be victorious for those before whom it is carried, -but deadly to him who carries it.’ The standard was made with great -hard-work and renowned skill. It was in the shape of a raven, and when -the wind blew on it it seemed as if the raven spread his wings. Sigurd -Jarl became very angry at his mother’s words, and gave the Orkney -islanders their odals to help him; he went against Finnleik Jarl at -Skidamyri, and both arrayed their men. When the fight began, the Scots -slew the standard-bearer of Sigurd Jarl; he appointed another to carry -it, but after a while he fell; three standard-bearers were slain, but -the Jarl was victorious” (Flateyjarbók, vol. i.). - - -_War booty._—The regulations about the spoils, which were very strict, -were divided into shares by lot or choice. It was the custom after the -battle, before the division took place, to carry the plunder to a pole -fixed in the ground, where it was counted and valued. - - -“Then the king (Sverrir) lay at Höfudey; he had the booty carried up on -a plain in the south of the island, and divided into four parts. Then a -Husthing (house thing) was summoned by blowing horns, and he spoke to -his men. Thereupon he made them go under a pole (stöng); it was scored -(i.e., an incision was made for every twenty men) to show how many men -he had; they were more than 40 hundred (4,000)” (King Sverri’s Saga, c. -136). - - -“In the spring the foster-brothers made ready to leave home with fifteen -ships; Beli steered the dragon which Slisa-Úti had owned; it was costly; -its beaks were carved and much gilded. King Beli got the dragon, for it -was the best thing of the booty they got from Úti, and it was their -custom that Beli always got the best of what they took as booty” -(Thorstein Vikingsson’s Saga, c. 21). - - -While reading the Sagas which speak of the most ancient events, we find -a great and chivalrous spirit animating the warriors, champion fought -against champion when others were looking on, man was against man. It -was not manly to attack a champion that was fighting with another. We -have several examples of men challenging to fight with an equal number -of ships. - -It is only in the later part of the pagan era that this high-minded -spirit disappears. - - -“Thorstein asked the Viking: ‘Who is talking to us?’ ‘His name is Ljót,’ -he replied. Thorstein said, ‘For a long time I have been looking for -thee.’ Ljót answered: ‘What dost thou want from me? I have never seen -thee, though I have heard of thy renown.’ Thorstein added: ‘Short is my -errand to thee; I want to make a division of property with thee, on the -condition that thou shalt go ashore with thy weapons and clothes, but -thy men only in shirts and linen breeches.’ Ljót said: ‘An unequal -condition does that seem; but is there any other?’ ‘The other,’ -Thorstein added, ‘is that we shall fight.’ Ljót asked where were his -warriors that he made such a challenge. ‘My equipment,’ Thorstein -replied, ‘is ten ships.’ Ljót arose and said: ‘Too unequal does this -seem to me, and I will rather fight thee than thus shamefully leave my -property.’ ‘Then put forward all your ships,’ Thorstein replied, -‘against mine.’ Ljót said: ‘I will not agree to that condition, to have -more ships in the battle than thou, for that I have never done; but I -have had fewer ships and yet always been victorious.’ Thorstein replied: -‘Thou needest not spare me thus.’ Ljót said: ‘I will not put forward -more; but if thou clearest one vessel, I will put another instead.’ ‘So -be it,’ Thorstein said” (Svarfdæla Saga, c. 5). - - -Among the laws of the Vikings, and one that was most honourably -observed, was the compact made not to plunder a country or attack a man -where there was _fridland_[114] (peaceland), or a kind of asylum where -men could come at all times on their way from one country to another, or -going and coming from an expedition, or for some other reason. - - -“Gunnlaug was once with Sigurd jarl of Western Gautland, and messengers -came there with gifts from Eirik jarl, Hakon’s son, of Norway. When -questioned who of the two jarls was the more famous, Gunnlaug in a -stanza decided for Eirik. The messengers told Eirik this when they came -back to Norway. The jarl thought that Gunnlaug had shown courage and -friendship towards him, and said that he should have peace-land in his -realm” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga’s Saga, c. 8). - - -“It is said that King Gorm and his son Harald disagreed when Harald was -of age. Gorm therefore resolved to give him some ships, and thus get rid -of him. Every summer he went far on Viking expeditions, but every winter -he was in Denmark and had peace-land there” (Flateyjarbók, vol. i., p. -104). - - -The Viking customs point to a high code of honour, though there seem to -have been general laws acknowledged by all. Special regulations were -enacted by particular bodies of men or by different chiefs. - - -_The Jomsviking Laws._—“After this (the building of Jómsborg), -Pálnatóki, with the advice of wise men, made laws in Jómsborg, in order -that their strength might increase. No man older than fifty and younger -than eighteen winters could be received in the following of Pálnatóki; -they were all to be between these two ages. No man could be received -there who would run (in fighting) from one equally able and equipped. -Every man who entered their following had to make a strong vow that each -would avenge the other like a food-companion or brother. Not a man was -to kindle slander among them. Also, though news was heard there, no man -was to be so rash as to tell it, for Pálnatóki first had to tell all -tidings. Any one who committed what has now been forbidden and broke -these laws was to be cast out and driven from their community. Also if -one had been received who had slain a brother or father or very near -kinsman of a man who was there before him, and it was found out after -his reception, then Pálnatóki should judge this. No one should have a -woman within the burgh, or be absent from it more than three nights -(days) unless with the permission of Pálnatóki. Everything that they got -in war they were to carry to the poles, larger and lesser things and all -kinds of property. If it was proved that any one had not done this he -had to leave the burgh, whether it was much or little which he had kept -back. No man there should utter a word of fear or apprehension, however -hopeless matters looked. Nothing could occur within the burgh over which -Pálnatóki should not have full power to rule as he liked. If men who -were not in the community wished to enter, ties of friendship or kinship -should have no influence. Even though the men of the commonwealth asked -that others might enter, it would not help. They now sat in the burgh in -good peace and kept their laws well. Every summer they went out and made -war in different countries, got high renown, and were looked on as the -greatest warriors; hardly any others were thought their equals at this -time, and they were always, after this, called Jomsvikings” (Jomsvikinga -Saga, c. 23, 24). - - -_Fridthjof’s Laws._—Fridthjof, after being outlawed from Norway, for -causing the burning of Baldr’s temple, went on Viking expeditions. - - -“He obtained much property and honour wherever he went; he killed -criminals and Vikings, but bœndr and traders he left in peace. He was -then again called Fridthjof the bold” (Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 11). - - -“It has been the custom (shortly before the time of Harald Fairhair, 800 -A.D.) for powerful men, kings, or jarls, or equals, to be in warfare, -and acquire property and honour; and that property must not be -inherited, nor son get it after his father, but be placed in their mound -with themselves. Though their sons got the lands (powerful men, kings, -or jarls), they could not uphold their position, even if they got -dignity with them (the lands), except they placed themselves and their -men in danger and warfare, thus earning property and honour one after -another, and thus stepping into the footprints of their kinsmen. I -suppose that the laws of warriors are unknown to thee, and I could teach -thee them; as thou now art come to such an age that it is time for thee -to try what luck will grant thee” (Vatnsdœla Saga, c. 2). - - -_Hjalmar’s and Orvar Odd’s Laws._—“Hjalmar said: ‘I will have no other -Viking laws but those I have had hitherto.’ Odd replied: ‘When I hear -them I will know how I like them.’ Hjalmar said: ‘First I will never eat -raw food, nor shall any of my men, for it is the custom of many men to -squeeze meat under their clothes and then call it cooked; that is acting -more like wolves than men. I will never rob traders or bœndr except when -I must make a raid upon land for my men when in need, and then I will -pay full value. Never will I rob women, though we find them on land with -much property, nor shall women be brought on board against their will; -if a woman can show that it has been done against her will, the man -shall lose his life for it, whether he is powerful or not’” (Orvar Odd’s -Saga, c. 9). - -_King Half’s Laws._—so named after this mighty king. Of him it is said: - - The valiant land-defender - Did not enjoy his life - In deeds of renown - As he ought to have; - The king went on warfare - When twelve winters old; - He was thirty when he died. - - We had all - A host of hawk-men[115] - Wherever the wise-minded one - Tried his fame; - With grey helmets - We went through - Nine folk-lands - All full large. - - I saw Half hewing - With both hands; - The chief had not - A sheltering shield before him; - No man will find, - Though he journey widely, - A nobler heart, - Or a bolder one. - - Men say, - Who do not know, - That Half’s renown - Was the result of folly; - The one who attributed - Strength of folly - To the Halogaland king - Knows him not. - - He bade the warriors - Not to fear death, - Nor to utter - Words of fright; - No one should - Follow the king - Unless he followed - The fate of the king. - - The friends of the king - Must not groan - Though they get - Large wounds in battle; - Nor should they let - Their wounds be dressed - Before the next day - At the same time. - - He bade in the host - Not to grieve men with fetters, - Nor do any harm - To a man’s wife; - He bade that every maid - Should be bought with mund, - With fine gold, - And the consent of her father. - - (Half’s Saga). - - -“Many things were forbidden in their laws (Half’s champions) so that -they might become the greater champions. One law was, that no one of -them should have a sword longer than two feet, so close was the fight to -be; they had saxes made, so that their blows might be heavier. No one of -them had less strength than twelve average men together. They never -captured women or children. No one of them should dress his wounds until -one day had passed (from the time he got it). No man of less strength or -bravery than has been stated was accepted. They made warfare widely -about the country, and were always victorious. King Half was eighteen -summers on warfare, and always gained the victory. It was their custom -always to lie before the capes; another of their customs was never to -put up tents on board, and never to reef the sail in a storm. They were -called Half’s Rekkar (champions), and he never had more than sixty on -board his ship” (Half’s Saga, c. 11). - - -Houses were frequently burnt as revenge with the enemy inside, but it -was the general custom to let women, servants, and also individuals of -the family, against whom no grudge was harboured, or from whom no -revenge was feared, get out of the house before it was fired. - -Flosi, an Icelandic chief, who had surrounded the house of Njál, and was -going to set fire to it, said to Njál: - - -‘I will not be reconciled to thy sons; and now it shall be fought out -with us, and I will not go away before they are all dead, but I will -allow women and children and húskarls (servants) to go out.’ Njál went -in and said to his people: ‘Now all who are allowed shall go out. Go -out, Thórhalla, Asgrim’s daughter, and all who are allowed with thee.’ -Thórhalla said: ‘Now Helgi and I part otherwise than I thought for a -while, but nevertheless I will urge my father and brothers to avenge the -men slain here.’ Njál said: ‘Thou wilt act well, for thou art a good -wife.’ Then she went out, with many others.... - -“Flosi said: ‘I will offer thee to go out, Njál bóndi, for thou -deservest not to be burnt.’ Njál said: ‘I will not go out, for I am an -old man, and little able to avenge my sons, but I will not live with -shame.’ Flosi said to Bergthóra: ‘Go out, housewife, for I will by no -means burn thee.’ Bergthóra answered: ‘I was young when I married Njál, -and I have promised him to let the same overtake us both.’ Then they -both went in. Bergthóra said: ‘What shall we now do?’ ‘We will go to our -bed,’ said Njál, ‘and lie down. I have long been fond of rest.’ She then -said to the boy Thord Karason: ‘Thou shalt go out and not be burnt with -us.’ The boy answered: ‘Thou hast promised me, grandmother, that we -should never part while I wished to remain with thee, and I like it much -better to die with thee and Njál than to live after you.’ She then -carried the boy to the bed. Njál said to his bryti (steward): ‘Now look -where we lie down, and how I make our bed, for I intend not to move from -here, whether smoke or flame pains me, then thou canst guess where our -bones are to be found’” (Njala, c. 129). - - -Here we have an account of the death of Thorólf, one of the greatest -blots on the character of Harald Fairhair. - - -“They (King Harald and his men) came to Sandnes (estate of Thorólf -Kveldulfsson) after sunset, and saw a tent-covered longship afloat in -front of the bæ, and knew that it belonged to Thorólf. He was about to -leave the country, and had let his parting-ale be warmed.[116] - -“The watchmen of Thorólf sat inside drinking, and nobody was on the -watch. The king (Harald Fairhair) surrounded the hall with a circle of -men; then they raised a war-cry, and a blast was blown on the king’s -horn. When Thorólf and his men heard this, they rushed for their -weapons, for all the weapons of every man hung above his seat. The king -had proclaimed at the door of the hall that women, young men, old men, -thralls and bondmen should go out. Sigrid, wife of Thorólf, the women -who were inside, and the men who were allowed, went out. Sigrid asked if -the sons of Berdlukari were there; they both stepped forward and asked -what she wanted. ‘Follow me to the king,’ she said. They did so; and as -she came to him she asked: ‘Is it of any use, lord, to try to reconcile -you with Thorólf?’ The king answered: ‘If Thorólf will surrender -unconditionally he shall be spared, but his men shall be punished -according to their guilt.’ After that Ölvir Hnufa entered the hall, and -told Thorólf the terms of the king. Thorólf replied quickly that he -would accept no hard conditions nor reconciliation from the king. ‘Ask -him to give us leave to go out, and let it then go as fate decides.’ -Ölvir told the king the answer of Thorólf. The king said: ‘You must set -the hall on fire; I will not lose my men in fighting against him -outside, for I think he will cause us a great loss of men if he gets -out, though he has fewer men than we.’ Then fire was set to the hall, -and it burned quickly, for the timber was dry and the walls tarred, and -the roof was thatched with birch-bark. Thorólf bade his men break off -the wainscoting, get at the gable-beams, and then break the -weather-boards. When they got hold of the beams, one of these was taken -by as many men as could get hold of it, and pushed out at the corner so -strongly that the clamps fell off outside, and the walls broke, leaving -a large opening. Thorólf went out first, then Thorgils gjallandi -(loud-speaking), and all, one after the other. A most severe fight -began, and for a while it was impossible to see who would win, because -the house protected their backs. Many of the king’s men were killed -before the house began to burn; then the fire attacked Thorólf’s men, -and many of them fell. Thorólf ran forward and dealt blows on both -sides, and there was little need to dress the wounds of those whom he -wounded. He pushed forward to where the king’s standard was, and at that -moment Thorgils gjallandi fell. When Thorólf came to the shieldburgh he -thrust his sword through the standard-bearer and said: ‘Now I stepped -three feet too short (I should have stepped three feet longer forward).’ -Swords and spears struck him, and the king himself dealt him a fatal -wound, and Thorólf fell down at his feet. The king ordered that they -should leave off killing the men, which was done. He then made his men -go down to the ships, telling Ölvir Hnufa and his brother: ‘Take -Thorólf, your kinsman, and give his body a becoming preparation, and -bury the others who have fallen, and let the wounds of such as are -likely to live be dressed. Let nothing be taken hence, for it is all my -property.’ He went down to his ships, and with him most of his men, and -they began to dress their wounds, and the king walked about the ship and -looked at them. He saw where a man was dressing a slight wound, and -remarked that Thorólf had not given that, for his weapons bit quite -another way. ‘I think that few can dress the wounds he gave, and the -death of such men is a great loss’” (Egil’s Saga, c. 22). - - -“Odd went to his father Grim and said: ‘Now tell me of the viking whom -thou knowest to be the greatest one.’ Grim said: ‘You are strong men and -you seem to think that nothing can withstand you; now I will tell you of -two vikings of whom I know that they are the greatest and best skilled -in everything; one is called Hjalmar Hugumstóri (the high-minded), and -the other, Thórd Stafnglama.’ ‘Where are they,’ said Odd, ‘and how many -ships have they?’ ‘They have fifteen ships,’ said Grim, ‘and one hundred -men on each.’ ‘Where have they peace-land?’ said Odd. ‘In Sweden there -is a king called Hlödver; they are with him during winter and lie on -their war-ships during summer.’ When they were ready they walked down to -their ships; Grim followed them down and bade his son farewell with -great love” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 8). - - -“It is told that Odd sailed from Hrafnista when he got a fair wind, and -nothing is said of their journey before they came to Sweden, where a -cape ran out from the mainland into the sea; they put up tents on their -ships there. Odd went ashore for news; he saw that fifteen ships lay on -the other side of the cape and that war-tents were ashore. He saw plays -going on near the tents. Hjalmar and Thord steered these ships. Odd went -back to his ships and told this news. Gudmund (his foster-brother) asked -what they should do. Odd said: ‘We will divide our men in two halves; -you shall go with your ships past the ness and raise a battle-cry -against those who are ashore; I will land with the other half and go -along the forest and there raise another battle-cry; then it may be that -they get somewhat startled; I think they will flee away into the forest -and that no more is needed.’ It is told of Hjalmar and his men that they -were not in the least startled when they heard the battle-cry of -Gudmund. When they heard another battle-cry upon land they stopped the -play while it lasted and then continued as before. Now Odd and Gudmund -went to the other side of the ness and met. Odd said: ‘I know not for -certain whether these men are so full of fear whom we have found here.’ -‘What wilt thou now do?’ said Gudmund. ‘That is soon told,’ said Odd; -‘we will not steal at these men; we will stay this night at the ness -(cape) till morning.’ Next morning they went ashore with all their men -towards Hjalmar, who had his men war-dressed when he saw them go up on -land and went to meet them. Hjalmar asked when they met who was the -leader. Odd answered: ‘There are more chiefs than one here.’ ‘What is -thy name?’ said Hjalmar. ‘My name is Odd, son of Grim Lodinkinni (hairy -cheek) from Hranfista.’ ‘Art thou the Odd who went to Bjarmaland shortly -ago, and what is thy errand hither?’ Odd said: ‘I wish to know which of -us is the greater man.’ ‘How many ships hast thou?’ asked Hjalmar. ‘I -have five ships,’ said Odd, ‘and how many have you?’ ‘We have fifteen -ships,’ answered Hjalmar. ‘That is great odds,’ said Odd. ‘Ten -ship-crews shall not take part in the battle,’ said Hjalmar, ‘and man -fight against man.’ Both made themselves ready for battle, arrayed their -men and fought all day. At night the peace-shield was raised, and -Hjalmar asked Odd how he liked the fight of that day; Odd answered: -‘Well.’ ‘Wilt thou play this game oftener?’ said Hjalmar. ‘No other -intention have I,’ answered Odd, ‘for I never found better or hardier -champions; we will begin the battle again in full daylight.’ This was -done; the men went to their war-booths and dressed their wounds. Next -morning both arrayed their men for battle and fought all that day; when -it began to grow dark a peace-shield was raised. Odd asked how Hjalmar -liked the fighting of that day; he said: ‘Well.’ ‘Wilt thou,’ said -Hjalmar, ‘try this game the third day?’ Odd replied: ‘Then we shall -fight it out.’ Thord said: ‘Can we expect much property on your ships?’ -‘Far from that,’ said Odd, ‘we have got no property this summer.’ ‘I -think,’ said Thord, ‘I have nowhere met more foolish men than here, for -we only fight out of pride and rivalry.’ ‘What wilt thou then?’ said -Odd.” (Orvar Odd Saga, c. 9). - - ------ - -Footnote 109: - - Cf. a similar practice in duelling. This custom of staking and - choosing the field of battle is also seen to have been practised by - the Massagetæ. Tomyris sent word to Cyrus, who came to subjugate her - country, and was building a bridge: “Toil no longer in making a bridge - over the river, but cross over to our side while we retire three days’ - march from the river; or, if you had rather receive us on your side, - do you the like.” - -Footnote 110: - - Cf. also Flateyjarbok, ii., p. 188. - -Footnote 111: - - Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason, i., p. 207; (Fms.); St. Olaf (Heimskringla), - c. 118. - -Footnote 112: - - Cf. also An Bogsveigi’s Saga; Orvar Odd’s Saga; Fridthjof’s Saga, c. - 6. - -Footnote 113: - - In the account of this battle the word hamalt is used synonymously - with svinfylking. - -Footnote 114: - - The word for the general state of peace was _Frid_. _Grid_ appears in - its early meaning to have denoted a peculiar state of peace, quarter, - protection, or temporary or local cessation of hostilities. - -Footnote 115: - - Bold as hawks. - -Footnote 116: - - On leaving a place it was customary to have a feast with one’s - friends. It was such a feast that is here referred to. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - ROCK-TRACINGS.[117] - - Great antiquity of the rock-tracings—A silent history of the - people—Their abundance on the Cattegat—Ships or boats, fights, - warriors, horses, cattle, camels, turtles, mystic signs, etc., - representing warriors with horned helmets—Similar helmets - found—The bas-relief of the temple of Medinet Habou—Large size of - rock-tracings—The peculiar rock-tracings of Järrestad and - Simris—Peculiar bowl-shaped hollows. - - -Among the interesting mementoes of the past which help us to get an -insight into the life of the earlier inhabitants of the peninsula of -Scandinavia are the “rock-tracings,”[118] which are of great antiquity, -long before the Roman period, large pictures engraved on the rocks, -which, like the pyramids and sphinxes of Egypt, bear witness to the -unwritten history of the people. - -These illustrations are of different kinds and sizes: the most numerous -being the drawings of ships or boats, canoe-shaped, and alike at both -ends (with figures of men and animals), and of fleets fighting against -each other, or making an attack upon the shore. The hero of the fight or -the champion is generally depicted as much larger than the other -combatants, who probably were of one people, though of different tribes, -for their arms are similar, and all seem without clothing, though in -some cases they are represented as wearing a helmet or a shield, in -order to protect them against the blows of their adversaries. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 890.—Rock-tracing, Tanum parish, Bohuslän; large figure probably - a champion; numerous small holes, and footprints between the - champion and attacking force. Height, 20 feet; width, 15 feet. -] - -On some rocks are representations of cattle, horses, reindeer, turtles, -ostriches, and camels, the latter showing that in earlier times these -people were acquainted with more southern climes; the greatest number, -and the largest and most complicated in detail of the tracings, occur, -especially in the present Sweden, on the shores of the Cattegat, in -Bohuslän, “the ancient Viken of the Sagas,” on the coast of the -peninsula washed by the Cattegat. They are also found in Norway, -especially in Smaalenene, a province contiguous to that of Bohuslän, but -more scarce in the north, though found on the Trondhjem fjord. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 891.—Rock-tracing—turtle, cuttle-fish, dromedary, and another - animal (possibly a lion), ships, and a footprint. Height, 10½ feet; - width, 15 feet.—Ryxö, Brastad parish, Bohuslän. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 892.—Rock-tracing representing reindeer, and probably a horse in - a boat. Height, 5 feet; width, 12½ feet.—Massleberg, Skee parish, - Bohuslän. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 893.—Hill showing rock-tracings. -] - -In Bohuslän the tracings are cut in the quartz, which is the geological -formation of the coast: they are mostly upon slightly inclined rocks, -which are generally two or three hundred feet or more above the present -level of the sea, and which have been polished by the action of the ice. -The width of the lines in the same representation varies from one to two -inches, and even more; and their depth is often only a third or fourth -of an inch, and at times so shallow as to be barely perceptible. Those -tracings, which have for hundreds, perhaps for thousands, of years been -laid bare to the ravages of the northern climate, are now most difficult -to decipher, while those which have been protected by earth are as fresh -as if they had been cut to-day; many seem to have been cut near the -middle or base of the hills, which were covered with vegetation, and -were in the course of time concealed by the detritus from above. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 894.—Part of rock-tracing, Brastad parish, Bohuslän, with - numerous figures, nearly one hundred in number, varying in size from - two inches to several feet, and mystic or symbolical footprints. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 895.—Rock-tracing—men fighting with spears; a man apparently - lying dead in front of a boat, and a large number of domestic - animals.—Tanum parish, Bohuslän. -] - -The largest and most interesting rock-tracings are near Tanum church in -Bohuslän, and are found on the slopes of the rocky hills overlooking the -valleys which in these earlier times may have been partly arms of the -sea. How many hours have I spent before these in deep contemplation, -trying, but in vain, to unravel the mystery which surrounds them! Some -of the pictures contain over one hundred figures, varying from a small -object to one several feet in length or height; except in a few -instances, the absence of masts in representations of ships is -noticeable. - -Among the many interesting rock-tracings are those where warriors have a -peculiar horned head-dress, representing most probably a helmet. - -In the British Museum there are two helmets of bronze, which reminded me -of the representation given on the rock-tracings, which I give below, -one of which was found in the Thames, the other at Apulia. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 896.—Found in the Thames, near Waterloo Bridge. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 897.—Apulia (Magna Græcia). -] - -An engraving, illustrating part of a bas-relief of the Egyptian temple -of Medinet Habou, has been brought to my notice by Dr. Warre, -head-master of Eton College, from a remarkable French work.[119] There -is a similarity in this illustration with the rock-tracings of the -North. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 898.—From a bas-relief from the Temple of Medinet-Habou, Egypt. -] - -This bas-relief of the temple contains a record of the military success -and historical events of Rameses III. Among the different episodes the -sea-fight shown on p. 123 is recorded. I think we can recognize the -horned men of the rock-tracings. There is also a perfect similarity -between the boats of the Egyptians and that of Hazeby, in Sweden. The -boats of the Egyptians are symmetrical at both ends, and are ornamented -with carved heads. They have a single mast, and their sails are furled. -At the top of the mast there is a castellated structure which will be -seen in the chapter on the ships of the Northmen; but this is not found -on the rock-tracings. If these early inhabitants of the North went to -the Mediterranean and Egypt we can account for the camel, turtle, -octopus-like animal, leopards, and ostriches engraved on the rocks of -the North. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 899.—Horsemen represented on a rock cutting at Tegneby, in Tanum - parish, Bohuslän. 1/24 its real size. -] - -A remarkable rock-tracing, which I reproduce from ‘The Land of the -Midnight Sun,’ shows horsemen with quadrangular shields; these shields -are seen on some Egyptian bas-reliefs, and two somewhat similar ones -have been found in England. Either the people represent themselves on -this engraving, or some foreign men which the carver of this memento had -seen. - -The question naturally arises, did the people of the large Scandinavian -peninsula learn the art of rock-tracing from the Egyptians, if we take -for granted that they went there? There is a roughness of design which I -think seems to preclude that these engravings on stones could have been -made by Egyptians coming North. The very great number seems to imply -that they were made by the inhabitants, that the art flourished for -quite a long time, and that on the return of their warlike expeditions, -either from the north or south, they and some of the people illustrated -the deeds of their heroes. - -One of the finest tracings, which is about 66 feet in length and 20 feet -in height, is near a small stream by the bridge at Hvitlycke. Among the -prominent figures, of which there are over one hundred, is a large man, -probably a champion, with a shield and spear, attacking another; in -another part, two men fighting with axes; in another a large snake -attacks a man much smaller in size than the snake. There are also 22 -ships, varying in size from 2 to 3 feet in length, but one is about 10 -feet long. The earth which covered the lower part of the tracings had -just been removed some days before my arrival at the spot, and they were -as distinct and fresh as if they had been just cut. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 900.—Rock-tracing at Såtorp, Tanum parish, Bohuslän. A champion - defending his ship against two smaller ones. Height, 4¼ feet; width, - 6½ feet. -] - -The large size of some of the tracings shows that a long time must have -been required to complete them, and indicates that the people must have -been settlers in the country. With whatever instruments some of them -were cut, the work, on account of the great number of figures, must have -been in many cases slow. The question naturally arises: Did the early -tribes, who, according to the story, came to the North with Odin, find a -different people, who themselves or whose ancestors had made these -illustrations of their history, or a people belonging to the same race -and tribes of which we have spoken before, who gradually advanced in -civilisation? These are queries which it is to be feared no one will -ever be able to answer with satisfaction. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 901.—Rock-tracing, probably representing the death of a warrior - who has boarded a ship. Height, 12½ feet; width, 9 feet.—Sätorp, - Tanum parish, Bohuslän. -] - -It is a most remarkable fact that in the Eddas, Sagas, or songs of the -people, no mention is ever made of rock-tracings. In the Sagas we are -often told that drawings on shields, embroidery, cloth, &c., were made -to preserve the memory of heroic deeds and important events. From these -facts we must come to the conclusion that the rock-tracings are of great -antiquity. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 902.—Rock-tracing—two men fighting for a wheel, man ploughing, - man with bow, and fleet of boats or ships. Tanum parish, Bohuslän. - Height, 23½ feet; width, 17½ feet. -] - -The beautiful antiquities of bronze found in the North seem to show a -civilisation higher than that existing at the time of the rock-tracings. -The conscientious inquirer will naturally ask himself. To what epoch do -these earlier rock-tracings belong—to the so-called _stone_, _bronze_, -or _iron_ age? Unfortunately, nothing can positively settle the -question. Scholars who have made them their special study do not agree; -and we know that graves of the stone age have been found with tracings, -but not of human figures.[120] - -But many of the tracings show that even at that remote period cattle -were known to the inhabitants, and the existence of the plough -conclusively shows that the people cultivated the soil. - -The frequent appearance of swords on the rock-tracings shows that they -could not have been made during the stone age, in which swords were -unknown; but there are several indications that the tracings were made -before the iron age, and that they probably belong to the bronze -age.[121] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 903.—Ship on a rock-tracing at Lökeberg in Foss parish, Bohuslän. - ⅒ real size. -] - -This art of tracing seems to have been earlier than that of writing -runes, for not one of these peculiar representations, numbering several -hundreds of different sizes, have runic characters upon them. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 904.—Rock-tracing of reindeer, &c.; possibly representing a - journey to the far North by the man wearing snow-shoes. Height, 6½ - feet; width, 15 feet.—Backa, Brastad parish, Bohuslän. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 905.—Rock-tracing, apparently representing men returning from - some expedition in which the women have been made prisoners; - numerous bowl-shaped hollows, varying in size from one to two inches - in depth and diameter, have been made in the rock. Height, 10¾ feet; - width, 8¼ feet. -] - -They are very primitive, and in several cases plainly show that modesty -was not one of the characteristic traits of the people.[122] The first -impression gathered on seeing them is that they belonged to a people of -low civilisation, who must have been engaged in perpetual warfare, and -who by this means commemorated the deeds of their warriors, and it is -quite clear that the people who made them were not only warlike but -seafaring. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 906.—Human figure 1 foot 6 inches in height, holding an axe with - a handle 1 foot 8 inches long, and a head nearly 1 foot 2 - inches.—Simrislund, Scania. -] - -A very interesting district, rich in rock-tracing, exists on the -south-eastern coast of Sweden, in the neighbourhood of the little town -of Cimbrishamn, where the rocky coast falls very gently towards the sea, -losing itself in a somewhat sandy beach covered with boulders. The most -curious tracings are to be found on the farms of Järrestad and Simris. -The ships represented present the same characteristics as those of -Bohuslän; in some places they are 26 or 27 inches long, and generally -have 14 ribs. There are also wheels with crosses inside, with a diameter -of 5 to 6 inches, and in many instances only axes are seen on the -illustrations, which apparently is not the case with any of the Bohuslän -tracings. - -At Järrestad there exists on a rock slanting towards the sea a tracing -54 feet in length and 40 feet in height, which contains, besides the -characteristic figures of the rock-tracings of Bohuslän, a ship with a -mast. Another superb tracing is found on a large rock at Simrislund, in -which the figures are placed in several groups, and consist of 10 -vessels, 33 war axes, two men with weapons, one horse, four circles -without crosses, a mass of round excavations or cups, some of which are -quite large and deep; and finally a couple of figures impossible to -determine. One of the circles encloses a ship, and passes along the -belly of a horse, which is placed upside down in relation to the ship. -One tracing represents wheel-tracings and several ships, one of which is -26 inches long, almost on a line with fifteen or sixteen small hollows. -Quite close to these web tracings is a low mound, in which were found an -urn with burnt bones and a bronze button. The graves in the -neighbourhood though robbed of their contents, present the same -characteristics as those of the bronze age, to which all the cairns -found in the neighbourhood belong. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 907.—Rock-tracing with wheel enclosing a cross, and - ships.—Herrestrup, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 908.—Stone with tracings, Ingelstrup, Zealand. Height, 2 feet 8 - inches; width, 2 feet 10 inches; thickness, 13 inches. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 909.—Height, 29 feet; width, 17 feet; with large birds and - footprints, &c.—Tanum Parish, Bohuslän. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 910.—Rock-tracing, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 911.—Rock-tracing, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 912.—Rock-tracing—chariots with horses, ships, and - hollows.—Jerested, Scania. -] - -What the bowl-shaped hollows, which vary in size from 1 to 2 inches in -diameter and are generally about 1 inch deep, and which are shown on the -illustrations by small black dots, represent will probably always remain -an enigma. The reader will also notice peculiar figures, such as -circular rings, divided by crosses or double crosses, footprints, &c. -Only two rock-tracings thus far have been discovered, where waggons are -seen with wheels and horses attached to them. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 913.—Stone with round hollows. -] - -In Denmark, tracings have thus far only been discovered on the slabs of -passages in graves, such as those of Herrestrup in Zealand, and Ullerup -in Northern Jutland, and their absence is to be accounted for by the -want of rocky formation. - ------ - -Footnote 117: - - This subject would naturally be included in the earlier part of the - work, but the tracings contain so many figures of ancient ships that I - have thought it appropriate to introduce the chapters at this stage. - -Footnote 118: - - Two valuable works on rock-tracings are those of A. E. Holmberg and L. - Baltzer. - -Footnote 119: - - “Etudes sur l’antiquité historique d’après les sources Egyptiennes et - sur les monuments réputés préhistoriques,” par F. Chabas. - -Footnote 120: - - The finest example of those without figures is to be seen in the - Museum of St. Germain near Paris. - -Footnote 121: - - See ‘Land of the Midnight Sun,’ vol. i., p. 355. - -Footnote 122: - - Several representations, on account of their coarseness, are not as - correct in the illustrations as they should be. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - WAR-SHIPS. - - The Northmen pre-eminently a seafaring people—Figurative names - given to ships—Classification and names of ships of - war—Ironclads—Swift cruisers—Transport vessels—Foreign - ships—Different parts of a war-ship—Oars—Ship’s boats—Tents—Ship’s - moorings—Sheds—Launching—Ornamentations—Beautiful sails—Colour - of war-ships—Standards—Ornamentation of ship’s sides - with shields—The port of Jomsburgh—Size of ships—The - Tuneship—Shipbuilding—Crews—Description of a storm. - - -One of the most important features in the life of the Viking Age was the -ships in which the hardy Norsemen were able to rove over the seas of -Europe, and conquer and plunder the lands around them. In the Eddas and -Sagas these ships are often minutely described, so that we are able to -form a fair idea of the shipbuilding art of those days. - -The ships were called by figurative and most poetical names, and from -many of these we see that speed was valued very highly:— - - Deer of the surf. - Reindeer of breezes. - Sea-king’s deer. - Reindeer of the shield wall. - Elk of the fjords. - Sea-king’s sledge. - Horse of the home of ice. - Soot-coloured horse of the sea. - Horse of the gull’s track. - Mare of the surf. - Horse of the breeze. - Raven of the wind. - Gull of the fjord. - Carriage of the sea. - The sea-wader. - Ægir’s steed. - Sea steed. - Lion of the waves. - Hawk of the sea-gull’s track. - Raven of the sea. - Snake of the sea. - -The general name for all ships was _skip_, but these were classified -under different appellations. The war-ships were also classified under -several names, viz: _Dreki_ (dragon), _Skeid_, _Snekkja_, _Skúta_, -_Buza_, _Karfi_. The _herskip_ (host or war-ship), also called the -_langskip_ (long ship), was their most powerful ship of war. The -_Dragon_ was the finest and largest vessel of the North, and derived its -name from the prow and stern being ornamented respectively with the head -and tail of one or more dragons. - -The most celebrated for its beautiful proportions was the _Ormrinn -Langi_ (the long serpent), which, long afterwards, even during the time -of Harald Hardradi and Sigurd Jórsalafari, served as a model (11th and -12th centuries). - -The _skeid_ (swift sailer) was another kind of long ship, which held -from twenty to thirty or more rowers’ benches, and was occasionally as -large as a dragon-ship. The largest _skeid_ mentioned is that of Erling -Skjalgsson, which had thirty-two rowers’ benches, and carried two -hundred and forty or more men. He used it on viking expeditions, or when -he was summoned to participate in war. - - -“Erling Skjálgsson, the king’s brother-in-law, had his large _skeid_; it -had thirty rooms, and was well manned” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 105). - - -“It was then told to the king that Erling Skjálgsson had many men -gathered in Jadar. His skeid lay fully equipped near the shore, and many -other ships owned by the bœndr, such as _skutas_, _lagnarskip_ (fishing -ships) and large _rodrar-ferjas_ (rowing ferries)” (St. Olaf, c. 184). - - -The _snekkja_ was a somewhat smaller long-ship, of which frequent -mention is made; but sometimes it must have been as large as a -dragon-ship. - - -“Erling had prepared a twenty-seated _snekkja_, a fifteen-seated -_skuta_, and a _vistabyrding_ (store-ship)” (Magnus Erlingsson’s Saga, -c. 25.)[123] - - -The _Skuta_[124] was a small vessel, much used and often mentioned, -containing probably fifteen seats. In it the upper part of the gunwale -was so built that the crew could easily step on it, and more easily -board the enemy. - - -“In the spring Eirik obtained men, and Thorleif (Eirik’s foster-father) -gave him a _skuta_, with fifteen rowers’ seats and complete equipment, -tents, and provisions” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 20). - - -This vessel was manned in time of peace by about thirty men. - - -“Egil had his ship afloat and the cargo on board before he departed for -the Thing. When they left Arinbjörn they went to Steinsund to their -ship, which was floating in the harbour with the tents up. The skuta was -floating with its rudder on between the shore and the ship, with the -oars in their rowlocks. In the morning, near dawn, the watchmen saw that -some ships were rowing towards them. Egil saw that these were enemies, -and bade his men leap into the skuta. They all quickly seized their -weapons, and Egil took the chests of silver which King Adalstein gave -him. They rowed between the land and the snekkja nearest to it, which -was that of King Eirik, but in the hurry, and as it was rather dark, the -ships passed each other. When the lyptings[125] were near, Egil flung a -spear, which hit Ketil Höd in the waist, who was sitting at the helm, -and killed him instantly. King Eirik called to his men to row after him, -but as they passed the trading ship the King’s men leapt upon it. Those -of Egil’s men who had not gone into the skuta, and were caught, were all -killed; but some jumped ashore. Ten of his men were killed there. Some -of the ships rowed after Egil, while others plundered the trading ship; -all the goods on board were taken, and the ship burnt. Those who pursued -Egil and his men rowed violently, two taking one oar and rowing in -turns. They had many men on board, but Egil had few: they were eighteen -in the skuta. The space between them grew less, but inside the island -there was a somewhat shallow fording-sound between it and another -island, and the tide was ebbing. Egil sailed with the skuta into the -shallow sound; but the snekkjas could not float there, and there they -parted”[126] (Egil’s Saga, c. 58). - - -The _Buza_ and the _Dreki_ must have been somewhat similar in size, for -a _buza-ship_, built on the model of the long snake is mentioned in the -Sagas. - - -“When Thorir’s messengers returned, he had made ready a long-ship, a -large buza which he owned; he manned it with his huskarls, nearly eighty -men” (St. Olaf, c. 143). - - -“King Harald (Hardradi) had a buza-ship built at Eyrar during the -winter. It was made as large as the long serpent, and as good as could -be in every way. It had a dragon’s head on its prow and a tail in its -stern, and the beaks (svini) were ornamented with gold all over. It had -thirty-five rooms, was large in proportion thereto, and very fine. The -King was very careful about its outfit, sails, rigging, anchors, and -ropes” (Harald Hardradi, c. 61). - - -The _Karfi_ seems to have been a vessel of the size of a skuta. - - -“To Ketil of Hringunes, King Olaf gave a fifteen-seated _karfi_” (St. -Olaf, c. 50). - - -“Thorfinn, who dwelt at Hamarsey, was the son of Kar the old, who had -long resided there; he was a great chief. When it got light the men were -seen on the islet, and Thorfinn was told of it. He quickly got ready and -pushed out a karfi which he owned; twenty men rowed it on each side” -(Gretti’s Saga, c. 20). - - -“Björn and Thorolf had a karfi, the crew of which consisted of nearly -thirty men, twelve or thirteen rowing on each side. They had acquired -that ship in the summer on a Viking expedition. It was painted nearly -everywhere above the water-line, and was very handsome. When they came -to Thorir they were well received, and stayed there for a while; the -ship floated, tented over in front of the farm. One day Thorolf and -Björn went down and saw that Eirik, the king’s son, was there; he -sometimes went out on the ship and was sometimes ashore. As he stood -looking at it, Bjorn said to Thorolf: ‘The King’s son admires the ship -very much, and thou must offer it to him, for I think it will be a great -help for us with the King if Eirik pleads with him. I have heard that he -is angry with thee on account of thy father’s deeds.’ Thorolf thought -this good advice; they went down to the ship, and Thorolf said: ‘Thou -lookest closely at the ship, King’s son; how dost thou like it?’ ‘Well,’ -he answered, ‘the ship is very fine.’ ‘Then I will give it to thee, if -thou wilt accept it,’ added Thorolf. ‘I will,’ replied Eirik; ‘but thou -wilt think the return is small, for I can only promise thee my -friendship’” (Egil’s Saga, c. 36). - - -Strange as it may seem, ironclad vessels which were used as battering -rams were known and used by the Vikings. At the famous battle between -Hakon Jarl and the Jomsvikings, Eirik Jarl, his son, had a Jarnbardi -(one of the most formidable vessels at the battle of Svold was probably -the same ship): the upper part of the vessel, which seems to have been a -ramming ship, was provided with a _skegg_ (beard),[127] which apparently -consisted of iron spikes. - -The brothers Thorstein and Thorolf were going on an expedition. - - -“Thorstein asked his father to tell him of a Viking with whom he might -fight, and either fall or gain some fame. His father answered: ‘Ljot, -the pale, is east in the Svía-skerries (Swedish islets); he has fifteen -ships, and a dragon covered with iron above the sea; it sails through -every ship; he calls it _Jarnbardi_’” (Svarfdæla, c. 4). - - -“Thorstein (father of Fridthjof) had a ship called Ellidi; fifteen men -rowed on each side of it. It had a carved prow and stern, and it was -strong like a seagoing ship, and its sides were sheathed with iron” -(Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 1). - - -The smaller and most easily managed ships of the Northmen were called -_Askar_. - - -“Arngrim’s sons drew their swords and bit in the shield-brims (borders); -then they turned to the ships, and six men went up on each Ask”[128] -(Hervarar Saga, c. 5). - - -Some ships were specially built for speed. Among them we find long -ships—_skeid_ and _skuta_. The fast-sailing _skutas_ were called -_lettiskuta_ (light skuta), and _hleypiskuta_ (running ships), a kind of -yacht. - - -“Eyvind went quickly with a few men on a _lettiskuta_” (Olaf Tryggvason, -c. 83). - - -“Geirmund went with a _hleypiskuta_ and some men with him” (Olaf -Tryggvason, c. 41).[129] - - -The _Knerrir_ (sing. _Knorr_) or merchant vessels must sometimes have -been large, and were occasionally used as war or transport vessels. We -infer from the Sagas that they could stand heavy seas better than the -long ships. - - -“King Olaf left behind in England the _longships_, and went thence with -two _Knerrir_, on which he had 220 picked men, fully armed” (St. Olaf’s -Saga, c. 27). - - -“Sigmund told Hakon Jarl that he wanted to leave off warfare and go to -the Faroes; he said he no longer wished to hear that he had not avenged -his father and be upbraided for it; he asked the Jarl to aid him, and -advise him how to manage it. Hakon answered that the sea to the islands -was hard to cross, and the breakers strong; ‘you cannot go on longships -thither, but I will have two knerrir made for you, and get a crew to man -them’” (Fœreyinga Saga, c. 23). - - -Among vessels of other nationalities mentioned are _Galeid_ (galley) and -_Drómund_ (war-ship), both as sailing in the Mediterranean. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 914.—Ship on a stone-wall of the Church of Skröbelef, Langeland, - Denmark. -] - - -“Harald went to the _galeids_ of the Væringjar and took two on which -they rowed into Sjavidarsund. When they came to where iron chains were -stretched across the Sound, Harald told his men to sit down at the oars -on both _galeids_, and those who did not row to go aft with their -hammocks (used for holding baggage and for beds) in their arms. The -_galeids_ were thus run up on the chains; but, as soon as they got fast -and slackened speed, Harald ordered all the men to run towards the prow. -The _galeid_ on which Harald was then turned down and slid off the -chains, but the other burst asunder as she rode on the chain. Many were -there drowned, but some swam and were picked up” (Harald Hardradi’s -Saga, c. 15). - - -“Rögnvald Jarl and Erling met a _drómund_ on the sea and attacked it -with their nine ships” (Ingi’s Saga, c. 17). - - -From the Sagas we infer that ships had but one mast. - -Sometimes they had a _Hún-Kas’ali_ (knob castle), or crow’s-nest, at the -masthead, large enough to hold several warriors, who from such a height -could throw missiles at their enemies. - -King Hakon Herdibreid was going to battle against King Ingi. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 915.—On a stone. Alsnö parish in Upland, Sweden. Ship with crow’s - nest. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 916.—Bautastone. Harestad, Upland, Sweden. Ship with - crow’s nest. -] - - -“He (Hakon) had two east-journey _Knerrir_, which lay outside his ships. -On them, and also in the prows of both, were _húnkastalis_” (c. 5, Hakon -Herdibreid). - - -“They (Hakon’s men) prepare themselves for pouring down stones and shots -from the hunkastalis on board the trading-ships” (c. 9, Hakon -Herdibreid). - - -The different parts of a ship were the _lypting_[130] an elevated place, -where the commander stood and steered, and from which he could survey -the whole scene of battle; _stafn_ (prow); _rausn_ (forecastle); -_fyrir-rum_ (foreroom), so called, probably, on account of its being -before the mast; and _krapparum_, the third room from the stern. - -The place in which the weapons were kept was called the _hasœtis-kista_, -or high-seat chest. - - -“The King went down into the foreroom, opened the _hasœtis-kista_, and -took out many sharp swords, which he gave to the men” (Olaf Tryggvason, -c. 117). - - -“In the foreroom were also sleeping-places. The men in this and the -_stafnbuar_ were called _fyrir-rumsmenn_. Those before the mast were all -called _frambyggjar_ (bow-sitters)” (Harald Fairhair, c. 11). - - -The ship was highest forward and aft, and was pointed at both ends. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 917.—Ship propelled by oars. Slab. Haggeley, Uppland, Sweden. - Similar to the Egyptian bas-relief on the Temple of Medinet-Hakou - (see p. 123). -] - -As the largest ships were lofty, they required a deck (_thiljur_), but -decks are very seldom mentioned. - -Thorir sailed westward to England, to Knut the Great, with his valuable -skins. - - -“Thorir Hund went on board of his ship; Finn with many men followed him -thither, and went along the ship. He had taken up the deck, and under -the planks near the mast they saw two barrels, so large that they -wondered at them. In the barrels there was an inner bottom close to the -outer one, between which was the drink; but the barrel itself was filled -with grey skins, beaver and sable” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 149). - - -_Oars._—In calm weather ships were generally propelled with oars, which -were fastened with a strap attached to the tholes, or openings made as -in the Gokstad ship and Nydam boat. The oars had to be strong, and each -was generally manned by two, three, or four men, heavy or large ships -being with difficulty propelled by oars. - -Sometimes men were so strong that they could, on the smaller vessels, -ply an oar alone, but this was an exception. - - -“King Hakon (Herdibreid) lay in the harbour with fourteen ships. He -himself and his men were at some games upon the island, while his lendir -men sat on a mound. They saw a boat rowing towards the south of the -island; two men were in it, and they pulled the oars so hard that they -bent themselves to the bottom of the boat” (Magnus Erlingsson’s Saga, c. -6 (Heimskringla)). - - -Only in one instance is the length of the oars given—those of the -_Ellidi_—which are said to have been 26 feet long. The largest ship must -have had oars still longer than those of the _Ellidi_, which was not a -large vessel. - -They were called by the figurative names of The long arms; The feet of -the horse of the sea; The wave sweeper; The feet of the ship, &c. - -Among the numerous fragments of oars of the Gokstad ship, four were -found in tolerable preservation, and only one well-preserved, measuring -nearly sixteen feet. The oar tholes were protected inside by round oaken -shutters to prevent the water from running in. The large ones found show -that no single man could row with one for a long time together; and the -oars which propelled the large dragon-ship must have been very heavy. - -Every large ship had its boats, sometimes two or more. - - -“Sigurd took two _barkis_[131] and dragged them up on the rock above the -door of the cave, and fastened thick ropes around the ribs of the ship -under the stem and stern” (Sigurd Jorsalafari,[132] c. 6). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 918. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 919. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 920. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 921. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 922. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 923. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 924.—Specimens of Rowlocks from Gokstad ship. Boats (see Nydam - boat, Vol. I.). -] - -Fragments of three small boats made of oak were found on board the -Gokstad ship, which apparently had been destroyed intentionally. They -were clinker built, and had rowlocks, not two of which were alike, -fastened to the gunwale instead of holes for the oars. These boats were -so broken that no part could be put together again, except their keels, -the longest of which measured over twenty-one feet, and the shortest -twelve feet. Two had carried masts. - - -“They drifted north off Ireland, and the ship was broken into fragments -on an unsettled island; while they were there Thorodd the Icelander met -them as he sailed from Dublin. The men of the jarl called on the traders -to help them. Thorodd had a boat put out and went in it himself” -(Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 29). - - -The _rudder_, called _styri_, was on the right side, _stjórnbordi_ -(starboard); the opposite side being called _bakbordi_ (larboard). - -The helmsman, who held the tiller, was generally commander of the ship, -and his position at the helm seems sometimes to have been below the -rudder head, with a view to being protected from the continual shower of -missiles to which he was subjected; the great purpose of the enemy being -to disable the ship’s commander. - -When Magnus Barefoot made warfare in Scotland and Ireland: - - -“Then men went between him and Melkolm (Malcolm) Skota-king, and they -made an agreement (treaty) between themselves. Magnus was to become -owner of all the islands west of Scotland, between which and the -mainland a ship with its rudder on could go. When King Magnus came from -the south to Satiri (Cantire), he had a skuta dragged across the isthmus -(Mull of Oantire) with its rudder placed in position. The king himself -sat on the lypting and had hold of the tiller, and thus got the land -lying on the larboard. Satiri is large and better than the best of the -Hebrides except Mön. A narrow neck of land joins it with the mainland, -and longships are often dragged across there” (Magnus Barefoot’s Saga, -c. 11).[133] - - -_Tents._—When the ship was lying still, especially for the night, tents -were stretched over it. Sometimes they were put up on the shore, and in -the latter case were taken on board the ship when they sailed away. - - -“When they came up on the islets, they saw a dragon-head, which looked -like gold. They saw that twelve ships were there with the dragon, with -black tents over them; light was under the tents; men sat there -drinking” (Svarfdæla, c. 4). - - -“As soon as Karli came on board, he took down the tents, threw off the -fastenings, hoisted the sail, and the ship went quickly out to sea” (St. -Olaf, c. 143).[134] - - -The men on board seem to have slept in leather bags, _húdfat_, and to -have taken them ashore when they camped out in tents. - - -“They carried their leather bags from the ship and made booths. Then -they resolved to live there that winter, and built there large houses, -&c.” (Flateyjarbok, i.). - - -When in harbour the ships were tied with fastenings communicating with -the shore by means of bridges or gangways. - - -“They rowed in search of the ship, and, when they found it, turned -towards the shore. Hallvard and his men had tented it over and then laid -themselves down to sleep. When Kveldulf and Skallagrim came upon them -the watchmen at the end of the gangway jumped up and shouted to the -ship, telling the men to rise, saying that an enemy was at hand, -Hallvard and his men rushed for their weapons. Kveldulf reached the end -of the gangway and got on board by the stern gangway, while Skallagrim -went to the fore-gangway” (Egil’s Saga, 27). - - -The chiefs seem to have been very particular as to the berths of their -ships when in harbour, so that the tents should be pitched ashore, -places being allotted to the ships according to the rank of their -owners. If there were several of equal rank, lots were drawn to decide -who should have the best place. - - -“One summer, when Hakon Jarl had a levy out, Thorleif the Wise steered -one of his ships. Eirik, who was ten or eleven winters old, was also -with him on the journey. When they went at night into harbour, Eirik was -not pleased unless his ship was next to that of the Jarl. On arriving -southward at Mæri, his brother-in-law Skopti came to him with a -well-manned longship. When he rowed to the fleet, he called out to -Thorleif to make room for him and change his position, but Eirik at once -told Skopti to take another position himself. - -“As soon as Hakon Jarl heard that his son Eirik thought himself so great -a man that he would not yield to Skopti, he at once bade him take -another place, or otherwise it would be worse for them, as they might be -thrashed. Thorleif then ordered his men to take the ship from the -fastenings, which was done. Then Skopti occupied the position he was -wont to have, nearest to the Jarl’s ship” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 20). - - -“Once Harald (Hardradi) with the Varangians had pitched their tents on a -well-situated place. Gyrgir, the chief of the Greek host, wanted to -pitch tents on the same spot, and they quarrelled over it. The wisest -man intervened, and they consulted together. At this meeting they all -agreed to throw lots into the skirts of a cloak, and thus decide which -should go into harbour or choose ground for their tents first; both were -to abide by the decision of the lot when the lots were made and marked” -(Harald Hardradi’s Saga (Heimskringla), c. 4). - - -When not being used, the ships were kept in sheds; and while they were -there everything loose was taken out, even the planks of the deck and -the dragon-heads. - - -“King Eystein also had ship-sheds made in Nidaros, so large that they -were famous, and built with the best materials and with great skill” -(Sigurd Jorsalafari, c. 27). - - -“They rowed hard towards the ship-shed of Thorfinn. When the ship -touched the bottom, the men jumped overboard. Grettir counted twelve of -them. They did not seem to him to be on an errand of peace. They lifted -up their ship and dragged it out of the water. They ran to the shed, -where the large karfi of Thorfinn stood, which he never launched with -less than thirty men, but they at once dragged it down on the beach. -Afterwards they lifted up their own ship and carried it into the shed” -(Gretti’s Saga, c. 19). - - -“After Yule Thorfinn made ready to go home, and sent his guests away -with many good gifts. Then he went with his men till he came near his -ship-shed. They saw that a ship lay on the sand, and soon knew that it -was his large karfi. Thorfinn had not then heard of the Vikings. He -asked them to make haste to get ashore, ‘for I expect,’ said he, ‘that -friends have not done this.’ Thorfinn was first ashore, and went at once -to the ship-shed. He saw a ship standing there, and knew that it was the -ship of the Berserks” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 20). - - -When the ships were ready to go to sea, or when being built, they had -rollers under them, over which they were pushed up to the shore or into -the sea. - -Eirek and Agnar, Ragnar’s sons, were going on an expedition to Sweden:— - - -“They gathered many men, and made their ships ready; they thought it -important that the launching of ships should be successful. Now when -Agnar’s ship ran down from the rollers a man was struck by it and died, -and they called it _hlunnrod_ (roller-reddening). This they did not -think a good beginning, but would not let it stop their voyage” (Ragnar -Lodbrok’s Saga, c. 9). - - -Harald Hardradi had a large ship launched into the river Nid, and then -had the dragon heads put on. Then sang Thjódólf the scald: - - Fair maiden, a skeid I saw - Forward pushed into the river; - See where lies near the shore - The long side of the proud dragon. - The hair of the shining serpent - Glows o’er the crew, - Since it was pushed from the rollers; - The ornamented beaks carried gold. - - (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 62.) - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 925.—Bronze kettle, ⅒ real size, found with Gokstad ship; wooden - plates and wooden carved drinking-cups were also found. -] - -When the Norsemen came to a harbour, or to a coast without one, they -often dragged their ships on to the shore, when rollers, which no doubt -belonged to the equipment, had to be used. - - -“Hakon Jarl, after a battle with King Ragnfred, drew his ships ashore so -that his foes could not take them” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 17). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 926.—Iron chain, found with Gokstad ship. ⅒ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 927.—Bronze ornament. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 928.—Bronze handles of kettle. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 929.—Iron chain, with crook to hold bronze kettle; found with - Gokstad ship. ⅒ real size. -] - -After the ship had been launched into the sea the equipment was put on -board. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 930.—On a stone-wall of the Church of Bödstrup, Island of - Langeland, Denmark. -] - - -“After Easter King Olaf had his ships launched and equipment and oars -carried to them, and decks placed in them, and tents put over them, and -then let them float at the bridges” (St. Olaf, c. 115). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 931.—Iron kettle. ¼ real size—Ultuna ship find. -] - - -“Asbjörn owned a longship which was a twenty-seated _snekkja_, which -stood in a large _naust_ (ship-shed). After Candlemas he had it pushed -forward, the equipments carried on board, and everything made ready. He -then summoned his friends, and had nearly ninety men, all well armed” -(St. Olaf, c. 24). - - -It was not always the custom to have cooks on board ship, it being the -habit of traders to dispense with their services, and to draw lots among -the crew every day to decide who should prepare the food. - - -“He (Thorleif) took passage in the summer with the traders, who prepared -to go from Straumfjord, and was with the steersmen. It was then the -custom of traders not to have cooks, but the messmates drew lots to see -which of them should do the cooking day by day. All shipmates also had -to drink together, and a tub with a lid over it stood near the mast for -this purpose, but some drank from the casks which supplied the tub” -(Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 39). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 932.—Dragon.—Length, 10 to 12 feet; width between the wings, 3 - feet. -] - -The people, and especially the chiefs, took great pride in the -appearance of their ships, both in regard to ornamentation and sails, -and kept them well painted. We may form an idea of the labour bestowed -on their embellishment, from the carved pieces of wood found on board of -the Gokstad ship;[135] what, then, must it have been on such ships as -the long serpent and others mentioned in the Sagas? - -Insignificant objects are adorned with exquisite and tasteful designs. -Some of them seem to have been designed without the aid of mechanical -appliances, and others before being engraved must have had their -drawings traced with compasses, &c. - -The dragons were gilt, both on the stem and stern, or covered with thin -sheets of gold, thus presenting a magnificent appearance as they sailed -with the sun shining upon them. These and other ornaments which were -placed on a ship were not fixed on till it had left the rollers and was -in the water. - - -“Olaf had a ship made in the winter, called Visund (the bison-ox), which -was larger than any other. On its prow there was the head of a bison, -gilt” (St. Olaf, c. 154). - - -“King Olaf had a ship called Karlhöfdi (man’s head); on its prow was a -king’s head, which he himself had carved. That head was for a long time -afterwards used in Norway on ships steered by chiefs” (St. Olaf, c. 45). - - -“Rand had a large dragon, with a gold-ornamented head, which had thirty -large rooms” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 85).[136] - - -On the top of the belfry (clock-tower) in Ghent is found the figure of a -dragon, of which a woodcut is here given (p. 152). It consists of gilded -copper-plates, nailed on a kind of iron skeleton. The back between the -wings is open.[137] - - * * * * * - -As King Sigurd was ready to go home, we read— - - -“Thereupon King Sigurd made ready for his journey homeward. He gave the -Emperor all his ships, and there were gold ornamented heads on the ship -which the king had steered; they were put on Peter’s church. There they -may be yet (_i.e._ 1220–1240‘)”’ (Sigurd Jorsalafari’s Saga, c. iii., -Heimskringla’s text). - - -The date here given is that of Norri Sturluson. - - * * * * * - -Beautiful sails were highly prized; these were generally made of -_vadmal_, or coarse woollen stuff. The Sagas often mention that they -were striped, of different colours, red, blue and green,[138] being -sometimes embroidered and beautifully lined with fur; but some were as -white as the newly-fallen snow. They were square, and consequently good -speed could only be attained with fair wind. - -The following poetical names were given to sails:—The cloak of the wind; -the tapestry of the masthead; the sheet spun by women; the cloth of the -wind; the beard of the yard; the fine shirt of the tree (mast). - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 933.—Runic stone, Hallingbo, Götland, 3 feet 9 inches above - ground. -] - - -“When the King on his return from Jerusalem wished to sail to Mikligard -(Constantinople), he lay still for half a month with his entire fleet, -although every day it blew a good stern-wind; but he waited for a -side-wind, so that the sails could be set lengthways on the ships. The -sails were mostly covered with _pell_ (a sort of velvet) on both sides, -as those in stem and stern wanted to see an equally handsome side. When -he came into Mikligard, he sailed close to the shore, from which could -be seen the whole width of the sails, which were so slightly separated -that they resembled a continuous wall. All the people were out to see -how Sigurd sailed” (Sigurd Jorsalafari, ch. 11). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 934.—Vessel with sails. Reverse side of runic stone, Hallingbo, - Götland. Limestone. -] - - -“One autumn, as King Magnus the Good was on board his fleet off Scania, -they saw one day a ship, sailing eastward off the land. It was -ornamented all over with gold above the water, and fine dragon-heads -were on it, but the sail was of twofold _pell_ most splendidly woven. -All wondered at this strange sight. This ship was painted with red, -purple, and gold. All the weathervanes looked as if they were of gold, -as well as the beaks of the dragon-heads; inside these were valiant men -dressed in costly garments and _pell_. King Magnus instantly sent a ship -from the port to meet them, and wanted to know where they were going; as -the messengers met them, they turned towards the shore and lowered the -sail. They rowed towards the King’s fleet, and came up with that fine -beautiful ship to the King. It was then found to be the ship of Harald -Sigurdsson (Harald Hardradi), the King’s uncle” (Flateyjarbok, iii.). - - -Sails were given as valuable gifts to powerful chieftains. - -When Harald Hardradi and Eystein were sailing together, Harald said:— - - -“‘Where didst thou, Eystein, get so fine a sail?’ Eystein answered: -‘This is the sail, lord, which you would not receive from Thorvard.’ The -king said: ‘I never saw a finer sail, and I have refused a costly -thing.’ Eystein replied: ‘... take whichever of the two sails thou -likest best; it is good that thou knowest what thou didst refuse.’ The -king thanked him and took the sail of Thorvard, and it was thought -precious, though it would scarcely fit the king’s large ship in -sailing-matches” (Harald Hardradi, Fornmanna Sögur, vi. c. 100). - - -Ships of war were apparently always painted; dark blue ships are -mentioned, but the colours were often more variegated. The ships of Knut -and Hakon Jarl were painted above the water-line. Asbjörn Selsbani’s -ship was painted above the water-line, in red and white colours. - - -“When Knut the Great left the country he had a great host and exceeding -large ships. He himself had a dragon so large that it had sixty rooms; -on it were heads ornamented with gold. Hakon Jarl[139] had another with -forty rooms, which also had gilt heads, and the sails of both were -striped with blue, red, and green. Both were painted above the water. -They had many other ships, large and well equipped” (Flateyjarbok, ii.). - - -Standards and weathervanes, not only on land, but at sea, are frequently -mentioned. - - -“Odd gave to Gudmund and Sigurd the dragon of Sóti. He had the dragon of -Hálfdán painted all over, and both the dragon-heads and the vane[140] he -had ornamented with gold” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 8). - - -The standard-bearer stood by the prow of the ship, and the pennant seems -to have been carried at the masthead. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 935.—Bayeux tapestry. -] - - -“The pennant, spun by women, played at the masthead of the reindeer of -the rollers” (Knutsdrapa). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 936.—Baptismal font, Church of Lödurup, Scania, Sweden. -] - - -“When Eirik blódöx (blood-axe) got the kingship, he had feasts in -Hordaland and Firda Fylki. He took hirdmen with him. One spring he made -ready to go to Bjarmaland, and selected men for the journey. Thorolf -went with him, and was placed in the prow of his ship, and carried his -standard. Thorolf was then taller and stronger than other men, and -therein like his father” (Egil’s Saga, c. 37). - - -When Helgi came with his ships to make war at Frekastein he had a golden -standard. - - _Gudmund._ - - Who is the Skjoldung - That steers the ship, - And a golden battle-standard - Hoists on the bow? - Those in the van - Seem not peace-like; - The redness of war - Is thrown on the Vikings. - - _Sinfjötli._ - - Here can Hödbrodd - Know Helgi, - The hater of flight, - In the midst of the fleet; - He holds the birth land - Of thy kin, - The Fjorsungs’ heritage, - Taken by himself. - - (Helgi Hundingsbani, ii.) - -The ships as they came into harbour were often lined with shields, -showing by this that they were ships of war. These shields added not a -little to the appearance of the ships under sail, as the sun shone on -them. When the warriors were numerous, they must have been very -cumbersome, and on that account were often stationed all round the -bulwark or gunwales. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 937.—Silver coin found in Blekinge. -] - -In the Gokstad ship the shields were hung along the outer sides of the -ship, and all seem to have been of the same size. They were placed -somewhat ahead of the first oar, and a little behind the last one. They -overlapped each other, the outer edge of each touching the boss of the -other. They were painted either yellow or black, so that the contrast -must have been picturesque. - - -“Then he, Olaf Tryggvason, made his ships and men ready and sailed east -from Gardar out into Eystrasalt (the Baltic). The ships were lined with -shields on both sides, they were swift-sailing, and went well before the -wind” (Fornmanna Sögur, vol. i. p. 100). - - -“Hella Björn, the son of Herfinn and Halla, was a great viking, he was -generally the enemy of King Harald; he went to Iceland, and entered -Bjarnarfjord with a ship covered all over with shields” (Landnama, xi. -31). - - -“On Yule-eve the weather was bright and calm. Gretti was that day out of -doors most of the time, looking at the ships that went south and north -along the shore; for everybody was going to the Yule-feast. As the day -declined Gretti saw that a ship rowed towards the island. It was not -large, but the gunwales were covered with shields from prow to stern, -and it was painted above water” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 19). - - -“They saw no fewer than ten ships coming southwards off a cape. They -were rowed fast and steered towards them; they were completely covered -with shields, and at the mast of the foremost one there stood a man who -had on a silk jacket and a gilt helmet” (Njala, c. 84). - - -Some of the scattered pieces of poetry give a good idea of the -appearance of these ships. - - The sea howls, and the wave - Dashes the bright foam against the red wood, - While the roller-bison (ship) gapes - With the gold-ornamented mouth. - - Fair woman, I saw a skeid - Launched into Nid (the river) out to sea; - Look where the long hull - Of the proud dragon rides near the shore; - The bright manes of the serpent glitter, - For it has been launched off the rollers; - The ornamented necks - Carried burnt gold. - - The warriors’ Baldr (Harald) takes down - His long tent on _laugardag_,[141] - When beautiful women look out - From the town on the serpent’s hull; - The young all-wielder (king) is just steering - His new skeid out of Nid westward, - While the oars of warriors - Fall into the sea. - - The host of the king can rightly - Tear the oars out of the water; - Woman stands wondering at - The marvellous oar’s stroke. - - The Northmen row on the nailed serpent, - Along the hail-stricken stream; - It seems to the woman she sees - An eagle-wing of iron. - - (Harald Hardradi, c. 62.) - -As a rule, merchant ships were not kept in as good order as the -war-ships. The Northern chief Harek saved his life, after the battle of -the river Helga, by the following subterfuge. King Olaf went by land to -Norway, while the fleet of Knut the Great remained in the Sound. - - -“Harek did as he had said, waited for fair wind and then sailed westward -past Skáni, till he came off the Hólar in the evening, during a strong -gale. He had the sail lowered, and the mast and weather-vane taken down, -and the vessel above water wrapped with grey cloth. He had a few rowers -in rooms fore and aft, while most of his men sat very low in the ship. -King Knut’s watchmen saw the ship, and talked among themselves about -what kind of ship it might be. They thought it was loaded with salt or -herrings, for they saw that the men were few and rowing badly, and the -ship looked grey, and not tarred and dried in the sun. They also saw it -was deep in the water. But when Harek got well forward in the Sound past -the host, he raised the mast, hoisted the sail, and set up the gilt -weather-vane. The sail was white as new-fallen snow, and striped with -blue and red” (St. Olaf, c. 168). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 938.—From Bayeux tapestry. Ship with dragon’s head, striped - sails, and carrying horses. -] - -Some of the harbours built by the Northmen must have been very spacious. - -Pálnatóki, jarl of Fjón, who also had a jarldom in Bretland (Wales), -made one summer warfare in Vindland. The king, Búrislaf, sent a message -that he desired friendship and peace with him, and invited him to come -and see him. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 939.—Ship lined with shields, striped sails, and men pulling with - oars. -] - - -“Further, with this invitation he offered to give him a _fylki_ or -_riki_ in his land, called Jóm, in order that he should settle there, -and he would give it him on condition that he should be bound to defend -the land with him. This Pálnatóki and his men accepted. He quickly had a -large and strong sea-burgh made, since called Jómsburgh. He also had a -harbour made within the burgh, in which 300 longships could lie at the -same time, all being locked in the burgh. The entrance to the harbour -was constructed with great skill. It was like a gate with a large stone -arch above, and shut with iron doors locked from inside the harbour. -Upon the arch was built a strong tower (kastali) in which were catapults -(valslöngva). Part of the burgh stood out in the sea (water), and the -burghs built thus are called sea-burghs, and thus the harbour came to be -within it” (Jomsvikinga Saga, ch. 24). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 940.—⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 941. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 942.—Shield. ⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 943.—Shield. ⅙ real size. -] - - Carved pieces of wood and shield from the Gokstad ship. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 944. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 945. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 946. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 947. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 948.—Scoop for baling water. ⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 949. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 950. -] - - Scoop for baling water. ¼ real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 951. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 952. -] - - Part of wooden chair, probably high-seat of a chief. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 953. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 954. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 955. -] - - ½ real size. - - From Gokstad Ship. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 956. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 957. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 958. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 959.—1/20 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 960. -] - - Heads of animals carved at the end of thick planks, the use of which - cannot be ascertained; the lines are painted in various colours. ⅒ - real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 961.—1/20 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 962.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 963.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 964.—1/20 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 965.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 966.—¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 967.—¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 968.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 969. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 970. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 971. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 972. - - ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 973.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 974.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 975.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 976. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 977. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 978.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 979. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 980.—¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 981.—⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 982.—⅙ real size -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 983.—⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 984.—1/40 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 985.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 986.—⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 987. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 988. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 989. -] - - ⅓ real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 990. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 991. -] - - ⅛ real size. - -The size of a ship was recognised by the number of its benches, or of -oars by which it was propelled; so a vessel is often described as a -fifteen, twenty, thirty-seater, or more, without having its proper -appellation given to it, and the length can only be approximately given. - -In no Saga are we told the length of a ship, and only in one instance, -that of the _Long Serpent_ of Olaf Tryggvason, is it partially given. -Fortunately, from the _Nydam_, _Gokstad_, and _Tune_ boats we can -approximate the distance between each rower’s seat, but the space varied -according to the size of the ship; and the larger the ship, the wider -the space, as the oars became longer and required more room to ply them. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 992. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 993.—⅕ real size. -] - - Fragments of wood from Gokstad ship. - -The _Nydam_ vessel is a fourteen-seater and about 76 feet in length: of -this about 46 feet are taken up by the rowers’ seats, the remaining 30 -feet being the spaces fore and aft. The space between each oar thole is -3 feet 2 inches. - -The length of the twenty-seater must have been about 110 feet; that of -the twenty-five seater, about 130 feet; of the thirty-seater, about 155 -feet; and of the thirty-four seater, the _Long Serpent_ of Olaf -Tryggvason, about 180 feet. Taking the rise from the keel to stem and to -stern, this cannot, in a vessel of that size, have been less than 15 -feet at each end, and thus we arrive at the same result, or 180 feet. - -The largest ship of which we have any record is that of Knut the Great. - -His dragon had sixty pairs of oars, and therefore, according to the same -calculation, must have had a length of about 300 feet. The above -measurements are given without making allowance for larger spaces -between the benches than those of the Nydam and Gokstad ships, which -were necessary in order to give more space for the plying of the longer -oars. - -The width of the ship is still more difficult to determine; but, taking -for example the _Serpent_, where it is said that each half-room held -eight men, or sixteen in the whole width of the vessel, its breadth -between the gunwales could not have been less than 32 feet, probably -more, if we judge by the proportions of the other vessels, the Nydam -boat’s width being ⅕ of its length, and that of the Gokstad boat being -nearly ⅕ of its length. - -The depth of the ships is nowhere mentioned, but, as we find a -deck-planking (_thiljur_) mentioned, it must have been at least, in -cases of seagoing ships, 10 feet or more. - -Looking at the Gokstad ship and its beautiful shape, we can form an idea -how advanced the art of shipbuilding was in the North. The vessel had no -deck, the bottom boards resting over the frames were loose, and were -made fast to the frames by notches cut in them. The fragments which -remain of the tent or tents show the material to have been red and white -striped wool, and the numerous pieces of rope were made of bast. - -The Tune vessel probably had ten to twelve pairs of oars, to judge from -the number of ribs and rowing benches; but as the gunwale is destroyed, -the oar tholes are missing. The vessel was iron, clinch built, with the -wood work almost entirely of oak; only the ribs and the wooden nails -were of fir. The planks were fastened to the frame by such clamps as -those described in the _Nydam_ boat and _Gokstad_ ship. - -The ponderous beam shows that the mast, which was set in an opening made -in a large oak block, could be lowered at will, a fact sometimes -mentioned in the Sagas. - - The Tune Ship. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 994. -] - - Tune ship (viewed from above), with heavy oak-log or block, with - square hole for making fast the mast, more than 2 feet in - diameter—a stump of the mast still remained in its place; - discovered in a mound, the lower part of which consisted of heavy - blue clay, the upper of sand and earth. The length of keel is - about 45 feet (from stem to stern it must, however, have been over - 70 feet), the width amidships about 13 feet, and depth about 4½ - feet. Stem and stern are alike, and pointed. The sponts were - attached to the planks by bast ropes. They were not fastened to - the keel plank, which has only been attached by the few nails - which held it together with the bottom planks. The planks, of - which there have been ten to twelve on each side, are from 18 to - 30 inches in width. Tune parish, where the remains of the boat and - the stone with old Northern runes have been found, is especially - rich in mementoes from the past. All over the parish many mounds - and _bautarstones_ of large size are seen. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 995. -] - -Though several centuries had probably elapsed between the construction -of the _Nydam_ and that of the _Tune_ and _Gokstad_ boats, we find the -same principle of construction and of joining the planks by rivets used -in each case. - -The clinch nails here represented were discovered not far from Upsala, -in the decayed remains of a small ship buried in the Ultuna mound. They -were from 1½ to 2 inches in length, and still remained in their places, -holding the planks together. The exact size of the vessel could not be -ascertained, as the mound had been disturbed before the systematic -researches by competent authorities had been undertaken. There were -besides a double-edged sword with hilt of gilt bronze, with fragments of -its wooden scabbard, a bundle of 19 arrow-points, 3 dice, 36 checkers, -parts of two horses, skeleton on the prow of the ship, and a gridiron, -etc., etc. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 996.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 997.—⅔ real size. -] - - Rivets or clinch nails for ships. - -The following passages are the only ones in the whole literature of the -North which describe the building of a ship:— - - -“Next winter, after King Olaf came from Hálogaland, he had a large ship -built at Hladhamrar; it was far larger than the other ships in the -country, and the stocks on which it was built may still be seen (in -Snorri’s time). It was 148 feet long, touching the grass (_i.e._, at the -keel). Thorberg Skafhögg (blow-scraper) was stem-smith (made stem and -stern) for the ship; many others were engaged in the work, some to fell -trees, others to shape wood, others to nail, others to carry wood. -Everything used was most carefully selected. The ship was long and -broad, with high gunwales and large timbers. While the bulwarks were -rising, Thorberg was obliged to go home to his farm, and was away a long -time, and when he came back the bulwarks were completed. The same -evening the king, together with Thorberg, went to see how the ship -looked, and every man said he had never seen an equally large or fine -longship. The king returned to the town. Early next morning the king and -Thorberg went down to the ship; all the smiths had arrived, and stood -there doing no work. The king asked why they did this. They said the -ship was spoiled, and that a man had walked from the stem to the -_lypting_ and made cuts into the gunwale, the one after the other. The -king looked at it and saw it was true. He swore that if he knew who had -spoiled the ship from envy, that man should die, but the one who could -tell him should get great reward from him. Thorberg said, ‘I can tell -you, king, who did this.’ The king answered, ‘Thou wast the likeliest -man to be so lucky as to ascertain this and tell me.’ ‘I will tell the -king who has done it,’ he said: ‘I have done it.’ The king answered, -‘Thou shalt repair it so that it is as good as it was before, or else -lose thy life.’ Thorberg shaped the gunwale so that all the cuts -disappeared. The king and every one said that the ship was much better -on the side which Thorberg had shaped. The king asked him to do the same -on the other side, and thanked him well for it. Thereafter Thorberg was -the chief smith of the ship till it was finished. It was a dragon made -in the shape of the serpent which he brought from Hálogaland, and -belonged to Raud, but much larger and in every respect more carefully -built. He called it the _Long Serpent_, while the other was the _Short -Serpent_. The _Long Serpent_ had 34 _rooms_. Its beaks and the -dragon-tail were all ornamented with gold; its gunwales were as high as -those on seagoing ships. No better or costlier ship has been built in -Norway” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 95). - - -“The same autumn King Olaf had a large longship built on the shore of -the river Nid. It was a _snekkja_; he employed many smiths on it. In the -beginning of winter it was finished; it had thirty rooms, high stems, -but was not large. The king called it the _Trani_ (crane)” (Olaf -Tryggvason, c. 79). - - -_Crews._—The crew of the ships no doubt varied in number considerably, -according to the power of the chiefs who manned them; crews of one -hundred and twenty men are often mentioned; sometimes the crew consisted -of seven hundred men.[142] - - -“When spring came, and snow and ice thawed, Thorolf had a large longship -which he owned launched, and made ready and manned with more than 100 -(120) of huskarls; they were very fine and well-armed warriors. When a -fair wind came he sailed southward along the coast.... No one knew about -Thorolf’s journey. He had fair winds southward to Denmark, and then to -Austrveg (East of Baltic); he ravaged there that summer, but got little -property. In the autumn he went back to Denmark when the Eyrarfloti (the -trading-fleet of Eyrarsund) was leaving. That summer many ships from -Norway had been there as usual” (Egil’s Saga, c. 19).[143] - - -The division between each rower’s bench was called room (_rum_), and -this was subdivided into half-rooms, in which many of the combatants -were stationed: hence the fighting strength of a ship, as well as its -size, was known by the number of its rooms or benches. - -On expeditions, when the men were landed to fight, we generally find -that one-third of the crew remained on board to guard the ship. This is -corroborated by the Frankish chronicles, which mention that the Northmen -arrived before Paris with seven hundred large ships, besides smaller -ones, and landed forty thousand men. The _Long Serpent_ had thirty-four -rooms; eight men were in each half room, or sixteen in each room, making -five hundred and forty-four. Then thirty men were in the foreroom, thus -making five hundred and seventy-four. We have also the warriors in the -prows, forecastle, and other parts of the ship, making in all probably -seven hundred men. - -From the laws we find that people could refuse to sail on unseaworthy -ships. - - -“The ship which has to be baled three times in two days is reckoned, -according to the right Bjarkey-rett, to be unseaworthy, unless the crew -like to run the risk” (Bjarkey Law, 170). - - -The following is the only detailed description of a storm at sea in the -Sagas; it was encountered by Fridthjof on his way to the Orkneys. There -are many references to ships being lost at sea, and their crews drowned. - - -“When Fridthjof got out of Sogn (fjord) a strong gale and a heavy storm -came upon them, and the waves were very great. The ship sailed very -fast, for it was swift and one of the best for the sea. - - * * * * * - -“They were driven (by the storm) northward into the sounds near to the -islands called Solundir; the wind was then at its hardest. Fridthjof -sang: - - The sea begins to swell much, - The clouds are now struck, - Old witchcraft causes - That the sea moves; - I will not fight Ægir - In the gale; - Let the Solundir - Shelter the men. - -“They laid the ship under the Solundir in order to wait there. At once -the wind fell. They then sailed out from the island in good hope, for -they had a fair wind for awhile. Then the wind grew stronger. When they -(Fridthjof and his foster-brother Björn) were a long way out at sea, the -sea began to move fearfully again, and such a snowstorm arose that the -men in the stern and the stem could not see the other, and the ship was -so filled with water that they had to bale it all the time. Fridthjof -sang: - - We, the renowned warriors of chiefs, - Have come out on the deep; - We cannot see the waves - On account of the witch-storm. - The Solundir (isles) are out of sight, - And all the eighteen men - That defend Ellidi - Stand baling. - -“Björn said: ‘The one who travels widely must meet good and evil.’ ‘That -is certain, foster-brother,’ said Fridthjof. - -“Fridthjof said this was the time to try good men, though it was easier -to sit in Baldrshagi. They made themselves ready with boldness, for -valiant men were in the ship, and it was the best ship which has been in -the northern lands. Fridthjof sang: - - The waves cannot be seen; - We have come westward in the sea; - All the sea looks - As if one saw embers;[144] - The breakers tumble down, - The swan-tops make mounds;[145] - Now Ellidi is overrun - By a high billow. - -“Then great waves dashed over the ship so that they stood all baling. - - The soft-mouthed maiden - East on the swan-slope - Where the clothes lay bleaching - Will drink if I sink. - -“Björn said: ‘Thinkest thou the maidens of Sogn will weep much over -thee?’ Fridthjof said: ‘Surely, that is in my mind.’ Then the waves rose -at the stem so that they rushed into the ship; but the ship was good, -and hardy men were in it. Björn sang: - - It is not like when a maiden - Wants to drink to thee, - A bright ring-wearing one - That asks thee to come nearer; - Salt is in my eyes; - They are bathed; - My strong arms fail; - My eyelids are smarting. - -“Ásmund said: ‘It matters not though you try your arms (baling, rowing), -for you did not excuse us when we rose so early in Baldrshagi (sacred -grove of Baldr), and we rubbed our eyes.’ ‘Why doest thou not sing, -Ásmund?’ asked Fridthjof. ‘I will,’ said Ásmund. - - Here was it rough round the mast - When the sea fell on the ship; - I with eight men - Had to work on board; - Easier was it to carry - A meal to women in their room (dyngja) - Than to bale Ellidi - On the high wave. - -“Fridthjof said with laughter: ‘Thou callest not thy help less than it -is, though thy thrall-kin did appear now as thou didst wish to carry -food.’ Then the wind grew stronger again, so that the white -sea-drifts[146] which burst on the ship from all sides were more like -mountains and mountain-peaks than waves. - -“Björn: ‘Now thou art afraid, foster-brother, and there is fear in thy -words; it is bad of a good warrior like thee.’ Fridthjof answered: ‘It -is neither fear nor fright, though our journeys of merriment are sung, -but it may be they are mentioned oftener than is needed; most men would -think death likelier than life if they were situated as we are now.’ - - * * * * * - -“Björn: ‘We must take this, foster-brother, as it is.’ Then came a wave -dashing so strongly that it carried away the gunwales and part of the -bows, and flung four men overboard who were all lost. Fridthjof sang: - - Both the bows were smashed - In the great wave of the sea; - Four warriors sank - Down into the deep” - - (Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 6). - - ------ - -Footnote 123: - - Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason, c. 102; St. Olaf, c. 60, 150. - -Footnote 124: - - The Nydam and Gokstad boats seem to have been a fifteen-seated _skuta_ - or _karfi_. Some skutas seem to have carried a crew of about thirty - men. - -Footnote 125: - - See p. 142. - -Footnote 126: - - Cf. also St. Olaf, c. 132, 149; Magnus Blind’s Saga, c. 5, 16; Magnus - Erlingson, c. 30. - -Footnote 127: - - See Battle of Svold. - -Footnote 128: - - This may explain the name _Askmanni_ given to the Vikings by Adam of - Bremen (c. 212). - -Footnote 129: - - Cf. also Ingi’s Saga, c. 1. - -Footnote 130: - - In the lypting seems to have been the sleeping-room, for in Harald - Hardradi’s Saga, c. 22, it is said of Harald, on his journey from - Constantinople, that “in the evening (he) went to sleep in the - _lypting_ of his ship.” - -Footnote 131: - - Ship boat, also a small vessel. - -Footnote 132: - - Cf. also Eyrbyggja, c. 29. - -Footnote 133: - - Cf. Orvar Odd, Hervara Saga, Harald Hardradi, 32; Olaf Tryggvason, c. - 87. - -Footnote 134: - - Cf. also St. Olaf, c. 39. - -Footnote 135: - - In the Vold ship also there are some specimens of carving, but they - are rare. - -Footnote 136: - - Cf. also Magnus the Good’s Saga, c. 20. - -Footnote 137: - - When the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, the Belgians sent many - relics home (these are reckoned up in D’Outremann, ‘Constantinopolis - Belgica’); among them this dragon was sent to Bruges. In 1382, Bruges - was taken and plundered by the men of Ghent, and the dragon as a - trophy was put on the top of the belfry in Ghent, where it still is. - - In Sigurd Jorsalafari’s Saga (Heimskringla), ch. 14, and Fornmanna - Sögur, vii. 98, we read that Sigurd put the gilded dragon-heads of his - ship on Peter’s Church (a part of Sophia Church, in Constantinople) - (‘Recueil des chroniques de Flandre 1837–41,’ vol. i.; Schiern, ‘Nyere - historiske Studier,’ i. 1875). - -Footnote 138: - - The Bayeux tapestry corroborates the truthfulness of this, and shows - that designs were either painted or embroidered upon them. - -Footnote 139: - - Grandson of the great Hakon. - -Footnote 140: - - An ornament used on the prow of ships and main doors of houses—a sort - of weathercock, which was often adorned with gold. - -Footnote 141: - - Saturday. - -Footnote 142: - - See battle of Svold, p. 188. - -Footnote 143: - - Cf. also Egil’s Saga, c. 55, 72; St. Olaf, 148; Fagrskinna, 42. - -Footnote 144: - - Phosphorescent, looking like fire at night. - -Footnote 145: - - That is, swells as high as a mound. - -Footnote 146: - - The sea is compared to snow lying in heaps or drifts. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - THE FLEETS OF THE NORTHMEN. - - Maritime power of the North—Their huge fleets—Good - harbours—Strategical skill—Size of some of their fleets—Fleets - accompanied by provision ships. - - -Nothing can give us a greater insight into the maritime power of the -North than the accounts we read, here and there in the Sagas, of the -fleets gathered together for the purpose of war and invasion. The number -of the vessels is quite remarkable, but seeing that the finds -corroborate so much that is told us in the Sagas, there is no reason to -doubt the truthfulness of their statements as regards the magnitude of -the fleets, and the vessels were far from being as small as have been -imagined. - -From the Sagas we learn that the aim of every chief was to be powerful -at sea; every bondi was owner of one or more craft. They were born -seamen, but were also trained to fight on land. They surrounded -themselves with warlike retainers, and with these made distant -expeditions to win honour and booty. These men were also soldiers, and -good horsemen. As we see that in every great land battle the warriors -came from all parts of the Northern lands, it must be concluded that the -same took place in regard to their invasions of foreign countries. Only -in a very few instances have we accounts of the Norsemen being defeated -at sea by the fleets of the countries they attacked; even in these rare -instances their combats took place with a very small number of vessels -compared with the powerful fleets of their enemies, who were either -Frisians or their own people who had settled in England. - -Fortunately, Frankish and old English chronicles, which are quite -independent of those of the North, help to corroborate the general -truthfulness of the Eddas and Sagas, and from them we have several -accounts of the number of vessels which sailed up the Seine, the Rhine, -the Elbe, and the Weser, or went to England. - -The largest fleet that ever met in the North was that which assembled -for the battle of Bravöll; though the number of vessels is not -mentioned, we read that the Sound was covered with vessels. This fleet -reached from Kjöge to Skanör, so that, if the account is trustworthy, -people could walk as on a bridge from Zeeland over the Sound, a distance -of some twenty miles. Sigurd Hring had 2,500 (3,000) ships to oppose -him.[147] - -The maritime expeditions of the Northmen to distant lands were -undertaken with a great deal of care and foresight; the men were under -strict discipline, and were attired with the greatest splendour. It -would be a mistaken idea to think that the Northmen started on these -voyages without any previous knowledge of the country they were to -invade, or of the shores where they were going to land, or that they -sailed with no definite object. Their previous knowledge of these -far-off lands was no doubt gained in trading, and it was only after -being thoroughly well acquainted with the geography of the part to be -attacked that they ventured on their invasion. - -Many of the places in foreign countries mentioned in the Sagas where the -Norse fleets were safely moored and sheltered against storm, are to this -day good harbours, and if others are no longer so it is because the -shores of those coasts have been subjected to changes which are still -taking place. The geographical positions of the rivers they ascended -were well chosen; they knew what size of vessel to take there, and -though their operations seemed to be detached, we find that their fleets -were in communication with each other, and that their armies could -assist one another in case of need, crush the enemy between the rivers -they had ascended, or between them and the sea. In a word, their tactics -showed considerable boldness and strategical skill, which generally left -them a way of retreat, if necessary, to their vessels or to some island. -Though the Sagas give us a good and vivid idea of the Norse mode of -warfare at sea, they are very incomplete in regard to the description -and details of the land expeditions, and we have to go to the Frankish -chronicles in order to see the manner in which they attacked or besieged -a city. From these we learn that the ships ascended the rivers as far as -possible; if anything stopped the navigation, a canal was made or the -vessels were drawn along the shore, and the obstacle thus passed. The -Norsemen took possession of all the large islands, fortified them, and -wintered there; and there they kept their spoils of war or plunder. They -also brought cavalry in their ships, a fact proved by the Bayeux -tapestry. - -It is said that Harald Blátönn (blue tooth) went to Norway with a fleet -of 700 (840) ships. - - -“Then King Harald summoned a host from his entire kingdom. Hákon jarl -was with him, and Harald Grænski, son of Gudraud Björnsson, and many -other powerful men, who had fled from their estates in Norway on account -of Gunnhild’s sons. - -“The King of Denmark sailed from the south into Vikin with 700 -ships,[148] and there all the inhabitants came under his rule; and when -he reached Túnsberg, large numbers gathered to him. - -“King Harald gave to Hákon jarl all the men who had come to him in -Norway; and made him ruler over the seven fylkis of Rogaland, Hördaland, -Sogn, Firdafylki, Sunnmœri, Raumsdal, Nordmœri”[149] (Olaf Tryggvason, -c. 24, 2 Fms. I.). - - -Knut the Great had gathered a fleet of 1,200 vessels[150] for an attack -on Norway. - - -“King Knut called to mind many things with which he charged King Olaf, -as follows: That he captured his nephew Hakon, and let him take oath to -him, and then seized the kingdom and drove him from the land; that he -also took possession of the land which for a long time had been -tributary to the Danish kings; that he had ravaged in the country of -King Knut. So he went east from England with a great host to Denmark, -reached the Limafjord, and thence sailed to Norway with 1,440 ships, for -he had raised a general levy both in Denmark and England. Arriving at -Agdir, he proceeded northward along the coast, and held meetings with -the bœndr; he was acknowledged as king wherever he went, and he did not -stop until he came to Nidaros”[151] (Fagrskinna, c. 104).[152] - - -When fleets went on distant expeditions, special vessels called -_vistabyrding_ (provision ships) followed them. Butter, the hard bread -still used, dry, smoked, or salted meat, formed the stock of eatables, -and there are many instances where ale and beer are mentioned. - -From the Eddas and Sagas we gain an insight into their mode of warfare -at sea. The accounts given of some of their combats are so vivid and -precise, that we could almost imagine ourselves to be eye-witnesses of -those terrific and bloody conflicts which, even to this day, stand -unparalleled in the annals of maritime warfare for the length of their -duration, the fierceness and obstinacy of the attack or defence, the -number of ships or men engaged, and the carnage that took place. - -For centuries these people remained undisputed masters of the sea. In -their case, as in that of the ruling nations of to-day, it was their -navy that enabled them to conquer, settle, and colonize other lands. If -we call these men pirates, we must also apply the name to the English, -French, Spaniards, Dutch, &c., because they have taken possession of -countries against the will of the inhabitants, just as in the United -States the land of the Indians has been gradually taken away from them. -Civilisation was aggressive in ancient times, as it is to-day. - ------ - -Footnote 147: - - See p. 437. - -Footnote 148: - - Heimskringla says 600 ships. - -Footnote 149: - - The English chronicles mention numerous instances of large fleets - descending on various parts of the coast, of which the following are a - few:— - - In the year 860, in the time of Ethelred a large fleet came to the - land, and the crews stormed Winchester. - - In the year 893 the Danish army came, from the east westward to - Boulogne, and their war ships. They landed at the mouth of the Limne - with 250 ships (this is in the eastern part of Kent). - - In the year 894 the Danes among the Northumbrians and East Anglians - gathered 100 ships and went south to besiege Exeter. - - In the year 927 King Anlaf entered the Humber with a vast fleet of 615 - sails. - - In the year 993 Olave, with 93 ships, came to Staines. - - In the year 994 Olave and Sveyn (Olaf of Norway and Svein of Denmark) - came to London with 94 ships. - - In the year 1006 a great fleet came to Sandwich and ravaged wherever - it went. It returned in winter to the Isle of Wight; the distress and - fear in the land were extreme. £36,000 and provisions was paid as - tribute to the invaders. - - In the year 1009, Thurkills came with his fleet to England, and after - him another innumerable fleet of Danes, the chiefs of which were - Hemming and Ailaf. - - In the year 1069 the sons of Svein came from Denmark with 240 ships - into the Humber. - - In the year 1075 200 ships came from Denmark under Knut, son of Sweyne - and Hecco, but did not dare to risk a battle with King William. After - plundering in York they went to Flanders. - - The Frankish chronicles give an account also of various fleets:— - - - EGINHARD. - - In the year 810 the emperor (Charlemagne), then at Aix-la-Chapelle, - planned an expedition against King Godfrey. He suddenly received the - news that a fleet of 200 ships coming from the country of the North - had landed in Frisia, and ravaged all the islands adjacent to their - shores. - - In the year 845 Eurick, king of the Northmen, advanced against Louis - in Germany with 600 vessels along the river Elbe. - - In the year 850 Rorik, the nephew of Harold, who had recently left the - service of Lothair, taking with him an army of Northmen, comes by the - Rhine and the Watal with a multitude of ships, devastating Frisia, the - island of Batavia, and other neighbourhood places. - - In the year 852 the Northmen arrived in Frisia with 252 ships; after - having received much silver they go elsewhere. - - In the year 852 Godfrey, son of Harold the Dane, formerly baptized at - Mayence, under the reign of the Emperor Louis, left Lothair and went - to find his people. Afterwards having assembled a powerful force, he - attacks Frisia with a multitude of vessels, and then enters the - territory bordering on the river Scheldt. - - In the year 857 the Danish pirates invaded the city of Paris and set - fire to it. Here there must have been an enormous fleet. - - In the year 861 the Danes, who had lately burned the town of - Terouanne, came back under their chief Weland from the country of the - Angles with more than 200 ships. - - In the year 865, from Attigny Charles marched an army against the - Northmen, who had entered the Seine with 500 ships. (We find at the - same time Northmen on the Loire.) - -Footnote 150: - - This means actually 1,440, as every hundred was equal to 120. - -Footnote 151: - - Unfortunately some of the facts which we would like to know are - missing in the Northern records in regard to the size of the fleet - which came to England, with the son of Ragnar Lodbrok; but from what - old English chronicles tell us, and from the depredations committed by - them, we may assume that their number must have been very great. The - same may also be said about the fleets of Svein and Knut. - -Footnote 152: - - Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, i. 89; Fornmanna Sögur. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - MODE OF NAVAL WARFARE OF THE NORTHMEN. - - Sea fights—Standard and shield burgh—Method of fighting—Use of - grappling irons—Choice of the crew—Boarding of ships—Battle at the - river Helga—Custom of strengthening ships’ sides before a - combat—Rowers protected by shields—Use of stones as - weapons—Harbours protected by cables—The war levy. - - -From the numerous sea-fights described in the Sagas, we see that the -most important and decisive part of the struggle took place near the -prow and stem of the ship. Here the strongest and most valiant men were -always stationed,[153] among them the standard-bearer of the chief or -king, round whom they were ranged in battle order, and formed the -_skjald-borg_ (shieldburg). - - -“During the winter King Harald had a large dragon made and fitted out -very splendidly. He placed on it his hird and Berserks. The stem -defenders were the most carefully selected, for they had the king’s -standard. That part aft of the prow near the pumping-room (_austr-rum_) -was called rausn (forecastle). It was manned with Berserks. Only those -who surpassed others in strength and bravery and all kinds of skill got -into the hird of King Harald. Only with such men was his ship manned, -and he had then a large choice of hirdmen out of every Fylki” (Harald -Fairhair’s Saga, c. 9). - - -In a sea-fight between Hakon Herdibreid and King Ingi: - - -“Hakon went on board the east voyage[154] Knörr, and a shieldburgh was -put round him there, but his standard remained on board the longship -where he had been.”[155] - - -Before the fight it was the custom to sound the horns and hoist the -standards, and to tie the stems of the ships together, so that each line -formed an unbroken whole; sometimes several anchors seem to have been -employed for this purpose, as it is said that they were used to hold the -ships together during the battle. When they came to the attack, the men -sought to drag the ships of the enemy closer by means of grappling-hooks -(_stafnlé_) and anchors. Eirik Jarl decided the battle of Svold by -attacking the outermost ships of Olaf Tryggvason. As soon as one ship -was cleared of men, he loosened its fastenings. - - -“It was then customary when men fought on board ships to tie them -together and fight in the prows” (Harald Fairhair’s Saga, ch. 11). - - -In the celebrated battle of Svold most violent and fatal was the defence -on the Long Serpent among the forerooms-men and the stem-defenders (see -pp 192–3). - -After leaving Norway Olaf steered the Long Serpent himself, and the crew -was so carefully chosen that no man who was older than sixty or younger -than twenty was to be on board, and they were picked also with regard to -valour and strength. The king’s hirdmen were first chosen, composed of -the strongest and bravest men from the country and foreign lands. - - -“Ulf the red carried King Olaf’s standard, and was placed in the front -(prow) of the Serpent together with Kolbjörn Stallari, Thorstein Oxfoot, -Vikar of Tiundaland the brother of Arnljót Gellini. The following men -were on the forecastle (rausn) in the bows:—Vakr Raumason Elfski, Bersi -the Strong, An the archer of Jamtaland, Thránd the Hardy of Thelamörk, -and Úthyrmir (Unsparing), his brother. From Hálogaland were:—Thránd the -Squinting, Ögmund Sandi, Hlödvir (Louis) the Long of Saltvik, Harek the -Keen. From the inner part of Thrandheim were:—Ketil the Tall, Thorfinn -the Dashing, Hávar of Orkadal and his brothers. The following were in -the foreroom:—Björn of Studla, Börk of Firdir, Thorgrim Thjódólfsson of -Hvin, Asbjörn and Orm, Thórd of Njardarlög, Thorstein the white of -Oprustadir, Arnor of Mœri, Hallstein and Hauk of Firdir, Eyvind Snake, -Bergthor Bestil, Hallkel of Fjalir, Olaf Dreng (good warrior), Arnfinn -of Sogn, Sigurd Axe, Einar of Hördaland, Finn, Ketil of Rogaland, -Grjótgard the nimble. The following were in the Krapparum[156]:—Einar -Thambarskelfir (he was not up to the standard being only eighteen -winters old), Thorstein Hlifarson, Thórólf, Ivar the Starter, Orm -Hood-nose, and many other very famous men were on the Serpent, though we -cannot name them. Eight men were in every _half-room_ (sixteen in one -room), selected one by one. Thirty men were in the foreroom. People said -that the picked men on board surpassed other men as far in fineness and -strength and bravery as the Long Serpent surpassed other ships. Thorkel -Nefja, the king’s brother, steered the Short Serpent, Thorkel the -Wheedler and Jostein, the king’s uncles, the Trana; both these ships -were very well manned. Eleven large ships left Thrandheim with Olaf, -also twenty-seaters and smaller ships and store-ships (_vistabyrding_)” -(Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga (Heimskringla), c. 102). - - -When the crew felt that they were unequal to the contest by being -boarded, they then cut the ropes that tied them to other ships, and -tried to avoid the coming danger. - - -“The king’s men attacked the jarl’s ship and almost got up on it. When -the jarl saw his danger he called to the men in the forepart of the ship -to cut the ropes (by which the ships were fastened together) and let -them loose; they did so. The king’s men threw their grappling hooks on -the club-formed beaks of the prow, and thus held them fast. Then the -jarl bade the men in the prow cut off the beaks, which they did. Einar -Thambarskelfir had laid his ship on the other side of the jarl’s, and -cast an anchor into the prow of the jarl’s ship, and thus they got out -on the fjord” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 48). - - -“At this time there was a great war in Norway; Harald Lúfa, the son of -Halfdan Svarti (black), was subduing the country.... When he came to -Hördaland a mass of warriors met to fight him.... Both sides had many -men. This was one of the greatest battles in Norway; most Sagas mention -it, for there came men from the whole country, and many from other -countries, with a great number of Vikings. Önund laid his ship at the -side of that of Thorir Chinlong, which was nearly in the middle of the -fleet. King Harald with his ship attacked that of Thorir Chinlong, who -was known as the greatest berserk and very valiant. There ensued the -severest fights on both sides. The king urged his berserks to attack; -they were called Ulfhednar (the wolf-skin coats), and no weapons wounded -them; and when they rushed forward nothing withstood them. Thorir -defended himself very manfully and fell on his ship with great valour; -it was cleared of men from stem to stern, and as the ropes were cut it -drifted backward between the others. The king’s men then attacked the -ship of Önund; he was in the fore part of the ship, and fought bravely. -The king’s men said: ‘That man fights hard in the stem; let us give him -some mark in memory of his having been in the battle.’ Önund was -standing with one of his feet on the side of the ship, and as he dealt a -man a blow a spear was thrust at him; as he parried the blow he bent -backwards, when one of the king’s stem-defenders cut off his leg below -the knee, after which he could fight no more. The greater part of the -men on his ship fell. Önund was carried on board the ship of Thrand, the -son of Björn and brother of Eyvind Eastman; he was against King Harald, -and lay on one side of Önund’s ship. After this the main fleet broke -into flight. Thrand, and the other Vikings who were able to, got away -and sailed westward. Önund, as well as Balki and Hallvard Súgandi (gush -of wind), went with him. When he was healed he afterwards walked with a -wooden leg; from this he was called Önund tree-foot while he lived” -(Gretti’s Saga, c. 2). - - -We see that at that period expeditions to and from the west were common. - -The battle at the river Helga (Sweden) is thus described:— - - -“One evening the spies of Önund saw Knut sailing not far off. Önund let -a war blast be blown. His men took down their tents, armed themselves, -and rowed out of the harbour (at the mouth of the river) and eastwards -along the coast; they laid their ships side by side and tied them -together, and made ready for battle. Önund sent spies ashore to tell -Olaf, who had the dam broken and let the river into its bed. He then -went down to his ships in the night. When Knut came off the harbour, he -saw the host of the kings ready for battle. It seemed to him it would be -too late in the day to begin a battle, as the whole of his host was not -ready. His fleet needed much space for sailing, and there was a long way -between his foremost and hindmost ship, and the outermost and the one -next to the land. There was little wind. When he saw the Swedes and -Northmen had left the harbour, he went in with such ships as could get -room there, but the greater part of his host lay out on the sea (outside -the harbour). Next morning, when it was almost day, many of their men -were on land, some talking, others at their games. They suspected -nothing until the water rushed down upon them like a torrent; large -timbers followed, and were driven against their ships; these were -damaged, and the water flowed all over the fields; the men on land, and -also many of those on the ships, lost their lives. All who could, cut -their anchor-ropes, and the ships drifted in great disorder. The large -dragon, on which the king was, floated out with the current; it was not -easy to move it with oars, and it drifted out to the fleet of the kings. -When they recognized it, they at once surrounded it. As the ship had -sides as high as the walls of a burgh, and many chosen and well-armed -men were on board, it was not easy to capture it. After a short time Ulf -jarl came up with his ships, and the battle began. Thereupon the host of -Knut gathered from all sides. Then Olaf and Önund saw that they had -gained as much advantage as was then possible; they pulled back and got -loose from the host of Knut, and separated the fleets. Because this -attack had not been as Knut had ordered, he did not row after them; they -began to array the ships and make themselves ready. When they had -separated, and each fleet was mustered, the kings counted their men, and -found that they had not lost many; they saw also that the odds would be -so great if they waited till Knut had made ready all his great host, and -attacked them, that there was little hope of victory. They decided to -row with all their ships eastward along the coast” (St. Olaf, c. -106).[157] - - -Before the conflict the sides of the ships were strengthened by -_viggyrdil_ (war-girdle) or _vigfleki_ (war-hurdle). - - -“King Sverri was at Bergen (Björgyn) with his host, and all his ships -lay ready and war-girdled at the gangways” (Sverri’s Saga, c. 52). - - -When King Svein of Denmark was pursuing King Harald with an overwhelming -force, - - -“He (Harald) bid the men lighten his (ship) by throwing overboard malt, -wheat, and pork, and to cut holes in the ale-barrels: this helped -awhile. Then he had _viggyrdils_, vats, and empty barrels, as well as -the prisoners of war, thrown into the sea” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. -35). - - -“We will carry out on the boards (i.e. the sides of the ship) -_vigfleki_, and defend ourselves as best we can, but not attack them” -(Flateyjarbok). - - -A man with his shields protected the rowers from the missiles of the -enemy; but in spite of this, many were often killed. Three men were -generally stationed in each _half-room_, one for rowing, one for -protecting the rower, and one for fighting. - - -Erling Skakki said to King Ingi: “If we now attack them and row against -the current, and have three men in every _half-room_, then one must row, -the other protect him, and we shall then have not more than one-third of -our host in the fight” (Hakon Herdibreid’s Saga, c. 6). - - -“When the men on board the jarl’s ships began to fall and get wounded, -and the line of men on their gunwales got thin, King Olaf’s men went on -board. Their standard was carried on board the ship next to the jarl’s, -and followed by the king himself” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 48). - - -Stones were extensively used in sea fights. - -Svein Ulfsson,[158] King of Denmark, fought a battle outside Árós -(Aarhus) against King Magnus of Norway, of which it is said, - - -“Svein’s men armed themselves and tied together their ships. There at -once ensued a hard battle.... They fought in the stems. Only those who -stood there could reach to use their swords; those who stood in the -foreroom used _kesjas_ (a kind of lance), and those still farther aft -shorter javelins or large arrows; some threw stones with slings, while -those who were aft of the mast used bows” (Magnus the Good, c. 31). - - -“A battle was fought at the mouth of the Gauta river between the kings -Ingi and Hakon; there were thrown down on them _kesjas_ (spears), and -stones so large, that they were forced to retreat” (Hakon Herdibreid’s -Saga, c. 2). - - -Cables were stretched across the mouths of rivers or harbours, in order -to prevent the ships of the enemy from entering. - - -“Olaf went to Saudungssund and lay there; he stationed one ship on each -side of the Sound, and had a thick cable stretched between them. Hakon -jarl (son of Eirik who was son of the famous Hakon jarl) rowed shortly -after into the Sound with a manned skeid. He thought that two trading -vessels were in the Sound, so rowed into it between them. Olaf’s men -drew the cable under the middle of the keel of the skeid, and hauled it -with windlasses; as soon as it touched the skeid its stern was lifted, -and the prow plunged forwards so that the sea came in; the ship was -filled and upset” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 28). - - -The country was divided into _skipreida_, or ship levy districts, in -Norway, and no doubt there were similar divisions in the other countries -of the Northmen. Every skipreida had to build, equip, and man a certain -number of ships, some more than others. - -_Leidangr_ was the term applied to a levy of men, ships, and money. A -levy when necessary was effected in the following manner. - - -“When a ship has been loosened from its fastenings and a man has not -come in to his half-room then his oar shall be raised (= stand with its -blade into the air), and witnesses called that he is liable to pay a -fine of three marks (merkur). If a man goes on board another ship than -the one he should go to he shall row in the expedition of the levy and -(besides) pay the fine” (Gulath, 301). - - -“Olaf summoned a Thing in the town (Nidarós). He made it known to all -people that he wanted to have a levy that summer from the country; he -wanted a certain number of men and ships from each Fylki; he stated how -many ships he wished to have from the fjord (Trondhjemsfjord). Then he -sent word southwards and northwards along the coast and inland, and -summoned men for war. He had the Long Serpent launched, and all his -other ships, small and large” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 107, -Heimskringla). - - -“Hakon Jarl had also equipped his men, intending to do warfare, and had -twelve large ships. After Gull Harald had departed, Hakon Jarl went to -the king and said: ‘Now we may go on the expedition, and nevertheless -have to pay the fine for default in the levy (leidviti). Now Gull Harald -will slay Harald Gráfeld, and then take the kingship in Norway’” (Olaf -Tryggvason’s Saga, vol. i., Fornmanna Sögur). - - -Leidviti was the tax which was paid instead of the leidangr, when the -latter was not needed, being originally the fine for neglecting to -participate in leidangr. It was also paid by the one who took part in -the warfare, but on the wrong ship. It seems to be the latter which the -jarl refers to—a warfare with loss, in consequence of lack of -forethought. - ------ - -Footnote 153: - - They were called _Stafnbúar_, stem or prow men. - -Footnote 154: - - East voyage = voyage in the East Baltic (Russia, &c.). - -Footnote 155: - - Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 115. - -Footnote 156: - - The narrow room, the third room or space from the stern. - -Footnote 157: - - Cf. also St. Olaf, 185, 186; Njala, c. 30. - -Footnote 158: - - _Svein Ulfsson_ was the son of Ulf jarl and Astrid, the sister of Knut - the Great. He carried on long war against King Magnus the Good, and at - last was acknowledged as King of Denmark. This was about the middle of - the 11th century. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - SEA BATTLES. - - The battle of Svold—The battle of the Jomsvikings. - - -The two most famous sea-fights which are related in the Sagas are those -of _Svold_ and _Jomsvikings_; the former of which took place between -Olaf Tryggvason against King Svein of Denmark, Olaf of Sweden, and Eirik -jarl of Norway. When Olaf Tryggvason had left _Vindland_ (the land of -the Wends), and was returning to Norway, his enemies were waiting in -ambush in order to attack him, and thus was fought the battle of Svold. - - -“Svein King of Denmark, Olaf King of Sweden, and Eirik jarl lay under -the island with all their host. The weather was fine and the sunshine -was bright. All the chiefs went up on the island, and many of the host -with them. When they saw that very many of the ships of the Northmen -sailed out to sea they were very glad, for their host grumbled at lying -there so long, and some had lost all hope of the King of Norway’s -coming. Now they saw a large and splendid ship sailing, and both the -kings said: ‘This is a large and exceedingly fine ship; it must be the -Long Serpent.’ Eirik jarl answered: ‘This is not the Long Serpent, which -must look larger and grander, though this is a large and fine ship.’ It -was as the jarl said. Styrkár of Gimsar owned the ship. Shortly after -they saw another much larger ship, which had a head on its prow. King -Svein said: ‘This must be the Long Serpent; let us now go to our ships -and not be too slow in attack.’ Eirik jarl replied: ‘This cannot be the -Long Serpent, though it is finely fitted out.’ It was as he said, for it -belonged to Thorkel Nefja, King Olaf’s brother; but he was not on board -himself. And now they saw another large and fine ship. King Svein said: -‘There you can see the king’s ship.’ The jarl replied: ‘Certainly this -is a large and splendid ship, but the Serpent must be much grander.’ -Close upon it came a fourth large ship. The two last were owned by two -men of Vikin, Thorgeir and Hyrning, the king’s brothers-in-law; but they -did not steer the ships, for they were on the Long Serpent with King -Olaf. A little while after appeared a fifth, much larger than any of the -preceding. King Svein said, laughing: ‘Now is Olaf Tryggvason afraid, -for he dares not sail with the head on his dragon.’[159] Eirik jarl -replied: ‘This is not the king’s ship; this one I know well, as well as -the sail which is striped; it belongs to Erling Skjalgsson of Jadar; let -them sail on, for I tell you truly that there are warriors on board, -whom, if we go into battle with Olaf Tryggvason, it is better not to -have, but to miss in his fleet, than to have it manned as it is, for I -think Erling himself steers it.’ It was not long after these five large -ships and all the small ones of the fleet had sailed past them that they -recognised Sigvaldi jarl’s ships, which turned in towards the island. -They saw there three ships, and one of these was a large headship (i.e. -a ship having a head on the stem); then said King Svein: ‘Let us now go -to the ships, for here comes the Long Serpent.’ Eirik jarl answered: -‘Many other large and splendid ships have they besides the Long Serpent, -but few have yet sailed past; let us still wait.’ Then many said: ‘Now -we may see that Eirik will not fight against Olaf Tryggvason, and dares -not avenge his father; and this is such a great shame that it will -spread over all lands, if we lie here with such a large host, and -Norway’s king sails with his handful of men past us and out to sea.’ -Eirik jarl became very angry at their words, and asked all to go to the -ships, saying: ‘I expect, though the Danes and Swedes now question my -courage much, that both of them will be less at their ease before the -sun goes down into the sea to-night than I and my men.’ When they went -down they saw four large ships sailing, one of which was a dragon-ship -much ornamented with gold. Many men said that the jarl had spoken the -truth. Here now sails the Long Serpent, and it is a very large and fine -ship; no long ship is similar to it in beauty and size in the northern -lands. It is not strange that the king is widely renowned, and is so -great as to have such grand things made. King Svein arose and said: -‘High shall the Serpent carry me to-night. Him will I steer.’ Eirik jarl -added: ‘Even if King Olaf Tryggvason had no larger ship than the one we -just now saw; King Svein would never win it from him with the Dana host -alone.’ But these large head ships they thought to be the Long Serpent, -the first was the Tranan (the crane), and the second the Ormrinn Skammi -(the short serpent). The men crowded to the ships, and pulled down the -tents, and the chiefs arranged the host for attack, and it is said that -they threw lots who should first attack Olaf’s own ship, the Long -Serpent. Svein King of Denmark drew the lot to attack first, and Olaf -King of Sweden and Eirik jarl last, if they needed it; and it was agreed -between the chiefs, King Svein, King Olaf, and Eirik jarl, that each -should become owner of one-third of Norway if they slew King Olaf; while -he who first got up on the Serpent should own all the booty there was on -board, and each should own the ships which he himself captured and -cleared of men. Eirik jarl had a very large Bardi which he used to have -on Viking expeditions; there were beaks on the top of both stem and -stern, and below these was a thick iron plate which covered the whole of -the stem and stern all the way down to the water.” - -“When the chiefs had talked thus between themselves they saw three very -large ships, and following them a fourth. They all saw a large dragon’s -head on the stem, ornamented so that it seemed made of pure gold, and it -gleamed far and wide over the sea as the sun shone on it. As they looked -at the ship they wondered greatly at its length, for the stern did not -appear till long after they had seen the prow[160]; then all knew and no -one gainsaid that this was the Long Serpent. At this sight many a man -grew silent, and fear and terror crept into the breast of the host. This -was not strange, for the great ship carried death for many men. Then -said Eirik jarl: ‘This famous ship is befitting such a king as Olaf -Tryggvason; for it is true of him that he excels other kings as much as -the Long Serpent does other ships.’ - -“When Sigvaldi jarl had let down the sails on his ships and rowed up to -the island, Thorkel Dydril on the Tranan and other ship-steerers who -went with him saw that he turned his ships towards the island; they -lowered their sails and followed him. Thorkel shouted to Sigvaldi, -asking why he did not sail. The jarl replied he would wait there for -King Olaf. They let their ships float until Thorkel Nefja arrived with -the Short Serpent and the four ships which followed him; they also -lowered their sails, and let their ships float, waiting for the king. - -“The fleet of the kings lay inside the harbour, so that they could not -see how large a host they had; but when King Olaf sailed towards the -island and saw that his men had lowered their sails and waited for him, -he steered towards them and asked why they did not go on. They told him -that a host of foes was before them, and requested him to flee. The king -stood on the lypting while he heard these tidings, and said to his men: -‘Let down the sail as quickly as possible, and some of you put out the -oars to take the speed off the ship. I will rather fight than flee, for -never yet have I fled from battle; my life is in God’s power, but never -will I take to flight, for he is not a true king who in fear flies from -his foes.’ It was done as the king said, and the Serpent ran in front of -the ships, and the men of the other ships brought them ahead by pulling -with their oars. Then the entire host of the kings rowed out from under -the island; and the chiefs were very glad when they found that King Olaf -had fallen into their ambush. - -“When King Olaf Tryggvason and his men saw that the sea was covered far -and wide with the war-ships of their foes, a wise and valiant man, -Thorkel Dydril, his uncle, said: ‘Lord, here is an overwhelming force to -fight against; let us hoist our sails and follow our men out to sea. We -can still do so while our foes prepare themselves for battle, for it is -not looked upon as cowardice by any one for a man to use forethought for -himself or his men.’ King Olaf replied loudly: ‘Tie together the ships, -and let the men prepare for battle and draw their swords, for my men -shall not think of flight.’ The chiefs arranged the host for attack, and -it is said that they threw lots, who should first attack Olaf’s ship, -the Long Serpent. Svein drew the lot to attack first, then Olaf and -Eirik jarl last if it was needed. - -“King Olaf signalled by horn to lay the eleven ships together which he -had there. The Long Serpent was in the middle, with the Short Serpent on -one side and the Crane on the other, and four other ships on each side -of them. But this ship-host, though he had large ships, was only a small -detachment compared to the overwhelming host which his enemies had. He -now missed his host, as it was likely. - -“King Olaf’s men now tied together the ships as bid; but when he saw -that they began to tie together the stems of the Long Serpent and the -Short Serpent, he called out loudly: ‘Bring forward the large ship; I -will not be the hindmost of all my men in this host when the battle -begins.’ - -“Then Ulf the red, the king’s standard bearer and his stem defender, -said: ‘If the Serpent shall be put as much forward as it is larger and -longer than the other ships, the men in the bows will have a hard time -of it.’ The king answered: ‘I had the Serpent made longer than other -ships, so that it should be put forward more boldly in battle, and be -well known in fighting and sailing, but I did not know that I had a stem -defender who was both red and faint-headed.’ Ulf replied: ‘Turn thou, -king, no more than back forward in defending the lypting than I will in -defending the stem.’ The king had a bow in his hand, and laid an arrow -on the string and aimed at Ulf. Then Ulf said: ‘Do not shoot me, lord, -but rather where it is more needed, that is at our foes, for what I win -I win for thee. May be you will think your men not over many, before the -evening comes.’ The king took off the arrow and did not shoot. - -“King Ólaf stood on the lypting of the Serpent, and rose high up; he had -a gilt shield and a gilt helmet, and was very easily recognised. He wore -a short red silk kirtle over his coat of mail. When he saw that the -hosts of his foes began to separate, and that the standards were raised -in front of the chiefs, he asked: ‘Who is chief of that standard which -is opposite us?’ He was told that it was King Svein with the Danish -host. The king said: ‘We are not afraid of those cowards, for no more -courage is there in the Danes than in wood-goats; never were Danes -victorious over Northmen, and they will not conquer us to-day. But what -chief follows the standards which are to the right?’ He was told that it -was Olaf the Swede, with the Svia host. The king added: ‘Easier and -pleasanter will the Swedes think it to sit at home and lick their -sacrifice bowls[161] than to board the Long Serpent to-day under your -weapons, and I think we need not fear the horse-eating Swedes; but who -owns those large ships to the left of the Danes?’ ‘It is,’ they said, -‘Eirik jarl Hakonsson.’ King Olaf replied: ‘This host is full of -high-born men whom they have ranged against us; Eirik jarl thinks he has -just cause for fighting us, it is likely we shall have a hard struggle -with him and his men, for they are Northmen like ourselves.’ Then the -kings and the jarl rowed at King Olaf.... The horns were blown, and both -sides shouted a war-cry, and a hard battle commenced. Sigvaldi let his -ships row to and fro, and did not take part in the battle. - -“The battle raged fiercely, at first with arrows from cross-bows and -hand-bows, and then with spears and javelins, and all say that King Olaf -fought most manfully.... - -“King Svein’s men turned their stems as thickly as they could towards -both sides of the Long Serpent, as it stood much further forward than -the other ships of King Olaf; the Danes also attacked the Short Serpent -and the Crane, and the fight was of the sharpest, and the carnage great. -All the stem-defenders on the Serpent who could fought hand-to-hand, but -King Olaf himself and those aft shot with bows and used short swords -(handsax), and repeatedly killed and wounded the Danir. - -“Though King Svein made the hardest onset on the Northmen with sixty -ships, the Danish and Swedish hosts nevertheless were incessantly within -shooting distance; King Olaf made the bravest defence with his men, but -still they fell. King Olaf fought most boldly, he shot chiefly with bows -and spears, but when the chief attack was made on the Serpent he went -forward in hand-to-hand fight, and cleft many a man’s skull with his -sword. - -“The attack proved difficult for the Danes, for the stem-defenders of -the Long Serpent and on the Short Serpent and the Crane hooked anchors -and grappling-hooks on to King Svein’s ships, and as they could strike -down (upon the enemy) with their weapons, for they had much larger and -higher-boarded ships, they cleared of men all the Danish ships which -they had laid hold of. King Svein and all who could get away fled on -board other ships, and thereupon they withdrew, tired and wounded, out -of shooting distance. It happened as Olaf Tryggvason guessed, that the -Danes did not gain a victory over the Northmen. - -“It happened to the Swedes as to the Danes, that the Northmen held fast -their ships with grappling-hooks and anchors, and cleared those they -could reach. Their swords dealt one fate to all Swedes whom they reached -with their blows. The Swedes became tired of keeping up the fight where -Olaf with his picked champions went at them most fiercely.... Men say -that the sharpest and bloodiest fight was that of the two namesakes -before Olaf and the Swedes retreated. The Swedes had a heavy loss of -men, and also lost their largest ships. Most of the warriors of Olaf the -Swedish king were wounded, and he had won no fame by this, but was fain -to escape alive. Now Olaf Tryggvason had made both the Danes and Swedes -take to flight. It all went as he had said. - -“Now must be told what Eirik Jarl did while the kings fought against -Norway’s king. The Jarl first came alongside the farthest ship of King -Olaf on one wing with the Járnbardi (iron-board), cleared it, and cut it -from the fastenings; he then boarded the next one, and fought there -until it was cleared. The men then began to jump from the smaller ships -on to the larger ones, but the Jarl cut away each ship from the -fastenings as it was cleared. - -“The Danes and Swedes then drew up within shooting distance on all sides -of King Olaf’s ships, but Eirik Jarl lay continually side by side with -one of them in hand-to-hand fight; and as the men fell on his ship, -other Danes and Swedes took their places. Then the battle was both hard -and sharp and many of King Olaf’s men fell. - -“At last all Olaf’s ships had been cleared except the Long Serpent, -which carried all the men who were able to fight. Eirik Jarl then -attacked the Serpent with five large ships. He laid the Járnbardi -alongside the Serpent, and then ensued the fiercest fight and the most -terrible hand-to-hand struggle that could be.... - -“Eirik Jarl was in the foreroom of his ship, where a shieldburgh was -drawn up. There was both hand-to-hand fight and spear-throwing and every -kind of weapon was thrown, and whatever could be seized by the hand. -Some shot with bows or with their hands, and such a shower of weapons -was poured upon the Serpent that the men could hardly protect themselves -against it. Then spears and arrows flew thickly, for on all sides of the -Serpent lay warships. King Olaf’s men now became so furious that they -jumped upon the gunwales in order to reach their foes with their swords -and kill them, but many did not lay their ships so close to the Serpent -as to get into the hand-to-hand fight, most of them thought it hard to -deal with Olaf’s champions. - -“The Northmen thought of nothing but continually going forward to slay -their foes, and many went straight overboard; for out of eagerness and -daring they forgot that they were not fighting on dry ground, and many -sank down with their weapons between the ships.... - -“King Olaf Tryggvason stood on the lypting of the Serpent, and chiefly -used during the day his bow and javelins; and always two javelins at a -time. It was agreed by all, both friends and foes, who were present, and -those who have heard these tidings told with the greatest truth, that -they have known no man fight more valiantly than King Olaf Tryggvason. -King Olaf surpassed most other kings, in that he made himself so easily -known in the battle that men knew no example of any king having shown -himself so openly to his foes, especially as he had to fight against -such an overwhelming force. The king showed the bravery of his mind, and -the pride of his heart, so that all men might see that he shunned no -danger. The better he was seen and the greater lack of fear he showed in -the battle, the greater fear and terror he inspired. - -“King Olaf saw that his men on the fore part of the ship frequently -raised their swords to strike, and that the swords cut badly. He cried -out: ‘Why do you raise your swords so slowly? I see they do not bite?’ A -man replied: ‘Our swords are both dull and broken, lord.’ The king then -went down from the lypting into the foreroom and unlocked the high-seat -chest, and took therefrom many bright and sharp swords, which he gave to -his men. As he put down his right hand they saw that blood flowed out of -the sleeve of the coat-of-mail, but no one knew where he was wounded. - -“Hard and bloody was the defence of the foreroom men and the -stem-defenders, for in both those places the gunwale was highest and the -men picked. When the fall of men began on the Serpent, it was first -amidships, mostly from wounds and exhaustion, and men say that if these -brave men could have kept up their defence the Serpent would never have -been won. - -“When only a few were left on the Serpent around the mast amidships, -Eirik Jarl boarded it with fourteen men. Then came against him the -king’s brother-in-law, Hyrning, with his followers, and between them -ensued a hard struggle, for Hyrning fought very boldly. It thus ended -that Eirik Jarl retreated on to the Bardi; but of those who had followed -him, some fell, and some were wounded; and Hyrning (Thor image) and -Eirik Jarl became much renowned from this fight.... - -“Eirik Jarl took off the Bardi the dead and wounded, and in their stead -brought fresh and rested men, whom he selected from among Swedes and -Danes. It is also said by some that the Jarl had promised to let himself -be baptized if he won the Serpent; and it is a proof of their statement -that he threw away Thor and put up in his place a crucifix in the stem -of the Bardi. When he had prepared his men, he said to a wise and -powerful chief who was present, Thorkel the high, brother of Sigvaldi -Jarl: ‘Often have I been in battles, and never have I before found men -equally brave and so skilled in fighting as those on the Serpent, nor -have I seen a ship so hard to win. Now as thou art one of the wisest of -men, give me the best advice thou knowest how the Serpent may be won.’ -Thorkel replied: ‘I cannot give thee sure advice thereon, but I can say -what seems to me best to do. Thou must take large timbers, and let them -fall from thy ship upon the gunwale of the Serpent, so that it will lean -over; you will then find it easier to board the Serpent, if its gunwale -is no higher than those of the other ships. I can give thee no other -advice, if this will not do.’ The Jarl carried out what Thorkel had told -him.... - -“When Eirik Jarl was ready he attacked the Serpent a second time, and -all the Danish and Swedish host again made an onset on King Olaf -Tryggvason; the Swedes placed their prows close to the Serpent, but the -greatest part of the host was within shooting distance of the Northmen, -and shot at them incessantly. The Jarl again laid the Bardi side by side -with the Serpent, and made a very sharp onslaught with fresh men; -neither did he spare himself in the battle, nor those of his men who -were left. - -“King Olaf and his men defended themselves with the utmost bravery and -manliness, so that there was little increase in the fall of men on the -Serpent while they were fresh; they slew many of their foes, both on the -Járnbardi and on other ships which lay near the Serpent. As the fight -still went against Eirik Jarl, he hoisted large timbers on the Bardi, -which fell on the Serpent. It is believed that the Serpent would not -have been won but for this, which had been advised by Thorkel the high. - -“The Serpent began to lean over very much when the large timbers were -dropped on one gunwale, and thereupon many fell on both sides. When the -defenders of the Serpent began to thin, Eirik boarded it and met with a -warm reception. - -“When King Olaf’s stem-defenders saw that the Jarl had got up on the -Serpent, they went aft and turned against him, and made a very hard -resistance; but then so many began to fall on the Serpent, that the -gunwales were in many places deserted, and the Jarl’s men boarded them; -and all the men who were standing up for defence withdrew aft to where -the king was. Haldór (a poet) says that the jarl urged on his men. - -It is said that Thorstein Uxafót was in the foreroom aft by the -lypting,[162] and said to the king, when the Jarl’s men came thickest on -board the Serpent: ‘Lord, each man must now do what he can?’ ‘Why not?’ -answered the king. Thorstein struck with his fist one of the Jarl’s men, -who jumped up on the gunwale near him; he hit his cheek so hard that he -dropped out into the sea, and at once perished. After this Thorstein -became so enraged, that he took up the sailyard and fought with it. When -the king saw this, he said to Thorstein: ‘Take thy weapons, man, and -defend thyself with them; for weapons, and not hands alone or timber, -are meant for men to fight with in battle.’ Thorstein then took his -sword, and fought valiantly. There was still a most fierce fight in the -foreroom, and King Olaf shot from the lypting javelins or spears, both -hard and often. When he saw that Eirik Jarl had come into the foreroom -of the Serpent, he shot at him with three short-handled _kesjas_ (a kind -of spear), but they did not go as usual (for he never missed his aim -when shooting), and none of these _kesjas_ hit the Jarl. The first flew -past his right side, the second his left, and the third flew on to the -forepart of the ship above the Jarl’s head. Then the king said: ‘Never -before did I thus miss a man; great is the Jarl’s hamingia (luck); it -must be God’s will that he now shall rule in Norway; and that is not -strange, for I think he has changed the _stem-dweller_ on the Bardi. I -said to-day that he would not gain victory over us, if he had Thor in -the stem.’ - -“As many of the Jarl’s men had got up on board the Serpent as could be -there, and his ships lay on all sides of it, and but few remained for -defence against such a host. In a short time many of King Olaf’s -champions fell, though they were both strong and valiant. There fell -both the king’s brothers-in-law, Hyrning and Thorgeir, Vikar of -Tiundaland, Úlf the red, and many other brave men, who left a famous -name behind. - -“Kolbjörn Stallari (Marshal) had defended the stem during the day with -the other stem-defenders; he had weapons and clothing very much like -King Olaf, and he had dressed so because he thought that, if necessary, -as it now was, he might save the life of the king. When the most valiant -of the king’s men in the foreroom began to fall, Kolbjörn went up on the -lypting to the king. It was not easy to tell them apart, for Kolbjörn -was a very large and handsome man. There was then such a thick shower of -weapons in the lypting, that the shields of King Olaf and Kolbjörn were -covered all over with arrows. But when the Jarl’s men came up to the -lypting, it seemed to them that so much light came over the king that -they could not see through it, yet when the light vanished they saw King -Olaf nowhere.” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, Fornmanna Sögur, ii., 299–332). - - -The Battle of the Jomsvikings arose out of a vow made by Sigvaldi, at -the _arvel_ given by King Svein Tjuguskegg (forked beard) for Strut -Harald Jarl, that he would rule Norway. - - -“The Jomsvikings went northward along the coast, plundering and ravaging -wherever they landed. They made great coast raids, slew many men, and -often burned towns; all, who heard of them and could flee, fled. When -they were at Úlfasund, off Stad, it is said that they and Hakon jarl -heard of each other. They sailed twenty sea-miles northward from Stad, -and entered the harbour at Hereyjar, and laid all their fleet therein. -Then they were in want of food again, and Vagn Ákason went on his skeid -to the island Höd, not knowing that the jarl lay in the bay, near the -island. Vagn landed. They went up, wishing to make a shore raid if they -could. They happened to meet a man driving three cows and twelve goats. -Vagn asked for his name. He said it was Úlf. Vagn said to his men: ‘Take -the cows and the goats and slaughter them, and any other cattle you may -find here, for our ship.’ Úlf asked: ‘Who commands the men on board this -ship?’ ‘Vagn Ákason,’ was the answer. Úlf said: ‘I think there are, not -very far from you, bigger cattle for slaughter than my cows or goats.’ -Vagn said: ‘If thou knowest anything about the journey of Hakon jarl -tell us, and, if thou canst tell us with truth where he is, thy, cows -and goats are safe; what knowest thou about him?’ Úlf answered: ‘He lay -with one ship late yesterday night inside of the island Höd, in -Hjörungavag, and you can slay him when you like, for he is waiting for -his men.’ Vagn said: ‘Then all thy cattle are safe; come on board our -ship, and show us the way to the jarl.’ Úlf said: ‘That is not right for -me, and I will not fight against the jarl, but if you wish I will show -you the way into the bay; and, if I go on board, you must promise to let -me go when you see your way into the bay.’ Úlf went on board early in -the day, and Vagn, as quickly as he could, went back to Hereyjar, and -told Sigvaldi and the Jomsvikings the news that Úlf told. - -“The Jomsvikings made themselves ready as if they were to go into a most -fierce battle, though Úlf said it was not needed. When they were quite -ready they rowed towards the bay. It is said that Úlf thought they would -see more ships there than he had told of. When the ships came into -sight, Úlf jumped overboard and wanted to swim to the shore and not wait -for his reward. When Vagn saw this he wished to give him what he -deserved, snatched a spear and threw it after him; it hit him in the -middle and killed him. All the Jomsvikings rowed into the bay, and saw -that it was covered all over with warships. There were more than three -hundred ships, snekkjas and skeids and trading-ships. The Jomsvikings at -once arrayed their ships. Hakon and his sons saw the Jomsvikings come, -and at once unfastened their ships and said which were to fight against -which. It is told that the upper end of Hjörungavag is to the east, and -its mouth to the west; three rocks, one larger than the two others, -stand in the bay; they are called Hjörungs, and the bay is named from -them. There is a reef in the middle of the bay at the same distance from -the shore in three directions. An island called Primsigd is north of the -bay, and Harund is south of it, off Harundarfjord. - -“The Jomsvikings arrayed their ships thus: Sigvaldi laid his ship in the -middle, Thorkel the high, his brother, laid his next thereto; Búi the -stout and Sigurd Kápa, his brother, had theirs in the one wing of the -array, and Vagn Ákason and Björn the British in the other. Hakon jarl -determined who should fight against these champions, and in most places -three were placed against one. As to their array, Svein, son of Hakon, -was placed against Sigvaldi; three chiefs were arrayed against Thorkel -the high, Yrjaskeggi, Sigurd Steikling, Thórir Hjört (stag); two were -with Svein Hakonarson against Sigvaldi, Gudbrand of Dalir, and Styrkár -of Gimsar. Against Búi were Hallstein Kerlingabani, and Thorkel Leira -and Thorkel Midlang (iendirmen). Against Sigurd Kápa were Ármód of -Önundarfjord and his son Árni. Against Vagn Ákason were Eirík jarl -Hakonarson, Erling of Skuggi, and Ögmund the white, whose hand Vagn cut -off. Against Björn the British were Einar the little, Hávard Uppsjá, and -Hallvard of Flydrunes, Hávard’s brother; Hakon himself was not arrayed -against any one, but had to support the whole line and command it. - -“The fleets closed, and Hakon jarl was with his son Svein to support him -against Sigvaldi. A most fierce fight began, and one could find no fault -with the onset or attack of either; it is told that it went equally with -Sigvaldi and Hakon and Svein, so that neither moved backwards. Then -Hakon jarl saw that Búi had forced back a long way some of the northern -wing of their array, and those who fought against him drew back with -their ships, and thought it better to retreat; he followed up, -nevertheless, and dealt heavy blows; they were ill-treated by him, and -he was dangerous to men in the battle. The Jarl saw that the fight was -equal with Eirík and Vagn in the southern wing. Eirík went thence with -his own ship, and his brother Svein with another, up to Búi and fought -against him, and put the wing in line again, but could do no more. Hakon -meanwhile fought against Sigvaldi, and when Eirík came back to the -southern wing Vagn had forced back many of Eirík’s ships, which had -retreated and had been separated, so that Vagn went through the line and -attacked them fiercely. Eirík became very angry when he saw this, and -boarded the skeid which Vagn steered valiantly with his Járnbardi. They -came alongside of each other and fought again, and never had the fight -been harder than then. Vagn and Áslák Hólmskalli jumped on board Eirík’s -Járnbardi from their skeid, and each went along the side of the ship, -and Áslák dealt blows on both sides, so to speak, as also did Vagn, and -they cleared their way so that all fell back. Eirík saw that these men -were so fierce and mad that this would not last long, and that the -Jarl’s help must be got as quick as possible. Áslák was bald and had no -helmet on his head, and exposed his bare skull; the weather was bright, -clear, and warm, and many took off their clothes on account of the heat, -and wore only their armour. Now Eirík goaded his men on, and they made -an attack on Áslák, and struck his head with swords and axes, thinking -it would be most dangerous to him as his head was bare. Nevertheless it -is said that the weapons rebounded from his skull, whether they were -swords or axes, and did not cut, and sparks flew from the skull at the -blows. Whatever they did, he went forward fiercely, and cleared his way -by many hard and heavy blows, slaying many a man. Vigfús, son of -Vígaglúm, caught up a large beaked anvil which lay on the deck of the -Járnbardi, on which he had previously rivetted the guards of his sword -as they had been unfastened; he struck at Áslák so that its beak sank -into his head; Áslák could not withstand that, and at once fell dead. -Vagn went along the other side, and cleared his way, dealing blows on -both sides and wounding many; then Thorleif Skúma ran to meet Vagn, -struck at him with his club, and hit his helmet; the blow was so strong -that the skin under the helmet was grazed, and Vagn leant over and -staggered towards Thorleif, and at the same time thrust his sword at -Thorleif; then he leapt from the Járnbardi, and came down standing on -his skeid, and none made a harder onset than he and all his men. -Nevertheless he and Áslák had killed so many on the Járnbardi, that -Eirík put men from other ships on it till it was fully manned, as he -thought it needful; and a very fierce fight followed. Then Eirík saw -that Hakon with his array had landed, and there was some pause in the -battle....[163] The sky began to darken in the north, and a dark and -black cloud glided up from the sea, spreading quickly; it was about -noon, and the cloud soon spread all over the sky, and a shower of hail -followed at once, and the Jomsvikings had all to fight with their faces -against the hail, which seemed to be followed by lightning and -thunder-claps. This hail-shower was so terrible, that some of the men -could do no more than stand against it, as they had previously taken off -their clothes on account of the heat. They began to shiver, though they -fought boldly enough. It is said that Hávard Höggvandi, Búi’s follower, -was the first who saw Hördabrúd in the host of Hakon jarl, and many with -second sight,[164] and even those who had no second sight, saw. When the -hail-shower abated a little, they also saw that an arrow flew from each -finger of the Troll, ‘M’tch’ as it seemed to them, and always hit and -killed a man. They told Sigvaldi and others; and Hakon and his men made -the hardest onset they could when the shower burst and while it lasted. -Then Sigvaldi said: ‘It seems to me that it is not men whom we have to -fight to-day, but the worst Troll (fiends), and it requires some -manliness to go boldly against them, though it is clear that men must -take heart as they can.’ It is told of Hakon, that when he saw the -shower abate and it was not as violent as it had been, he once more -invoked Thorgerd and her sister Irpa, saying that he had made himself -deserving by sacrificing his son for victory. Then the hail-shower burst -on them again, and when it began Hávard Höggvandi saw that two women -were in Hakon jarl’s ship, and that they did the same as he had seen the -one do before. Sigvaldi said: ‘Now I will flee, and all my men shall do -so, for it is worse than when I spoke of it before, as there was but one -Trollwoman then, but now there are two, and I will not stand it any -longer; our excuse is that we do not flee from men, though we draw back; -but we did not vow to fight against fiends.’ He (Sigvaldi) turned away -his ship, and shouted to Vagn and Búi to flee as quickly as they could. -When he unfastened his ship and shouted, Thorkel Midlang jumped from his -ship on board Búi’s, and at once struck at Búi. In the twinkling of an -eye he cut off his lower lip and the whole of his chin downward, so that -it fell on the ship, and Búi’s teeth flew off at the blow. Búi said when -he got the wound: ‘The Danish woman in Borgundarhólm will not be as fond -of kissing me, even though I get home now.’ Búi struck at Thorkel; the -deck was slippery from blood, so that Thorkel fell at the shield-row -when he tried to escape the blow, which hit him in the middle, and cut -him in two at the gunwale. Immediately after this Búi took one of his -gold-chests in each hand, and jumped overboard with them; neither he nor -the chests came up or were seen thereafter. Some say that when Búi -stepped on the gunwale to jump overboard he spoke these words: -‘Overboard, all Búi’s men.’ Sigvaldi left the fleet, and did not know -that Búi was gone overboard, and shouted to Vagn and Búi’s to flee, as -he was about to do.... Sigvaldi was cold from the shower, and began -rowing to warm himself, while another man sat at the rudder. When Vagn -saw Sigvaldi he flung a spear at him, thinking it was he who sat at the -rudder, but Sigvaldi was rowing, and the man at the rudder was hit. As -Vagn flung the spear from his hand he said to Sigvaldi that he should -die as the meanest of men. Thorkel the high, Sigvaldi’s brother, went -away with six ships as soon as Sigvaldi was dead, and so did Sigurd -Kápa, for his brother Búi was gone overboard, and he could wait for him -no longer. They both thought they had fulfilled their vows, and went -home to Denmark with twenty-four ships. All who could leave the -remaining ships jumped on board Vagn’s skeid, and there they defended -themselves very valiantly till it was dark; then the battle ended, and -very many were still on their feet in Vagn’s skeid. Hakon jarl was -overtaken by night and could not make a search as to how many were alive -or likely to live in the ships, so he had a watch set during the night -that no man should escape from them, and they took all the rigging down. -Then Hakon rowed to the land, and pitched tents; they thought they had -reason to boast of the victory. Then they weighed the hailstones in -order to prove the power of Thorgerd and Irpa; it was well proved, for -it is told that each hailstone weighed one eyrir, and they were weighed -in scales. Thereafter the wounds of the men were dressed, and Hakon jarl -and Gudbrand of Dalir watched during the night” (Jomsvikinga Saga, c. -41–44). - - -From the following account we see that these men of old knew how to die, -and how the spirit of chivalry seemed to have departed from the land, -though Eirik, the son of Hakon, at last stopped the bloodshed which had -taken place. After the defeat of the Jómsvikings by Hakon jarl, eighty -of the men who had not been captured landed on a skerry, and suffered -great privations from the cold. - - -“Now it is to be told that Vagn and Björn the British talked of what -they should do: Vagn said. ‘There are two choices: to stay here in the -ship till daybreak, and then be captured and that is not pleasant, or go -ashore, and do them what harm we can, and then try to escape.’ They all -made up their minds, took the mast and the sailyard, left the ship and -floated on them, eighty men together, in the dark. They wanted to get on -land, and came to a skerry, and thought they were ashore. Many were very -exhausted, and ten wounded men died there in the night, and the other -seventy lived though many were much tired, and they could get no -farther; they stayed there during the night. It is said that when -Sigvaldi had fled the shower ceased, and all lightning and thunder, and -the weather was cold and quiet during the night while Vagn was on the -skerry till it was daylight. - -“Shortly before day Hákon’s men were dressing their wounds, and had been -at it the whole night, beginning as soon as they landed, because so many -were wounded. They had almost finished it, when they heard the twang of -a bowstring in a ship, and an arrow flew from Búi’s ship, and hit the -side of Gudbrand, Hákon’s kinsman; it was enough, and he died at once. -The jarl and all thought this a great loss, and began preparing his body -as well as they could, having no means to do it with. It is said that a -man stood at the door of the tent. When Eirik went into it he asked: -‘Why dost thou stand here, or why dost thou look as if thou wert dying; -or art thou wounded?’ It was Thorleif Skúma. Eirik said: ‘I see thou art -near to death.’ Thorleif answered: ‘I am not sure that the sword-point -of Vagn Ákason did not hit me a little yesterday, when I struck him with -the club.’ The jarl said: ‘Badly has thy father kept his stock in -Iceland if thou must die now.’ Einar Skálaglamm heard what the jarl -said, and made a stanza.... Thereupon Thorleif fell down dead. - -“When it was light the jarl at once went to search the ships, and came -on board Búi’s ship, and wanted first of all to know who had shot in the -night, thinking that that man deserved to be ill-treated. When they got -on board they found one man, little more than breathing; it was Hávard -Höggvandi (the slashing), Búi’s follower, sorely wounded, as both his -feet were cut off below the knees. Svein Hákonarson and Thorkel Leira -went to him; when they came, Hávard asked: ‘How is it, boys; was -anything sent from the ship this night ashore to you or not?’ They -answered: ‘Certainly there came something; didst thou send it?’ He said: -‘I will not deny that I sent it to you; did the arrow hurt any man when -it stopped?’ They answered: ‘It killed the man whom it hit.’ He said: -‘That is good; and whom did it hit?’ ‘Gudbrand the white,’ they -answered. He said: ‘I did not succeed, then, in what I wished; I meant -it for the jarl; nevertheless I am glad that a man was hit whose death -is a loss to you.’ Thorkel Leira said: ‘Let us not look at this dog, but -kill him as soon as we can.’ He struck at him, and others ran thereto -and cut him with weapons, and beat him till he was dead. Before that -they had asked his name, and he told them. - -“They went ashore after that, and told the jarl whom they had killed; -that the man had been more than a common monster, and they had seen by -his words that his character did not make him a better man. Then they -saw that very many men were on the skerry; the jarl told them to go out -to them and bring them all to him, as he wanted to have their lives in -his power. The jarl’s men went on board a ship, and rowed out to the -skerry; few men there were able to fight, on account of wounds and cold, -nor is it told that any one defended himself; they were all taken by the -jarl’s men ashore to him; they were seventy. Then the jarl had Vagn and -his men led up on land, and their hands were tied behind their backs, -and they were bound with one rope, one at the other’s side, not loosely. -The jarl and his men took their food, and sat down to eat; he wanted to -have them all beheaded leisurely and in no hurry that day. - -“Before they sat down to eat, the ships and the property of the -Jómsvikings were taken ashore, and carried to the poles. Hákon and his -men divided among themselves all the property, and the weapons; they -thought they had won a great victory as they had got all the property -captured from the Jómsvikings, and they boasted very much. When they had -eaten enough, they walked out of the war-booths to the captives, and it -is said that Thorkel Leira was appointed to behead them all. First they -talked to the Jómsvikings, and asked whether they were as hardy men as -was said; but it is not told that the Jómsvikings gave them any answer. - -“It is next stated that some sorely wounded men were untied from the -rope; Skopti Kark and other thralls had hold of it, and guarded them. -When they were untied the thralls twisted sticks[165] in their hair; -first three wounded men were led forward in that way, and Thorkel went -to them and cut off each head; then he asked his own companions if they -had seen him shudder at this work, ‘for it is told,’ said he, ‘that any -man shudders if he beheads three men one after the other.’ Hákon -answered: ‘We do not see that thou hast shuddered at this, though it -seemed so to me before thou didst it.’ - -The fourth man was led out of the rope, and a stick twisted in his hair, -and he was led to where Thorkel beheaded them; he was much wounded. When -he came Thorkel asked, before he struck, how he thought of his death. He -answered: ‘Well think I of my death; it will be with me as with my -father; I shall die.’ Thereupon Thorkel cut off that man’s head, and -thus his life ended. The fifth was untied from the rope and led thither; -when he came, Thorkel said: ‘How likest thou to die?’ He said: ‘I -remember not the laws of the Jómsvikings, if I am afraid of my death or -speak a word of fear; once must every man die.’ Thorkel struck him. They -wanted to ask every man before he was slain, and try whether they were -as fearless as was told, and if no man spoke a word of fear they thought -it proved. The sixth was led forward, and a stick twisted in his hair. -Thorkel asked the same as before; the man said he liked well to die with -a good fame, ‘while thou, Thorkel, wilt live with shame.’ He struck the -blow. Then the seventh was led thither, and Thorkel asked the same. The -man said: ‘I like very much to die, but strike me quickly; I have a -belt-knife in my hand. We Jómsvikings have often talked of whether a man -knew anything (had some consciousness) after his head had been cut off -very quickly; it shall be a sign that I will stretch forth the knife if -I know anything, else it will fall down.’ Thorkel struck; the head flew -off, but the knife fell down. The eighth was taken, and Thorkel asked -the same. He said he liked it well, and when the death-blow was coming -he said, ‘Ram!’ Thorkel stopped the blow, and asked why he said this. He -answered: ‘There will not be too many rams for the ewes which you, the -jarl’s men, named yesterday when you got wounded.’ ‘Thou art the -greatest wretch,’ said Thorkel, and dealt him the blow. The ninth was -untied; Thorkel asked the same. He said: ‘I like well my death, as do -all my companions; but I do not want to be beheaded like a sheep, and I -will sit for the blow; strike me face to face, and look carefully -whether I wince in any way, for we have often talked of that.’ This was -done; he sat with his face to Thorkel, who walked to him and smote in -his face; he did not wince, except that his eyelids sank down when death -came over him. The tenth was led forward. Thorkel asked him the same. He -said: ‘I should like thee to wait while I arrange my breeches.’ ‘I grant -thee that,’ said Thorkel. When he had done, he said, ‘Many things do not -go as one hoped; I thought I should get into the bed of Thora, Skagi’s -daughter, the jarl’s wife.’ Hákon jarl said: ‘Behead that man as quickly -as thou canst; he has long had bad intentions.’ Thorkel cut him.... - -“Then a young man was led forward; he had much hair, yellow as silk. -Thorkel asked the same. He said: ‘I have lived the finest part of my -life, and such men have now lost their life a little while ago that I do -not care to live; I do not want thralls to lead me to the death-blow, -but one who is no less a man than thou; it is easy to get that man, and -he shall take hold of my hair, and pull away my head so that my hair -does not become bloody.’ A hirdman came, took the hair, and wound round -his hand; Thorkel raised his sword, and intended to strike him as hard -and quick as he could. He struck; but when the young man heard the sword -whistling in the air, he pulled away his head strongly, and so it -happened that the blow hit the man who had hold of his hair, and Thorkel -cut off both his arms at the elbows. The young man jumped up, and said -as a joke: ‘What fellow is owner of the hands in my hair?’ Hákon jarl -said: ‘The men who are still in the rope will do us great mischief; slay -him as soon as you can; he has brought a great mishap on us, and it is -clear that all of them who are living ought to be slain as soon as -possible, for they are too hard for us to deal with, and their bravery -and hardihood have not been exaggerated.’ Eirík said to his father: ‘We -want to know, father, who they are before they are all slain; what is -thy name, young man?’ ‘Svein,’ answered he. ‘Whose son art thou,’ asked -Eirík, ‘and what is thy kin?’ He said: ‘My father was called Búi, the -stout, son of Veseti, on Borgundarhólm. I am of Danish kin.’ ‘How old -art thou?’ said Eirík. ‘If I live this winter I am eighteen winters -old,’ said he. Eirík said: ‘Thou shalt live this winter, if I have my -will, and not be slain.’ He took him into peace, and into the company of -himself and his men. When Hákon saw this, he said: ‘I do not know what -thou art thinking of, as thou savest a man who has caused us so much -shame and disgrace as this young man; he has done us most harm, but -nevertheless I like not to take him out of thy hands, and thou shalt -have thy will this time.’ Thus Eirík had his will. Hákon said to -Thorkel: ‘Behead the men quickly.’ Eirík answered: ‘They shall not be -beheaded before I have first spoken with them, and I want to know who -each of them is.’ - - * * * * * - -“A man was untied from the rope when he said this; the rope got a little -entangled round his feet, so that he was not quite loose. This man was -of large and handsome shape, young, and bold-looking. Thorkel asked him -how he liked to die. ‘Well,’ said he, ‘if I might first fulfil my vow.’ -Eirik jarl asked: ‘What is thy name? And what is thy vow, which thou -desirest specially to fulfil before thou diest?’ He answered: ‘My name -is Vagn; I am son of Áki, son of Palnatoki, of Fyen; so I have been -told.’ Eirik said: ‘What vow didst thou make, as thou sayest thou -wouldst like to die if thou hadst fulfilled it according to thy will?’ -‘I made the vow,’ said Vagn, ‘to get into the bed of Ingibjorg, the -daughter of Thorkel Leira against his will, and that of all her kinsmen, -and slay Thorkel if I came to Norway, and much do I lack if I cannot -perform this before I die.’ ‘I will prevent thy doing this before thou -diest,’ said Thorkel. He rushed toward him and struck at him, holding -his sword with both hands. Björn the British, Vagn’s foster-father, -kicked him with his foot away from the blow quickly. Thorkel missed -Vagn, and hit the rope with which Vagn was tied and cut it asunder. Now -Vagn was loose, and not wounded. Thorkel stumbled when he missed the -man, and fell; the sword dropped out of his hands. Bjorn had kicked Vagn -so strongly that he fell, but he lay not a long time, and soon jumped -up. He seized Thorkel’s sword and gave him a deadly blow. ‘Now I have -fulfilled one of my two vows,’ said Vagn, ‘and I feel a great deal -better than before.’ Hákon said: ‘Do not leave him loose long; slay him -first, for he has done us much harm.’ Eirik said: ‘You shall not slay -him, if I have my will, before you slay me; I take him away.’ Hákon -said: ‘Now I need not meddle with this; thou wilt have thy way alone, -kinsman.’ Eirik said: ‘Vagn is a good man-bargain (= acquisition), -father, and I think it a good bargain to let him take Thorkel’s place -and honour; Thorkel might expect what happened to him, for now it is -proved which often is said that “a wise man’s guess is a prophecy”; thou -sawest already to-day that he was death-fated.’ Eirik took Vagn into his -power, and then he was in no danger; Vagn said: ‘I will accept life from -thee, Eirik, only on condition that all my comrades who are living are -given their lives; otherwise we will all go the same way, we comrades.’ -Eirik said: ‘I will speak to thy comrades, but I do not refuse what thou -askest.’ Eirik went to Björn the British, and asked who he was, or what -was his name. He answered ‘Björn.’ ‘Art thou the Björn who fetched the -man in King Svein’s hall so boldly?’[166] ‘I know not,’ said Björn, -‘that I fetched him boldly, but nevertheless I took the man away.’ ‘What -didst thou seek,’ said Eirik, ‘in coming hither, old man, or what -induced thee, bald and white haired, to come on this journey? It is true -that all straws want to sting us, the Noregs-men, since even the men who -are off their feet on account of old age came hither to fight us. Wilt -thou receive thy life from me, for I think a man as old as thou ought -not to be slain.’ Björn answered: ‘I will receive my life from thee on -condition that the lives of my foster-son Vagn, and of all our men who -are living are spared.’ ‘That shall be granted to all of you,’ said -Eirik, ‘if I have my will, which I shall have.’ He went to his father, -and entreated him to spare the lives of all the living Jómsvikings, -which the jarl granted him; and they were all untied, plighted faith was -given to them, and they were taken into peace. It was arranged by Hákon -and Eirik so that Björn the British went to the bu of Hallstein -Kellingarbani. Five landed men were slain, beside Hallstein. Vagn Ákason -went to the Vik with Eirik’s consent, and before they parted Eirik said -to him that, regarding his wedding with Ingibjörg, Thorkel’s daughter, -he might do what he liked. When Vagn came to Vik, he went to Ingibjörg, -and stayed there during the winter. The next spring he left, and kept -faithfully all he had promised Eirik. He went home to his farms in Fyen, -and for a long time afterwards managed them; he was thought to be a man -of great deeds, and many famous men have sprung from him. It is told -that he took Ingibjörg home with him. - -“Björn the British went to Bretland, and ruled it as long as he lived, -and was looked upon as a most brave man” (Jomsvikinga Saga, ch. 45, 47). - - ------ - -Footnote 159: - - This refers to a general superstition. - -Footnote 160: - - The Serpent glided past the point of the island slowly. - -Footnote 161: - - Sacrifice lasted longer in Sweden than in Norway or Denmark. - -Footnote 162: - - As a rule the foreroom (_fyrirrúm_) seems to have been before the - mast, but on the Long Serpent this was not the case, as we can see - from the above sentence, for there it was immediately in front of the - _lypting_ (poop). - -Footnote 163: - - Part is here omitted, referring to the sacrifice of Hakon’s son. See - Vol. 1., page 367, “Sacrifices.” - -Footnote 164: - - A man who can see supernatural beings. - -Footnote 165: - - This practice was probably due to their not using a block; so that the - head was held for the blow as described in the Saga. - -Footnote 166: - - Allusion to an incident when Björn after a fight in King Svein’s hall - went in alone again to fetch one of his men who had been left inside. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - TRADERS AND TRADING-SHIPS. - - Wide extent of trading expeditions—Commercial activity of the - people—Fairs—Immunity of trading ships from capture—Classification - and name of merchant vessels—Trade a high calling—Kings as - traders—Laws regulating trade—The earliest medium of - exchange—Method of reckoning—Weights and measures—Arabic and other - coins and objects—Insurance. - - -The people of the North were, from very early times, great traders, and -as such undertook long voyages, as is seen from the finds of the earlier -iron age, and from many accounts in the Sagas; this ancient trait in -their character is still seen in their descendants. - -Their trading expeditions extended far south through the present Russia, -to the Black Sea, the Tigris and Euphrates, and as far east as -Samarcand; while with their ships they traded to the seas of Western -Europe and into the Mediterranean. - - -“Thórólf had a large seagoing ship; in every way it was most carefully -built, and painted nearly all over above the water-line; it had a sail -with blue and red stripes, and all the rigging was very elaborate. This -he made ready, and ordered his men-servants to go with it; he had put on -board dried fish, skins, tallow, gray fur and other furs, which he had -from the mountains; all this was of much value. He sent it westward to -England to buy cloth (woollen) and other goods he needed. They went -southward along the coast, and then out to sea; when they arrived in -England they found a good market, loaded the ship with wheat and honey, -wine and cloth, and returned in the autumn with fair winds” (Egil’s -Saga). - - -“From England (London) Gunnlaug sailed with some traders to Dublin. King -Sigtrygg Silk-beard, son of Olaf Kvaran and Queen Kormlöd then ruled in -Ireland”[167] (Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. 8). - - -“In the spring, after the Jómsviking battle, the Jarl summoned before -him many chiefs east in the country. Thither also came at the Jarl’s -summons the brothers Jóstein and Karlshöfud, sons of Eirik of Ofrustad. -There was also a man, by name of Thórir Klakka, a great friend of the -Jarl. He was accustomed to go on Viking expeditions in the summer, but -sometimes he went on trading journeys, and therefore he knew many -countries” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 51 (Heimskringla)). - - -“Some time after King Sverrir held a Thing in Björgyn (Bergen) and -spoke: ‘We thank all English men who bring hither wheat and honey, flour -or cloth, for coming; we thank also all men who bring hither linen, wax -or kettles. We will also name those who have come from the Orkneys, -Hjaltland, Faroes, Iceland, and all who bring into this country things -useful for it’” (Fornmanna Sögur, vii.). - - -He goes on to say that the Germans coming there bring wine and teach men -to be drunkards. - - -“King Ólaf had proclaimed the Christian law in Vikin, in the same manner -as in the northern part of the country; and it progressed rapidly, for -the people of Vikin were much better acquainted with Christian customs -than the men in the north, for both in winter and summer there were many -Danish and Saxon traders. The men of Vikin also went much on trading -journeys to England and Saxland, or Flæmingjaland (Flamland, Flandres) -or Denmark; but some went on Viking expeditions, and stayed during -winter in Christian lands” (St. Olaf, c. 62). - - -There were regular places where fairs were held for the barter of wares -without fear of molestation, at which the same peace reigned as at the -Thing or temple, their inviolability apparently being acknowledged by -all. Booths were built in these places, to which native and foreign -merchants came, and goods—furs, skins, costly cloths, garments, grain, -slaves, &c., &c.—were sold or exchanged. - - -“Melkorka’s son Olaf sailed to Ireland, and, as he was about to land, -his headman, Örn, said: ‘I do not think we shall meet with a good -reception here, for this is far off from harbours and those -trading-places where foreigners have peace’” (Laxdæla, c. 21). - -“Next summer Thránd went with trading men south to Denmark, and reached -Haleyri in the summer. There were very many people gathered, and it is -said that thither come more people than to any other place in Nordrlönd -(the northern lands) while the fair lasts. At that time King Harald -Gormsson, called Blátönn (blue tooth), ruled Denmark. King Harald was at -Haleyri in the summer, and many men with him. Two of the king’s hirdmen -who were there with him are mentioned; one was called Sigurd, the other -Hárek. These brothers always went round the town, and wanted to buy the -best and largest gold ring they could get. They entered a booth which -was very finely arranged; a man sitting there received them well, and -asked what they wished to buy. They said they wanted to buy a large and -good gold ring. He answered there was a good choice of them. They asked -for his name, and he called himself Hólmgeir Audgi (the wealthy). He set -forth his costly things, and showed them a heavy gold ring which was -very costly, and valued at so high a price that they did not know -whether they could get so much silver at once as he wanted, and asked -him to delay it till next morning, to which he assented. - -“The king and others perceived that silver had been stolen from them, so -the king issued a proclamation that no ships were to sail as long as -matters stood thus. This seemed to many a great disadvantage, as it was, -to stay there longer than the fair lasted. Then the Norwegians had a -meeting among themselves to take counsel. Thránd was at the meeting, and -said: ‘The men here are very helpless.’ They asked: ‘Dost thou know a -plan?’ ‘Certainly I do,’ he said. ‘Then give us thy advice,’ they said. -‘I will not do that gratuitously.’ They asked what he demanded, and he -answered: ‘Every one of you shall give me one eyrir of silver.’ They -said that was a great deal, but it was agreed that every man there -should give him half an eyrir at once, and the other half if he was -successful. The next day the king had a Thing, and said that the men -should never go thence until this theft was discovered. Then a young man -with long red hair, freckly and rather ugly of face, began to speak, and -said: ‘The people here are rather helpless.’ The advice-givers of the -king asked what advice he had to give. He answered: ‘It is my advice -that every man here present give as much silver as the king demands, and -when that is put into one place, then pay the loss of him who has -suffered, and let the king have the rest as a gift of honour. I know -that he will use well what he gets; let not people stay here -weatherbound, such a multitude as here is assembled, to such a great -disadvantage.’ The assembled quickly accepted this, and said they would -willingly give silver to honour the king rather than stay there to their -disadvantage. This plan was adopted, and the silver collected” -(Færeyinga Saga, c. 3). - - -The trading ships, with very few exceptions, were free from the attacks -of the Vikings, as plundering a merchant vessel at sea seems to have -been considered unmanly. They were unlike the war vessels which we have -described, and the general name given to these Kaup-skip (trading ships) -shows that the distinction was easily recognised. They were neither -ornamented with dragons nor with shields, and the war pennant was -missing. - -We find them mentioned under their different names—viz., Knörr, Kugg, -Byrding (ship of burden), Vistabyrding (provision ships), and Haf-skip -(deep-sea ship); there were also smaller or less important ones, among -them even ferry-boats. Byrdings (ships of burden), the real -cargo-carrying vessels, are frequently mentioned. - - -“One day when Ásmund was rowing through a Sound, a byrding sailed -towards them; it was easily recognised, for it was painted on the bows -with white and red; the sail was striped” (St. Olaf, 132). - - -Trade was considered a high calling. Even the sons of kings did not -despise it; Harald Fairhair’s son Björn was a great Farman (seafarer) -and Kaupman (trader, merchant). - - -“King Harald’s son, Björn, ruled over Vestfold, and resided chiefly in -Túnsberg, but seldom engaged in warfare. To Túnsberg came many traders, -both from around Vikin and from the country to the north, from the south -from Denmark and Saxland. King Björn also had trading-ships sailing to -various countries, and thus procured himself precious things, and other -goods which he needed. His brothers called him trading-man, or -faring-man. Björn was wise and quiet, and was thought likewise to be a -good chief” (Fornmanna Sögur, vol. i.). - - -Even kings sometimes entered into partnership with traders. - -Ingimund, who had fought on the side of Harald Fairhair, but who had -settled in Iceland, came to Norway. - - -“Gudleik Gerski (of Gardariki) was a native of Agdir; he was a great and -rich trader and seafarer, who went on trading journeys to various -countries; he often went to Gardariki, and therefore was called Gudleik -Gerski. One spring he prepared his ship, as he wanted to go to Gardariki -in the summer. King Olaf sent him word that he wished to see him. When -Gudleik came, the king said he wished to enter into partnership with -him, and asked him to buy for him costly things that were rare in -Norway. Gudleik promised to do as he wished.... In the summer Gudleik -went to Hólmgard, and there bought excellent _pell_ (costly cloth), -which he intended for clothes of rank (tignarklœdi) for the king, and -costly skins, and an exceedingly fine table-service (bord-búnad)” (St. -Olaf, 64).[168] - - -“Ingimund then said: ‘Here I will show you, my lord, two bear-cubs, -which I captured in Iceland, and I wish that thou wouldst accept them -from me.’ The king thanked him, and promised that he would grant him -permission to take timber. During the winter they exchanged many -presents, and in the spring his ship was loaded with the cargo which he -chose, and the best timber that could be got. The king then said: ‘I -see, Ingimund, that hereafter thou wilt not any more come to Norway. -Thou wilt need more timber than one ship can carry; here some ships are -lying; choose which of them thou likest.’ ‘Choose for me, lord, that one -which will bring most luck.’ Ingimund replied. ‘I will, as I know best,’ -said the king. ‘Here is one called _Stigandi_,[169] which bites the wind -better than any ship (sails better), and is more prosperous, too, and -that I will select for thee; it is not large, but fine.’ Ingimund -thanked him for the gift, and departed for Iceland, where he soon -arrived, and was received with joy by all.” (Vatnsdæla Saga, c. -16).[170] - - -“Eyvind (an Icelander) became a trader, and went to Norway, and thence -to other countries, and stopped in Mikligard (Constantinople), where he -obtained great honours from the Greek king, and remained some time” -(Hrafnkel’s Saga). - - -“This summer a ship came from Norway to the Faroes; the steersman was -called Rafn; his kin was in Vik, and he owned a house in Túnsberg. He -constantly sailed to Hólmgard, and was called Hólmgardsfari. The ship -came to Thórshöfn; when the traders were ready to go it is said that -Thránd of Gata came there one morning in a skúta and spoke to Rafn -privately, saying he had two young thralls to sell him. Rafn said he -would not buy them before he saw them. Thránd led forward the two boys -with the hair shaved off, in white garments; they were fine looking, but -swollen in the face from grief. When he saw the boys Rafn asked: ‘Are -not these the sons of Brestir and Beinir, whom you killed a short while -ago?’ ‘Certainly, I think so,’ said Thránd. ‘They will not come into my -hands,’ said Rafn, ‘for property.’ ‘Then let us both yield,’ said -Thránd; ‘take here two marks of silver which I will give thee if thou -takest them away with thee, so that they henceforth will never come to -the Færoes.’ He poured the silver into the lap of the steersman, counted -it, and showed it to him. Rafn liked the silver well, and it was agreed -that he should receive the boys. He sailed when he got a fair wind, and -landed where he wished in Norway east at Túnsberg; he stayed there -during the winter, and the boys with him, and they were well treated” -(Færeyinga Saga, c. 8). - - -In hard years the exportation of grain was forbidden. - - -“At Ömd, in Thrándarnes, lived a chief named Ásbjörn. He had three -feasts every winter, as was the custom of his father. Then the crops -began to fail and bad years came, and his mother wanted him to omit some -or all of the feasts; but he would not, and bought corn or had it given -to him as a gift. One summer he could get no more corn. It was said from -the south of the country that King Ólaf forbade to carry corn, malt and -meal from the south northwards. Then Ásbjörn went on his ship with -twenty men, and sailed southward till they came to Ögvaldsnes. Ásbjörn -asked the king’s steward, who lived there, if he would sell corn. He -told them that the king had forbidden the selling of corn from the south -to the north. Then Ásbjörn got corn from the thralls of the chief Erling -Skjálgsson, who was the brother of Ásbjörn’s mother. The king’s steward -went with sixty men out on Ásbjörn’s ship, and took the corn and his -sail besides, and gave him another bad sail. Ásbjörn slew the steward -some time after, when Ólaf was at a feast in the steward’s house” (St. -Olaf’s Saga, c. 123). - - -Weights and balances were known to the Norse from very early times, as -the finds prove; and their standard of measurement was the ell. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 998.—⅓ real size. - - Spiral rings of gold, used as money; found at the bottom of the - Vammelo, Södermanland. Weight, about 1⅒ lbs. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 999.—Real size. - - Spiral rings; weight about 2½ oz. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1000.—Spiral ring found with three other smaller spiral rings, - and two fragments; weight, nearly 3 oz.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1001.—Silver spiral ring; weight, nearly 6 oz.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1002.—Spiral ring, found with fourteen bracteates of gold, of - four different patterns, &c. Weight, 3½ oz.—Norway. -] - -The earliest medium of value used as coin was the Baug (ring), which is -mentioned in Rigsmál, and in the earlier laws. We find that the -reckonings were by marks and aurar. One mark was 8 aurar (1 oz.); one -eyrir was divided into eight ortugar, and one ortug into ten or sixty -penningar; this latter is sometimes mentioned as being of gold; it was -customary to weigh the medium of exchange. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1003.—Iron weight, real size, inlaid with bronze, weighing 4¾ - oz.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1004.—Iron weight, real size, inlaid with bronze, weighing - slightly over ½ oz.—Rosenbys, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1005.—Bronze weight, size, found in the real black earth, Björkö. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1006.—One of ten weights found with balance. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1007.—Bronze scales, ⅓ real size—Vaxala, Upland. Later iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1008.—The tongue of the balance. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1009. - - Bronze balance, with remains of bronze chain attached to it, found in - a round mound, with a pincette of bronze, a bronze ornament for a - drinking-horn, four or five clay urns, &c. ½ real size.—Norway. - Earlier iron age. -] - -A man named Karl of Mœri was sent by King Olaf the saint to the Faroes -to collect taxes due to him. Leif, son of Össur, took the tax (Silver) -which Thránd had collected, “and poured it out on his shield” to Karl. -They looked at the silver. Leif said: - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1010.—Spiral silver ring, used probably as money, ⅔ real size, - found with a little cup, 1,923 Arabian coins, &c.—Vamblingö, - Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1011. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1012. -] - - Box, with top open, 3/7 real size, in which there was a scale, ten - beads, and two ornaments of silver.—Petes, Götland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1013.—Hook of iron. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1014.—Weight of iron. ⅓ real size. -] - - With these were found two moulds of bronze, five unfinished fibulæ, - ornament for a drinking cup, part of a bridle, a chain all in - bronze, an iron key, the handle of which is of bronze, a - blacksmith’s pince (nipper), and another weight of iron, - &c.—Smiss, Götland. - - -“‘We need not look long at this silver; here is every penning better -than the other, and we want to have this silver; get thou, Thránd, a man -to look on while it is weighed.’ Thránd answered that he thought it best -that Leif should look at it on his behalf. Leif and the others then went -out, and a short way from the booth they sat down and weighed the -silver. Karl took the helmet from his head, and poured the silver which -was weighed into it” (Færeyinga Saga, c. 46).[171] - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1015. Fig. 1016. - - Arabic coin called Kufic, coined in 903 in Samarcand.—Götland. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1017. Fig. 1018. - - Kufic coin of silver, date 742–743. Real size. Found in the cemetery - of Fredrikshald, Sweden, where another Kufic coin and two silver - bracelets had previously been found. -] - -As in the Greek, Roman, and earlier Byzantine periods, so in the Viking -age, the island of Gotland stands foremost as the commercial centre of -the North, as is proved by the number of coins discovered, showing that -she kept the supremacy of trade for some ten or twelve centuries. The -numerous English coins found there and in Sweden, show that the Swedes, -and the people inhabiting the islands of the Baltic, were a seafaring -people, and were constantly engaged in trading and warlike expeditions -to England; in a word, they must have formed a great part of the host -that made warfare in Western Europe. The runic stones which have been -raised to the memory of those who have died in foreign lands are found -almost if not entirely in Sweden. - -Norway has produced fewer coins than the other Scandinavian countries, -but this may be owing to their having been melted, as jewels of silver -are far more common there than elsewhere. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1019.—Silver cup.—Götland. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1020.—Silver vase.—Götland. ⅔ real size. -] - -After the Roman and Byzantine era the Arabic period begins. Trade still -followed the ancient channel through the present Russia. Thousands of -Arabic coins of silver, besides probably, silver ornaments, to which the -name of Kufic[172] has been given, struck in the countries ruled by the -Arabians, found their way north from Bokhara, Samarcand, Bagdad, Kufa, -&c., &c., the earliest dating from 698, the latest 1010 after the -Christian era. Coins of gold are exceedingly rare; the greater number of -these belong to the ninth and the first half of the tenth century, that -is to say, between 880 and 955. From that time a great number of silver -ornaments appear in the North. - -Norway has not as yet proved rich in Arabic coins. Of Kufic only about -seventy have been found, ranging in time from the year 742 to 952. These -coins are the more interesting in that not only the names of the rulers, -but of the cities, which then existed, where they were coined, are -given; many are of the Samanid dynasty. More than twenty thousand have -been found in Sweden and Götland; some of these, perhaps, came from -Spain. They were probably brought by the ships which made voyages to the -Mediterranean. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1021.—Ornaments round pedestal.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1022. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1023. -] - - Ornaments fastened to the bottom of a vase, representing two - four-footed animals, one of which is eating the fruit growing upon - a tree.—Götland. ⅔ real size. - -The two vases on p. 219 were found with Arabic coins and seven other -silver vessels, and are probably of Arabic origin. - -Frankish coins (800 to 850) have been found in Sweden of the time of -Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis le Debonnaire. In Norway of Charlemagne, -Louis le Debonnaire, Pepin, son of Louis le Debonnaire, of Lothair, -Louis’ son. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1024. Fig. 1025. - - Frankish coin. Real size. Struck at Poictiers for Pepin, King of - Aquitaine, either Pepin I. (817–838), or Pepin II. (845–864). Found - with eight other Frankish coins. At the same place were found seven - other Frankish coins, some Arabic coins, fragments of silver - objects, &c.—Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1026. Fig. 1027. - - Frankish coin—ninth century—of silver. Real size. Louis (Ludovic) le - Debonnaire. Found in the upper part of a round tumulus, with burned - bones, a pair of oval fibulæ of bronze, a bronze key, a silver pin, - beads, &c., and other silver coins, four of which were of Louis le - Debonnaire type, one of Charlemagne, the other of Coenwulf, of - Mercia (796–818). The coins are pierced, and seemed to have been - surrounded, in part, at least, with a bronze ring, and must have - been worn as hanging ornaments.—Norway. -] - -More than twenty thousand English coins[173] have been found in Sweden -and the island of Götland, fifteen thousand belonging to Ethelred’s time -(998–1016); this number is not surpassed in Britain itself, and the -harvest still continues in the North. A number came no doubt through the -channel of trade, and others probably from the Danegeld, Ethelred having -thus paid more than 167,000 lbs. of silver; part of this war-booty fell -to the lot of the Swedes and Danes. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1028. Fig. 1029. - - Old English silver coin, eleventh century, beginning of King Knut’s - reign. Real size. Found under a large stone, by a landslip, with - about 1600 silver coins, mostly English, many German, some Swedish, - Danish, Bohemian, and Kufic.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1030. - - Silver coin of Knut the Great, used as a hanging ornament. Real - size.—Blekinge, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1031. Fig. 1032. - - Silver coin of Ethelred. Real size. Found near Stockholm, with 737 - Arabic, German, and old English coins, and one coin of the Swedish - king, Olaf Skautkonung, some fragments of silver bracelets, - &c.—Upland, Sweden. -] - -Coins of the ninth and the earlier part of the tenth century, are -extremely rare, though England was much ravaged by the northern -countries. I think no coins have been found thus far in Sweden before -Alfred’s date, and only three date before 950, but new discoveries may -in time bring others to light. In Denmark only a few hundred English -coins have been found; of the time of Ethelred and his successors about -three thousand in Norway. - -The earliest English and Frankish coins, strange as it may appear, have -only been found in Sweden and Norway, but even these do not amount to -more than fifty or sixty; none have been discovered in Denmark, and -previously to the years 780 to 800, no specimen of Merovingian or -English coins have been found in the North. - -The number of German is very great, and more than fifty thousand have -been found in Sweden and the island of Götland; they date chiefly from -the middle of the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century, and are -sometimes found to the number of one or two thousand together.[174] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1033. Fig. 1034. - - German silver coin of Henry of Bavaria, end of tenth century.—Gotland. - Real size. -] - -The intercourse with the Byzantine empire which had taken place in the -earlier centuries continued for a long time, and a great number of -Northmen entered the service of the Byzantine or Greek emperors, as seen -in the Sagas. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1035. Fig. 1036. - - Byzantine coins (948–949). Real size. Struck by the emperors - Constantine X. and Romanus III. Found with a necklace, 15 bracelets, - 2 buckles, 2 spiral bracelets, 3 perfect and 360 imperfect Arabic - coins, all of silver, and all of which were under an iron - dish.—Björko, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1037.—Border enlarged. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1038.—Bog find.—Fibula of gold inlaid, ⅔ real size, found in a - bog, with coins.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1039.—Silver wire bracelet, real size, found with four rings and - seventeen beads, nine of which are of different pattern, three - Arabic coins, three rings of silver, one of gold of twisted wires, - &c., &c., at Hejsland, Halfhem parish, Götland. -] - -A bog find in Norway proved very rich in gold objects, Arabic, -Byzantine, Frankish, and there were also found English coins and other -objects.[175] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1040.—Gold fibula, real size, inlaid with coloured glass, in a - copper box in the ground, with over 4,000 coins, German, English, - &c., two Swedish coins, Anund Jakob (son of Olaf Skautkonung), five - necklaces, nine bracelets, two finger rings, &c., &c.—Blekinge, - Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1041.—Ring, real size, with charms representing a sword, a spear - head, &c., and some Arabic coins.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1042.—Box of bronze found in a mound, Nordrup, Zealand, with a - silver fibula, glass, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1043. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1044. - - Bottom of vessel. -] - - Silver vessel, with inside, bottom, and border gilt, found with - three bracelets, thirty-one fragments of ingots, rings, 500 German - and English coins, &c.—Lilla Valla, Götland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1045.—Bronze box, ¼ real size, containing fragments of ornaments, - coins, two coins of Olaf Skotkonung and several hundreds English and - German coins, &c.—Findarfve, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1046.—Bracelet of silver, ½ real size, with small rings, four of - which have Arabian coins wrapped round them.—Kullaberg, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1047.—Fibula of silver, ⅔ real size, figures in relief, - embellished with Niello, found with Arabic coins.—Herestad, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1048.—Chain of bronze, ⅒ real size, with comb attached.—Lake - Mälar. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1049.—The comb. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1050.—Real size of chain. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1051.—Spiral silver bracelet, ⅔ original size, found with three - similar bracelets, Arabian coins, &c.—Sandby, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1052.—Bracelet of silver, ¾ real size, found with coins, &c., - near Eskilstuna, Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1053.—Massive silver bracelet, ¾ real size, found under an old - stable, with two other bracelets, Arabic, German, and old English - coins, &c.—Undrom, Angermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1054.—Bracelet of silver, ¾ real size.—Eskilstuna, Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1055.—Neck-ring of twisted silver wire, found with the massive - silver bracelet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1056.—Bracelet of solid silver, real size, found with four other - silver bracelets - and forty-six Arabic coins of silver, &c.—Thalings, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1057. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1058. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1059. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1060. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1061. - -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1062. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1063. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1064. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1065. -] - - Beads of silver found with bracelet, p. 224.—Hemse, Götland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1066.—Bead of green glass, real size.—Hemse. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1067.—Bead of glass mosaic, real size.—Hemse. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1068.—Fibula of bronze inlaid with silver and gilt. Found in a - mound in Hemse, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1069. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1070. - - Pins found in a cairn.—Hemse, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1071.—Key with chain.—Hemse, - Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1072.—Iron axe, with a round hole in the blade.—Hemse. Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1073.—Bronze buckle or fibula, found in a small cairn at Hemse, - Götland. -] - - Hemse find, Götland. At this place are found several small coins - with unburnt bodies. Among the objects found besides those - represented above, were several basins of bronze, number of bronze - fibulæ, a great number of amber, crystal, and glass beads, several - keys, bone combs, several clay urns, buckle of bronze, a fragment - of a stone with runic character, several charms, iron axes, - knives, pins, &c. The only coins found were one Arabic coin, and - two German coins of the 10th and 11th centuries. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1074.—Semi-circular ornament of silver with small rings at both - ends.—Fölhagen, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1075. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1076. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1077. -] - - Three of twelve snake-shaped necklace ornaments, real - size.—Fölhagen, Götland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1078.—Bracteate.—Fölhagen, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1079. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1080. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1081. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1082. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1083. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1084. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1085. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1086. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1087. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1088. -] - - Silver beads, real size, together with coins, &c., in a box in the - earth, by a working man while digging a ditch, at Fölhagen, - Götland, near the Monastery de Roma, from a lot of 49 beads of - thirteen different patterns. - - Fölhagen ground find, Götland. The objects were in a copper box, - which however could not be taken whole, and contained, besides - some of the objects represented above, an ingot of chemically pure - gold, 8 bracelets of silver, 835 Kufic coins (971), 400 German - coins, the latest from Otto III. before 1002; 4 English coins of - Æthelred, and many other jewels. - - -Insurance companies were known from early times. - - -“Damages are to be paid if a disease comes among a man’s cattle so that -one-fourth or more of his cattle dies; then the men of the Hrepp shall -pay the loss. The man shall call five of his neighbours to him during -the next half month after the disease has ceased, in order to value his -loss. He shall tell them his loss and show them the flesh and the skin -of the dead cattle. Thereupon he shall take an oath before them that his -loss is as great as they estimated it, or more. Then at a meeting he -shall tell how great they valued his loss to be and the bœndr shall pay -him one-half of the loss” (Gragas, i. 458.) - - -“There are also three rooms in the house of every man which are to be -paid for if they are burnt. The first is stofa (sitting-room), second is -hall (eldhus), the third is the pantry where women prepare food. If one -owns both eldhus and skali he shall at a meeting in the spring say -whether he wants people rather to be answerable for the eldhus or the -skali” (Gragas, i. 459). - -“Only the value of the clothes or things which a man owned and used -every day shall be paid. If food is burned it shall be paid. The value -of costly things or wares shall not be paid. A man’s losses shall not be -made good to him more than three times” (i. 460). - - -We have in the following passage an early reference to the great fair of -Novgorod:— - - -“One summer Harald (Fairhair) called to him his dearest favourite, Hauk -hábrök (= high-breech), and said: ‘Now I am free from all warfare and -hostility in the land, and will lead a life of ease and pleasure. I will -send you into Eastern lands this summer to buy for me some things that -are costly and rare here.’ Hauk said he should be obeyed in this as in -other things, and the king allowed his men to go to various countries. -Hauk departed with one ship and a good body of followers, and arrived -east to Hólmgard (= Novgorod) in the autumn as the fair began, and went -into winter quarters. Thither had come many people from various lands, -among them were the champions of King Eirek from Uppsalir, Björn -blueside and Salgard serk (= shirt), overbearing and wronging everybody. -One day Hauk walked through the town with his men to buy some costly -things for his lord Harald, when he came to where a man of Gardariki was -sitting; he saw a costly cloak all over adorned with gold. This he -bought, left and went for the money. Before this, the same day, Björn -had wanted to buy this cloak for the King of the Swedes, and its value -was given. After Hauk had gone, the servant of Björn came and told the -trader that Björn must, of course, get the cloak, but he said the matter -was settled. The servant told Björn. Then Hauk came with the money for -the cloak, paid all, and took it away” (Flateyjarbok, i. 577). - - ------ - -Footnote 167: - - Cf. also Ólaf Tryggvason, Fornmanna Sögur, i. - -Footnote 168: - - Cf. St. Olaf, c. 143. - -Footnote 169: - - Stigandi = the stepping one. - -Footnote 170: - - Cf. Hróa Thátt; Flateyjarbók, ii.; Landnamabók, iii. - -Footnote 171: - - Cf. Gretti’s Saga, c. 98. - -Footnote 172: - - Kufa, as we know, was situated on one of the branches of the - Euphrates, south of Bagdad, and was for a while the seat of the - Caliphs. - -Footnote 173: - - Among the English coins found in Sweden, and now in the royal - collection in Stockholm, are of— - - Edward I. - Ethelstan. - Sihtric, of Northumberland. - Coin with the name of St. Peter. - Edgar. - Edward II. - Ethelred II. - Knut. - Harold I. - Harthacnut. - Edward Confessor. - Harold II. - King Sihtric, of Dublin, 989–1020. - - English coins found in Norway of— - - Coenwulf, of Mercia (796–819). - Ceolwulf, his son (819–821). - Northumbrian (Styca). - Eawred (808–840). - Archbishop Wulfred, of Canterbury (803–829). - Ethelred. - Canute the Great. - Edgar. - Edward the Martyr. - From the beginning of the eleventh century. - King Sigtrygg Silkiskegg. - -Footnote 174: - - Among the great finds of coins are those of Findarfoe, in Götland, - which had more than 3,000 German coins, besides English and others. - Another in Johanneshus, in Blekinge, Sweden, which, besides a mass of - ornaments and jewels of silver, contained over 3,400 German coins of - the tenth and eleventh century. The German coins had been struck for - German emperors, kings, princes, archbishops, bishops, &c., &c., and - belong to Bohemia, Bavaria, Swabia, Lorraine, Franconia, the modern - Saxony, Frisia, the Netherlands, &c. There are also coins of cities, - those of Cologne being the most numerous, and even coins for Northern - Italy. Most of these coins are derived from places along the rivers of - Germany, especially the Rhine. The most common are those of Otto III. - and his grandmother Adelheid, who reigned during the minority of her - grandson (991–995). - -Footnote 175: - - Among the coins were nine Kufic, eight of which were of gold, and one - of silver, all of Abbasides Caliphs, from 760 to 840; four Byzantine - coins of gold, of Valens, Mauricius, Constantine, Copronymus, and - Michael III.; a gold coin of Louis le Debonnaire; two coins of - silver-gilt of his sons Lothair and Pepin, a silver-gilt coin of - Archbishop Wulfred, of Canterbury, 803–829. With these was a large - treasure of gold and jewels, among which were two neck-rings, three - bracelets, rings, charms, and an object, probably a _reliquary_, - having a Christian inscription in Greek, numerous charms and - ornaments, one of which was ornamented with an antique gem, and others - with garnet beads, &c., &c., all of gold; some objects were - silver-gilt; gold chains, &c., &c. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - DEBTS AND ROBBERY. - - Stringency of laws on debt—An insolvent debtor the property of the - creditor—Redemption of debtor—Robbery and burglary—Robbery with - violence—Robbery without violence—Punishments—Irreclaimable - thieves—Laws on theft. - - -Nothing could show more plainly that, apart from the profession of -_Vikingry_, the people carried on their commercial transactions in a -very honourable way, than the fact that the laws on debt were very -stringent, and that robbery, arson, adulteration of food, &c., were -punished most severely, and in some cases put the offender outside the -pale of the law. - -In regard to debts and the right of the creditor, some customs which had -become law seem to be of high antiquity. - -When a debtor could not pay, he had to come to the Thing and offer his -person to his kinsmen, if they would pay the debt; first to the nearest -kinsman; then, if he would not, he could offer himself to any of the -others. If none of the kinsmen would have him, he belonged to his -creditor till he had paid the debt by work or otherwise. - -A woman who was a debtor could not offer herself without the consent of -her kinsmen. - -The owner of the debtor could use him as his thrall as long as the debt -was not paid, but the debtor had the rétt to which he was born in regard -to all other men. His master could beat him, but was not allowed to sell -him unless he paid a fine of forty marks, or unless he ran away, when he -became a real thrall. The debtor could also give his child for a higher -debt than three marks. - -If he did not stay with his creditor, he was allowed half a month to go -through the Fylky and try to get the debt paid. If the creditor wanted -only the money and not the person, he could offer the debtor to his -kinsmen; or, if they would not buy him, the creditor could sell him to -any one in the country, though not as a common thrall, and not for a -higher amount than the debt. - -If the debtor would not work and was obstinate, then the creditor could -take him to the Thing and offer him to the kinsmen of the debtor to -redeem; if they would not, the creditor could kill or maim him. - - -“A debtor shall be taken to the Thing. He shall first be offered to his -kinsmen, and first to the nearest one if he wants him, or to the one to -whom he prefers to sell him. No one is allowed to take a woman thus for -the sake of debt, unless with the consent of her kinsmen.... He (the -creditor) shall not drive him to work with blows unless he cannot get -his debt from him. The man has no rétt towards him (the master) and his -wife and all his thralls and each to the other. If others beat him the -master has equal rétt on him as on his steward; the debtor owns the rest -of his rétt according to his birth, and his rétt shall be the same as if -he had no debt.... If a man sells a debtor like a slave he is liable to -pay 40 marks, unless he has run away from his creditor, and the same -must every one pay who sells a free man.... A family-born man may give -his child for debt if he does it at the Thing or at the alehouse or at -church, for 3 marks and not more.... If the debtor is obstinate to the -creditor and will not work for him, he shall be brought to the Thing and -offered to his kinsmen to redeem him. If they will not the creditor can -maim him on the upper or lower part of the body” (Gulath. Law, 71). - - -Robbery (Rán) was viewed from a different point, according as more or -less violence was employed in its commission. - -_Búrán_ (burglary) committed with armed force was considered the worst -form, and was _útlegdarverk_ (outlawry-work). Robbery of a whole farm -was punished with outlawry, and the owner sent an arrow to the men of -the Herad that night to pursue the robber. If when he was caught he -returned the property, he had to pay indemnity to the king. If robbers -defended themselves they were unholy, and no weregild was paid for them -if they were killed. - - -“If men attack a bondi and rob his farm and take 3 cows or more, or 3 -cows’ value, then it is _búrán_. If the bondi owns only 3 cows, it is -_búrán_ if one is taken away. An arrow shall be sent, and each carry it -to the other or pay a fine.[176] If they are pursued and found with the -cattle and give them back, the leader pays 40 marks, and each of his men -3 marks. If they do not they are all outlaws” (Frostath., v. 14). - - -“In the second place, if a man finds another in his _búr_[177] who has -gathered there a burden of property and clothes, he may slay him if he -likes. He shall go to his neighbours and show them the slain man, and -use their evidence at the arrow-thing. In the third place, if a man -finds another in his sheep-house or cow-stall tying his cattle and -trying to lead them away, he may slay him if he wants” (Gulathing Law, -160).[178] - - -_Handrán_ was the term applied to robbery without violence of property -out of the hand. Such a robber also was unholy, and could be killed -without indemnity. - - -“It is _hand-robbery_ if a man tears out of the hand of a man what he -holds in it, or tears anything off his back. This is also liable to -greater outlawry” (Vigslodi, c. 3). - - -“If a man commits hand-robbery on another, and he proves it by -witnesses, then the robber is liable to pay 3 marks. If the robber runs -away with the thing (robbed), and the owner runs after him and slays -him, then he falls as an outlaw” (Gulath., 143). - - -The value of the stolen thing was appraised, and if it was worth an -_örtug_, or more, then the thief was to be outlawed and slain, for he -had forfeited his life. - -If a man stole something of less value than an _örtug_, he was a _torf -man_,[179] and was made to run the gauntlet while those present threw at -him whatever they had handy; if he got away alive he was thereafter -without rétt. - - -“If a man steals on trading-journeys he makes himself a _götu-thjóf_ -(gauntlet-thief). His head shall be shaved and tarred, and (eider) down -be taken and put on it. Then all the crew shall make a road for him and -stand on both sides, and he shall run to the wood if he can. Every one -present shall throw a stone or a stick after him, and whoever does not -throw is liable to pay 9 _örtugar_”[180] (Bjarkey Law, 146). - - -If the stealing of the very smallest thing occurred, even of less value -than a _thveit_, the theft was called _hvinnska_ (pilfering), and the -thief was ever thereafter called _hvinn_ (pilferer), and had no rétt. - - -“If a man steals less than a _thveit_ he shall be called _hvinn_ all his -life and have no rétt” (Bjarkey Law, 147). - - -Any one who stole fruit or plants from a garden or farm could be beaten -and deprived of his clothes. - - -“If a man goes into the leek-garden or the angelica-garden of another he -has no rétt, though he is beaten and struck, and all his clothes are -taken off him” (Frostath., xiv. 14). - - -The act of stealing food in order to sustain life was not, however, -punished. - - -“Next is this, that no man shall steal from another. Nevertheless it -must be remarked that the man who gets no work to live by, and steals -food to save his life for the sake of hunger, then this theft must not -be punished at all” (N. G. L., ii. 168). - - -Any one who had been caught stealing three times was held irreclaimable, -and it was considered less expensive to the state to rid society -altogether of such offenders than to imprison them. - - -“The man who can get work to live on and steals the amount of an eyrir, -and has not done it before, shall be brought to the Thing and redeem his -hide with 3 marks of silver. If he steals as much a second time he shall -redeem his hide with 6 marks of silver. If he does not he shall lose his -hide, and a key shall be put on his cheek. If he steals as much the -third time he shall lose his hide, and the king shall take 6 marks of -silver from his property if he has so much. If the same man steals -oftener he is to be slain” (N. G. L., ii. 168). - - -Minors were not held responsible for their acts, but if the thief was a -woman of good family, she was sent out of the country; if a native -thrall, he was beheaded; if a foreign thrall, his master could beat him -within five days; if a native bondwoman or a freed woman (free but born -of slaves), she was severely punished. - - -“If a woman of good family steals, she shall be sent from the country to -another king’s realm. If a minor steals, it shall be paid back. If a -native thrall steals, his head shall be cut off, or his master shall -deny it with _séttareid_.[181] If a foreign thrall, or the son of a -foreigner, his hide shall be flogged, or his master shall have him -flogged within five days.... If a man’s freedwoman (_leysingja_) or a -native bondwoman steals, one of her ears shall be cut off, the second -time her other ear shall be cut off, the third time her nose shall be -cut off; then she is called _stúfa_ and _núfa_, and may steal as much as -she likes” (Gulath., 259). - - -If a high-born man induced a slave to commit robbery, he and not the -slave was punishable. - - -“If a freedman and a thrall committed a theft together, the freedman -alone was regarded as the thief, for, says the law, he who steals with -another’s thrall steals alone” (Gulath., 261). - - -The removal of boundary stones was considered theft. - - -“If a man takes up standing boundary stones and lays them down in an -another place and moves them into the land of his neighbour, then he is -a thief” (Gulath., 264). - - -According to the Gulathing Law bargains were made void in case of -_fals_, or cheating, and the cheater was fined 3 marks. - - -“No man shall sell to another that in which there is fraud or deceit. If -a man sells sand or dirt instead of meal or butter, with which he covers -the sand or dirt, the fine is 3 marks” (Gulath., 40). - - -To use the property of another man without his permission was called -_fornœmi_[182] if it was a ship, a horse, or snow-shoes, and it was -punished by indemnity to the owner, the special name for which was -_áfang_. If he refused to pay the indemnity his act was robbery. - -The king neither received nor paid _áfang_, as his things could be used -by other people, and he could use other people’s things. - - -“No man shall take the ship or horse of a man except with the leave of -the owner. If he takes it he shall pay one eyrir and a half. If the -owner finds him on the ship or horse and asks áfang it is well if he -will pay. If he will not, the fine is doubled, and a _ranbaug_ -(robbery-fine) is to be paid to the king” (Gulathing, 92). - - -Spoiling the property of another was called _spellvirki_ -(spoiling-deed); if the damage was more than half a mark the owner -received damages according to the valuation, and doubtless also -according to his rétt. If the spoiler would not pay he was outlawed. - - -“No man shall spoil another man’s things. If he spoils so much that the -loss amounts to half a mark it is a _spoiling-deed_, of all which is -valued as much as half a mark. If a man cuts off the tail of another’s -horse so high that he cuts some of its skin, then it is a spoiling-deed. -If a man makes a cut into the side of a ship, fore or aft, worth half a -mark, it is a _spoiling-deed_”[183] (Gulathing, 96). - - ------ - -Footnote 176: - - _Baug._ - -Footnote 177: - - A place for provisions, still common in Norway. See ‘Land of the - Midnight Sun,’ vol. i, p. 419. - -Footnote 178: - - Cf. also Frostath. xiv. 12, 13. - -Footnote 179: - - Literally a man of turf and tar; _i.e._ equivalent to one who was - tarred and feathered. - -Footnote 180: - - Cf. also Gulath. 253; Frostath. xii. 12. - -Footnote 181: - - An oath. - -Footnote 182: - - The law term for plundering another man’s property. - -Footnote 183: - - Frostath. Law, x. 46, applies this to other cattle also. - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - HALLS AND BUILDINGS. - - Vast size and beauty of some buildings—Wood the only material - used—Halls—Durability of the wooden structures—Carved doorways—Use - of tapestry—Walls adorned with shields—The seats—Positions of the - guests—Carved benches—Houses and rooms—Women’s apartments—Open - hearths—Use of turf as fuel—Representations of episodes from the - sagas. - - -From the Eddas and Sagas we sometimes get a vivid conception of the vast -size, beauty, and magnificence of some of the buildings of the Vikings -in their home in the North. - -The only material mentioned in their construction is wood. - -Each prominent man or chief lived on his estate with his family, -followers, and servants. The collection of buildings they occupied was -called _bœr_;[184] they were of different styles, and varied in number -according to the power, wealth, and taste of the owners, and often seem -to have been far apart from each other; every house was known by a -different name. These buildings appear to have been built so as to form -a quadrangle, the front facing an open space or grass plot called _tún_, -the whole being surrounded by a fence called gard,[185] through which -the entrance was by a gate, “_grind_,” or gateway, “_hlid_.” - - -“Raudulf lived in the days of King St. Olaf in the Austrdal (Österdal -valley), when the king was journeying round the land and forcing people -to embrace Christianity. He sent his sons to King Olaf, and invited him -home to a feast. It was rather late in the day when the king came to -Raud, with two hundred men; he saw high and well-closed fences, and when -they came to the gate it was open, but nevertheless well guarded.... -When the king rode in, Raud bondi stood there with his sons and many -people. Raud received him and his men well; they alighted from their -horses. The king asked the bondi: ‘Is this fine house which I see here -in the enclosure a church?’ The bondi answered: ‘It is my -sleeping-house, which was built this summer, and is now just finished;’ -the whole roof of the house was shingle-covered, and tarred. Then they -went to the sitting-room, and the king saw that it was very large; it -was roofed with planks and tarred” (Fornmanna Sögur, v. 331). - - -The finest buildings were called _holl_ (hall), and were only built by -kings, chiefs, or jarls.[186] Another building, called _sal_,[187] seems -to have been the same as the hall, as it was built for the reception of -guests. Here and there we have descriptions of halls belonging to -prominent chiefs, richly ornamented with carvings, which sometimes -represented the deeds of warriors; and were it not for some of these -mementoes, which have been rescued from oblivion and decay, we might -doubt that the art of carving had been carried to such perfection as it -was. Walls, doors, beds, seats, &c., are mentioned as being richly -carved. - - -“Olaf Höskuldsson had a hall made in Hjardarholt larger and more -magnificent than people had before seen; on the wall and on the ceiling -famous Sagas were carved with such skill that the hall was thought to be -far more splendid when the hangings were taken down” (Laxdæla, c. 29). - - -“It was customary at that time to have large halls at the bœr, at which -the people sat before long fires in the evening; tables were placed in -front of the men, who afterward slept alongside the walls, away from the -fires. During the daytime the women carded and spun wool in these halls” -(Gretti’s Saga, ch. xv.). - - -Some of the churches and farm-houses built in the beginning of the -Christian era, and some of the doors, testify to the durability of their -wooden structures. - -The carved doorways with illustrations from the Eddaic songs must have -been taken from buildings of a far earlier date than the churches, but -it is impossible to tell the date. Some of the carvings are from two -inches in depth to a line. - -Only in two places are stone-built (_steinhöll_) halls mentioned. - - -“Gunnhild, Queen of Norway, said to Ögmund (one of her men): ‘Show them -(Rút and his men) the way to my house, and make a good feast for them -there.’ Ögmund went with them to a stone-hall, covered with the finest -tapestry” (Njala, ch. 3).[188] - - -King Atli sent an invitation to the sons of Gjuki, Gunnar and Högni, -brothers of Gudrun, his wife. - - Atli sent - Early to Gunnar, - A man skilled in riding; - Knefród was he called; - He came to the burgh of Gjuki - And to the hall of Gunnar, - To the benches around the fire, - And to the well-loved beer. - - There the warriors drank - Wine in the foreign hall, - Silent and hiding their fear; - They feared the wrath of the Hunar; - Then shouted Knefród, - The southern man, - With a chilling voice, - Sitting on a high bench— - - “Atli sent me to ride - Hither on his errand - On a horse chafing the bit - Through the unknown dark forest - To bid you both, Gunnar, - To come to the bench - With eagle-beaked helmets - To call on him.” - - We own seven halls - Full of swords; - Of each of these - The guards are of gold; - I know my horse is best, - My sword the sharpest; - My bow adorns the bench, - My brynjas are of gold, - My helmet and shield are the whitest. - - (Atlakvida.) - -The scene depicted on the door-jambs on the following page is thus -described:— - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1089. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1090. -] - - Door-jambs, Osstad Church, Sœtersdal. Height, 6 feet; width, 1¾ - feet. - - -“King Atli urged his host to make a fierce assault; they fought hard, -but the Gjukimgar made an attack so violent that he retreated into the -hall, and they fought inside very sharply. Many fell, and at last all -the men of the brothers (Gunnar and Högni) were slain, so that they two -alone were alive; but before that many a man went to Hel by their -weapons. King Gunnar was attacked, and because of overwhelming force was -captured and fettered. Thereupon Högni fought with great valour and -manliness, and killed twenty of King Atli’s greatest champions; he threw -many into the fire which had been kindled in the hall; all agreed that -such a man could hardly be found, but nevertheless at last he was -overpowered and taken. King Atli said: ‘It is a great wonder that so -many have been slain by him here; cut out his heart, and that shall be -his death.’ Högni answered: ‘Do as thou likest, I will gladly bear what -you do, and you shall see that my heart is not afraid, I have stood hard -things before. I liked to go into trials while unwounded, but now I am -badly wounded, and you will yet have your will on me.’ The counsellor of -King Atli said: ‘I have better advice; let us rather take the thrall -Hjalli, but spare the life of Högni; that thrall is death-fated, live he -ever so long he will always be as bad as now.’ The thrall heard this and -screamed loudly, and ran away to where he thought he was safe. He said -he was to suffer on account of their fight, and that it was -undeservedly; that the day was evil on which he was to die and give up -his swine-keeping. They seized him and threatened him with a knife; he -cried loudly before he felt its point. - -“Högni did what is unusual in such personal peril, interceded for the -thrall’s life, saying he did not want to hear his screaming, and that he -preferred to be the sufferer himself; the thrall was glad to get his -life. Högni and Gunnar were both put in fetters. Atli bade Gunnar tell -where the gold was, if he wished to live. He answered: ‘I will sooner -see the bloody heart of my brother Högni.’ They seized the thrall a -second time, and cut his heart out, and showed it to King Gunnar. He -said: ‘Here you may see the heart of Hjalli the coward, and it is unlike -the heart of Högni the brave, for now it trembles much, but it trembled -twice as much when it lay in his breast.’ They went to Högni, urged by -King Atli, and cut out his heart, but such was his strength of mind that -he smiled while he suffered this torture, and everybody wondered at his -firmness; and the deed is ever since held in remembrance. They showed to -Gunnar the heart of Högni the brave, who said: ‘It is unlike the heart -of Hjalli, for now it quivers little, but less while it was in his -breast; thou wilt lose thy life, Atli, as we do now. I alone know where -the gold is, for Högni cannot tell thee now. I was sometimes going to -tell it while both of us lived, but now I am left to myself; the Rhine -shall keep the gold, rather than the Hunar wear it on their arms. King -Atli told them to take away the prisoner, and it was done. Gudrun with -some men went to Atli, and said: ‘Mayest thou fare as ill as thou didst -keep thy word to me.’ - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1091.—Carved doorway, Sauland’s Church, Thelemarken. Height, 13 - feet; width, 7¾ feet; height of door, 7½ feet; width of door, 2⅓ - feet. -] - -“King Gunnar was put into a pit in which were many snakes, and his hands -were tied firmly. Gudrun sent him a harp; he showed his art, and played -on it with great skill, striking the strings with his toes. He played so -well and wonderfully that few thought they had heard the harp played so -well with hands, and he continued this idrott until all the snakes fell -asleep except a large hideous viper, which crawled to him, and pierced -into his body with its snout till it reached his heart; and there he -lost his life with great prowess” (Volsunga Saga, c. 37). - - -The halls had two doors, one for the men, the other for women;[189] many -of them, which were often covered with designs in ironwork and runic -inscriptions, must have been extremely beautiful. Sweden is especially -rich in them. The church door of Versås, represented on the next page, -is undoubtedly of great antiquity, as the svastica is found upon it. - -The walls of the halls were hung with tapestry, made by the wives and -daughters of the family, often representing the deeds of their -forefathers or those of their lord; the carvings on the walls were -occasionally very fine. An idea of the vast size of these festive halls -can be gleaned from the number of guests and attendants they could hold. -Some walls were adorned with shields put so closely together that they -overlapped each other; many were inlaid or ornamented with gold and -silver, which must have added to the brilliancy of the scene. - - -“King Knut began his journey to Borgundarhólm (Bornholm), where Egil had -made a grand feast for him; he went to this with a large hird.[190] -There he had a hall as large as a king’s, hung all over with shields” -(Flateyjarbók iii., p. 401). - - -“King Harald Sigurdarson came to the chief Aslák, and invited himself to -his house. Aslák went to meet him, and received him very well. The king -and his men were shown in to a hall and seated; it was covered with -shields and most splendidly adorned in all respects”[191] (Flateyjarbók -iii., p. 401). - - -Once Thorfinn (an Icelandic poet) sat on an easy chair before King Olaf. -The king said to him: - - -“‘Make a song, Scald, about that which is drawn on the hangings.’ -Thorfinn looked at them, and saw that Sigurd slaying Fafnir was -embroidered on them” (Flateyjarbók iii.). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1092.—The Church-door of Versås, Vestergötland. Representation of - Sigurd slaying the serpent Fafnir: Runic inscription, _Asmutr Kärthi - Dyrr_ = Asmund made the door; and svastica. -] - -The halls were used for feasts,[192] and were built east and west, the -long walls running north and south; along the latter were the benches, -and in the middle of each of these were the _hásæti_ or high-seats, also -called _Ondvegi_ or _Ondugi_, because the two seats were opposite each -other (_Ond_ = opposite, _vegi_ = way). The most important benches were -the _œdri bekk_, which ran along the northern wall, and the high-seat or -the chief seat in the hall, which stood facing the sun, and was for the -use of the master of the household, who never allowed any one else to -use it. The long bench which ran along the southern wall was called -“_úœdri bekk_” (the lower bench); the high-seat on this bench was called -_annat ondvegi_, _nordr ondvegi_ and _ondvegi a hinn uœdra bekk_, and -was opposite to the other high-seat. To be placed in this _ondvegi_ was -the highest honour that could be shown to any one, and consequently this -place was only assigned to most prominent men. The nearer the place on -the benches assigned to any one was to the high-seat, the greater the -honour; the places farthest away, near the doors, were the lowest. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1093.—Door of Faaberg’s Church, 9 feet high, 3 feet wide. Only - three doors of the same kind (with ironwork) are preserved. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1094.—Door from Vånga Church, Ostergötland, Stockholm Museum. -] - - -“Thorkel Hák (an Icelander) had been abroad and became renowned in -foreign countries ... he went out to Sweden and became the companion of -Sörkvir, and they ravaged the coast of the Baltic. East of -Balagardssida, Thorkel, when going to get water one evening, met a -_finngalkn_ (a kind of dragon monster), which after a prolonged struggle -he slew. Then he went east to Adalsysla, where he also slew a flying -dragon; afterwards he went back to Sweden, thence to Norway, and then to -Iceland. He had these great feats carved above his locked bed, and on a -chair in front of his high-seat. He was called Thorkel Hák because he -spared no one, either in words or deeds, with whomsoever he dealt” -(Njala, 120). - - -The seats on the _œdri bekk_ were however more prominent than those on -the lower bench. Next to the king, on the upper bench, on the right sat -the under-kings or other prominent men. - -On some occasions at a later period we find that to the left sat the -queen with her women in the order of their rank, for the places of the -women were then upon the long bench to the left of the king, and to the -right of the other _ondvegismen_, the place of the men being on the left -of the ondvegi. - -Hildigunn wishing to make preparations to receive her kinsman Flosi, -said: - - -“‘Now all my men-servants shall stand outside when Flosi rides into the -yard, and the women shall clean the rooms, and put up the hangings and -prepare the high-seat for him” (Njala, ch. 116). - - -The high-seat was often wide enough to hold two or three persons. Sigurd -jarl of the Orkneys invited Gilli jarl of Sudreyjar (Hebrides) and -Sigtrygg, king in Ireland, for Yuletide. - - -“Men were so seated that King Sigtrygg sat in the middle of the -high-seat, and each of the jarls on either side of him. The men of -Sigtrygg and Gilli jarl sat on the inner side, and Flosi and Thorstein -Siduhallson on the outer side of Sigurd jarl. The hall was full” (Njala, -c. 154). - - -There were also, in some halls, transverse benches, called _Pall_ or -_Thverpall_ (cross-benches); on these the women sat. In such cases the -middle seat was the most prominent, and the lowest seat was at the end -of the bench in the corner[193]: the word was used as a term of -contempt. - - -“It was the custom of Gunnar and Njal to give feasts to each other once -every winter in turns for friendship’s sake. Now Gunnar had to stay with -Njal, and went to Bergthorshval with Hallgerd. Helgi (son of Njal) and -his wife were not at home. Njal received them well. When they had stayed -there for a while Helgi and his wife Thórhalla came home. Then Bergthóra -(Njal’s wife) walked with Thórhalla up to the cross-bench (women’s -bench), and said to Hallgerd: ‘Thou shalt give up thy seat to this -woman.’ She answered: ‘I will not move, for I do not want to be a -corner-woman. I shall have my way here.’ Then Thórhalla sat down” -(Njala, c. 35). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1095.—Door, with knob of iron inlaid with silver, from - Valthjofsstad Church, Iceland (now in the Copenhagen Museum). -] - -The high-seats, which were cushioned, were often very beautifully carved -with arms on both sides, and two pillars called Ondvegisulur, which were -both carved and painted. - -Only in extraordinary cases were there more than two high-seats, but we -are told that Ingjald Illrádi, in order to receive the guests at his -_arvel_ after his father’s death, built a new hall with seven high -seats. - - -“Thordis and Bödvar went up on to the roof of the hall, took away the -window covering to let the smoke out, and looked about the hall; they -saw that the chair of Grima stood in the middle, and that Thór, seated, -with his hammer, was carved on the chair-posts, but they did not see -Thormod” (Fostbrœdra Saga). - - -To sit on the footboard in front of the king was to show submission; and -it seems to have been usual when a subject was invested with the title -of jarl to sit thus before the ceremony of investiture began. - - -“One day when King Magnus sat in his high-seat, and had many men with -him, Svein Ulfsson sat on the footboard in front of the king. The king -said: ‘I will make known to the chiefs and all people my intention, -which I want carried out. Svein Ulfsson, a man prominent both by his -birth and deeds, has come to me here. He has become my man, and plighted -me his word. You know that all the Danes have become my men this summer, -and the land is without a chief; when I am gone, it is, as you know, -often attacked by the Vendians, Courlanders, and others from Austrveg -(eastern lands) and by the Saxar also. I promised to give them a chief -to defend and rule the land. I see no man so well fitted for it in every -respect as Svein Ulfsson. By his kin he is a chief. Now I will make him -my jarl, and give into his hands Danaveldi to rule over while I am in -Norway, as Knut the great made his father Úlf jarl chief over Denmark -while he was in England....’ He rose, took a sword and fastened it on -Svein’s belt; then he took a shield and fastened it on his shoulder; -then he put a helmet on his head and gave him the name of jarl, and -those grants in Denmark which his father Úlf jarl had had there before. -Then a shrine with holy things was brought, on which Svein laid his -hands, and took oaths of allegiance to King Magnus, who thereupon led -him into the high-seat with himself” (Magnus the Good’s Saga, ch. 24). - - -A great change was made in the position of the high-seat in later times -by Olaf Kyrri (the Quiet), King of Norway (1067–1093), who placed it at -the inner end of the hall where the cross-bench stood, instead of being -in the centre of the long benches. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1096.—Chair with five distinct rows of runes. The uppermost - inscription gives the name of the owner of the chair—Thorunn - Benedikt’s daughter. On the front part of the seat are carved the - twelve signs of the Zodiac, and above these their names in Latin, - with runes; underneath them are inscribed in runes the Latin names - of the twelve months. -] - -The benches were so made as to allow the guests to place at their backs, -along the wall, their shields and swords, &c. - - -“It was an old custom in Norway, Denmark, and Sweden to have doors at -each end of the hall in king’s residences and feasting halls, with the -king’s high seat on the middle of the long bench facing toward the sun. -The queen sat on the left hand of the king, and the seat was then called -_Ondvegi_ (high-seat); the seats next to this on both sides were the -most dignified for men and women, while the one next to the door was the -least. The most high-born, old and wise man, was the king’s counsellor, -as it was then the custom of kings to have wise men who knew ancient -examples and customs of their forefathers, but the counsellor sat on the -northern bench opposite the king, on what was called the lower -high-seat; there were also women on his right hand, but men on his left. -It was then the custom for chiefs to carry the ale over the fire, and -drink to the man sitting in the opposite high seat, and it was a great -honour at that time to be toasted by the king. - -“King Olaf had a raised bench placed in his feast halls, and put his -high seat on the middle of the cross bench. He arranged his pages and -candle boys in front; he also had a candle held in front of every -high-born man who sat at his table, and a page holding a table cup -before each; he had also chairs (stools) for his marshals and other wise -men” (Fagrskinna, c. 219, 220). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1097.—Chair from the Church of Grund, Iceland. Height, 39 inches; - width, 30½ inches; depth, 17 inches. These two chairs are now in the - old Northern Museum of Copenhagen. The seats, which are but little - ornamented on the back, show that they were intended to be placed - along a wall, and were undoubtedly covered by cushions. The lower - part of the chair forms a box, with a small lid in the seat; on the - upper part of its back, and on both the side-pieces, are - inscriptions in later runes. -] - -A few seats, which have been saved from destruction, are beautifully -carved with subjects from the Sagas. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1098.—Inner side of the back. Gunnar in the snake pit. (Volsunga - saga.) -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1099.—Back of the seat. 1/19 real size. -] - - Side view of chair. 1/19 real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1100. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1101. -] - - Carved bridal chair, formerly in Hitterdal Church, Thelemarken, - Norway. Now on the farm of Hove. Showing the shape of hats worn - and Gunnar in the snake-pit. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1102. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1103.—Top part of No. 1102. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1104. - - Chair. 1/13 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1105. -] - - This carving may be explained by two different interpretations. The - woman between the two horsemen may be Brynhild and the ring that - which the gods got from the Dverg Andvari for a ransom for Otr, - and which he predicted would always bring misfortune to its owner; - or she may be Gudrun confiding to the messenger of Atli a ring, - warning Gunnar and Högni of their danger. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1106.—Front view of chair. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1107.—Side view. - - Chair supposed to have belonged to an old church, in Bö, Norway. -] - -One of the principal houses was the _skali_, or _eldhús_,[194] an oblong -and quadrangular building, with a door at one, sometimes at both ends, -intended for daily life and for feasting. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1108.—Front view. - - Chair carved with warriors fighting, with helmets on their heads. The - helmets are similar to those of the Bayeux tapestry. -] - -The _skemma_, _dyngja_, _stofa_, and _herbergi_ were separate rooms, or -buildings, sometimes used as sleeping apartments, where the women of the -household dwelt or remained during the daytime with their maids or -attendants, and occupied themselves with all kinds of work.[195] -Sometimes the _skemma_ was built away from other houses, and was then -called _utskemma_. Where there was a loft the lower room was called -_undir-skemma_. In such rooms the light came from window openings, and -no fire could be lighted.[196] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1109.—Side view of chair. - - Warrior, with open helmet, slaying a dragon—Vaage, Gudbrandsdal, - Norway. -] - -The _stofa_, which was usually occupied by women,[197] was large or -small; sometimes it was intended for a sleeping apartment. At the royal -residence in Nidaros, St. Olaf built a large _hirdstofa_ (king’s men’s -house), with doors at both ends, for meals and general intercourse; a -large _svefnskali_ (sleeping house); and also a large _stofa_,[198] in -which he held his _hirdstefna_ (king’s men’s meetings). The common -entrance led first into the _forstofa_ (lobby), and then into the house -proper; both were provided with doors, which could be locked. Sometimes -the door was fastened on the inside with a _slagbrand_ (bar). - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1110.—Back view of chair. - - Warriors fighting on horseback. -] - -The lofts, which consisted of rooms in the upper part of the _skali_, -were frequently used as bedrooms, and were lighted by _loft-glugg_[199] -(loft openings). Outside the loft there was, at least on one side, a -_svalir_ (balcony),[200] which was reached by an outside stairway. The -loft generally had no communication with the _undir-skemma_. - -When _Fjölnir_ assisted King Frodi in Denmark, he was given a loft-room -as a sleeping apartment; in an adjoining loft-room the flooring had been -removed, in order to fill the large mead-vat standing in the -_undir-skemma_. During the night _Fjölnir_ went out, and as he had to -return along the _svalir_ to his room, he made a mistake as to the door, -and fell down into the mead-vat.[201] - -The beds (_hvila_, _rekkja_) were placed round the walls, inside the -benches, and consisted of straw, the covering being the clothes worn in -the daytime, and over the head a _feld_ (fur cloak) was placed. - -The buildings had windows, sometimes called light-holes, covered with a -membrane, instead of glass, sufficiently large to enable a man to creep -through them. The material used was the after-birth membrane, enclosing -the fœtus of the cow, which was stretched over the light-hole. This when -dried is almost as transparent as glass, and can, for a certain time, -resist the rain. It is still in use in some out-of-the-way places in -Iceland; in the Sagas it is called _Skjall_, and the window is called -_Skja_. - - -“Also if men sit in houses with _skjá_ (light-holes) in them, it is so -light inside that all men indoors recognise each other” (Konungs -Skuggsja, p. 47). - - -There was no ceiling within the roof; the smoke from the open hearths on -the floor, which covered the inside with soot, escaped through the -_Ljori_, of which there was at least one, and which also admitted -light.[202] - - -“Olaf Tryggvason burnt the hall of the seid-man Eyvind Kelda who escaped -through the _Ljóri_ (the light-hole in the roof)” (Olaf Trygg, c. 69). - - -We find that turf was occasionally used as fuel. - - -“Einar sailed westward to Shetland, and many men joined him. After that -he went southward to the Orkneys, against Kalf Skurfa and Thorir -(Treskegg). There a great battle was fought, and both the Vikings were -slain. - - ‘He gave Treskegg to the Trölls; - Torfeinar slew Skurfa: - He conquered the islands.’ - -“After that he conquered the islands, and became a powerful chief. He -was the first man to cut turf from the ground for fuel at Torfnes -(Turfness) in Scotland, for fuel was scarce in the islands” -(Flateyjarbók, vol. i., p. 223). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1111.—Carved wooden work, with runes, Thorpe Church, Hallingdal. - 1/18 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1112.—Doorway, Flaa Church, Hallingdal; 11½ feet high, 5½ feet - broad. Height of door, 8 feet; width of door, 2¼ feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1113.—Doorway, Tuft Church, Sandver. Height, 11¼ feet; height of - door, 7 feet; width of carving, 5½ feet; width of door, 2½ - feet.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1114.—Carved doorway.—Portal of Opdal Church in Numedal, Norway, - with representation of Gunnar in the snake-pit with his hands tied - on his back. Height of sculptured part, 8 feet; breadth of - sculpture, 5⅙ feet; height of door, 6⅔ feet; width of door, 2½ feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1115. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1116. -] - - Door-jambs of Hyllestad Church, Sœtersdal. Height, 7 feet; width, 1⅔ - feet. Representation of seven episodes from the Volsunga - Saga—Regin forging a sword; Sigurd trying it; Sigurd piercing the - snake Fafnir; Sigurd roasting the heart of Fafnir; Sigurd’s horse - _Grani_; Sigurd slaying Regin; and Gunnar in the snake-pit playing - the harp with his toes. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1117. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1118. -] - - Door-jambs in Faaberg Church, Gulbrandsdal, about 7½ feet long. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1119. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1120. -] - - Door-jambs in Lardals Church, Jarsberg. Height, 6⅙ feet; breadth of - broader plank, 1⅔ feet. Representation of the skin of Regin’s - brother in the shape of an otter, and Sigurd slaying Fafnir. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1121. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1122. -] - - Door-jambs, Ulvick Church, Hardanger; 8 feet high; nearly 2 feet - wide. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1123. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1124. -] - - Door-jambs, Hyllestad Church, Sætersdal; 7 feet high, 1⅔ feet wide. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1125.—Engraved ornaments of silver upon wood, found in a - mound.—Ringerike, Norway, earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1126.—Hinge of bronze with rosette of silver gilt. ½ real size. - Found with shield boss and sword.—Hammenhoj, Scania, earlier iron - age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1127. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1128. -] - - Ornaments of silver rivetted upon wood. ⅔ real size.—Mammen find, - later iron age. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1129.—A unique specimen of a box in extraordinary preservation - (of box-wood), found in a mound, with a bronze kettle containing two - ribs, one of a cow, the other of a dog. In the box was a large - needle of bronze, fragments of a small silver ornament. At the ends - are seen traces of bronze nails. 9/16 real size.—Norway, earlier - iron age. -] - -We see in smaller objects (as on p. 272) how highly finished were the -carvings in the earlier iron age. - -When a house was built the people inquired if the ground be lucky or -unlucky in the new house. They measured the length and breadth -repeatedly, and then they carefully examined if all the measurements -were the same. If the measurements grew longer they thought it foreboded -an increase of well-being for the dwellers; if the opposite they thought -it foreboded a decrease in the well-being of the persons. - -Ogmund went to Iceland from Norway. - - -“He measured the ground for his house. It was a belief that if the -measurement was the same when it was tried repeatedly, then the -well-being of the man whose measuring-yard grew too short would -decrease, but increase if it grew longer. The measurement was performed -three times and the yard was too short.” - - ------ - -Footnote 184: - - Bœr or Bu, meant a dwelling-place occupied by a single family. - -Footnote 185: - - The name gard, gaard, still signifies all the buildings of a farm. - -Footnote 186: - - Hrolf Kraki, 34, 40; Jomsvikinga Saga, 5, 22; Volsunga, 3; Half’s - Saga, 12; Egil, 8. - -Footnote 187: - - The _sal_ is also called _Disarsal_, a building for sacrifices to the - Disir. - -Footnote 188: - - Cf. also Heimskringla. - -Footnote 189: - - “The land-owner shall pay the value of the land at the _Karldyr_ - (men’s door).” Gragas ii. - -Footnote 190: - - Bodyguard. - -Footnote 191: - - Cf. also Njala, 117. - -Footnote 192: - - The banqueting halls were called _veitsluskali_. - -Footnote 193: - - Njala 120; Fornmanna Sögur. - -Footnote 194: - - The _skali_ is often called the drinking or the sleeping _skali_. - Orkneyinga, 18, 70, 115; Gisli Sursson, 29; Droplaugarsona Saga, 18, - 28; Fornmanna Sögur, i. 288, 292; Kormak, 58; Fostbrœdra, 13; Njala, - 78; Gunnlaug, XI. - - The _eldhús_ meant a hall or chief room, where fires were kept. Gisli - Sursson, 14, 15, 97; Eyrbyggja, 98; Laxdæla, 54. - -Footnote 195: - - _Dyngja_—cf. Egil, 159; Gisli Sursson, 15; Njal, 66; Kormak, 10; Bjorn - Hitdk, 68. _Skemma_—Fœreyinga, 259; Gisli Sursson, 7; Kormak, 228; - Islendinga Sögur, ii. 28. _Herbergi_ seems to have been a general term - for any kind of room. - -Footnote 196: - - Harald Hardradi, 70. - -Footnote 197: - - Fœreyinga, 41; Islendinga Sögur, ii. 250; Fostbrœdra, 164. A - _bad-stofa_, or bath room, is mentioned. Eyrbyggja, Forn. Sögur, xiii. - In St. Olaf’s Saga, 82, the _stofa_ is said to be in the loft. - -Footnote 198: - - A house of the latter kind was also called _málstofa_ (speaking-house) - (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 45). - -Footnote 199: - - Ingi’s Saga, 28; Egil’s Saga, 236; Njal,, 114, 199; Fms., 85; - Ynglinga, St. Olaf, 116. - -Footnote 200: - - Magnus the Good’s Saga, c. 13. - -Footnote 201: - - Yngl. Saga, c. 14. - -Footnote 202: - - Ynglinga Saga, 34. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - FEASTS, ENTERTAINMENTS. - - Conviviality of the Northmen—Recital of poems and sagas at the - feasts—Music—Arrangement of the hall—Splendour of the table - decorations—Plainness of the food—Order of precedence—The custom - of drawing lots for places of honour—Entertainment of the guest by - high-born maidens—Presents given at the end of the feast—Heavy - drinking—Viking customs—Manners at table—General hospitality of - the people—Waiting at table. - - -In reading the Sagas we are particularly struck at the number of feasts -which marked the life of the Northmen. Every event the least above the -common was celebrated in this fashion, a fashion which has by no means -disappeared from among the Norsemen’s descendants. On the occasion of -such feasts, the houses and halls were prepared in the most elaborate -manner; tapestry and embroidered cloths were hung on the walls, and -spread over the benches. Poems and Sagas were recited, and music was -also occasionally introduced. Among other stringed instruments, the -Sagas mention as used at feasts, were, besides the harp, the _fidla_ -(probably fiddle) and _gigja_ (also probably a kind of fiddle). - -In some cases as soon as the dishes had been put on the table the -enjoyment of the repast was heightened by music. - - -“When King Olaf of Sweden came to the table he asked where lawman Emund -was. On hearing that he was at home at his lodgings, he said: ‘Go after -him, he shall be my guest to-day.’ Thereupon the dishes were brought in, -and afterwards players with harps and gigjar entered” (St. Olaf’s Saga, -c. 96). - - -Harald Fairhair and Eirik Eymundsson of Sweden were at a feast with the -powerful bondi Áki in Vermaland. - - -“Áki owned a large and old feast-hall; he had a new hall made; it was as -large as the other, and very well made; he had it covered all over with -new hangings, and the old hall with old ones. When the kings came to the -feast, Eirik with his hird was seated in the old hall, and Harald with -his men in the new hall. All the table service was arranged so that -Eirik and his men had old vessels and horns, though they were gilded and -well ornamented. Harald and his men had only new vessels and horns; they -were all ornamented with gold, painted with images and bright like -glass. The drink on both sides was very good” (Harald Fairhair’s Saga, -c. 15). - - -A young Icelander, Brand, went to Norway with two of his friends. They -visited Harek, who was high-born, but very ill-tempered. - - -“One day he (Harek) went up to Brand with a large drinking-horn, and -asked him to drink it with him; but Brand refused, saying: ‘I have not -got too much sense, but I do not drink away that which I have, and it -seems to me thou wilt need all thine also’” (Ljósvetninga Saga, c. 8). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1130.—From Bayeux tapestry, showing drinking-horns, bowls, &c., - similar to those of the finds. -] - - -“When King Olaf approached the farm-servants ran ahead, to the farm and -into the house, where Ásta, his mother, sat with her women. They told -her of the king’s journey, and that he would soon be there. Ásta rose at -once, and bade men and women prepare for him in the best manner. She set -four women to take the fittings of the _stofa_, and quickly arrange the -hangings and the benches. Two men spread straw on the floor, two brought -in the _trapiza_ (table at the entrance to the hall), and the _skap-ker_ -(a vat from which ale was put in cups); two placed the tables, two the -food (two she sent away from the house), and two carried in the ale; all -the others, both men and women, went out into the yard. Messengers went -to King Sigurd to take him his _tignarklædi_ (clothes of rank) and his -horse, which had on a gilt saddle, and the bit was gilt all over and -enamelled. Four men Ásta sent in four different directions throughout -the district, inviting the high-born men to a feast, in order to welcome -her son. All who were there were dressed in their best clothes, and to -those who had none suitable she lent clothes” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 30). - - -In contrast with the splendour of the table decorations, the food was -often plain, for cooking had not attained a high standard. - -Ölver, a húskarl (free servant) of the chief Thórir, and Egil with -twelve men when on a journey came to Bárd, a steward of King Eirik’s, in -Atley. - - -“Bárd said: ‘Now we will put the tables for you, I know you will like to -go to sleep, you are tired.’ Ölver liked this well. Then tables were set -and food given to them, bread and butter, and large bowls filled with -curds were set forward. Bárd said: ‘It is a great pity that there is no -ale here, so I cannot entertain you as well as I would like. You must -help yourselves to what there is.’ They were very thirsty, and swallowed -the curds in large draughts. Then Bárd had buttermilk brought in, and -they drank it” (Egil’s Saga, c. 43). - - -“King Olaf and all his men stayed with his father, Sigurd Syr, awhile. -Sigurd gave them as fare on alternate days fish and milk, meat and ale” -(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 33). - - -Great care was taken at the feasts to seat guests according to their -proper rank, as precedence was thought very much of. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1131.—Iron knife, ⅜ real size, in a mound with burnt bones, an - iron comb, fragments of two urns destroyed by fire, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1132.—Sharpening stone made fast with bauds of bronze, ½ real - size, found in a large tumulus with a shield boss of iron, several - arrow-heads of iron, a large fibula of bronze, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1133.—Knife of iron, ½ real size, found in a stone cist, with a - double-edged iron sword, two spear-heads, &c., and a - skeleton.—Cairn, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1134. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1135. -] - - Scabbard of bronze, ⅔ real size, found in a tumulus mound inside a - skeleton, with iron knife, ½ real size, Rikirde, Götland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1136. - - End of horn. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1137. -] - - Bronze drinking-horn, the rim ornamented with a band of silver with - figures in repoussé work. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1138.—Ornament of bronze for a drinking-horn, found with a little - gold bead.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1139.—Fragment of drinking horn of bronze.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1140.—Spoon of Elk horn, ⅔ real size, found in the black earth in - Björko, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1141. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1142. -] - - Silver ornament for knife (real size), found with a bronze kettle - containing burnt bones, a gold ring, and two small silver - ornaments.—Romsdal, Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1143.—Ornamentation drinking-horn of bronze, found with two other - fragments of drinking horns, &c. -] - - -“The Icelandic chiefs Olaf Höskuldsson and Usvifr continued their -friendship, though there was some rivalry between the younger men. That -summer Olaf held a feast half a month before winter; Usvifr had also -prepared one on the first winter-nights. Each invited the other, with as -many men as he thought proper. Usvifr went first to the feast of Olaf, -and at the appointed time came to Hjardarholt; his daughter Gudrun with -her husband Bolli and his sons were with him. The next morning, as they -walked along the hall, a woman stated how the women should be seated; at -this time Gudrun stood opposite to the bed where Kjartan Olafsson slept. -Kjartan was dressing, and put on a scarlet kirtle; he said to the woman -who had spoken about the seats, for no one was quicker to answer than -he: ‘Hrefna shall sit in the high-seat, and be most honoured in every -respect while I am alive.’ Gudrun had always before sat in the high-seat -at Hjardarholt and elsewhere. She heard this, and looked at Kjartan and -turned pale, but said nothing” (Laxdæla, c. 46). - - -The guests sometimes drew lots for the place of honour. - -Two brothers, Hreidar and Ivar, had a Yule-feast at Nes, in Vors, in -Norway. - - -“Twelve guests were to sit together, and lots were drawn about who -should sit next to Astrid, the daughter of Vigfus hersir; Eyjolf, an -Icelander who was on a visit, always drew the lot to sit at her side; no -one noticed that they talked more to each other than other people; but -many said it would end in her becoming his wife. The feast was -magnificent, and the people were sent away with gifts” (Vigaglum’s Saga, -c. 4). - - -Men and women sometimes went in pairs to the festive board, and sat -together on the same seat. The pride of the high-born girls was very -great, and none but brave men could claim the privilege of leading them -to their seats. Occasionally the women drank together with the men. - - -“Egil and his brother Thórólf were on a Viking expedition, and went to -Halland. As they did not ravage there, Arnfid jarl invited them to a -feast, and they went, with thirty men from their ships. Before the -tables were put up, the jarl said that the seats would be allotted -there; that men and women should drink together, as many as could, but -those who were without companions should drink by themselves. They -placed the lots in a cloth, and the jarl picked them out. He had a very -handsome daughter, then well full-grown. The lots fell so that Egil -should sit at her side that evening.... Egil rose and took her seat. -When the men sat down in their places, the jarl’s daughter sang:— - - What wilt thou do, lad, in my seat? - For seldom hast thou given - A wolf warm flesh; - I want to be seated alone. - Thou didst not see the raven in the autumn - Croak over the heap of carrion; - Thou wert not where - Shell-thin edges met. - -“Egil took hold of her and seated her at his side; and sang:— - - I have gone with a bloody blade - And with a sounding spear - So that the wound-birds followed me, - There was hard onset on the Vikings, - We made angry battle; - Fire played about the seats of men. - We let the bloody corpses - Fall asleep in the town-gates. - -“Then they drank together, and were very merry that evening, and the -next day too. Then the Vikings went to their ships, and they separated -from the jarl in friendship and exchanged gifts” (Egil’s Saga, c. 48). - - -Sometimes high-born maidens entertained their guests alone. - -Hjalti, Gizur, and Óttar, the skalds of St. Olaf, went to Sweden in -order to reconcile the king to St. Olaf. - - -“They went one day to the house of the king’s daughter Ingigerd; she sat -and drank with many men. She received them well, for they were known to -her.... They sat there the greater part of the day and drank; she put -many questions to Hjalti, and asked him to come often and talk with her. -He did so” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 71 (Heimskringla)). - - -At the end of a feast presents were given to the guests. - -Thorgeir, the famous Godir (lawman), who accepted Christianity on the -people’s behalf at the Althing A.D. 1000, made a feast. - - -“After the feast Thorgeir gave large gifts. He gave his kinsman Finnbogi -five stud-horses, dandelion yellow in colour. It was said that they were -the best horses in Nordlendinga-fjordung (the northern quarter of -Iceland)” (Finnboga Saga, c. 23). - - -When Harald Fairhair came to Halogaland, great feasts were prepared for -his reception on his own farms among his lendirmen or powerful bœndr. -The feast that Thorolf prepared was so magnificent, that the king was -jealous of it. - - -“The king had nearly three hundred men when he came to the feast, but -Thórólf had five hundred men already there. Thórólf had prepared a large -corn-barn, and set benches in it; there they drank, for no other room -was large enough for them all to be in it together. Shields were hung -all round the room. The king sat down in a high-seat. When the room was -full from one end to the other, he looked round and got red in his face, -but said nothing, and they felt that he was angry. The feast was -splendid, and all the provisions were of the best. The king was not very -merry, and stayed there for three nights, as he intended. On the day the -king was about to leave, Thórólf went to him and asked him to go down -with him to the beach. The king went. There the dragon ship which -Thórólf had had made was floating, with tents and all outfittings. -Thórólf gave it to the king, and asked him to consider that so many -guests had been invited to do him honour, and not to compete with him. -The king took this well” (Egil’s Saga, c. 11). - - -Very many Sagas give instances of the heavy drinking at these feasts. - -The Norwegian chief Thórólf Skjálg was at warfare one summer, and in the -autumn when he came home he made a great feast. - - -“His foster-son Rögnvald said to the cup-bearers, that if men got very -drunk in the beginning the feast would be considered a great feast, and -told them to carry as much drink in as they could. Then Rögnvald burnt -the hall, and the men in their beds were so drunk that they did not -awake till the flames were playing round them, and they were burnt” -(Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, 145 (Fornmanna Sögur)). - - -“When King Granmar heard of this (King Hjörvard’s arrival) he sent men -to him and invited him to a feast with all his men. He accepted this, -for he had not ravaged in King Granmar’s realm; when he came to the -feast there was a great entertainment. In the evening, when the toasts -were to be drunk, it was the custom for kings who ruled in the land and -for their guests to drink in pairs at feasts in the evening, each man -and woman together, as far as possible, the old ones keeping by -themselves. It was the law of Vikings, even if they were at feasts, to -drink in parties. King Hjörvard’s high-seat was prepared opposite King -Granmar’s, and all his men sat on that bench. King Granmar told his -daughter Hildigunn to make herself ready and carry ale to the Vikings. -She was the most beautiful of women. She took a silver cup, filled it, -and went before King Hjörvard and said: ‘Hail, all Ylfingar, to Hrolf -Kraki’s memory’; she drank half of it and handed it to Hjövrard. He took -the cup and her hand with it, and said she must come and sit at his -side. She answered that it was not Viking custom to drink in pairs with -women. - -“Hjörvard said that he would rather make a change in the Viking laws in -order to drink in pairs with her. Then she sat down, and they spoke of -many things in the evening” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 41). - - -Next day King Hjörvard demanded her in marriage from Granmar, and was -successful in his suit (Ynglinga Saga, c. 41). - - -In the earliest times that the manners at table of such heavy drinkers -should have been rather coarse is not surprising. - - -“The champion Bödvar went into the hall of Hrolf Kraki, and sat down -near the door. When he had been there for a short time he heard a noise -from the corner next to it, and saw that a man’s hand, very black, -extended from a large heap of bones which lay there. He walked up to it -and asked who was in the heap of bones; he was answered, timidly: ‘I am -called Hött, good Bökki.’[203] Bödvar said: ‘Why art thou here? and what -art thou doing?’ Hött answered: ‘I make me a shield-burgh, my good -Bökki.’ Bödvar took hold of him and pulled him out of the heap of bones. -Hött shouted loudly: ‘Now thou wantest me to be killed; I had prepared -myself so well for defence before, and now thou hast torn my -shield-burgh asunder....” Bödvar took him and carried him out of the -hall to a lake in the neighbourhood; and few saw it, and he washed him -all over his body. Bödvar then went to the seat he had been sitting in -before, and led Hött with him, and seated him at his side. Hött was so -frightened that all his limbs trembled, but he thought nevertheless that -this man was going to help him. Evening approached and the men came into -the hall, and the champions of Hrólf saw that Hött was seated on the -bench, and they thought the man who had done that had been rather -shameless. Hött had a dismal look when he saw his acquaintances the -hirdmen, for he had only met with unkindness from them; he wished -greatly to live and go back to his bone-heap, but Bödvar held him so -that he could not run away.... The hirdmen threw first small bones -across the floor to Bödvar and Hött; Bödvar pretended not to see this. -Hött was so frightened that he took neither food nor drink, expecting to -be hit every moment; he said to Bödvar: ‘My good Bökki, now a large -joint-bone is going to hit thee, and it is meant to harm us.’ Bödvar -told him to be silent, and parried it with the hollow of his hand; he -got hold of the joint-bone, with the leg attached, and threw it back at -the man who cast it, and into his face, so strongly that he was slain. -The hirdmen became much alarmed. The news reached King Hrolf and his -champions in the castle that a tall man had come to the hall and killed -one of the hirdmen, and they wanted him to be slain. The king asked if -the hirdman had been killed without cause. ‘Almost so,’ they said. When -he heard the truth, he said: ‘The man shall not be slain; you have got -into a bad habit of throwing bones at harmless men; it is a disgrace to -me, and a great shame for you to do such things. I have often spoken of -this before, but you have taken no heed; call the man whom you have now -assailed, that I may know who he is.’ Bödvar came before the king, and -became his hirdman” (Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, c. 43). - - -It was a great recommendation for a man, when it could be said that his -house afforded accommodation to every one. Hospitality was a leading -trait in the character of the people. In the code of conduct known as -Havamal (see p. 401) we see that the stranger must be well received, and -the Sagas give some remarkable examples of the generous hospitality of -the people, among them that of Geirrid, who had emigrated from Norway to -Iceland:— - - -“Geirrid settled in Borgardal, inside Alpta fjord. She caused her house -to be built across the high-road, so that all were obliged to ride -through it. A table set with food, which was given to every one who -wanted it, always stood ready.[204] Owing to this she was looked upon as -a high-minded woman” (Eyrbyggja, c. 8). - - -“Some winters later, Hörd Grimkelson, with his wife Helga, Sigurd, -foster-son of Torfi, Helgi Sigmundarson, and thirty men, landed at -Eyrar, in Iceland. At that time Hörd was thirty winters old; he had then -been abroad for fifteen winters in succession, and had got much property -and honour. Hlugi the red, from Hólm, came to the ship, and invited him -and all his men to stay with him, and did everything most honourable to -them. Hörd took this well, and thought it a good invitation; he went to -him with twenty-five men, and they were treated with ale all the winter, -with the greatest liberality” (Hörd’s Saga, c. 19). - - -There are several passages in the Sagas from which we see that the usual -length of time for a visit was three days. - -When Einar, the poet, went to Iceland, he called on Egil, who was not at -home. - - -“Einar waited three nights for him; as it was not customary to make a -visit longer than three nights, he prepared to go away” (Egil’s Saga, c. -82). - - -The waiting at the tables was performed by servants, called _skenkjarar_ -(fillers), who filled the horns from the _skapker_, and carried them -round; even women of rank on special occasions filled the horns for the -guests and brought them to them. - -After a feast, it was the custom for the host to provide those of his -guests who required them with horses and all necessaries for their -journey home. - ------ - -Footnote 203: - - Pet name of Bödvar. - -Footnote 204: - - Cf. also Landnama, Part ii. 6. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - DRESS OF MEN. - - Luxury in dress—Material used—Popular colours—Everyday - dress—Various garments—Belts of silver and gold—Cloaks—Trailing - gowns—Shoes—Plaids—Gloves—Hats—Moustaches and beards—Hair worn - long—Fashions—Splendour of chiefs’ accoutrements. - - -The finds as well as the Sagas, which are confirmed by the Bayeux -tapestry, show that from a very early period the people of the North -dressed with great luxury; but, with the exception of the complete -garments of the bog finds, only fragments of wearing apparel belonging -to the iron age have been discovered, which in most instances are -thoroughly discoloured. - -In the Sagas we have only partial descriptions of the dress worn by men -and women, and though many names of pieces of clothing are mentioned, -very little light is otherwise thrown upon the subject. - -The material used for clothing seems to have been the same for both -sexes—linen, wool, silk, skins, and furs. Among the costly materials -mentioned is “_pell_” which is supposed to be like velvet. The materials -were sometimes seamed with gold and silver thread, or embroidered. It -was the custom to have a border on many of the clothes called _hlad_, -which was either a band, ribbon, or a kind of lace. - -Blue, red, green, scarlet, and purple, were the colours most in favour; -grey was the colour for everyday use, and white _vadmal_, a coarse or -thick woollen stuff, was the distinctive clothing for slaves. - -The trousers were worn at a very early time, as we have seen from the -Bog finds, and were kept in their proper place by a belt round the -waist, and had the socks knitted on to them, over which were shoes. Over -the linen and woollen shirts was the coat of mail. Over the shoulders a -cloak was worn, resembling that of the Romans or Greeks, with a fringe -or border at the sides. These cloaks were fastened by fibulæ. The -costumes of the Bayeux tapestry agree with the descriptions of the -Sagas. - -The everyday dress of Geirmund is thus described:— - - -“He usually dressed thus. He wore a red scarlet kirtle, and over it a -grey cloak (feld), and on his head a bearskin cap (húfa). He wore in his -hand a large sword. It was not adorned with silver, and its blade was -keen and broad and no rust on it. He called the sword Fótbít -(foot-cutter), and never let it go out of his hand” (Laxdæla, c. 29). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1144.—Cloth with representation of lion or leopard. ⅓ real - size.—Mammen find. -] - - -Vigaskúta saw “that a large man in a green cloak rode from Thverá (a -farm), and knew that it was Glúm. He alighted from his horse. He had on -a cloak of two colours, black and white” (Viga Glum’s Saga, c. 16). - - -“Hrút started up in a shirt and linen breeches, and threw over himself a -grey cloak, and had in his hand a halberd adorned with gold, which King -Harald had given him” (Laxdæla, c. 37). - - -“The king had on a red cloak (möttul)[205] with bands, and a spear in -his hand. He twisted the cloak-pin off, and leaned upon the blade of his -spear. When Heming came down he took hold of the king’s cloak, but the -king bowed down his head, and let go the cloak, so that Heming flew down -off the rock” (Flateyjarbok, iii. 409). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1145.—Piece of cloth found in Bjerringhoi mound at Mammen, near - Viborg.—⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1146.—Fragment of woollen cloth, ornamented with hands and human - faces. ⅓ real size.—Mammen find. -] - -Helgi, a Norwegian trader, was invited to stay with Gudmund the -powerful, on Mödruvellir, a whole winter. When he left he said to him:— - - -“‘Now, herra, look at this payment for quarters, though it is less than -you deserve.’ It was a cloak, the fur of which was lined with pell, with -a golden band on the neck-strap, a most costly thing. Gudmund said: ‘I -thank thee for it, I have never received a better gift.’ They parted -good friends” (Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13). - -“Ögmund put on a cloak (feld) of two colours, ornamented with bands -beneath the shoulder; it was very costly” (Fornmanna Sögur, ii.). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1147.—Well preserved bracelet of silk, knitted with gold threads, - found in Bjerringhoi mound at Mammen, near Viborg. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1148.—Piece of woven woollen cloth, brownish colour. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1149.—Remnant of brown woollen cloth of thin threads and very - loose weaving. -] - - -“He (Thormód) had covered himself with a double-furred cloak which he -owned. It was black on one side, and white on the other” (Fóstbrædra -Saga, c. 32). - - -The different garments were:— - -_Skyrta_, or _serk_, the name given to the shirt worn next the body, -which was put on by means of a small opening[206] for the head called -_hofudsmátt_. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1150.—Border of fine woven red silk cloth (1½ inches broad), with - gold and silver threads woven into it, and four-cornered pattern - with representation of Svastica, found in the mound. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1151.—Piece of cloth with two lions or leopards facing each - other. ⅓ real size.—Mammen find. -] - -The _kyrtil_ shaped like a shirt with sleeves, and put over it. Blue, -red, and brown seem to have been the favourite colours for this -garment.[207] Sometimes the kirtle is called _skyrta_, or shirt; so both -must have been alike in shape. A sleeveless kirtle is mentioned as -uncommon.[208] - -The _hjúp_ which seems to have been a short kirtle without sleeves, -sometimes lined with furs, worn sometimes over the coat of mail.[209] - - -“Sigurd went up on the island. He wore a red kirtle, and a blue cloak -with straps on his shoulders; he was girt with a sword, and had a helmet -on his head” (Fœreyinga Saga, c. 57). - - -_Linbrækr_ (linen drawers) which seem to have been often worn, and were -kept on at night. - -_Breeches_ seems to have been of two kinds:— - -_Brækr_ (the more common) were held up round the waist by a belt, -fastened with a buckle, which was usually wide, but considered more -showy when it was narrow. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1152.—Fragment of woollen stuff, ⅔ real size, found in a tumulus - with fragments of a sword, spear points, two axes, a shield boss of - iron, and a large number of pieces of stuffs of different qualities, - pieces of the skin of a horse still having hair adhering to - it.—Norway. -] - - -“He had strange clothes made—hairy breeches (brækr) and cloak, and he -had them put into boiling pitch and hardened” (Ragnar Lodbrók, c. 2). - - -_Hosur_[210] were a showier kind of breeches; they seem also to have -covered the feet, and to have been tight, like high stockings. They were -of cloth or skin, and resembled high boots: spurs were often attached to -them. Sometimes the breeches were worn outside the kirtle, and a man was -then said to be “girt in breeches,” the waistband serving as a belt. - - -“A crowd of men had come to the bœr. Some of these had walked up to -Gaulardal. It happened that a broad-shouldered man walked past them; he -wore a cloak and white hose, and was alone” (Fornmanna Sögur, v.). - - -_Leistabrækr_ were breeches and stockings in one, and seem to have been -tight-fitting, somewhat similar to those found in the Thorsberg bog, -which were of great antiquity. On the relief ornamentation on a superb -silver vase of Greek workmanship found at Kertch, representing the -capture of wild horses, and the different phases of taming them, the men -are represented as wearing such breeches. - -_Hökulbrækr._ Of these there is no description. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1153. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1154. -] - - Bronze plates found, Björnhofda, parish of Thorslunda, showing man’s - trousers, &c. - -_Sokkar_ (socks) were also used. - -Thórodd had been wounded in a fight, and his breeches were all wet from -the blood. - - -“The servant of Snorri was to pull off the breeches, and when he pulled -he could not get them off. Then he said: ‘It is not a lie about you, the -sons of Thorbrand, that you are very showy, as you wear such tight -clothes that they cannot be pulled off.’ Thórodd answered: ‘You do not -pull hard enough.’ Then the man put his feet against the bedside and -pulled with all his strength, and the breeches did not come down. Then -Snorri godi came and touched the leg all over, and found that a spear -was standing through the foot between the tendon and the leg, and had -pierced the foot and the breeches” (Eyrbyggja, c. 45). - - -The belts worn round the waist were often very costly, and of silver and -gold. - - -“Thjóf (= Fridthjóf) threw off his cloak; he had on a dark blue kirtle -under it, and wore the good ring on his hand (or arm). He wore a broad -silver belt round his waist, and a large bag with pure silver money in -it, and a sword at his side. He had on his head a large hood made of -skin, for he had weak eyes and was hairy all over his face” (Fridthjóf’s -Saga, c. 11). - - -These cloaks were the most costly part of their dress; they were made of -materials called _gudvef_, _pell_, and _baldakin_.[211] Among the many -kinds of cloaks mentioned were— - -The _Kapa_, or hood-cloak, the usual colour of which for everyday use -was grey; for feasts, scarlet; sometimes lined with fur. - -The _Feld_, identical with the Kapa, both sides of which were sometimes -of different colours. - -There were also rain or dust cloaks, and cloaks made of reindeer-skin. - -The finest were the _skikkja_[212] and _möttul_, which were only worn by -the high-born chiefs, being a characteristic of birth, just like the -paludamentum or military cloak of the Romans, or the chlamys of the -Greeks, which were of scarlet bordered with purple. The cloaks and -mantles (möttul) were fastened round the neck or held up by bands or -straps, which were so long that they could be put on the head. - -The cloak seems to have been long enough for a sword to be carried under -it without being seen. - - -“Then Thorólf put off his strap-mantle (_seilamöttul_), which was of -scarlet, lined with grey fur. He laid it over Thorstein, but it did not -reach lower down than his waist when he rose. He then took it off and -told him to wear it himself, and give him another garment, though it -might not be as fine. Thorólf then fetched a hairy cloak (lod-kápa), and -told him to put it on. He threw it over him, and it was neither too long -nor too short” (Svarfdæla Saga). - - -“He (Sigurd) wore blue breeches, a shirt, and a mantle (_möttul_) with -straps (_tygil_) for over-garment. He looked down and kept the -mantle-straps in his hands, and by turns put them on and off his head. -When they had passed the cape they had got merry and drunk, rowed hard -and kept little guard. Sigurd rose and went to the gunwale, and his two -guards did the same, and both took his mantle and held it up as was the -custom to do with highborn men” (Magnus Blind, c. 16). - - -“Halldór had on a cloak on which were long brooches[213] as was then -customary” (Laxdæla, ch. 75).[214] - - -The Slœdur was a trailing gown of costly stuff embroidered with gold and -ornamented with bands. - -In the time of Olaf Kyrri (the Quiet, 1066–93) the men’s gowns had -trains, laced on the side, with sleeves 10 feet long, so tight that they -had to be pulled on with a leather thong, and jerked up to the shoulder. -These gowns were soon considered old-fashioned: it was also customary to -wear gold rings round the legs. - - -“In the days of King Olaf Kyrri, drinking at the inns and parting-bouts -began in the trading-towns, and the people became fond of show; they -wore costly breeches laced tight to the leg, and some fastened gold -rings round their legs; the men wore trailing gowns (drag-kyrtil), laced -on the sides, with sleeves ten feet in length, and so narrow that they -had to be put on with a running-string and laced tight up to the -shoulder; the shoes were high, sewed with silk, and some of them -ornamented with gold. There was much other display at this time” (Olaf -Kyrri, c. 2). - - -This sort of sleeve belonged to the old-fashioned kind of clothing. - - -“He (Arinbjörn) gave Egil as Yule-gift a gown (_slœdur_) of silk, -largely embroidered with gold, and set with gold-buttons all the way -down the front; he had this made so as to fit Egil. Arinbjörn also gave -him a new cut suit of clothes, of many-coloured English cloth” (Egil’s -Saga, 70). - - -Erling jarl was tall and brawny, somewhat high-shouldered, with a long -and thin face and light complexion; he was very grey-haired, and carried -his head on one side. He was amiable and high-minded, and wore -old-fashioned clothes, high-necked and long-sleeved, kirtles and shirts, -and foreign cloaks (valaskikkja)[215] and high shoes. Thus also he -dressed King Magnus while he was young, but as soon as he had his own -way he dressed very showily (Magnus Erlingsson’s Saga, c. 37). - - -Shoes made of leather or skins were used, and made fast by strings, -sometimes adorned with fringes: silk strings were wrapped round the leg -to the knees, and sometimes very high shoes were worn, often seamed with -silk and partly covered with gold, but they were old-fashioned. - - -“It is told about his (Sigurd’s) dress, that he wore a blue kirtle and -blue hose, high shoes laced round his legs, a grey cloak (kápa) and a -grey broad-brimmed hat and a hood over his face, a staff in his hand -with a gilt silver-mounting at the upper end, from which a silver ring -hung” (St. Olaf’s Saga,[216] c. 31). - - -“Sigurd jarl had a brown kirtle and a red cloak, the skirts of which -were folded up; he wore shoes made of the skin of sheep’s legs; he had a -shield and the sword called Bastard” (Magnus Erlingsson’s Saga, c. 13). - - -“The king (St. Olaf) and his men went into the bath and laid their -clothes on the ground, and a tent was pitched over it. At that time it -was common to wear silk strings like garters, which were wound round the -leg from the shoe to the knee; the first and high-born men always wore -them, and the king and Björn had the same.... Björn always had these -thongs around his legs while he lived, and was buried with them” -(Bjarnar Saga Hitdælakappa). - - -Magnus Barefoot (1093–1103) adopted the Scotch custom (then also used in -Ireland) of having _bare legs_ and _plaids_, but this fashion was -antiquated a hundred years later. - - -“It is told that when Magnus came from _Vestrviking_ (warfare in the -west), he and many of his men adopted the customs in dress that were -common in the western lands (Scotland and Ireland). They walked -bare-legged in the streets, and wore short kirtles and over-garments” -(Magnus Barefoot, c. 18). - - -On the hands gloves (_glófar_) of skin, especially hart’s-skin, -sometimes stitched with gold, were worn; occasionally they were lined -with down. In the hand a staff was generally carried, with or without an -axe. - - -“Bard sat in a high-seat; he was bald and dressed in scarlet clothes, -and wore gloves of hart-skin” (Fornmanna Sögur, ii. 148). - - -On the head a _hött_ (hat) was worn. _Skálhatt_ (a hat formed like a -bowl) is mentioned, also black, grey, and white hats. Another -head-covering mentioned is a silken cap ornamented with lace; those from -Gardariki seem to have been most appreciated. - -After a battle at sea between King Ingi and Sigurd Slembidjákn, a -pretender to the crown of Norway, in which Ingi got the victory, Sigurd -jumped overboard and took off his coat-of-mail while swimming under his -shield. The king’s men nevertheless found him. - - -“Thjóstólf Alason went to him (Sigurd) where he sat and struck off his -head a silk cap ornamented with lace bands.”[217] - - -“Thorkel Sursson had on his head a hat from Gardariki, a grey fur cloak, -with a gold buckle on the shoulder, and a sword in his hand” (Gisli -Súrsson, p. 55). - - -Karl and Leif saw a man approaching, “who had in his hand a cudgel -(_refdi_), wore a broad-brimmed hat, and a green woollen cloak; he was -barefooted, but had linen breeches tied (with a band) round his legs” -(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 153). - - -“The everyday dress of Án was a white fur-coat, so long that it touched -his heels; a grey short fur-coat over it reached down to the middle of -the calf of his leg; over it was a red kirtle, which reached below the -knee. Over this was a common trading cloth blouse (stakk), which reached -to the middle of his thigh. He had a hat on his head, and a chopping-axe -in his hand” (An Bogsveigi’s Saga, c. 5). - - -The wearing of moustaches by warriors seems to have been very common -from the earliest time; this is seen from the bracteates and antiquities -belonging to the earlier and later iron age. The custom, which continued -to the end of the Pagan era, and which is also well illustrated in the -Bayeux tapestry, was so common that it is but seldom mentioned in the -Sagas. - - Laughed then Jormunrek, - Put his hand on his moustaches; - He did not want tumult, - Was drunk with wine; - Shook his brown hair, - Looked on his white shield; - Let the golden cup - Turn in his hand. - - (Hamdismál, 20.) - -After the burning of Njal, Skarphedin, his son, was found dead. - - -“He had been standing at the gable, and the greater part of his legs -were burnt up to his knees, but the rest of his body was not burnt; his -eyes were open and not swollen; he had bitten his moustache, and had -struck with the axe so fast into the gable that its blade went in as far -as its middle, and therefore it was not softened” (Njala, c. 132). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1155.—Man with moustache; reverse of silver coin with ship. -] - -A peculiar story is related of Ögmund Eythjófsbani, a famous Viking, -full of witchcraft and devilry, who often fought against Örvarodd. - - -“When Ögmund left Odd he went into Austrveg (eastern lands) and married -the daughter of Geirröd the Jötun, and made all the kings in Austrveg -pay tax to him; every twelve months they were to send him their lower -and upper moustache. From these Ögmund had a fur cloak made” (Orvar -Odd’s Saga, c. 23). - - -The men wore their hair long, hanging over their neck; their foreheads -were ornamented with a gold band like a diadem, and from the finds we -learn that they parted their hair in the middle. - - -“Kjartan, Olaf’s son, grew up at Hjardarholt; he was the handsomest of -men born in Iceland. He had fine and marked features in his face, with -most beautiful eyes and fair complexion; he had much hair as fine as -silk, which fell down in locks. He was large and strong as his mother’s -father Egil (Skallagrimsson), or Thorolf had been. He was better shaped -than any man, so that all wondered who saw him; he also fought better -than most other men; he was a good smith, and swam better than any other -man; he surpassed others greatly in all idrottir; he was better liked -and more humble than any other man, so that every child loved him; he -was merry and open-handed. Olaf (the Irish) loved him most of all his -children” (Laxdæla Saga, ch. 38). - - -“He (Hakon jarl) was the most handsome man that men had seen, with long -hair, fine as silk, and a gold band on his head” (Fornmanna Sögur, iv.). - - -“Odd was dressed every day in a scarlet kirtle, and had a _gullhlad_ -(gold band) tied round his head” (Orvar Odd, c. 1). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1156.—Fragments of the upper part of a bronze kettle (the eyes - had probably been adorned with stones), showing how men parted their - hair.—Bog find, Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1157.—Ornaments inside the kettle on another plate of bronze. -] - - -“He (Gunnar of Hlídarendi) looked handsome, and had a light complexion, -a straight nose, slightly turned up, blue and keen eyes, and red cheeks. -His hair was long, thick, and yellow, and sat well” (Njala, c. 19). - - -Chiefs seem to have often set the fashions. - - -“One summer a seagoing ship owned by Icelanders came from Iceland. It -was loaded with trade-cloaks (_varar-feld_), and they went with it to -Hardangr, for they heard that many people were there. When they began to -sell none wanted to buy the cloaks. The steersman went to King Harald, -for he had spoken to him before, and told him this difficulty. Harald -said he would come down, and did so. He was a condescending and very -merry man. He came on a fully-manned skúta. He looked at the goods, and -said to the steersman: ‘Wilt thou give me one of the grey cloaks?’ -‘Willingly,’ answered the steersman: ‘more than one.’ Harald took one -cloak and put it on, and then went down into the skúta. Before they -rowed away every one of his men had bought a cloak. A few days after -there came so many who all wanted to buy cloaks that not half of them -got any. Thereafter the king was called Harald gráfeld (grey cloak)” -(Harald Gráfeld’s Saga, c. 7). - - -The fashion in the time of King Sverri is thus described:— - - -“Thou shalt always choose brown cloth for hose; it is not wrong to use -black skin for hose or other kinds of cloth except scarlet. Thou shalt -also have a brown or green or red kirtle of good and beseeming cloth. -Thy linen clothes thou shalt have made of good linen, but not much of -it; have thy shirt short and all thy linen-clothes light. Always have -thy shirt a good deal shorter than thy kirtle, for no good-mannered man -can make himself look well with flax or hemp. Thy beard and hair thou -shalt have well prepared before thou comest before the king, after the -customs prevailing at the time in the hird.[218] When I was in the hird -it was customary to cut the hair shorter than the lobes of the ears, and -comb it so that each hair would lie flat, and a short lock of hair be -over the eyebrows. It was customary to cut the beard and the moustaches -short and have whiskers like the German custom; it is not likely that -there will be any better or more becoming fashion for warriors” (Konungs -Skuggsjá, p. 66). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1158. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1159. -] - - Iron tweezers, ⅔ real size, found in a quadrangular stone setting, - with a bent sword, a bent spear head, both of iron, and burnt - bones.—Öland. - -From the earlier Edda and the Sagas we find that kings or warriors were -easily recognised by the splendour of their accoutrements. They wore -gilt spurs. - - -“When the king (St. Olaf) had said this, he sat down and let his shoes -and stockings be pulled off, put cordovan hose on his feet and put on -gilt spurs. Then he took off his cloak and kirtle and dressed himself in -clothes of pell, and over these a scarlet cloak. He girded himself with -an ornamented sword, put a gilt helmet on his head, and mounted his -horse” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 32). - - -“King Hakon was easily recognized before all others; his helmet -glittered when the sun shone upon it” (Hakon the Good’s Saga, c. 31). - - -“Kjartan Olafsson took up the scarlet clothes which King Olaf -(Tryggvason) gave him at their parting and dressed himself -magnificently; he girt himself with the sword which was the king’s gift; -he wore on his head a gilt helmet, and had a red shield at his side with -the holy cross marked thereon in gold, and in his hand a spear with a -gilt handle. All his men were in coloured clothes; they were more than -twenty” (Laxdæla, c. 44). - - -“The king (Hakon) put on his dress of war; he wore a coat of ring-mail, -and was girt with the sword _Kvernbit_; he had on a gilt helmet, a spear -in his hand, and a shield at his side. Then he arrayed in ranks his hird -and the bœndr, and raised his standard” (Fornmanna Sögur, vol. i., pp. -42, 43). - - -“One day Gilli and Leif (kinsmen) went from their booths to a hill, -which was on the island, and there talked together; they saw many men on -the headland on the eastern side of the island ... there glittered in -the sunshine fine shields and magnificent helmets, axes and spears, and -the men looked very valiant; they saw that a man, tall and bold-looking, -went in front of the rest in a red kirtle, with a shield half blue and -half yellow, a helmet on his head, and a long cutting spear in his hand; -they thought they recognized in him Sigurd Thorlaksson. Next to him -walked a stout man in a red kirtle, who had a red shield; they thought -they recognized him with certainty as Thórd Lági (the low); the third -man had a red shield, with a man’s face painted on it, and a large axe -in his hand; this was Gaut the red” (Færeyinga Saga, c. 48). - - -While King Olaf was at Stiklastadir a man came to him who was not like -other men. - - -“He was so tall that no other man reached higher than to his shoulders; -he was very handsome, and fair-haired. He was well armed; he had a very -fine helmet, a coat of mail, and a red shield; he was girt with an -ornamented sword and had a large spear inlaid with gold, whose handle -was so thick that it could scarcely be grasped with the hand” (St. -Olaf’s Saga, c. 22). - - -It was the custom for those who attended the Thing to put on their best -clothes. - - -“The champion Gunnar came to the Althing, so finely dressed that none -were dressed as well, and the people came out of every booth to admire -him. He had on the scarlet state[219] clothes which King Harald Gormsson -(Denmark) gave him, and a gold ring on his hand from Hakon jarl” (Njala, -c. 33). - - ------ - -Footnote 205: - - Here the word _möttul_ = mantle, the same garment which elsewhere is - called _skikkja_. - -Footnote 206: - - Laxdæla, 46. - -Footnote 207: - - Fornmanna Sögur; Harald Hardradi. - -Footnote 208: - - Magn. Baref., 8. - -Footnote 209: - - Flateyjarbok, i. 481. - -Footnote 210: - - In the time of Olaf Kyrri, before 1100, very tight _hosur_ were used. - Blue trousers and blue and grey hosur are mentioned. - -Footnote 211: - - Baldakin, stuff or skin from Bagdad. - -Footnote 212: - - It seems to have been the custom to fold up the edges of the skikkja - (Magnus Erlingson, ch. 13, 37; Magnus Barefoot, 8; Flateyjarbók, - iii.). - -Footnote 213: - - Brooches = fibulæ. - -Footnote 214: - - Cf. also for cloaks.—Egil’s Saga, c. 77; Eyrbyggja, c. 37; Vigaglum’s - Saga, c. 6; Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 17. - -Footnote 215: - - Valaskikkja = Welsh (foreign) cloak. - -Footnote 216: - - Cf. also Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 43. - -Footnote 217: - - Cf. Svarfdæla Saga, c. 5, and Magnus Barefoot, c. 8. - -Footnote 218: - - The _hird_ or hirdmen were so called because they guarded their lord - or king; the word being derived from _hirda_, to guard or preserve. - The hird of a king was often very considerable: King Harald Fairhair - sometimes had a hird of 400 men. - -Footnote 219: - - Fignarklœdi = dignity-clothes; clothes of highborn men. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - DRESS OF WOMEN. - - The gown—Festive dress—Outer garments—Under garments—Head-dress—Mode - of wearing the hair—Ornaments—Buckles and fibulæ—Numerous jewels - of gold. - - -The most important piece of clothing worn by women was the _kyrtil_ -(gown). It was made very wide, with a train, and was usually provided -with long sleeves reaching to the wrists. It was fastened round the -waist by a belt, often made of gold or silver, from which a bag was -suspended for rings, ornaments, housewife’s keys, &c. Sometimes this -dress was narrow at the waist, and had a close-fitting jacket. Over the -kirtle was wore a kind of apron (_blœja_), which sometimes had fringe at -the bottom. - -The _slœdur_, mentioned in Rigsmál, was a festive dress for women as -well as for men; it did not reach so high as to entirely cover the neck -and bust; therefore a separate piece of clothing, called _smokk_ -(collar), was worn with it, and a _dúk_ (neckerchief) was also wrapped -round the neck. The neck and bust were frequently left bare, and -ornamented with a necklace and other ornaments. A kind of shoulder -ornament is also mentioned, under the name of _dvergar_. - - And the housewife - Looked at her sleeves, - She smoothed the linen, - And plaited them, - She put up the head-dress; - A brooch was on her breast, - The dress-train was trailing, - The shirt had a blue tint; - Her brow was brighter, - Her breast was more shining, - Her neck was whiter - Than pure new fallen snow. - - (Rigsmál, 28, 29.) - - -“Gisli could not sleep, and said he wanted to go from the house to his -hiding place, south of the cliffs, and try if he could not sleep there. -They all went there (Gisli, his wife Aud, and her foster-daughter -Gudrid); they (the women) had on kirtles, which left a track in the dew” -(Gisli Sursson’s Saga, p. 67). - - -From the four representations here given, we get an idea of the dress of -women, and the peculiar manner in which they arranged their hair. The -long trailing dress reminds us of the descriptions in the Sagas. Three -of the figures are presenting drinking-horns to some persons unseen. On -the Hallingbrö stone[220] a woman, dressed in a somewhat similar way, is -presenting a drinking-horn to a warrior on horseback. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1160.—Chain of silver. Real size. Found in the interior of a - sepulchral chamber in a tumulus. Earlier iron age.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1161.—Silver (11th century); real size. Found with Arabic, - German, and old English coins.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1162. - -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1163. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1164. - - Real size.—Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1165. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1166. -] - - Hanging ornament. Real size.—Sweden. - -The women’s outer garments were more or less similar to those of men. -The principal were the _skikkja_ and _möttul_, a kind of cloak worn by -high-born women, without sleeves, usually fastened on the breast with a -fibula, and the _tygla möttul_ (strap-cloak), used by men and women, -sometimes with costly borders (_hladbuinn_), and lined with fur; but the -term _kvennskikkja_ (woman’s cloak) implies some difference between -theirs and those of the men. When travelling they wore overcoats, like -men; the _ólpa_, with hood of felt, and _hekla_. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1167.—Pin of iron. Earlier iron age. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1168.—Pin of silver. Real size. Found inside a sepulchral chamber - about 9 feet long, 3 feet wide, and over 3 feet in height, with the - remains of an unburied body, the head turned towards the north; a - basin of bronze, a clay urn, a glass cup, three finger rings of - gold, one silver fibula, a pair of shears, fragments of a wooden - bucket, &c., &c. Earlier iron age.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1169.—Pin of bronze. Real size. Found in a round tumulus with - charcoal and pieces of a clay urn, an iron blade of a knife, &c. - Earlier iron age.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1170.—Silver pin, with gold head. Probably for the hair. Earlier - iron age. Real size. -] - - -“A beggar-woman who died left a hekla, which was embroidered with much -gold. The men of King Magnus (Erlingsson) took the cloak and burnt it, -and divided the money among themselves. When the Birkibeinar (Sverris -men) heard this they called them _heklungs_” (Sverri’s Saga, c. 41; Fms. -viii.). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1171.—From Bayeux tapestry. Woman with long dress.[221] -] - -Women wore the _skyrta_ or _serk_ (chemise), either of linen or silk, -next to the body. It was so made that the breast was partly uncovered. -They slept in night-shirts, as we find from the frequent occurrence of -the word _nattserk_, which in earlier times had long sleeves. - -When the house of the chief Gissur at Flugumýri was burnt by enemies, -Ingibjörg, daughter of Sturla, escaped out of the fire. - - -“She was dressed only in a night-shirt (_natt-serk_), and was -barefooted; she was then fourteen winters old, tall and fine. A silver -belt was round her legs when she jumped out of her bed; a bag containing -many of her precious things was hanging on it” (Sturlunga, ix., c. 3). - - -King Hakon went to tell his queen the news that her father, Skúli, had -assumed the title of king. - - -“He went to the bed, and the queen stood in a silk shirt, and threw over -herself a red _möttul_; she received him well, and he was kind to her. -She took a silk cushion and asked the king to sit down; he said he would -not. She asked for news. ‘There is little news,’ the king answered; -‘there are two kings in Norway now.’” - - -Women’s socks or hose were called _skoklædi_ (shoe clothes); they are -still worn in Sœtersdal in Norway, and are often richly embroidered. - -Married women generally had their head covered with a _höfudduk_ -(head-cloth). High-born women wore a gold band, or diadem of gold, round -the head, a fashion occasionally adopted by men. - - -“One day Án met Drifa, Karl’s daughter, and with her three women. She -was handsome, and well dressed in a red kirtle with long sleeves, narrow -below, and long and tight at the waist. She wore a band (_hlad_)[222] -round her forehead, and her hair was very fine” (An Bogsveigi’s Saga, c. -5). - - -One kind of head-dress was called _fald_ (fold); others were _sveig_, -_motr_, and _krókfald_. The last word probably means a crooked -head-dress, perhaps somewhat similar to those now worn in Normandy and -Iceland. It must be concluded that the so-called _fald_ was often made -of linen, and it was considered stately to wear this head-dress high. - -_Skupla_ was another head-dress, which fell down over the face. - - -“Once when the famous chief and Saga-writer Snorri Sturluson was -travelling, he met a woman who wore a blue jacket (_ólpa_) with a felt -hood, which was fastened round her head; she wore it instead of a hat” -(Sturlunga, iv., c. 36). - - -Girls wore the hair, when long, wrapped round their belt; widows also -wore their hair hanging down. Long yellow hair, and a delicate -complexion, were considered essentials of beauty. - -Bui once went to Dofrafjöll (Dovrefjeld) on an errand for King Harald -Fairhair, and there met a woman of large stature. - - -“She was fair to look at, and dressed in a red kirtle, ornamented all -over with lace; she wore a broad silver belt; she wore her long and fine -hair loose, as is the custom of maidens; she had beautiful hands, and -many gold rings on them” (Kjalnesinga Saga, c. 13). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1172.—Bone comb, a little less than ⅓ real size, found in a round - tumulus, with an iron kettle, glass beads, charcoal, and burnt - bones. -] - -Ermingerd, a queen in Valland, at a feast which she gave to Rögnvald -jarl, - - -“came into the hall with many women. She had in her hand a -drinking-vessel of gold, and was dressed in the finest clothes; her hair -was loose, as is the custom of maidens, and on her forehead she had -placed a golden band” (Orkneyinga Saga, p. 280). - - -“Helga was so beautiful, that wise men say she was the most beautiful -woman in Iceland. Her hair was so long that it could cover her whole -body, and was as fine as gold; no match was then thought equal to her in -the whole of Borgarfjord and many other places” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. -4). - - -“Then Hallgerd was sent for, and came with two women. She wore a blue -woven mantle (_vefjarmöttul_), and under it a scarlet kirtle with a -silver belt; her hair reached down to her waist, on both sides, and she -tucked it under her belt” (Njala, c. 13). - - -When Gunnar went to the Althing he met the widow Hallgerd, daughter of -Höskuld, who - - -“was dressed in a red ornamented kirtle, and over it a scarlet cloak -ornamented with lace down to the skirt. Her long and fair hair reached -down to her bosom” (Njala, c. 33). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1173.—Fibula in silver gilt, adorned with niello and two green - glass pieces. ½ real size.—Gillberga, Nerike, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1174. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1175. -] - - Beads of bronze, real size, found in a stone cist, Sojvide, Götland. - There were 500 of these used to be fastened on a garment. Found - with buckle. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1176. - - Ring and ornament of bronze, with rivets of iron. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1177.—Necklace of gold, weight about 1½ lbs., Thorslunda, Öland, - consisting of tubes fastened one above the other and ornamented with - filigree work. Two other of these have been found in - Vestergötland—one on the slopes of the Alleberg Hills, near - Falköping, the other near Möne Church, about seventeen miles from - the former. A similar one was found in Southern Russia, now in the - Hermitage Museum, with upper and lower end, ending in well formed - long head of snake. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1178.—Back of the necklace. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1179.—Belt buckle of bronze. Real size.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1180.—Belt hook of bronze. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1181.—Bronze ring for belt, real size, found with a pincette of - bronze in a round tumulus inside a sepulchral chamber. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1182.—Heavy gold arm-ring; weight, 1 lb. 7 oz. ⅔ real size. Found - in a very large tumulus, with fragments of a two-edged sword, with a - magnificent scabbard of wood and bronze mounted with silver gilt, - and partially ornamented; a gold ring, six small rings of gold, a - gold pin, fragments of bronze kettle and vases, pieces of a bronze - sieve, ornaments of silver of drinking horn, fragments of - spear-heads of iron, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1183.—Bracelet of silver plated with silver gilt with the - exception of the heads of the small nails.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1184.—Spiral bracelet of gold. Real size. Weight, over 1½ oz. - Found in the lower part of a stone cairn with a gold spiral ring. A - little below the soil of the cairn were found charcoal, pieces of - bone, and fragments of iron destroyed by rust.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1185.—Spiral bracelet of gold, ⅔ real size, found in a mound - inside a cist. Weight, nearly 3 oz.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1186.—Ring of gold. Real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1187.—Gold ring, found in a mound with a bronze vase, pieces of a - large spiral gold bracelet, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1188.—Finger ring of gold with a cornelian. Real size.—Karneol - Sneda, near Ystad, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1189.—Spiral finger ring. Real size.—Bohuslan. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1190. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1191. -] - - Gold ring, real size, found in a tumulus with fragments of a - two-edged sword with its bronze mountings, &c.—Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1192. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1193. -] - - Gold ring, real size, found in a round mound with four other gold - rings, &c. The stone in the middle is a flat cornelian, the one - above a piece of convex glass; the lower one is missing.—Verdalen, - Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1194.—Ring of gold. Real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1195.—Ring of gold. Real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1196.—Necklet of gold, weight over 4 oz., found under a large - stone.—Södermanland, Sweden. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1197.—Diadem of gold, found while digging potatoes; weight - slightly over 6 oz. ⅗ real size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1198.—Diadem or necklet of gold, weight 6½ oz., found in a ditch - near the city of Abo, Finland. ½ real size. -] - - These types of diadems in spiral bracelets have been found in bog - finds of the Thorsberg, and also with Valoby graves. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1199. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1200. -] - - Button of gold, front and reverse, with garnets - _enchassés_.—Götland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1201.—Gold bead. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1202.—Glass bead. Real size. Found when ploughing.—Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1203.—Necklet of almost pure gold (99·5), weighing 6 oz. ⅔ real - size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1204.—Spiral bracelet of gold; weight, 7 oz. Real size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1205.—Filigree bead of gold.—Vestmanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1206.—Charm of gold. Real size.—Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1207.—Human figure of gold on the necklace of Möne, found in a - stone-heap; double real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1208.—Necklace of gold, ornamented with filigree work and Roman - and Byzantine coins of the 5th century; ⅓ real size.—Scania, - Copenhagen Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1209.—Bracelet of bronze, found in a mound at Husby, - Erlinghumdra, - Upland. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1210. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1211. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1212. -] - - Figures of animals, real size, in amber, found in a - tumulus.—Indersöen, Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1213.—Diadem of gold. ½ real size. Found under a big stone in a - heap of stones; weight, 8 oz.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1214.—Probably a diadem of gold melted with silver; weight over 2 - lbs. - ½ real size.—Medelpal, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1215.—Diadem of gold; weight just over 6 ozs. ⅔ real - size.—Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1216. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1217. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1218. -] - - Charm of gold, three different views.—Vestmanland. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1219.—Figure of gold; real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1220.—Neck-ring of gold. ⅔ real size. Found under a big stone. - Weighs 11¼ oz.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1221.—Pendant of gold, found in a field. Real size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1222.—Neck-ring of almost pure gold, forming part of one of the - largest finds of gold ornaments ever made in Sweden, which weighed - over 27 lbs.; weight, 2½ lbs. ⅔ real size.—Thureholm, Södermanland, - Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1223.—Necklace of gold with a bracteate in the centre. Found in a - tumulus in Norway with two gold rings. ¾ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1224.—Necklace of silver. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1225.—Pendant on necklace as seen from below. Real size. Found in - a tumulus, in a deep hole, made on purpose, with a fragment of a - silver gilt fibula, a small spiral ring of gold having been used as - money, five clay vessels, a glass cup, fixtures of iron for two - wooden buckets, one lever balance of spindle in clay, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1226.—Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1227. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1228. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1229. -] - - Bracteates of gold found with other bracteates. ⅔ real size.—Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1230.—Bronze fibula having the form of a tumulus; the pin of iron - has been destroyed by rust.—Helgö, Smaaland. Collection Wittlock, - Vexio. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1231.—Fibula of iron, found with burnt bones in a clay - urn.—Tanum, Bohuslan. ¾ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1232.—Fibula of iron, found in a stone cist by the side of a - skeleton, with a clay urn and an iron sword, &c., &c., in Stora - Dalby, Öland. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1233.—Fibula of silver, plated with gold, found in a stone cist - with a skeleton seated. ¾ real size.—Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1234.—Fibula of silver, plated with gold, found under a stone - with several glass and silver beads. Collection of Captain - Ulfsparre, Stockholm.—Götland. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1235.—Fibula of bronze plated with silver gilt. ½ real size. - Found in a large sepulchral room built of slabs, with a bronze - kettle, two clay urns, &c.—Aak, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1236.—Fibula of silver found in a mound with a gold bracelet, - bronze ring gilt, bronze knife, and a broken urn, etc. Real - size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1237.—Silver fibula. Real size. In a mound with burnt bones and - charcoal.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1238.—Fibula of silver gilt. ⅔ real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1239.—Silver gilt fibula in tumulus. ½ real size.—Hagby, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1240.—Fibula of bronze. Real size, found in a mound with a wooden - bucket ornamented with bronze, pieces of iron scissors, a flat ring - of gold, &c.—Near Stavanger, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1241.—Fibula of bronze found in a clay urn with burnt bones near - the border of a tumulus. Real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1241A.—Fibula of bronze inlaid with silver. In a mound with - shield boss, spear-point and arrow-points of iron, belt ring, and - knife handle of bronze, and an ornamented leather belt. ⅔ real - size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1242.—Fibula of bronze. Place of find unknown. 3/7 real - size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1243.—Fibula of bronze inlaid with silver, found in a tumulus - with three other bronze fibulæ, fifteen gilt buttons, &c. ⅔ real - size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1244.—Fibula of bronze, ½ real size.—Nordland, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1245.—Fibula of bronze in a tumulus. In a mound with other - fibulas, a silver ring, &c. ⅔ real size.—Near Stavanger, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1246.—Fibula of silver gilt. The most elevated flat parts are - niellés. There are many blue stones here and there, some fastened - with gold. ¾ size. Found in a mound, with three gold bracteates, a - spiral ring of gold, three small fibulæ of silver gilt of the same - type, a bronze key, pieces of a two-edged sword, a small spear-head, - &c., &c., unburnt bones and teeth of a cow and other animals, &c., - and a quantity of burnt grain (rye). -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1247.—Fibula of bronze plated with silver work, found with a - bronze kettle filled with burnt bones, and covered with a slab; a - gold chain, and a spiral ring. Real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1248.—Fibula of bronze. Real size. Found in a funeral chamber of - stone, with two clay urns with burnt bones, a belt, ring, - &c.—Lödingen, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1249.—Earring of bronze with glass beads. Real size. Found in a - round mound under a bronze kettle, glass beads, &c. The kettle - contained burnt bones, and was in a bed of charcoal and calcined - earth.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1250.—Fibula of silver gilt, partly niellé. ⅔ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1251.—Fibula in bronze. Real size. Found when ploughing over an - ancient tumulus. Nearly similar in form to the fibulæ found at - Camirus, Rhodes. Not very archaic pottery. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1252.—Fibula, real size.—Bornholm, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1253.—Fibula, real size.—Bornholm, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1254.—Fibula, plated with gold, only a little of the metal - remaining. Real size.—Southern Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1255.—Buckle of a belt in silver and bronze, ornamented with - garnets _enchassés_. Real size. Earlier iron age.—Norway. -] - -Men and women loved to adorn themselves with jewels and objects of -gold;[223] the ornaments for both sexes seem to have been somewhat -similar; rings, bracelets, fibulæ (used to fasten together on to the -right shoulder the ends of cloaks), brooches, clasps and buckles, pins, -hooks, pendants round the neck, bracteates, diadems, necklaces, beads of -silver, gold, and glass, &c., and gold rings worn round the legs, were -most common. - -The numerous illustrations of jewels and ornaments seen throughout the -pages of this work show the taste of the people, and the different forms -worn by them, even in very early times. - -To gold the poets gave many figurative names which are derived from -either the myths or history of the people, and which often show in their -metaphors the different uses to which gold was applied:—The fire of the -hand, or arm; the beacon of the hawk-seat (the wrist); the fire of the -top of the masthead, &c. - -Some of the rings and necklaces were of such remarkable workmanship that -they had special names, and their fame was known far and wide. Among the -more celebrated rings were the _Sviagris_,[224] _Draupnir_, and -_Hnitud_; and among the necklaces that of Freyja made by the Dvergar. - - -“Ulf the Red was always accustomed to be with King Olaf during -midwinter. Ulf brought the king many precious things which he had -acquired during the summer. And one gold ring he had got called _Hnitud_ -(the welded). It was welded together in seven places. It was of much -better gold than other rings. This ring had been given to Ulf by a bondi -named Lodmund” (Thatt of Norna Gest). - - -Beads are often mentioned. - -Bardi, a good champion, was going to a fight, and when his foster-mother -took leave of him - - -“she took out of her shirt a large necklace of beads, and put it round -his neck over his shirt.[225] - -“Thorbjörn ran at Bardi and struck his neck; a very loud crash was -heard; the blow hit the bead in the necklace, which had moved when Bardi -gave his knife to Njal’s son. The bead burst asunder, and blood gushed -out on both sides of the necklace, but Bardi was not wounded. Thorbjörn -said: ‘Thou art a tröll, as irons bite thee not’” (Viga-Styr and -Heidarviga, c. 23). - - -Towards the later centuries of the Viking period the brooches, fibulæ, -&c., become coarse and heavy. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1256.—Fibula of bronze, ornamented with gold and silver. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1257.—Fibula of bronze, ⅔ real size.—Zeeland, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1258.—Fibula of bronze, ⅔ real size.—Bjornhofda, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1259.—Fibula of gilt bronze, ornamented with walrus tusk and - garnets (later iron age). ⅔ real size.—Othemar’s, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1260.—Bronze ornament gilt, found with glass beads, fragments of - an axe, spears and arrow heads, &c., &c. Real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1261.—Bracelet of massive gold, ¾ real size, found in a field at - Vallakra, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1262.—Silver fibula, ⅘ real size, with filigree work and ring for - a chain.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1263.—Buckle of silver; ⅓ real size; weight, 13½ ozs.—Björkås, - Tanum parish, Bohuslan. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1264.—Silver buckle; ⅔ real size; weight, 9 oz.; found in - 1739.—Vible, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1265.—Silver chain with Thor’s hammer. ½ real size.—Bredsättra, - Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1266.—Bracelet of gold, real size. Middle iron age.—Gudme, - Svendborg Amt. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1267.—Amber beads, ½ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1268.—Gold bead, ⅔ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1269.—Ornament of silver, real size, found in a grave mound, with - a large hoard consisting of two neck rings, five bracelets, two - finger rings, two fibulæ, &c., &c., of silver, three hanging - ornaments of bronze, one representing a human face, three silver and - fourteen glass beads, &c., &c. Earlier iron age.—Tuna parish, - Helsingland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1270.—Silver brooch. ⅔ real size. Found in a tumulus. The - sepulchral chamber was about 13½ feet long, 3 feet wide and high, - made of slabs and lined with oak planks and birch bark. There were - remains of several other brooches, a large bronze vessel with three - handles, remains of a silver-gilt fibula and two small silver - fibulæ. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1271.—Fibula ornamented with filigree work and chain of silver; - length, 10½ inches. Found in a field at Ekelunda, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1272.—Bronze pin. ½ real size.—Aronstorp, Öland. -] - ------ - -Footnote 220: - - See p. 154. - -Footnote 221: - - The name of Ælgyva, mentioned on the tapestry, is evidently the same - as the Northern Alfifa. - - “Svein, son of King Knut and Alfifa, daughter of Alfrun jarl, had - been put in Jomsborg to rule Vindland” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 252). - -Footnote 222: - - _Hlad_ seems to mean band rather than lace, as it is sometimes - translated; the finds show that gold bands or diadems were worn. - -Footnote 223: - - Among the objects made of gold were spurs, see Völsunga Saga, c. 27; - gold chairs, Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, c. 18; gold chests, Fornmanna Sögur, - vii.; gold horse-shoes, Fornmanna Sögur, vii.; gold dog-collars, - Gautrek’s Saga, c. 9; gold ring-coats of mail, Sigurdarkvida, iii.; - gold tablets, Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 26; cows’ horns occasionally seem - to have been covered with gold, as we see from Thrymskvida, st. 23, - Helgakvida Hjörvardssonar. - -Footnote 224: - - Cf. Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, c. 10–12. - -Footnote 225: - - This was probably given him as an amulet to protect him in the fight. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - THE BRACTEATES. - - Gold bracteates—Peculiarity of their designs—Mystic and symbolical - signs—Earlier runes—The Vadstena bracteate—The svastica, triskele, - and triad. - - -Among the most curious and beautiful ornaments that have been discovered -in the north are the gold bracteates, which occur in great numbers, but -are seldom found in graves, and which were used, as we can see from the -loop attached to them, as an ornament to be worn hanging from the neck; -that they were held to be protective amulets, and were used by the -temple priests in religious ceremonies, is probable. - -They are formed by embossing or stamping upon a disc, and the gold is -extremely thin. The peculiarity of their designs, and the mystic and -symbolic signs which are used upon them, such as the _svastica_, the -_triskele_, the _cross_, the _triad_ in dots, birds, snakes, &c., -peculiar shapes of animals, and the head-dress of men, are very -remarkable; and the sign in the shape of an S, found also on objects of -the bronze age, makes them specially interesting. - -We must receive with a great deal of caution the interpretation put upon -these signs by some of the archæologists who have tried to unravel their -meaning, and have taken the _svastica_ for the sign of Thor, for this -sign has been found in Greece by Schliemann and other antiquarians; the -_triskele_, or the triad with dots, to mean Odin, Vili, Ve, or Odin, -Hœnir and Löd; the birds to be the ravens of Odin; the human heads to be -representations either of Thor, Odin, or Frey; the animals to be the -goat of Thor, and Odin’s horse, Sleipnir. That the representations with -the sacred signs and the figure upon them had some peculiar meaning -there is, I think, no doubt; but what they really meant is a mystery -which has not yet been unravelled. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1273.—Bracteate—with man’s head and horned animal below—found at - Helsingborg, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1274.—Bracteate—with man’s head with helmet, and horned - animal—found at Raflunda, Scania, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1275.—Bracteate—horse (?) apparently loaded with treasure, - probably the horse _Grani_ mentioned in Volsunga Saga—found at - Eskatorp, Halland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1276.—Bracteate—warrior with spear, a two-horned animal, and - runes, found in Zeeland, Denmark. -] - -The runic characters stamped upon these ornaments show them to be -peculiarly northern, and to belong to a rune-writing people. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1277.—Bracteates forming part of a necklace found at Faxö, - Sjælland, Denmark. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1278.—Bracteate—man’s head with symbolic signs, a hand, - &c.—Lolland, Denmark. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1279.—Bracteate—man, and two-horned animal, and runes—in - Stockholm Museum. Real size. -] - - Bracteates. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1280.—Real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1281.—Real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1282.—Real size.—Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1283. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1284.—Reverse. -] - - Roman gold coin (Valentinian), real size, found with fragments of a - bronze vessel, glass beads, &c.—Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1285. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1286.—Reverse. -] - - Imitation of Roman gold coin, real size, found in a tumulus with - charcoal, gold ornaments, glass and amber beads, &c.—Norway. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1287.—Bracteate from Lögstör, Jutland. Real size. On it are the - cross signs and _triskele_ and two birds which recall the Saga about - Sigurd Fafnisbani, or Odin and his ravens. A similar one with two - birds has been found in Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1288.—Bracteate. Southern Jutland. A warrior, bird, stag, or - horse, and dots. Real size. -] - -Of the hundreds of bracteates[226] which have been discovered, a large -number were found together; and those of similar design, which have -evidently been struck from the same die, are sometimes found in regions -far apart. The bracteates with the peculiar mystic signs above -enumerated disappear entirely towards the year 600, and though -bracteates are still found they are of quite different designs; for -those with representations of dragons, serpents, &c., are of a much -later period. - -Many of these designs may perhaps represent the deeds of great heroes -told in ancient songs, such for example as the scene upon the gold -bracteate found under the altar in the ancient wooden church of Gudsdal -Troen parish in Gudbrandsdal, Norway, on which an armour-clad warrior on -horseback fights a dragon. The purity of their gold is as remarkable as -the skill of their workmanship. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1289.—Bracteate. Real size.—Blekinge, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1290.—Bracteate. Real size.—Vestergötland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1291.—Bracteate with runic alphabet.—Vadstena, Sweden. Real size. -] - -The most important bracteate found is one of the two discovered near the -little town of Vadstena on the Wettern, in Sweden. It has around its -border an inscription in earlier runes, which evidently must be read -from right to left. It has been ascertained by the scholars who have -made a study of runes that, with the exception of the first division of -eight, they represent the runic alphabet in its earliest form, the -letter D being, for want of space, the only one missing. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1292.—Bracteate, Lyngby, Jutland, representing a man with a - two-horned animal, surrounded by the _svastika_, the _triskele_, and - four dots forming a cross, a circle of men’s heads, and a circle of - animals. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1293.—Bracteate in Copenhagen Museum. Warrior, with a sword, - fighting animals. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1294.—Bracteate found at Hitterdal, Norway, with _svastica_, and - dots on it. Warrior’s head with helmet over the face, and crown - above the helmet. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1295.—Bracteate found at Raflunda, Scania. Triangle of heads. - Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1296.—Bracteate; place of find unknown. Real size.—Stockholm - Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1297.—The largest existing bracteate, found at Åsum, Scania, - Sweden, with _svastica_, in 1882. ⅘ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1298.—Bracteate found at Upland, Sweden. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1299.—Reverse, with horseman apparently riding on the bare back - of the horse. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1300.—Bracteate found at Gudbrandsdal, Norway. Warrior fighting a - dragon. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1301. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1302.—Reverse. -] - - Bracteate found at Trollhättan, Sweden. Real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1303. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1304. -] - - Bracteates found at Slangerup, Zeeland. Real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1305.—Bracteate, Zeeland, Denmark. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1306.—Bracteate found in Scania. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1307.—Bracteate found in Scania. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1308.—Bracteate found at Raflunda, Scania. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1309.—Bracteate found at Lelling, Zeeland. Real size. -] - -One of the facts which attracts great attention is the different mystic -signs[227] found upon bracteates and other numerous objects represented -in these pages. These no doubt had some symbolical meaning, just as the -Christian cross when used as an ornament, or placed upon a grave as a -symbol. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1310.—Runic stone with three horns in the shape of - triskele.—Snoldeley, Zeeland. -] - -Some of the signs appear to have been common to various nations, who -probably adopted the same religion from which they spring, just as -to-day the Christian cross is the emblem of numerous nations or tribes -scattered over the globe. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1311.—Fibula of silver, plated with gold, in shape of svastica. ⅖ - real size.—Woman’s skeleton grave, Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1312.—Fibula of gold ⅗ real size.—Skeleton grave, Fyen. -] - -The cross with four arms of equal length seems to be one of if not the -most ancient of symbolic signs; it is seen on the rock-tracings of -Bohuslan (of which several illustrations are given in this work), -sometimes surrounded by a ring, at others a double cross is represented -by itself. Such tracings cannot be taken for wheels or shields. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1313.—Fibula, ⅔ real size; appears to have been gilt.—Norway. -] - -Bronze knives, with a cross surmounted by a ring, are also to be seen. - -The _svastika_, or hooked cross, in its various modifications, seen on -so many objects in the North, is of very ancient origin, and occurs in -the Vedaic religion. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1314.—Bracteate of gold, real size, found with the door.—Tuft - Church, Sandver. -] - -Other remarkable signs are the triad, in the shape of dots placed in a -triangle, and the _triskele_, which are seen on many objects. There was -evidently importance attached to the numbers “Three” and “Nine;” but it -is impossible to tell what was the true meaning in the mythology of -these people of the triad, which is very common on the jewels and other -objects illustrated in this work,[228] and it is remarkable that some of -the graves are made to represent the above signs.[229] - ------ - -Footnote 226: - - Some magnificent works have been published on bracteates, the finest - being ‘Atlas for Nordisk Oldkyndighed,’ Copenhagen, 1857; but since - then many valuable additions have been discovered. - -Footnote 227: - - We find constant mention of the numbers 3 and 7, 9 and 12, which seem - to have been holy:— - - Heimdall had ix sisters for his mothers. - - Ægir had ix daughters. - - In Helgi Hundingsbani, ii., ix Valkyrjas help Helgi in a storm and - save his ships. - - Halfdan the old had ix + ix sons, of which ix were born first, and ix - after. - - Dag, one of Halfdan’s sons, had ix sons, and from all Halfdan’s sons - there are ix generations to Harald Fairhair. - - Draupnir begets 8 rings every ix night, and is itself the ix. The ring - did not get this quality before going through the fire on Baldr’s - pyre. - - The following will show the frequent occurrence of the number Nine in - the literature of the North:— - - With Harald Hilditönn were ix Scalds (Sögubrot, c. 8). - - IX nights had Frey to wait for Gerd. - - Njörd and Skadi watched in turns every ix nights by the sea or on - mountains (S. E. i. 92, 94). - - IX days at a time were Sigmund and Sinfjötli in wolves’ shapes. - - IX nights in succession comes King Siggeir’s mother as a she-wolf and - kills ix Volsungas (Volsunga, c. 5). - - IX nights did Odin hang on the windblown tree (Hávamál, 138). - - IX nights did Hermod ride through deep and dark valleys without any - sun, when he was going to Helheim. - - IX days lasted the battle on Dunheath. - - IX times 60 doors there are in Valhalla. - - IX times 60 halls in Bilskirnir. - - IX paces did Thor go from the Midgard’s serpent and die. - - IX paces are red-hot irons carried (Fornmanna Sögur, i.). - - IX red-hot plough-shares are stepped upon (Fornmanna Sögur, vii. 164, - x. 418). - -Footnote 228: - - The S sign is also common, especially in the bronze age. - -Footnote 229: - - A kind of trinity of the higher deities is represented in Persia, - India, Chaldæa, and other countries. - - - - - CHAPTER XX. - OCCUPATIONS AND SPORTS OF MEN. - - Honour in which work was held—Kings superintend their - own estates—Importance of fisheries—Skill of the people - in the working of iron, and in shipbuilding—The Thiele - find—Sports—Falconry—Retrievers and hounds—Dancing not - a favourite amusement—Chess and backgammon—Several - varieties—Costliness of chessboards—Games with dice—Jugglers and - buffoons—Horse-fights—Parables and puzzles—Gest’s riddles. - - -Prominent chiefs did not disdain to take part in or superintend the work -on their estates, and neither master, mistress nor children of wealthy -families were ever idle. - - -“Harald Grœnski’s son, Olaf, was fostered with his stepfather Sigurd Syr -and his mother Ásta. Hrani Vidförli (the Wide-travelling) was with her, -and fostered King Olaf Haraldsson. Olaf soon became an accomplished man, -fair of face, of middle stature, and wise and eloquent. Sigurd Syr was a -great husbandman; his men were always at work, and he often went himself -to look to the fields, meadows, and cattle, and to the smithy, or -wherever anything was going on” (St. Olaf, c. 1).[230] - - -“King Olaf often stayed in the country on the large bœr which he owned. -When he was at Haukbœr in Ránriki, he fell sick and died” (Olaf the -Quiet’s Saga, c. 11).[231] - - -The well-to-do generally had a very large number of servants, both free -and thralls, to assist them in their work. - - -“It is told that Gudmund Riki was much superior to other men in -magnificence, and had 100 servants and 100 cows; it was his custom to -have the sons of prominent men with him, and he treated them well; they -had not to do any work, but were always to sit with him, though it was -their custom when they were at home, high-born though they were, to -work” (Ljósvetninga Saga, c. 5).[232] - - -The bœndr after the spring cultivation went on Viking expeditions, -returned at Midsummer and attended to the harvest; then again went on -Viking expeditions, from which they did not return until winter, which -was spent quietly at home.[233] - - -“King Sigurd Syr was on his field when the messengers came to him and -told him this news (that Olaf was coming) and all the doings of Ásta at -the bœr. He had many men there; some cut corn, others tied it (into -sheaves), others drove corn home, others stowed it in hay-houses or -barns. He, and two men with him, walked sometimes on the field, -sometimes where the corn was stacked” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 31). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1315.—Plough of oak wood. Length, 9 feet. Found in Döstrup, - Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1316.—Shears. ⅓ real size.—Ultuna. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1317.—Sickle, ⅓ real size, found in a tumulus on burnt bones in - an urn.—Norway. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1318.—Sickle, ⅓ real size, found in a tumulus on burnt bones and - charcoal, with fragments of a bone comb and a needle of - iron.—Norway. Earlier iron age. -] - -The Sagas often mention people possessing sheep, and shears are often -found. The one here represented was in the Ultuna ship’s find, and had -been placed with weapons and other objects belonging to the warrior, who -probably owned great estates and large flocks of sheep. - -The fisheries were of great importance, and much care was bestowed upon -them even by great chiefs, among whom were Eyvind Skáldaspillir and -Erling Skjalgsson. The seal, herring, and cod fisheries gave occupation -to a large number of people. - - -“Erling always kept at home thirty thralls, besides other bond-people. -He allotted to them a certain day’s work, and afterwards gave them leave -and time to work for themselves at twilight or at night; he gave them -land for tillage, to sow grain for themselves and use the produce for -getting property. He placed on each one his value and price. Many -redeemed themselves in the first or second season, and all who were -thrifty did so in three winters. With this property Erling bought -himself other thralls; and he sent some of his produce to the herring -fishery, and some to other kinds of business; some cleared the woods and -made themselves farms; to all he gave some means of support” (St. Olaf, -c. 22).[234] - - -We have seen that the people of the North were great shipbuilders, and -the numerous discoveries of various tools as well as weapons show the -skill of their smiths and workers in iron, some of whom were high-born -men. - - -“He (Thorolf) had a large long ship made with a dragon’s head, and had -it fitted out in the best manner. He sailed in it southward, and made a -great sweep of the provisions then found in Halogaland. He also sent men -herring fishing and cod fishing, and in many places seals were caught -and eggs taken; all the produce of this expedition was brought to him. -He had never fewer free men than a hundred at his home. He was -open-handed and liberal, and became a good friend of the chiefs and all -his neighbours; he became powerful, and paid much attention to the -outfitting of his ships and weapons” (Egil’s Saga, c. 10). - - -“Skallagrim was a very hard-working man. He had always many men with -him, and had fetched many of the provisions and means of subsistence, -for at first they had but few cattle in comparison with what was needed -for so many. His cattle found their own food during the winter in the -forests. He was a great shipwright, and there was no want of -drift-timber[235] west of Myrar. He had a bœr built at Alp-tanes, and -had another household there; his men went out fishing, seal-catching, -and egg-gathering from there, as there was a quantity of these things; -he also had drift-timber brought in. Many whales were there then, and -they could shoot as many as they wanted, for the creatures were not used -to men. He had a third bœr near the sea, in the western part of Myrar, -where it was still easier to procure drift-wood; there he had grain -grown and called the farm Akrar. Some outlying islands there were called -Hvalseyjar, because whales were found on them. Skallagrim also had his -men up at the salmon rivers to fish, and placed Odd Einbúi at Gljúfrá to -take care of the catch; he lived at Einbuabrekkur, and Einbuanes is -named from him.... When the cattle of Skallagrim grew numerous they all -went up on the mountains in the summer. He found that those cattle which -went up on the heaths became much larger and fatter, and that the sheep -kept themselves during the winter in mountain valleys if they were not -taken down, so he had a farm made up at the mountain, and had a -household there where his sheep were taken care of. Gris took care of -that farm, and Grisartunga is named from him” (Egil’s Saga, c. 29). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1319.—Celt, of iron, ⅓ real size, found with five Roman silver - coins (Adrian-Commodus).—Gotland. -] - - -“Thorstein had built a church on his farm. From this he had made a -bridge with great skill; under the beams which supported it were rings -with tinkling bells[236] attached to them, so that when people walked -over it they were heard at Skarfsstadir, half a sea-mile distant. -Thorstein took much pains with this bridge, for he was a great worker in -iron. Gretti worked hard in beating the iron that winter, though at -times he did not care to do it. He was however quiet that winter, so -that nothing happened” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 53).[237] - - -“Then Skallagrim set up a household in Knarrarnes, and there had a farm -for a long time after. He was a great iron-smith, and used much red iron -ore[238] during the winters. He had a smithy made close to the sea, far -from Borg, at Ranfarnes” (Egil’s Saga, c. 30). - - -“Ulf was son of Bjalfi and Hallbera, daughter of Ulf Uargi; she was the -sister of Hallbjörn Half-Troll in Hrafnista, the father of Ketil Hœng. -He was so tall and strong that his like was not found in the land at -that time; when he was young he went on Viking expeditions. Berdlu-Kari, -high-born, berserk, of great strength and boldness, was with him. He and -Ulf had one money-bag together, and the most intimate friendship existed -between them. When they returned from their expedition Kari went to his -bœr at Berdla; he was very wealthy and had three children, Eyvind Lambi, -Ölvir Hnufa, and a daughter Salbjörg. She was one of the fairest of -women and very accomplished. Ulf married her, and went to his bœr; he -was rich both in lands and movables. He took the rights of a lendr man, -as his forefathers had done, and became a powerful man. It is said that -he was a great husbandman. It was his custom to rise early in the -morning and overlook the work of the men or of his smiths, and see over -his cattle and fields, and sometimes to give advice to those who needed -it. His counsel was good in everything, for he was very wise; but every -evening he became so peevish that few men could speak to him, and he was -then fond of sleep. It was believed that he was a great shape-changer -(hamramm = shape-strong), and he was called Kveldulf (evening wolf). -Kveldulf had two sons by his wife, the older named Thórolf, and the -younger Grim. When they grew up they were both tall and strong like -their father. Thorólf was very handsome and accomplished; like his -mother’s kin, very cheerful and a liberal man in everything, and a great -trader; he was beloved by all; Grim was swarthy and ugly, like his -father, both in looks and character. He became a great man of business, -and was skilled in working wood and iron and became a great smith. In -winter he often went herring fishing with a _lagnar skuta_ (fishing -sloop), and many servants with him” (Egil’s Saga, c. 29).[239] - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1320.—Blacksmith’s pincers of iron, found with an urn containing - burnt bones, a hammer of iron, 29 small glass beads, &c. ⅓ real - size.—Skåggesta, Södermanland, Sweden. -] - - THIELE FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1321. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1322. -] - - Two of nine different weights of iron, covered with thin plates of - brass. Real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1323. - - Iron tongs, 12 inches - long. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1324. - - Iron pincers, 6 inches - long. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1325. - - Iron tongs, 10 inches long. - ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1326.—Flat iron hammer of peculiar shape, 6¼ inches - long, 1 inch square at the head, and ½ inch broad at the - pointed end. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1327. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1328. -] - - Iron hammers (?) ⅓ real size. - -Several finds have been discovered which evidently belonged to a -blacksmith. At Thiele, Viborg, Jutland, was discovered in the ground a -great number of objects which undoubtedly had belonged to one.[240] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1329. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1330.—Two mountings of iron and a kind of light-coloured bronze, - 5½ inches; consisting of two parallel twisted iron bars, between - which there had been soldered a square iron bar, held together by a - bronze ring. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1331.—Two-edged sword, in an unfinished state, with - trade-mark.—Norway. Found with other objects, which appear to have - been quite new when placed there, and some unfinished, among which - were two swords with similar analogue trade-mark as those found in - the Nydam and Vimose bog finds. -] - -Among the different occupations mentioned are those of salt and tar -making.[241] Salt making or burning seems to have been one of the -humblest of occupations or trades. - - -“A man is allowed to take bark and birch of his tenant-land for roofing -his house and buy food-salt with it, and he shall make salt if he lives -by the sea in order to buy birch and bark with it, and as much as he -needs himself, but not more” (Frostath, xiii. 4). - - -“A man named Karl had a brother, Björn. They were of low birth, but very -industrious men. They had before been salt-burners, and had earned money -and become traders. They went on trading-journeys to Saxland and -Sudrriki”[242] (Magnus the Good’s Saga).[243] - - -Among the favourite pastimes of the Norsemen were falconry and hunting. -Falconry existed in the North from the earliest times, and may have been -brought into France, England, and other countries in Europe by the -Northmen. Its existence is not, I think, mentioned in the Roman accounts -of the countries conquered by them, and the low civilisation of the -tribes inhabiting Germania in the Roman period did not admit of such a -pastime. - -Men had their hawks burned with them and a number of the talons of these -birds have been found in several graves. - -The inference drawn from the Sagas that men when going on a journey had -their hawks with them, is corroborated by the Bayeux tapestry, where -numerous chiefs are seen with these birds. - -When Hrólf Kraki and his men walked into the hall of King Adils at -Upsala, it is said— - - -“They had their hawks on their shoulders, and it was thought a great -ornament in those times. King Hrólf had a hawk called Hábrók”[244] -(Hrólf Kraki’s Saga, c. 40).[245] - - -“One day the king (Olaf of Sweden) rode out early with his hawks and -dogs[246] and men with him. When they let loose the hawks the king’s -hawk in one flight killed two heathcocks (_Tetrao tetrix_), and at once -he again flew forward and killed three more. The dogs ran underneath and -took every bird that fell down on the ground. The king galloped after, -and picked up the game himself, and boasted much. He said: ‘Long will it -be before you hunt like this.’ They assented, and answered that they -thought no king had such luck in hunting. Then they all rode home, and -the king was very glad” (Heimskringla, St. Olaf, c. 90). - - -Hawks were protected by the laws. - - -“If a man kills a hawk on a man’s hand he shall pay a mark valued in -silver, and damages for the outrage, but half a mark if he kills one in -another place, all valued in silver” (Earlier Frostathing’s Law, xi. -25). - - -Besides hunting-dogs there were other kinds, among which were shepherd -and watch-dogs. - - -“When Olaf was in Ireland he went on a coast-raid.[247] As they needed -provisions they went ashore and drove down many cattle. A bondi came -there and asked Olaf to give him back his cows. Olaf replied that he -might take them if he could recognise them and not delay their journey. -The bondi had with him a large sheep-dog. He pointed out to it the herd -of cattle, which numbered many hundreds. The dog ran through all the -herds, and took away as many cows as the bondi had said belonged to him, -and they were all marked with the same mark. Then they acknowledged that -the dog had found out the right cattle. They thought it a wonderfully -wise dog. Olaf asked if the bondi would give him the dog. ‘Willingly,’ -answered the bondi. Olaf at once gave him a gold ring, and promised to -be his friend. The dog’s name was Vigi, and it was the best of all dogs. -Olaf owned it long after this” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 35). - - -“If a man kills a lapdog of another he must pay 12 aurar if the dog is a -lapdog whose neck one can embrace with one hand, the fingers touching -each other; 6 aurar are to be paid for a greyhound (mjóhund), and for a -hunting-dog half a mark, and also for a sheep-dog, if it is tied by the -innermost ox,[248] or untied by the outermost ox, and also at the gate. -One aurar is to be paid for a dog guarding the house, if it is killed” -(Frostath., xi. 24). - - -Chess, among house pastimes, was included in the Idrotter, as was -gambling with dice, music, &c. - -From an early period the game of chess, or at least a game resembling -it, was known in the North; skill in playing it was held to be an -accomplishment worthy of powerful chiefs. Judging from the numerous -finds, the game must have been very common. It must have been of very -great antiquity, for it is mentioned in Voluspa. - -The game, of which there were several varieties, though in what they -differed we do not know, was called _tafl_,[249] and the pieces -_toflur_. In _Hnot-tafl_, the pieces were called “_hunar_” (sing. -_hunn_, or _huni_). - -_Hnefa-tafl_ was played with black and white pieces; one of them, -probably the most important, was called _Hnefi_, from which the name of -this peculiar game is probably derived. _Skak_, or _Skak-tafl_, was -played on a board divided into squares, and seems to have been most like -the present chess.[250] The board was like the chessboard of our day. To -learn the game was part of the education of the high-born, and was -considered idróttir. It must have been a great pastime on board ship, -for in many of the pieces found are little holes in the centre for pegs, -which made them fast and prevented them from being upset or changing -place when the vessel rolled. The placing of the pieces was decided by -the throwing of dice. - - -“After the battle at the river Helga, Ulf jarl made a feast for Knut at -Roiskelda. They played skaktafl, but the king was very gloomy.... When -they had played for a while, the jarl took one of the king’s knights; -the king put the piece back, and told him to make another move. The jarl -got angry, upset the chessboard (taflbord), and went away” (St. Olaf’s -Saga, ch. 163). - - -The board itself was often very costly, being sometimes made of gold, -and was counted among valuable inheritances, and as worthy of adorning -the temple of the gods; it was such a treasure that Hrolf Nefia, at the -risk of his life, sought to capture one in the temple of Bjarmaland. - -Sturlaug went to Bjarmaland, and with his men walked up to a temple. - - -“He looked into the temple and saw a very large (image of) Thor sitting -in a high-seat; in front of him was a splendid table covered with -silver.... He saw a chessboard and chess-pieces of bright gold”[251] -(Sturlaug’s Saga Starfsama, ch. 18). - - -The people often spent their time during the long winter evenings in -playing chess. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1332.—Chess piece of bone.—Norway. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1333.—Chess piece of bone, found with two other pieces.—Norway. ⅔ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1334.—Chess piece of clay, found with three others.—Norway. ⅔ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1335. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1336. -] - - Chess, backgammon, or draughtsman, of bone, showing hole for peg, - found with fragments of a double-edged sword, iron spurs, - &c.—Norway. ⅔ real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1337.—Draught piece of bone.—Ultuna find. Real size. -] - - -“In Brattahlid (a farm), in Grœnland, during the winter, they often -amused themselves with chess-playing (_tafl_), and saga-telling, and -many things that could improve their homelife” (Thorfinn Karlsefni, c. -7). - - -It was customary for women, as well as men, to play at the game. - - -“He (Gunnlaug Ormstunga) and Helga often amused themselves with chess; -they soon liked each other well, as was afterwards seen. They were -almost of the same age” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga, 4). - - -“One night in the spring Thorir could not sleep; he walked out and it -rained hard; he heard a loud bleating from where the lambs were -separated from the ewes; Thorir walked there and saw that two kids and -two lambs were lying tied on the wall of the fold, and in the fold sat -two women playing at chess; the pieces were made of silver, but all the -red ones were gilded. They were much startled. Thorir got hold of them -and seated them at his side, and asked why they stole his sheep.... -Thorir agreed that they might take the sheep with them, but that he -should have the chessboard and what belonged to it; on the strings of -the _taflpung_ (chess-bag) was a gold ring set with stones, and a silver -ring was in the chessboard. Thorir took all this, and they parted” -(Gullthori’s Saga, ch. 14). - - -The temper of the players did not always remain unruffled. - - -“It happened that Thorgils Bödvarsson and Sám Magnússon quarrelled over -a game of chess; Sám wanted to move back a knight which he had exposed, -but Thorgils would not allow it. Markús Mardarson advised them to move -the knight back and not quarrel. Thorgils said he would not take his -advice, and upset the chess, put (the pieces) into the bag, rose and -struck Sám on the ear, so that blood flowed” (Sturlunga Saga viii., vol. -ii. c. 1). - - -“Fridthjof sat at a hnefa-tafl when Hilding came. He said: ‘Our kings -send thee greetings, and want to have thy help for battle against King -Hring, who wants to attack their realm overbearingly and unjustly.’ -Fridthjof answered nothing, and said to Björn, with whom he played the -game: ‘There is an empty place, foster-brother, and thou shalt not make -a move but I will attack the red piece (tafla), and see if thou canst -guard it.’ Björn said: ‘Here are two choices, foster-brother, and we can -move in two ways.’ Fridthjof answered: ‘It is best to attack the hnefi -(= the highest piece) first, and then it is easy to choose what to do’” -(Fridthjof’s Saga, ch. 3). - - -It seems that the pieces that had just been moved were called out in a -loud voice. - - -“The king (Magnus the Good) sat and played at _Hneftafl_, and a man -called out the names of the king’s pieces when Ásmund came.” - - -Games with dice were of great antiquity, as seen from the finds, which -prove even more than the Sagas how common dice-throwing was. The -dice-throwing of the three Northern kings about Hisingen shows that the -highest throw won. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1338.—Die of bone. Real size.—Ultuna - find. -] - - -“On Hising (an island at the mouth of the Gauta river) was a district -which had at one time belonged to Norway, and at another to Gautaland. -The kings agreed to cast lots about the possession thereof, and throw -dice, and that he should have it who threw the highest. The Swedish king -threw two sixes, saying that King Olaf need not throw; but he replied, -shaking the dice in his hand, ‘there are yet two sixes on the dice, and -it is easy for God, my lord, to let them turn up again.’ He threw, and -got two sixes. Olaf King of Sweden threw and again got two sixes. Olaf -King of Norway threw and there was on one die six, but the other burst -asunder, and then there were seven. He then took possession of the -district” (St. Olaf’s Saga). - - -Dancing does not seem to have been a popular amusement before the end of -the 11th century; and it is only referred to in a very obscure manner in -the following Saga. - - -“King Godmund, of Glæsisvellir, was to give his sister in marriage to -Siggeir, son of King Harek of Bjarmaland, and had prepared a splendid -wedding-feast. Bosi was present, disguised in the garb of King Godmund’s -councillor Sigurd, whom he had slain. It is not stated how the chiefs -were placed, but it is mentioned that Sigurd played on a harp for the -bridesmaids; and when the horns were brought in the men said that no one -was his equal.... When the horn consecrated to Thor was brought in, -Sigurd changed the tune; then all that was loose, both knives and -plates, began to move; many jumped from their seats and moved to and fro -on the floor; and this continued for a long while. Then came the horn -consecrated to all the Asar. Sigurd once more changed the tune, and -played so loud that it echoed all around. All in the hall rose, except -the bride and bridegroom and the king, and everyone was moving round the -hall, for a long while. The king asked if he knew any more tunes, and he -said he still had some left, but he told the people to rest first. The -men sat down and began to drink. Then he played the _gygjarslag_ (air of -jötun-woman), and _draumbut_ (dream-piece), and _Hjarrandahljod_ (air of -Hjarrandi). When the horn consecrated to Odin came, Sigurd opened the -harp, which was so large that a man could stand upright in it; it shone -all over like red gold; he took from it white gloves embroidered with -gold, and played the air called _faldafeykir_ (the head-dress blower). -At this the head-dresses flew off the women, and moved above the -crossbeams; the women jumped up, the men sprang to their feet, and -nothing could be kept quiet. When this toast was finished, the toast -consecrated to Freyja, which was to be the last, came in; Sigurd touched -the string which lay across all the others, and which he had not struck -before, and told the king to expect hard playing; the king was so -startled that he, as well as the bride and bridegroom, jumped up, and -none were more lively than they, and this continued for a long while” -(Herraud and Bosi’s Saga, ch. 12). - - -Some of the chiefs or kings had jugglers or buffoons and performing dogs -to amuse them and their guests. It seems to have been customary to -exercise dogs in jumping over poles. A beggar came to King Magnus -Erlingsson. - - -“The king asked who he was. He answered he was an Icelander of the name -Mani, who had come northward from Rúm (Rome). The king said: ‘Thou must -know some wisdom, Tungli;[252] sit down and sing.’ He then sang the -_Útfarardrápa_ (poem on a voyage to the Holy Land) which Haldór Skvaldri -made about King Sigurd Jorsalafari, and the poem was much liked and -thought amusing. Two players[253] were in the stofa, who made small dogs -jump over high poles in front of high-born men, and the more high-born -they were the higher they jumped” (Fornmanna Sögur, viii.; Sverri’s -Saga). - - -“Tuta, a Frisian, was with King Harald; he was sent to him for show, for -he was short and stout, in every respect shaped like a dwarf” (Harald -Hardradi’s Saga). - - -Horse-fights were a favourite amusement with the people. Several mares -were kept near in order to make the horses fight more fiercely: each -horse was led by the owner or the trainer. When they rose on their hind -feet and began to bite each other, the men who followed supported and -urged them on, partly by inciting them with a stick. Great chiefs often -followed their stallions, and sometimes umpires were chosen, who in -doubtful cases decided which horse had the best of it; to own the best -horse was a great honour, and in such horse-fights many stallions were -often led against each other. - - -“It happened one summer, as it often does, that there was a horse-fight -(in Bergen, Norway). A man by name of Gaut of Mel, high of kin, a great -friend of the Sturlungar, had received from Sturla a good horse; it was -said by many to be the best in Norway. Arni öreyda, an Icelander, had -sent the king a horse which he called the best in Iceland; and these -horses were to fight. A large crowd of people gathered there. When the -horses were led forth, each of them seemed to be very fine; they were -let loose, and came together fiercely, and there followed a splendid -fight, both severe and long; but when the fight had lasted some time, -the king’s horse slackened. The king did not like this, as could easily -be seen. Gaut went round the circle of men, and made good use of the one -eye he had. Aron was present there, and with him Thorarin, his kinsman; -they were much displeased at the defeat of the horse. Aron was the -friend of Arni, but not of Gaut; he thought he knew why it was defeated. -As they saw that the king did not heed his horse, they went to him, and -Aron said: ‘Do not undervalue your horse, lord, for it must be most -precious; but this is not the way of fighting he is used to.’ ‘What way -is that?’ asked the king. ‘A man follows each horse, as it is led forth, -with a staff in his hand, and strikes the horse’s quarters, and supports -the horse when he rises.’ ‘If thou thinkest thou canst make the horse -stand,’ said the king, ‘then go.’ Now Aron and Thorarin took off their -overcoats, and took sticks in their hands; then they went to where the -king’s horse stood outside the circle; they touched it with their -sticks, and it started as if it knew why they had come; it rushed at the -horse of Gaut, and the latter at it, and they came together violently. -The horse of Gaut was now much pressed, for the king’s horse was -supported with strength; and it was said that it so had the best chance. -As day declined, the horse of Gaut slackened (its efforts), though it -would neither retreat nor run. Aron and Thorarin pushed their horse the -harder, till the horse of Gaut fell down from exhaustion and hard -fighting, and never afterwards rose. Gaut could not remain quiet on -account of his anger, and thought that Aron had killed his horse, and -was greatly displeased; but one could see that the king liked it well. -Then other horses were led forth, of which there is no account” (Biskupa -Sögur, i.; Aron’s Saga, ch. 18). - - -Some kinsmen of the chief Glúm came to him one autumn, and a feast was -made for them. - - -“When they made ready to go home, Glúm gave his kinsman Bjarni a red -stallion, six winters old, and said he would give him another if any -horse surpassed this one. They went home from the feast, and Bjarni at -once fed it on hay, and it was very well kept there. The next summer he -was very curious to know how it would fight. He talked about having a -fight against a horse owned by Thorkel Geirason of Skörd, and it was -decided that they should make the horses fight at Midsummer at -Máfahjalli. Thormód and his son Eyjúlf had a grey stallion with a mane -of a different colour, and always sold horses begotten by it, but did -not like to use it in a horse-fight. It is said that once the stallions -of Thormód and Bjarni met and bit each other so that they were all -bloody. The servant of Bjarni came to him and said that he had seen the -two stallions bitten, and red all over. Bjarni sent word to Thorkel that -they would not have the horse-fight, as his stallion was no longer able -to fight. Bjarni supposed that Eyjúlf and his father Thormód had made -the horses fight, as they could not have maltreated each other thus by -themselves, and therefore offered to have a horse-fight when eight weeks -of the summer had passed. Thormód asked his son to decide whether to do -it or not, for he wanted the fight. The horses were led forward, and the -fight went on well till eleven rounds had passed. Then Eyjúlf’s stallion -took hold of the jawbone of Bjarni’s, and held on until Bjarni came up -and struck it off. Eyjúlf turned round and struck the stallion, and the -stick rebounded heavily from the horse and hit Bjarni’s shoulder. The -horses were parted at once. Eyjúlf went to Bjarni and said this mishap -had not been wished by him. ‘I will show whether I did this -intentionally or not. I will give thee sixty rams if thou wilt not blame -me for this, and then thou canst see that I did not wish this to -happen.’ Bjarni said that he had caused it himself, and thought they had -not made the stallions bloody. Then they went home. In the autumn at the -_réttir_ (sheep-meeting) Eyjúlf took out sixty rams. Thormód asked what -he was going to do with these. Eyjúlf answered that he had given them to -Bjarni. Thormód said, ‘The blow was heavy, nor is the payment little.’ -As soon as he had said this Bjarni turned to him and struck him a -death-blow, and would not receive the sheep” (Vemund’s Saga, ch. -23).[254] - - -These horse-fights occasionally led to a struggle. - - -“In the summer a large horse-fight (_hestathing_) was appointed at -Langafit above Reykjar, and thither came many men. Atli of Bjarg -(Gretti’s brother) had a good horse, with a dark stripe along the back, -and of Keingála’s breed (a famous mare which had been owned by Gretti’s -father). Father and son thought a great deal of the horse. The brothers -Kormak and Thorgils of Mel had a brown horse, fearless in fight. The -horse of the brothers and that of Atli from Bjarg were to fight against -each other. There were also many other good horses. Odd Úmagaskald, a -kinsman of Kormak, was to attend the horse of the brothers during that -day; he had become a strong man, was very proud, overbearing, and -reckless. Gretti asked his brother Atli who should attend to his horse. -‘I have not quite decided that,’ Atli said. ‘Do you wish me to stand -near it?’ Gretti asked. ‘Be very quiet, then, kinsman,’ Atli added, ‘for -we have to deal with proud men.’ ‘They will have to pay for their -overbearing,’ continued Gretti, ‘if they do not keep it within bounds.’ -These horses were now led forward, while the others were standing tied -together near the bank of the river, which was there deep. - -“The horses bit each other savagely, and afforded the greatest -amusement. Odd followed his horse eagerly, while Gretti retreated and -seized the horse’s tail with one hand, holding in the other a staff, -with which he whipped him.... The horses while fighting moved towards -the river; Odd thrust at Gretti with the staff, and hit his -shoulder-blade, which was turned towards him. The blow was so violent -that the flesh was bruised, but Gretti was only slightly wounded. At -that moment the horses rose high on their hind legs. Gretti jumped under -the haunch of his horse and thrust his staff into the side of Odd, with -such force that three of his ribs were broken, and he fell into the -river with his horse as well as all the others. Men swam out to him, and -he was pulled up from the river. At this there was much shouting. Kormak -and his men and those from Bjarg seized their weapons; when the men from -Hrutafjord and those from Vatnsnes saw this they interceded, and they -were parted, and went home threatening each other; but they nevertheless -kept quiet for awhile. Atli spoke little of it, but Gretti was rather -loud-spoken, and said they would meet again, if he had his way” -(Gretti’s Saga, ch. 29). - - -“Wherever a man makes the horse of another fight without the owner’s -permission he shall pay the loss that ensues and _öfundarbót_[255] to -the owner, according to lawful judgment. If the hurt is valued at half a -mark, he shall pay full rett according to law, as if it were done from -hatred or envy. Every man shall answer for himself at a horse-fight, -whoever may have the fight. If a man strikes a horse without necessity -at a horse-fight, he shall pay öfundarbót to the owner; and if the horse -is damaged by it, he shall pay indemnity for damages and rett-of-envy to -the owner” (N. G. L., ii. 126). - - ------ - -Footnote 230: - - Cf. also Njala, cc. 44, 53. - -Footnote 231: - - Cf. also Njala, cc. 44, 53, 111; Ragnar Lodbrok. - -Footnote 232: - - Cf. also Vatnsdæla, c. 22. - -Footnote 233: - - Orkneyinga Saga. - -Footnote 234: - - Cf. also c. 21. - -Footnote 235: - - Forests then existed in Iceland. - -Footnote 236: - - Din-bells = dyn-bjöllur. - -Footnote 237: - - Cf. also Gisli Sursson’s Saga, p. 47. - -Footnote 238: - - Extracted much iron out of iron-ore—haematite. - -Footnote 239: - - Cf. also St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 234. - -Footnote 240: - - Among the objects belonging to that find which are preserved in the - Old-northern Museum of Copenhagen, were:— - - A small (2¾ inches long) anvil of iron of the shape common at the - present day. - - A heavy iron hammer, 6 inches long, of similar shape to those now in - use. - - A pair of iron shears, 10 inches long, like those used for cutting of - metal plates. - - Three iron files, from 7¼ to 8¾ inches long. The cutting of the files - being straight across the length of the file. Similar files have been - found in the Vimose bog find. - - An iron chisel, 5½ inches long. - - Soldering spoons of iron, containing remains of a very hard melted - metal, which, on examination, has been found to be a whitish alloy of - base metals. - - Seven fragmentary pieces of scales. - - Two bronze bells. - - An iron axe, 6 inches long. - - A 4½-inch long iron point for an arrow or spear. - - An iron spike, 7½ inches long, with head. - - An iron key, 5 inches long. - - An iron buckle, in which the pin is wanting. - - A mass of fragments of iron mountings. - - Several fragments of bronze plates covered with thin silver-foil, and - of bronze mountings, and thin bronze wire; also lumps of melted - bronze. - - Three small fragments of bone; the largest piece has snake ornaments - engraved on it. - -Footnote 241: - - In N. G. L. ii. 145, tar work on the place where tar is made is - mentioned. - -Footnote 242: - - By Sudrriki seems to be meant the south of Europe. - -Footnote 243: - - Cf. also Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 11. - -Footnote 244: - - Hábrók is mentioned in the earlier Edda Grimnismal, 44, as “the best - of hawks.” - -Footnote 245: - - Cf. also c. 44, _ibid._ - -Footnote 246: - - They had many kinds of dogs, some of which were very fierce. Irish - sheep-dogs were known, and their value appreciated at a very early - time by the Northmen, and there were penalties for killing dogs. - -Footnote 247: - - Lit. a strand-raid. - -Footnote 248: - - At the two ends of the cow-stall. - -Footnote 249: - - Cf. Kormak, c. iii.; Hörd’s Saga, c. 21. - -Footnote 250: - - Cf. Hervarar Saga, 15. - -Footnote 251: - - Lysigull (bright gold) probably meant yellow gold, and we find that - red gold is also often mentioned. - -Footnote 252: - - Tungli has the same meaning as Mani, namely moony; tungl = máni = - moon. - -Footnote 253: - - “Players” seems to mean jesters, fools. - -Footnote 254: - - Cf. also Njala, c. 59. - -Footnote 255: - - Öfundarbót = indemnity paid for intentional outrage. - - - - - CHAPTER XXI. - OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN. - - Weaving and embroidery—The housewife’s keys—General occupation - of ordinary women—Queens brewing ale and bleaching - linen—Looms—Amazons. - - -High-born women occupied themselves with weaving and embroidery, -participated in the household duties, and took charge of the estate -while their husbands were absent. - -The wife had a bunch of keys at her side, to show her authority over the -household; and in many graves of women keys either of iron or bronze -have been found. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1339.—Bundle of bronze keys in a large stone cist made of slabs; - found with two human skeletons upon a bed made of birch bark, &c. ¼ - real size.—Norway. -] - -The women had a special habitation called _Dyngja_ or _Skemma_, which -men were not allowed to enter, and where their female friends visited -them. - -In earlier days it seems to have been the custom for fathers to have -champions outside keeping guard in order to prevent men from coming into -the women’s quarters; and these champions are described as having taken -animal shape.[256] - -The Bayeux tapestry[257] corroborates in many points the truthfulness of -the Sagas; for example, when referring to the dragon-ship, ornamented -with shields, striped sails, small boats, &c., the ancient wood -carvings, some of which are shown in this work, the clothing and cloaks -which are only worn by the higher-born, and which are fastened with -fibulæ on the right shoulder, and the embroidery. - - -“Then his foster-daughter Brynhild returned to Heimir. She spent her -time in a bower with her maidens, and surpassed in handiwork all other -women. She made embroidery with gold, and sewed thereon the great deeds -of Sigurd, the slaying of the serpent, the taking of the treasure, and -Regin’s death” (Volsunga Saga, c. 24). - - -“Gudrun went on until she came to the hall of King Half, and stayed -there with Thora, Hakon’s daughter, in Denmark seven seasons (i.e., -half-years), and was well entertained; she made embroidery, and worked -thereon many great deeds and fine games, which were customary at that -time, swords and coats of mail and all the outfit of a king, and King -Sigmund’s ships gliding along the shore. They also embroidered how Sigar -and Siggeir fought on Fyen. This was their enjoyment, and Gudrun now -somewhat forgot her grief” (Volsunga Saga, c. 32). - - -The general occupation of ordinary women was to milk cows, prepare food -and drink, serve the men, work in the field, and especially make the -hay, card wool, attend to the clothes,[258] wash the men’s heads, and -pull off their clothes when they went to bed; a custom still prevalent -in many parts of Scandinavia.[259] - -Women of high rank even superintended the work of the farm, and had at -times no small amount of authority. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1340.—Needle of iron. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1341.—Needle of bronze. Real size. Found with a pincette of - bronze, a fragment of a double-edged sword, an axe of iron, a bronze - chain, &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1342.—Silver needle. Real size. Found in an oblong mound with - glass and amber pearls and two clay urns, in one of which were burnt - bones.—Norway. -] - - -“Thorbjörn Skrjúp lived next to the farm of Thórd in Laxárdal. He was -wealthy, mostly in gold and silver; he was also large in stature and of -great strength.... Höskuld bought a ship from a Shetlandman and equipped -it, announcing that he intended to go abroad, but would leave Jórun at -home to take care of the farm and their children. He set sail....” -(Laxdæla, c. 11). - - -Grettir had been captured, and they were going to hang him. - - -“Then they saw six men ride farther down in the valley; one of them was -in coloured clothes. They guessed that Thorbjörg, housewife at -Vatnsfjord, was there, and so it was. She was going to the sæter -(mountain pasture). She was a highly accomplished woman, and very wise; -she ruled the district, and settled all matters, when Vermund, her -husband, who was a godi, was not at home” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 52). - - -One summer, Thorodd, bondi at the farm Froda, in Iceland, rose early one -morning— - - -“And distributed work; some took the horses, and the women had to dry -the hay, and the work was divided between them. Thorgunna had to dry as -much as the fodder of a bull, and they did much work that day” -(Eyrbyggja, ch. 51). - - -The mischief caused by gossiping women is occasionally referred to. - - -“The hall was 100 ells[260] long, and five fathoms broad; to the south -of it was the room (dyngja) of Aud and Asgerd, and they sat there -sewing. Thorkel went thither and lay down near it. Asgerd said: ‘Help -me, Aud, and cut a shirt for my bondi Thorkel.’ Aud answered: ‘I know no -better than thyself how to do that, and thou wouldst not ask me if thou -hadst to make one for my brother Vestein.’ Asgerd replied: ‘What -concerns Vestein is a thing by itself; and thus it will be for some -time; but I love him more than my husband Thorkel, though we may never -enjoy each other.’ Aud added: ‘I knew long ago what Thorkel thought -about it, and how it went; let us talk no more of it.’ Asgerd said: ‘I -think it no fault that I love Vestein, but I heard that thou and -Thorgrim often met before thou wast married.’ Aud replied: ‘No harm was -in that, and I preferred no man to Gisli so there was no dishonour in -it; let us leave off this talk.’ And so they did. Thorkel heard every -word, and exclaimed: ‘Hear great wonders! hear words of fate! hear great -talk, which will cause the death of one man or more!’ Thereupon he went -away. And said: ‘The talk of women often causes evil, and it may be that -by this evil will be occasioned; let us think over what we shall do.’ -Asgerd said: ‘I have bethought myself of an expedient.’ ‘What is that?’ -asked Aud. ‘I will put my arms around the neck of my husband, Thorkel, -when we get into bed this evening and be very affectionate; his mind -will change at this, so that he will forgive me. I will also tell him -that this is such a lie, that it is of no consequence though we have -babbled about it. But if he should want to make any fuss about it, give -me other advice. Or what expedient art thou going to take?...’ In the -evening Gisli came home from his work. It was the custom of Thorkel to -thank his brother Gisli for the work; this time he did not, and spoke -not a word to him. Gisli asked: ‘Art thou not well, brother, as thou art -so silent?’ Thorkel answered: ‘I am not sick, but this is worse than -sickness.’ Gisli asked: ‘Have I done anything which thou dislikest, -brother?’ ‘Nothing,’ said Thorkel. Gisli said: ‘It is well, for I would -least of all that we should disagree. But nevertheless I should like -much to know what is the cause of thy sadness.’ Thorkel answered: ‘Thou -wilt know it, although later.’ Gisli went away, and then went to bed. -Thorkel retired first. When Asgerd came to bed Thorkel said: ‘I do not -mean thee to sleep here this night.’ She said: ‘What is more befitting -than that I should sleep with my husband? or why has thy mind changed so -soon? But what is the cause?’ ‘Thou knowest the cause,’ said Thorkel, -‘and I know it also.’ ‘What is the need of talking in this way?’ added -she; ‘believe not the foolish talk of us women, for when we are alone we -always chatter about things in which there is little truth; and so it is -in this case.’ Asgerd then put both arms around his neck, and was very -affectionate, and begged him not to believe such things. Thorkel told -her to go away. Asgerd said: ‘... I give thee two choices: either to -take as unsaid what we have talked about, and not believe that which is -not true; or that I at once name my witnesses and declare separation -from thee. Then I will do what I like, and it may be that thou then wilt -have reason to speak of real enmity. I shall let my father claim my -_mund_ and dower.’ Thorkel was silent, but after a while said: ‘I think -it is best for thee to creep under there at the bedside to-night.’ She -got into bed, and they agreed as if nothing had occurred. Aud went to -the bed of her husband Gisli, and told him all the talk of herself and -Asgerd. She begged him not to be angry, and to give good advice if he -thought necessary. ‘I know that Thorkel wants my brother Vestein to be -killed, if possible.’ Gisli answered: ‘I cannot give any good advice, -but I will not blame thee for this, because some one must speak the -words of fate’” (Gisli Sursson’s Saga). - - -Even queens attended to the brewing of ale and bleaching of linen.[261] - - -“One day when Thordis went out to her linen,[262] the weather was fine, -the sun shone and the wind blew from the south” (Ljosvetninga, ch. 5). - - -“King Alrek, who lived in Alreksstadir, ruled over Hördaland; he was -married to Signy, a king’s daughter from Vörs. One of his hirdmen, Koll, -followed him north into Sogn, and told him much of the beauty of -Geirhild, Drif’s daughter; he had seen her at the brewing of ale, and -said he wanted him to marry her. Hött, who proved to be Odin, went to -visit her when she was at her linen, and bargained with her that Alrek -should marry her, but that she should invoke him for all things. The -king saw her on his way home, and made their wedding the same autumn. He -rewarded Koll well for his faithfulness, and gave him jarldom and -residence in Kollsey, south of Hardsæ which is a populous district. King -Alrek could not have them both as wives on account of their -disagreement, and said he would have the one who brewed the best ale for -him when he should come home from an expedition. They vied in the -ale-brewing. Signy invoked Freyja, and Geirhild, Hött, who gave his -spittle as ferment, and said he wanted for his help that which was -between the tub and herself;[263] the ale proved to be good; then Alrek -sang: - - Geirhild, my maiden, - Good is this ale, - If no defect - Follows it; - I see hanging - From a high gallows - Thy son, woman, - Given to Odin. - -In that year, Vikar, the son of King Alrek and Geirhild was born” -(Half’s Saga, c. i.). - - -That the people knew the art of weaving[264] we have ample proofs in the -sagas, and also in the finds. From the following description we know -what the looms were like. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1343.—Ancient loom from the Färoes in Bergen Museum. -] - - -“It happened one morning, Good Friday, in Kateness (Caithness, -Scotland), that a man called Dorrud went out of doors, and saw that -twelve men were riding together to a woman’s house and there -disappeared. He went there and looked through a ‘light hole’ and saw -other women who had set up a web on the loom. The weights (whorles) were -human heads, but the woof and the warp were intestines of men, a spear -was used as a spindle and an arrow as a shuttle” (Njal Saga). - - -Whorls are very common in the graves. - -Many examples occur of women taking to the profession of arms, and often -fighting as bravely as the most valiant warriors;[265] and that this -custom was not altogether unknown in some parts of Europe at a later -period than that of the Viking age is shown by the appearance of Joan of -Arc. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1344. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1345. -] - - Whorle of spindle of burnt clay, ⅔ real size, found by the side of a - clay urn containing burnt bones in an oblong mound—Greby, - Bohuslan. From a neighbouring hill one can count about 160 tumuli, - sixty of which are oblong—varying from 25 to 36 feet in length, - and 15 to 20 feet in width—several have memorial stones upon them, - the highest being 14 feet.—Earlier iron age. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1346.—Specimen of a peculiar weaving shuttle formed in the shape - of a short double-edged blade—the back being formed for putting on a - handle. Specimens found in several women’s graves. About ¼ real - size.—Norway. -] - - -“Svafa, the daughter of Bjartmar jarl, gave birth to a girl; most people -thought she ought to be exposed, and said she would not have the -character of a woman if she became like the kinsmen of her father.[266] -The jarl had her besprinkled with water, and brought up and called her -Hervör, and said the kin of Arngrim’s son was not quite dead while she -was alive. When she grew up she was fair; she practised more shooting -and the handling of sword and shield than sewing and embroidering; she -was tall and strong, and as soon as she was able she oftener did evil -than good; when she was hindered from that she ran into the woods and -slew men in order to take their property. When the jarl knew this he -took her home, and there she stayed for a while” (Hervarar Saga, ch. 6; -also Herraud and Bosi’s Saga, c. 2, and Atlakvida.) - - ------ - -Footnote 256: - - Ragnar Lodbrok’s Saga. - -Footnote 257: - - This valuable piece of work contains 72 distinct scenes, 623 persons, - 202 horses and mules, 55 dogs, 505 divers animals, 41 ships and boats, - 49 trees—in all, 1,512 distinct objects. And well worth while, indeed, - is a journey to Bayeux for the special object of seeing it. The - historical part does not take up more than 11 inches; in the space - above and below there is a border, where lions, birds, dragons and - fantastic objects are represented. The most accurate work on it that - has been published is ‘La Tapisserie de Bayeux, reproduction d’après - nature en 79 planches photographiques, avec un texte historique, - descriptif et antique, par Jules Comte, conservateur du dépôt légal au - ministère de l’instruction publique et des beaux arts. Paris. J. - Rothschild, éditeur, 13, Rue des Saints-Pères. 1878.’ - -Footnote 258: - - Eyrbyggja, 51. - -Footnote 259: - - Such expressions as “She was well versed in all kinds of - accomplishments that belonged to women” are often used. (Heidarviga - Saga, 21; Viglund, 17.) - -Footnote 260: - - 1 ell = 2 feet. - -Footnote 261: - - Half’s Saga, i. - -Footnote 262: - - Implies that her linen lay bleaching. - -Footnote 263: - - She was with child. - -Footnote 264: - - Looms can be seen in the Museum of Christiania, and were still in use - a short time since in the neighbourhood of Bergen. - -Footnote 265: - - In the famous Bravalla and Dunheath battles, and in other cases, - Amazons are mentioned; they are called Shield-maidens (_Skjald-mær_, - pl. _Skjald-meyjar_). - -Footnote 266: - - Angantyr and his brothers were all very fierce tempered. - - - - - CHAPTER XXII. - EXERCISES—IDRÓTTIR. - - Bodily and mental exercises—Love of - athletics—Jumping—Climbing—Popularity of wrestling—Different modes - of wrestling—Running—Games of ball—Skin-pulling—Swimming—Some - extraordinary feats in swimming—Webbing the fingers—Warlike - exercises—Dexterity in the handling of weapons—Archery—Proficiency - of chiefs in athletics and gymnastics. - - -Bodily as well as mental exercises were known under the name of -_Idróttir_. In no ancient records have we so many detailed accounts of -games as we have in the Sagas. The education of the Northmen was -thoroughly Spartan in its character. To this day the love of athletic -games is one of the characteristics of their most direct descendants, -the English people; and other countries have lately awakened to the -importance of physical training. - -Their exercises or games may be classified under three heads. - -1st. _Athletic_ games or gymnastic exercises, such as wrestling, -swimming, running, jumping, leaping, balancing, climbing, playing at -ball, racing on snow-shoes, skin-pulling, &c., &c. - -2nd. _Warlike_ exercises with weapons, which embraced fencing, -spear-throwing, arrow-shooting, slinging, &c., &c. - -3rd. _Mental_ exercises, consisting of poetry, Saga-telling, riddles, -games of chess and draughts, and harp-playing. - -In those days of incessant warfare, physical training was considered of -the highest importance. Old and young constantly practised games of -strength and dexterity; they knew that it was only by constant exercise -that they could become or remain good warriors. This made the young men -supple, quick of foot, dexterous in motion, and gave them great power of -endurance, insuring a good physique, which told on their children and -future generations. They were thus always prepared for war, and this is -the key to the character of the old Viking. We see what a healthy and -powerful man he must have been, skilful alike to strike the fatal blow, -and avoid the treacherous sword, spear or arrow. The result of such -education was seen in the powerful and strong bodily frame that was -attained by the youth of the country, the young men being of age and -ready for war at the age of fifteen. - -There were constant competitions for the honour of the championship in -each of the particular games or exercises, and young and old competed -together on special grounds which were selected for that purpose, where -the assembled and admiring multitude came to witness these contests. -There seem to have been no prizes given to the successful competitor—at -least no mention is ever made of them. All that was desired was the fame -which fell to the victor, and every great warrior always excelled in the -use of weapons or in athletic exercises. - -Their love of physical exercise explains how these dauntless and manly -tribes, who had a virile civilisation of their own, contributed to -regenerate the blood of the people among whom they settled or whom they -conquered. - -_Jumping_ was a favourite exercise of the Norsemen. Some men could jump -higher than their own height, both backwards and forwards, and this with -their weapons and complete armour on. - -Agility was absolutely necessary in order to obtain victory or escape -from danger; many a man owed his life either to a timely jump to one -side, or to a leap from a height, or over a circle of surrounding foes. - - -“One day as they (Herraud and Bosi) sailed near the land in a strong -gale, a man standing on a rock asked to be allowed to go with them. -Herraud said he could not go out of his course for him, but if he could -reach the ship he might go with them. The man jumped from the rock, and -came down on the tiller; it was a leap of thirty feet” (Herraud and -Bosi’s Saga, ch. 3). - - -“Sigurd ran down on the single path, but Leif came to where Heri, one of -Sigurd’s companions, lay, and quickly turned, ran forward on the island, -and jumped down to the foreshore, and men say it is ninety feet down to -the beach” (Færeyinga Saga, ch. 57). - -“Lambi Sigurdson ran at Kari from behind and thrust a spear at him; but -Kari saw him and jumped up, at the same time spreading his legs. The -spear came down into the ground, and Kari stepped on the handle and -broke it asunder” (Njala, ch. 146). - - -“Skarphedin stood with his axe on his shoulder, smiling scornfully, and -said: ‘This axe I had in my hand when I leapt 12 ells (24 feet) over -Markarfljót and slew Thrain Sigfusson, and they stood there eight men, -and none of them got hold of me’” (Njala, c. 120). - - -“Skarphedin (son of Njal, a great champion) started up when he was -ready, holding the axe _Rimmugyg_ in the air; he ran forward to the -channel of the river, which was so deep that it was completely -impassable. Much ice had been forced up on the other side of the river, -and it was as slippery as glass; they (Thrain and his men) stood in the -middle of it. Skarphedin swung himself aloft and leapt over the river -between the sheets of ice, and did not stop, but ran sliding on the ice. -This was very slippery, and he advanced as swiftly as a flying bird. -Thrain was going to put on his helmet. Skarphedin came up to them and -aimed at Thrain with his axe, struck his head, and cleft it down to the -jaw, so that they fell down on the ice. This happened so suddenly that -nobody could deal him a blow. He ran away instantly with great speed” -(Njala, c. 92).[267] - - -Climbing was another of their exercises. - - -“King Olaf once had his ships in a harbour, not far from a very high -mountain and most steep rocks. One day two of his _hirdmen_ were talking -about their _idróttir_, and each thought himself the better, and that he -knew more games than the other. They contended as to who could climb the -steepest rock; they disputed about this so keenly, that at last they -made a bet, and one wagered his gold ring, and the other his head. After -this they both climbed the rock. The first went so far that he was in -danger of falling down, and then returned in fear, and could with -difficulty save himself from injury; the other climbed up to the middle -of the mountain, but there he dared go neither forward nor backward, nor -even move, for he had but little hold either for hands or feet; his -position was so dangerous, that he saw his downfall and death were -certain if he should make the least movement where he was. He shouted in -great fear for King Olaf or his men to help him. When the king heard his -shout, and found out what it was about, he bade them save him, saying -that it would be a deed of great bravery if any one should dare to do -it. When the king saw that no one stirred, he threw off his cloak and -ran up the rock to the man as if it had been a level plain, took him -under his arm, and went farther up with him. He then turned to go down -with the man under his arm, and laid him unharmed on the ground. All -praised this as a great feat, and the fame thereof was widely spread” -(Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, vol. ii.; Fornmanna Sögur).[268] - - -_Wrestling_ was a very popular pastime, and had a beneficial effect on -the body, to which it gave suppleness, strength and firmness; it was a -great favourite at the Things and festivals. The most simple form of -this sport was for the wrestlers to take hold of each other’s arms or -waists as best they could, and by the strength of their arms to throw -each other off their feet. The wrestlers often threw off not only the -outer clothing, but also their under-garments, in order to be more free -and agile. The competitors were divided by lots into two parties, each -of which was drawn up in a row with its leader. These paired off their -men to wrestle in the arena or space between the two rows, one after the -other. If one side was weaker in numbers, or one man had had all his men -defeated, he could challenge his antagonist, and the result of their -wrestling decided the game. - -A more difficult form of wrestling was that of grappling, and attacking -each other (sometimes fastened together by a belt at the waist) -according to certain rules, and by systematic turnings and grip -movements, with arms and legs, seeking to bring each other to the -ground. These combats for the championship sometimes ended fatally. - - -“The sons of Thórd were the leaders of the games. Thorbjörn Öngul was -very overbearing, and quickly forced any one he wanted to take part in -the game, seizing him by the hand, and pulling him forward to the field. -Those who were less strong wrestled first, and then one after the other, -which caused great amusement. When most of them had wrestled, except the -strongest, the bœndr talked about who of these should contend against -each of the sons of Thord; but no one came forward. They went before -different men and challenged them, with the same result. Thorbjörn Öngul -looked around, and saw that there sat a man of large size, whose face -could not be clearly seen. Thorbjörn took hold of him, and pulled hard; -but he sat still and did not move. Then Thorbjörn said: ‘No one has sat -so firm before me to-day as thou; but who art thou?’ ‘My name is Gest’ -(guest), he replied. ‘If thou wilt take part in some game, thou art a -welcome guest.’ He answered: ‘It seems to me, many things may change, -and I will not join in games with you, who are entirely unknown to me.’ -Many said that he would do well if he, though a stranger, would give -them some amusement. He asked what they wanted of him. They asked him to -wrestle with some one. He said he had ceased to wrestle, ‘but,’ he -added, ‘there was a time when I enjoyed it greatly.’” - -“Thord rushed at Grettir, but he stood firm without flinching. Grettir -then stretched his hand to the back of Thord and got hold of his -breeches, lifted him off his feet, over his head, and threw him down -behind him, so that Thord’s shoulders came down with a heavy thud. Then -they said that the two brothers should attack him at the same time, and -they did so; there was a hard tussle, and each had the better of it by -turns, although Grettir always had one of them under him. They fell by -turns on their knees or dragged each other along; they grasped each -other so tightly that they were all blue and bloody. All thought this -the greatest fun, and when they stopped thanked them for the wrestling; -and it was the opinion of all who were present that the two brothers -were not stronger than Grettir, though each of them had the strength of -two strong men” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 72 and 74). - - -Thórd Fangari challenged Klaufi, who was only ten winters old, to -wrestle, and called him a coward if he would not. - - -“They summoned many people to Hof, for Thórd would wrestle nowhere -except there. They began and wrestled long, until a bondmaid came into -the door of the women’s room and called it bondmaid-wrestling, as -neither of them fell, and told them to kiss each other and then stop. -Klaufi got angry at this, and raised Thórd up on his breast, and threw -him down so hard that all thought he was hurt” (Svarfdæla, c. 12). - - -“One summer at the Althing men were divided in two parties at the -Fangabrekka (wrestling-brink, slope), Nordlendings (men from the -northern part of the land) and Vestfirdings (from the western fjords). -The Nordlendings were defeated, and their leader was Már, the son of -Glúm. Ingolf, the son of Thorvald of Rangárvellir, came there. Már said: -‘Thou art a stout man; thou must be strong; be on my side in the -wrestling.’ He answered: ‘I will do it for thy sake.’ The man who -opposed him fell, and the second and the third also; this pleased the -Nordlendings. Már said: ‘If thou needest my help in words I will help -thee; but what art thou going to do now?’ He answered: ‘I have not -decided on anything, but I would like best to go northward and get -work.’ Már said: ‘I want thee to go with me’” (Viga Glum, c. 13).[269] - - -Some men were said to run as fast as the fleetest horse. It was often -customary to run with loads, especially arms. - - -“There was in Iceland an outlawed thief named Geir, who was so quick of -foot that no horse could overtake him” (Sturlunga, ii., ch. 13). - - -“Harald Gilli was a tall and slender man, long-necked, rather -long-laced, black-eyed, dark-haired, nimble and swift; he often wore an -Irish dress, short and light clothes; he spoke Norwegian with great -difficulty,[270] and stammered much, and many made much fun of this. -Once Harald sat at a drinking-bout, and spoke to another man about -Ireland; he said that there were men in Ireland so swift-footed, that no -horse when galloping could overtake them. Magnus, the king’s son, heard -this, and said: ‘Now he lies once more, as he is wont.’ Harald answered: -‘This is true, that men can be found in Ireland whom no horse in Norway -will outstrip.’ They talked somewhat about this; they were both drunk. -Then Magnus said: ‘Thou shalt bet thy head that thou canst run as fast -as I ride my horse, and I will lay my gold ring against it.’ Harald -answered: ‘I do not say that I can run so fast, but I can find men in -Ireland who will, and I can make a wager about that.’ Magnus, king’s -son, answered: ‘I will not go to Ireland; let us make the wager here and -not there.’ Then Harald went to sleep, and did not want to have any more -to do with him. The next morning, when the matins were finished, Magnus -rode up to the roads; he sent word to Harald to come there. When he came -he was dressed in a shirt and strap-breeches, a short cloak (möttul), -with an Irish hat on his head, and a spear in his hand. Magnus marked -out the race-course. Harald said: ‘Thou makest it too long.’ Magnus at -once made it far longer, and said it was still too short. There were -many people present. Then they galloped off, and Harald followed the -whole way at the shoulder of the horse. When they came to the end of the -course, Magnus said: ‘Thou hadst hold of the strap of the saddle-girth, -and the horse pulled thee along.’ Magnus had a very fast horse from -Gautland. Then they raced again, and Harald ran in front of the horse -the whole way. When they came to the end, Harald asked: ‘Did I this time -take hold of the saddle-girth?’ Magnus answered: ‘Thou didst begin the -race first.’ Magnus let the horse breathe awhile; when he had done that -he pricked his horse with his spurs, and it soon started off; Harald -stood quiet. Then Magnus looked back, and shouted: ‘Run now.’ Then -Harald soon outran the horse far in front of it, and so all the way to -the end of the course; he reached the end so long before Magnus that he -lay down, jumped up and greeted him when he came. Then they went home to -the town. King Sigurd had been at mass during that time, and did not -hear of the matter until after his meal that day. Then he said angrily -to Magnus: ‘You call Harald silly, but I think you are a fool; you do -not know the customs of men in other lands; did you not know before that -men in other lands train themselves in other idróttir than in filling -their belly with drink, or making themselves mad and disabled, and -unconscious; give Harald his ring, and never hereafter, while my head is -above ground, make fun of him” (Sigurd Jorsalafar’s Saga, ch. 35). - - -There were three kinds of games of ball: _Knattleik_, _Soppleik_, and -_Sköfuleik_. The latter was played with sköfur (scrapers). - - -“Once the king (Hring) had a game called _soppleik_; it was played with -eagerness, and they tried Bósi in it; but he played roughly, and one of -the king’s men had his hand put out of joint. The next day he broke the -thigh-bone of a man, and the third day two men attacked him, while many -were harassing him; he knocked out the eye of one with the ball, and he -knocked down another man and broke his neck” (Herraud and Bósi’s Saga, -c. 3). - - -These games of ball and other athletic games became serious when two -districts met, or when two men were jealous of each other, and sometimes -ended in bloody fights. - -Kolgrim the old, son of Alf hersir in Throndheim, lived at Ferstikla in -Iceland; he was one of the first settlers. - - -“Kolgrim sent word to the men of Botn to have _Sköfuleikar_ and -_Knattleikar_ at Sand, to which they agreed. The games began and -continued until after Yule; the men of Botn were usually defeated, for -Kolgrim arranged it so that the men from Strandir were the stronger in -the game. Many shoes were used up by the men of Botn, as they often -walked there; and the hide of an ox was cut up into shoes.[271] The -people thought Kolgrim wanted to know about the disappearance of the ox, -and therefore had had these games; he thought he recognized the hide of -the ox on their feet. Then they were called ox-men, and again were -ill-used. At home they talked about this ill-treatment, and said they -would soon give up the games. Hörd spoke harshly to them, saying that -they were great cowards if they dared not to take revenge, and were only -ready for evil doings. Then Thórd and Thorgeir Gyrdilskeggi, an outlaw, -had come to Hörd. Hörd had made horn scrapers during the night. Every -man was ready to go to the game when Hörd went, though they were rather -backward before. Önund Thormódsson of Brekka was to play against Hörd; -he was a popular and strong man. The game was very rough, and before -evening six of the men of Strandir lay dead, but none of the men of -Botn; and both parties went home” (Hörd’s Saga, ch. 29). - - -“One day the sons of the King (Njörfi) and of Jarl Viking played at -ball; as usual the sons of Njörfi were very keen, and Thorstein spared -his strength. He played against Jökul, and Olaf against Thórir, and the -others according to their age. Thus it was during the day. Thórir threw -down the ball so hard that it bounded over Olaf and fell a long way off. -Olaf got angry and fetched the ball. When he came back the men were -preparing to go home. Then Olaf struck at Thórir with the bat, and when -Thórir saw it he ran under the bat, which hit his head and bruised it. -Thorstein and others ran between them, and they were parted” (Thorstein -Vikingsson, 10).[272] - - -One day two unknown men came to Thorgnýr Jarl in Jotland, and said they -were brothers. - - -“There often were games of ball; many asked the brothers to go to the -games: they said they had often been at these games and were rather -rough-handed. The Jarl’s men said they would take care of themselves -whatever might happen. The next morning the brothers went to the games, -and generally had the ball during the day; they pushed men and let them -fall roughly, and beat others. At night three men had their arms broken, -and many were bruised or maimed; the Jarl’s men now thought themselves -ill-treated, and this lasted for several days.” - - -Then Stefnir, the Jarl’s son, got Hrólf to go with him against them. - - -“The next day Hrólf and Stefnir went to the games; the brothers had also -come. Hrafn took the ball, and Krák the bat, and they played as they -were wont. The Jarl sat on a chair and looked at the game, and when they -had played it for a while Hrólf got hold of the ball. He snatched the -bat from Krák and handed it to Stefnir. They then played for a long -time, and the brothers did not get hold of the ball. Once when Hrafn ran -after the ball a young kinsman of the Jarl’s, who liked to banter with -others, put out his foot so that Hrafn fell. He got very angry, jumped -up at once, caught the man, lifted him up, and flung him down on his -head so that his neck was broken” (Göngu Hrolf, ix.). - - -“Once Víglund struck the ball out of Jökul’s (of Foss) reach; Jökul got -angry, took the ball, and flung it at Viglund’s forehead so hard that -both his eyebrows hung down. Trausti cut a piece from his shirt and tied -up the brows of his brother. When he had done that the men of Foss had -gone” (Viglund’s Saga, ch. 11). - - -The most popular of these games was the _Knattleik_. Special places were -chosen, generally the ice of a frozen lake. The Breidvikings used to -have games of ball during the long winter nights; and where these took -place shelters were built for the people, for the games often lasted for -a fortnight. - -The balls, which were very hard and seem to have been made of wood, were -struck by a bat of wood called _knatt-tré_. In this game, which often -became serious from the wounds inflicted by ball or bat, two men of -equal strength usually played together. _Knattleik_ was played as -follows: The ball, usually of wood, was thrown with the hand into the -air, and then struck with the bat; another person caught it with his -hands, or knocked it back with a kind of bat. This the other players -sought to prevent by shoving him aside or throwing him down, or by -striking the ball away from him. If he let the ball fly beyond the -bounds, or fall to the ground, he had to go in search of it. - - -“It was the custom of the men of Breidavik in the autumn to have games -of ball about the winter nights. Men came there from the whole district, -and large halls were raised for the games. Men dwelt there for half a -month or more” (Eyrbyggja, ch. 43). - - -“Games were then held in Asbjarnarnes, and men gathered for them from -many districts, from Vididal, from Midfjord, Vatnsnes, Vatnsdal, and all -the way from Langadal. There was a crowd of people. All talked about how -much Kjartan surpassed others. Then the games were prepared, and Hall -managed them. He asked Kjartan to take part in them. ‘We want thee, -kinsman, to show thy skill in them.’ Kjartan answered: ‘Little exercise -did I have in games during the last time, for King Olaf employed himself -with other matters; but this time I will not refuse thee.’ He made ready -for the play, and the strongest men present were pitted against him. -They played during the day, and no man equalled Kjartan, either in -strength or skill. In the evening, when the games were finished, Hall -Gudmundsson rose and said: ‘It is the offer and will of my father that -all those who have come the longest way here shall remain overnight and -begin the amusement again to-morrow.’ This offer was thought chief-like -and much praised. Kálf Asgeir’s son was there, and was a great friend of -Kjartan; Hrefna, his sister, was also there, splendidly dressed. That -night 100 men were on the farm besides the household. The following day -they were divided for the games. Kjartan then sat and looked on” -(Laxdæla, ch. 45).[273] - - -Skin-pulling, which was like the modern pastime the tug-of-war, is -seldom mentioned. - - -“The king said: ‘We (Hörd and himself) will pull a goat’s skin across -the fire in this hall to-morrow....’ Early next morning they went into -the hall; a large fire had been made there. A little after the king -came, and said: ‘I will get Hástigi to pull with thee, Hörd.’ Hörd -answered: ‘It is well for us to try skin-pulling; so make thyself ready, -Hástigi.’ Hástigi took off all his clothes, but Hörd did not take off -his fur-cloak. A very strong walrus-hide was given to them. Then they -set to with hard grips and tuggings, and each alternately was -successful. They soon pulled the hide asunder between them. The king -ordered the ox-hide to be brought to them. Then they pulled with all -their might, and so hard, that they were in danger of falling into the -fire. Hástigi was the stronger, but Hörd was more agile and nimble. The -king said: ‘Thou dost not pull, Hástigi, as thou allowest this child to -struggle so long against thee.’ Hástigi replied: ‘It will not last long -if I use all my strength.’ While they were speaking, Hjalmter took the -sword and the sax, and put them in front of the feet of Hörd; nobody saw -this, because the fur-cloak projected. Then Hástigi pulled so hard that -Hörd nearly fell into the fire, and thought he had never had such a tug. -They both pulled so hard, that all wondered that they were not dead from -over-exertion and could endure it. Hörd said to Hástigi: ‘Look out; for -now I will use my strength, and thou wilt not live long.’ ‘I will,’ -answered Hástigi. Hörd then pulled with all his strength, and pulled -Hástigi forward into the fire, and threw the hide over him; he jumped on -his back, and then went to his bench. The king ordered them to take the -man out of the fire; he was much burnt. The king was very angry, though -he saw it was chiefly his own fault” (Hjalmter’s and Olver’s Saga, ch. -17). - - -To such a maritime people, the idrótt of swimming was most important. -There were men who could swim for miles with armour on, or with a -companion on their shoulders. Occasionally it happened that a fierce -struggle ensued in the water, and that the stronger carried his -adversary down to the bottom, holding him until he was almost half -drowned, and unable to offer any further resistance. - - -“One day in fine weather and warm sunshine many men were swimming, both -from the long-ship and the trading-ship. An Icelander who was swimming -amused himself by taking under water the men who did not swim so well as -himself. They laughed at it. King Sigurd heard it and saw; then he threw -off his clothes and jumped out, swam to the Icelander, took hold of him -and put him under water, and kept him there, and as soon as the -Icelander came up again the king put him down again. Then Sigurd -Sigurdsson said: ‘Shall we let the king drown the man?’ A man said that -no one seemed very willing to go to them. Then he answered: ‘If Dag -Eilifson were here, he would be the man to do it.’ Then he jumped -overboard and swam to the king, took hold of him, and said: ‘Do not kill -the man, lord; all now see that thou swimmest far better. The king said: -‘Let me alone, Sigurd, I shall kill him; he wants to drown our men.’ -Sigurd said: ‘Now let us play first; and thou, Icelander, swim to the -land.’ He did so. The king let Sigurd loose and swam to his ship; Sigurd -did the same” (Sigurd Jorsalafar’s Saga, ch. 36). - - -“They (Olaf Tryggvason and Eindridi) went to the shore and the men with -them. The king and Eindridi undressed. They swam off and played a long -time with each other, and alternately dragged each other down, and -finally they were so long under water that they were not expected to -come up; but at last King Olaf rose and swam ashore. He went up and -rested himself, but did not dress; no one knew nor dared to ask what had -become of Eindridi. After a long time they saw him; he had got a very -large seal, and sat on its back; he clung to it with both hands in its -bristles, and thus steered it, and, when he came near the shore, let it -go. The king sprang up and swam out to him, thrust him under water and -held him down for a long time; when they came up, the king swam ashore, -but Eindridi was so exhausted that he could not save himself; when the -king saw this, he went to him and helped him ashore. When Eindridi began -to recover and they were dressed, the king said: ‘Thy swimming idrótt is -great, Eindridi; but nevertheless God is to be thanked that thou wast -inferior to me, as all could see, when I had to take thee ashore.’ ‘Thou -canst think whatever thou likest about that,’ replied Eindridi. ‘But,’ -asked the king, ‘why didst thou not kill the seal, and drag it ashore?’ -‘Because,’ answered Eindridi, ‘I did not want thee to say that I had -found it dead.’” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, vol. ii., p. 270; Fornmanna -Sögur). - - -Kjartan, son of the Icelandic chief Olaf, went to Nidaros in Norway. - - -“One fine day in autumn men went from the town to swim in the river Nid. -The Icelanders saw this. Kjartan told his companions that they ought to -go to the swimming and amuse themselves; this they did. One man swam far -better than others. Kjartan asked Bolli if he would try his powers of -swimming with this man of the town. Bolli answered: ‘I do not think I am -able to do it.’ Kjartan said: ‘I do not know where thy ambition is now; -then I will.’ Bolli replied: ‘Do as thou likest.’ Kjartan threw himself -into the river, and swam to the man who was the best swimmer; he took -him down at once, and kept him beneath the surface for a while; he then -let him come up, and when they had not been long above water the man -took hold of Kjartan and pulled him under water, and they were under -water as long as Kjartan thought convenient. They came up again, and -said nothing. They went down a third time, and were by far the longest -time under water. Kjartan did not see how it would end, and thought he -had never been so hard tried before. At last they came up and swam to -the bank. The townsman asked: ‘Who is this man?’ Kjartan told his name. -The townsman said: ‘Thou art a good swimmer; art thou as skilled in -other idróttir as in this?’ Kjartan answered, rather slowly: ‘When I was -in Iceland it was said that my other idróttir were equal, but now it is -of little consequence’”[274] (Laxdæla, ch. 10). - - -“Then he (Egil) took his helmet, sword, and spear; he broke off his -spear-handle and threw it into the water; he wrapped the weapons in his -cloak, made a bundle of it, and tied it to his back. He jumped into the -water and swam across to the island” (Egil’s Saga, c. 45). - - -Sometimes, in order to swim better men had their fingers webbed. - - -“Now Grettir got ready to swim, and had on a hooded cloak, of common -cloth, and breeches; he had his fingers webbed together. It was fine -weather. He left the island late in the day. Illugi, his brother, -thought his journey very dangerous. Grettir swam into the fjord, the -current being with him, during a perfect calm. He swam fast, and reached -Reykjanes after sunset” (Gretti’s Saga, ch. 77). - - -That warlike exercises should have played such a prominent part in -physical education is not surprising. - -Some men could change weapons from one hand to the other during the -hottest fight, use both hands with equal facility, shoot two spears at -the same time, or catch a spear in its flight. - - -“Gunnar Hámundsson lived at Hlidarendi in Fljótshlid. He was of large -size and strength, and more skilled in fight than any other man. He -could shoot and strike with both hands equally when he wanted; he moved -his sword so swiftly that it seemed as if three swords were in the air. -He shot better with a bow than any one else, and never missed his aim. -He could leap as well backwards as forwards, more than his height, in -full war-dress. He could swim like a seal, and there was no game in -which any man was able to cope with him, and it has been told that no -man was his equal” (Njala, ch. 19). - - -“Sigmund (during his fight with the Holmgard viking Randver) showed his -idrótt. He threw his sword and flung it into the air, and caught it with -his left hand, and took the shield in his right hand and dealt Randver a -blow with the sword, cutting off his right leg below the knee. Randver -then fell. Sigmund thereupon struck a blow on his neck, and cut off his -head” (Færeyinga Saga, ch. 18). - - -_Archery_ was another favourite amusement. The Thelemarkians (Norway) -and Jomsvikings were in this respect considered as excelling all others, -and the former distinguished themselves at the battle of Bravalla. - -Of their skill in slinging, stone-throwing, archery, &c., &c., we have -most remarkable examples. - - -“After the fall of Olaf Tryggvason, Eirik jarl gave peace to Einar -Thambarskelfir, son of Eindridi Styrkársson. Einar went with the jarl to -Norway, and it is said that Einar was the strongest of all men and the -best archer in Norway.... He shot with a _bakkakólf_ (a thick arrow -without a point, shot from a crossbow), through a raw ox-hide which hung -on a rafter” (Snorri Sturluson; St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 20). - - -“The next day they went to the woods, not far from the farm. The king -took off his cloak, placed a target on a hill-slope, and marked out a -long-shooting distance. Then a bow and arrow were given to him. He shot, -and the arrow hit the target near its edge, and stuck there. Eindridi -shot farther in on the target, but not in the middle. The king then shot -a second time; they went to the target and the arrow was in the middle, -and all called it a famous shot. Eindridi also praised the king’s skill, -and said he thought it was not worth his while to try again. The king -told him to give up if he liked, and acknowledge himself beaten in this -idrótt. Eindridi replied that it might be so, but still he would try -again; he shot, and his arrow entered the notch for the bowstring of the -king’s last arrow, so that both of them stuck there. The king said: ‘A -very skilled man art thou at idróttir, but this idrótt has not yet been -fully tried. That handsome boy shall now be taken whom thou saidst thou -lovedst so well the other day, and he shall be a target as I shall -direct.’ The king let a piece of _hnefatafl_[275] be placed on the boy’s -head. ‘Now we will shoot the piece down from the boy’s head,’ said the -king, ‘so that he shall not be hurt.’ ‘You can do that if you wish, but -I will certainly take revenge if the boy is harmed,’ replied Eindridi. A -long linen cloth was tied round the boy’s head, and two men held the -ends, so that he could not move his head when he heard the whistling of -the arrow. The king went to the place where he was to stand, and made -the mark of the cross before himself and before the point of the arrow -before he shot; but Eindridi grew very red in the face. The arrow flew -under the piece, and carried it off the boy’s head, but so near the -skull that blood dripped from the top of his head. The king then told -Eindridi to shoot after him if he wished; but Eindridi’s mother and -sister begged him, weeping sorely, not to try it. Eindridi said to the -king: ‘I am not afraid if I risked shooting that I should do the boy any -harm, but nevertheless I will not shoot this time.’ ‘Then,’ said the -king, ‘it seems to me that thou must acknowledge thyself beaten’” (Olaf -Tryggvason’s Saga, vol. ii.; Fornmanna Sögur). - - -Playing with dirks was a common practice. It consisted in playing -simultaneously with three short swords, or dirks, so that one was always -in the air, while one was in each hand; as one was thrown up, the player -seized the falling one. - -A very uncommon accomplishment was to run on the oar-blades around a -ship whilst it was being rowed. Among those thus skilled was Olaf -Tryggvason, who, while he was walking over his ship, the _Long Serpent_, -on the oar-blades of the rowers, could play with three dirks or short -swords. - - -“On the third day the king said to Eindridi: ‘Now the weather is fine -and calm, and we will try the handsax game.’ - -“The men went out to look on; each took two saxes, and they played with -them for awhile. - -“Then a third sax was given to each, and they played so that all the -time one was in the air and two in their hands; they always caught them -by the handle, and no one could determine who was most skilled. After a -long while the king said: ‘This game has not yet had sufficient trial.’ - -“They went down to the shore and out on a large longship, and the king -bade his men row the ship, and the king then walked outside the board, -on the oars along the side of the ship, and there played with three -handsaxes as skilfully as before on land; and Eindridi did the same. The -king played first, and Eindridi after him. The king then went again in -the same manner along the oars, and thus in front of the stern, not -dropping the handsaxes, and not even getting his shoes wet; he came back -along the other side on the oars, and up into the ship. No one could -understand how he did this. Eindridi stood before the king, when he came -upon the ship, and looked at him in silence. The king said: ‘Why dost -thou stand, and not try after me?’ Eindridi replied: ‘You, lord, could -by no means do this with your idrótt alone, without the power of that -God in whom you believe; and from this I see that he is all-powerful, -and therefore I shall henceforth believe that he and no one else is the -only God’” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga; Fornmanna Sögur). - - -Among such warlike and Spartan-like people the chiefs had to be the -foremost in all athletic and gymnastic exercises if they wished to enjoy -the respect and confidence of the people, and have rule over them. To -talk of what their forefathers had done was not sufficient; they had to -show themselves worthy of them, and if incapable of ruling, they were -deposed by the people in Thing assembled. - -There are several examples in the Sagas of powerful chiefs showing their -anger and jealousy when any man excelled them. - - -“King Olaf was in every respect, of all the men who have been spoken of, -the greatest man of idróttir in Norway; he was the strongest and most -skilled of all, and many accounts of this have been written. One is -about how he climbed Smalsarhorn and fastened his shield on the top of -the rock; he helped his hirdman who had climbed the rock and could -neither get up nor down again; the king walked up to him and carried him -under his arm down to the level plain.... He could fight equally well -with both hands, and shoot two spears at once” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, -ch. 92 (Heimskringla)). - - -“Magnus (the king) exercised himself and was skilled in many games and -idróttir even in his youth; he walked along the gunwales as young men -used to at that time, and he did it with great nimbleness, and showed -his accomplishments in this as in other things” (Magnus the Good’s Saga; -Fornmanna Sögur, vi. 5). - - -“Olaf was a great man of idróttir in many respects, highly skilled in -the use of the bow and spear, a good swimmer, expert and of good -judgment in all handicrafts, whether his own or others. Olaf Haraldsson -was eager in games and wanted to be the first, as was fitting for his -rank and birth” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 3 (Heimskringla)). - - -“One day King Olaf talked to Sigmund in the spring, and said: ‘We will -amuse ourselves to-day, and try our skill.’ ‘I am very unfit to do that, -lord,’ said Sigmund; ‘though this shall, like other things that I can -do, be as you wish.’ Then they tried swimming and shooting and other -idróttir, and it is said that Sigmund was next to King Olaf in many -idróttir, though he was surpassed by the king in them all, but -nevertheless nearer to him than any other man in Norway”[276] (Fœreyinga -Saga, ch. 28–32). - - - “I (Harald Hardradi) know eight idróttir; - I can make the drink of Ygg;[277] - I can ride fast on a horse; - I have sometimes practised swimming; - I can run on snow-shoes; - I shoot and I row well enough.” - - (Fornmanna Sögur, vi. 169.) - - -“The king asked: ‘Art thou a man of idróttir?’ Heming answered: ‘My -foster-father and foster-mother thought that I knew many things well, -but I have not shown my skill to others, and I think you will find it -slight. One idrótt I think I can perform for you.’ ‘Which?’ asked the -king; ‘I do not care with whom I try running on snow-shoes, for nobody -can surpass me in that.’ The king added: ‘We will see thy skill, and -know what it is worth.’ Heming replied: ‘I shall try to perform what you -have had performed first.’ ‘Let us go out,’ said the king, ‘and strive -against each other.’ Aslak went to him and said: ‘I have prepared ships -for your departure if you please, because I think it is best to have no -games.’ But the king said: ‘We will stay here to-day;’ and all went out. -The island was very woody, and they went to the forest. - -“The king took a spear, and put its point into the ground; then he -placed an arrow on the string and shot into the air; the arrow turned -itself in its course, came down with its point into the end of the -spear-shaft, and stood there upright. Heming took an arrow and shot, it -went very high, then the arrow point came down into the shaft of the -first arrow. The king took the spear and threw it; he shot so powerfully -and so far, and nevertheless straight, that all wondered. Heming threw -further than all, so that his spear socket lay on the point of the -king’s spear. The king took the spear and shot another time, and the -whole spear beyond Heming’s. ‘I will not throw any more, for I see it is -useless.’ ‘Throw,’ said the king, ‘and further if thou canst.’ Heming -shot, and far ahead. - -“The king placed an arrow on the string, and took a knife and stuck it -into an oak. He shot into the back of the knife-handle so that the arrow -stuck fast. Heming took his arrows. The king stood near him and said: -‘With gold are thy arrows wound round, and a very ambitious man art -thou.’ ‘I did not cause these arrows to be made; they were given to me, -and I have not taken any ornaments off them.’ Heming shot and hit the -knife-handle, and split it; the arrow point stuck in the upper point of -the blade. Then the king said: ‘Now we will shoot further.’ With an -angry look he laid an arrow on the string, and drew the bow so as to -bend its tips together. The arrow flew very far, and stopped in a very -slender bough. All thought this a most excellent shot. Heming shot -somewhat farther, and the arrow went through a nut. All present wondered -at this. The king said: ‘Now the nut shall be taken, and placed on the -head of thy brother Björn, and there thou shalt hit it. Thou shalt not -shoot from a shorter distance than before, and, if thou dost not hit, -thou hast forfeited thy life.’ ‘Thou canst decide over my life, but I -will never shoot this shot.’ Björn answered: ‘Thou must shoot rather -than choose death, for every man is bidden to prolong his life while he -may.’ ‘Wilt thou stand still, and not shrink, if I shoot at the nut?’ -‘Certainly,’ said Björn. ‘Then the king shall stand at his side,’ -replied Heming, ‘and see if I hit the nut.’ The king agreed to stand at -his side. He called Odd Ofeiggson, who went to where Björn stood, and -said it was a fit trial for him to keep his courage there. Then Heming -went to where the king would have him stand, and made the sign of the -cross. ‘I call God to witness that I make the king responsible for this, -and that I do not want to harm my brother.’ Heming shot; the arrow went -swiftly, and skipped over the crown of his head and under the nut, and -Björn was not wounded. The nut rolled backwards down from his head, but -the arrow went much farther. When the king asked if the shot had hit the -nut, Odd replied: ‘Better than hit, for he shot under the nut and it -rolled down, and he harmed not Björn.’ ‘It does not seem to me that he -has shot as I ordered,’ added the king. They slept over night. - -“In the morning Aslak went to speak with the king, and told him he had -again prepared his journey if he wanted to go to the mainland, but he -determined to stay that day. When the drinking hour was over, he called -his men, and they went down to the shore. The king said to Halldór -Snorrason (an Icelander): ‘I entrust it to thee to kill Heming while -swimming to-day.’ Halldór answered: ‘It would be difficult for abler men -than I am.’ Then the king told Bödvar Eldjarnsson to do it. He replied: -‘Though I had all the idróttir of those here present, I would not harm -him in anything, but least of all as I know that he surpasses me in -everything.’ - -“The king bade Nikulas Thorbergsson to tire out Heming in swimming. -Nikulas was doubtful of success, but consented to try. The king told -them both to swim. Heming said: ‘Now I need not spare myself, as I -should have liked best to contend with him if I did with anybody.’ They -undressed, and began swimming. Nikulas asked if they should try a long -swimming match. ‘We may try that as thou hast had the better of it in -the other’ (modes of swimming). When they had been swimming for a long -time, Nikulas seemed anxious to go back, but Heming said: ‘I guess you -the king’s bellies will stop farther from the shore.’ Heming kept on. -Nikulas swam somewhat slower, and asked shortly after: ‘Art thou going -to swim longer?’ Heming said: ‘I thought thou wouldst be able to swim -alone ashore, and I will swim farther.’ ‘That is good, I will risk going -back,’ said Nikulas, and turned, but had not gone far before he became -faint. At last Heming swam to him and asked how it went with him. He -told him it did not concern him, and he might go his way. Heming -answered: ‘I think thou deservest that I do so, but we will nevertheless -now go both together.’ ‘I will not refuse that,’ said Nikulas. ‘Lay thy -hand on my back and thus support thyself;’ and in this way they came to -land. Nikulas walked up, and had become quite stiff, but Heming sat down -upon a stone at the flood-mark. The king asked Nikulas the result of the -swimming. Nikulas replied: ‘I should not be able to tell any tidings on -land if Heming had not been a better man to me than thou art to him.’ -‘Now thou, Halldór, shalt kill Heming,’ said the king. ‘That I will not -do,’ answered Halldór, ‘it seems to me that the man who tried the -swimming before has won little.’ The king threw off his clothes. Aslak -went to Heming, and cried: ‘Save thyself; the king wants thy death, and -there is a short way to the wood.’ Heming said: ‘Face to face the eagles -shall fight with their claws, and he shall not be drowned whom God will -exalt; he may go into the water as soon as he likes.’ Heming rose from -the stone, and the king from another place, and as soon as they met the -king swam to him and thrust him down into the deep. Others did not see -their doings, but the sea became very restless above them. As it drew -towards evening, and when it was almost dark, the sea became quiet and -the king swam ashore. He looked so angry that no man dared to speak to -him. Dry clothes were brought to him; no one saw Heming, and all thought -him dead, but none dared to ask. The king went home with his men, but -there was little merriment over the beer. The king was overcome with -anger, and Aslak with sorrow. Lights were kindled in the hall, and the -king was in his seat, when Heming entered and placed on the king’s knees -the knife which he had worn on his belt. Everybody knew that he had -taken the knife from the king. - -“Again in the morning Aslak said to the king: ‘We have prepared your -journey if you intend to go.’ The king replied: ‘Now I will not stay, -but Heming shall follow us to the mainland.’ They made ready and -departed. - -“They landed at a large mountain, very steep towards the sea, and there -was a path along the mountain-side on which only one man at the time -could walk. There were precipices beneath and a high mountain above, and -the ledges on the mountain-side were only wide enough for one man on -horseback. The king ordered him to amuse them by running on snowshoes, -Heming said: ‘It is now not suitable to run on snowshoes, for there is -no snow, but only ice, and the mountain is very hard.’ The king replied: -‘There would be no danger if all was in the best condition.’ ‘As you -will,’ said Heming, and took his snowshoes and ran about the -mountain-side, up and down, and all said they had never seen any one run -so nimbly....” (Flateyjarbók, iii.). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1347.—Handle of Shield, iron, in a mound with skeleton. One-third - real size—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1348.—Shield boss, of iron, edges covered with bronze. One-third - real size—Öland. -] - ------ - -Footnote 267: - - Cf. also Sturlunga, i. c. 9; Orkneyinga, c. 18; Njala, c. 120, 145; - Færeyinga, c. 37. - -Footnote 268: - - Cf. also Gretti’s Saga, c. 78. - -Footnote 269: - - Cf. also Liosvetninga Saga, c. 9; An’s Saga Bogsveigis, c. 4; Gunnlaug - Ormstunga’s Saga, c. 10. - -Footnote 270: - - He had been brought up in Ireland. - -Footnote 271: - - Their foot-gear was made of undressed ox-hide. - -Footnote 272: - - Cf. also Göngu Hrolf’s Saga, ix. - -Footnote 273: - - Cf. also Egil’s Saga, c. 40; Gisli Sursson’s Saga. - -Footnote 274: - - Cf. also Gretti, 77; Ingi’s Saga, 11; Olaf Tryggvason, vol. ii., c. - 160; Fornmanna Sögur. - -Footnote 275: - - A piece belonging to a chess board. - -Footnote 276: - - Cf. also Fœreyinga Saga, c. 13; St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 112. - -Footnote 277: - - Odin = poetry. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - IDRÓTTIR.—POETRY OR SCALDSHIP, MUSIC AND MENTAL EXERCISES. - - Poetry a gift from the gods—The scald—Many sagas based on - poems—Honour paid to poets—Their moral power—Poets on the - battle-field—Recital of poems at feasts—Saga telling—Forms of - poetry—The harp—Parables and puzzles—Gest’s riddles. - - -Poetry (or _Scaldship_) was reckoned among the Idróttir, and was -considered a gift from the gods. The people looked to their poets to -perpetuate in songs and transmit to future generations the deeds of -their heroes, and the fame which was to cling to their names when they -had gone to Valhalla. From these poets, or _scalds_, we learn all we -know of the history of the earlier Norse tribes; from their songs the -people heard of the birth of their religion; of the creation of the -world, of the wisdom of the past, &c. Without them the history and deeds -of the race must have been lost to us, and we would only have had left -the antiquities of the early times to ponder over. These songs filled -the youth of the country who listened to them with ambition, urging them -to emulate the deeds of those whose praises were sung. - -In no literature which has come down to us do we see dying heroes such -as Ragnar Lodbrok, Hjalmar, Orvar Odd, and others, singing the deeds -they had accomplished as life is ebbing away from them, and they are -ready to enter into _Hel_. Whether these heroes sang these songs at such -a time or not, or whether they were written by poets at a later time, -matters little. The people of the land believed in them. - -In this peculiar branch of poetry the earlier Norsemen stand wholly -apart from those of other lands. - -The figurative names given to scaldship[278] by the poets show how the -earlier traditions were impressed upon the mind—_Kvásirs blood_, -_Dvergar mead_, _Suttungs mead_, _Asar’s mead_, _Odreyris liquid_, -_Odin’s gift_, _Odin’s freight_, _The Dvergar’s sea_, _The Dvergar’s -ale_, _Jötnar’s mead_. - -Bragi was supposed to be the most eloquent scald among the Asar. - -The origin of poetry is given in Hávamál; but in the later Edda we have -a more minute account of how it was learned by the Asar. - -When Hler of Hlessö, who was also called Ægir, came to Asgard to visit -the Asar, he made many inquiries, among which was the following:— - - -“Ægir said: ‘Whence has come the idrótt which you call scaldship?’ Bragi -answered: ‘The origin was that the gods (Asar) went to war with a people -called Vanir. They appointed a truce thus; both went to a vessel and -spat on it. When parting, the gods, unwilling to let this mark of truce -be lost, took it, and out of it shaped a man, Kvasir. He is so wise that -no one can ask him any question that he cannot answer. He travelled far -and wide about the world to teach wisdom to men. When invited home to -the Dvergar, Fjalar and Galar, they called him to a secret meeting and -slew him. They let his blood run into two tubs and a kettle called -_Odreyrir_ (song-rearer), but the tubs are called _Són_ (sacrifice), and -_Bodn_. They mixed[279] the blood with honey, and therefrom came the -mead of which whosoever drinks becomes a skald or a wise man. The -Dvergar told the Asar that Kvasir had been suffocated by too much -wisdom, because no one was so wise that he could put questions to him. -Thereupon these Dvergar invited to them a Jötun called Gilling and his -wife, and offered him to row out to sea with them. Rowing along the -shore they struck on hidden rocks, and the boat was upset. Gilling could -not swim, and was drowned. But the Dvergar turned over their boat and -rowed to the shore” (Later Edda 57, Bragarœdur). - - -Many of the sagas, if not all, were based upon the poetry which is often -quoted in them, and both were used and kept as historical records. - - -“Olaf had been king in Norway fifteen years, including the winter when -Svein Jarl and he were both in the land. Yule was past when he left his -ships and went on shore, as has been told. This record of his reign was -first written by the priest, Ari Thorgilsson, the wise, who was -truthful, had a good memory, and was so old that he remembered the -saga-telling of those who were so old that they could remember these -events. Ari has himself related this in his books, and has named the men -from whom he had this knowledge” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 189). - - -The scalds were honoured above all men, and married even mighty kings’ -daughters, and many of them were great warriors. - - -“Thórolf, son of Herjolf Hornabrjot, and Olaf, his brother, were kings -in Upplönd; with them was the poet Flein Hjörsson, who was brought up in -Mæri on an island called Jösrheid where his father lived. Flein went to -Denmark to visit King Eystein, and there got so much honour on account -of his poetry that the king gave him his daughter” (Landnama v. ch. 1). - - -King Harald Fairhair had a feast for his friends and followers. - - -“Of all his hirdmen the king valued his scalds the most. They were -placed on the second high-seat bench (_annat ondvegi_). At the furthest -end from them sat Audun Illskœlda (thus called because he wrote -satirical songs). He was older than any of them, and had been the scald -of Halfdan Svarti (black), the father of King Harald. Next to him sat -Thorbjorn Hornklofi, and then Olvir Hnufa, and next to him Bard was -placed” (Egil’s Saga, ch. 8). - - -“Thereupon Gunnlaug sailed from England (London) with traders north to -Dublin. At that time King Sigtrygg Silkiskegg (silk-beard), son of Olaf -Kvaran and Queen Kormlöd, ruled Ireland; he had then ruled only a short -time. Gunnlaug went before him and greeted him well and honourably. The -king received him well. Gunnlaug said: ‘I have made a song about you, -and I want to get a hearing.’ The king answered: ‘No man has before -delivered a poem to me, and I shall certainly listen to it.’ Gunnlaug -then sang the _drapa_, and this is the refrain: - - Sigtrygg feeds - The horse of Svara (the wolf) with corpses. - - I know distinctly - Whom I will praise, - The kinsman of kings, - He is the son of Kvaran; - The king will not to me - (He is wont to be liberal, - The champion knows it) - Spare the gold rings; - Let the king tell me - If he has heard made - A more glorious song; - This is the lay of drapa. - -“The king thanked him for the song, and asked his treasurer with what it -should be rewarded. He answered: ‘With what will you reward it, lord?’ -The king said: ‘How will it be rewarded, if I give him two knerrir -(trading-ships)?’ The treasurer replied: ‘That is too much, lord; other -kings give costly things, good swords or good gold-rings, as rewards for -a song.’ The king gave him his own clothes of new scarlet, a -lace-ornamented kirtle, a cloak with the finest furs on it, and a gold -ring which weighed a mark. Gunnlaug thanked him, and stayed there for a -short time, and went thence to the Orkneys” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga’s Saga, -ch. 8). - - -The moral power of a renowned poet was often very great. - - -“Sindri, a high-born man, was renowned among Halfdan the Black’s -warriors; formerly he had been with King Harald, and was the greatest -friend of both. Guthorm was a great scald, and had made a song about -each. They had offered him a reward, but he refused it, saying that they -must grant him one request, and this they promised. He went to King -Harald (to reconcile him and Halfdan), and so much did the kings honour -him that they were reconciled at his request” (Olaf Tryggvason, Fms., -vol. i. c. 12). - - -The scalds were always on the battlefield near the shieldburgh, in order -to witness the heroism of the combatants, and sing their victory or -glorious death. With their _vapnasong_ (weapon-song) they encouraged the -champions in battle, or with their _Sigrljod_ (lay of victory) praised -the bravery of the hero. - - -“It is said that King Olaf (before the battle of Stiklastad 1015–30) -arrayed his men, and then arranged the shieldburgh which was to protect -him in the battle, for which he selected the strongest and most valiant -men. He then called his scalds and bid them go into the shieldburgh. -‘You shall stay here,’ said the king, ‘and see what takes place, and -then no Saga is needed to tell you afterwards what you shall make songs -about’” (Fostbrœdra Saga, c. 47). - - -These rulers loved to be surrounded by men who could entertain them and -their guests during the long winter evenings, or at festivals, and took -great pride in having poems made about them. - - -“One summer an Icelander came to King Harald, who asked him what he -knew. He said he knew some sagas. The king said: ‘I will receive thee, -and thou shalt join my hird this winter, and always entertain my men -when they want it, whoever asks thee.’ He did so. He was soon well liked -by the hird; they gave him clothes, and the king himself gave him a good -weapon. This went on till near Yule, when the Icelander began to look -sad; the king saw it, and asked him for the reason, and he said it was -his variable temper. The king answered: ‘That is not the reason, but I -will guess it; I suspect that thy sagas are now all told, for thou hast -always entertained every man who asked thee this winter, and often by -night and day; now thou dost not like the sagas to be wanting during -Yule, but wilt not tell the same sagas again.’ The Icelander said: ‘Thy -guess is right; the only saga that remains is one which I dare not tell -here, for it is your Utfarar saga’ (saga of Harald’s voyage to the Holy -Land). The king answered: ‘That is a saga which I am most curious to -hear; now thou shalt not recite before Yule, for people are now very -busy, but the first Yule-day thou shalt begin this saga and tell part of -it; then there will be great drinking, and they cannot sit long -listening to it. I will manage that the saga shall last during Yule, and -thou wilt not find while thou tellest it whether I like it well or ill.’ -Accordingly the Icelander began his saga first Yule-day, and after he -had told it a short while the king told him to stop. People then began -to talk much about this entertainment; some said it was very bold of the -Icelander to tell this saga, and had doubts how the king would like it; -some thought he told it well, others less well. The king took good care -that they listened well; he managed that it lasted as long as Yule. The -thirteenth day the king said: ‘Art thou not curious to know, Icelander, -how I like the saga?’ He answered: ‘I am afraid to hear, lord.’ The king -said: ‘I think it very well told, and nowhere is the truth deviated -from; but who taught thee?’ He answered: ‘I used in Iceland to go to the -Thing every summer, and every summer I learnt a part of the saga which -was told by Haldór Snorrason.’ The king said: ‘It is not strange that -thou knowest it well, as thou hast learnt it from him, and this saga -shall be of use to thee; thou art welcome to stay with me as long as -thou wilt.’ He stayed with the king that winter, and in the spring the -king gave him some good wares to trade in, and he became a thriving man” -(Harald Hardradi, c. 6). - - -Saga-telling seems to have taken place also in England. - - -“Then Játvard the good (Edward Confessor), son of King Adalrad -(Ethelred), was chosen king in England. He remembered the friendship of -his father Adalrad with King Olaf Tryggvason. He adopted the custom of -telling on the first Easter-day the Saga of King Olaf Tryggvason to his -chiefs and hirdmen” (Flateyjarbók, i. 506 (Olaf Tryggvason’s -Saga)).[280] - - -Some poets used poetry as their mode of speech. - - -“Sigvat scald had been a long time with King Olaf, who had made him his -marshal. Sigvat was not quick of speech in _unbound words_ (prose), but -poetry was so easy to him that song flowed from his tongue as fast as he -talked; he had made journeys to Valland, and during these he had come to -England and met Knut the powerful” (St. Olaf’s Saga (Heimskringla), ch. -170). - - -There were two well-known forms of poetry. - -The _Drapa_, a heroic laudatory poem, generally written in memory of a -deceased man, and _Flokk_, a shorter poem. - -The memory of some men was extraordinary; the blind scald Stuf recited -before King Harald Hardradi in one evening thirty songs; in answer to a -question he said that he knew at least half as many more longer drapas. - -An Icelander, named Stuf, went to Norway, and stayed with a bondi in -Upplönd. To him came King Harald Hardradi on a visit, and sat talking to -Stuf. - - -“Then the bondi came into the stofa, and said the king must find it -dull. ‘It is not so,’ answered the king, ‘for this winter guest of thine -entertains me well, and I will drink to him this evening’; and thus it -happened. The king talked much to Stuf, and he gave wise answers; when -the men went to sleep the king asked Stuf to stay in the room where he -was to sleep, in order to entertain him. Stuf did so; when the king was -in his bed Stuf entertained him, and sang a flokk, and when it was -finished he asked him to sing more. - -“The king was awake a long time, while Stuf entertained him, and at last -said: ‘How many songs hast thou sung now?’ Stuf answered: ‘I intended -that you should count them.’ ‘I have done it,’ said the king; ‘they are -thirty now, but why doest thou only sing flokks? Doest thou not know any -drapas?’ Stuf answered: ‘I know no fewer drapas than flokks, though many -flokks which I know are still unsung’” (Fornmanna Sögur, c. 6). - - -The harp is mentioned in Voluspa, and seems to have been used in early -times. Gunnar played his harp with such skill that even champions were -moved. He could also play with his toes, and charm snakes with its -tones, Rognvald also reckoned harp-playing among his Idróttir. Norna -Gest was very skilful on this instrument, and played famous tunes. - - -“Gest took his harp and struck it long and well that evening, so that -every one thought it pleasant to listen; he played Gunnar’s tune best; -finally he played the old _Gudrúnarbrögd_, which they had not heard -before; afterwards they went to sleep” (Norna Gest’s Saga, ch. 2 -(Fornaldarsögur i.)). - - -King Hugleik’s orchestra consisted of harp[281] and other instruments, -and Olaf Skautkonung kept for his table regular performers. - -We have no description of the shape or size of the harp. It was no doubt -a large instrument, as a little girl, Aslaug, wife of Ragnar Lodbrok, -could be hidden in it, and from Herraud and Bosi’s Saga we learn that a -man could stand in it upright. They sometimes had strings of silver and -gold. - -The harp shown on the wood carvings give us an idea of its shape. - -_Mental Exercises._—The unravelling of puzzles seems to have been one of -the most favourite pastimes among chiefs and other powerful men, and -deep penetration was required to understand them. Heidrek, a king of -Reidgotaland, was credited with having been able to unravel any riddle -that had ever been propounded to him. - - -“A man named Gest the blind was a powerful hersir in Reidgotaland, but -wicked and overbearing; he had kept back the tribute belonging to King -Heidrek, and there was great enmity between them. The king sent him word -that he must come to him and submit to the judgment of his wise men, or -fight. Gest did not like either of these terms, and became very uneasy, -for he knew that he had committed many offences; he then resolved to -sacrifice to Odin for help, and begged of him to look on his case, and -promised a large reward. Late one evening there was a knock at the door, -and Gest the blind went to open it; he asked the name of the man who had -come, and he answered his name was Gest; then they inquired of each -other about the tidings. The guest asked if anything grieved him; Gest -the blind told him everything carefully. The guest said: ‘I will go to -the king on thy behalf, and see how it will go; let us exchange -appearance and clothes;’ and thus they did. The bondi[282] went away and -hid himself while the guest went in and stayed there during the night, -and every one thought it was Gest the blind. Next day Gest went on the -journey to the king, and did not stop until he came to Arheimar -(Heidrek’s seat); he went into the hall and greeted the king well. The -king was silent and looked angrily at him. ‘Herra (lord),’ said Gest, ‘I -am here in order to be reconciled with you.’ The king asked: ‘Wilt thou -obey the judgment of my wise men?’ Gest replied: ‘Are there no other -terms?’ The king said: ‘There are; if thou wilt come with a riddle which -I cannot guess, and thus procure thyself peace.’ Gest answered: ‘I am -little able to do that, and besides the other part (the king) may be -heard about it.’ ‘Wilt thou rather submit to the decision of the wise -men?’ said the king. ‘I should prefer,’ said Gest, ‘to come with some -riddles.’ The king agreed, and two chairs were brought on which they sat -down. Gest then propounded his riddles’” (Hervarar Saga, ch. 15). - - - _Gest._ - - I should wish to have - That which yesterday I had; - Try to know what it was, - Peace-maker among men! - Tamer of words,[283] - And starter of words, - King Heidrek,[284] - Think of the riddle. - - _Heidrek._ - - Good is thy riddle,[285] - Gest the blind! - It is guessed; - Ale changes the temper - And quickens prattle, - But in others the tongue is wrapped around the teeth. - - _Gest._ - - I went from home, - I travelled from home, - I looked on the road of roads, - Road was above, - Road was beneath, - And road in every direction. - - _Heidrek._ - - A bird flew above, - A fish swam beneath, - Thou walkedst on a bridge. - - _Gest._ - - What kind of drink was it - I drank yesterday? - It was neither water nor wine, - Mead nor ale, - No kind of food. - However, I went thirstless thence. - - _Heidrek._ - - Thou went’st into sunshine, - Hiddest thyself in the shade; - There fell dew in the valleys; - Then thou didst taste - The night-dew, - Cooling thy throat by it. - - _Gest._ - - Who is the shrill one - That on hard roads walks - On which he has been before? - He kisses rather roughly, - Has two mouths; - And walks on gold only. - - _Heidrek._ - - The hammer walks - On the fire of Rin,[286] - It sounds loudly - Falling on the anvil. - - _Gest._ - - What wonder is that - Which I saw outside - Before the door of Delling?[287] - Two lifeless ones - And breathless, - Seethed wound-leek.[288] - - _Heidrek._ - - There is neither breath nor heat - In the bellows of smiths, - They have neither life nor power; - However one can before them - Make a sword - By the wind they give. - - _Gest._ - - What wonder is it - I saw outside - Before the doors of Delling? - It has eight feet, - Eyes four, - And bears its knee higher than its belly. - - _Heidrek._ - - From east thou went’st - To the door of a house - To see the hall; - Thou earnest thereto - Where the king of webs[289] - Wove a web from its bowels. - - _Gest._ - - What wonder is it - I saw outside - Before the doors of Delling? - It turns its head - On the way to Hel - And its feet to the sun. - - _Heidrek._ - - The head of the leek turns - Towards the bosom of the earth - And its leaves into the air. - - _Gest._ - - What wonder is it - I saw outside - Before the doors of Delling? - Harder than horn, - Blacker than raven, - Brighter than shield, - Straighter than shaft. - - _Heidrek._ - - Now thy riddle-making - Begins to slacken; - Why should a ready man tarry? - Thou lookedst on the roads, - There lay raven-flint, - Glittering in a sunbeam. - - _Gest._ - - Two bondwomen, - Light-haired maidens, - Carried ale - To the skemma;[290] - It was not touched with hand, - Nor with hammer shaped; - The wave-breasting one who made it - Was outside the islands.[291] - - _Heidrek._ - - White-feathered skin - Have the swans - Which by islands - Sit on the sea; - Nests they built, - Had no hands, - With other swans - Eggs begat.[292] - - * * * * * - - _Gest._ - - What beast is that - Which defends the Danes? - It has a bloody back - And shelters men, - Meets the weapons, - Exposes its life, - Man lays his body - Against its palm. - - _Heidrek._ - - The shields shine - In the battles, - And protect those who wield them. - - _Gest._ - - Who are the play sisters - That pass over lands - And play much at will? - They wear a white shield - In winter, - But a dark one - In summer. - - _Heidrek._ - - Ptarmigans call - The sons of men - Feather-wearing birds; - Their feathers become black - In summer-time, - But white during the bear’s night.[293] - - _Gest._ - - Who are the maidens - That sorrowful go - To seek their father? - To many they have - Harm done, - Passing their life therein. - - _Heidrek._ - - The evil-minded - Maidens of Eldir[294] - Slay many men. - - _Gest._ - - Who are the maidens - Going many together - Seeking their father? - They have light hair, - These white-hooded ones, - Men cannot be safe against them. - - _Heidrek._ - - Gymir[295] has - By Ran begotten[296] - Wise-minded daughters; - Billows they are called, - And also waves; - No man can be safe against them. - - _Gest._ - - Who are the widows - That go all together - To seek their father? - They are seldom gentle - To men, - And they must be awake in the wind. - - _Heidrek._ - - These are the waves, - Daughters of Ægir, - They let themselves fall heavily. - - * * * * * - - _Gest._ - - Who are the maidens - That walk over the reefs - And journey along the fjords? - These white-hooded women - Have a hard bed, - And make little stir in calm weather. - - _Heidrek._ - - Billows and waves - And all breakers - At last lay themselves on skerries;[297] - Their beds are - Rocks and stone-heaps, - But the calm sea stirs them not. - - * * * * * - - _Gest._ - - Who lives on high mountains? - Who lives in deep dales? - Who lives without breath? - Who is never silent? - - _Heidrek._ - - Ravens live on high mountains; - Dew falls in deep dales; - Fish live without breath in water, - But the sounding waterfall - Is never silent. - - _Gest._ - - Four are walking, - Four are hanging, - Two showing the way, - Two keeping dogs off; - One lags behind - All his days, - That one is always dirty. - - _Heidrek._ - - A cow is that beast - Which thou didst see - Walk on four feet, - Four teats hang, - And horns defend her: - Her tail hung behind. - - _Gest._ - - What kind of wonder is it - I saw outside - Before the door of Delling? - It had ten tongues, - Twenty eyes; - Forty feet - That being moves forward. - - _Heidrek._ - - If thou art the one thou sayest, - Then thou art wiser - Than I expected; - Thou talkest of - A sow outside - Which walked in the yard; - She was slaughtered - At the king’s will, - And she was with nine pigs. - - _Gest._ - - Who are those two - That go to the thing? - They have three eyes both, - Ten feet, - And one tail have they both. - Thus they pass over lands. - - _Heidrek._ - - It is Odin - When riding along on Sleipnir; - He has one eye, - His horse two, - The drösul[298] - Runs on eight feet, - Ygg[299] on two, - The horse has one tail. - - _Gest._ - - Tell me that only, - As thou seemest to be - Wiser than any king; - What did Odin say - Into the ear of Baldr - Before he was carried on the pyre? - - _Heidrek._ - - This is wonder and wickedness, - And cravenness only, - Jugglery and trickery only; - But no one knows those words of thine - Except thyself, - Thou evil and wretched being. - - * * * * * - - The king burnt with anger, - He drew Tyrfing[300] - And wanted to strike Gest; - But he turned himself - Into the shape of a hawk, - And thus saved his life. - The hawk attempted - To escape by the light-holes, - But the king struck after him; - He cut off the tip of his tail - And shortened his feathers, - Therefore the hawk has a docked tail. - - -“The sword hit the tail, and took off what it touched, and therefore the -hawk has a short tail ever after; then the sword hit a man of the hird, -and he was at once slain. Odin then said: ‘Because thou, King Heidrek, -drewest thy sword and wantedst to slay me, and thyself brokest the truce -which thou hadst set between us, the worst of thralls shall be thy -slayers.’ Then Odin flew away, and thus they parted” (Hervarar Saga, c. -15). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1349.—Gilt silver fibula, one-quarter real size—Zeeland. -] - ------ - -Footnote 278: - - Skaldskap = scald-ship, derived from skald, a poet. - - The leading poets were:— - - Bragi Boddason the old (about 800). The earliest who appears within - historical periods. - - Thjodolf of Hvin and Thorbjörn Hornklofi, Harald Fairhair’s scalds. - - Eyvind Skaldaspillir, Hakon the Good’s greatest poet. - - Egil Skallagrimsson. - - Kormak Ogmundsson, famous for love songs. - - Hallfred Vandrœdaskald, the troublesome scald, Olaf Tryggvason’s - greatest poet. - - Sighvat Thordarson, St. Olaf’s greatest scald. - - Thjodolf Arnorsson, Harald Hardradi’s scald. - - The scalds who made songs on Knut the Great were: Thord Kolbeinsson, - Sighvat Thordarson, Ottar the black, Thorarin Loftunga - (praise-tongue), Hallvard Harekublesi, Bersi Skaldtorfuson. - - The greatest masterpiece of scaldic art was composed in 1222–23 by - Snorri Sturluson on Hakon Hakonsson, King of Norway, and the jarl - Skuli, Bard’s son. Hattatal (the list of metres) is its title, and of - the 102 strophes each one is in a different metre. - -Footnote 279: - - Cf. mixing blood in foster-brotherhood. - -Footnote 280: - - Cf. Flateyjarbók, iii. - -Footnote 281: - - The harp is also mentioned in Atla Kvida, 31; Oddrunargrat, 29; - Atlamal, 62; Bard’s Saga. - -Footnote 282: - - Hersir is called here a bondi. - -Footnote 283: - - One who subdues words—an eloquent man—for every chief was trained to - be a good speaker. - -Footnote 284: - - These two lines, which are repeated in every stanza in the original - text, are omitted in subsequent stanzas here. - -Footnote 285: - - These three lines are repeated at the beginning of each stanza, but - are omitted in subsequent stanzas. - -Footnote 286: - - Rin = Rhine river, fire of Rhine = gold, because hidden in the river. - -Footnote 287: - - Door of Delling, a Dverg = the rock; before his door = on the ground. - -Footnote 288: - - A sword. - -Footnote 289: - - Spider. - -Footnote 290: - - Woman’s house. - -Footnote 291: - - On the sea. - -Footnote 292: - - The swans swim to their nests and lay eggs; the shell of the eggs is - neither made by hand nor shaped by hammer, but the swan with whom they - beget the eggs is breasting the waves outside the islands. - -Footnote 293: - - The bears of the North sleep all winter. - -Footnote 294: - - Ægir. - -Footnote 295: - - Ægir = the sea. - -Footnote 296: - - Ran, the wife of Ægir. According to the Prose Edda, Gymir is the same - as Ægir and Hlér. - -Footnote 297: - - Rocks. - -Footnote 298: - - Horse. - -Footnote 299: - - Odin. - -Footnote 300: - - His sword. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - THE CONDUCT OF LIFE—THE HÁVAMÁL. - - Rules of life—The duty of hospitality—Folly of boasting—The wise - man keeps his eyes and ears open—Wits are better than - wealth—Drink destroys reason—The duty of cheerfulness and - bravery—Over-eating—We should not worry—All who smile on a man - are not his friends—The value of silence—A guest should not - outstay his welcome—The value of a home however humble—No man - should be the friend of his foe’s friend—Every man has two sides - to his character—Man’s happiness—Wealth is the most unstable of - friends—The fickleness of woman—All is fair in love—Do not - neglect your friends—No man is without his faults—Proverbs and - wise savings. - - -To all great popular leaders and lawgivers are often attributed the -dogmas and words of wisdom which form part of their creed. It is not -therefore surprising to find the great Norse code of morality, known -under the name of Hávamál,[301] attributed to Odin; Hávamál meaning the -“Song of the High.” - - All door-ways - Before one goes forth - Should be looked over, - Should be searched out, - For ‘tis hard to know - Where foes sit - On the benches before one. - - Hail my host![302] - A guest has come in; - Where shall he sit? - In hot haste is he - Who has to try his luck - On snow-shoes. - - Fire is needed - By him who has come in - And is benumbed in his knees; - Food and clothes - Are needed by one - Who has travelled over the mountain. - - Water is needed - By the one who comes to the meal, - A towel and a hearty welcome, - Good-will - If he can get it, - Talk and answer. - - Wisdom is wanted - By him who travels widely; - Anything is easy at home;[303] - He who nothing knows - And sits among the wise - Becomes a gazing-stock. - - A man with a thinking mind - Should not boast, - But rather be heedful in his mood. - When a wise and silent man - Comes to a homestead - The wary man seldom makes a slip, - For a more faithful friend - Will a man never get - Than great man-wit.[304] - - The wary guest - Who comes to a meal - Is silent and talks little, - Listens with (his) ears, - Looks on with (his) eyes; - Thus every wise man looks about him. - - He is happy - Who gets for himself - Praise and good-will; - That which a man must own - In the mind[305] of another - Is less easy to deal with. - - He is happy - Who himself has - Praise and wits while alive; - For evil counsels - Has one often got - Out of another’s breast. - - A better burthen - A man carries not on the road - Than great wits; - Better than wealth - It is thought at strange places; - It is the strength of the poor. - - Better burthen - A man carries not on the road - Than great good sense; - No worse journey-provisions - Weigh him to the ground - Than too much ale-drinking. - - The ale of men’s sons - Is not so good - As men say it is; - For the more - A man drinks - The less has he his senses. - - He is called heron of Oblivion - The one who soars over ale-bouts, - He steals away men’s senses; - With the feathers of that bird - I was bound[306] - In the house of Gunnlód.[307] - - I got drunk, - I got too drunk - At the wise Fjalar’s; - The ale is best when - Every man - Gets his reason back. - - Silent and thoughtful - Should a king’s son be - And bold in battle; - Glad and cheerful - Should every man be - Till he meet his death. - - The unwise man - Thinks he will live for ever - If he shuns fight, - But old age gives him - No peace - Though spears may spare him. - - A fool gapes - When he comes into company, - He mutters or sulks; - All at once - If he gets a drink - His mind is displayed. - - He alone knows - Who widely travels - And has seen much - What the temper is - Of every man - Who has his wits about him. - - A man shall not send away the cup - But drink mead moderately, - Speak usefully or be silent; - No man will blame thee - For ill-breeding - Though thou goest early to sleep. - - A greedy man - Unless he has sense - Eats ill-health for himself; - A foolish man’s belly - Often causes laughter - When he is among the wise. - - Herds know - When they shall go home - And then walk off the grass; - But an unwise man - Never knows - The measure of his stomach. - - A wretched man - With evil mind - Sneers at everything; - He knows not that, - Which he needed to know, - That he is not himself faultless. - - An unwise man - Is awake all night - Worrying about everything; - He is weary - When the morning comes - All the woe is as it was. - - An unwise man - Thinks all who smile on him - To be his friends; - He does not know - When he sits among wise men - Though they speak badly of him. - - An unwise man - Thinks all who smile on him - To be his friends; - But he will find - When he comes to the thing - That he has few spokesmen.[308] - - An unwise man - Thinks he knows everything - If he has shelter in a corner; - He knows not - What he should say - If men test him. - - An unwise man - When he comes among people, - Had best be silent; - No one knows - That he nothing knows, - Unless he talks too much; - The man who nothing knows - Knows not of it - Though he talk too much. - - He who can ask - And answer questions - Thinks himself wise; - The sons of men - Can hide nothing - That passes among men. - - He who is never silent - Speaks too many - Meaningless words; - A glib tongue - Unless it has restrainers - Often does harm to itself. - - A man shall not - Have another for a gazing-stock[309] - Though he come into company; - Many one thinks himself wise - If he is not asked questions - And can loiter with dry clothes. - - Wise thinks himself - The guest who drives away - Another guest with mocking; - He is not wise - Who sneers at a meal - If he prates among angry men. - - Many men - Are kind to one another, - Yet quarrel at the meal; - This will always be - The cause of men’s strife; - Guest gets angry with guest. - - An early meal - Should a man often take - And not go without it into company; - (Otherwise) he sits and sulks, - Looks as if he were hungry, - And cannot talk. - - It is long out of one’s way - To a bad friend, - Though he live on the road; - But to a good friend - There are short paths - Though he be farther off. - - One should take leave, - The guest should not stay - Always in one place; - The loved becomes loathed - If he sits too long - In another’s house. - - A homestead is best - Though it be small; - A man is master at home; - Though he has but two goats - And a straw-thatched hall (house) - It is better than begging. - - A homestead is best - Though it be small; - A man is a man (master) at home; - Bleeding is the heart - Of him who must beg - His food for every meal. - - A man shall not on the ground - Go a step forward - Without his weapons; - For it is hard to know - When out on roads - If a man may need his spear. - - I never met a man - So openhanded or free with his food - That he would not take a gift, - Nor one so lavish - With his property - That rewards were to him unwelcome. - - A man - When he has gained property - Should not suffer want; - What was meant for the loved - Is often spared for the hated; - Many things go worse than expected. - - With weapons and clothes - Such as are most sightly on oneself - Shall friends gladden each other; - Givers and receivers - Are the longest friends, - If they give with good wishes. - - A man should be - A friend to his friend - And give gift for gift; - Laughter for laughter - And lie for lie - Should men return. - - To his friend - A man should be a friend, - To him and his friend; - But no man - Should be the friend - Of his foe’s friend. - - Know if thou hast a friend - Whom thou trustest well - And thou wilt good from him get, - Thou must blend thoughts with him, - And exchange gifts, - Go often and meet him. - - If thou hast another - Whom thou trustest little - Yet wilt good from him get, - Kindly shalt thou talk to him, - But think deceitfully - And give lie back for lie. - - That is further from him - Whom thou trustest little - And whose mind thou suspectest, - Thou shalt smile at him - And speak contrary to thy thoughts, - The reward should be like the gift. - - I once was young, - I travelled alone, - And missed my way; - I thought myself wealthy - When I another met; - Man is the delight of man. - - Liberal and valiant - Men live best; - They seldom harbour grief; - But unwise men - Fear everything; - The miser always longs for gifts. - - My clothes - Gave I to two wood-men (men of the forest) - In the field; - They thought themselves men, - When they got the garments; - Ashamed is a naked man. - - The fir withers - That stands on a fenced field; - Neither bark nor foliage shelter it; - Thus is a man - Whom no one loves; - Why should he live long? - - Hotter than fire - Burns between bad friends - Friendship for five days; - But when the sixth comes - It is quenched - And all the friendship vanishes. - - Much at once - Should one not give; - With little you often get praise; - With half a loaf - And a half-filled cup - I got a companion. - - Small are sand grains, - Small are drops of water, - Small are men’s minds; - For all men - Were not made equally wise; - Men are everywhere by halves.[310] - - Middling wise - Should every man be, - Never too wise; - Happiest live - Those men - Who know many things well. - - Middling wise - Should every man be, - Never too wise; - For the heart of a wise man - Is seldom glad - If its owner is all-wise. - - Middling wise - Should every man be - Never too wise; - No man ought to - Know his fate beforehand, - Then his mind is freest from sorrow. - - Brand is kindled from brand - Till it is burnt out; - Fire is kindled from fire; - A man gets knowledge - By talk with a man - But becomes wilful by self-conceit. - - Early should rise - He who wants the property - Or the life of another; - Seldom a sleeping wolf - Gets a thigh-bone - Or a sleeping man victory. - - Early should rise - He who has few workers - And go to his work; - Many hindrances has he - Who sleeps in the morning; - Half one’s wealth depends on activity. - - Of dry logs - And thatching-bark - A man knows the measure - And of the fire-wood - Which can last - For meals and for seasons.[311] - - Washed and well-fed - Should a man ride to the thing, - Though he be not so well dressed; - Of his shoes and breeches - Let no man be ashamed, - Nor of his horse, though he has not a good one. - - Sniffs and hangs with its head, - When it comes on the sea, - The eagle on the old ocean; - So is the man - Who comes among many - And has few spokesmen. - - Ask and answer - Should every sage man - Who wants to be called wise; - One may know - But not another; - All know if three know. - - His power - Should every foresighted man - Use moderately; - He will feel - When he comes among the skilled - That no one is the best. - - * * * * * - - For the words - That a man says to another - He has often to pay the penalty.[312] - - Much too early - Came I to many places - And too late to some; - The ale was drunk - Or it was unbrewed; - An unwelcome man seldom finds the ale. - - Here and there - Might I be invited home - If I needed not food for a meal - Or if two hams hung - At my trusty friend’s - Where I had eaten one. - - Fire is the best thing - Among the sons of men, - And the sight of the sun, - His good health - If a man can keep it, - And a blameless life. - - A man is not utterly unhappy - Though he be in ill-health; - Some are happy in sons, - Some in kinsmen, - Some in much wealth, - Some in good deeds. - - Better is it to live - Than not to live; - A living man (may) always get a cow; - I saw fire blaze - Before a wealthy man - And outside was death at the door. - - The lame may ride a horse, - The handless may drive a herd, - The deaf may fight and do well; - A blind man is better - Than a burnt one; - The dead are of no use. - - A son is better - Though he be late born, - After a man’s death; - Seldom memorial stones - Stand near the road - Unless kinsman raise - Them after kinsman. - - Two are of one host - The tongue is the head’s bane; - Under every fur-coat - I expect a hand.[313] - - He who trusts to his knapsack - Is glad when night comes; - The ship’s corners are small; - The autumn night is changeable; - There are many weathers - In five days[314] - And more in a month. - - He who nothing knows - Knows not this; - Many are made fools by wealth; - One man is wealthy, - And another poor; - Blame not a man for that. - - Cattle die, - Kinsmen die, - One’s self dies too; - But the fame - Never dies - Of him who gets a good name. - - Cattle die, - Kinsmen die, - We ourselves die; - I know one thing - That never dies, - The doom over every dead man.[315] - - Full stocked folds - I saw at the sons of Fitjung; - Now they carry beggars’ staffs; - Wealth is - Like the twinkling of an eye - The most unstable of friends. - - An unwise man - If he gets - Wealth or a woman’s love - Grows in pride, - But never in wits; - He goes on further in his conceit. - - It will be found - When thou askest about - The god-born runes - Which the high powers made, - And the all wise marked, - Then it is best that he be silent. - - A day should be praised at night, - A woman when she is burnt, - A sword when it is tried, - A maiden when she is married, - Ice when crossed, - Ale when drank. - - In a gale should trees be cut, - In a breeze row out at sea, - In the dark to a maiden talk, - Many are the eyes of day, - A ship is made for sailing, - A shield for sheltering, - A sword for striking, - A maiden for kisses. - - At the fire shalt thou drink ale - And glide on the ice, - Buy a lean horse, - And a rusty sword, - Fatten (thy) horse at home, - And (thy) dog at (thy) farm. - - The words of a maiden - Or the talk of a woman - Should no man trust; - For their hearts were shaped - On a whirling wheel, - And fickleness laid in their breasts. - - A creaking bow, - A burning flame, - A gaping wolf, - A croaking crow, - A squealing swine, - A rootless tree, - A waxing wave, - A boiling cauldron, - - A flying arrow, - A falling billow, - A one night old ice, - A ring-coiled snake, - The bed-talk of a bride, - Or a broken sword, - The play of a bear, - Or a king’s child - - A sick calf, - A wilful thrall, - The kind words of a volva, - The new-felled slain,[316] - - An early sown field - Shall no man trust, - Nor his son too early; - The weather rules the field, - And wit guides the son; - Each of them is uncertain. - - Let no man be so trustful - That he trust - His brother’s slayer, - Though he meet him on the highway, - A half-burnt house, - A very swift horse, - A horse is useless - If a leg be broken. - - Thus is the love of women - Whose hearts are false - As riding on slippery ice, - With an unshod, - Wild, two year old, - Badly broken horse, - Or like cruising - Rudderless in a strong gale, - Or like the lame reindeer - On thawing mountain sides. - - Now I speak openly - For I know both; - Fickle is the mind of men to women; - We speak most fair - When we think most false; - That beguiles wise minds. - - Finely must talk - And offer gifts - He who would win woman’s love, - Praise the shape - Of the bright (fair) maiden; - He wins who woos. - - In matters of love - Should a man never - Blame another; - The bewitching hues[317] - That do not move the dull - Often move the wise. - - A man must not - Blame another - For what is many men’s weakness; - For mighty love - Changes the son of men - From wise into fools. - - The mind alone knows - What is near the heart; - It alone sees what is near the heart; - It alone sees what is in the breast; - No sickness is worse - For a wise man - Than to enjoy nothing. - - I tried that when - I sat in the rushes - And waited for my love; - The gentle maiden - Was like my own flesh and heart; - Yet she was not mine. - - I found the sun-bright - Maiden of Billing[318] - Asleep on her bed; - The happiness of a jarl - I thought worth nothing, - Unless living with that maiden. - - And near evening (in the twilight) - Must thou come, Odin, - If thou wilt talk with a maiden; - It will fare badly - Unless we alone know - Of such unlawful love. - - I went away; - It seemed to me I loved - Out of my wise will;[319] - I thought - I had won - All her heart and love. - - When next I came - All the doughty household - Was awake; - With burning lights - And carried torches - That way of woe was marked for me. - - Near morning, - When I came again, - The household was asleep; - A dog I found - Tied to the bed - Of the good woman. - - Many a good maiden - If thou searchest well - Is fickle to men; - That I found - When I the counsel wise maiden - Sought to beguile; - Every mocking - Showed me the wise maiden, - And from that woman nought had I. - - At home shall a man be merry - And cheerful to his guests, - Cautious about himself, - Of good memory and ready speech, - If he wants to be very wise; - A good man is often talked of; - A great fool is he called - Who little can tell; - That is the mark of a fool. - - I visited the old jotun; - Now I have come back; - Little got I silent there; - Many words - I spoke for my good - In the halls of Suttung. - - Gunnlod gave me - On a golden chair - A drink of the costly mead; - Ill reward - I gave her afterwards - For her strong love, - For her true love. - - The point (mouth) of Rati - I let make its way - And gnaw the rock; - Over me and under me - Were the ways of jotuns, - Thus I risked my head. - - The trick-bought mead - I have enjoyed well; - The wise lack little, - For Odrerir[320] - Has now come up - On the skirt of the earth of men.[321] - - I doubt whether - I should yet have come - Out of the jötun halls, - If I had not had help - From Gunnlod, the good maiden - Round whom I laid my arm. - - The next day - The Hrim-thussar came, - To ask about the purpose of Hár[322] - Into his hall; - They asked about Bólverk[323] - If he was among the gods, - Or Suttung had slain him. - - An oath on the ring,[324] - I think, Odin took; - Shall his plighted faith be trusted? - He defrauded Suttung - Of his mead, - And made Gunnlod weep. - - It is time to speak - From the chair of the wise man - At the well of Urd; - I saw and was silent, - I saw and pondered, - I listened to the talk of men; - I heard talk of runes, - Nor were they silent about their plans - At the hall of Hár; - In the hall of Hár - I heard this spoken. - - I advise thee, Loddfafnir, - Take thou my advice; - Thou wilt profit by it if thou takest it;[325] - Rise not at night - Unless thou goest a spying - Or thou art compelled to go out. - - Thou must not sleep - In the arms of a witch - So that she clasp thee with her limbs. - - She (the witch) causes that - Thou dost not heed - The thing or the words of a chief; - Thou wantest not food - Nor the amusement of men; - Thou goest sorrowful to sleep. - - The wife of another man - Tempt thou never - To be thy ear-whisperer.[326] - - On a mountain or a fjord - If thou to travel wantest - Take thou good store of food. - - A bad man - Do thou never - Let thy misfortunes know; - For from a bad man - Gettest thou never - Reward for thy goodwill. - - I saw the words - Of a wicked woman - Wound a man deeply; - Her false tongue - Became his death, - Though he had no guilt. - - Know this, if thou hast - A friend whom thou trustest well, - Go often to see him; - For with brushwood - And with high grass will overgrown - The road on which no one walks. - - Draw a good man to thee - For the sake of pleasant talk, - And learn healing spells while thou livest. - - Be never the first - To forsake - The company of thy friend; - Sorrow eats the heart - If one cannot tell - All his mind to some one. - - Thou shouldst never - Words exchange - With fools. - - For from a bad man - Wilt thou never - Get return for good; - But a good man - Will be able to make thee - Liked and praised. - - Souls are together blended, - When a man tells to one - All his mind; - All is better - Than to be fickle; - No friend is he who speaks as one wishes.[327] - - Not even in three words quarrel - Shalt thou with a worse man; - Often the better one yields - When the worse one strikes. - - Be not a shoe-smith - Nor a shaft-smith - Except for thyself; - Is the shoe misshaped, - Or the shaft wry, - Then is evil wished to thee. - - Where thou canst do harm - Do not keep from it, - And do not give peace to thy foes. - - Be never - Glad at evil, - But be pleased with the good. - - Never look up - Shalt thou in battle; - Like swine[328] - May become the sons of men; - Let no man spell-bind thee. - - Wouldst thou get a good woman - To talk pleasantly, - And get delight from her, - Promise thou fair things - And firmly keep it; - No man dislikes the good if he can get it. - - I bid thee be wary, - But not too wary; - Be most wary at ale, - And with another’s wife, - And thirdly - That thieves play not tricks on thee. - - Thou must never - Mock or laugh at - A guest or a wayfarer. - - Often know not well - Those who sit within - Of what kin they are who come; - No man is so good - That a fault follows him not, - Nor so bad, that he is good for nothing. - - Never laugh - At a hoary wise man; - Often it is good which old men say, - Skilled words come often - Out of a shrivelled skin - Hanging among hides, - Dangling among dry skins, - And going among the sons of toil. - - Scoff not at the guest, - Nor drive him to the door; - Be kind to the poor. - - Strong is the door-bar, - That shall turn - And open for all; - Give a ring,[329] - Or to thy limbs - Will every kind of evil be wished. - - Wherever thou drinkest ale, - Take earth’s strength; - For the earth acts against ale, - And fire against constipation, - The (corn) ear against spells, - The spurred rye against hernia; - The moon shall be called on against curses, - Heather against contagious diseases, - Runes against evil spells; - The mould must receive the liquid. - -The following proverbs and wise sayings occur in the Sagas: - - Courage is better - Than the power of sword - Where the angry must fight; - For I saw a bold man - Win.... - Victory with a blunt sword. - - ‘Tis better for the bold - Than cowards - To be in the game of Hild;[330] - It is better to be merry - Than to be downhearted - Whatever may come to hand. - - (Fafnismal.) - -When Heidrek, the son of Hofund, was outlawed by his father for his -misconduct, he asked to have advice given him: - - -“King Hofund said: ‘Little advice will I give him, for I think he will -make bad use of it; but, since you ask, I will give him first the advice -never to help the man who has betrayed his master; the second is never -to spare the life of (always to slay) a man who has murdered his -companion; the third is not to let his wife visit her kinsmen often -though she ask; the fourth not to tell his concubine all his secrets; -the fifth not to ride on his best horse when in a hurry; the sixth never -to raise the child of a more high-born man than he is himself; the -seventh never to break his truce; the eighth never to take with him many -captured thralls. If he follows all this advice he will be a man of -luck, though I outlaw him now for breach of the law” (Hervarar Saga, c. -8). - - -“A tree falls not at the first blow,” said an Icelander to the priest -Thangbrand, who was going to christianize Iceland. (Njala, ch. 103.) - - -“Cold (fatal) are the counsels of women,” said the chief Flosi to his -kinswoman Hildigunn, who urged him to revenge her husband. (Njala, ch. -116.) - - -“You have much of a swine’s memory” (a very short memory), said Gudrún, -when she was urging her brothers to slay Kjartan, her former lover. -(Laxdæla, ch. 48.) - - -“It must be worse before it gets better.” (Fms. v. 199.) - - -“A sheepless household starves.” - - -“The bondi is bú-pillar; the bú is the pillar of the land.” - - -Sigrdrífa gives the following counsels to Sigurd: - - _Sigrdrífa._ - - First, I advise thee - Do no wrong to - Thy kinsmen; - Do not avenge thyself - Though they harm thee. - It is said to be good after death. - - Secondly I advise thee, - Swear not an oath, - Unless it be true; - Cruel roots - Strike perjury; - Wretched is the wolf of plighted faith. - - Thirdly I advise thee - That thou at a thing - Do not quarrel with fools; - For an unwise man - Often says - Worse words than he knows. - - All is difficult - If thou art silent, - Then thou art thought to be born a coward, - Or his (the fool’s) words to be true: - The home-judgment is dangerous - Unless thou gettest a good one. - The next day - Thou shalt slay him (the fool), - And thus reward people for their lie. - - Fourthly I advise thee, - If a witch - Full of evil lives on the way, - It is better to walk on - Than lodge there - Though the night overtake thee. - - Eyes of foresight - Need the sons of men - In the angry fight; - Often wicked women - Sit near the road, - Who blunt both sword and sense. - - Fifthly I advise thee - Though you seest - Fair brides on the benches; - Let not the goddesses of silver - Hinder thy sleep, - Do not entice women to kisses. - - Sixthly I counsel thee, - Though among men be - Evil ale-talk; - Thou shalt not quarrel - With drunk battle-trees;[331] - Many a one’s wits wine steals. - - Strife and ale - Have caused - Grief of mind to many men, - Death to some, - Curses to others, - Many are the evils of men. - - Seventhly I advise thee, - If thou hast to fight - Against fearless men, - It is better to fight - Than to be burnt - In the house. - - Eighthly I advise thee - That thou beware of evil - And shun false words; - Do not beguile a maiden, - Nor a man’s wife, - Nor entice them to overmuch pleasure.[332] - - Tenthly I advise thee, - Do thou never believe - The plighted faith of an outlaw’s son, - Whether thou art the slayer of his brother - Or hast killed his father; - There is a wolf in a young son - Though he be cheered (comforted) with gold (wergild). - - I think - That strife and hate (are not sleepy), - Nor the grief; - Wisdom and weapons - Are not easy to get - For a chief that would be the foremost among men. - - Eleventhly I advise thee - That thou beware of evil - In every way from thy friends; - I think I know - The chief’s (Sigurd’s) life will not be long; - Strong contests have arisen. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1350.—Roman gold coin (solidus) of 5th Century (Libyus Severus), - found with many Byzantine and Roman coins. Real size—Öland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1351.—Coin from Tyre. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1352.—Coin from Sidon with Greek and Phœnician - inscriptions.—Gotland, Sweden. -] - ------ - -Footnote 301: - - Háva = of the high, namely Odin; mál = song. - -Footnote 302: - - Giver in the text = host. - -Footnote 303: - - Meaning: anything will do at home. - -Footnote 304: - - Good sense. - -Footnote 305: - - Here the text has breast for mind or heart. The meaning of the stanza - is that it is very hard to know another man’s mind. - -Footnote 306: - - This refers to Odin getting drunk from the mead of poetry which he - stole from Suttung. (See later Edda.) - -Footnote 307: - - A Jotun woman. - -Footnote 308: - - I.e., supporters. - -Footnote 309: - - Make fun of him. - -Footnote 310: - - The meaning of this line is somewhat obscure; it probably means that - every man has two sides to his character. - -Footnote 311: - - The application is missing in the text. - -Footnote 312: - - The text of part of this verse is missing. - -Footnote 313: - - The sense of this stanza is most difficult; the meaning of first part - seems to be that tongue and head are of one host, and nevertheless the - tongue may be the head’s bane. The latter part probably means: the - hand of a foe or friend may be hidden under any cloak. - -Footnote 314: - - Here we see the custom of counting weeks by five. - -Footnote 315: - - Doom, judgment passed by men over man = his name. - -Footnote 316: - - In a paper MS. of 1684 some verses are found which are not on the skin - text. - -Footnote 317: - - Lostfagr = so fair as to kindle lust. - -Footnote 318: - - Billing occurs in Voluspa as a name of dverg. - -Footnote 319: - - This means—as if I was mad with love. - -Footnote 320: - - Odrerir = song-inspirer or vessel for the poetic mead. - -Footnote 321: - - Midgard. - -Footnote 322: - - Odin. - -Footnote 323: - - Odin. - -Footnote 324: - - I.e., the Temple ring which, like the Bible now, was formerly used for - oaths. - -Footnote 325: - - These three verses are repeated at the head of nearly each stanza but - omitted after this stanza. - -Footnote 326: - - I.e., mistress. - -Footnote 327: - - No man is another’s friend who says only what he wishes. - -Footnote 328: - - To Odin is attributed the power to make men in battle mad with terror - like swine.—‘Ynglinga Saga,’ ch. 6. - -Footnote 329: - - Something as alms. - -Footnote 330: - - War. - -Footnote 331: - - Men. - -Footnote 332: - - Two stanzas missing, see vol. i. p. 322. - - - - - CHAPTER XXV. - SORROW AND MOURNING. - - Egil’s sorrow—Egil’s song—The first song of Gudrun—The second song - of Gudrun—Halls draped with black and grey. - - -There are several beautiful examples in Northern literature showing how -strong were the affections in the hearts of the people, even among the -bravest warriors. Conspicuous amongst these examples are Egil’s and -Gudrun’s songs of sorrow, the former mourning the death of a son, the -latter that of a husband. - - -“When Egil returned from his last journey to Norway and Vermland, -Bödvar, his son, was full grown. He was a most promising man; handsome, -tall, and strong as Egil or Thorol had been at his age. Egil loved him -greatly, and Bödvar also was fond of him. One summer a ship came into -Hvita (white river), where there was a large gathering for trade. Egil -had bought much wood there, and had it brought home. The _huskarls_ went -in an eight-oared boat which Egil owned. Bödvar begged to go with them, -and this they granted him; he went to Vellir with the huskarls, who were -six in number, in an eight-oared boat. At the time fixed for their -departure the high tide was late in the day, so they waited for it and -left late in the evening. Then came a violent south-west gale, and the -ebb tide was opposed to it; the sea rose high in the fjord, as often -happens there, and the boat was swamped in the heavy sea, and all were -drowned; the bodies were thrown ashore the next day. That of Bödvar came -ashore in Einarsnes, but others on the southern shore of the fjord, -where the boat was driven, and were found at Reykjarhamar. Egil heard of -it the same day, and forthwith rode to search for the bodies. He found -that of Bödvar outstretched: he took it up, and put it on his knee, and -rode with it out to Digranes to the mound of Skallagrim. He had the -mound opened, and laid Bödvar at the side of Skallagrim, the mound was -then closed, but this was not done until sunset. Egil rode home to Borg -(his farm), and there went at once to the locked bed-closet where he was -wont to sleep; he laid himself down and locked himself up, and nobody -dared talk to him. When they laid Bödvar down in the mound, Egil wore -hose fitting tight to the leg; a fustian-kirtle, red, narrow, small at -the upper end, and laced on the side, but he swelled so much from grief -that the kirtle as well as the hose were rent. The next day Egil did not -unlock the door, nor did he take any food or drink. He lay there that -day, and the night following it; nobody dared speak to him. The third -morning at dawn Asgerd made a man take horse and ride as swiftly as he -could west to Hjardarholt, and tell Thorgerd (daughter of Egil, wife of -Olaf Höskuldsson) all these tidings. He arrived there about noon, and -said that Asgerd asked her to come as soon as possible to Borg. Thorgerd -at once had a horse saddled, and two men followed her. They rode that -evening and all night till they reached Borg. Thorgerd at once went into -the hall; Asgerd greeted her, and asked if they had supped. Thorgerd -said loudly “I have had no supper, and shall have none until with -Freyja.[333] I know of no better resolve than to do like my father. I -will not live after my father and brother.” She went to the bedroom, and -shouted, ‘Father, open the door. I want you to go with me.’ Egil drew -back the latch. Thorgerd went up and shut the door; she laid herself -down in another bed which was there. Then Egil said ‘Thou didst well, -daughter, in wishing to follow thy father. Thou hast shown me much love. -Who can expect me to live with this grief?’ Then they were silent for a -while. Then Egil said ‘What is that, daughter? Dost thou chew anything?’ -‘I am chewing _samphire_ (sea-weed),’ she answered, ‘and I think that I -shall suffer for it; otherwise I think I shall live too long.’ ‘Is it -hurtful?’ asked Egil. ‘Very much so,’ said she; ‘wilt thou eat?’ ‘What -does it matter?’ said he. Soon after she called and asked for drink. -Water was then given her to drink. Then Egil said: ‘When one eats -_samphire_, one gets more and more thirsty.’ ‘Wilt thou drink, father?’ -said she. He took deep draughts from a horn. Then Thorgerd said: ‘We are -deceived, this is milk.’ Egil bit from the horn what his teeth clutched, -and threw it away. Thorgerd said: ‘What shall we do, now that this plan -is upset? I should like, father, to lengthen our life, so that thou -mightest compose a funeral poem on Bödvar, and I will carve it on a -stick of wood; then let us die if we like. I think thy son Thorstein -will be slow in making a poem on him, but it is not proper that there -should be no funeral feast, for I do not think we shall sit at the -drinking at his _arvel_.’ Egil said it was unlikely that he could make a -poem then, even if he tried, but he would make an attempt” (Egil’s -Saga). - - -I give the leading stanzas of the poem. - - - SONA-TORREK (the loss of sons).[334] - - It is very difficult - To move my tongue, - Or the heavy air - Of the steel-yard of sound.[335] - Now there is little hope - Of the theft of Vidrir,[336] - Nor is it easy to draw it - Out of the hiding-place of the mind.[337] - - The silent find[338] - Of the kinsmen of Thriggi,[339] - Brought of yore - From Jötunheimar - Is not easily driven - From the abode of the mind. - Heavy sorrow - Is the cause. - - The blameless Bragi - Got famous - On the boat - Of Nokkver (a Dverg);[340] - The wound[341] of the neck of the Jotun - Roars - Down at the door - Of the house of my kinsman.[342] - - For my kin - Has come near to its end - Like the death-beaten - Branches in the forest. - The man is not merry - Who carries - The bones of his kinsmen - From the place of dead bodies.[343] - - Nevertheless - I recall first - The death of my father, - The death of my mother. - That timber of song,[344] - With words for leaves,[345] - I bring out - Of the temple of speech.[346] - - Cruel was the gate - Which Hronn[347] broke - On the kin-wall[348] - Of my father. - I see the place of my son, - Made waste by sea, - Stand empty - And open.[349] - - The want of brothers - Comes often - Into the mind - Of the women of Björn.[350] - I look round - When the battle thickens; - I heed this - And look to see if - - Any other Thegn - Daring in fight - Stands - At my side; - I need it often. - Such are the tempers of men; - My flight becomes faint - When my friends get few. - - It is also told - That no one gets - The equal of his son - Unless he begets another; - Nor a kinsman - Who is to him - Like the man - Who is his born brother. - - - THE FIRST SONG OF GUDRUN. - -The brothers of Gudrun, daughter of Gjuki, had slain her husband, Sigurd -Fafnisbani, in his bed. Gudrun sat over Sigurd when he was dead; she did -not weep, as other women, but almost died from grief. Both men and women -came to comfort her, but did not find it easy to do so. - - Gudrun was - Near to death - When she sat, full of grief, - Over Sigurd; - She did not weep, - Nor wring her hands, - Nor wail - Like other women. - - Very wise jarls - Came forward, - Who tried to soothe - Her heavy heart; - Though Gudrun was - Unable to weep; - She was so sad; - Her heart almost broke. - - The high-born - Brides of jarls - Sat, gold adorned, - By Gudrun; - Each of them - Related her woes, - The bitterest sorrow - She had suffered. - - The sister of Gjuki, - Gjaflang, said: - No women on earth - Lack love more than I; - I have felt the loss - Of husbands five, - Of daughters two, - Of sisters three, - Of brothers eight, - And yet I live alone. - - Still Gudrun - Could not weep, - So full of grief was she - For her dead husband, - And heavy-hearted - O’er the king’s corpse. - - Then said Herborg, - The Queen of Hunaland: - I have a harder - Sorrow to tell; - My seven sons - And my eighth husband - Fell among the slain - In the southern lands. - - My father and mother, - My four brothers; - The wind played with them - On the deep; - The wave dashed them - Against the gunwale. - - I myself had to wash, - I myself had to bury, - I myself had to handle - Their corpses; - All that I suffered - In one year, - And no man - Gave me help. - - The same year - I became a bondwoman;[351] - I had to dress, - And to tie the shoes - Of a hersir’s wife - Every morning. - - She threatened me - Because of jealousy, - And struck me with - Hard blows; - Nowhere found I - A better house-master - Nor anywhere - A worse housewife. - - Still Gudrun - Could not weep, - So sad was she - For her dead husband - And heavy-hearted - O’er the king’s corpse. - - Then said Gullrönd, - The daughter of Gjuki: - Little comfort - Canst thou, foster-mother, - Wise though thou art, - Give the young wife. - She bid them uncover - The king’s corpse. - - She drew the sheet - Off Sigurd - And threw it on the ground, - Before the knees of the wife:— - Look on thy beloved one, - Put thy mouth to his lips, - As if thou did’st embrace - The living king. - - Gudrun looked - At him once; - She saw his hair - Dripping with blood; - The flashing eyes - Of the king were dead; - His breast[352] - Was cut with a sword. - - Then Gudrun sank down - Upon the pillow; - Loose was her hair, - Flushed was her cheek - And a tear-drop - Fell on her knee. - - Then wept Gudrun, - The daughter of Gjuki, - So that the tears - Flowed through her tresses; - And the geese - Screamed in the yard— - The good fowls - Which the maiden owned. - - Then said Gullrönd, - The daughter of Gjuki: - I never knew - A greater love - Among all men - Upon earth - Than that of you two. - Thou wast never happy, - My sister, - Indoors or out, - Unless with Sigurd. - - Then said Gudrun, - The daughter of Gjuki: - Such was my Sigurd - Among the sons of Gjuki, - As a garlic[353] - Grown high among grass, - Or a shining stone - Set on a band, - A precious gem, - So was he above the high-born. - - I seemed also - To the king’s champions - Higher than any - Dis of Herjan;[354] - Now I am lowly - As a willow leaf, - After the king’s death. - - I miss in the seat - And in the bed - The talk of my friend; - The sons of Gjuki cause - My misery, - And the sore weeping - Of their sister. - - So shall you - Lose your land - As you kept not - The sworn oaths; - Thou, Gunnar, wilt not - Enjoy the gold; - Those rings - Will be thy death, - As thou to Sigurd - Did’st falsely swear. - - Oft was it merrier - When my Sigurd - Saddled Grani - In the grass-plot (tun), - And they went - To woo Brynhild, - The cursed being - With bad luck. - - Then said Brynhild, - The daughter of Budli: - May that being lack[355] - Husband and children - Who made thee - Weep, Gudrun, - And to thee this morning - Gave power of speech.[356] - - Then said Gullrönd, - The daughter of Gjuki: - Speak not these words, - Much hated one; - Thou hast always been - The Urd[357] of the high-born; - - Every man disowns thee, - Thou evil being! - Sore sorrow - Of seven kings, - And the greatest spoiler - Of wives’ friends.[358] - - Then said Brynhild, - The daughter of Budli: - Atli alone causes - All the misery; - The son or Budli, - My brother, - - When we in the hall - Of the Hunnish people - Saw with the king - The fire of the serpent lair[359] - I have paid since - For that journey; - Of that sight - I was not afraid. - - She stood at the door-post; - She clasped the alder-tree;[360] - Fire flashed - Out of the eyes - Of Brynhild, Budli’s daughter; - Venom gushed from her - When she saw the wounds - Of Sigurd. - -Gudrun’s second song to King Thjodrek at the hird of Atli. - - I was a maiden of maidens, - My bright mother - Raised me in her house; - I loved my brothers well, - Till Gjuki endowed me with gold, - And gave me to Sigurd. - - So was Sigurd - Among the sons of Gjuki - As a green leek - Grown high in the grass, - Or a long-legged hart - Among the swift deer, - Or ruddy gold - Amidst grey silver. - - Until my brothers - Begrudged me - A husband, - Who was the foremost of all; - They could not sleep - Nor judge law-cases - Till they had slain Sigurd. - - Grani[361] ran from the Thing; - The noise (of his hoofs) was heard; - But then Sigurd - Himself did not come. - All the saddle-deer[362] - Were soiled with blood, - And wearied - Under their murderers. - - I went in my tears - To talk to Grani; - With wet cheeks - I asked him to speak. - Grani drooped his head, - Bowed it down to the grass; - The steed knew - His owner was no more. - - A long while I wavered, - Long was my mind divided - Before I asked - The people-defender - For news of the king. - - Gunnar drooped his head; - Högni told me - The painful death - Of Sigurd: - The slayer of Gothorm - Lies slain - Beyond the water, - Given to the wolves. - - Seek for Sigurd there, - On the southern road; - Then thou wilt hear - Ravens croak, - Eagles scream, - Glad at their booty, - Wolves howl - Over thy husband. - - Why wilt thou, Högni, - Such sorrows tell - To me so joy-bereft? - The ravens should - Tear thy heart - In far-off lands, - Where thou art a stranger. - - Högni answered: - Some day, Gudrun, - With heavy mind, - With great grief; - More cause wilt thou have - To weep, - If my heart - By ravens be torn. - - I went alone thence - From this talk - Into the forest - To gather what the wolves had left.[363] - I did not moan - Nor wring my hands, - Nor wail, - Like other women, - When I sat over - The dead Sigurd. - - Pitch dark - The night seemed - When I sat sorrow-stricken - Over Sigurd; - I should have liked - The wolves far better - Had they taken my life, - Or I - Had been burnt - Like birch-wood. - -In the following remarkable account of a battle between Knut and Harald, -the two sons of King Gorm, in which Knut was killed, we find that when a -family was in mourning the halls were draped with black and grey. - - -“After this Harald and his men proceeded until they reached King Gorm’s -farm late at night, and went ashore fully armed. It is said, by some who -know, that Harald did not know how he should tell his father, for he had -made a vow that he would die if he heard of the fall of his son Knut, -and would kill the man who told him of his death. - -“Harald sent his foster-brother, Hauk, to his mother, Queen Thyri, and -requested her to find some way to give him the news. She bade him go -himself and tell the king that two hawks had been fighting, one of which -was entirely white, the other grey, and both brave. At last the white -hawk was killed, which was thought a great pity. Hauk thereupon returned -to Harald, and reported what his mother had said. Harald thereupon went -to the hall, where King Gorm and his men were drinking, went up to his -father, and told him about the hawks, as his mother had advised, ending -by saying that the white hawk was dead. He said no more. It is not -stated where Harald and his men took up their quarters that night. King -Gorm did not appear to comprehend this. The men sat drinking as long as -they liked that night, and then went to bed; but after they had left the -hall Queen Thyri took down the hangings, and instead put up black and -grey cloth until all was covered. She had done this because it was the -custom in those days when tidings of grief came to do as she did. - -“King Gorm, the old, rose in the morning, and went into his high-seat, -intending to begin drinking. He looked at the walls of the hall; the -queen sat in the high-seat with him. He said: ‘Thou, Queen Thyri, must -have ordered the hall to be thus prepared.’ ‘For what purpose should I?’ -she asked. ‘Because,’ the king added, ‘thou wishest now to tell me of -the fall of my son Knut.’[364] ‘Thou now tellest it thyself,’ said the -queen. He had been standing in front of the high-seat while they were -talking, but now sat down suddenly, answered nothing, fell back against -the wall of the hall, and died. He was carried to burial, and a mound -was thrown up over him by order of Thyri. She then sent word to her son -Harald to return with all his men and drink _arvel_ after his father. -This he did, and it was very splendid. - -“After this Harald took possession of the kingdom and all the lands of -his father, and held a Thing with the men of the country, at which the -Danes chose him as king over the whole of Denmark” (Flateyjarbok, vol. -i.; Jomsvikinga Thatt). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1353. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1354. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1355. -] - - Small clay urns, with burnt bones and objects of bronze, buttons, - needles, knives, etc. In a mound, Zealand. ¼ real size. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1356.—Clay urn, in a mound with burnt bones. Björkö, Lake Mälar. - ¼ size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1357.—Small clay urn. ¼ size. -] - ------ - -Footnote 333: - - Meaning that she would have no meals before she came to the gods, as - she intended to die with her father. - -Footnote 334: - - He had a son called Gunnar, who had died a short time before. The best - stanzas only are given. - -Footnote 335: - - I.e., tongue. The heavy air of the tongue = breath. - -Footnote 336: - - Odin’s the t = poetry. - -Footnote 337: - - The breast. The people believed that thought came from the breast. - -Footnote 338: - - The mead, stolen by Odin, poetry, song. See the later Edda. - -Footnote 339: - - The kinsmen of Odin are the Asar. - -Footnote 340: - - Boat of the Dvergar, the poetical mead. - -Footnote 341: - - Ymir’s blood, the sea. Egil thinks he hears the roar of the surf near - the mound of the drowned son; it intensifies his sorrow. - -Footnote 342: - - House of my kinsmen, the mound where his son with other kinsmen was - buried. - -Footnote 343: - - The shore bringing the bodies of the drowned. - -Footnote 344: - - As timber is the material for workmanship, so “timber of songs” means - the subject from which the song is made. - -Footnote 345: - - As the leaves hang on the branches of the trees, so the words hang on - the timber of song. - -Footnote 346: - - The mouth. - -Footnote 347: - - Daughter of Ægir. - -Footnote 348: - - Meaning that his kinsmen are round him like a sheltering wall. - -Footnote 349: - - I.e., he sees the seat of his son empty. - -Footnote 350: - - Björn = Thor. The women of Björn = the Troll women. - -Footnote 351: - - We see the custom of slave-women. - -Footnote 352: - - Breast, called here the burg of the mind. - -Footnote 353: - - Geirlauk. - -Footnote 354: - - Odin. - -Footnote 355: - - To be an old maid seems to have been looked upon as a curse. - -Footnote 356: - - Speech runes. - -Footnote 357: - - One of the Nornir, representing the past. - -Footnote 358: - - Husbands. - -Footnote 359: - - The gold of Fafnir’s lair. - -Footnote 360: - - The door-post. - -Footnote 361: - - Sigurd’s horse. - -Footnote 362: - - Horses. - -Footnote 363: - - Probably Sigurd’s body had been thrown into the forest after he was - slain in his bed. - -Footnote 364: - - Knut Dana-ast was the brother of Harald Blue-tooth. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - CHAMPIONS AND BERSERKS. - - The warrior’s aim to be a Berserk—Berserk frenzy—The twelve sons of - Arngrim—They fight without coats of mail—Hrolf’s champions—Hakon - Jarl’s Berserks—The life of a Berserk—Disregard for death. - - -To be considered the foremost champion or _Kappi_ was the greatest -ambition of every warrior; and to attain this proud position was no easy -task among so many men who were equally brave and perfectly reckless of -their lives, and thoroughly skilled in the handling of weapons. - -After such a reputation had been acquired, the champion had either to -challenge or be challenged by those who vied with him, and these duels -or trials of strength and skill generally took place before a large -assembly. - -The aim of every champion was to become a “Berserk” (so called, -probably, because they fought without serk (shirt)), who was regarded as -the bravest of men. When within sight of their foe Berserks wrought -themselves into such a state of frenzy, that they bit their shields and -rushed forward to the attack, throwing away their arms of defence, -reckless of every danger, sometimes having nothing but a club, which -carried with it death and destruction. - - -“In the time of Hákon, Æthelstan’s foster-son, there lived in Norway -Björn the Pale, who was a Berserk. He went round the country and -challenged men to _holmganga_ (duel) if they would not do his will” -(Gisli Sursson’s Saga, p. 1). - - -This berserk-fury was not only utilised in war, but for the performance -of hard feats which were held to be out of the power of ordinary people. -In some cases this fury seems to have come over the Berserks apparently -without cause, when they trembled and gnashed their teeth. - - -“The Berserk Arngrim of Bólm had twelve sons; Angantýr was the oldest, -the second Hervard, the third Seming, the fourth Hjörvard, the fifth -Brani, the sixth Brami, the seventh Barri, the eighth Reytnir, the ninth -Tind, the tenth Bui, the eleventh and the twelfth both called Hadding. -They were both together equal to one of the others, but Angantýr was -equal to two, and was a head taller than any of them; they were all -great Berserks. They went on warfare when they were quite young and -ravaged far and wide, but met with no equal in strength and courage; -thereby they got renown and victory. The twelve brothers went together -on one ship with no others; but they often had more ships. Their father -had taken in war the most excellent weapons; Angantýr got Tyrfing, -Hervard Hrotti, Seming Mistiltein (Mistletoe), which Thráin[365] -afterwards took out of his mound. All the brothers had excellent -holmganga-swords. It was their custom if they were only with their own -men when they found the _berserks-gang_ (berserk-fury)[366] coming over -them, to go ashore and wrestle with large stones or trees, otherwise -they would have slain their friends in their rage. Never did they engage -in battle without gaining the victory; therefore great sayings were told -of them. There was no king who would not give them what they wanted -rather than suffer their overbearing. They were on warfare during the -summer, but during the winter they remained at home in Bólmey with their -father” (Hervarar Saga, c. 3).[367] - - -In the following Sagas we have an example of the stuff the men of the -North, or the Vikings, were made of. - - -“When Fridthjof landed after a storm ... in the Orkneys, one of the -Berserks of the jarl said: ‘Now we will try if it is true that Fridthjof -has made a vow that he will never be the first to ask peace of another.’ -They were ten wicked and greedy men, and often had berserk-rage; when -they met (Fridthjof) they took their weapons. Atli (one of the Berserks) -said: ‘Now it is best, Fridthjof, to look us in the face, for the eagles -must fight with their claws face to face, and now it is best to stand by -one’s words, and not be the first to ask for peace’” (Fridthjof’s Saga, -c. 7). - - -It was believed that neither fire nor weapons could harm the Berserks. -In war they fought without coats of mail in a bare shirt or kirtle; -hence their name. - - -“King Hálf went up to King Asmund’s farm, where there were many men, -with one-half of his men. The entertainment was good, and the drink was -so strong, that Hálf’s champions fell fast asleep. King Asmund and his -hird set fire to the hall. The one of Hálf’s champions who awoke first -saw the hall nearly full of smoke. He called out: ‘Now it will smoke -round our hawks,’ and then again lay down to sleep. Then another woke -and saw the hall burning, and said: ‘Wax will now drip from our saxes,’ -and then lay down. - -“But then King Hálf awoke, rose and roused the warriors, and told them -to arm themselves. They then rushed at the walls with such strength that -the joints of the timbers broke” (Half’s Saga). - - -They were also believed to change shape, and in their greatest fury to -take the outward shape of an animal[368] of great strength and ferocity. - -It was the aim of every great chief to gather round him the greatest -champions of the land, and if he was renowned for bravery, liberality, -and convivial qualities, they would come to him from even the remotest -parts of the North. When a new champion came who wished to be the -foremost, he asked his future companions if they objected to his -becoming so among them, and if any one objected, he would at once -challenge him to a holmganga to assert or prove his claim. In some cases -the fame of a new-comer was so great that he was at once recognised to -be foremost. - -Among the great champions whose fame and name were sung for generations -were the champions of Hrólf Kraki and King Hálf. - -Hrólf’s champions flocked to him from every part of the North; among the -most celebrated were Bodvar Bjarki, from Norway, and Svipdag, from -Sweden. Other kings seem to have had twelve Berserks in their train. - - -“King Hrólf made himself ready for his journey with one hundred men, -besides whom he had his twelve champions and twelve Berserks. Nothing -more is told of their journey before they came to a bondi” (Hrolf -Kraki’s Saga, c. 39). - - -“Haki and Hagbard were the names of two very famous brothers. They were -sea-kings and had a large host; sometimes they went together, sometimes -each went by himself; many champions followed each of them. King Haki -went with his host to Sweden against King Hugleik, who gathered a host; -two brothers, Svipdag and Geigad, both far-famed and great champions, -came to help him. Haki had with him twelve champions, among whom was -Starkad the old; Haki himself was a very great champion. They met on the -Fýrisvellir (plain of Fýri) in a great battle; Hugleik’s men fell fast. -The champions Svipdag and Geigad then made an onset, but six of Haki’s -champions went against each of them and they were captured. Then Haki -went into Hugleik’s shieldburg and slew him and his two sons. Thereupon -the Swedes fled, and Haki conquered the land and became king over the -Swedes. He stayed at home for three winters, and during that time his -champions went away on viking-expeditions and thus earned property” -(Ynglinga, c. 25). - - -The twelve Berserks of Hrólf Kraki followed King Adils of Sweden in a -battle against King Áli of Norway, on condition that they were to get -pay, and be allowed to choose three costly things for Hrólf. - - -“After the battle, each of them asked three pounds of gold as pay, and -to take with them three costly things which they might choose for Hrólf: -they were, the helmet _Hildigölt_ (war-boar), the brynja _Finnsleif_, -which was impenetrable to weapons, and the gold ring _Sviagris_ (the -Svia-pig) which the forefathers of Adils had owned” (Prose Edda -(Skáldskaparmál), c. 44). - - -“With Hákon Jarl were two brothers of Swedish kin: one was named Halli, -the other Leiknir. They were much taller and stronger men than were to -be found in Norway or in other places. They went a-berserking, and when -they were angry lost their human nature and went mad like dogs; they -feared neither fire nor iron, but in everyday life they were not bad to -have intercourse with if they were not offended, though they were most -overbearing if offended. Eirik Sigrsæli (the victorious), King of -Sweden, had sent the Berserks to the Jarl, and told him to be careful to -treat them well, and said, as was true, that they could be a great help -if regard was had to their tempers” (Eyrbyggja, c. 25). - - -The following account gives a picture of the life of these champions: - - -“The bóndi Svip lived in Sweden far away from other men; he was wealthy -and had been the greatest champion and not all he looked, as he knew -many things. He had three sons, Svipdag, Geigad, and Hvitserk, who was -the oldest; they were all well skilled, strong, and fine-looking men. -When Svipdag was eighteen winters old he said one day to his father: -‘Our life here in the mountains, in far-off valleys and unsettled -places, where men never visit nor receive visits, is dull; it would be -better to go to Adils and follow him and his champions, if he will -receive us.’ Svip answered: ‘I do not think this advisable, for King -Adils is a cruel man and not trustworthy though he uses fair words, and -his men are jealous and strong, but certainly he is powerful and -famous.’ Svipdag said: ‘A man must risk something if he wishes to get -fame; he cannot know, before he tries, when luck will come to him.’ His -father gave him a large axe and said to his son, ‘Be not greedy; do not -boast, for that gives a bad reputation, but defend yourself if attacked, -for a great man should boast little and behave well in difficulties.’ He -gave him good war clothes and a good horse. Then Svipdag rode and at -night came to the burg of King Adils; he saw that games were taking -place outside the hall, and Adils sat on a large gold chair and his -Berserks near him. When Svipdag came to the fence[369] the gate of the -burg was shut, for it was then customary to ask leave to ride in; -Svipdag did not take that trouble, and broke open the gate and rode into -the yard. Then the King said: ‘This man comes here recklessly, as this -has never been done before. It may be that he has great strength and has -no fear.’ The Berserks at once got very angry and thought that he -asserted himself too much. Svipdag rode before the King, and saluted him -well in a skilful manner. Adils asked who he was, and he told him. The -King soon recognized him, and every one thought he was a great and -high-born champion. The games were continued; Svipdag sat on a fallen -tree and looked on. The Berserks eyed him angrily, and said to the King -that they wanted to try him; the King answered: ‘I think that he has no -little strength, but I should like you to try whether he is such a man -as he considers himself.’ - -“When men gathered into the hall the Berserks walked towards Svipdag and -asked him if he was a champion, as he made so much of himself: he -answered that he was as great a one as any of them. At these words their -anger and eagerness (to fight) increased. But the King told them to be -quiet that night; they began to frown, and howled loudly, and said to -Svipdag: ‘Darest thou fight us? Then thou wilt need more than mere big -words and boasting. We will try how much there is in thee.’ Svipdag -answered: ‘I will consent to fight one at a time and will see if more -can be done.’ The King was well pleased that they should do this. Queen -Yrsa said: ‘This man shall be welcome here.’ The Berserks answered her: -‘We knew before that thou didst want to send us all to Hel, but we are -too big to be killed by words alone or ill-will.’ - -“In the morning began a hard _holmganga_, and there was no lack of heavy -blows; the new-comer knew how to use his sword with great strength and -the Berserks gave way. Svipdag killed one, and another wanted to avenge -him but suffered the same fate, and Svipdag did not stop before he had -slain four; then Adils said, ‘Great loss hast thou caused to me, and now -thou shalt pay for it,’ and he asked men to rise and kill him. The Queen -got men and wanted to help him, and said that the King could see that -there was much more skill in him alone than in all the Berserks. The -Queen made peace between them, and every one considered Svipdag to be a -man of great prowess. Now he sat on the lower bench opposite the King, -by the wish of Queen Yrsa. He looked round and thought he had not done -harm enough to the Berserks, and wished to urge them to fight, and -thought it likely that if they saw him alone they would attack him; it -was as he thought, for they began at once to fight. The King came when -they had been fighting for a while and parted them. Afterwards the King -outlawed the remaining Berserks as they could not all together fight a -single man, saying he had not before known that they were great only in -boasting. They had to go, but threatened to make warfare in the realm of -King Adils. The King replied that he did not care for their threats. - -“Adils asked Svipdag to help him as much now as all the Berserks had -done before, especially as the Queen wanted him in their place. Svipdag -stayed there for some while” (Hrólf Kraki, c. 18, 19). - - -“Now the winter passed, and the time came when the Berserks of King -Hrólf were expected home. Bödvar asked Hjalti about their customs; he -answered that it was their habit when they came home to the hird to walk -first up to the king, and then to every man, and ask if the man thought -himself their equal. The king used to answer, that is hard to tell as -you are such valiant men, and as you have won renown in bloody battles -against several people in the southern and northern half of the world. -He gives this answer more from his good-will than unmanliness, for he -knows their temper and they win great victories and much property for -him. They then walk up to every man in the hall and put the same -question, and no one answers that he is their equal. Bödvar said: ‘Few -good warriors are here with Hrólf, as they are all cowed by the -Berserks.’ No more was said. Next yule-eve Bödvar had been one year with -Hrólf, and when they sat at table the door of the hall was thrown open, -and in came twelve Berserks, all over grey with iron (coat of mail), -which looked like broken ice. Bödvar asked Hjalti in a low voice if he -dared try himself against one of them. ‘Yes,’ said Hjalti, ‘not against -one, but against all of them, for I cannot get frightened though there -is an overwhelming strength against me, and not one of them shall scare -me.’ The Berserks first walked up the hall, and saw that the champions -of Hrólf had increased in number since they left. They looked carefully -at the new men, and thought that one of them was no small man, and it is -told that the one who walked foremost was a little startled. They went -as they used before King Hrólf, and asked him the customary question; he -answered what he thought fit, as he was wont. They walked up to every -man in the hall, and last up to the comrades (Bödvar and Hjalti); the -foremost one then asked Bödvar if he thought himself his equal. Bödvar -said he thought himself not equal, but superior to him in anything they -might try; that foul son of a mare should not treat him like a sow. He -jumped up at the Berserk who was in full war dress, and threw him down -so strongly that he came near breaking his bones; Hjalti did the same, -so that a great tumult arose in the hall, and the king saw that a great -loss was likely to take place if his men were to be killed. He rushed -from his high seat to Bödvar, and asked him to take it all in a quiet -and friendly manner. Bödvar said the Berserk should lose his life unless -he acknowledged himself to be a lesser man than he. The king said that -would be easily done, and allowed the Berserks to rise to their feet. -Hjalti did the same after the king’s order. Every man sat down in his -seat, and the Berserks likewise in theirs with grief in their mind. The -king spoke long to them, and told them that now they might see that no -one was so great, strong, or renowned but that he might find his equal, -and said: ‘I forbid you to cause any trouble in my hall, and if you do -not obey that you will forfeit your lives; be as fierce as you can when -I fight my enemies, and thus win fame and renown to yourself. Now I have -so chosen champions that I need not depend upon you. All agreed with the -king’s words and were fully reconciled. They were then seated thus that -Bödvar was most honoured. He sat next to the king on the right hand; at -his side sat Hjalti the Bold-minded, which name the king gave him.... -Bödvar was so highly honoured by King Hrólf that he married his only -daughter Drifa” (Hrólf Kraki’s Saga, c. 37). - - -“Thereafter King Adils had his hall cleaned; the dead men were carried -out, for many of Adils’ men were slain and wounded. He said: ‘Now we -will make long fires (on the floor) for our friends, and treat well such -men as they are. Now men were put to kindle the fire. Hrólf’s champions -always sat with their weapons, and never let hold of them. The fire was -soon burning, for pitch and dry fire-wood was not spared. King Adils -seated himself and his hirdmen on the one side of the fire, and Hrólf -Kraki and his champions opposite. They sat on long benches, and spoke -very friendly together. King Adils said: ‘The bravery and hardihood of -the champions of Hrólf is not exaggerated; you think yourself better -than others, and no lies have been told about your strength; now -increase the fire, for I do not see distinctly where the king is, and -though you may be warmed somewhat you will not flee from the fire.’ This -was done. He wanted to see where King Hrólf was, for he knew that he -could not stand the heat as well as the champions, and thought he would -get at him more easily when he knew where he was, for truly he wanted to -slay him. Bödvar and others saw this and sheltered him from the heat as -well as they could, but not in the way that he could be known. As the -fire advanced very rapidly King Hrólf remembered the vow he had made -neither to flee from fire nor iron weapons; he saw that King Adils tried -to burn them or let them break their vow. They saw that Adils’ seat had -moved (of itself) to the door of the hall, and also those of his men. -The fire advanced fast and they saw they would get burnt if they stayed. -Their clothes were much scorched, and they threw their shields on the -fire. Bödvar and Svipdag said: ‘Now let us increase the fire at Adils’ -burg (hall). Each of them took one of the men who had kept up the fires -and flung them into them, and said: ‘Now warm yourselves at it for your -work and toil; we have got warmth enough; now warm yourselves, as you -were so busy for a while to make fire for us. Hjalti took the third one -and flung him into it where he sat, and then he did the same with all -those who kept up the fires, and they were burnt to ashes, and not -helped, for no one dared to come so near. When they had done this King -Hrólf said: ‘He flees not the fire who jumps (leaps) over it.’ Then they -all leapt (on their shields) over the fire, and wanted to take King -Adils. When he saw this he saved his life, and ran to the tree which -stood in the hall, and was hollow inside, and thus he got out with -witchcraft and sorcery. He came into the hall of Queen Yrsa and talked -to her, and she received him disgracefully, and spoke many big words to -him: ‘Thou first didst slay my husband Helgi, and betray him and keepest -the property from its owner, and besides this thou wantest to slay my -son, and thou art much crueller and worse than any other; now I will in -every way help Hrólf to get the property, and thou wilt get shame as -thou deservest.’ Adils answered: ‘Here neither will trust the other, and -hereafter I shall not come before their eyes.’ Thereupon they ceased to -talk” (Hrólf Kraki’s Saga, c. 41). - - -In those days of incessant warfare, the life of the warrior was a -magnificent drama from the beginning to the end; his death the closing -of a grand career; and his entrance into Valhalla the reward for a life -of bravery, in which he showed entire disregard of death, and in which -he often exhibited the highest qualities of manhood. As he saw life -ebbing away he sang the deeds he had accomplished, and when his eye -became dim, and darkness was for ever to close from him the light of the -sun, he could hear resounding in his ears the lay of the scald -recounting the deeds of his life. - -No other literature that has come down to us from ancient times -describes so vividly and minutely as that of the North the deeds of the -grand heroes of old. We can imagine ourselves on the battle-field, can -hear the clatter of arms, and the whistling of arrows and spears, the -blows resounding against helmet, shield, or coat-of-mail, and the fierce -onslaught; and see before our eyes the boarding of vessels and the -carnage on deck. - -In the Sagas which speak of the earliest times we find a magnanimous and -chivalrous spirit, for the contest had to be equal, ship against ship, -man against man. In a great battle chief was against chief, champion -against champion, while the combatants of both sides were looking on, -and he who was successful had to fight with the rest, himself at last -falling mortally wounded, or standing victorious over all. In these -deadly fights, more than anywhere else, do we see this cool daring and -courage of the hardy Norsemen, men looking death in the face calmly and -unflinchingly, feeling that it was better to die with honour or fame -than live with shame, as is so often told in the Sagas; for it is only -towards later times that we see the decay of this spirit of chivalry. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1358.—Bracteate of gold found in a field, Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1359. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1360. -] - - Gold bracteates, Norway, ⅔ size, found with many other gold - bracteates. - ------ - -Footnote 365: - - Thráin, some unknown champion. - -Footnote 366: - - Berserks-gang = going like a Berserk into fits of frenzy. - -Footnote 367: - - Cf. also Ynglinga Saga, 6; Njal, 104; Egil, 27, 40; Vatnsdæla, 46; - Fornmanna Sögur, i. 132; Svarfdæla, 7; Orvar Odd, 14; Droplaugar Sona - Saga, 19. - -Footnote 368: - - Landnama, Part V., ch. 5; Hrolf Kraki’s last fight, 50, 51. - -Footnote 369: - - The wall of the burg is called here fence. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS. - - Harald Hilditönn’s claim to England—King Hring in England—Battle of - Brávöll—Battle of Dúnheidi—Warlike character of the Race. - - -In the preceding chapters we have dealt with the customs of the -forefathers of the English-speaking nations of to-day, and will now -proceed to give extracts from those Sagas which deal with the lives and -deeds of some of the earlier kings of the North who claimed to own part -of England, and which mention events that relate to, or took place in, -England, France, Ireland, Scotland, and other countries in later times. -In quoting from the different Sagas there is necessarily a certain -amount of repetition. - -Among the earliest kings who claimed to own or have possessions in -England were Ivar Vidfadmi, Harald Hilditönn, Sigurd Hring, and Ragnar -Lodbrok. - - -“When Sigurd Hring (7th and 8th centuries, A.D.), father of Ragnar -Lodbrok, King of Sweden and Denmark, had made peace in both, and placed -over them tax-kings and jarls, he bethought himself of the kingdom which -his kinsman Harald Hilditönn (war-tooth) had possessed in England, and -before him Ivar Vidfadmi; but it was then ruled by King Ingjald, who it -is said was brother of Petr, Saxon king” (Forrmanna Sögur).[370] - - -“Ingjald was a powerful king. - -“King Hring summoned a great levy from his kingdom, went westward to -England, and, when he came to Northumberland, asked for help, which many -people gave him. - -“But when King Ingjald heard of this, he gathered a large host and went -against him, and they fought several battles, in the last of which King -Ingjald and his son Ubbi, with many of their warriors, fell. Hring -thereupon took possession of Northumberland and the whole of Ingjald’s -kingdom. - -“King Hring left England, placing as tax-king over Northumberland Olaf, -son of Kinrik, who was said to be a nephew of Moalda the Stout, mother -of Ivar Vidfadmi. - -“Then King Hring returned to his realm, and Olaf ruled over -Northumberland, until Eava (or Eana), son of Ubbi, gained the throne. He -and Olaf had many battles; after the last one King Olaf fled, and Eava -won the kingdom. - -“Olaf went to Sweden to see King Hring, who then made him chief of -Jutland, and for long afterwards he was tax-king there, first under King -Hring, and afterwards under Ragnar Lodbrok. - -“He was called Olaf the English, and his son was Grim the grey, who got -the kingship after his father. - -“Grim was father of Audulf the strong, who was tax-king in Jutland under -Ragnar Lodbrok; Audulf’s son was Gorm, who was also tax-king in Jutland, -and was named Gorm the childless. - -“King Gorm had many thralls, and some of these had been sent to -Holtsetaland (Holstein) to buy wine, which they carried on many horses” -(Fornmanna Sögur, vol. i.). - - -Among the most renowned and powerful chiefs and Vikings of the North in -the Sagas, who sailed far and wide, are Ragnar Lodbrok[371] and his -sons, whose deeds are closely connected with the earlier history of -England. - -The Saga which follows shows that the Northmen went to England long -before the time mentioned by the English Chronicles. - -It is, as we have shown, vain to try to reconcile the English or -Frankish Chronicles with the Sagas. It is therefore obvious that the men -of the chronicles, whose names were similar to the names of Ragnar and -Lodbrok, are not Ragnar Lodbrok, while on the other hand the so-called -sons of Lodbrok, who plundered England, could not be sons of the -above-named Ragnar. We must therefore suppose either that the name -Lodbrok’s sons was used as a family name, both by Ragnar’s grandsons and -following descendants, or that in a family nearly related to his own -there appeared a _Lodbrok_ named after him, who did not rule any realm -in the North, but whose sons were the mightiest and most valiant Vikings -England had ever seen. - -That several Ragnars existed at different periods is as certain as that -there were several Halfdans, Sigurds, Haralds, Ivars, Knuts, Olafs, &c. -The custom of calling children after their father and grandfather still -prevails to this day in Scandinavia. - -Sigurd Hring, the victor of Bravöll, who succeeded Harald Hilditönn, was -a mighty chief; his realm included the whole of the present Denmark, -Sweden, the countries bordering the Baltic, and others westward, among -them England. As was the custom of those times, the vast possessions of -great and powerful chiefs were ruled by under or tax-kings. - -Sigurd Hring had a son, Ragnar. When old enough he obtained ships and -men, and became the greatest of warriors.[372] - - -“Sigurd Hring was king over Sweden and Denmark after Harald Hilditönn; -his son Ragnar grew up in his hird; he was the largest and strongest man -ever seen, and was like his mother and her family in looks. It is known -from all old sayings about the people called Alfar that they were much -handsomer than other men in the Northern lands, for all the forefathers -of Alfhild his mother and all their kindred were descended from Alf the -old; they were called Alfar, and the two large rivers which are called -Elf[373] are named after him; the one divided his realm from Gautland, -and was therefore called Gautelf; the other separated it from the land -now called Raumaríki, and is called Raumelf. Ragnar was like his father -and his kinsmen in size, like Harald Hilditönn or Ivar Vidfadmi. When -Hring began to grow old and unwieldy his realm began to lessen, and the -remote parts were first lost. King Adalbrikt (Adalbrecht) was descended -from King Ella,[374] whom Hálfdán Ylfing (Wolfing) had slain. He -subjugated that part of England which is called Nordimbraland -(Northumberland); this part was owned by King Hring, and before him by -Harald (Hilditönn). Adalbrikt ruled over it for a long while; his sons -were called Ama and Ella, and were kings of Northumberland after their -father.” - - -Two of the most famous ancient battles of the North, accounts of which -have been handed down to us, were those of Brávöll and Dúnheidi. - - -“Sigurd Hring got the kingship in Denmark. He fought against King Harald -Hilditönn on Brávöll[375] in Eastern-Gautland, and there King Harald and -a great many men were slain. This battle, and the battle between -Angantýr and his brother Hlöd in Dúnheidi (Dúnheath), have been most -mentioned in old Sagas, and most men have been slain in them (have been -more spoken of in old Sagas, and more men have been slain in them than -in any other battle)” (Hervarar Saga, c. 16). - - -_Battle of Brávöll._—In this battle the champions of King Harald seem -chiefly to have come from Denmark and from England and Ireland (the -west), also from Saxland, which was tributary to him; the champions of -King Hring from Sweden, Norway, and the east. - - -“One autumn he (Sigurd Hring) went to visit King Harald, his father’s -brother, was well received, and remained there for awhile in good -favour. As King Harald was getting old, he placed Hring, his kinsman, -over his host to defend his lands, and he dwelt a long time with Harald. -When old age was heavy upon the king, he made Hring king over Uppsalir, -and gave into his power the whole of Sweden and West Gautland, but he -himself retained the rule over all Denmark and Eastern Gautland (East -Gotland). King Hring married Alfhild, daughter of King Alf, who -possessed the land between the rivers Gautelf and Raumelf, which then -was also called Alfheim; these were great forest-lands. Hring had one -son, Ragnar (Lodbrok), by his wife. King Harald had two sons by his -wife, Hrærek _Slöngvandbaugi_ (Ring-slinger) and Thrand the old. - -“When King Harald Hilditönn (war-tooth) was 180 winters old, he lay in -bed, unable to walk; Vikings disturbed his realm with war far and wide. -His friends thought the people fared badly, as there was no rule in the -land; many thought that he was too old. Some chiefs resolved when he was -bathing in a tub to cover it with timber and stones, intending to choke -him therein. When he found that they wanted to kill him, he asked to be -allowed to leave the bath, saying: ‘I know that you think I am too old; -that is true, but I would rather die my fated death. I do not wish to -die in the bath, but in a much more kingly way.’ Then his friends came -and took him away. A little while after he sent word to Sweden, to King -Hring, his kinsman, that he should gather a host from all the lands he -ruled over, and meet him on the frontier and fight against him, and told -him all about the reason, namely, that the Danes thought him too old. - -“Hring gathered men from all Sweden and Western Gautland, and many from -Norway; it is said that when Swedes and Norwegians went with the levy -out of Stokksund the ships were two thousand and five hundred. Hring -rode with his hird and the West Gotlanders higher up past Eyrasund, and -then westward, to the forest Kolmörk which separates Sweden from Eastern -Gautland. When he reached a place called Brávik his ship-host met him, -and he encamped on Brávöll near the forest, between it and the bay. - -“King Harald gathered men from all Denmark, and a great host came from -Austrriki (the eastern realm) and all the way from Kœnugard[376] and -Saxland. When his host had gathered on Selund, at Kögja, the passage to -Skáneyri from Landeyri could be made on ships only; the whole sea seemed -to be covered with his ship-host. He sent Herleif with his Saxon host to -King Hring, in order to stake out the field chosen for the battle, and -declare the truce and peace broken. King Harald was seven days on his -journey eastwards to Brávik. Both made ready for the battle, and arrayed -their hosts. - -“It is said that in the host of King Harald and with him there was a -chief named Brúni, the wisest of all his men, whom he bade to draw up -the host, and assign to the chiefs their places under the standards; -that of the king stood in the midst of the array, and his bodyguard was -placed around it. - -“With Harald were: Svein, Sám, Gnepi the Old, Gard, Brand, Blæng, Teit, -Tyrving, Hjalti; these were his scalds and champions. In his hird were -these champions: Hjört, Borgar, Beli, Barri, Beigad, Tóki. There were -the shield-maidens Visma and Heid, each of whom had come with a numerous -host. Visma carried Harald’s standard, and with her were the champions -Karri and Milva. Another shieldmaiden was Vebjorg, who came from the -south from Gotland, and many champions followed her, of whom the most -valiant and renowned were Ubbi Friski (the Frisian), Brat Irski (the -Irish), Orm Enski (the English), Búi Bramuson, Ari the One-eyed, and -Geiralf. - -“Many Vindar (Vends) were in the train of Visma; they were easily -recognised, for they had long swords and bucklers,[377] but not long -shields like the other men. On one wing was Heid with her standard, and -one hundred champions; these were her Berserks, and many chiefs were -there too. On the other wing was Haki Höggvinkinni (the cheek-cut one), -and the standards were carried in front of him; there were many kings -and champions with him, amongst them Alfar and Alfarin, the sons of King -Gandalf, who had before been hirdmen at home with Harald. Harald was in -a waggon, for he was not able to fight on foot in the battle. He sent -Brúni and Heid to see how Hring had arrayed his host, and if he was -ready for battle. Brúni said: ‘It seems to me that Hring and his host -are ready; but he has arrayed them in a strange way; he has drawn up his -men in a _swine-array_,[378] and it will not be easy to fight against -him.’ Harald asked: ‘Who has taught Hring to draw up his men in a wedge -shape? I thought nobody knew this except myself and Odin; or is Odin -going to fail in giving the victory to me? That has never happened -before, and even now I ask him not to do it; if he does not want to -grant me victory, may he let me fall in the battle with all my host; if -he does not wish that the Danes should gain the victory as formerly; all -the men who fall on this battle-field I give to Odin.’ It was as Brúni -had told. Hring had arrayed his men in wedge-shape, so the array looked -all the deeper for this; nevertheless it was so broad that one flank -reached to the river Vatá, and the other to Brávik. - -“Hring had many kings and champions with him; the foremost was King Ali -the valiant, who had a great many men and many other famous kings and -champions; with him was the champion whose renown is the highest in old -Sagas, Störkud the Old Stórverksson, who had been brought up in Norway, -in Hördaland, in the island Fenring, and had travelled abroad far and -wide, and had been with many kings.” - - -Many other champions had come from Norway to this battle. - - -“Thrand from Thrandheim, Thorir from Mœri; Helgi the White, Bjarni, -Hafr, Finn from Firda fylki; Sigurd; Erling the Snake, from Jadar; -Saga-Eirik, Holmstein the White, Einar from Egda-fylki; Hrut the -Rambler, Odd the Wide-travelling, Einar, Ivar. - -“The following were the great champions of Hring: Aki, Eyvind, Egil the -Squinting, Hildir Gaut, Gudi, Tollus, Stein from the Venern lake, Styr -the Strong. - -“These also had a host of their own: Hrani Hildarson, Svein Reaper, -Hlaumbodi, Soknarsoti, Hrokkel Hœkja, Hrolf the Woman-loving. There were -besides: Dag the Stout, Gerdar the Glad, Duk the Vend, Glum the -Vermlander, Saxi the Plunderer, Sali the Gautlander. - -“These from the Swedish realm: Nori, Haki, Karl Kekkja, Krokar, -Gunnfast, Glismak the Good. - -“There were from Sigtunir: Sigmund, the Kaupang champion, Tolufrosti. - -“Adils the Gay from Uppsalir stood in front of the standards and the -shields and not in the Fylkings; Sigvaldi, who had come with eleven -ships; Tryggvi and Tvivivil were there with twelve ships; Lœsir had a -skeid all manned with champions; Eirik Helsing had a large dragon, well -filled with warriors. Champions had also come to Hring from Thelamörk -(Thelemarken) and they were least honoured, for they were thought -slow-speaking and slovenly; these were: Thorkel the Stubborn, Thorleif -Goti the Overbearing, Hadd the Hard, Gretti, Hroald Toe. There was yet -one more who had come to Hring: Rögnvald the Tall, or Radard Hnefi, who -was the greatest of all champions; he was foremost in the point of the -wedge; next to him were Tryggvi and Lœsir, and then the sons of Alrek -and Yngvi; then were the Thelemarkians, whom none wanted to have, as -they were thought to be of little use; they were great archers. - -“When these hosts were ready for battle, both had the horns sounded, and -raised the war-cry. The arrays met, and the battle was so severe, that -it is said in all old Sagas that no battle in the Northern lands was -ever fought with so many and so valiant picked men. When it had raged a -little while, Ubbi the Frisian, a champion, advanced in front of the -host of Harald, and attacked the snout of the array of Hring, and first -of all Rögnvald; their fight was very hard, and terrible blows could be -seen in the host where these dauntless champions rushed at each other, -dealing many and heavy cuts. Ubbi was such a great champion that he did -not cease until their single fight ended by Rögnvald’s fall; then he -rushed at Tryggvi, and gave him his death wound. When the sons of Alrek -saw his appalling rush into the host, they went against him; but he was -so hardy and skilled that he slew them both; then he killed Yngvi; and -rushed so furiously into the ranks that every one fled before him; he -slew all who were foremost in the snout, except those who were fighting -other champions. - -“When Hring saw this he urged the host not to let one man overcome all, -such proud men as there were. He shouted: ‘Where is Störkud, who till -now always has borne the highest shield (gained victory)?’ Störkud -answered: ‘We have enough to do, lord, but we will try to gain a victory -if we can, though where Ubbi is, a man may be fully tried.’ At the -urging of the king he rushed to the front against Ubbi, and there was a -great fight between them with heavy blows, as each of them was fearless. -After a while Störkud gave him a large wound, and himself received six, -all of them severe, and he thought he had rarely been so hard pushed by -a single man. As the arrays were dense they were torn from each other, -and so their hand-to-hand fight ended. Then Ubbi slew the champion -Agnar, and cleared a path in front of himself, dealing blows on both -hands; his arms were bloody up to his shoulders; thereupon he attacked -the Thelemarkians. When they saw him they said: ‘Now we need not go -elsewhere, but let us shoot arrows at this man for awhile, and little as -everybody thinks of us let us do the more, and show that we are valiant -men.’ The most skilled of the Thelemarkians began to shoot at him, -namely Hadd the Hard, and Hroald Toe; these men were such excellent -archers that they shot twenty-four arrows into his breast; this much was -needed to destroy his life. These men slew him, but not before he had -slain six champions and severely wounded eleven others, and killed -sixteen Swedes and Goths who stood in the front of the ranks. Vebjörg, -shieldmaiden, made hard onsets on the Swedes and Goths; she attacked the -champion Soknarsoti; she had accustomed herself so well to the use of -helmet, coat of mail and sword, that she was one of the foremost in -chivalry,[379] as Störkud the Old says; she dealt the champion heavy -blows and attacked him for a long while, and with a blow at his cheek -cut through his jaw and chin. He put his beard into his mouth and bit -it, thus holding up his chin. She performed many great feats. A little -after Thorkel the Stubborn, a champion of Hring, met her, and they -fiercely attacked each other; finally she fell with many wounds and -great courage. - -“Great events happened here in a short time; and first one, then the -other array got the better; many a man from both hosts never returned -home, or was maimed. Störkud then made an attack on the Danes, and on -the champion Hún, and at last slew him, and a little after one who tried -to revenge his death, by name Ella. Then he attacked Borgar, and after a -hard fight slew him. Störkud rushed through the ranks with a drawn sword -and killed one after another; he cut down Hjört; whereupon Visma, -shieldmaiden, who carried the standard of Harald, met him. Störkud made -a fierce attack on her. She said to him: ‘The fierceness betokening -death is over thee, and now thou shalt die, Thurs!’[380] He answered: -‘First thou shalt nevertheless let the standard of Harald fall,’ and cut -off her left hand. Then Brai, Sækalf’s father, tried to avenge her, but -Störkud pierced him with his sword. In the host in many places could now -be seen large heaps of slain and fallen men. A little after Gnepja, a -great champion, attacked Störkud; they fought hard, and Störkud gave him -his death-wound. Afterwards he slew Haki, but received many large wounds -himself; he was cut on the neck at his shoulders so that one could see -into his chest, and on his breast he had a large wound so that his lungs -were hanging out, and he had lost one finger on his right hand. When -Harald saw that so many of his hird and champions fell, he rose on his -knees and took two saxes, whipped fast forward the horse which drew the -waggon, and thrust the saxes with both hands and slew many a man with -his hands, though he was not able to walk or sit on horseback. The -battle went on thus for a while, and the king performed many great -deeds. Towards the end of the battle Harald Hilditönn was struck on the -head with a club,[381] so that his skull was broken; and that was his -death-wound, and Brúni slew him. When Hring saw the waggon of Harald -empty, he knew that he had fallen; he had the horns blown and shouted -that the host should stop. When the Danes became aware of this the -battle ceased, and Hring offered truce to the entire host of King -Harald, which all accepted”[382] (Sögubrot, c. 9). - - -Then follows the grand and imposing funeral of King Harald, given in -Vol. I., page 326. - -_The Battle of Dúnheidi._—It arose out of a quarrel between Hlöd, son of -Heidrek, and the hitter’s brother, Angantyr, in regard to the -inheritance claimed by the former; he went to his mother’s father, King -Humli of Hunaland, who was also his foster-father, and both went to war -against Angantyr. - - -“In the spring they (Hlöd and Humli) gathered a host so large that no -man able to fight was left in Húnaland. All from twelve winters old up -to sixty went; the host was so large that it could be numbered by -thousands, and no less than thousands were in the fylkings. A chief was -put over every thousand, and a banner over every array; five thousand -were in every fylking, and thirteen hundred in every thousand, and in -every hundred four times forty (160); and the fylkings were -thirty-three. When this host had gathered it rode to the forest called -Myrkvid (the dark wood), which separates Húnaland and Reidgotaland. When -they came out of the forest there were level plains, and the land was -much cultivated; on the plains there stood a fine burgh, which Hervör, -the sister of Angantyr, and Hlödver and her foster-father Ormar ruled. -They were there to defend the land against the host of the Hunar, and -had many men. - -“One morning at sunrise, as Hervör stood on a tower over the burgh-gate, -she saw such large clouds of dust in the direction of the wood that the -sun was hidden for a long time; then she saw so distinctly through the -dust-clouds that it looked as if all were gold under them, with fine and -gold-covered shields, gilded helmets, and white _brynjas_; she saw it -was the Huna-host,[383] and a large mass of men. Hervör went quickly -down, called her horn-blower, and told him to summon her men together. -Then she said: ‘Take your weapons and make ready for battle; and thou, -Ormar, shalt ride to the Hunar, and challenge them to battle in front of -the southern burgh-gate.’ Ormar answered: ‘The Hunar have so large a -host that we cannot withstand it; therefore I advise that thou shalt -ride to thy brother, King Angantyr, and tell him how matters stand.’ -Hervör asked: ‘Art thou afraid, Ormar, to meet the Hunar? Do as I said, -and challenge them to battle.’ Then Ormar rode out of the town towards -the Hunar; he shouted loudly, and told them to ride to the burgh and in -front of the southern gate. ‘I challenge you to battle there; those who -come first shall wait for the others.’ Ormar rode back to the town; then -Hervör was ready for battle, and they rode with all their host out of -the burgh against the Hunar. Horns were blown, and thereupon a great -battle began, and soon more men fell on Hervör’s side, for the Hunar had -a far larger host. Ormar rode forward into the host of the Hunar, and -slew so many that it would take a long time to enumerate them, and none -whom he could reach with the sword had any chance of living; both his -arms were bloody up to the shoulders. When Hervör saw that her men fell -she became exceedingly angry, and slew men and horses to the right and -left; she always slew six men at each blow, and all fled from her. She -was more like a lion than a man to look at. Were a man ever so valiant, -if he met her, he met his death; she could not, however, withstand the -great odds she fought against. When ten thousand of her men had fallen, -she shouted to Hlöd and said: ‘Come to single fight against me, Hlöd, if -thou hast the bold heart of a man.’ Hlödver answered: ‘I am not thirsty -for thy blood, sister.’ He entreated his men to take her, ‘for she must -be first in our power.’ When Hervör heard this she spared no one, and -slew all that met her, and thus it went on for a long time; then the -host attacked her, but she slew all who came near her, until she fell -dead from her horse. Large streams of blood gushed out of her mouth, and -every man thought she had died from exhaustion; none had ever heard that -a woman had fought so valiantly. Hlödver had her laid in a mound with -great honour. When Ormar saw that Hervör fell, he galloped much wounded -out of the battle, and did not stop until he came to Arheimar; the -remnant of Hervör’s men fled to the town. When Ormar found King -Angantyr, he received him well and asked for tidings. Ormar sang: - - ‘From the south I have come - To tell this tale; - Burned is all - The heath of Myrkvid; - The whole Goth-thjód - Is besprinkled with blood of men. - - I know the maiden of Heidrek,[384] - - * * * * * - - Thy sister, - Sank to the ground; - The Hunar have - Slain her, - And many others - Of your thegns; - She was better at ease - In the fight - Than talking with a wooer - Or going to the bench - In a bride-walk.’[385] - -“When Angantyr heard this he curled his lips, and it was a long time -before he spoke; at last he said: ‘In an unbrotherly manner wast thou -treated, my famous sister.’ Thereupon he looked over his hird, and there -were not many. He sang— - - ‘Very many were we - When we drank the mead; - Now we are fewer - When we should be more; - I do not see one - Among my men - Who would ride - And carry a shield, - And go to meet - The Huna-host, - Though I entreated him - And paid him with rings.’ - -“Gizr the Old said— - - ‘I will not - Ask for an eyrir[386] - Nor a sounding - Piece of gold, - But will however ride - And carry a shield - To challenge the Huna-thjód - To the fight.’ - -“It was the law of King Heidrek, that if a host of foes came into a -land, and the king of the land enhazelled a battle-field and appointed -the place of the battle, the Vikings should not plunder before the -battle was fought. Gizr war-dressed himself and took good weapons; he -mounted his horse as if he were a young man. He said to the king: ‘Where -shall I tell the Hunar to fight?’ - -“Angantyr sang— - - ‘Tell them on Dylgja, - And on Dun-heath, - And on all - The Jossar-mountains, - There the Gotar often - Carried the spear and fought, - And the renowned got - A fine victory.’ - -“Gizr rode onwards till he came to the Huna-host; he rode so near that -he could speak to them, and shouted with a loud voice— - - ‘Your king is full of fear, - Your king is death-doomed, - Your standard floats high, - Odin is angry with you. - I challenge you at Dylgja, - And at Dun-heath, - To battle under - The Jossar-mountains; - May Odin slight you - In every fight, - And may he let - The arrow fly,[387] - As I foretell.’ - -“When Hlöd heard the words of Gizr, he sang— - - ‘Take Gizr - The man of Angantyr - (Who has) come from Arheimar.’ - -“King Humli said— - - ‘We shall not - Slay the messengers - Who alone - On a journey go.’ - -“Gizr said: ‘The Hunar cannot, nor can their horn-bows make away with -us.’ He pricked his horse with his spurs, and rode to Angantyr, went -before him and greeted him. The king asked if he had found the -Huna-host. Gizr replied: ‘I spoke to them, and summoned them to -battle-field on Dunheath in Dylgja-dales.’ Angantyr asked how many -warriors the Hunar had. Gizr answered: ‘Great is their mass; -thirty-three fylkings, five thousand men in each fylking, thirteen -hundred in each thousand, a hundred and sixty men in each hundred.’ - -“King Angantyr then had a war-arrow sent, and sent men in every -direction, and summoned every one who was willing to help him and could -wield weapons; thereupon he went to Dunheath with his men, and had fifty -thousands; the Huna-host came against him, and it is said that the odds -were so great at first, that seven were against one of Angantyr’s men. -Both raised their war-booths, and slept during the night. - -“Next morning they prepared for battle and drew up their arrays; the -horns were blown so that they were heard twenty miles away in every -direction, and the land shook as if hanging by a thread. Then the array -closed; first spears and arrows, shafts and gaflok (a kind of arrow), -cross-bows and pole staffs (poles with iron points) were shot, and all -that could kill a man was aloft, and that went on for a long time. When -the shooting ceased they drew their swords, and a hard hand-to-hand -fight began, and kept on all that day; then they went to their -war-booths in the evening. Now a third of Angantyr’s men had fallen, but -few of the Hunar; warriors gathered round Angantyr by night and day from -every direction. Early in the morning they began the fight, and it was -no less hard than the first day; there was many a shield broken, many a -brynja torn, and many a good rider lost his life; thus it went on all -day; again more men fell on Angantyr’s side, and the night ended the -fight. In the same way it went on the third day; they fought till night, -and the Hunar had better success. The fourth day they called all their -men by the blowing of horns to the battle-field, and began the fight -with an immense beating of drums and sounding of horns, and then there -was a great slaughter among the men of Angantyr. Gizr the Old saw this, -and could not stand it; he rode forward into the Huna-host, as if he -were very young, and slew so many that it would take a long time to -enumerate them; no shield was so hard, and no armour so safe, that it -could resist his blows. Ormar also fought exceedingly well in the -Gota-host, though the wounds he had got in the former battle were -scarcely cured. Wherever Angantyr went among the host all drew back; no -one whom he was able to reach with _Tyrfing_ had a chance to live; now -so much blood was on the battle-field that it reached up to the belt (of -the warriors). - -“At the end of the day they went to their tents, and dressed the wounds -of their men. The Gotar grumbled much, for the Hunar always had the best -of it. Still they went to the battle the fifth day, and defended -themselves valiantly, for Angantyr always fought most bravely. Late in -the day they heard a war-blast and beating of drums; Herlaug was there -with sixty thousand men to help Angantyr. Angantyr said he was welcome -in his need; then they raised war-booths for themselves, and the host -slept during the night. When it was light enough for fighting they began -the battle; so many fell that day that no one knew their number, and the -horses waded in the blood up to the saddle-girths; they could no longer -fight in the battle-field because of the bodies of the dead, and the -battle turned much against the Hunar. The ninth day Hlöd sent Angantyr -word that they should rest themselves that day in order to make handles -to the spears and repair their shields. Angantyr assented. None of the -chiefs were then wounded. Angantyr had no fewer men than when the battle -began (fifty thousand) for warriors had gathered to him all the time by -night and day; Hlöd had no more left of his host than forty thousand, -and of his men three times one hundred thousand, and eight hundred had -fallen. It is not told how many Angantyr had lost, and old sagas name -this battle only as the greatest north of the sea. - -“When the tenth day came, they wanted to fight it out, so the one or the -other should be free at night. Hlödver urged the Hunar on as well as he -could, and said it would not be easy to ask the Gotar to spare their -lives; ‘I want to find Gizr the Old before this battle is ended, for we -have something to talk over.’ On the other side Angantyr said to his -men: ‘Let us go forward like warriors, and defend our freedom and -foster-land.’ Herlaug replied he would willingly follow him, and he had -to take revenge on the Hunar for his sister’s daughter. Then both the -hosts put horns to their mouths and blew a war blast, so that the -mountains echoed it, and it could be heard more than twenty miles away -when they rode to the battle. Then they drew their swords and began -fighting, and no man’s courage needed to be sneered at. Hlöd rode forth -foremost of his men, and slew warriors to right and left like the most -savage lion; and wherever he met a thick array he killed twelve with one -blow; fear entered many breasts, and they said that none in the host was -his like; he had his arms bloody up to his shoulders, and never ceased -with this onset till near mid-day. King Humli fought best of the Hunar -next to Hlödver, and none to whom he dealt a sword blow had a chance of -living. Of the Gota-host, King Angantyr, Herlaug, and Gizr the Old -fought best; Angantyr always slew twelve at a blow if he found them -standing together; for a long time the brothers did not look at each -other, and rode past each other. Many a thick helmet was cleft, and many -a strong brynja torn; there one could see many riders cut asunder and -many horses running with their saddles empty. The arrows and the spears -flew so thickly that the sun could not be seen, and the din of weapons -was so loud that no man understood what was spoken; many events took -place, though few are mentioned here. - -“King Humli and Ormar met in the battle, and exchanged hard blows, and -at last Ormar fell dead. Gizr the Old saw this, and struck at King -Humli; the sword hit his shoulder, and cut off his arm and his side; the -king fell dead from his horse. Hlöd saw this, and rode to Gizr and smote -on his helmet with all his strength, and cleft the head, the brynja, the -body, the saddle and the horse through the middle; the sword stuck in -the ground. Herlaug was near, and rode to Hlödver and said: ‘I am daring -enough to slay this Troll, or I will get a blow from him like that which -Gizr got.’ He struck at Hlödver with all his strength, and hit his -helmet and cut off the part he hit; then his sword was turned to the -shoulder, and cut the brynja, and Hlödver was slightly wounded; then he -smote at Herlaug, who retreated; nevertheless the sword-point touched -his breast, and cut his brynja and his belly open. Angantyr saw this, -and riding forward between them, struck at Hlödver with Tyrfing. Hlödver -parried with his sword, and Tyrfing hit it in the middle; it gave a loud -clang; they fought thus long during the day that Angantyr could neither -hit him with thrust nor blows; then Angantyr cut both the guards off -Hlödver’s sword with _Tyrfing_, but he did not slacken at that. Now Hlöd -smote on Angantyr’s helmet, but it was so hard that the blow did no -harm; the sword broke in two where Tyrfing had hit it before. Once more -Angantyr struck at Hlödver, but he parried with the rest of his sword; -Tyrfing hit his shoulder at the breast, and its point went inwards; -Angantyr did no more, and they parted thus; the battle at once ceased. -So many were slain of the Huna-host that only three hundred men lived of -all the great number, and these were all wounded and tired; fifteen -thousand lived of Angantyr’s and Herlaug’s men. Angantyr offered peace -to the Hunar, which they willingly accepted. He went to search for -Herlaug, and at last found him; he had ridden far away from the -battle-field to the war-booths, and lay near to the king’s tent; he had -wrapt clothes round his belly, and could not speak; the king carried him -to his tent, and sewed his belly together with a silken thread, and then -laid him in a silk-bed; it had become dark and they went to sleep during -the night. - -“Next morning the king caused the battle-field to be searched, and no -man was found living; all who could not leave the battle-field were -drowned in the blood. The king searched for Hlödver, and found him dead -on a high hill; then he sang— - - ‘I offered thee, brother, - Uncut rings, - Property and many treasures - For which thou didst yearn most; - Now thou hast neither - Bright rings - Nor land - As reward for this battle. - We are cursed, brother, - I have become thy slayer; - That will never be forgotten; - Evil is the decree of the Nornir.’ - -“Angantyr had him laid in a mound on the hill where he had fallen, and -three of the foremost men before named with him; but all the common men -were heaped together into large piles, and covered with mould; the place -where the slain lay was eight miles in circumference; the mounds may be -seen this day. It is said that Reidgotaland and Hunaland are now called -Thydskaland (the Scandinavian name for Germany); Thydskaland numbers -twelve kings’ realms as Norway. It is not mentioned whether Angantyr -subjugated Hunaland or not. King Angantyr ruled Reidgotaland till his -death, and was very like his grandfather, King Höfund; his son was -Heidrek Ulfsham (wolf-skin), who got the kingship after his father, and -held it for a long time” (Hervarar Saga, c. 17). - - -The whole Saga literature teems with figurative expressions and -expressions showing the warlike character of the race. - -In no other language do we find such poetical and forcible expressions -for battles, weapons of offence and defence, ships, blood, &c., as those -given by the people of the North. The following are a few of the -figurative expressions used for battles: - -The Odin’s storm, Odin’s rain, the Valkyrjas’ storm, the weapon’s wind, -the song of the spears, the din of spears, the weapon’s-thing, the -sword’s game, the Ran’s battle (the goddess of the sea), the Thing of -Gunn (a Valkyrja), the judgment of the weapons, the storm of weapons, -the storm of wounds, the iron voice, the trial of helmets, the ground -reddener, the storm of war-kings, the rattling wind of Göndul, the spell -song of Odin, the song of Brúni (Odin), the anger of Odin, the Yule of -Hugin (one of the ravens of Odin), the thaw of Göndul, the shower of Ali -(a sea-king), and other celebrated sea Vikings, the uproar of the sea. - -Warriors were often called: - -The thegn of the rain of swords, the helmet heeder, the diminisher of -peace, the lord of the battle, the trier of weapons, the feeder of the -wolf, the raven-feeder, the servant of the High one (Odin), the oak of -Odin, the dyer of hedges, the bush of Odin, the field-reddener, the -reddener of the mouth of Hugin (Odin’s raven), the dyer of the brynias, -the waterer of the wolves, the reddener of eagles’ soles (claws), the -breaker of brynias, the urger of swords’ play, the crane of battle, the -cheerer of the wolf, the raven starver, the steerer of the shield. - -Blood is called: - -The dew of the sword, the dew of Skogul, the dew of arrows, the wine of -the corpse, the surf of the wound, the wine of the wolf, the sweat of -the wounds, the drink of Hugin, the beer of the battle-ground, the -lather, foam, froth of weapons, the mighty fjords of swords, the tears -of the sword, the ale of the wolf, the rain of the wound, the stream of -the sword, the liquid of life, the feast of the birds of battle, the -wine of the hawk, the rivulet of the wound. - -The raven and eagle were called: - -The oath brother of the eagle, the wound-bird, Odin’s hawk, the gull of -the wound. - -The wolf was called: - -The grey deer, the boar of the slain, the dog of the nornir, the horse -of the Jotun, the dog of Odin, &c. - -Horses were sometimes called: - -The bloody-hoofed one, the silver-maned, the gold-maned, the galloping -fire, the deer of the saddle, the ship of the ground, the wind, the -gilded hoofed, the noisy goer, &c. - -Fire, so often used for burning houses, is called: - -The brother of the wind, the thief of the house, the wolf of the hall, -the dog of the embers, the noise maker. - ------ - -Footnote 370: - - Two other manuscripts, Vestra Saxa king. - -Footnote 371: - - “Ragnar Lodbrok’s Saga is only a continuation of the Volsunga Saga, - and especially dwells upon the subject that Ragnar’s wife Aslaug was - descended from Sigurd Fafnisbani. The other story seems to be a - fragment of the same large Saga about Harald Hilditonn and his - descendants, which describes the end of Ivar Vidfadme and the Bravalla - battle” (Munch: ‘History of Norway’). - - Trustworthy registry of relationship in ancient Northern writings - unite in putting Ragnar Lodbrok three generations earlier than the - discovery of Iceland, which took place between 870–880. - -Footnote 372: - - Ragnar Lodbrok’s Saga, c. ii. - -Footnote 373: - - They seem to have believed that Elf (river) was derived from Alfar. - -Footnote 374: - - Apparently there were two kings of the name Ella. - -Footnote 375: - - The date of the battle was probably about the year A.D. 700. - -Footnote 376: - - Kœnugard (Kief). - -Footnote 377: - - _Buckler_, probably a smaller shield. - -Footnote 378: - - The “wedge shape” was the same as that called _cuneus_ by the ancient - Romans, and was very old; it is mentioned by Tacitus. - -Footnote 379: - - Riddaraskap = equestrian exercises. - -Footnote 380: - - The word Thurs is used as an abusive term. - -Footnote 381: - - _Kylfa._ In several places in the Sagas the use of heavy clubs as - weapons is mentioned. - -Footnote 382: - - For continuation see chapter on “Burials.” - -Footnote 383: - - The numbers of the Huna-host are differently given in different texts. - It is difficult to find the exact numbers, as Latin letters are used, - and sometimes forty and sixty (XL., LX.) seem to be confused; this may - be due to the carelessness of the scribe. - -Footnote 384: - - Part of the text of this stanza is missing. - -Footnote 385: - - Walking with her bridesmaids. - -Footnote 386: - - Money. - -Footnote 387: - - The custom of throwing a spear over the host to give it to Odin. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS. - (_Continued._) - - Ragnar Lodbrok—His voyages and wars—His death in England—The sons of - Ragnar Lodbrok—Ivar revenges his father’s death—Wide extent of the - expeditions of Ragnar’s sons—Ivar king in England. - - -After King Hring’s death his son Ragnar assumed the sovereignty of -Sweden and Denmark, whereupon several kings threw off their subjection -and claimed independence, because he was a young man and appeared to -them little fitted for counsels or ruling the land. - -There was then a jarl in Western Gautaland called Herraud; he was the -jarl of King Ragnar. He was a wise man and a great warrior. He had a -daughter, who was called Thora Borgarhjort (the hart of the burgh). -Ragnar Lodbrok[388] was married to Thora. Their children were Agnar and -Eirik, and Alof,[389] who was married to Hunda-Steinar Jarl in England. -Their son was Bjorn,[390] father of Audun Skokul, father of Thora -Moshals, mother of Ulfhild, who was married to Gudbrand Kula; their -daughter was Asta, mother of St. Olaf. - - -“Now it is told that Ragnar sat at home in his realm, and knew not where -his sons were; nor did his wife Randalin know, and he heard every one of -his men say that no one could equal his sons, and he thought that no men -could equal them in renown. He pondered on what fame he might seek which -would be as lasting. At length he resolved to engage craftsmen, and had -wood felled in the forest for two large ships, and men saw that they -were two knörrs[391] so large that none equal to them had been built in -Northern lands; he also made great war preparations all over his realm. -By this men saw that he was going on an expedition out of the country, -and the rumour of it spread widely in the neighbouring lands, so that -their rulers, fearing that they would not be left at peace in their -realms, proceeded to guard their lands against the invader, in case he -might come. Randalin asked Ragnar whither he was going. He told her he -intended to go to England with only two knörrs, and as many men as they -could hold. Randalin answered: ‘This expedition seems to me rash. I -think it better for thee to have more and smaller ships.’ He said: ‘It -would be but a poor exploit to win lands with many ships, but there is -no example of a land like England having been conquered by two ships; if -I am defeated, the fewer ships I take out of the country the better.’ -Randalin said: ‘It seems to me as costly to make ready these ships as to -have many longships for this expedition; thou knowest that it is -difficult to land with ships in England, and if thy ships are lost thy -men cannot defend themselves, though they get ashore, if an army attacks -them, and longships are more convenient for effecting a landing than -knerrir.’ Then he had his ships prepared and got men so that they were -fully manned; people talked much about his intention. When his ships and -men were ready and a fair wind came, he said he would go down to his -ships. When he was ready she led him down to the ships, and before they -parted she said she would reward him for the shirt he had given to her. -He asked her how, and she sang: - - ‘I give thee the long shirt, - Nowhere sewn, - Woven with a loving mind - Of hair—[392] - Wounds will not bleed - Nor will edges bite thee - In the holy garment; - It was consecrated to the gods.’ - -“In making his voyage to England he met with adverse gales, so that both -his ships were wrecked on the coast of England, but all his men got -ashore with their clothes and weapons. Thereupon he succeeded in taking -villages and burghs and castles, one after the other. King Ella, who -ruled England, had heard that Ragnar had left his country; he sent men -to tell him when he had landed; they came and brought news of Ragnar. -Ella sent messengers all over his realm, summoning every man to come -that could wield a shield and ride on a horse and dared fight; he thus -gathered such a large host that it was a wonder, and made ready for -battle. Ella said to his men: ‘If we gain the victory in this battle, -and you see Ragnar, you must not attack him with weapons, for he has -sons who sooner or later will avenge his death.’ Ragnar made ready for -battle, and used the cloth which Randalin had given him to be used as a -coat-of-mail, and had the spear in his hand with which he slew the -serpent that lay round the hall of Thóra, which no other man dared to -face; he had no armour except a helmet. When they met the fight began. -Ragnar had far fewer men. Many of Ragnar’s men fell after a short time, -but where he went himself his foes drew back, and that day he walked -through their ranks; whenever he cut or thrust at shields, coats-of-mail -or helmets, his blows were so heavy that nothing stood against them, but -never did any blow or shot harm him; he got no wounds, and slew many of -King Ella’s men. In the end, when all Ragnar’s men had fallen, he was -surrounded by shields and taken. He was asked who he was, but was silent -and gave no answer. Ella said: ‘That man must be punished if he will not -tell who he is; now throw him into a snake-pit and let him sit there a -long time, and if he says anything by which we can see that he is -Ragnar, he shall be taken away as soon as possible.’ So Ragnar was taken -there and sat there a long time, and the snakes did not attack him. -People said, ‘This is a great man; the weapons did not wound him to-day, -and now the snakes do no harm to him.’ Ella told them to take off his -outer garment, and when they had done so the snakes attacked him all -over his body. He said: ‘The pigs would grunt now if they knew what the -old one[393] is suffering;’ and though he said this they yet knew not -that he was Ragnar or any other king. He sang: - - ‘I have fought battles - Fifty and one - Which were famous; - I have wounded many men. - I little thought that snakes - Would cause my death; - Often that happens - Which one least expects. - - The pigs would grunt - If they knew the hog’s suffering; - The gnawing hurts me; - The snakes thrust in their snouts - And stick to me cruelly; - They have sucked me; - Soon shall I be a corpse; - I will die among them.’ - -“He died, and was taken away. Ella saw that it was Ragnar. But Ella -pondered how he should succeed in retaining his realm, and wondered how -the sons of Ragnar would receive the news of their father’s death. He -had a ship made ready, and appointed a wise and hardy man to command it; -he manned the ship well, and told the men that he sent them to Ivar and -his brothers to tell them of the fall of their father; most of them had -little mind to go. Ella said: ‘Notice carefully how each of the brothers -receives this news; then go your way when you get a fair wind.’ He had -them so well equipped that they needed nothing; their journey was -prosperous. - -“The messengers (of Ella) came with their men to the burg, where the -sons of Ragnar were enjoying a feast, and went into the hall where they -drank, and to the high-seat, in which Ivar (the eldest of Ragnar’s sons) -sat. Sigurd (snake-eye) and Hvitserk the bold sat playing chess, while -Björn jarnsida (ironside) was sharpening a spear-shaft on the floor. -When the messengers came up to Ivar they greeted him respectfully; he -answered their greeting, and asked whence they were and what tidings -they had to tell. Their leader said they were Enskir menn (English men), -and that Ella had sent them with the tidings of the fall of their father -Ragnar. Hvitserk and Sigurd immediately dropped the chessboard, and -listened attentively to this news. Björn stood on the floor of the hall, -leaning on his spear-shaft. Ivar inquired of them minutely how his death -had occurred. They told all that had taken place after he came to -England till he lost his life. When it was told that Ragnar had said -‘the pigs would grunt,’ Björn moved his hands on the spear-shaft, and -grasped it so firmly that the print of his fingers could be seen on it -afterwards; when the messengers had finished, Björn shook his spear so -that it brake in two. Hvitserk had in his hand a chess-piece which he -had taken, and squeezed it so hard that blood started out from under -each of his nails; and Sigurd had a knife in his hand and was trimming -his nails at the time, and listened so attentively that he felt nothing -until the knife had cut him to the bone, and did not move. Ivar inquired -about everything as minutely as he could, while his face became red, -blue and pale by turns, and his features were so distorted that all his -skin became swollen on account of the anger in his breast. Hvitserk -began to speak, and said they could most speedily commence their revenge -by killing the messengers of King Ella. Ivar said: ‘That shall not be; -they shall go in peace wherever they like, and if they lack anything -they may tell me, and I will give it to them.’ When they had performed -their errand they went out of the hall to their ship, and with a fair -wind sailed out to sea, and returned in safety to Ella. - -“When the messengers of Ella had gone, the brothers met to talk over how -they should avenge their father. Ivar said: ‘I will not take part in or -gather men for that, because Ragnar met with the fate I anticipated. His -cause was bad; he had no reason to fight against King Ella, and it has -often happened that when a man wanted to be overbearing and wrong others -it has been the worse for him; I will take wergild from King Ella if he -will give it.’ When his brothers heard this they became very angry, and -said they would never so disgrace themselves, even on his -recommendation. ‘People will say that our prowess is departed if we do -not avenge our father. We have been all over the world on warfare, and -slain many innocent men. That shall not be; we will fit out every -seaworthy ship in Denmark; every man who is able to carry a shield -against Ella shall go with us.’ Ivar said he and the ships he commanded, -except his own ship, should remain behind. When people heard that Ivar -was not going, the brothers obtained fewer men, but nevertheless went. -As soon as they landed in England Ella heard of it, and had his horn -blown, and bade all who were willing to follow him; he got so many men -that no man could number them, and went against them. They met, and Ivar -was not in that battle, the end of which was that Ragnar’s sons fled, -and Ella got the victory. During the flight Ivar said: ‘I will not go -back; I will try whether King Ella will give me some honour or not; I -will rather take wergild from him than be again defeated like this.’ -Hvitserk said they could not prevent him from doing what he liked, but -they would never take wergild. Ivar said he would leave them, and asked -them to rule over their realm and send him as much movable property as -he wanted. When he had said this he took leave of them and went to Ella, -and when he came before him he saluted him, and said: ‘I have come to -you and want to be reconciled to you, and get as much honour as you will -give me; I see that I cannot defeat you, and will rather get from you -such honour as you will give me than lose more men or my own life.’ Ella -answered: ‘Some say thou art not to be trusted, and that thou often -speakest fair when thou thinkest foul, and it is not easy to be a match -for thee and thy brothers.’ Ivar said: ‘I ask for little; if thou -grantest it I swear never to go against thee.’ The king asked what he -wanted. Ivar answered: ‘I want thee to give me as much of thy land as an -oxhide stretches over, and this ground shall be marked out; I want no -more, and thou wilt do me no honour if thou wilt not do this.’ Ella -said: ‘I cannot see that it will do us harm if thou ownest so much of my -land, and I will give it thee if thou wilt swear not to fight against -me; I fear not thy brothers if thou art faithful to me.’ It was -accordingly agreed that Ivar should swear not to fight against him, nor -give any advice to harm him, and in return he obtained as much English -land as the largest oxhide he could procure stretched over. Ivar got the -hide of a bull, and had it soaked and stretched three times; then he had -it cut into very thin strips, and the fleshy side separated from the -hairy side; and when the strips were joined the length of the thong was -astonishing. He stretched this out on a broad field, and the ground -surrounded by it was so large that a great burgh could stand on it, and -on the outskirts he had ground marked out for large burgh-walls; he -engaged many workmen, and had many houses built on that field, and -raised a great burgh called[394] Lundúnaborg,[395] which is the greatest -and most famous of all burghs in all the Northern lands. He used all the -loose property for making this burgh; he was so liberal that he gave -gifts with both hands, and his wisdom was so renowned that all came to -him for advice in difficulties; he settled all disputes to the -satisfaction of the parties, and was so beloved that he had a friend in -every man; he helped Ella much in ruling the land, and settled many -matters for him without the king requiring to look at it afterwards. And -when he was thought to be the owner of all wisdom he sent men to his -brothers to ask them for gold and silver, as much as he wanted to have. -Messengers came to the brothers, told their errand, and how it had fared -with Ivar, for no one knew what devices he had in his mind; the brothers -saw that his mind was not as it used to be. They sent as much as he -wanted; and when the messengers returned to Ivar, he gave all that he -had received to the leading men in the country, and thus drew them away -from King Ella, so that they all promised to be quiet in case of war. -When he had done this he sent men to tell his brothers that he wanted -them to levy a host in all the lands which belonged to their realm, and -bring every man they could get. When the brothers got this message they -knew that he now thought it likely they would be victorious. They -gathered men from Denmark, Gautland, and all the realms they ruled over, -and having drawn together an enormous host, they sailed to England, and -stopped neither night nor day, as they did not want their journey to be -heard of. The news, however, reached Ella, who summoned his men, but got -few, for Ivar had drawn many from him. Ivar went to him and said he -would do what he had sworn, but could not rule over his brothers’ -doings, though he might see them and find out if they would withdraw the -host and do no more harm. He went to them and urged them to go forward -and engage in a battle, for the king had much fewer men. They answered -that he need not urge them on, as their mind was the same. Ivar told -King Ella that they were so eager and incensed that they would not -listen to his words. ‘When I wanted to reconcile you they remonstrated; -I will do as I swore, and not fight against thee; I and my men will be -quiet while the battle goes as it may.’ Ella saw the host of the -brothers, which ran forward in great haste. Ivar said: ‘Now, King Ella, -array thy men, as I foresee they will make a severe attack for some -time.’ When they met there was a great fight, and the sons of Ragnar -rushed fiercely forward through the ranks of Ella’s host, and they were -so eager that they only thought of doing as much as they could, and the -battle was both long and hard. At last Ella and his men fled, and he was -taken. Ivar was present, and told them how to slay him. He said: ‘Now it -is time to remember what kind of death he chose for our father; the man -who is best skilled in wood-carving shall mark an eagle as deep as he -can on his back, and that eagle shall be reddened with his blood.’ The -man who was told to do this did as Ivar said. Ella got so deep a wound -by this that he died, and now it seemed to them they had avenged their -father. Ivar said he would give them his part in their realm, but rule -England himself. - -“Thereupon Hvitserk, Björn and Sigurd went home to their realm, and Ivar -remained and ruled over England. After this their host was less -concentrated, and they made warfare in various countries. Once Hvitserk, -when his mother Randalin was old, made warfare in eastern lands, and -such an overwhelming force met him that he could not raise his shield, -and was captured. He chose as the means of his death that a pyre should -be made of human heads, and he be burnt on it; and thus he died. When -Randalin heard this, she sang: - - ‘A son whom I owned - Met death in the eastern lands; - Hvitserk was he called, - Nowhere willing to flee; - He was warmed by the heads - Of men slain in battle; - The strong-minded chief - Chose that death before he died.’ - -“From Sigurd Snake-eye there descended a great family; his daughter was -Aslaug, mother of Sigurd Hart, who was father of Ragnhild, mother of -Harald Fairhair, who first ruled all Norway alone. Ivar ruled England -till his death from disease. When on his death-bed he told them to carry -him to a certain spot exposed to attacks, and said he was confident that -those who landed there would not obtain a victory. When he died they did -as he said, and he was buried in a mound. It is told by many that when -Harald Sigurdsson came to England he landed where Ivar was, and he was -slain in that expedition. When Vilhjálm bastard (William the Conqueror) -came ashore, he went there and broke Ivar’s mound, and saw that his body -had not decayed. Then he had a large pyre made and Ivar burned on it. -Thereupon he landed and got the victory. Björn Ironside had many -descendants, among them Thórd, a great chief who lived at Höfdi in -Höfdaströnd (Iceland)” (Ragnar Lodbrók’s Saga, cc. 10–19). - - -After the battle just mentioned on the preceding pages we have an -account of the doings of Ragnar Lodbrók’s sons; and here again we are -reminded that their kinsmen owned part of England before them. - - -“After this battle Ivar[396] became king over the part of England which -his kinsmen had owned before. He had two brothers born of a concubine, -Yngvar and Hustó; they tortured King Játmund the holy at Ivar’s bidding, -and then conquered his realm. The sons of Ragnar made war in many -lands—in England, Valland, Frakkland, and Lumbardi. It is told that they -came furthest when they took the burg called Luna, and secretly intended -to go to Rome and take it; their expeditions were the most famous -throughout all the Northern lands of the Danish tongue. When they came -back to Denmark they divided the lands. Björn Ironside got Uppsalir, the -whole of Sweden, and what belonged to it. Sigurd Snake-eye[397] got -Selund (Zeeland), Skani, Halland, the whole of Vik (Christianiafjord), -Agdir to Lidandisness, and a great part of Upplönd; but Hvitserk got -Reidgotaland and Vindland” (Ragnar’s Sons’ Saga, c. 3). - - -From the Sagas we find that even in the times of their father their -renown was very great, and their expeditions extended far and wide. - - -“The sons of Ragnar Lodbrok went thence till they came to a town called -Luna, having destroyed nearly every burgh in all Southern realm -(Sudrriki); they had become so famous all over the world that there was -hardly a little child that knew not their name. They intended not to -cease until they came to Romaborg, for they were told that this town was -both large, populous, and famous and wealthy; they did not exactly know -how far distant it was, but they had so many men that food was not to be -procured. In Luna they consulted about the expedition. There came -thither an old and grey man, who said he was a beggar, and had been -travelling all his life. ‘Thou must be able to tell us many tidings we -wish to know.’ He answered: ‘I know of no lands you can ask about, about -which I cannot tell you.’ ‘We want thee to tell us how far it is from -here to Romaborg.’ He said: ‘I can tell you one thing as a mark; you see -these iron shoes which I wear? They are now old, and those which I carry -on my back are also worn out. When I left Rome I tied on my feet these -worn-out ones on my back. They were new then, and I have been on the -journey since.’ When they heard this, they thought they could not carry -out their intention of going to Rome, and so they returned with their -host, taking many burghs on their way which had never been taken before, -the traces of which are seen to this day” (Saga of Ragnar Lodbrok, c. -13). - - -“Sigurd was married to Heluna, daughter of King Ella. The sons of -Ragnar, after having ravaged in England, Valland, Saxland, and all the -way to Lombardy (Lungbardi), Sweden, Denmark, and Vindland, returned -home; they divided between themselves the lands which they had won. -Björn Jarnsida (ironside) got in his share both Sweden and Gautland; -Sigurd Snake-eye, Eygotaland, Halland, and Skaney; Hvitserk, -Reidgotaland (probably some part of Northern Germany), and Vindland. - -“When Sigurd Snake-eye was in Denmark, his wife bore a son named Knut; -he was born at Hord in Jutland, and on that account was called Horda -Knut. King Gorm brought him up. Gorm died on a bed of sickness, while -Horda Knut became king of Eygotaland, Skaney, and Halland, for these had -been the share of his father Sigurd Snake-eye” (Flateyjarbok; -Jomsvikinga Thatt). - - -“Ivar the Boneless was long King in England, but had no children, as his -nature was such that he had no love lust; but he did not lack wisdom or -cruelty, and died from old age in England, and was mourned there. Then -were all the sons of Lodbrok dead. - -“After Ivar, Adalmund Jatgeirsson got the kingship of England; he was a -brother’s son of Jatmund (Edgarson) the holy, and he christianized -England widely; he took taxes for Northumberland, because it was -heathen. After him got the kingship his son Adalbrigt (Ethelbert); he -was a good king, and became old. In his old age a Danish host came to -England, and their leaders were Knut and Harald, sons of King Gorm. They -underlaid (subdued) a large realm in Northumberland which Ivar had -owned. King Adalbrigt went against them, and they fought north of -Kliflönd (Cleveland), and many Danes fell. The Danes went ashore at -Skardaborg (Scarborough) and fought there and got the victory; then they -went south to Jorvik (York) and all the people became their men and they -were not afraid of themselves (were secure). - -“One day in hot weather the men went to swim, and as the king’s sons -(Gorm’s sons) were swimming between the ships men came running down on -the shore and shot at them; Knut was struck to death with an arrow; they -took the body out to the ships. When the men of the country heard this -they gathered so that the Danes could not get ashore any more because of -the great number of people (against them), and went back to Denmark. -Gorm was then in Jutland. When he heard the news he sank backwards and -died of grief the next day after at the same time as he had got the news -the day before. Then Harald got the kingship after him over the Dana -realm; he was the first of his kinsmen who was baptized” (Ragnar’s Sons, -c. iv.). - - -“Sigurd Hjort (hart) was king in Hringariki; he was larger and stronger -than any other man, and one of the handsomest men. His father was Helgi -Hvassi, and his mother Aslaug, daughter of Sigurd Snake-eye, son of -Ragnar Lodbrok. It is told that when Sigurd was twelve winters old he -slew Hildebrand, berserk, in single fight, and twelve berserks in all. -He performed many great deeds, and there is a long Saga of him. Sigurd -had two children; his daughter Ragnhild surpassed other women and was -twenty years old while her brother Guttorm was young. It is told of King -Sigurd that he rode alone into unsettled places (deserts) and hunted big -and dangerous animals; he always was very eager in that. One day, as was -his wont, when he had ridden a long distance, he came to a clearing near -Hadaland; here he met the berserk Hake with thirty men, and a fight took -place, in which fell Sigurd Hjort and twelve of Hake’s men. Hake himself -lost one hand, and received three severe wounds. Hake then rode with his -men to Sigurd’s farm, and captured his daughter. Thus Harald Harfagr, on -his mother’s side, was descended from Ragnar Lodbrok. - -“Halfdan married Ragnhild, and she became a powerful queen. The mother -of Ragnhild was Thyri, daughter of Klakk-Harald, King of Jutland, sister -of Thyri Danmarkarbot, the wife of Gorm the old Dana king, who then -ruled Denmark” (Halfdan the Black’s Saga, c. 5). - - -Here we have an account of a terrible battle, which nevertheless has not -been considered as great as that of Bravoll and Dunheath by the people -of the North. - - -“Sigurd Snake-eye, Björn Ironside, and Hvitserk had made warfare widely -in Frakkland (France); thereupon Bjorn went home to his realm. -Thereafter Ornulf Emperor fought against the brothers and one hundred -thousand men fell of the Danes and Northmen. There fell Sigurd Snake-eye -and another king, Gudrod, who was the son of Olaf, son of Ring, son of -Ingjald, son of Ingi, son of Ring, after whom Ringariki is named; he was -the son of Dag and Thora, mother of warriors; they had nine sons, and -the family of the Doglings has sprung from them. Helgi the bold, -Gudrod’s brother, took out of the battle the standard and the shield and -the sword of Sigurd Snake-eye. He went home to Denmark with his men and -found Aslaug, Sigurd’s mother, and told her the tidings.[398] But as -Hordaknut was young, Helgi stayed there long with Aslaug to defend the -land. Sigurd (Snake-eye) and Blœja had a daughter, who was a twin-sister -of Hordaknut. Aslaug gave her her own name and then raised her. -Afterwards Helgi the Bold married her; their son was Sigurd Hart; he was -the finest, largest, and strongest man seen at that time. But when -Sigurd was twelve winters old, then he killed in a single fight -(Einvigi) the berserk Hildibrand. After that Klakk Harald gave him in -marriage to his daughter Ingiborg. They had two children, Gudthorm and -Ragnhild. Then Sigurd heard that King Frodi, his father’s brother, was -dead, and went northward to Norway, and became king over Ringariki, his -kin-inheritance. About him there is a long Saga; for he performed many -great deeds. But of his death it is told that he rode out into -uninhabited places to hunt game, as was his custom, and there came to -him Haki Hadaberserk (berserk from Hadaland) with thirty fully armed -men, and fought with him. There Sigurd fell, but had before that slain -twelve men, and King Haki had lost his right hand and had besides three -other wounds. Thereupon Haki rode with his men to Stein in Ringariki, -which was Sigurd’s farm, and took away his daughter Ragnhild and his son -Gudthorm and a great deal of property home with himself to Hadaland; and -a little later he had a great feast prepared, and intended to keep his -wedding, but that was delayed, because his wounds would not get cured. -Ragnhild was then fifteen winters old, but Gudthorm fourteen winters. -Thus passed the autumn and winter to Yule, while Haki lay sick from his -wounds. Then was King Halfdan the Black in Heidmork at his farms. He -sent Harek Gand (the wolf, the wizard) with a hundred men, and they -crossed on the ice of the Mjors (Mjosen) to Hadaland one night and -arrived at dawn to King Haki’s farm and took possession of all the doors -in the skali, in which the hirdmen slept, and then they went to King -Haki’s sleeping-chamber (skemma) and took Ragnhild and Gudthorm her -brother, and all the property that was there and carried away with them, -and burned the skali with all the hirdmen and then went away. But King -Haki arose and dressed himself and walked after them for awhile, and -when he came down to the ice, then he turned the guards of his sword -downward and threw himself upon its point and died therefrom, and is -mound-laid on the brink. King Halfdan saw that they were driving across -the ice with a tented waggon, and therefore thought that they had -performed his errand as he wanted it. He then sent word all around the -neighbourhood, and invited all the prominent men of Heidmork, and that -day had a great feast and held his wedding with Ragnhild, and they then -lived together for many days. Their son was King Harald Fairhair, who -was the first sole king of Norway” (Ragnar Lodbrok’s Sons, c. 5). - - -“There ruled in Denmark two kings, Sigrfrodi and Halfdan, and after them -Helgi; the latter had a fight with Olaf King of Sweden in which he fell, -and Olaf afterwards ruled long over Denmark (Danmork) and Sweden, dying -on a sick bed. After him Gyrd and Knut took the kingship in Denmark, and -after them Siggeir, followed by Olaf Kinriksson, who was a nephew of -Moallda the Stout (digra), mother of Ivar Vidfadmi; he ruled long as -king over Jutland, and was called Olaf Enski (the English). His son Grim -Gani, who took the kingship after his father, was father of Audulf the -Rich, tax-king in Jutland of Ragnar Lodbrok’s sons. Audulf’s son Gorm, -who also was tax-king in Jutland, was called Gorm the Childless. He was -powerful and well loved by his men. He had long ruled over the country -at this time” (Flateyjarbok, vol. i.). - - ------ - -Footnote 388: - - Lod-Brók = Hairy breeches. He made a dress of hairy breeches and a - hairy cloak, which he boiled in pitch and then hardened: this was done - in order that he should be able to attack the serpent which watched - over Thora, who was said to surpass all other women in beauty as the - hart does other animals, and was most accomplished in all handiwork. - Afterwards he appears to have married Aslaug, the daughter of Sigurd - Fafnisbani by Brynhild. They begat several children. The oldest, Ivar, - had no bones in his body, but was very wise; the others were Bjorn, - Hvitserk, Rognvald, and Sigurd (Snake-eye). - -Footnote 389: - - From Landnama we find that Ragnar had been previously married, and had - other children in addition to those already enumerated. - -Footnote 390: - - Another son of Hundasteinar and Alof was named Eirik, father of Sigurd - Bjódaskalli, father of Vikinga Kári, father of Bödvar, Vigfús and - Eirik, who was the father of Ástrid, mother of King Olaf Tryggvason. - (Landnama, p. 234.) - -Footnote 391: - - In Ragnar’s Sons’ Saga, ch. ii., the two are said to be built in - Norway. Ragnar says to Aslaug: “I have had two knörrs built in - Vestfold, because his realm extended to the Dofrafjalls and - Lidandisness.” - -Footnote 392: - - Following word obscure. - -Footnote 393: - - The old one = Ragnar; the pigs = his sons. - -Footnote 394: - - In another the name is given as Jorvik or York. - -Footnote 395: - - It may have been a suburb of the present London. - -Footnote 396: - - Ivar, who, according to the Sagas, did great things in England, is no - doubt the same man who is called in the chronicles Ingvr, Lodbrók’s - son, who in 870 killed King Eadmund the Holy. - - The English writers mention Ingvar and Ubbi, the sons of Lodbrók, as - having taken a leading part in killing the king; and as the Sagas - don’t speak of any son of Lodbrók who fought in England other than - “Ivar,” Ingvar and Ivar must be one and the same person. - -Footnote 397: - - Sigurd Snake-eye was married to Blœja, daughter of King Ella; their - son was Knut, or Horda-Knut, who acquired the realm after his father, - and Selund, Skani, and Halland. - -Footnote 398: - - Stanza omitted; corrupted, cannot be made out. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS. - (_Continued._) - - The first Jarl of Normandy—His banishment from Norway—Genealogy of - the Jarls of Normandy—Political connection between kings of the - North and of England—Jealousy between Athelstan and Harold - Fairhair—Hákon of Norway educated in England—Northern chiefs come - to the help of English kings—Battle of Brunanburgh. - - -Very little is said in the Sagas of Göngu Hrolf, the first jarl of -Normandy, for he, like all those who left their country to settle in -foreign lands, was forgotten by the scalds at home, as these did not -take part in their expeditions. We give here different sagas which -confirm each other in regard to him. But the little we have concerning -him is extremely interesting, as his descendants conquered England and -part of France. All the different Sagas agree in calling him a son of -Rognvald jarl of Norway. - -The causes which led to his banishment are simply and clearly related. - - -“Rögnvald Mæra jarl was a very great friend of King Harald, and was much -valued by him. Rögnvald was married to Hrolf Nefja’s daughter Hild,[399] -and had by her the sons Hrolf and Thorir.... Hrolf was a great Viking, -and so large that no horse could carry him, so that he walked wherever -he went, and for this reason he was called Göngu Hrolf (walking Hrolf). -He made much warfare in the east. One summer when he returned from -‘Vikingry,’ or a raiding expedition in the east, he committed acts of -depredation in Vikin. King Harald, who was then in Vikin, was very angry -when he heard of this, for he had strictly forbidden robbery within his -land. He therefore announced at a Thing that he made Hrolf an outlaw -from Norway. When Hrolf’s mother Hild[399] heard this, she went to him -to ask for pardon for Hrolf, but the king was so angry that her prayers -were of no avail. Then she sang: - - Disgrace not Nefja’s namesake[400] - Nor drive the wolf from the land, - The wise kinsman of Höld,[401] - Why dealest thou thus with him, king? - It is bad to worry - Such a wolf of Ygg’s,[402] - He will not be gentle toward - The king’s herds if he runs into the woods.”[403] - -Göngu Hrolf then went westward across the sea to the Sudreyjar -(Hebrides), and thence west to Valland, and made war there, and got a -large jarl’s realm, where he induced many Northmen to settle down. It -was afterwards called Nordmandi. - -“Göngu Hrolf’s son ‘William’ (Vilhjálm) was father of Richard (Rikard), -father of Richard the Second, father of Robert Longsword,[404] father of -Vilhjalm (William) the Bastard, king of the English, from whom all -subsequent English kings are descended. The jarls in Normandi are also -of Hrolf’s family” (Harald Fairhair’s Saga, c. 24). - - -“Rögnvald jarl of Mæri was married to Ragnhild, daughter of Hrólf Nefja; -the first of their sons was Ivar, who fell in the Hebrides on an -expedition with Harald Fairhair; the second was Göngu Hrolf, who won -Northmandi; from him are descended the Ruda-jarls (Rouen jarls), and the -Engla-kings (English kings); the third was Thórir jarl the Silent, who -was married to Alöf Arbot, the daughter of Harald Fairhair, and their -daughter was Bergljot, mother of Hakon jarl the Powerful”[405] -(Landnama, iv., 8). - - -“Rögnvald jarl conquered the country with Harald Fairhair, who gave him -the rule over the two Mæri’s and Raumsdal. He was married to Ragnhild, -daughter of Hrolf Nefja; their son was Hrolf, who won Northmandi. He was -so large that no horse could carry him, and he was therefore called -Göngu Hrolf. From him are descended the Rouen jarls, and the kings of -England” (Flateyjarbok, vol. i.). - - -“Rögnvald, jarl of Mæri, was the son of Eystein Glumra, son of Ivar -Uppland jarl, son of Halfdan the old; Rögnvald was married to Ragnhild, -daughter of Hrolf Nefja. - -“The sons of Rögnvald were: Ivar, who fell in the Hebrides when with -King Harald Fairhair; Göngu Hrolf, who won Northmandi, and from whom the -Ruda (Rouen) jarls are descended, as well as kings of England; and -Thorir jarl the Silent, who was married to Harald Fairhair’s daughter -Arbot, their daughter was Bergljot, mother of Hakon jarl the Great” -(Landnamabok, iv. 8). - - -“King Olaf had been on warfare west in Valland two summers and one -winter. Two jarls were then in Valland, Vilhjalm and Rodbert; their -father was Rikard Ruda-jarl (jarl of Rouen); they ruled Northmandi.[406] -Their sister was Queen Emma, who was married to Adalrad (Engla-king); -their sons were Jatmund, Jatvard the Good, Jatvig and Jatgeir. Rikard -Ruda-jarl was the son of Rikard son of Vilhjálm Langaspjót (longue -epée); he was the son of Göngu Hrölf jarl who won Nordmandi; he was the -son of Rögnvald Mæra jarl the Powerful, as before is written. From Göngu -Hrölf have sprung the Rúda jarls, and long after they reckoned -themselves to be the kinsmen of the chiefs of Norway, and thought so for -a long time, and were always great friends of the Northmen, and all of -these men had a peace-land in Normandy who would accept it. For the -autumn King Olaf came to Normandy, and stayed during the winter in Signa -(Seine), and had peace-land there” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 19). - - -Here is the genealogy of the jarls of Normandy. - - -“King Harald was the son of Halfdan (the Black), king in Uppland; -Halfdan the Black’s father was Gudröd Veidikonung (hunting king), son of -Halfdan, who was called the liberal and food-stingy, for he gave his men -as much pay in gold as other kings theirs in silver, but he kept them -short in food. The mother of Halfdan the Black was Asa, daughter of -Harald Granraud, King of Agdir. - -“The mother of Harald Fairhair was Ragnhild, daughter of Sigurd Hjört -(Hart), whose mother was Aslaug, daughter of Sigurd Snake-eye, son of -Ragnar Lodbrok. - -“Sigurd Snake-eye’s mother was Áslaug, daughter of Sigurd Fafnisbani. -Sigurd Hjört was married to Thyri, daughter of Klakkharald of Jutland -and sister of Thyri, Denmark’s improver (Danmarkarbot), who was married -to Gorm (the Old) King of Denmark” (Flateyjarbok, vol. i., ch. i.). - - -The testimony of the Sagas, as we see, is here unmistakable, clear, and -to the point. When we compare them with the Frankish annals and their -fabulous and strange stories and discordant dates, we cannot but give -the preference to the Sagas. - - -“Alfred the Powerful (_riki_) ruled over England; he was the first of -his kinsmen who was absolute king in the days of Harald Fairhair, King -of Norway. After him his son Edward was king; he was the father of -Athelstan the Victorious (the foster-father of Hakon the Good), who was -king after his father. There were several brothers, sons of Edward. When -Athelstan became king those chiefs who had lost their lands through his -forefathers rose against him, thinking it would be easier to regain -their lands from so young a king. These chiefs were Bretar (Britons) and -Skotar (Scots) and Irar (Irish). Athelstan gathered a host, and gave pay -to every man, both foreigners and natives, who wanted it. The brothers -Thórólf and Egil were going southward past Saxland and Flæmingjaland -(Flandre); when they heard that the King of England needed men, and as -there was likelihood of getting much property, they decided to go -thither with their men. They went in the autumn to the king, who -received them well, for he thought that their following would be a great -help; he offered them pay for their service to defend his kingdom; they -made an agreement and became his men. England had been Christian for a -long time when this happened; the king was a good Christian, and was -called Æthelstan trufasti (constant in belief). He asked Thórólf and -Egil to be _prime-signed_, as was then very usual, both among traders -and those who went into the service of Christians; for those who were -prime-signed had full intercourse with both Christians and heathens, but -at the same time believed what they liked best. Thórólf and Egil did so -at his request. They had three hundred men in the service of the king” -(Egil’s Saga, c. 50). - - -The following shows the jealousy that existed between the two kings, -Æthelstan and Harald Fairhair of Norway. - - -“At this time Æthelstan, who was named the victorious and the faithful, -had taken the kingdom in England. He sent to Norway a messenger, who -went in before King Harald and handed him a sword with golden guards and -hilt, and its scabbard was ornamented with gold and silver, and set with -gems. The messenger turned the handle of the sword towards the king, and -said: ‘Here is a sword, that King Æthelstan said thou shouldst take.’ -The king took hold of the hilt, and the messenger added: ‘Thou didst -take hold of this sword, as our king wanted thee to. Thou shalt now be -his _thegn_ (subject), because thou didst take it by the hilt.’ Harald -then saw that this had been done to deride him, for he did not want to -be the _thegn_ of any man. He nevertheless remembered his habit, -whenever he got angry, to first keep quiet and let his anger subside, -and then look at the matter calmly. He did thus, and brought the matter -before his friends; and they all thought it right to do as had been done -by. He thereupon allowed King Æthelstan’s men to depart unharmed. - -“Hauk Hábrok (high breeches) was with King Harald. He was a good -messenger on all difficult errands, and dear to the king. The summer -after this King Harald entrusted his son Hakon to the hands of Hauk, and -sent him westward to England to King Æthelstan. Hauk found him in -London, at a great feast. He went into the hall with thirty men, and -said to them: ‘We will so arrange that the one who enters last shall go -out first, and we will all stand in a line before the king’s table, and -each one shall have his shield on his left side, and hide it under his -cloak.’ He took the boy Hakon on his arm, and they entered; he saluted -the king, who bid him welcome; then he seated the boy on King -Æthelstan’s knee. The king looked at him, and asked why he did this. -Hauk replied: ‘King Harald of Norway asks thee to foster for him this -child of his bondwoman.’ King Æthelstan at this became very angry, -seized a sword near him, and drew it as if he wanted to slay the boy. - -“Hauk then said: ‘Thou hast now seated him on thy knee, king; and murder -him thou mayest if thou wilt; but by this thou wilt not exterminate all -King Harald’s sons.’ Hauk and his men walked out and went to their -ships, and when they were ready they set sail and returned to Norway. -King Harald was well pleased with the result of their errand, for it is -said that the man who fosters the child of another is of lower rank. By -these doings of the kings it could be seen that each wanted to be -greater than the other; but nevertheless each retained his rank, for -each was over-king over his kingdom until his dying day” (Olaf -Tryggvason’s Saga, pp. 16, 17). - - -The following Saga corroborates the story of Hakon being sent over to -England for his education, and indirectly shows the intercourse which -existed between England and Norway. - - -“King Æthelstan had Hakon baptized and taught the true creed, good -habits, and all kinds of courtesy. He loved him more than any one else, -kinsman or not, and every one who knew him liked him. He was afterwards -called Æthelstan’s foster-son. He was larger and stronger and handsomer -than other men, and the greatest man of _idróttir_, wise and eloquent, -and a good Christian” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga vol. i.; Fms.). - - -We see how insecure at the time of Æthelstan was the position of a king -or a sub-king, and how much they depended on the help of the powerful -and independent warriors by whom they were surrounded, and without whom -they could not have ruled. - - -“When Eirik (blood-axe), a Norwegian, saw that he could not resist the -host of (his brother) Hákon, he sailed westwards across the sea with -those who wished to follow him; he went first to the Orkneys, and took -many men with him thence. Then he sailed to England and made warfare in -Scotland wherever he landed; he also made warfare in the North of -England. Adalstein, king of the English, sent word to Eirik offering him -a realm in England, as his father King Harald had been a great friend of -his, and he wished to show that to his son. They made an agreement, so -that King Eirik got _Nordimbraland_ (Northumberland), in order to keep -it for King Adalstein, and defend it against the Danir and other -vikings. Eirik was to be baptized, and his wife and his children, and -all the men that had followed him there. Eirik agreed, was baptized, and -adopted the true belief. _Nordimbraland_ is one-fifth of England. He sat -in _Jórvik_ (York), where the sons of Ragnar Lodbrók are said to have -sat before. _Nordimbraland_ is for the most part inhabited by Northmen, -since the sons of Ragnar won it; the Danir and the Northmen often -attacked the land after they had lost it. Many of the names of the land -are in the _Norræna_ (Northern tongue): _Grimsbær_ (Grimsby), and -_Hauksfljót_ (Hauks-fleet), and many others” (Heimskringla, Hakon the -Good, c. 3). - - -“King Eirik blood-axe kept many Northmen, who had come westward with -him, and his friends continued to come from Norway. As he had little -land, he went on warfare during the summer, ravaged in Scotland and the -Hebrides, Ireland, and Bretland, and thus won property. Æthelstan died -on a sickbed (A.D. 940); he had been king fourteen winters, eight weeks -and three days. Thereupon his brother Edmund became King of England; he -did not like the Northmen, and was not fond of Eirik, and it was said -that he wished to place another king over Northumberland. When Eirik -heard this he went on a western viking expedition, taking with him -Arnkel and Erlend, the sons of Torf-Einar, from the Orkneys. Then he -sailed to the Hebrides, and there many vikings and host-kings joined -him. He went first to Ireland, then he crossed to Bretland, and -plundered there. After this he sailed south to England,[407] and ravaged -there, as in other places; but all the people fled wherever he went. As -he was a very valiant man and had a large host, he trusted so much to -this that he went far up into the land, and plundered and searched for -men. The king whom Edmund had set to defend the land there was named -Olaf; he gathered an overwhelming host, and went against Eirik. There -ensued a great battle.... Eirik and five kings with him fell; ... and -there was a great slaughter of Northmen; those who escaped went to -Northumberland, and told Gunnhild and her sons the tidings” (Hakon the -Good, c. 4). - - -“When (Eirik’s wife) Gunnhild and her sons became aware that Eirik had -fallen, and had first plundered in the realm of the Engla-king, they -knew they could not expect peace there, and at once made ready to leave -Northumberland with all the ships which Eirik had owned; and also took -with them all those who wished to follow them. They also carried away -what property had been gathered from taxes in England, as well as what -had been won in warfare. They sailed with their men north to the -Orkneys, and stayed there awhile. Thorfinn Hausakljuf (head-cleaver) was -then jarl. The sons of Eirik subdued the Orkneys and Shetlands, and took -taxes from them; they remained there during the winter, but went on -western viking expeditions in the summer in Scotland and Ireland” (Hakon -the Good, c. 5).[408] - - -The following account gives us an insight of the manners of the time -during Æthelstan:— - - -“Eirik saw no other choice than to leave the land (Norway), and departed -with Gunnhild his wife and their children. Arinbjörn hersir was a -foster-brother of King Eirik, and the foster-father of his children, and -dearest to him of all lendirmen.... They went first westward across the -sea to the Orkneys. Then he married his daughter Ragnhild to Arnfin -jarl, and went with his host south, past Scotland, and made war there, -and thence south to England, ravaging there. King Æthelstan heard this, -and gathered men and went against Eirik. When they met, words of -reconciliation were carried between them, and it was agreed upon that -King Æthelstan gave Eirik Northumberland (Northymbraland) to rule over; -and he was to be his land-defender against the Scotch and the Irish. -Æthelstan had made Scotland tributary after the fall of King Olaf, but -the people were constantly faithless to him” (Egil’s Saga, c. 62). - - -_Battle of Brunanburgh._—This battle is interesting and important in its -details. It illustrates in many instances the customs of the people at -the time of Athelstan, and shows that many customs were identical in -England and the North, and that these Northmen were continually coming -to England to help their friends or kinsmen. - -Of Egil, the hero of this important battle, we read: - - -“When Egil grew up it could soon be seen that he would be ugly and like -his father, with black hair. When he was three winters he was tall and -strong as other boys of six or seven. He was early talkative and wise in -words, but was rather hard to deal with in games with other youths” -(Egil’s Saga, c. 31). - - -“Olaf Raudi (the red) was a powerful king of Scotland. His father was -Scotch, while his mother was Danish, descending from Ragnar Lodbrok. -Scotland was said to be a third of the size of England; Nordimbraland -(Northumberland) is called a fifth part of England, and is northernmost, -next to Scotland, on the east. The Danish kings had held it in former -times: Yorvik (York) was the head burg. This Æthelstan owned, and had -placed two jarls to rule it; one was named Alfgeir, the other Gudrek. -They were there to defend it, both against the attacks of the Scots and -those of the Danes or Northmen, who ravaged there much. They thought -they had great claims to it, for in Northumberland were only men whose -fathers or mothers were of Danish kin, and, in many cases, both. The -brothers Hring and Adils ruled Bretland (Wales), and paid a tribute to -Æthelstan. When they were in the king’s host, they and their men were to -stand foremost in the ranks, in front of the banners. They were among -the greatest of warriors, though not very young. Alfred the Great had -deprived all tributary kings of their title and power; they who had been -called kings or kings’ sons were called jarls; this continued while he -and his son Edward lived. Æthelstan came young to the kingship, and did -not inspire much dread. Many who were faithful before then became -faithless. - -“Olaf, king of the Scots, gathered a large host, and went south to -England. When he reached Northumberland, he went with[409] war-shield -all over the land. But the jarls who ruled there heard of it, and -gathered men, and went against him. There ensued a great battle, which -ended in a victory for Olaf. Gudrek fell, and Alfgeir fled with most of -their men who got away from the battle. Alfgeir could stop nowhere, and -Olaf conquered the whole of Northumberland. Alfgeir went to Æthelstan -and told him of his defeat, but as soon as he heard that so numerous a -host had entered the country he summoned men, and sent word to his jarls -and chiefs. He at once departed with his host against the Scots. When it -was reported that Olaf, King of the Scots, had been victorious, had -conquered a large part of England, and had a far greater force than -Æthelstan, many chiefs went to him. Hring and Adils had gathered many -men, and went over to King Olaf, who then had a very large army. -Æthelstan then had a conference with his chiefs and counsellors to see -what was most expedient. He told the whole assembly distinctly what he -had heard about the Scottish king, and his great number of men. All -agreed that Alfgeir jarl had been most to blame, and it seemed to them -right to remove him from his place. It was agreed that the king should -go back to the southern part of England, and gather men northwards -throughout the whole land, for they saw that the great number needed -would gather too slowly if the king himself did not call them together. -He made Thorolf and Egil leaders of the host there; they were to lead -the men whom vikings had taken to the king, and Alfgeir had still the -command of his own men. The king also made those it pleased to him -chiefs of detachments (Sveit). When Egil came from the meeting, he was -asked what news he could tell about the king of the Scots. He sang.... - -“Then they sent men to Olaf with the message that Æthelstan would fence -a field with hazels to offer it as a battlefield to him on Vinheidi (= -Vin-heath), at Vinuskogar (= Vinu-forest); that he did not want them to -ravage in his land, and that the one who gained the battle should rule -over the realm, England; they were to meet in the course of one week, -and he who should arrive there first was to wait one week for the other. -It was customary then, after a battlefield had been enhazelled, to -consider it a disgrace for a king to plunder until after the battle. -Olaf therefore stopped his host, and did not ravage, but waited for the -appointed day; then he moved his force to Vinheidi. There was a town -north of the heath, where he took up his quarters; he had there the -greatest part of his host, for large provinces (herad) lay up to it, and -he thought it was easiest there to obtain necessary supplies for the -host. He sent some of his men to the heath where the battle was -appointed, to find a place for the tents and prepare everything in -advance. When they came to where the field was to be fenced, hazel poles -were put up all round to mark the place where the battle was to take -place. Care was taken that it should be even, as a large number of men -was to be arrayed there. The battle-place was a level heath; on one side -a river, and on the other a large forest. There was a very long distance -between the forest and the river, where it was shortest, and where the -tents of Æthelstan reached all the way from the one to the other. There -was no one in every third tent, and even few in those that were -occupied. When the men of Olaf came to the tents they had many men in -front of all the tents, but did not allow them to go in. The men of -Æthelstan said that all their tents were full, and that their whole host -had not room in them; the tents stood in so high a place that it was -impossible to look over them and see whether they were many or few in a -cut through, and they thought there must be a great host. They pitched -their tents north of the hazel poles, on a gentle slope. The men of -Æthelstan said day after day that their king was coming or had arrived -to the town south of the heath, and men gathered to them both by day and -by night. - -“When the appointed time was past they sent a message to Olaf that -Æthelstan was ready for the battle, with a very numerous host, but that -he did not wish such a great slaughter as was likely to take place, and -bade him rather go home to Scotland and he would allow him as a friendly -gift a shilling (skilling) in silver for every plough in all his -kingdom, and that they should become friends. When the messengers came -to Olaf he was preparing for battle, but on the announcement of their -errand he stopped his advance that day, and with his chiefs sat in -council. Different advices were given; some urged him much to accept -this offer, thinking it most honourable to go home, having received so -large a tribute from Æthelstan; others dissented, and said that he would -offer much more next time if this was not accepted. This was agreed -upon. Then the messengers asked Olaf to grant them time to see King -Æthelstan, and try if he would pay more to get peace. They asked for -truce; one day to ride home, another for deliberation, the third for -returning. This was granted; the messengers went home, and came back the -third day and told Olaf that Æthelstan would give all he offered before, -and besides to his host a shilling to every free-born man, and a mark to -every leader who had command over twelve men or more, one mark in gold -to every leader of hirdmen (courtiers), and five marks in gold to every -jarl. - -“The king had this announced to his men, some of whom desired it, and -others opposed it. At last the king decided that he would accept these -conditions if King Æthelstan let him have the whole of Northumberland -with the taxes and tributes thereto belonging. The messengers asked for -a further delay of three days, and that Olaf would then send to hear -from Æthelstan if he would accept these terms; they said that they -thought King Æthelstan was very anxious to conclude the agreement. Olaf -consented, and sent his messengers, who found Æthelstan in the burgh -which was nearest south of the heath. They spoke of their errand, and -the offer of reconciliation; the men of Æthelstan told also what they -had offered to Olaf, and that it was the advice of wise men thus to -delay the battle, as the king had not arrived. Æthelstan quickly gave -decision, and said to the messengers: ‘Carry these my words to Olaf, -that I will allow him to go back to Scotland with his men if he pays -back all the property he took wrongly here in the land. Let us then make -peace between our countries, and let neither make war on the other. Olaf -shall become my man, and hold Scotland from me, and be my under-king. Go -back and tell him this.’ The messengers went back that evening, and came -to Olaf about midnight. They awoke him, and delivered their message. The -king immediately called the jarls and other chiefs, and had the -messengers tell the result of their errand and the words of Æthelstan. -As this was made known among the warriors, all said that they must make -ready for battle. The messengers also told that King Æthelstan had a -great many men, and that he had arrived to the burgh the same day as -they. Adils jarl said: ‘Now my words have proved true, king, that you -would experience the cunning of the English. We have remained here a -long time, and waited while they have gathered all their men, and their -king has probably not been anywhere near here when we came. They must -have gathered many men since that time. It is my advice that I and my -brother ride at once in advance of you this night with our men. It may -be that they have now no fear about themselves, as they have heard that -their king is near with a large host. Then we will attack them, and as -they flee they will lose many men, and be less bold afterwards in -fighting against us.’ The king thought this a good advice, and agreed to -make his army ready at dawn and meet him. They decided upon this and -then parted. - -“Hring, and Adils his brother, made ready and went in the night south to -the heath. When it became light the sentinels of Thorolf saw the host; -there was blown a war-blast, and the men put on their armour; they began -to array them in battle order in two fylkings. Alfgeir commanded one of -them, and had a standard carried in front of him: in this one was the -force which had followed him, and also those who had gathered from the -herads (provinces). It was a much larger host than that which followed -Thorolf. Thorolf had a wide and thick shield, a very strong helmet on -his head, a sword which he called Lang (the long), a large and good -weapon. He also had a spear (=kesja) in his hand, of which the blade was -four feet long, the point four-edged, the upper part of the blade broad, -and the socket long and thick; the handle was no longer than one could -reach with the hand to the socket, but very thick; there was an iron peg -in the socket, and the whole handle was wound with iron. These spears -were called brynthvari. Egil had the same outfit as Thorolf. He had a -sword he called Nadr (=viper), which he had got in Kurland; it was an -excellent weapon. Neither of them had on a coat of mail. They set up -their standard, and Thorfinn the Hard carried it. All their men had -Northern shields, and their whole equipment was Norwegian. All Northmen -who were there were in their ranks. Thorolf and his men arrayed -themselves nearer to the forest, but the array of Alfgeir along the -river. Adils jarl and his brother saw that they could not come on -Thorolf and his men unawares. Then they began to array their men in -order of battle, and had also two fylkings and two standards. Adils -arrayed his men against Alfgeir, and Hring his against the vikings. Then -the battle began, and both sides went well forward. Adils pushed hard -forward until Alfgeir let his men retreat; the men of Adils then fought -more boldly, and it was not long before Alfgeir fled. He rode away -southward off the heath with a detachment of men, till he approached the -burgh in which the king was stopping. The jarl said: ‘I do not think it -is safe for us to go into the burgh. We got a great scolding last time -we went to the king, when we had been defeated by Olaf, and he will not -think that our honour has improved after this journey. We need not -expect any honour where he is.’ Then he rode southward day and night -until they came west to Jarsnes. There he got passage southward across -the sea, and went to Valland (France), where he had one half of his -kindred. He never since came back to England. - -“Adils first pursued the fleeing men, but not far before he returned to -the battle and then made an attack. As Thorolf saw this, he sent Egil -against him, and ordered the standard to be carried thither; he bid his -men follow each other well, and stand closely together. ‘Let us move -toward the forest.’ said he, ‘that it may shelter our back, so that they -cannot attack us from all sides.’ They did so, and a sharp fight -followed. Egil advanced against Adils, and they had a hard encounter. -The difference in numbers was very great, but nevertheless more fell on -Adils’ side. Thorolf became so furious that he threw his shield on his -back, and taking the spear with both hands, rushed forward and struck or -thrust on both sides. Men turned away from him, but he killed many. Thus -he cleared his way to the standard of Hring, and nothing could stand -against him. He killed the men who bore it, and cut down the standard -pole. Then he thrust the spear into the breast of the jarl through the -coat of mail and his body, so that it came out between his shoulders; he -raised him on the spear over his head, and put the shaft down into the -ground. The jarl expired on the spear, in sight of foes and friends. -Then Thorolf drew his sword, and dealt blows on both hands. His men also -made an onset; many of the Britons and Scots fell, and some fled. When -Adils saw the death of his brother, and the great fall and flight of his -men finding himself severely pushed, he turned and fled, running into -the forest, as did his men. The entire host of the jarls began to flee. -Thorolf and Egil pursued them, and many more fell; the fugitives -scattered widely over the heath. Adils had dropped his standard, and -nobody knew him from his men. It then quickly began to get dark, and -Thorolf and Egil went back to their camp, and at the same time Æthelstan -came with his entire host. They pitched their tents and encamped. -Shortly afterwards Olaf came with his host, and did the same. Olaf was -told that both his jarls Hring and Adils had fallen, and a great number -of men with them. - -“Æthelstan had been, the night before the battle, in the burgh mentioned -before, and there heard that a battle had been fought on the heath. He -at once made ready with the entire host, and went northwards up on the -heath. He then was told minutely how the battle had gone. Thorolf and -Egil went to meet him. He thanked them greatly for their valour and the -victory they had won, and promised them his full friendship. They all -rested there together during the night. Æthelstan awoke his host early -in the morning; he had a talk with his chiefs, and told how his host -should be arrayed. He placed his own fylking first, and put at its -breast those detachments which were the most dashing, with Egil as -leader. ‘Thorolf,’ said he, ‘shall lead his host and the other men I may -put there in another fylking. They shall go against those of the enemy’s -men who are scattered and outside the fylking, for the Scots are usually -not in serried ranks; they run to and fro, and come forward in various -places; they often become dangerous if not guarded against, but do not -stand firm on the field if they are faced.’ Egil answered: ‘I do not -want that Thorolf and I shall be separated in the battle, and it seems -best that we be placed where it is most needed and hard to stand.’ -Thorolf said: ‘Let the king decide where he wishes to place us. Let us -assist him so well that he is pleased. I would rather be where thou art -placed, if thou hast no objection.’ Egil replied: ‘You must have your -will, kinsman, but this change I shall often regret.’ After this the men -went forward into the fylkings as the king had ordered, and the -standards were raised. The king’s fylking stood in the open field at the -river, while that of Thorolf was higher up along the forest. Olaf began -arraying his men, when he saw that Æthelstan had arrayed his. He had -also two lines, and he had his fylking and his standard, led by himself, -against Æthelstan. They were equal in point of numbers, but the other -line of Olaf went nearer to the forest, against that which Thorolf led. -The chiefs of this numerous host were Scotch jarls, and most of the men -Scots. The lines met each other, and soon a great battle ensued. Thorolf -made a hard onset, and had his standard carried along the forest, -intending to advance thus that he might attack the king’s array on the -flank. The men of Thorolf carried their shields in front, while the -forest protected them on their right side. Thorolf went so far forward -that few of his men were in front of him. But, when he expected it -least, Adils and his men rushed out of the forest; they pierced Thorolf -with many spears at the same time. He fell, but Thorfinn, who carried -the standard, retreated to where the warriors stood thicker. Adils -attacked, and there was a hard fight. The Scots raised a shout of -victory when they had killed the leader of their enemies. When Egil -heard that shout, and saw that the standard of Thorolf drew back, he -knew that Thorolf himself did not follow it. He rushed forward between -the arrays, and soon knew the tidings when he met his men. He urged the -warriors much to attack, and was foremost with the sword Nadr in his -hand. With this he strided forward slashing on both sides of himself, -and slew many a man. Thorfinn carried the standard after him, and the -men followed it. There ensued a most sharp fight. Egil went forward -until he met Adils; they exchanged but few blows before the latter fell, -and many around him. After his fall, the host which had followed him -fled. Egil and his men pursued, and killed all they got hold of, for it -was then useless to ask for life. The Scottish jarls did not stand long -when they saw that their companions fled, but at once took to their -heels. Egil then went to where Olaf’s array was, and attacked it in the -rear,[410] and made a great slaughter. The line began to waver, and was -all broken up; many of Olaf’s men fled, and the vikings raised a shout -of victory. When Æthelstan saw that the ranks of Olaf began to break up, -he urged his men, and had his standard carried forward. He made such a -fierce attack that the force of Olaf recoiled with a heavy loss. Olaf -fell there, and the greatest part of his host, for all who were caught -in the flight were slain. Æthelstan gained a very great victory. - -“Æthelstan left the battlefield, while his men pursued the fugitives. He -rode back to the burgh, and there spent the night. Egil pursued for a -long time, and killed every one he could overtake. When he had slain as -many as he wanted, he went back to the battlefield, and found his -brother Thorolf there, dead. He took his body, washed it, and prepared -it as was customary; they dug a grave and put Thorolf therein, with all -his weapons and clothes. Egil fastened a gold ring on each of his -arms[411] before he left him. Then they piled stones upon him, and threw -earth over. Then Egil sang: - - The slayer of jarls who could not fear (Thorolf) - Went valiantly forward; - The strong-minded Thorolf fell - In the great _din of Thund_ (= Odin) (= battle); - The ground will be green near the Vina (= a river) - Over my famous brother; - But we must hide our grief; - That is death-pain (= pain of Hel (= death)). - -“Egil went with his men to Æthelstan, and at once went before him where -he sat drinking in loud merriment. The king saw that Egil had entered, -and said that place should be given to them on the lower bench, and that -Egil should sit there in the high-seat opposite to him. Egil sat down, -and flung his shield down before his feet. He had a helmet on his head, -and placed his sword on his knee. He at times drew half of the blade out -of the scabbard and then slammed it back again. He sat upright, with his -head bent forward. Egil had prominent features, a wide forehead, heavy -eyebrows; his nose was not long, but extremely big, the lips thick and -long, the chin and jaws wonderfully broad; he had a thick neck and large -shoulders, exceeding other men’s in size. He looked hard and fierce when -he was angry. He was well shaped, and taller than other men; his hair -was wolf-grey and abundant. and he became bald early. As he sat thus, as -before written, he made one of his eyebrows move down on his cheek and -the other up to the fringe of his hair. He was black-eyed and swarthy -(of a dark complexion). He would not drink the drink that was carried to -him, but moved his eyebrows one at a time, up and down. Æthelstan sat in -his high-seat with a sword on his knee. As they had sat thus for a -while, the king drew his sword from its scabbard, and took a large and -fine gold ring from his arm and hung it on the point of the sword blade, -rose, walked on the floor, and handed it to Egil across the fire. Egil -rose, drew his sword, and walked forward also. He stuck his sword into -the ring, drew it to him, and went back to his seat. The king sat down -in his high-seat. When Egil sat down he put the ring on his arm, and his -brows became smooth, and he laid down his sword and helmet, took a -deer-horn which was carried to him, and drank from it. He sang (on the -ring).... - -“Thereafter Egil drank his share, and talked to men. The king had two -chests brought in; two men carried each, and both were filled with -silver. He said: ‘These chests thou shalt have, Egil; and if thou goest -to Iceland, thou shalt give this property to thy father. I send it to -him as indemnity for his son. But some of it thou shalt divide among the -kinsmen of thyself and Thorolf, whom thou considerest the foremost. But -thou shalt receive indemnity for thy brother here; land or loose -property, whichever thou pleasest. If thou wilt stay with me long, I -will give thee the honour and rank thou mayest choose thyself.’ Egil -accepted the property, and thanked him for his gifts and friendly words. -Egil then began to be merrier, and sang: - - The towering peaks of the eyelids (= the eyebrows) - Did droop on me for sorrow. - Now I found the one who smoothed - These wrinkles on my forehead. - The king has lifted up the - Rocks fencing the ground of the hood,[412] - Of me with the arm-band (= goldring); - The frown has left my eyes. - -“Those wounded men who were fated to live were healed. Egil remained -with the king the winter after the fall of Thorolf, and was greatly -honoured by him. The men who had followed the brothers, and had escaped -from the battle, were there with Egil. Egil made a drapa (= laudatory -poem) on the king, who gave him two gold rings, each of which weighed -one mark, and a costly cloak which he himself had worn. When spring -began, Egil announced to the king that he intended to go away in the -summer to Norway to find out how the affairs of Asgerd, the wife of his -brother Thorolf, stood. ‘There is much property, but I do not know if -there are any children of theirs alive. If there are, then I have to -take care of them.[413] But all the inheritance is mine if Thorolf has -died childless.’ The king answered: ‘Thou mayest go if thou thinkest -thou hast a necessary errand, but I like it best that thou remainest -here on such conditions as thou demandest thyself.’ Egil thanked him. ‘I -shall go first where it is my duty to go, but it is likely that I return -if I can to claim these promises.’ The king told him to do so. Egil made -ready, and with one longship and a hundred men, sailed for Norway.” - - -The widow of Thorolf Skallagrimsson, brother of Egil, who fell in the -battle of Brunanburgh, was named Asgerd. Egil told her of the killing of -his brother. - - -“Egil grew melancholy in the autumn, and drank little, but sat often -drooping his head in his cloak. Arinbjörn (his friend) once went to him -and asked what caused his sadness, ‘though thou hast lost thy brother it -is manly to bear it well, for man must live after man.’” - - -“Egil sang a stanza, in which he expressed obscurely the name of Asgerd, -and then asked Arinbjörn’s help to a marriage with her. Then he was -married to her, and was merry the remaining part of the winter” (Egil’s -Saga, chs. 51–56). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1361.—Fire-Steel. ⅔ size. In a grave, Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1362.—Key of bronze. ⅔ size. Norway; found with buckles, pearls, - etc. -] - ------ - -Footnote 399: - - Hild is here an abbreviation for Ragnhild. - -Footnote 400: - - Hrolf. - -Footnote 401: - - The higher class of landowners. - -Footnote 402: - - Ygg (Odin). A wolf of Ygg means a champion. - -Footnote 403: - - If he becomes a viking he will not spare Harald’s men. - -Footnote 404: - - The name Longsword is usually given to Hrolf’s son William - (Löngumspada). - -Footnote 405: - - Then Hákon the Great was the son of the daughter’s daughter of Harald - Fairhair. - -Footnote 406: - - Northmandi; _th_ is here in the place of the soft Icelandic _d_ or ð. - -Footnote 407: - - This shows that Bretland must have been Wales. - -Footnote 408: - - Cf. also Egil’s Saga, c. 62. - -Footnote 409: - - = Ravaged. - -Footnote 410: - - In open shields, or the hollow of the shields; the rear. - -Footnote 411: - - Hönd = hand or arm. - -Footnote 412: - - Ground of the hood = forehead; its rocks = the eyebrows. - -Footnote 413: - - Brother inheriting brother. - - - - - CHAPTER XXX. - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS. - (_Continued._) - - Harald founds Jomsborg—Svein—His vow to drive Æthelred from - England—Creation of the _Thingamannalid_—Svein’s death—Massacre of - Northmen in London—Olaf comes to the help of Æthelred the - Second—Attacks the Danes at Southwark—Captures Canterbury—Defends - the shores of England, and sails up the New River—His other - expeditions. - - -“Harald Gormsson (c. 940–986) was made king in Denmark after his father; -he was a powerful king and a great warrior, and conquered Holstein in -Saxland, and possessed a great Earldom in Vindland. There he founded -_Jomsborg_, and placed in it a large garrison, which was under his laws -and pay, and which subjugated the country. During the summer they went -on expeditions, remaining at home in the winters, and they were called -Jomsvikings” (Knytlinga, c. 1). - - -“Svein (c. 986–1014 A.D.) took possession of the Danish kingdom after -his father (Harald Gormsson); he was called Svein Tjúguskegg -(fork-beard), and was a powerful king. In his days jarl Sigvaldi and -other Jomsvikings went to Norway and fought against Hakon jarl in Mœri -in Hjörungavag; there fell Bui the Stout, but Sigvaldi fled. After that -the power in Norway was lost to the Danish kings, and a little later -Olaf Tryggvason came to Norway and got the rule. - -“King Svein was married to Gunnhild, daughter of Burislaf, King of the -Vends, and their sons were Knut (the Great) and Harald. Svein was -afterwards married to Sigrid-Storráda (the Proud), daughter of -Sköglar-Tosti, and mother of the Swedish king Olaf. She had before been -married to King Eirik Sigrsæli (the Victorious) of Sweden. - -“The daughter of King Svein and Sigrid was Ástrid, married to jarl Ulf, -son of Thorgils Sprakalegg (woman’s leg), who had two sons, Svein and -Björn. Gyda, a daughter of King Svein Tjúguskegg, was married to jarl -Eirik Hakonsson of Norway; their son was jarl Hakon, whom St. Olaf took -prisoner in Saudung’s Sound.[414] - -“King Svein was at the fall of Olaf Tryggvason with King Olaf the -Swedish, his stepson, and with jarl Eirik, his son-in-law. They fought -at Svold, and after the fall of Olaf Tryggvason, King Svein of Denmark, -King Olaf of Sweden, and jarl Eirik of Norway divided Norway between -themselves” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 5). - - -In the chapter on inheritance we have seen that King Svein made the vow -to drive Æthelred from England. - - -“King Svein was a great warrior and a most powerful king; he made -warfare far and wide, both in the east and in Saxland. At last he went -with his host west to England, ravaged in many places there, and fought -many battles; Adalrad Yatgeirsson was then king there. Svein and he -fought many battles, and were alternately victorious. Svein won the -greatest part of England; he lived there for many winters, and ravaged -and burnt widely in the land; they called him the foe of the English. In -that war King Æthelred fled from Svein out of the land” (Knytlinga Saga, -c. 6). - - -“King Svein stayed at home in Denmark; his son Knut was brought up -there; Thorkel the high fostered him. Svein made warfare in the land of -King Æthelred, and drove him out of the land south across the sea; he -put _Thingamannalid_[415] in two places. The one in London (Lundunaborg) -was ruled by Eilif Thorgilsson, the brother of Ulf (jarl); he had sixty -ships in the Temps (Thames). The other Thingamannalid was north in -Slesvik, over which Heming jarl, the brother of Thorkel the high, was -ruler also with sixty ships. - -“The Thingamen established a law that no report should be spread, and no -one should stay away a whole night; they attended the Bura-church, in -which was a large bell, that was to be rung every night when only a -third of the night was left; then every one was to go to church, but -without weapons; such laws as these they had in Slesvik. - -“He who had the command in the town (Lundunaborg) was Alrek Strjóna, a -brother of Emma, the daughter of Richard (Rikgard of Normandy), the -father of Vilhjalm (William); King Æthelred was married to her. Ulfkel -Snilling[416] ruled over the northern part of England; he was married to -Ulfhild, the daughter of King Æthelred. King Svein died in England, and -the Danes took his body to Denmark, and buried him in Hróiskelda near -his father....” (Jomsvikinga Saga, cc. 50, 51). - - -“Svein was found one night dead in his bed, and the English say that -King Edmund the Saint killed him, in the manner in which the holy -Mercurius killed Julianus the Apostate” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 6). - - -“After the death of Svein the Danish kings retained that part of England -which they had won. War then began anew, for when King Svein was dead, -King Æthelred, with the assistance of Olaf the Saint (of Norway), -returned to the country and regained his realm. At that time the Danes -established the host of the Thingamen in England; they were paid -warriors, and very valiant. They fought many battles against the English -on behalf of the Danes” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 7). - - -“Knut was then ten winters old. The power of the Thingamen was great. -There was a fair there (London) twice in every twelvemonth, one about -midsummer and the other about midwinter. The English (Enskir) thought it -would be the easiest to slay the Thingamen while Knut was young and -Svein dead. Each winter about Yule, waggons went into the town with -goods which they were wont to bring to the market. So it was this -winter, and they were all tented over; this was according to the -treacherous advice and will of Ulfkel Snilling[417] and the sons of -Æthelred. The seventh day of Yule Thord (a man of the Thingamannalid) -went out of the town to the house of his mistress. She asked him to stay -there that night. ‘Why dost thou ask for that which is liable to -punishment?’ ‘I ask it,’ said she, ‘because I think it important.’ He -answered: ‘I will stay here if thou tellest me why thou askest this.’ -‘Because I know that the death of all the Thingamen is planned.’ ‘How -canst thou know it,’ he added, ‘when we do not know it?’ ‘Because men -drove waggons to the town, and pretended that they contained goods; but -in each waggon there were many men and no goods, and they have done the -same thing north,[418] in Slesvik. When a third part of the night has -passed bells will be rung in the town; then warriors and also the -townsmen will make themselves ready about midnight. When a third of the -night is left, the bell of Bura church will be rung. You will go unarmed -to the church, which will then be surrounded.’ - -“‘It is likely,’ said Thord, ‘that thou hast many friends, and I will -tell Eilif, though it will be thought a rumour. But this farm thou shalt -own.’ Thord went into the town; he met his companion, Audun; they went -and told it to Eilif. He bade the men be on their guard. Some believed -it, others said it was only an alarm. They heard the bell-ringing as -usual, and many thought the priest was ringing. Those who believed Thord -went armed, and all the others unarmed. When they came into the -churchyard there was a great crowd. They could not get their weapons, -for they could not reach their houses. Eilif asked for their advice, but -they could give none; he added, ‘It does not seem to me good advice to -run into the church if it gives no shelter and we show fear. I think it -will be better to jump on the shoulders of those who stand outside the -churchyard wall, and thus try to escape to the ships.’ And they did so. -Most of those who were slain fell at the ships. Eilif escaped with three -ships, but none escaped from Slesvik, and Heming fell there. Eilif went -to Denmark. Some time after this Jatmund (Edmund) was made king over -England. He ruled nine months. During that time he fought five battles -against Knut Sveinsson. Alrek Strjona, whom some called Eirek, a brother -of Emma, who had been married to Æthelred, the king of the English, was -the foster-father of Edmund. At that time Thorkel the High was the most -powerful man in Denmark. They had a Thing in the spring after the -slaying of the Thingamen; Eilif urged to go and take revenge, but -Thorkel answered: ‘We have a young king, and it is not proper to make -warfare without the king partaking in it, but after three years I think -he will be valiant enough, and it will take the English by surprise.’ -Eilif answered: ‘It is not sure that those will remember it for three -winters, who now do not care for it at all.’ He went to Mikligard -(Constantinople), and became chief of the Væringjar, and at last fell -there. After three winters, Knut, Thorkel, and Eirik went with eight -hundred ships to England. Thorkel had thirty ships, and slew Ulfkel -Snilling, and thus avenged the death of his brother Heming, and married -Ulfhild, the daughter of King Æthelred, who had been married to Ulfkel. -With Ulfkel was slain every man on sixty ships, and Knut captured -Lundunaborg. Thorkel went along the coast, and found Queen Emma on board -a ship. He took her ashore and urged Knut to ask her in marriage; and -the king married her. She gave birth to a son in the winter, who was -named Harald, a natural son of Knut; Hörda-Knut was their son. The son -of Knut and Alfifa was named Svein; his daughter Gunnhild was married to -the Emperor (of Germany) Heinrek Konradsson; Knut went to Rome with him” -(Jomsvikinga Saga, cc. 51, 52). - - -King Olaf Haraldsson, surnamed Digri (the Stout), known also under the -name of St. Olaf, was a great warrior, and made wars in the Baltic, in -Friesland, England, France, and other countries. Fifteen of these -expeditions are described in his Saga. - -The Northmen under Olaf came to help Æthelred against the Danes. - - -“King Olaf then sailed westwards to England. It was reported that Svein -Tjúguskegg, Danish king at this time, was in England with the Danish -host, and had stayed there awhile and ravaged the land of King Æthelred. -The Danes had spread far and wide over the country, and King Æthelred -had fled from the land and gone to Valland. The same autumn that Olaf -came to England it happened that King Svein Haraldsson died suddenly -during the night in his bed; and it was said by the English that Edmund -the saint had slain him, in the same manner as the holy Mercury slew -Julian the Nithing (Apostate). When Æthelred heard of this in -Flæmingjaland (Flandres), he at once returned to England. When he came -back, he sent word to all who wanted to get property to come and win the -land; and a mass of men joined him. Then Olaf came to his assistance -with a large following of Northmen. They first sailed for London -(Lundúnir), and entered the Thames, while the Danes held the burg. On -the other side of the river there was a large trading-town, which is -called Sudvirki (Southwark); there the Danes had made great -fortifications, dug large ditches, and built inside them walls of wood, -stones, and turf, and there had a large force. Æthelred caused a fierce -attack to be made on it; but the Danes defended it, and the king could -not capture it. There were such broad bridges across the river between -the city and Southwark, that waggons could pass each other (on them). On -the bridges were bulwarks, which reached higher than the middle of a -man, and beneath the bridges piles were driven into the bottom of the -river. When the attack was made the whole host stood on the bridges, and -defended them” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 11). - - -“Olaf was leader of the host when they went to Kantarabyrgi (= -Canterbury), and they fought there until they took it, slew many, and -burned the town. Then Olaf had to defend the shores of England, and -coursed along them with warships, and sailed up into Nyjamoda (= -Newmouth). There was a host of Thingamen. He fought a battle, and got -the victory. Then he went far and wide about the country, and received -taxes from the people, making warfare if they paid not. At that time he -stayed there three winters” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 14). - - -“Olaf had large hurdles made of withies and soft wood, so cut as to make -a wicker-house, and thus covered his ships, so that the hurdles reached -out over their sides; he had posts put beneath them so high that it was -easy to fight beneath them, and the covering was proof against stones -thrown down on it. When the host was ready they rowed up the river; as -they came near the bridges they were shot at, and such large stones -thrown down on them that neither their helmets nor shields could -withstand them; and the ships themselves were greatly damaged, and many -retreated. But Olaf and the Northmen with him rowed up under the -bridges, and tied ropes round the supporting posts, and rowed their -ships down stream as hard as they could. The posts were dragged along -the bottom until they were loosened from under the bridges. As an armed -host stood thickly on the bridges, and there was a great weight of -stones and weapons upon them, and the posts beneath were broken, the -bridges fell with many of the men into the river; the others fled into -the city, or into Southwark. After this they attacked Southwark, and -captured it. When the townsmen saw that the river Temps (Thames) was -taken, so that they could not hinder ships from going up into the -country, they became afraid, gave up the town, and received King -Æthelred. - -“King Olaf stayed during the winter with King Æthelred; then they fought -a great battle on Hringmara-heath in Ulfkelsland, owned by Ulfkel -Snilling, and the kings gained the victory. Then a great part of the -land was subdued by Æthelred, but the Danes and the _Thingamenn_ held -many towns, and a large part of the country” (St. Olaf’s Saga, cc. 12, -13). - - -“The third spring King Ethelred died, and his sons Edmund and Edward -received the kingship. Then Olaf went southward across the sea, fought -in Hringsfjord, and took and destroyed the castle at Holar, held by -vikings” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 15). - - - _The Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Battles._ - - -“Then Olaf went with his men westward to Grislupollar, and there -defeated the vikings before Vilhjalmsbær (Williamsby). After that he -fought west in Fetlafjord. Thence he went south to Seljopollar, and -there took a large and old town called Gunnvaldsborg, with the jarl, -Geirfinn, who ruled it. He laid taxes on the town and on the jarl for -his ransom, twelve thousand gold shillings (gull skillingar). The money -demanded was paid by the town” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 16). - - - _The Fourteenth Battle and Dream of King Olaf._ - - -“Thereafter Olaf went with his men westward to the Karlsa,[419] -plundered, and fought a battle there. While he lay in the Karlsa, and -waited there for fair wind, wishing to sail to Norvasund (= Straits of -Gibraltar) and thence to Jorsalaheim (Jerusalem), he had a remarkable -dream, that a handsome and nobly-looking but awe-striking man came and -spoke to him. He asked him to give up the intention to go into far -countries (= to the Holy Land). ‘Go back to thy odals, for thou wilt be -king over Norway for ever.’[420] He understood by this dream that he and -his kinsmen would rule over the land for a long time” (St. Olaf’s Saga, -c. 17). - - - _The Fifteenth Battle._ - - -“On account of this vision he changed his journey, and steered his ships -up to Peituland (Poitou), plundered here, and burnt a town called -Varrandi” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 18). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1363.—Coin coined in Sigtuna. King Anund Jakob, c. 1020, A.D. - 1050. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1364.—A Kufic coin, Gotland, Sweden. -] - ------ - -Footnote 414: - - This Hakon was a grandson of the great Hakon jarl. - -Footnote 415: - - The _Thingamen_ seems to have been a kind of standing army, like the - Væringians in Constantinople. - -Footnote 416: - - Snilling = master of speech. - -Footnote 417: - - He was married to Æthelred’s daughter (see preceding page). - -Footnote 418: - - In the north of England. - -Footnote 419: - - Karlsa, or Karl’s river, said to be Garonne. - -Footnote 420: - - After his death he was the saint or patron of Norway. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS. - (_Continued._) - - Knut the Mighty—His appearance—His liberality—His battles in - England—Besieges London—His numerous expeditions—The successors of - Knut. - - -Knut the Mighty (1014–1035), or the Great, is, with Charlemagne, one of -the greatest geniuses of that epoch; he ruled his three kingdoms with -great ability, and died young (at thirty-seven). The appearance of this -great and powerful king is thus described:— - - -“Knut was very tall and strong, and a very handsome man, except that his -nose was thin, prominent, low, and somewhat crooked; he had a fair -complexion, with fair and long hair; he had finer and keener eyes than -any man. He was liberal, a great warrior, very valiant and victorious, a -man of great luck, in everything connected with power. He was not very -wise, neither were King Svein, Harald, nor Gorm” (Knytlinga Saga, c. -20). - - -“King Knut was the most liberal of kings in the Northern lands; for it -is truly said that he surpassed other kings no less in the property he -gave in friendly gifts every year than in taking much more in taxes and -dues from three great lands than any other king who ruled one realm; and -moreover England is richest in movable property of all the Northern -lands” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 19). - - -King Knut sent messengers to Olaf the Stout (Olaf Haraldson) of Norway -to claim obedience from him. - - -“Sigvat went to the messengers of Knut, and asked for news. They told -him what he desired, their talk with King Olaf, and the result of their -errand. They said, ‘The king had taken the matter angrily; and we do not -know in whom he trust when he refuses to become the man of Knut, and go -to him; that would be best, for Knut is so mild, that never do the -chiefs do so much against him that he does not forgive at once, when -they come to him and yield to him. It was only a short time ago that two -kings north from Fifi (Fife) in Scotland came to him, and he forgot his -wrath and gave them all the lands they had owned before, and also great -friendly gifts’” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 140). - - -“Knut fought many battles in England against the sons of Æthelred, King -of the English, and they were defeated by each other in turns. He came -to England during the summer when Æthelred died, and then married Queen -Emma; their children were Harald, Hordaknut, and Gunnhild. Knut made an -agreement with Edmund, that each of them should have half of England. In -the same month Heidrek Strjona slew Edmund, and thereafter King Knut -drove away all the sons of Æthelred” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 24). - - -“A long time after this Knut was at a feast with Thorkel the High, saw -Ulfhild, and thought Thorkel had cheated him in the sharing of the women -(taken the finer one), and therefore had him slain. Knut and Edmund -fought some battles against each other, after which both the Danes and -the English asked them to come to terms, and this they did; the one who -lived longer was to have the land of the other. One month afterwards -Edmund was slain by his foster-father Alrek Strjona, and then Knut got -the whole of England, and ruled it for twenty-four winters”[421] -(Jomsvikinga Saga, c. 52). - - -“That summer the sons of King Æthelred went from England to Ruda (Rouen) -in Valland,[422] to their uncles, when Olaf Haraldsson came from viking -expeditions in the west; they were all in Normandy that winter, and -entered into an agreement that Olaf should have Northumberland if they -got England from the Danes. In the autumn Olaf sent his foster-father -Hrani to England to get men there, and the sons of Æthelred sent with -him tokens to their friends and kinsmen, and Olaf gave him much loose -property wherewith to win men over. Hrani stayed during the winter in -England, and obtained the confidence of many powerful men, among them -those who preferred having their countrymen to rule over them; but the -power of the Danes in England had then become so great, that all the -people were subject to them” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 25). - - -“In the spring Olaf and the sons of King Æthelred went to England, and -arrived at a place called Jungufurda, where they went on shore. There -were many who had promised to help them; they took the town with great -slaughter. When the men of Knut became aware of this, they gathered such -a numerous host that the sons of Æthelred could not resist them, and -they saw it was best to return to Rouen; but Olaf parted with them and -would not go to Valland. He sailed northwards along England all the way -to Northumberland; he landed in the harbour called Valdi, and there he -defeated the townspeople and traders, and got a great deal of property” -(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 26). - - -“Knut, the son of King Svein Tjuguskegg, was ten winters old when his -father died; then he was made king over Denmark, for his brother Harald -was dead. The Danish chiefs who remained in England, and held the land -which King Svein had won, sent word to Denmark that King Knut must come -west to England with the Danish host to help them. As King Knut was then -a child, and not used to command in war, his friends advised him to send -a host to England, and place a chief over it, and not go himself until -he stood better on his legs; he was three winters in Denmark after he -became king. Then he summoned together a host,[423] and sent word to -Norway, to his brother-in-law Eirik jarl, to gather a host and go to -England with him; for Eirik jarl was very famous for his bravery and -skill in warfare, as he had gained the victory in two of the most famous -battles in Northern lands, one when King Svein Tjuguskegg and Olaf the -Swedish king and Eirik jarl fought against Olaf Tryggvason at Svold, the -other when Hakon jarl and Eirik fought against the Jómsvikings in -Hjörungavag. King Knut went with a very numerous host west to England. -Many chiefs went with him; Ulf jarl Sprakaleggsson, his brother-in-law, -who was then married to his sister Astrid, Svein’s daughter, also Heming -and Thorkel the High, the sons of Strutharald jarl, and many other -chiefs. Knut came to England, and landed at a place called Fljót -(Fleet); he ravaged the land, slew the people, and burned their houses. -The people of the land gathered a host and went against the Danes. Knut -fought his first battle in England at Lindisey (Lindsey), and many fell -there; he then took Hemingaborg in England, and there also slew many. -Thereafter he fought great battles in Nordimbraland at Tesa (Tees). -There he slew many, while some fled and perished in swamps or ditches; -he then went farther south, and underlaid himself the land wherever he -went”[424] (Knytlinga Saga, c. 8). - - -“King Knut fought another battle at a town called Brandfurda (Branford); -it was a great battle, and he got the victory; the sons of Æthelred -fled, and lost many men, and the Danes took the town. He fought a third -great battle against the sons of Æthelred at a place called Essandune, -north of the Danaskogar (Danish forests). He fought a fourth against -King Jatmund (Edmund) and his brothers at Northvik (Norwich), and there -was a great fall of men; the king got the victory, and the sons of -Æthelred fled” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 12). - - -“King Knut then went with all his host to Temps-a (the Thames river), -for he heard that Jatmund and his brothers had fled to Lundunaborg -(London); when he came to the mouth of the Temps Eirik jarl Hakonsson, -his brother-in-law, sailed in from the sea; they met there, and sailed -up the river with the host. In the river Temps was built a large castle -(tower), and a host put there to defend it so that a ship host might not -go up the river. Knut at once sailed up the river to the castle, and -fought against them; but the English went with a ship-host from London -down the river, and engaged in battle with the Danes” (Knytlinga Saga, -c. 13). - - -“Knut went with all his host up to London, and surrounded it with his -camp (war-booths); then they attacked the town and the townsmen defended -it. Thus it is told in the poem (flokk) which was made then by the -warriors. - - The Hlokk[425] of horns sees every morning - On the banks of the Temps (Thames) - Blood-dyed body-hurters (weapons). - The corpse-gull (bird of prey) must not starve. - (She sees) how the victory-yearning Dane-king - Violently attacks the burgh-men. - The blood-ice (weapons) sounds - On British[426] (brezk) brynjas. - -“King Knut fought many battles there, but could not take the town” -(Knytlinga Saga, c. 14). - - -“Eirik jarl went with a part of the host up into the land, and the -Thingamenn followed him against an English host which was commanded by -Ulfkel Snilling, a great chief; a battle was fought, and Eirik gained -the victory, and Ulfkel fled. Eirik jarl fought another battle at -Hringmaraheidi (heath) against the English and obtained the victory” -(Knytlinga Saga, c. 15). - - -“Æthelred the King of the English died the same autumn or summer that -Knut came with his host to England; he had then been King of England -thirty-eight winters. Queen Emma after his death at once made herself -ready to leave the land; she intended to go west to Valland (France) to -her brothers, Vilhjalm (William) and Robert, who were jarls there. Their -father was Rikard (Richard), jarl of Rouen, son of Richard, son of -William longspear; he was the son of Göngu-Hrolf, who won Normandy, and -was the son of Rögnvald, jarl of Mœri. The men of King Knut became aware -of the journey of Queen Emma; when she and her men were ready to sail, -his men came and took the ship with all that was in it, and took her to -him; King Knut’s chiefs advised him to marry Queen Emma, and he did so” -(Knytlinga Saga, c. 9). - - -“After the death of Æthelred, his and Queen Emma’s sons were taken as -kings; Jatmund (Edmund) the Strong was the eldest; Jatgeir (Edgar) the -second; Jatvig (Edwig) the third; and Jatvard (Edward) the Good, the -fourth. Edmund gathered a large host and went against Knut; they met at -a place called Skorstein, and fought the most famous battle which had -taken place at that time; very many of both hosts fell. Edmund rode -forward into the midst of the Danish host, and came so near his -stepfather King Knut, that he touched him with a sword-blow. Knut thrust -his shield in front of the neck of the horse on which he sat; the blow -hit the shield a little below its handle, and was so heavy that the -shield was cleft asunder, and the horse was cut at the shoulders in -front of the saddle. The Danes then attacked him so violently that he -went back to his men, but not before he had killed many Danes, being -very slightly wounded himself. When the king had ridden forward away -from his men they thought he had fallen, as they did not see him, and -the host fled, for some saw him riding away from the Danes. All who saw -this fled, but the king shouted loudly and bid them return to the fight, -but no one seemed to hear it; the entire host fled, and there ensued a -great fall of men; the Danes pursued the fleeing till night” (Knytlinga -Saga, c. 10). - - -“Ulf jarl was then, as often, one of the foremost of the men of King -Knut, and pursued the fugitives farthest; he entered a wood so thick -that he did not get out of it until dawn. Then he saw in some fields in -front of him sheep which a well-grown boy was driving. Ulf jarl went to -him, greeted him, and asked his name. He answered: ‘I am called Gudini -(Godwin); but art thou one of Knut’s men?’ Ulf jarl replied: ‘I am -certainly one of his warriors; but how far is it hence to our ships?’ ‘I -do not know,’ said the boy, ‘how you Danes can expect help from us, and -you have not deserved it.’ Ulf jarl answered: ‘I will however ask of -thee to help me to find our ships.’ The boy said: ‘Thou hast gone -straight away from them, and far inland across wild forests. The men of -Knut are not very much liked by the people here, and for good reason, -for the slaughter yesterday at Skorstein is known in the neighbourhood, -and neither thou nor any other of his men will be spared if the bœndr -find you; and if any one help you the same fate awaits him; but I think -thou art a good man, and not the one thou pretendest to be.’ Ulf jarl -took a gold ring off his hand and said: ‘I will give thee this ring if -thou wilt guide me to our men.’ Godwin looked at him for a while, and -said slowly: ‘I will not take the ring, but I will try to guide thee to -thy men, and will rather have the reward thou thinkest right if I can -give thee some help; but if I cannot I deserve no reward; now thou shalt -first go home with me to my father.’ They did so. When they came to the -farm (bœr) they went to a little room and Gudini (Godwin) had a table -set there, and good drink was given. Ulf jarl saw that it was a good -farm. The bondi and the housewife came to them; they were both handsome -and well dressed; they received the guest well, and he remained there -that day in the best entertainment. Toward night two good horses were -prepared with the best riding gear. They then said to Ulf: ‘Now, -farewell; I give into thy hands my only son; I ask of thee if thou -shouldst come to the king, and thy words might have some influence to -get him into his service, for he cannot stay with me hereafter, if our -countrymen hear that he has guided thee away, in whatever way I may -escape myself.’ Ulf jarl promised to get Godwin into the host. Godwin -was very handsome and talked well. The bondi’s name was Ulfnadr. - -“Ulf jarl and Godwin rode all that night, and in the morning, when it -was light, they came to the ships, and Knut’s men were ashore. When they -saw the jarl and recognised him, they welcomed him as one who had -escaped from death, for he was so popular that every one loved him. -Godwin then for the first time knew whom he had followed. The jarl -seated Godwin in the high-seat at his side, and treated him in -everything like himself or his son, and in short gave him in marriage -his sister Gyda; and with the aid and advice of Ulf jarl, King Knut gave -him a jarldom for the sake of Ulf jarl, his brother-in-law. The sons of -Godwin and Gyda were: Harald the English king, and Tosti jarl, called -wooden spear; Maurukari jarl (Morcar); Valthjof (Waltheof) jarl, and -Svein jarl; from them have sprung many chiefs in England, Denmark, -Sweden, and Gardariki (Russia). They are king’s families in the Danish -realm. The daughter of King Harald, son of Godwin, was called Gyda; she -was married to King Valdamar (Vladimir) in Holmgard (Novgorod); their -son was King Harald; he had two daughters, of whom will be told later” -(Knytlinga Saga, c. 11). - - -“Knut besieged Lundunaborg (London), and Edmund with his brothers -defended it; then Knut was married to Queen Emma, their mother, and at -last hostages were given and a truce was established to talk about full -reconciliation; and peace was made on the terms that the realm should be -divided between them in halves, each to have one half while he lived, -but if either of them died childless, the survivor should have the right -to take the whole realm; this was confirmed with oaths. Heidrek Strjóna -was a powerful man who got property from King Knut in order to betray -King Edmund and murder him, and that was the manner of his death, though -Heidrek was the foster-father of Edmund, who believed in him as in -himself. Then King Knut drove away from England all the sons of King -Æthelred; many battles were fought in consequence, but they did not get -many men to help against Knut after Edmund had been slain. The sons of -King Æthelred then stayed west in Valland in Normandi for a long time -with their uncles (Rodbert) Robert and Vilhjalm (William), as is told in -the Saga of Olaf helgi (the saint). Eirik jarl Hakonsson died in -England, when he was ready for a journey to Rome.... Knut and Queen Emma -had three children; Harald was the oldest, and then Hörda-Knut; their -daughter was Gunnhild, who later was married to the Emperor Heinrek, -(Henry), the Mild, who was the third of his kinsmen of that name. Svein -was the third son of King Knut; his mother was Alfifa the Wealthy, -daughter of Alfrun jarl” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 16). - - -“When Knut came back to England (from Rome) he fell sick, first from -what is called jaundice; he was sick a long while during the summer, and -died in the autumn, on the 13th November, in Morst (Shaftesbury), a -large town, and there he is buried. He was then thirty-seven years old; -he had been king over Denmark twenty-seven years, over England -twenty-four, and over Norway seven years. It is acknowledged by all that -King Knut was the most powerful and wide-reigning of kings in Northern -lands” (Knytlinga Saga, c. 18). - - -“Knut the Great, whom some call Knut the Old, was king over England and -Denmark. He was the son of Svein Tjuguskegg, Harald’s son. Their kindred -had ruled Denmark for a long time. Harald Gormsson, the grandfather of -Knut, got possession of Norway after the fall of Harald Gunnhild’s son, -received taxes from it, and placed Hakon jarl the great to defend the -land. Svein, King of the Danes, son of Harald, also ruled over Norway, -and put Eirik jarl Hakonsson to defend it. He ruled with his brother, -Svein Hakonsson, until Eirik went west to England, owing to the message -of Knut the Great, his brother-in-law, and left Hakon, his son, to rule -Norway. - -“Hakon then went to his uncle, Knut, and had been with him to the time -when Knut had won England after a long struggle, and the people of the -land yielded to him. When he thought he had fully established his rule -over the land he remembered that he owned a country which was not in his -possession, and that was Norway. He claimed the whole of Norway as -inheritance, but his nephew Hakon claimed part of it, and said that he -had lost it. One reason why Knut and Hakon had not made good their claim -upon Norway was, that when King Olaf Haraldsson came the people rose, -and would not hear of any one else but Olaf as king over the whole land; -but later, when they thought they were oppressed because of his -overbearing, some left the country. Many chiefs or sons of powerful -bœndr had come to Knut under the pretence of various errands; every one -who attached himself to him received his hands full of money. There -could also be seen far greater splendour than in any other place, both -in the mass of men who continually stayed there, and in the outfitting -of the rooms in which he lived himself. Knut received taxes and dues -from the wealthiest folk-lands in the North; but as much as he surpassed -other kings in receiving more than they, as far did he surpass any other -king in giving away gifts. In all his kingdom there was such peace that -none dared to break it, and the people lived quietly under the old laws -of the land. For this he got great fame through all lands. Many who came -from Norway complained of their loss of freedom, and told Hakon jarl; -and some informed Knut himself that the men of Norway were ready to -return to him and the jarl, and through them regain their liberty. This -pleased the jarl, who told it to the king, and asked him to see if King -Olaf would give up the kingdom, or make some settlement with them. Many -pleaded the same with the jarl. Knut sent men eastward from England to -Norway, very finely fitted out; they brought a letter and the seal of -the King of the English. In the spring they went to Olaf Haraldsson at -Tunsberg. When he was told that the messengers of Knut had come he grew -angry, and said that Knut was not likely to send men thither with -messages that would be of use to him or his people; and for some days he -would not let the messengers see himself. When they got leave to speak, -they appeared before him and delivered the letter of Knut. They stated -their errand—that Knut claimed all Norway, and that his forefathers had -had it before him; but as he wished to have peace in every land, he -would not wage war upon Norway, if they could settle the matter in any -other way; that if Olaf Haraldsson wanted to be king over Norway he -should go to Knut, and take the land as a fief from him, become his man, -and pay him such taxes as the jarl paid before. Thereupon they delivered -the letter, which expressed the same thing. Olaf answered: ‘I have heard -in old Sagas that Gorm, King of the Danes, was thought to be a great -folk-king, and ruled only over Denmark; but these later Danish kings do -not think that enough. Knut now rules over Denmark and England, and has -subdued a great part of Scotland, and now he claims his inheritance from -me. He ought at last to show moderation in his greediness, or does he -wish to rule all Northern lands alone, or to eat alone all the cabbage -in England? He is more likely to do that than I to bring him my head, or -pay him any homage. Tell him my words: that I will defend Norway _with -point and edge_ while my life lasts, and pay no taxes from my kingdom.’ -After this decision the messengers of Knut made ready to go away, ill -pleased with the result of their errand.... The messengers of Knut -returned with a fair wind across the sea. They went to Knut and told him -the answer to their message, and the last words of Olaf. Knut answered: -‘King Olaf is mistaken if he thinks I want to eat alone all the cabbage -in England; he shall feel that I have more things within my ribs than -cabbage; for henceforth evil shall come to him from under every rib.’ - -“Olaf summoned his lendirmen, and assembled a great many that summer, -for it was reported that Knut would come from England. People heard -report from trading ships from the west that Knut was gathering a great -host in England; some asserted and others denied that a host would come -in the latter part of the summer. Olaf stayed in Vik, and sent spies to -find out if Knut was coming to Denmark. In the autumn he sent men -eastwards to Sweden to Önund, his brother-in-law, and told him about the -message of Knut and the claim he laid to Norway; and hinted that he -thought if Knut subjugated Norway, Önund would have short shrift in -Swedish realm, and that it would be a good plan if they allied -themselves against him. - -“Knut went that autumn to Denmark, and remained there during the winter, -with many men. He was told that messengers had been sent from the King -of Norway to the King of Sweden, and back again, and that some great -events were about to happen. Knut sent men in the winter to Sweden to -Önund with rich presents and friendly words, and said that it would be -to his advantage not to interfere in the quarrels between him and Olaf -the Stout, for his country should be at peace with him. When the -messengers came to Önund they presented the gifts of Knut, with his -offers of friendship. Önund did not receive their message well, and they -thought that he was much inclined to friendship with Olaf. They went -back and told Knut this, and that he could expect no friendship from -Önund” (St. Olaf’s Saga, cc. 139–142). - - -The great chief Erling Skjalgsson and all his sons were with Knut the -Great when he fought against St. Olaf and Önund, King of Sweden, in the -river Helga. - - -“In the autumn he went back to Norway with his men, and at parting got -large gifts from King Knut. Messengers of Knut went with him to Norway, -having a great deal of loose property with them; in the winter they went -about the land, and paid the money which Knut had promised the people -that autumn. They travelled under the protection of Erling Skjalgsson. -Many men became the friends of Knut, and promised to fight against Olaf; -some did it openly, and many others secretly” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 171). - - -“Knut got together his host, and went to Limafjord (Limfjorden) and -sailed to Norway; he hurried onward, and did not stop at the land east -of Vik. He sailed past the Vestfold to Agdir, where he summoned a -Thing.... He was there chosen king over the whole land; he then filled -the stewardships (offices) with new men, and took hostages from the -land; no man spoke against him. Olaf was in Tunsberg when the host of -Knut went past the Fold. Knut went northwards along the shore, and there -came to him men from the herads, and all paid homage to him; he stayed -in Eikundasund for some while. There Erling Skjalgsson came to him with -many men, and he and Knut renewed their friendship; Knut amongst other -things promised him that he should rule all the land between Stad and -Rygjarbit. Knut then sailed northward to Nidaros in Thrandheim -(Throndhjem). He summoned men from eight _fylki_ to a Thing, at which he -was chosen king over the whole of Norway. - -“When Knut had subdued all Norway, he summoned his own men and the -Northmen to a Thing. He declared that he would give his kinsman Hakon -rule over all the land which he had won in that expedition; he also led -his son Hörda-Knut into the high-seat, and gave him the name of king, -and also presented him with the realm of Denmark. He took hostages from -all lendirmen and great bœndr, and their sons and brothers or other near -kinsmen, or those who were dearest to them, as he thought best, and thus -he strengthened the faithfulness of the people” (St. Olaf’s Saga, cc. -180, 181). - - -“Hörda-Knut, son of Knut the Old, succeeded to the kingship in Denmark -after his father, and Harald, the other son, ruled over England. At this -time Edward the Good, the son of Æthelred, and brother of Harald and -Hörda-Knut, came to England, and, as was fit, was well liked there. Two -years after the death of Knut the Old his daughter, Queen Gunnhild of -Saxland, died; she had married the Emperor Henry (of Germany). - -“Three years later Harald Knutsson, King of England, died, and was -buried at Morst (Shaftesbury), at the side of his father. - -“Then his brother, Hörda-Knut, got both the realms of England and -Denmark; and Magnus, St. Olaf’s son, the sworn brother[427] of -Hörda-Knut, ruled over Norway, as is written in the lives of the -Norwegian kings. Two winters after the death of Harald, Hörda-Knut died, -and was also buried at Morst with his father. - -“After the death of Hörda-Knut the line of the old Danish kings became -extinct. Edward, Æthelred’s son, was taken king over England” (Knytlinga -Saga, c. 21). - - -“Svein, son of King Knut and Alfifa, daughter of Alfrun jarl, had been -put to rule Vinland in Jomsborg. Then his father sent word to him that -he must go to Denmark, and thence to Norway and rule it, with the name -of king. Svein had many men with him from Denmark, Harald jarl and many -other powerful chiefs. His mother went with him, and he was taken as -king at every law-thing” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 252). - - -“Svein, son of Knut the Great, ruled Norway for some winters; he was a -child, and his mother Alfifa ruled for the most part, and was greatly -disliked by the people. The Thrœndir (men of Thrandheim) were blamed -because they had slain Olaf Haraldson the Saint. The chief Kalf Arnason, -who had been the leader in the battle against Olaf, had been promised by -Knut jarldom over the whole of Norway, and felt disappointed” (St. -Olaf’s Saga, c. 261). - - -“As soon as the spring came Kalf Arnason made his own ship ready, and -sailed westward to England, for he had heard that King Knut had gone -early in the season from Denmark westward to England. Kalf Arnason went -to Knut at once when he reached England, and was received by him very -well, and had a talk with him. It ended by Knut asking Kalf to head the -rising against Olaf the Stout in Norway, if he came back to the land; -and then said: ‘I will give thee jarldom, and let thee rule Norway. -Hakon, my kinsman, shall come to me, which is best for him, for his mind -is thus that I do not think he will shoot a spear against Olaf, should -they meet.’ Kalf listened, and agreed to take the honour, and the plan -was arranged by them. Kalf made ready to go home, and at parting Knut -gave him costly gifts” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 194). - - -The following passage is of interest in connection with the early -history of England and its conquest by William the Norman:— - - -“When Magnus the Good (son of St. Olaf) had got the Danish realm, he -sent messengers westward to England. They went to King Edward (Játvard) -and delivered the letters and the seal of the king. In the letters this -followed after the greeting of King Magnus: ‘It is likely that you have -heard of the treaty made between me and Hörda-Knut, that the one who -lived after the other was dead without sons, should possess the lands -and the tegns (subjects) of the other. Now it has happened, as I know -you have heard, that I have inherited the Danish realm after Hörda-Knut. -He owned, when he died, England no less than Denmark; now I claim -England to be mine, according to a lawful agreement. I want thee to give -up thy realm to me, or else I will take it with the help of a host both -from Denmark and Norway. He who gets the victory will then rule the -lands.’ - -“When Edward had read these letters, he answered: ‘It is known to all -people in this land that my father, King Æthelred (Adalrad), was -rightfully born to this realm, both of yore and of late. We, his sons, -were four. After he was dead, my brother Edmund got the realm and the -kingship, for he was the oldest of the brothers. I was well satisfied -while he lived. After him, Knut, my stepfather, ruled; it was not easy -to claim it while he lived. After him my brother Harald was king while -he lived; when he died, my brother, Hörda-Knut, ruled over the Danish -realm, and it was thought the only right division between us brothers -that he should be king both over Denmark and England, and that I had no -realm to rule. When he died, it was the will of all the people to make -me king over England. While I had no king’s name I served my chiefs -(höfding) not prouder than those who were not born to rule. Now I have -been consecrated as king, and have got the kingship as fully as my -father had it before me. That name I will not give up while I live. If -Magnus comes hither with his host, I will not gather a host against him; -he can then take England, and first put me to death. Tell him these -words of mine.’ - -“The messengers went back to Magnus, and told him all. He answered -slowly: ‘I think it is most just and best to let Edward have his realm -in peace for me, and keep this which God has given me’” (Magnus the -Good’s Saga, cc. 38, 39). - - ------ - -Footnote 421: - - Cf. also Knytlinga Saga, c. 7 to 9; St. Olaf, c. 23. - -Footnote 422: - - This shows that Valland was in the west of France. - -Footnote 423: - - Knut the Great’s English campaigns are told by three poets, Sighvat, - Ottar the Black, and Thórd Kolbeinsson. - -Footnote 424: - - Knut (Canute) reigned from A.D. 1014–1035, and was succeeded by his - son Harald. - -Footnote 425: - - Hlokk of horns = valkyrja of horns = woman. - -Footnote 426: - - British here means English; otherwise usually Welsh. - -Footnote 427: - - Sworn brother = foster-brother. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT VIKINGS. - (_Continued._) - - Harald Hardradi—His influence on English history—His appearance and - character—Numerous expeditions—His bravery—His career in England - and Normandy—Jealousy between him and Godwin—His invasion of - England—The battle of Stamford Bridge—The battle of Hastings. - - -Among the great heroes of the North, and one who had a special influence -on the English history of his period—for without his invasion of England -William the Conqueror would probably not have been victorious at the -battle of Hastings—was Harald Sigurdsson, surnamed Harald Hardradi, -whose life is a fine illustration of the life of a Viking. His forces, -added to those of Harald, son of Godwin, would have proved very -formidable. Here is a description of the appearance of this hero. - - -“It was said by all that Harald surpassed other men in wisdom and -sagacity (counsel-skill), whether a thing was to be done quick or in a -long time, for himself or for others. He was more weapon-bold than any -man, as has been told. (Thjódólf, in a stanza on him, says that ‘the -mind rules one half of the victory.’) He was a handsome and -majestic-looking man with hair (auburn), an auburn beard and long -moustaches; one eyebrow a little higher up than the other; large arms -and legs and well shaped. His measure in height three ells. He was cruel -towards his foes, and punished all offences severely. He was very eager -for rule, and all prosperous things. He gave his friends great gifts -when he liked them well. He was fifty when he fell. We have no -noteworthy tellings about his youth before he was at Stiklastadir, -fifteen winters old, in the battle with his brother Olaf. He lived -thirty-five winters afterwards; all that time uproar and war were his -pastime. He never fled from a battle, but often he took precautions when -he had to do with an overwhelming force. All men who followed him in -battle and warfare said that when he was in a great danger which came -quickly upon him he would take the expedient which afterwards was seen -by all to be the best” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, Heimskringla, c. 104). - - -We cannot follow him through the numerous expeditions which he undertook -and which are described in his Saga. - -We find that Harald swept all over the shores of the Mediterranean, went -to Serkland (land of the Saracens), Africa, Sicily, Italy, Greece, -Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Bulgaria. He was present, often as -leader, in about eighty battles. There are many examples of his strategy -and consummate generalship. - -His life ended at the famous battle of Stamford Bridge, the account of -which is a masterpiece of description. - -From his youth up he was valiant. He joined in the battle of -Stiklastadir, to help his half-brother, King Olaf the Stout, when he was -fifteen years old. His mother’s name was Asta (descended from Ragnar -Lodbrok). - - -“When the array stood with its standards ready to fight, the king said: -‘I do not think it right for my brother Harald to be in the battle, for -he is a child.’ Harald answered: ‘I shall certainly be in the battle, -but if I am so weak that I cannot wield the sword, I know what to do; my -hand shall be tied to the hilt; no man shall have a better will than I -to do harm to the bœndr. I want to follow my companions.’ It is told -that Harald sang this stanza:— - - ‘I shall be daring enough - To defend the wing in which I stand. - - * * * * * - - * * * * * - - The young battle-glad poet - Will not draw back from the spears - Where the blows rain down; - When hardest the fight.’ - -“Harald had his way and was in the battle, and won great renown. He was -then fifteen winters old, as has been told. The skald Thjódólf mentions -it in the poem he made about King Harald, called _sexstefja_ -(six-stave); among them is the following:— - - I heard that the strong war-storm - Burst upon the king (Harald) close to Haug, - But the burner of the Bulgarians (Bolgara brennir = Harald) - Supported his brother (St. Ólaf) well. - The king did part against his will - Fifteen winters old - From the dead Olaf - And hid his helmet-seat (head). - -“Harald got severely wounded in the battle, and Rögnvald Brúsason took -him to a bondi in the night after the battle. The bondi lived in an -out-of-the-way place, and kept him secretly, and cured him completely” -(Fms. Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 1). - - -Prof. Wassiliewsky has published a treatise, in Moscow, in which he -gives extracts from a Greek work of the eleventh century. We here give -part of them:— - - -“_Araltes_ (Harald) was a son of the king in Varangia; he had a brother -Julavos (St. Ólaf) who inherited the realm after his father’s death, and -made his brother Araltes the highest man next after himself. Araltes was -young, and admired the Roman power. He came and bowed knee before the -late Emperor Michael Paflagon; he had with him a host of five hundred -valiant men. The Emperor received him befittingly, and sent him to -Sicily into the war. Araltes went there and performed deeds of high -renown; and when Sicily was subdued he came back to the Emperor with his -host. Thereafter it happened that Delianos made a revolt in Bulgaria, -and Araltes with his men, together with the Emperor and his host, went -there; and he performed against the enemies feats worthy of his birth -and valour. When the Emperor had subdued Bulgaria he went home. I was -there too, and fought for the Emperor as well as I could. On the way -home, in Mosynupolis, the Emperor, in reward for his feats, made him -_Spatharokandidatos_ (a title). After Michael’s death, in the time of -the Emperor Monomachos, Araltes wanted to go home to his country, but -was not allowed to do so, and he was hindered from going. Nevertheless -he got away secretly, and became king in his own country, instead of his -brother Julavos (Olaf). Even as king he preserved his loyalty and love -towards the Romans” (Gustav Storm: Norsk Historisk Tidsskrift, 1884). - - -We will now give some extracts from the Sagas which contain an account -of Harald’s remarkable career, and which relate to the English and -Norman history of that period. - - -“Edward, Æthelred’s son, was king in England after Hörda-Knut; he was -called Edward the Good, and so he was. His mother was Queen Emma, the -daughter of Rikard jarl of Rouen; her brother was Rodbjart (Robert), the -father of William the Bastard, who was then duke (_hertogi_)[428] in -Rouen in Normandy. Edward was married to Gyda, the daughter of Godwin -jarl, son of Ulfnadr. Gyda’s youngest brother, Harald, Godwin’s son, was -raised in the hird of Edward. The king loved him very greatly, and -looked on him as his son, for he had no children” (Harald Hardradi’s -Saga, c. 77). - - -The death of King Edward the Confessor is here referred to:— - - -“One summer Harald Godwinson had to go to Bretland (Wales), and went -there by ship; when they got out they had head winds, and drifted out to -sea. They landed in Northmandi after having experienced a dangerous -storm. They sailed up to the burgh of Rouen (Rúda), and met William -(Vilhjálm) jarl, who gladly received them; Harald stayed there a long -time, in the autumn, well entertained, for it kept on stormy, and they -could not get to sea. Towards winter the jarl invited Harald to stay -there during the winter. Harald sat in a high-seat on one side of the -jarl, and on the other side sat the jarl’s wife; she was a very handsome -woman; these three often conversed, drinking and amusing themselves. The -jarl usually went to sleep early, but Harald sat up long in the evenings -talking to his wife. This went on for a long time. One evening she said: -‘The jarl has asked me what we have been talking about so often, and now -he is angry.’ Harald answered: ‘As soon as possible we will let him know -all our conversation.’ The next day Harald wished to speak to the jarl, -and they went into the speaking (málrúm) room, where were also the -jarl’s wife and the councillors. Harald said: ‘I must say, jarl, that -there are more reasons for my coming hither than I have as yet told you. -I want to ask thy daughter for my wife; I have often spoken of this to -her mother, and she has promised to help me in this matter with you.’ -When Harald had said this, all present thought it well fit, and -recommended it to the jarl; at last the maiden was betrothed to Harald, -but as she was young the wedding was to be delayed for some winters. In -the spring Harald made his ship ready and went away; he and the jarl -parted with much love. Harald went to England to King Edward (Jatvard) -and never came back to Valland to celebrate his wedding. Edward was king -over England for twenty-three winters, and died in London the fifth of -January (1066); he was buried in St. Paul’s Church, and the English call -him a saint” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, cc. 78, 79). - - -“The sons of Earl Godwin were then the most powerful men in England. -Tosti had been made chief over the king’s host, and was the defender of -the land and ruler over all the other jarls, when Edward began to grow -old. His brother Harald was always in the hird, and was nearest -attendant on the king, and had charge of all his money. It is said that -when the king was about to die Harald and a few others were with him; he -bent down over him, and said: ‘I call you all to witness that the king -just now gave me the kingship, and the rule over all England.’ Then the -dead king was carried away from his bed. The same day there was a -meeting of the chiefs, who decided whom they would take to be king. Then -Harald called forth his witnesses to prove that King Edward gave him the -realm on his dying day. The meeting ended by Harald being taken as king, -and consecrated the thirteenth day (of Yule = 6th of January, 1066) in -St. Paul’s Church, and the chiefs and the people made homage to him. -When his brother Tosti heard this he was displeased, and thought he had -as much right to be king. ‘I want,’ said he, ‘the chiefs of the land to -choose the man whom they think most fit to be king.’ Harald heard these -words, and said he would not give up the kingship, for he had been -placed on the king’s high-seat in Edward’s place, and had been anointed -and consecrated. The greatest part of the people favoured him, and he -had all the treasures of the king” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 80). - - -When Harald, son of Godwin, had got the kingship in England his brother -Tosti did not like being his underman: - - -“So he went away with his men southwards across the sea to Flanders. -There he stayed for a little while, and went to Frisland, and thence to -Denmark to see his kinsman King Svein. Ulf jarl, Svein’s father, and -Gyda, Tosti jarl’s mother, were brother and sister. Tosti asked Svein -for help and support, but Svein asked him to stay there, and said that -he should have a jarlship in Denmark, over which he might rule as an -honoured chief. Tosti answered: ‘I long to go back to England, to my -homestead; but if I get no support from you, I will rather give you all -the help I can give in England, if you will go there with the Danish -host to win the land, as your uncle Knut the Great did.’ The king -answered: ‘I am much weaker than my kinsman Knut, so that I can scarcely -defend Danaveldi against the Northmen (Norwegians) and Harald -(Hardradi). Knut the Old got Denmark by inheritance, and England by -warfare and battle, though it was not unlikely for a while that he would -lose his life; he obtained Norway without fight. Now I had rather act -moderately according to my strength, than follow the deeds of my kinsman -Knut.’ Tosti said: ‘My errand has been less successful than I thought -you would let it be, seeing that I am your kinsman. Maybe I shall search -for friendship where it is far more undeserved; and I may find a chief -who is less afraid to plan great things than thou, king.’ Then they -parted, and not on very friendly terms” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 81). - - -“Tosti then changed his journey and went to Norway to Harald Hardradi, -who was in Vik. Tosti told the king his errand, and all about his -journey since he had left England, and asked him to help him to get his -realm there. The king answered that the Northmen were not willing to go -to England and make warfare under an English chief. ‘It is said that the -English are not to be much trusted.’ Tosti asked: ‘Is it true, what I -heard in England, that thy kinsman Magnus sent men to King Edward with -the message that he owned England as well as Denmark, and had inherited -them after Hörda-Knut, as they had sworn.’ The King answered: ‘Why had -he it not if he were its owner?’ Tosti said: ‘Why hast thou not Denmark, -as Magnus before thee?’ The king answered: ‘The Danes need not boast to -us Northmen; many marks have we left on those kinsmen of thine (often -have we defeated them)’. Tosti continued: ‘If thou wilt not tell me I -will tell thee; Magnus got Denmark because the chiefs in the land helped -him, and thou didst not get it because all the people were against thee; -Magnus did not fight for England, because all the people of the land -wanted to have Edward for king. If thou wouldst get England, I can -contrive that the greater part of the chiefs there will be thy friends -and helpers; I lack nothing but the name of king to equal my brother -Harald. All know that a greater warrior than thou has never been born in -the Northern lands, and it seems to me strange that thou didst fight -fifteen years for Denmark and wilt not try for England, which is easy -for thee to get.’ Harald thought carefully about the jarl’s words, and -saw that there was much truth in them, and moreover was willing to get -the realm. He and the jarl spoke often together; they decided that they -would go in the summer to England, and win it. Harald sent word over the -whole of Norway, and made a half levy. This was very much talked about, -and there were guesses as to the result of the expedition. Some reckoned -up the great deeds of Harald, and said it would not be impossible to -him; but others thought that England would be difficult to win, that -there was an immense mass of people there, and the warriors called -_Thingamannalid_ so valiant, that one was better than two of Harald’s -best men. Tosti jarl sailed in the spring westward to Flæmingjaland -(Flanders) to meet the men who had followed him from England; and those -who gathered to him from England and Flæmingjaland” (Harald Hardradi’s -Saga, c. 82). - - -The following tells of his preparations against England, his invading -fleet amounting to over 240 warships, and describes the Battle of -Stamford Bridge (Stafnfurdubryggia):— - - -“The host of Harald gathered in Solundir. When he was ready to leave -Nidaros he first went to the shrine of St. Olaf, opened it, and cut his -hair and nails; then he shut the shrine and threw the keys out on the -Nid (a river), and went southward with his host. So many men had -gathered to him that it is said he had nearly 240 ships, besides -store-ships and small skutas” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 83). - - -“When King Harald was ready for the expedition to England and a fair -wind rose, he sailed out to sea with all his fleet; he reached Shetland, -and lay a short while there, and then sailed southward to the Orkneys, -whence he took many men, and the jarls Pál and Erlend, the sons of -Thorfinn jarl, but he left there Queen Ellisif, and their daughters -Maria and Ingigerd. Then he sailed southward past Scotland till he came -off England, to a place called Kliflönd (Cleveland); then he went -ashore, and ravaged and subdued the land, meeting with no resistance. -Thereupon he sailed to Skardaborg (Scarborough) and fought against the -townsmen; he went up on a high rock near the town, and set fire to a -large pile which he made. They took large poles and lifted it up and -threw it down into the town; soon one house after the other began to -burn, and the whole town was destroyed. The Northmen slew many people, -and took all the property they could get. There was no other choice for -the English who wanted to save their lives but to ask peace and become -King Harald’s men; thus he subdued the land wherever he went. Then he -sailed with all his host southward along the shore, and landed at -Hellornes, where a gathered host came against him; he fought a battle, -and got the victory. Then he went up the Humra (Humber) to Usa (Ouse), -and there he landed; the sons of Godwin, Morcar and Waltheof, Earl of -Huntingdon, were at Jórvík (York) with an overwhelming host, which had -been gathering all summer. When the host of the jarls came down, Harald -went ashore and began to array[429] his men: one wing[430] stood on the -river bank, and the other higher up, near a ditch which was deep, broad, -and full of water. The jarls let their arrays[431] go down along the -river, and most of their men; the standard of Harald was near the river; -there the ranks were thick; but they were thinnest at the ditch, and -least to be depended upon. Thither Morcar came down with his standard. -The wing of the Northmen by the ditch retreated, and the English -followed them, thinking they were going to flee; but when Harald saw -that his men retired along the ditch, he ordered a war-blast to be -blown, and urged them on; he had the standard _land-waster_ (landeyda) -carried forward, and made so hard an attack that all were driven back. -There was great slaughter in the jarls’ host. Waltheof had had his -standard brought along the river downward against the array of Harald, -but when the king hardened the attack the jarl and his men fled along -the river upward; only those who followed him escaped, but so many had -fallen that large streams of blood in many places flowed over the -plains. When the jarl had fled Harald surrounded Morcar and the men who -had advanced along the ditch with him; the English fell by hundreds. -Many jumped into the ditch, and the slain lay there so thick that the -Northmen walked across it with dry feet on human bodies; there Morcar -perished. - -“Tosti jarl had come northward from Flæmingjaland (Flanders) to meet -King Harald when he arrived in England; he was in all the battles which -we have related. It all happened as he had told the king, for many -friends and kinsmen of Tosti jarl joined them in England, which was a -great support to Harald. After this battle the people of the nearest -districts submitted to King Harald, while some fled. Then he set off to -take the town of York, and went with the entire host to -Stafnfurdubryggja (Stamford Bridge);[432] but as he had won so great a -victory over great chiefs and an overwhelming host, they had all become -frightened and despaired of resistance. The townsmen resolved to send -word to Harald and offer to surrender themselves and the town; it was -agreed that the next Sunday the king should hold a Thing and speak to -the townsmen; so on this Sunday Harald went up to the town with his -host, and had a meeting outside of it at which all the people promised -to obey and serve him; they gave him as hostages sons of high-born men -whom Tosti jarl pointed out, for he knew all in the town. The king and -his men went down to the ships in the evening, having won an easy -victory, and they were very merry. It was agreed that on the second day -of the week there should be a Thing, at which Harald was to appoint -chiefs and give rights and grants. The same evening, after sunset, -Harald, son of Godwin, came from the south with an overwhelming host; he -was led into the town with the consent and goodwill of all the townsmen; -then all the roads and the gates were occupied so that the Northmen -should not get any news; the host was in the town during the night. - -“On Monday, when King Harald Sigurdarson and his men had had their day -meal, he sounded the horns to go ashore; he made his host ready, and -selected those who should remain or go ashore;[433] he let two men from -each detachment[434] go, and one remain. Tosti jarl prepared himself and -his host to go ashore with the king; but Olaf, the king’s son, and -Eystein Orri (black cock) were left behind to guard the ships; also the -son of Thorberg Arnason, who was then the most renowned and dearest of -all lendirmen in Norway to the king—Harald had promised him his daughter -Maria—the jarls of the Orkneys, Pál and Erlend, remained behind. The -weather was exceedingly fine, and the sun so hot that the men left their -armour behind, and went up with shields, helmets, spears, and swords; -many carried bows and arrows, and they were in high spirits. When they -came near the town they saw great clouds of dust, and a large host on -horseback, with fine shields and shining brynjas. The king stopped, and, -calling Tosti jarl, asked what men those were who were coming against -them. The jarl said: ‘They are most likely foes, though it may be that -they are some of our kinsmen who come to seek friendship and mercy from -us, and give us in return their faith and trust.’ The king said that -they would stop there and find out about this host; they did so, and the -nearer the host approached the more numerous it seemed. It was so well -armed, and the weapons glittered so, that it was as if one looked at -broken shining ice. Then Tosti jarl said: ‘Herra (lord), let us take a -good expedient. It cannot be doubted that these are foes, and the king -himself probably leads them.’ The king asked: ‘What is your advice?’ -Tosti answered: ‘The first is to go back as soon as we can to the ships -to fetch the rest of our men and our coats of mail (brynjas), then let -us fight as well as we can; or otherwise let us go on board the ships, -and then the horsemen cannot reach us.’ The king said: ‘I will follow -another plan. I will put three brave men on the swiftest horses, and let -them ride to our men as fast as they can, and tell them what has -happened; their aid will soon come, for the English will have a hard -fight before we are defeated.’ The jarl said: ‘You shall have your will, -lord, in this as in other things; but I am not more eager to flee than -any other man, though I said what I thought advisable.’ Harald put up -his standard, the land-waster, and arrayed his host, and made the line -(fylking) long, but not thick; then he bent the wings (arms) backwards, -so that they met each other; it was a wide thick circle, equal on all -sides; it had shield against shield on all sides, and shields above -also.[435] The array was thus formed because the king knew that the -horsemen were wont to rush up in small squads (ridil) and draw back at -once; the king’s guard, very picked men, was inside the circle, the -archers also, and Tosti with his men. Then the king ordered the jarl to -go forward where it was most needed. ‘Those who stand outermost in the -array,’ he said, ‘shall put the handles of their spears down on the -ground, and the points against the breasts of the horsemen if they -attack; those who stand next shall direct their spear points against the -breasts of their horses; keep the spears thus everywhere that they -cannot advance; let us stand firm and take care not to break this -array.’ - -“Harald, son of Godwin, had come thither with an overwhelming host both -of horsemen and footmen; it is told that King Harald had not the half of -his men. Harald Sigurdarson, on a black horse with a white spot on its -forehead, rode about his army and examined how it was arranged; his -horse stumbled, and he fell forward off it; as he rose, he said: ‘A fall -bodes a lucky journey.’ - -“King Harald Gudinason said to the Northmen who were with him: ‘Do you -know the tall man with the blue kirtle (kyrtil) and the fine helmet who -fell off his horse?’ ‘It is the king of the Northmen,’ they said. The -king added: ‘He is a tall and noble-looking man, but nevertheless it is -likely that his luck is now gone.’ Then twenty English horsemen[436] -rode forth, fully armoured, as were also their horses; when they came to -the array of the Northmen, one of them asked: ‘Where is Tosti jarl in -the host?’ Tosti answered: ‘It is not to be concealed that you may find -him here.’ The horseman said: ‘Harald thy brother sends thee greeting, -and the message that thou shalt have peace, and get Northumberland, and -rather than that thou shouldst not join him he will give thee one-third -of all his realm.’ The jarl replied: ‘Then something else is offered -than the enmity and disgrace of last winter; if this had been offered -then, many who now are dead would be alive, and the realm of the King of -England would stand more firm. Now if I accept these terms, what will my -brother Harald offer to the King of Norway for his trouble?’ The -horseman answered: ‘He has said what he will grant King Harald -Sigurdarson: it is a space of seven feet, and it is so long because he -is taller than most other men.’ The jarl answered: ‘Go and tell my -brother, King Harald, to prepare for battle; it shall not be said among -Northmen that Tosti jarl left Harald, King of Norway, and went into the -host of his foes when he made warfare in England; rather will we all -resolve to die with honour, or win England with a victory.’ As the -horsemen rode back to their host, King Harald asked the jarl: ‘Who was -that eloquent man?’ ‘It was my brother, Harald, son of Godwin.’ The king -said: ‘Too long was this hidden from us, for they had come so near our -host that this Harald would not have been able to tell of the death of -our men.’[437] The jarl said: ‘It is true, lord, that he acted -incautiously, and I saw that it might have been as you said; but when he -came to offer me peace and great power, I should have been his slayer if -I had betrayed who he was; I acted thus because I will rather suffer -death from my brother, than be his slayer, if I may choose.’ The king -said to his men: ‘This man (Harald) was little and nimble, and stood -proudly in the stirrups.’ Then King Harald Hardradi went into the ring -(circle) of the shieldburgh and sang this stanza:— - - ‘Forth we go - In the array; - Armour-less - Under the blue edge; - The helmets shine, - I have not mine (brynja, namely) - Now lies our war-dress - Down on the ships.’ - -“Emma was his brynja called; it was so long that it reached to the -middle of his leg, and so strong that never had a weapon stuck in it. -The king said: ‘This song was badly composed, and I will sing a better -one.’ He sang:— - - ‘Not that we crouch - From the clash of weapons - In the bight of the shield; - Thus bade to fight the word-true Hild. - The woman (Hild) asked me early - To carry the helmet-stem (= the head) - High in the din of metals (= fight) - Where the ice of Hlokk (sword) met with heads.’ - -“Then Thjodolf skald sang— - - ‘Not shall I though the king - Himself sink to the ground— - It goes as God will—leave - The heirs of the king. - The sun shines not on sightlier - Heirs of a king - Than these two. - The hawks (= sons) of Harald are ready for revenge.’ - -“It is said by people that Tosti’s advice, given first when they saw the -land-host, was the best and wisest, namely, that they should go back to -the ships; but since a death-fated man cannot be saved, they suffered -from the stubbornness of the king, who could not bear that this -cautiousness should be regarded as fear or flight by his foes. - -“They began the battle. The English horsemen made an attack on the -Northmen; the resistance was very hard, for the spears of the latter -were so placed that the horsemen could not reach them with their -weapons. Then they rode around the array, but as soon as they came near, -the archers of the Northmen shot at them as fast as they were able. The -English saw that they could effect nothing, and rode back. The Northmen -thought they were going to flee, and followed in pursuit; but as soon as -the English saw that they had broken their shieldburgh they rode at them -from all sides, shooting arrows and spears at them. When Harald -Sigurdarson saw that his men were falling, he rushed into the fray where -it was hottest. Many men fell on both sides. Harald, King of Norway, -fought with the greatest bravery, and became so eager and furious that -he rushed forward out of the array, dealing blows on all sides; neither -helmet nor coat of mail could withstand him; he went through the ranks -of his foes as if he were walking through air, for all who came near him -fell back. Then, as the English almost fled, Harald Sigurdarson was hit -with an arrow in the throat, so that a stream of blood gushed from his -mouth; this was his death-wound; he fell there with all the men who had -gone forward around him, except those who retreated and kept their -standard. There was yet a stubborn fight, because the Northmen were very -eager, and each urged the other on. When Tosti jarl became aware that -the king had fallen he went to where he saw the standard aloft, and -under the king’s standard he urged the men on strongly; a little after -both hosts rested themselves, and there was a long delay in the battle. - -“Both sides made ready for battle again, but before the arrays met, -Harald, son of Godwin, offered peace to Tösti jarl, his brother, and all -Northmen who were left alive; but the Northmen shouted all at once, and -said that sooner would every one of them fall than accept truce from the -English. Then the Northmen raised a war-cry, and the battle began a -second time. Tosti jarl was then chief of the host; he fought valiantly -and followed up the standards, and ere the fight ended fell there with -great bravery and renown. At that moment Eystein Orri came from the -ships with the men who followed him; they were in full war-dress, and -Eystein at once took the standard of Harald, the “landeyda.” Then there -was a third and very severe battle; many of the English fell and they -almost fled; this was called Orrahrid (the tempest of Orri). Eystein and -his men had hurried so much from the ships that they were almost -disabled by weariness (exhaustion) before they began the fight; but -afterwards they were so eager that they did not spare themselves while -they were able, and at last took off their coats of mail (ring-brynjas); -then the English could easily find places for wounding them. Some died -unwounded from over-exertion, and nearly all the highborn Northmen fell -there; this was late in the day. It happened as it always does, where -many people gather, that all were not equally brave; many tried to -escape in various ways. It went as fate would; some were destined to a -longer life and escaped. It was dark in the evening when the -manslaughter was over. Styrkar, the stallari (marshal) of King Harald, -was a famous man; he got a horse in the evening, and rode away, but it -was blowing a strong and cold gale; he had no other clothes than a shirt -(skyrta), a helmet, and a drawn sword in his hand; he soon cooled when -the weariness left him. A waggoner (vagn-karl) who had on a lined jacket -(kösung) met him. Styrkar asked: ‘Wilt thou sell the jacket, bondi?’ He -answered: ‘Not to thee; thou must be a Northman; I know thy speech.’ -Styrkar said: ‘If I am a Northman, what will thou then?’ ‘I will slay -thee,’ replied the bondi, ‘but now it is so bad that I have not got a -weapon that I can use.’ Styrkar added: ‘If thou canst not slay me, -bondi, I will try to slay thee.’ He raised his sword and smote his neck -so that his head dropped down; Styrkar then took the skin-jacket and put -it on, jumped on his horse, and rode down to the shore. Arnor jarla -skald sang about this battle, now told of, which was the last that -Harald and his men fought, in the erfidrapa (funeral song) which he made -about the king. Arnor says: ‘It is doubtful if any other king under the -sun has fought with such a valour and bravery as Harald.’ - -“It was on the second day of the week (Monday) that King Harald -fell,[438] two nights before _Mikjalsmessa_ (Michaelmas)” (Fornmanna -Sögur, cc. 115–119). - - -Here is a short account of the battle of Hastings. William the Conqueror -is called _Vilhjalm Jarl_. - - -“Vilhjalm (William) bastard, jarl of Rouen, heard of the death of -Játvard (Edward) his kinsman, and that Harald, son of Godwin, had been -made King of England, and been consecrated. He thought he had more right -to the kingdom of England than Harald, on account of his relationship to -Edward, and he also wanted to pay Harald for the disgrace of having -broken his betrothal with his (Vilhjalm’s) daughter. William gathered a -host in Normandy (Northmandi), with very many men and ships. When he -rode from the town to his ships, and had mounted his horse, his wife -went to him and wanted to speak to him; he struck at her with his heel -and thrust the spur deeply into her breast, and she fell dead, and then -he rode on to his ship, and went with his host to England. Bishop Otto, -his brother, was with him. When the jarl reached England he plundered -and subdued the land wherever he went. - -“He was taller and stronger than others, and a good rider; a very great -warrior, but rather cruel; very wise, but, it was said, not trustworthy. -Harald, son of Godwin, allowed Olaf, the son of Harald Sigurdsson, and -those there with him who had survived the battle, to go, and King Harald -then turned southward with his host to England, for he had heard that -William the Bastard was in the south of England subduing the land. There -were with Harald his brothers, Svein, Gyrd, and Valthjóf. Harald and -William met in the south of England at _Helsingjaport_ (port of -Hastings); there was a great battle, where fell Harald and Gyrd his -brother, with a great part of their men. That was nineteen nights after -the fall of Harald Sigurdsson. Valthjóf, Harald’s brother, escaped by -flight, and late in the evening met a detachment of William’s men, who -when they saw the Valthjóf men fled into an oak forest; they were one -hundred men. Valthjóf set the forest on fire, and burnt it up -altogether. - -“William had had himself proclaimed King of England. He sent word to -Valthjóf that they should be reconciled, and gave him truce to meet him. -The jarl went with few men; when he came on the heath north of -_Kastalabryggja_ (Castlebridge) two king’s stewards met him with a -detachment, took him and fettered him, and he was slain; the English -call him a saint. William was king over England for twenty-one years, -and his kin ever since” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, Hkr. cc. 99–101). - - -The battle of Hastings was fought on October 14th, 1066. Gyrd played an -important part in the conflict. - - -“Then said Gyrd jarl to his brother King Harald: ‘I fear that thou wilt -not succeed in the fight against William, for thou hast sworn not to -defend England against him.’ The king replied: ‘It may be, brother, that -it will suit thee better to fight against William than me; but I have -not been wont to lie in my room when other men have fought, and William -shall not hear that I dare not behold him.’ After this King Harald had -his standard raised, and began the battle against William. The fight was -most violent, and it was long thought uncertain which of them would get -the victory; but as the battle continued the fall of men turned on the -hands of the English (Enskir menn). William had before the attack let -the relics of Otmar be tied to his standard; on these Harald had taken -his oath. But when the battle began to turn against King Harald, he -asked: ‘What is tied to William’s standard?’ And when he was told, he -said: ‘It may be that we need not then expect victory in this battle.’ -And thus it ended that King Harald and his brother Gyrd fell, and a -large part of their men, but all who were alive fled” (Fornmanna Sögur, -vi, c. 121). - - ------ - -Footnote 428: - - Her = host, togi = leader. - -Footnote 429: - - Fylkja; the array itself is called Fylking. - -Footnote 430: - - Fylkingar-arm. - -Footnote 431: - - Fylking. - -Footnote 432: - - In Heimskringla the corresponding passage has Stanfurdubryggja. - -Footnote 433: - - All through the Sagas we see that it seemed the custom that one-third - of the men should remain on board of the ships to protect them. - -Footnote 434: - - Sveit. - -Footnote 435: - - It was a shieldburgh, with walls and roof of shields. - -Footnote 436: - - In Snorri the twenty horsemen are described thus: “Twenty horsemen of - the Thingmannalid rode up in front of the array of the Northmen. They - were armoured all over and also their horses. Then a horseman said: - ‘Is Tosti jarl here in the host?’” (Snorri Sturluson, Harald - Hardradi’s Saga, c. 9.) - - From this we see that the English, like their kinsmen, had horsemen; - and the finds of spurs, &c., prove this. - -Footnote 437: - - Meaning that if he had been known he would have been slain. - -Footnote 438: - - “One winter after the fall of King Harald (Hardradi) his body was - brought from England north to Nidarós (Throndhjem) and buried in Maria - Church, which he had built” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 104). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF ICELAND, GREENLAND, AND AMERICA. - - Causes leading to the discovery of Iceland—Naddod’s expedition—The - expedition of Gardar Svavarson—Those of Floki, Ingolf, and - Leif—Iceland so named by Floki—Settlers in Iceland—Discovery of - Greenland—Thorvald and Eirek the Red—Discovery of America—Bjarni’s - voyage—Leif’s voyage—Thorvald’s voyage—Attacked by plague—Thorfinn - Karlsefni’s voyage—Description of the inhabitants. - - -From the Sagas and ancient records which relate to the earlier events of -the North, we find that the people spread westward and southward to the -Mediterranean. Later we see this maritime race seeking out new lands, -and crossing the broad Atlantic and discovering a New World. - -The policy of the Norwegian King Harald Fairhair, which led to the -subjection of many lesser chieftains about the middle of the ninth -century, gave rise to an emigration of the more high-spirited chiefs in -search of other lands, and resulted in the discovery of Iceland, called -in some Sagas Snowland, and afterwards of Greenland and Vinland, or -America. The hero of the discovery of Iceland was a sea-rover called -Naddod, about the year 861. - - -“Owing to his (Harald Fairhair) oppression, many people fled from the -country, and many uninhabited lands were then settled—Jamtaland, -Helsingjaland, and the western lands, Sudreyjar (the Hebrides), -Dyflinnar Skiri (the shire of Dublin in Ireland), Katanes (Caithness) in -Scotland, and Hjaltland (the Shetlands), Normandi in Valland, Fœreyjar -(the Faroes). At that time Iceland was discovered” (Egil’s Saga, c. 4). - - - DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF ICELAND. - -Iceland was discovered by Naddod about 861, and he was followed by Floki -about 867. Later Ingolf and Leif, powerful men from Norway, settled -there permanently. Their example was followed by many others afterwards. - - -“It is said that some men were going from Norway to the _Fœreyjar_ -(Faroes), Some say it was Naddod Viking. They were driven westward into -the sea, and there found a large land. They went up on a high mountain -in the eastern fjords, and looked far and wide for smoke or some token -that the land was inhabited. They saw none. They went back to the Faroes -in the autumn, and when they set sail much snow fell on the mountains, -and therefore they called the country _Snœland_ (Snow land). They -praised the land much. The place where they landed is now called -Reydarfjall in the Austfjords” (Landnáma, i. c. 1). - - -Naddod’s example was soon followed by others, amongst whom was Gardar -Svavarson, a Swede, who called the island Gardarshólmi. - - -“A man called Gardar Svavarson, of Swedish kin, went in search of -Snowland at the advice of a foreknowing (foresighted) mother. He landed -east of the eastern Horn. There was a harbour. Gardar sailed round the -land, and saw it was an island. He stayed over the winter at Húsauik, in -Skjálfandi, and built a house there. In the spring, when he was ready to -sail, a man called Náttfari with a thrall and a bondmaid were driven off -in a boat. They settled in Náttfaravik. Gardar went to Norway, and -praised the land greatly. He was the father of Uni, the father of Hróar -Tungugodi. Thereafter the land was called Gardarshólmi (Gardar’s -island); there was at that time forest from mountain to shore” -(Landnáma, c. 1). - - -The name _Iceland_ was first given to the island by Flóki,[439] but -neither he, Naddod, nor Gardar, settled there. The first settlers were -the foster brothers Ingólf and Leif, who with their followers landed -about the year 870. - - -“The foster brothers made ready a large ship which they owned, and went -in search of the land which Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki) had discovered, -and which was then called Iceland. They found the land and stayed in -Austfjords, in the southern Alptafjord. The south of the land seemed to -them better than the north. They stayed one winter there, and then went -back to Norway. - -“Thereafter Ingólf prepared for a voyage to Iceland, while Leif went on -warfare in the west. He made war in Ireland, and there found a large -underground house; he went down into it, and it was dark until light -shone from a sword in the hand of a man. Leif killed the man, and took -the sword and much property. Thereafter he was called Hjörleif -(Sword-Leif). He made war widely in Ireland, and got much property. He -took ten thralls; their names were Dufthak, Geirrod, Skjaldbjörn, -Haldór, Drafdrit; more names are not given. Then he went to Norway and -met his foster brother there. He had before married Helga, Ingólf’s -sister. This winter Ingólf made a great sacrifice, and asked what his -luck and fate would be, but Hjörleif was never willing to sacrifice. The -answer pointed out Iceland to Ingólf. After this both made a ship ready -for the voyage. Hjörleif had his booty on board, and Ingólf their foster -brotherhood property. When ready they sailed out to sea. - -“In the summer when Ingólf and Leif went to settle in Iceland Harald -Fairhair had been twelve years king over Norway; 6,073 winters had -elapsed since the beginning of this world, and since the incarnation of -our Lord 874 years. They sailed together until they saw Iceland, then -they and their ships parted. When Ingólf saw Iceland he threw overboard -his high-seat pillars for luck. He said that he would settle where the -pillars landed. He landed at a place now called Ingólfshöfdi (Ingólf’s -cape). But Hjörleif was driven westward along the land, and suffered -from want of water. The Irish thralls there kneaded together meal and -butter, saying these caused no thirst. They called the mixture -_minnthak_, and when it had been made there came a heavy rain, and they -took water into their tents. When the _minnthak_ began to get mouldy -they threw it overboard, and it came ashore at a place now called -Minnthakseyr. Hjörleif landed at Hjörleifshöfdi (Hjörleif’s cape), where -there was a fjord. Hjörleif had two houses (skáli) made there; the walls -of one are 18 fathoms, and those of the other 19 fathoms high. Hjörleif -remained there that winter. In the spring he wanted to sow (corn); he -had one ox, and let the thralls drag the plough. When Hjörleif was in -his house Dufthak (one of the thralls) suggested that they should kill -the ox, and say that a bear of the forest had slain it, and then they -would slay Hjörleif if he searched for the bear. Then they told Hjörleif -this. When they each went different ways in search of the bear in the -forest, the thralls attacked them singly and murdered all the ten. They -ran away with their women and loose property and the boat. The thralls -went to the islands which they saw south-west off the land, and stayed -there a while. Ingólf sent his thralls, Vífil and Karli, westward along -the shore to search for his high-seat pillars. When they came to -Hjörleifshöfdi they found Hjörleif dead; they then returned and told -Ingólf these tidings. He was very angry at the slaying of Hjörleif” -(Landnáma, i. cc. 4–6). - - -“Iceland was first settled from Norway in the days of Harald Fairhair, -son of Halfdan the black.... - -“Ingolf was the name of a Northman, of whom it is truly said that he -went first from Norway to Iceland, when Harald Fairhair was sixteen -years old, and a second time a few winters later. He settled south in -Reykjarvik. In that time was Iceland covered with wood between the -mountains and the fjord. - -“Then were there Christian men, whom the Northmen call _Papa_, but -afterwards they went away because they would not remain with the -heathens, and left behind them Irish books, and croziers and bells, from -which it could be seen that they were Irishmen” (Islendingabok, c. i.). - - -“At the time when Iceland was discovered and settled from Norway, -Adrianus was Pope at Rome, and John, who was the eighth of that name, in -the apostolic seat; Louis (Hlödver), son of Louis, Emperor north of the -mountains (i.e. the Alps), and Leo, as well as his son Alexander, of -Mikligard. Harald Fairhair was King of Norway; Eirik Eymundsson of -Sweden and his son Bjorn; Gorm the old in Denmark; Aelfred (Elfrad) the -powerful in England, as well as his son Edward (Jatvard); Kjarval in -Dublin (Dyflin); and Sigurd the powerful, jarl of the Orkneys” (Landnama -c. i. part i.). - - -From many places in Landnama we find that people from England, Ireland, -Scotland, and Flanders, and from different countries of the North, -settled in Iceland. - - -“Fridleif was from Gautland on his father’s side, while his mother, -Bryngerd, was Flemish.... Fridleif settled in Iceland. Thord Knapp was a -Swede, son of Bjorn of Haug. He went with another man, named Nafarhelgi, -to Iceland” (Landnama, c. xi. part iii.). - - -“Örlyg was fostered by the holy bishop Patrek (Patrick) in the Hebrides. -He desired to go to Iceland, and asked the bishop to help him. He gave -him timber for a church, and also a _plenarium_, an iron bell, and -consecrated earth, that he might put it under the corner-stave. (This -shows they had stave churches in those days). The Bishop Patrick: ‘Thou -must land at a place where thou seest two mountains run out into the -sea, and a valley in each mountain. Thou shalt settle at the foot of the -most southerly mountain; there thou shalt build a church, and dwell -there’” (Landnama, c. xii. part 1). - - - DISCOVERY OF GREENLAND. - -About one hundred years later the descendants of these roving Vikings, -animated by the same restless spirit and love of freedom so -characteristic of their race, set out in search of new lands, and -discovered and settled Greenland in A.D. 985. The heroes of this new -settlement were a Norwegian chief Thorvald and his son Eirek the Red. - - -“Thorvald and his son Eirek the Red went from Jadar (Jœderen, in Norway) -to Iceland, outlawed on account of manslaughter. Iceland was then to a -great extent settled. They first lived at Drangar, in Hornstrandir. -Thorvald died there. Eirek then married Thorhild, daughter of Jorund and -Thorbjörg Knarrarbringa, who was then married to Thorbjörn of Haukadal. -Eirek thereupon moved south and lived at Eireksstadir, near Vatnshorn. -The son of Eirek and Thorhild was called Leif. After Eirek had slain -Eyjulf Saur and Holmgöngu-Hrafn he was outlawed from Haukadal. He moved -westward to Breidifjord, and lived at Eireksstadir in Öxney (Ox-island). -He lent Thorgest his _seat-pillars_, and did not get them back when he -asked for them. Hence arose quarrels and battles between him and -Thorgest, as is told in the Saga of Eirek.[440] Styr Thorgrimsson, -Eyjulf of Sviney, the sons of Thorbrand of Alftafjord and Thorbjörn -Vifilsson, supported Eirek. But the family of Thorgest was supported by -the sons of Thord Gellir and Thorgeir of Hitardal. Eirek was outlawed at -the Thornes-thing. Thereupon he made his ship ready for sea in Eirek’s -bay. When he was ready Styr and the others followed him out past the -island to bid him farewell. Eirek told them that he intended to search -for the land which Gunnbjörn,[441] son of Ulf Kráka (crow), saw when he -was driven westward across the sea and found Gunnbjarnarsker -(Gunnbjörn’s rock). He (Eirek) said he would come back to his friends if -he found this land. Eirek sailed from Snœfellsjökul. He found the land, -and came to it at a place which he called Midjökul (Mid-glacier), and -which is now[442] called Bláserk (Blue shirt). He sailed thence -southward along the coast to see if the land could be settled on. He -stayed the first winter in Eireksey (Eirek’s island), near the middle of -what later was called the eastern settlement. Next spring he went to -Eireksfjord, and there took up his abode. In the summer he went to the -western part of the country, and in many places gave names to it. The -following winter he stayed at Hólmar, near Hrafnsgnípa, and the third -summer he went north to Snœfell all the way to Hrafnsfjord. Then he said -he had got into the inmost part of Eireksfjord. He went home (in -Greenland), and stayed the third winter in Eireksey at the mouth of -Eireksfjord. The next summer he went to Iceland, and landed with his -ship in Breidifjord. He called the land which he had found _Grœnland_, -for he said it would make men’s minds long to go there if it had a fine -name. Eirek stayed in Iceland that winter, and the next summer he went -to settle on the land. He lived at Brattahlid in Eireksfjord. Wise men -say that during the summer when Eirek the Red went to settle in -Greenland, thirty-five ships from Breidifjord and Borgartjord went -there, fourteen got there, while some were driven back and others were -lost. This was fifteen winters before Christianity was enacted as law in -Iceland”[443] (Flateyjarbók, i. 429). - - -“On this voyage Eirek discovered Greenland, and remained there three -winters, and then went to Iceland, where he remained one winter before -he returned to settle in Greenland, (Grænland), and that was fourteen -winters before Christianity was established by law in Iceland” -(Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 24). - - - DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. - -Between the years 985 and 1011 these enterprising mariners, in the -course of their expeditions from the remote and rough coasts of the -North, discovered the great continent of America, with the inhabitants -of which they seem to have had some struggles; but such was the -transient nature of their expeditions that the benefit of this discovery -was for a time lost both to them and to the rest of the civilised world; -yet a remarkable destiny has willed that their descendants, in whose -veins the blood of the old Norsemen still runs, should people the -country. - -Five distinct expeditions are related in the Sagas, the most famous one -being that of Thorfinn Karlsefni, who about 1007 determined to settle a -colony in the new land, and who on his return to Norway sold some of the -wood which he had brought home for a large sum to a merchant from -Bremen. - - - _First Journey._ - - -“Herjúlf was the son of Bárd, the son of Herjúlf, who was a kinsman of -Ingólf, the settler. Ingólf gave Herjúlf land between Vog and Reykjanes. -Herjúlf first lived at Drepstokk. His wife was Thorgerd, and their son -Bjarni was a most promising man. When quite young he longed to go -abroad. He acquired much property and honour, and alternately spent a -winter abroad and a winter with his father. He soon had a trading ship, -and the last winter he was in Norway Herjúlf determined to go to -Greenland with Eirek, and made ready. Herjúlf had on board a man from -the Hebrides, a Christian, who composed the Hafgerdinga drápa.[444] -Herjúlf lived at Herjúlfsnes. He was a man of high birth. Eirek the Red -lived in Brattahlid; he was held in the greatest honour there, and all -obeyed him. His children were Leif, Thorvald, Thorstein, and Freydís, -who was married to Thorvard, who lived at Gardar, where now is a -bishop’s see. She was very overbearing, and Thorvard was weak minded. -She was married to him chiefly for the sake of his property. The people -of Greenland were heathen at that time. Bjarni landed with his ships at -Eyrar the summer after his father had sailed (in the spring). - -“Bjarni thought this important news (the departure of his father), and -did not wish to unload his ship. Then his sailors asked what he meant to -do, and he answered he wanted to continue his custom of staying over -winter with his father. ‘I will sail to Greenland on my ship if you will -follow me,’ said he to his men. All answered they would do as he liked. -He said, ‘Our voyage will be considered unwise, as none of us have been -before in the Greenland Sea.’ Nevertheless, when they were ready, they -set out to sea, and after three days’ sailing land was out of sight, and -the fair winds ceased, and northern winds with fog blew continually, so -that for many days they did not know in what direction they were -sailing. Then the sun came into sight, and they could distinguish the -quarters of heaven. They hoisted sail and sailed all day before they saw -land. They wondered what land this could be, and Bjarni said he did not -think it was Greenland. The men asked if he wished to sail towards it, -and he answered that he wanted to go near it; this they did, and soon -saw that it had no mountains, but low hills, and was forest-clad. They -kept the land on their left, but the corners of the sail were towards -the land. Then they sailed for two days before they saw other land. They -asked Bjarni if he did not think this was Greenland. He answered: ‘No, -it is very unlike, I thought, for very large glaciers are said to be in -Greenland.’ They soon approached the land, and saw that it was flat and -covered with woods. Then the fair wind fell, and the sailors said they -thought it best to land as they lacked both wood and water, but Bjarni -did not want to land, and said they had enough left; at this the men -grumbled somewhat. He told them to set sail, which they did, and turned -the prow seaward, and sailed in that direction with a southwesterly wind -for three days, and then more land came in view which rose high with -mountains and a glacier. They asked Bjarni if he would like to go ashore -there, but he answered he would not do so as the land had an -inhospitable look. They did not furl their sail, but sailed along the -shore, and saw it was an island. They once more turned the prow of the -ship from the shore, and set to sea with the same fair wind, but the -gale increased, and Bjarni told them to take in a reef, and not sail so -fast, for the ship and its rigging could not stand it. They sailed four -days, until they saw land for the fourth time. They asked Bjarni if he -thought this Greenland. He answered: ‘This most resembles Greenland from -what I have been told, and here we will land. They landed in the evening -at a cape where a boat was lying. Herjúlf, Bjarni’s father, lived on the -cape, and it is called Herjúlfsnes after him. Bjarni now stayed with his -father, left off sea-journeys, and dwelt there during his father’s -lifetime, and after his death” (Flateyjarbók, i. 430–32). - - - DISCOVERY OF VINLAND. - - -“Now it is related that Bjarni Herjúlfsson came from Greenland to Eirek -Jarl (son of the great Hákon, 1000–1015) who received him well. Bjarni -described his voyage and the lands that he had seen. People thought he -had shown a lack of interest as he had nothing to tell about them, and -he was somewhat blamed for it. He became the Jarl’s hirdman, and went to -Greenland the following summer. Now there was much talk about land -discoveries. Leif, son of Eirek the Red, of Brattahlid, went to Bjarni -Herjúlfsson and bought his ship, and gathered together thirty-five -sailors. He asked his father Eirek to lead the expedition as before. -Eirek declined it, saying he was too old, and was less able to bear -hardship than formerly. Leif answered that even were this so he would -still have with him more luck than the rest of his kinsmen. Eirek -yielded, and when ready they rode from home. Not far from the ship -Eirek’s horse stumbled,[445] and he fell and hurt his foot. Then he -said: ‘It cannot be my fate to be the discoverer of any other lands than -the one on which we now live. I will follow you no further.’ Eirek went -home to Brattahlid and Leif with his thirty-five companions went on -board. There was a man from the south with them called Tyrker. When they -had made their ship ready they set out to sea. The first land they found -was that which Bjarni had found last. They sailed towards it, cast -anchor, put out a boat and went ashore, but saw no grass. The whole -interior consisted of glaciers, and the land between them and the sea -was like a plain of ice, and this seemed to them barren of good things. -Leif said: ‘Now we have not acted with this land like Bjarni, who did -not come ashore. I will give a name to the land and call it -Helluland.[446] Then they went on board and sailed out to sea, and found -another land. They approached it, cast anchor, pushed off a boat, and -went ashore. This land was flat and forest-clad, and the beach was low, -and covered with white sand in many places. Leif said: ‘This land shall -be named after its properties, and be called Markland (Woodland). They -then went on board again as quickly as they could. They sailed thence -out to sea with a north-east wind for two days before they saw land. -They sailed towards it, and came to an island lying north of it, and -went ashore in fine weather and looked round. They found dew on the -grass, and touched it with their hands, and put it into their mouths, -and it seemed to them they had never tasted anything so sweet as this -dew. Then they went on board and sailed into the channel, which was -between the island and the cape, which ran north from the mainland. They -passed the cape sailing in a westerly direction. There the water was -very shallow, and their ship went aground, and at ebb-tide the sea was -far out from the ship. But they were so anxious to get ashore that they -could not wait till the high-water reached their ship, and ran out on -the beach where a river flowed from a lake. When the high-water set -their ship afloat they took their boat and rowed to the ship, and towed -it up the river into the lake. There they cast anchor, and took their -leather-bags (hudfat) ashore, and there built booths. They resolved to -stay there over winter, and built large houses. There was no lack of -salmon in the river and lake, and they were larger than any they had -seen before. The land was so fertile that it seemed to them that no -barns would be needed to keep fodder for the cattle during the winter. -There was no frost there during the winter, and the grass lost little of -its freshness. The length of night and day was more equal than in -Greenland or Iceland. The sun set there at eykt[447] and rose at -dagmál[448] on the shortest day. When they had finished building their -houses, Leif said to his men: ‘I will divide you into two parties, as I -wish to explore the land. One half shall stay in the _skali_ (house), -and the other explore the country, but not go so far that they cannot -get home in the evenings, and not separate from each other. They did -this for some time. Leif sometimes went with them, but at other times -remained in the _skali_. He was a large and strong man, of imposing -looks, and wise and moderate in everything. - -“One evening it happened that they missed one of their men, Tyrker, the -southerner. Leif was much grieved at this, for Tyrker had long been with -him, and his foster father had been very fond of Leif in his childhood. -He upbraided his men harshly, and made ready to go and search for him -with twelve men. A short way from the house Tyrker met them, and was -welcomed back. Leif soon saw that his foster father was in high spirits. -He had a projecting forehead, unsteady eyes, a tiny face, and was little -and wretched, but skilled in all kinds of handicraft. Leif said to him: -‘Why art thou so late, foster father, and why hast thou parted from thy -followers?’ He then spoke for a long time in Thyrska, and rolled his -eyes in many directions and made wry faces. They did not understand what -he said. After a while he spoke in the northern tongue (Norrœna), and -said: ‘I did not go much farther than you, but I can tell some news. I -found a vine and grapes.’ ‘Is this true, foster-father?’ Leif asked. -‘Certainly it is,’ he answered, ‘for I was born where there was neither -lack of vine nor grapes.’ They slept there that night, and in the -morning Leif said to his sailors: ‘Now we will do two kinds of work, one -day you shall gather grapes or cut vines, the other you shall fell trees -so that I may load my ship.’ This they did, and their boat is said to -have been filled with grapes, and a ship’s load of timber was cut. When -spring came they made ready and left, and Leif named the land after its -fruits, and called it _Vinland_. They sailed out to sea and got fair -winds till they saw Greenland and its glaciers. Then a man said to Leif: -‘Why dost thou steer the ship so close to the wind?’ Leif answered: ‘I -am attending to my steering, but I am also looking at something else; do -you see anything remarkable?’ They answered they did not. Leif said: ‘I -do not know whether it is a ship or a rock which I see.’ Then they saw -it, and said it was a rock. His sight was so much better than theirs -that he saw men on the rock. He said: ‘Now I want to keep closer to the -wind, so that we may get to them, and we must give them help if they -need it. If they are not peaceful they are in our power, but we are not -in theirs.’ They approached the rock, cast anchor, lowered their sail, -and set out a little boat which they had with them. Then Tyrker asked -these men who their leader was. The leader answered that his name was -Thórir, and he was a Norwegian, but what, he said, is thy name? Leif -told his name. ‘Art thou the son of Eirek, the Red, of Brattahlid?’ Leif -answered: ‘I am. Now I offer to you all to come on board my ship with as -much cargo as it can hold.’ They accepted the offer, and sailed to -Brattahlid, in Eiriksfjord, with the cargo, where they unloaded the -ship. Leif invited Thórir to stay with him, and also his wife Gudrid and -three other men, and for his own sailors and those of Thórir he got -quarters. Leif took fifteen men from the rock, and was afterwards called -Leif the Lucky. He was now rich and respected; that winter a disease -came among the men of Thórir, and he and the greater part of his men, -and also Eirek, the Red, died. There was much talk about Leif’s Vinland -journey, and his brother Thorvald thought the land had been explored too -little. Leif then said to him: ‘Thou shalt go with my ship, brother, if -thou likest, to Vinland, but it shall first fetch the timber of Thórir -from the rock. This was done” (Flateyjarbók, i. 538). - - - _Third Voyage._ - - -“Now Thorvald made ready (in Greenland, where his father Eirek lived), -with the help of his brother Leif, for this voyage with thirty men. They -prepared their ship and sailed to sea, and nothing is told of their -journey till they came to Vinland, to the booths of Leif.... They sat -quiet that winter and caught fish for food. In the spring Thorvald told -them to make the ship ready, and sent the boat with some men to go west -and explore the land during the summer. The country seemed to them fair -and covered with forests; there was a short space between the forest and -the sea, and the sands were white. There were shallows and many small -islets. They found no abodes of men or animals, except in a westerly -island, where they found a corn barn of wood. They found no other traces -of men, and went back and came to the booths of Leif in the autumn. The -next summer Thorvald went with his ship north-east along the coast. A -strong gale burst on them off a cape, where they were driven ashore, and -the keel of the ship was broken. They stayed there long and repaired it. -Thorvald said to his followers: ‘I want you to raise the keel upright -here on the ness, and call it Kjalarnes (Keel cape). This they did. Then -they sailed thence in an easterly direction off the land, into the fjord -mouths nearest the cape, which projected there, and which was covered -with trees. They cast anchor and took their gangways ashore, and -Thorvald walked up with all his followers. He said: ‘This is a fine -country, and here I should like to raise my bœr.’ Then they walked down -to the ship, and saw three marks on the sand inside the cape, where they -found three _skin-boats_ (canoes) with three men under each. They -divided their men and took them all, except one who escaped with his -boat. They killed the other eight, and then again went to the cape and -looked round, and saw some eminences in the inner part of the fjord, -which they thought were houses. Thereupon such drowsiness came over them -that they could not keep awake, and all fell asleep. Then they heard a -voice shouting which roused them all, saying: ‘Wake Thorvald and all thy -men if thou wishest to save thy life. Go on board thy ship with all thy -men, and leave the land as quickly as you can.’ Innumerable skin-boats -came out along the fjord and attacked them. Thorvald said: ‘Let me put -war hurdles on the sides, and defend ourselves as best we can, but kill -few of them.’ This they did, and the Skrœlingjar[449] shot at them for a -while, and then fled, each one as quickly as he could. Thorvald asked -his men if they were wounded. They said they were not. ‘I have got a -wound under my arm,’ he said, ‘an arrow flew between the gunwale and the -shield under my arm, and here is the arrow; this will cause my death. I -advise you to prepare to go back as soon as you can, but you shall take -me to the cape, which appeared to me to be the most habitable. It may be -that truth has come out of my mouth, and that I shall live there for a -while. You shall bury me there, and put crosses at my head and feet, and -henceforward call it Krossanes’ (Cross Cape). Greenland was then -Christian, though Eirek, the Red, died before the introduction of -Christianity. Thorvald died, and they carried out his wish, and then -went to their other companions,[450] and told each other the tidings -they knew. They lived there that winter, and took grapes and vines on -board with them. In the spring they made ready for Greenland, and landed -in Eireksfjord, and had great tidings to tell Leif” (Flateyjarbók, i. -541). - - -“Thorstein, son of Eirek, the Red, desired to go to Vinland to fetch the -body of his brother Thorvald. He made the same ship ready, and took on -board picked men as to strength and size, twenty-five men, and his wife, -Gudrid. They sailed to sea when ready, and the land disappeared. They -were thrown hither and thither all the summer, and knew not where they -were. When a week had passed of the winter they landed in Lysufjord, in -the western settlement of Greenland. Thorstein searched for houses, and -got lodgings for all his men, while he and his wife had no lodgings. -They two remained on board for some nights. Christianity was then still -young in Greenland.” - - -Thorstein the Black, a heathen man, offered them lodgings. - - -“Early in the winter a disease came among the men of Thorstein, and many -of them died. He had coffins made for the corpses, and had them brought -on board and prepared, ‘for I want to take them all to Eireksfjord in -the summer,’ said he. After a short time the disease came into the house -of Thorstein the Black, and first his wife Grimhild fell sick. She was -very large and strong, like men, but nevertheless the disease laid her -up. Soon after Thorstein Eireksson fell sick, and they were in their -beds, and Grimhild died. When she was dead, Thorstein the Black walked -out of the room to fetch a board, and lay the body on it. Gudrid said: -‘Do not be long away, my good Thorstein.’ He answered he would not. -Thorstein Eireksson said: ‘Strange does our housewife look now, for she -rises on her elbow, draws up her feet, and searches for her shoes with -her hand.’ Then Thorstein came in, Grimhild lay down, and every timber -of the room creaked. Thorstein made a coffin for the body, took it away, -and prepared it. He was large and strong, but needed it to take it away. -Thorstein Eireksson’s illness grew worse, and he died. His wife, Gudrid, -did not like it well. They were all in one room. Gudrid sat on a chair -in front of the bench on which lay her husband, Thorstein. Thorstein the -Black took her off the chair in his arms, and sat on another bench with -her opposite Thorstein’s body. He talked much, and consoled her, and -promised to go with her to Eireksfjord with the bodies of her husband -and his men, and to have more people stay there for her entertainment -and consolement. She thanked him. Then Thorstein Eireksson rose and -said: ‘Where is Gudrid?’ Three times he said this, but she was silent, -and said to Thorstein: ‘Shall I answer or not.’ He said, ‘Do not.’ He -walked across the floor and sat on the chair with Gudrid on his knee. He -said: ‘What dost thou want, namesake?’ Thorstein answered after a while: -‘I long to tell her fate.’” - - -The dead man proceeds to tell that he is in heaven himself, and that she -will be married in Iceland. Thereupon these two who were alive, -Thorstein the Black and Gudrid, went home to Eirek the Red.[451] - - - _Fourth Voyage._ - - -“This summer a ship came from Norway to Greenland. Thorfinn Karlsefni -steered it. He was the son of Thórd Hesthöfdi (horse-head), son of -Snorri, son of Thórd. Thorfinn was very wealthy, and during the winter -stayed in Brattahlid (West Greenland) with Leif Eireksson. He soon fell -in love with Gudrid (widow of Thorstein Eireksson), and asked her in -marriage, but she referred the answer to Leif. Then she was betrothed to -him, and their wedding took place that winter. The voyages to Vinland -were talked over as they had been before, and both Gudrid and others -strongly urged Karlsefni to go. He resolved to go, and manned the ship -with sixty men and five women. Karlsefni and his men made an agreement -that they would divide equally all goods which they might acquire. They -took all kinds of cattle with them, for they intended, if possible, to -settle in the land. Karlsefni asked Leif for his houses in Vinland, and -Leif answered he would lend him the houses, but not give them. Thereupon -they sailed out to sea, arrived safely at Leif’s booths, and carried -their _skin-bags_ ashore. They soon found good and plentiful provisions, -for a large and fine whale had been driven ashore. They went there and -cut up the whale, and there was no lack of food. The cattle walked up on -land, and the male cattle soon became wild, and caused a deal of -trouble. They had taken with them a bull. Karlsefni had trees felled and -cut for his ship, and spread them on a rock to dry them. They used all -the produce of the land, grapes, and all kinds of fish and good things. -After this first winter the summer came, and they became aware of the -presence of the _Skrœlingjar_. A large host of men came out of the -forest, near the place where their cattle were. The bull began to bellow -out ... very loudly, and the Skrœlingjar got scared and fled with their -burdens, which consisted of grey fur and sable, and all kinds of skins. -They went to Karlsefni’s house, and wanted to get in. Karlsefni had the -door guarded. Neither understood the other’s speech. The Skrœlingjar -took down their burdens and untied them, and offered to exchange them, -chiefly for weapons. Karlsefni forbade his men to sell weapons; but -tried a new way, and told the women to carry the produce of the cattle -out to them. As soon as they saw it they wanted to buy it and nothing -else. The end of the bargaining of the Skrœlingjar was that they carried -the produce away in their stomachs, and Karlsefni and his companions -kept their loads and skins. Then they went away. Karlsefni now had a -strong palisade-wall made round his house, and they made themselves -comfortable inside. About this time Gudrid, his wife, bore a boy, who -was called Snorri. At the beginning of the second winter the Skrœlingjar -came to them in much larger numbers than before, and with the same -goods. Karlsefni said to the women: ‘Now you shall carry out the same -food which was so abundant the last time, and nothing else.’ When the -Skrœlingjar saw this, they threw their loads in over the wall. Gudrid -sat in the door with the cradle of her son Snorri. A shadow appeared on -the wall, and a woman entered in a black kirtle, rather short, with a -lace round her head, with light brown hair, and a pale face. Gudrid had -never seen such large eyes in a human head. She walked to her seat and -said: ‘What is thy name?’ ‘I am called Gudrid, but what is thy name?’ -said Gudrid. ‘I am called Gudrid,’ she answered. Gudrid, housewife, -stretched out her hand to seat her at her side, but at the same moment -she heard a loud crack, and the woman disappeared, and a Skrœlingi was -slain by one of Karlsefni’s men, for he wanted to take their weapons. -The Skrœlingjar hurried away, leaving their clothes and weapons there. -No one except Gudrid had seen this woman. Karlsefni said: ‘Now we must -make our plans, for I think they will visit us a third time with war and -many men. Now let ten men go out on this ness and show themselves there, -and the rest of our men shall go into the forest and make a clearing for -our cattle, in order to attack the foe when they come out of the forest. -We will also take our bull and let it walk in front of us.’ On one side -of this place to which they were going was a lake, and on the other a -forest. They followed Karlsefni’s advice. The Skrœlingjar came to the -place which Karlsefni intended for battle. A fight ensued, and many of -the Skrœlingjar fell. There was a large and fine man in the Skrœlingjar -host, and Karlsefni thought him to be their chief. One of the -Skrœlingjar took an axe, looked at it for awhile, aimed a blow at one of -his own companions, and struck him so that he fell dead at once. The -large man took the axe, looked at it for a while, and then threw it into -the sea as far as he could. Then each fled into the forest as quickly as -he could, and thus the fight ended. Karlsefni stayed there all that -winter. In the spring he declared he would not stay there any longer, -but wanted to go to Greenland. They made themselves ready, and took with -them many good things, vines, grapes, and skins. They set sail, and -landed with their ship safe in Eireksfjord, and stayed there during the -winter” (Flateyjarbók, i.). - - -In another account we read: - - -“At Brattahlid in Greenland (about 1006–1007) there was great talk about -going to look for Vinland the good, for it was said that good choice of -land was to be had there. It went so far that two Icelanders, Karlsefni -and Snorri prepared their vessel to seek for it in the spring. With them -went two men before mentioned, Bjarni and Thorhall, in their own -ship.... They had altogether one hundred and sixty men when they sailed -from Greenland. They sailed southwards for two days and then saw land, -put out their boat, and examined the country. They found there large -slabs (hella), many of them twenty-four feet wide; there were also a -great many foxes. They gave it the name of Helluland (Slab-land). Thence -they sailed for two days, and turning from south to south-east, found a -wooded country in which there were many animals. To the south-east of it -there lay an island, where they killed a bear, and therefore called it -Bjarney (Bear Island), and the land itself Markland (Forestland) (Nova -Scotia?)” (Thorfinn Karlsefni’s Saga, c. vii.). - - -“One of the men who went with Thorfinn Karlsefni to Vinland was called -Thorhall the Hunter. He had long been with Eirek (the Red, who -discovered Greenland), and was his hunter in the summer and his bailiff -(= bryti) in the winter” (See Volva. Thorfinn Karlsefni’s Saga, 408; -Grönland’s Historiske Mindesmœrker, i.). - - -The fifth voyage to America, mentioned in the Sagas, is of least -interest: Freydis, a sister of Leif, persuaded two brothers, Helgi and -Finnbogi, to go over with her; when they reached America a quarrel broke -out among them, and after the brothers had been killed by Freydis’ men, -she returned to Greenland without having explored the country. - ------ - -Footnote 439: - - For the story of Flóki taking three ravens with him in order to guide - him on his expedition to Iceland. - -Footnote 440: - - A lost Saga. - -Footnote 441: - - There is no account of Gunnbjorn’s journey. - -Footnote 442: - - Fourteenth century. - -Footnote 443: - - The laws were, according to Landnáma, enacted A.D. 1000. - -Footnote 444: - - Hafgerding = the walls of the ocean, monster waves on the ocean. - -Footnote 445: - - Cf. Harald Hardrádi at Stamfordbridge. - -Footnote 446: - - Hella = a plain of ice, a cover of ice. - -Footnote 447: - - _Eykt_—the word is found in the early Christian laws—Kristinrett of - Thorlak and Ketil, two bishops in Iceland—where it is defined as the - time of the day when the sun has passed two parts of the south-west - and the other third is left. - -Footnote 448: - - _Dagmál_, the early meal in Iceland, which is now from 8.30 A.M. to - 9.00 A.M. - -Footnote 449: - - Probably Indians, as Esquimaux did not live so far south. - -Footnote 450: - - I.e., who had been left at the booths. - -Footnote 451: - - Evidently the Christian writer, abhorring the heathen people, - attributed the plague to them and also the unnatural talk of the dead, - which was, perhaps, invented by him. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - THE ORKNEYS AND HEBRIDES. - - Early expeditions—The Vikings and the Kings of Scotland—The Vikings - in Wales. - - -We gather from the Sagas that, even for a long time before Harald -Harfagr, the Orkneys and Hebrides were a great rendezvous for Vikings; -and in the Orkneyinga Saga we read: - - -“Thus it is said that in the days of Harald Harfagr the Orkneys were -settled; but ere that time there was a Viking rendezvous.” - - -Their geographical position, the prevailing winds during a great part of -the year in the North Sea, favourable for vessels going westward from -Norway or the Baltic, made these islands of special importance. There -met many a Viking fleet, unknown to the enemy, previous to a concerted -attack on Scotland, Northumberland, England, or Ireland. - - -“King Harald (Fairhair) heard that far and wide, in the middle of the -land, ravaged the Vikings, who, during the winters, stayed west of the -sea. He had a levy out every summer, and searched islands and -outskerries; but as soon as the Vikings became aware of his host, they -all fled, and mostly out to sea. The king got tired of this, and one -summer (about 880) sailed with his host westward. He first came to -Shetland (Hjaltland), and there slew all the Vikings who did not flee. -Then he sailed southward to the Orkneys, and cleared them of Vikings. -After this he went as far as the Hebrides (Sudreyjar) and ravaged there, -killing many Vikings who before had ruled over warriors. He fought there -many battles, and was always victorious. Then he ravaged in Scotland, -and had a battle there. When he went westward to the Isle of Man, the -people had heard what ravages he had before made there, and they fled -into Scotland; the country was deserted, and all movable property had -been removed, so that the king and his men got no booty there. - -“In these battles fell Ivar, son of Rögnvald Jarl of Mœri; as indemnity, -King Harald gave to Rögnvald Jarl, when he sailed home, the Orkneys and -Shetlands; but Rögnvald gave his brother Sigurd both, and remained -behind in the west. When the king sailed eastward he created Sigurd a -Jarl. Then joined in companionship with him Thorstein the Red,[452] son -of Olaf the White and Aud the Wise. They ravaged in Scotland, and took -possession of Katanes (Caithness) and Sudrland (Sutherland) as far as -Ekkjalsbakki. Sigurd slew the Scotch Jarl, Melbrigdi, and tied his head -to his saddle-straps; the tooth which projected from the Jarl’s head -wounded the calf of Sigurd’s leg, which swelled, and he died therefrom; -he is mounded at Ekkjalsbakki. After this ruled his son, Guthorm, one -winter; he died childless; and there settled in the country many -Vikings, Danes, and Northmen” (Harald Fairhair’s Saga, c. 22). - - -In the following extract we find Irish and Norwegians fighting against -Einar Jarl of the Orkneys:— - - -“The same summer (1018) Eyvind Urarborn went westward on a Viking -expedition, and in the autumn came to Konofogor, a king in Ireland. In -the autumn the Irish king and Einar Jarl of the Orkneys met in -Ulfreksfjord, and there ensued a great battle. King Konofogor had many -more warriors and obtained the victory. Einar Jarl fled with one ship, -and in the autumn returned to the Orkneys, after having lost most of his -men and all their booty. The Jarl liked this journey little, and laid -the blame of his defeat on the Northmen, who were with the Irish king” -(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 87). - - -The following extract shows, among other things, the relations which -existed between the Vikings and the old kings of Scotland:— - - -“Thorfinn now became a great chief, and got much land from his -grandfather, King Malcolm of Scotland. The latter, however, died, and -Karl Hundason became king. He thought himself entitled also to -possession of Caithness, and demanded taxes from it as from other parts -of his realm; but Thorfinn thought his was the least inheritance he -ought to get after his grandfather, especially as it had been given to -him, and therefore he refused to pay any tax. King Karl then made his -nephew, Moddan, Jarl of Caithness; he gathered many men in Sutherland -(Sudrland). When this news reached Thorfinn, he gathered warriors in -Caithness, and Thorkel came to his assistance with a large force from -the Orkneys. The Scots now found that Thorfinn had more men than they, -and retreated; whereupon Thorfinn Jarl subjugated Sutherland and Ross, -and ravaged widely in Scotland, and returned to _Dungalsbæ_ (Duncansby) -in Caithness. Moddan returned to King Karl in Berwick, who became very -angry when informed of the treatment his nephew had received. - -“He embarked with eleven fully-equipped longships, while Moddan was to -march overland to Caithness, where the two forces should meet, thus -getting Thorfinn between two fires. The king did not stop until he -neared Caithness. When Thorfinn became aware of his presence, he with -his five ships stood out into the Pentland Firth, intending to sail to -the Orkneys. Thorfinn thereupon sailed along the islands, bound for -Sandvik, and reached Dyrnes (Dearness), where he sent word to Thorkel to -gather men. As he was lying in under Dyrnes, in the morning when it -became light he beheld Karl not far off. He held a consultation with -Thorkel about what had best be done, and he advised to abandon the ships -and go ashore, and thus escape; but Thorfinn decided to fight with the -force he had, and urged his men to behave manfully. They thereupon rowed -against the king’s fleet, and attacked it fiercely. The battle was long -and hard; and when Thorfinn saw the king’s own ship, he urged his men to -board it; at which he ordered his whole fleet to be cut loose, and his -men to take the oars and row away. Thorfinn himself reached the stem of -the king’s ship, and ordered his standard to be carried upon it, and -many brave men followed him up. The king jumped on another vessel with -such of his men as were still standing—for most of them had fallen. He -rode away, and all the Scots fled. - -“King Karl sailed to Breidafjord (Broadfirth), where he went ashore and -gathered a fresh host. - -“After the battle Thorfinn also retired, and met Thorkel, who had -gathered a strong force, with which they sailed southward to Breidafjord -(Broadfirth), and began to plunder there. Then they heard that Moddan, -with a large force, was at Thorsa (Thurso) in Caithness, and had besides -sent to Ireland for warriors. Thorfinn and Thorkel consulted, and agreed -that the latter should proceed to Caithness with some of the host, while -the former should remain with the remainder, and ravage in Scotland. -Thorkel thereupon marched secretly, for all the people of Caithness were -true and devoted to them, and no news spread before he reached Thorsa at -night and the house of Moddan Jarl, which he set on fire. As he ran out -he was killed by Thorkel. Thereupon he rejoined the Jarl, who thanked -him greatly for his work. - -“King Karl gathered men all over Scotland, and also had the force which -came from Ireland to help Moddan Jarl. At Torfnes, south of the -Breidafjord, the two armies met; and, although the Scots were far more -numerous, they were badly defeated, and the king fled, or, as some say, -was slain. - -“The Jarl then subjugated Scotland as far south as Fife (Fifi). He sent -Thorkel away with some of his men. When the Scots found this out, they -went to attack him, who, however, gathered the men he had, and defeated -them; whereupon, to avenge their treachery, he ravaged the country, -killing all men he could find. - -“The Jarl then sailed northward to Caithness, and there passed the -winter” (Orkneyinga Saga). - - -Hence we find the Northern chiefs ruling over Wales. - - -“It is said that Palnatoki one summer, as usual, was on Viking -expeditions, and had twelve well-manned ships. At this time Jarl Stefnir -ruled over Bretland (Wales); he had a daughter called Olöf, who was a -wise and well-liked woman, and a very good match. It is said that -Palnatoki landed his ships there, and wanted to make warfare in the land -of Stefnir Jarl. When this was heard of, Olöf, with Bjorn Brezki (the -Britisher), who was her foster-brother and often gave her advice, took -the resolve to invite Palnatoki home to a feast, with great honours, and -he should have there peaceland, and not ravage. - -“Palnatoki and his men accepted this, and went to the feast; and at it -Palnatoki asked in marriage the Jarl’s daughter; he got her easily, and -the woman was promised to him, and then betrothed; the betrothal lasted -no longer than that their wedding took place at this feast; and -moreover, the name of Jarl was given to Palnatoki, and one half of the -realm of Stefnir Jarl if he would settle there; and after his death he -should have all, for Olöf was his only heir. Palnatoki stayed in -Bretland the rest of the summer, and also during the winter. In the -spring he announced that he wanted to go home to Denmark; but before he -went, he said to Bjorn the British: ‘Now I want thee, Bjorn, to stay -here with my father-in-law, Stefnir, and rule the land with him on my -behalf; for he begins to grow very old, and it is not unlikely that I -may not soon come back; and if I do not return, and the Jarl dies, I -want thee to take care of the whole realm till I come back.’ After this -Palnatoki went away with his wife Olöf; he had a good voyage, and came -home to Fjon (Fyen) in Denmark, and stayed at home for a while, and was -thought the next best man in Denmark, and the most powerful and wisest -next to the king. - -“It is now told that the next summer after the arvel-feast after King -Harald, Olöf, the wife of Palnatoki, fell sick and died. After her -death, Palnatoki did not like to live in Bretland, and placed Bjorn the -British to take care of that realm. He then made thirty ships ready, and -intended to go on Viking expeditions and warfare. He left the land as -soon as he was ready to go, and that summer made warfare in Scotland and -England, and won for himself much property and fame in his expeditions. -He continued this for twelve summers, and got well off both in property -and honour” (Jomsvikinga Saga). - - ------ - -Footnote 452: - - Thorstein the Red was slain by the Scots about 888. - - - - - APPENDIX. I. - THE TESTIMONY OF THE FRANKISH ANNALS. - -From the Frankish annals of the time of Charlemagne and his sons, we -know that before the period of Harold Fairhair (b. 850; d. 933), and -consequently before the conquest by Gangu Hrolf of the country called -Normandy, the Sueones (Swedes) and Danes, who were also called Northmen -by the Chroniclers, attacked and overran the ancient Gaul in every -direction. They captured Paris and many other important cities, and also -devastated a great part of the present Germany, and extended their -expeditions to the Alps. From a passage in Eginhard we find that the -Norwegians are also mentioned; while the Frankish coins found in the -present Norway show that its inhabitants had intercourse with the empire -of Charlemagne, as they had previously had with Rome. - -The Frankish, English, Irish, and Arabian records afford us even a -fuller and clearer insight than do the Sagas into the maritime power and -great activity of the seafaring tribes of the North, and of their -migrations during the ninth and tenth centuries. This maritime power, as -we have seen, was already very formidable during the Roman domination of -Gaul and Britain. If we have a break in the continuity of these maritime -expeditions between the fall of the Roman Empire and the time of -Charlemagne, it is on account of the lack of records, owing to the chaos -that followed the fall and disintegration of the Roman dominion. - -The Sagas supply us to some extent with the needed information; they -mention how chiefs like Ivar Vidfamme, Harald Hildetonn, Sigurd Hring, -Ragnar Lodbrok, and others engaged extensively in Western and Eastern -expeditions, and claimed part of England as belonging to them. From the -foreign annals we realize more fully what was implied in the Sagas by -the simple phrase that particular chiefs had been, or were, engaged in -Eastern and Western expeditions: viz., armaments on the most formidable -scale were organized for the subjection of different countries—armaments -and expeditions which could only have been possible for a people in an -advanced state of civilisation. Of these expeditions the Frankish annals -give us the most graphic and detailed accounts. - -The particulars concerning the sieges of towns given in the Sagas are -very meagre and very rare. We only know that the catapult, called -_val-slöngva_ (war-sling), or _manga_ (“mangonel”), seems to have been -used for sieges, &c. - -That these were well known to the Northmen at an early time, we have -ample proofs. - -Great strength of arm was requisite for their use, as several stones at -a time were often shot from one catapult. - -The Frankish annals, describing one of the sieges of Paris by the -Northmen, show us how these machines were used by them. We have minute -and graphic descriptions of their mode of warfare, and especially the -methods they adopted in besieging towns—subjects that are very little -noticed in the Sagas, which generally give only results, and -consequently are not of much value to the student of history. - -We will proceed to quote a few extracts from the writings of Eginhard, -the historian of Charlemagne, which bear testimony to the formidable -power of the Northmen in his time. - - * * * * * - -In 777 Charlemagne had summoned an assembly of chiefs at Paderborn. - - -“All came before him except Witekind, a Westphalian chief, who, feeling -himself guilty of many crimes, and fearing in consequence to present -himself, had fled to Siegfried, king of the Danes.” - -788. “An arm of the sea of unknown length [the Baltic], but exceeding -nowhere a hundred thousand paces in width, and in many places much -narrower, extends from the western ocean towards the east. Many nations -inhabit its shores; the Danes and the Sueones, whom we call Northmen, -occupy the northern shore and all the islands; on the southern shore are -Sclavonians, the Aistes and other people.” - -800. “Spring having returned, the king (Charlemagne) quitted -Aix-la-Chapelle, about the middle of March, traversed the shore of the -Gallic ocean, constructed a fleet on the same ocean, then desolated by -the piracies of the Northmen, and placed garrisons along the shores.” - -804. “At this time Godfrey, king of the Danes, came with a fleet and all -the horsemen of his kingdom, to a place called Schlesvig, on the borders -of his realm and that of Saxony.” - -808. “A last war was undertaken against the Northmen, whom we call -Danes, and their king, Godfrey, was so inflated with proud hopes, that -he promised himself the empire of all Germany. Frisia and Saxony he -looked upon as provinces belonging to himself. - -“Wishing to assemble a fleet to fight the Northmen, Charlemagne had -ships built on all the rivers of Gaul and Germany which flow into the -Northern ocean; and, as the Northmen devastated in their continual -voyages the coasts of both these countries, he erected solid structures -at the entrances of all the harbours and navigable mouths of rivers -which could receive vessels, and thus blocked the route of the enemy.” - -810. “The emperor, then at Aix-la-Chapelle, planned an expedition -against King Godfrey. He suddenly received tidings that a fleet of two -hundred ships, coming from the country of the Northmen, had landed in -Frisia, and ravaged all the islands adjacent to this shore; that this -army had gone inland, and that three battles had taken place between it -and the Frisians; that the Danish conquerors had imposed a tribute on -the conquered; that, under the name of a tax, a hundred pounds of silver -had been paid by the Frisians; and that King Godfrey was on his return -home. These reports proving true, the emperor was so vexed that he sent -messengers in every direction to collect an army, left his palace at -once, and joined his fleet. He passed the Rhine at Lippenheim, and -resolved to await there the troops which had not yet arrived. His army -assembled, the Emperor went as quickly as possible to the river Aller, -pitched his tents near the confluence of this river with the Weser and -awaited the result of the threats of Godfrey; for this king, puffed up -with the vain hope of victory, boasted that he would try his strength -with the army of the emperor. - -“After he had remained here some time he heard, among other things, that -the fleet which had devastated Frisia, had returned to Denmark; that -King Godfrey had been slain by one of his servants; that a fort near the -Elbe, named Hobbuck (supposed to be Hamburg), in which were Odo, the -emperor’s envoy, and a garrison of eastern Saxons, had been taken by the -Wiltzes.... Hemming, son of the brother of Godfrey, king of the Danes, -succeeded him, and made peace with the emperor.” - - -From the following we find that the Norwegians and Danes are confounded -with each other, as were at times all the tribes of the North. Danish -princes are said to live on the shores opposite Britain (Norway). - - -813. “The emperor sent noble Franks and Saxons into the country of the -Northmen, beyond the Elbe, to make peace with the Danes, according to -the wish of their kings, and to give back their brother. The Danish -nobles came to the place appointed, in number equal to that of the -Franks (they were sixteen on each side); peace was confirmed by oaths, -and the Franks gave up to the Danes the brother of their kings. These -princes were not then in their own country, but had gone to Westerfulde -with an army. This country, the most distant of their kingdom, is -situated to the north-west, and looks to the north of Britain.” - - -Charlemagne died in 814 and was succeeded by his son Louis le -Debonnaire. During the early years of his reign, he appears to have kept -on friendly terms with the Northmen, who were suffering from internal -dissensions, owing to the succession being disputed between Heriold, and -the sons of King Godfrey. Louis espoused the cause of Heriold, and we -read that in - - -828. “Lothaire returned to his father at Aix-la-Chapelle. As they -proceeded to occupy the frontier of the Northmen, both in order to renew -the alliance between these peoples and the Franks, and to protect the -interests of Heriold, and when almost all the counts of Saxony had -united for this purpose with the commanders of the marches, Heriold, too -eager to hasten the conclusion of the matter, broke the peace pledged -and guaranteed by hostages, and ravaged and burned some farms of the -Northmen. Hearing this the sons of Godfrey quickly collected troops, -marched to the frontier, crossed the Eider river, and falling upon our -men, camped upon the bank, who were not expecting such an attack, took -the entrenchments, put the defenders to flight, pillaged everything, and -returned to camp with all their force.” - -829. “He received the information that the Northmen contemplated the -seizure of the part of Saxony beyond the Elbe, and that, with this -design, their army had already approached our frontiers. Greatly -troubled at this, he sent into all the countries of the Franks to order -the people in mass, to march toward Saxony with all haste, and announced -that he, in person, would cross the Rhine at Nuitz in the middle of -July.” - - -From the annals of Bertin we take the following extract:— - - -841. “The Danish pirates, from the shores of the North, made an -irruption into the territory of Rouen, and, carrying everywhere the fury -of pillage, fire and sword, gave up the city, the monks, and the rest of -the people to carnage and captivity, devastated all the monasteries and -other places near the Seine, and left them filled with terror, after -having received much silver.... To Harold who, for his cause and to the -prejudice of his father, had brought with the other Danes much evil to -the maritime districts, Lothair gave for his services Walcheren and the -neighbouring region—a disgraceful forfeit.” - -842. “At this time a fleet of Northmen came suddenly, at break of day, -into the district of Amiens, plundering, capturing, and killing persons -of both sexes, leaving nothing but buildings ransomed by silver.” - -843. “The Northern pirates arrived in the city of Nantes, after having -killed the bishop and many of the priests, and laymen, and others, -without distinction of sex, and, having pillaged the city, ravaged the -lower parts of Aquitaine; finally, reaching a certain island, causing -earth to be brought thither, they built houses to pass the winter, and -there established themselves as in a permanent abode....” - -844. “The Northmen, having advanced by the Garonne as far as Toulouse, -plundered with impunity the region on every side; a detachment proceeded -thence into Galicia, and there perished—some from the bowmen -(arbalêtriers) sent against them, and some in a storm at sea; but -others, penetrating farther into Spain, had long and severe battles with -the Saracens; but at length were vanquished, and retreated.” - -845. “The Northmen, with a hundred vessels, on March 20th, entered the -Seine, ravaging here and there, and arrived, without resistance, at -Paris. Charles had intended to go against them; but foreseeing that -there was no hope of his men gaining the advantage, he let them alone; -and, by a gift of seven thousand livres, prevented their advance, and -persuaded them to return.... - -“The Danes, who the year before had laid waste Aquitaine, quietly -established themselves therein....” - -846. “Eurich, king of the Northmen, advanced against Louis in Germany, -with six hundred vessels, along the river Elbe. The Saxons went to meet -them, engaged them in battle, and by the aid of our Lord Jesus Christ, -gained the victory; in their retreat the Northmen attacked and captured -a city of the Esclavons.... - -“The Northmen again descended the Seine, and, returning to the sea, -pillaged, devastated, and burned all the districts of the shore.... When -they had plundered and burned a monastery named St. Bertin, and were -returning to their ships laden with spoils, they were so smitten by -Divine justice, or blinded by darkness and madness, that only a small -number escaped to announce to the others the ways of Almighty God.” - -846. “The Danish pirates come into Frisia and levy at will -contributions, and, victorious in battles, remain masters of almost all -the province....” - -847. “The Danes come into the lower parts of Gaul inhabited by the -Bretons, and gain a victory over them in three battles. Noménoe, -vanquished, flees with his men, and then, by presents sent, leads them -to leave his country....” - -859. “The Danish pirates having made a long circuit by sea, for they had -sailed between Spain and Africa, enter the Rhone, plunder many cities -and monasteries, and establish themselves in the island called -Camargue.” - -860. “Those of these Danes who had established themselves on the Rhone -came, ravaging on their way to the city of Valentia; then, having -plundered all the neighbouring regions, returned to the island where -they had taken up their abode.” - -“The Danes on the Rhone go towards Italy, take and plunder Pisa and -other cities....” - - -We might give many more extracts from the Annals of St. Bertin and the -Annals of Metz; but the above will suffice to show that in the latter -part of the 9th century these Northmen were carrying their incursions, -with hundreds of ships and thousands of men, all over Europe, ascending -its great rivers, ravaging its coasts, marching through and then -settling in its countries, and levying tribute from the people. - -In the Narrative of Abbon, we have a striking and graphic description, -by an eye-witness, of one of the Sieges of Paris by the Northmen, which -lasted from November 885 to May 887. The special value of the narrative -to us lies in the minute description which it contains of the methods -adopted by the Vikings in attacking a town or fortress. Abbon begins by -describing the arrival of the fleet of the Northmen in the river. - - -“Thy (Paris’s) blood was poured out by these barbarians, who came on -board of seven hundred sailing vessels, and innumerable smaller ships -commonly called barques. The deep-water bed of the Seine was so covered -by them that its waters could not be seen for a space of more than six -miles: one asked with astonishment in what cave the river had hidden -itself; it could not be seen; the pine, the oak, and the alder entirely -concealed its surface.” - -“The Danes then make, astonishing to see, three huge machines, mounted -on sixteen wheels—monsters made of immense oak trees bound together; -upon each was placed a battering ram, covered with a high roof—in the -interior and on the sides of which could be placed and concealed, they -said, sixty men armed with their helmets. The besiegers had already -finished one of these machines of suitable form and size; a second was -soon made, and they were at work on a third; but from the tower they -shot accurately, with the whole force of the bowstring and javelin -against the workers on them. Thus they were the first to receive the -death they were preparing for us; and when one of these cruel machines -was destroyed, the other soon followed. - -“From the hide torn from the neck and back of young bulls, the Danes -then made a thousand large bucklers, which a Latin writer would call -_pluteos_[453] or _crates_,[454] each one of which would cover four or -six men even. During the night, the enemy gave themselves no rest, and -not a moment of sleep; they sharpened, repaired, and forged swift -missiles, strengthened their old shields, and made new ones.... (At -sunrise) suddenly the Danes, the progeny of Satan, armed with their -formidable missiles, rushed furiously from their camp, and like light -bees, ran toward the tower. Born for our misfortune, they advanced with -their backs bent under the bows; the missiles quiver on their shoulders, -their swords cover the ground, their shields hide from sight the waters -of the Seine; thousands of leaden balls, scattered like a thick hail in -the air, fall upon the city, and powerful catapults thunder upon the -forts which defend the bridge. Mars, reawaking his fury, extends in -every direction his fierce empire. The citizens are terrified, the -trumpets give forth violent bursts, and fear seizes on those who guard -the towers. Still there were seen many great and bold men; above all, -the prelate Gozlio shone conspicuous; then his nephew, the brave Abbé -Ebble; admirable also were Robert, Eudes, Ragenaire, Ulton, Herilang; -all these were counts; but the most noble of all was Eudes, who laid low -as many Danes as he threw javelins....” - -_January 29, 886._—“The fierce Dane divided his army into three bodies, -ranged in the form of a wedge. The largest he opposed to the tower, and -the two others, borne on painted ships, he directed against the bridge; -thinking that, if he could gain possession of the bridge, the tower -would soon be in his power.... The tower, reddened with blood, groans -under the blows which strike it.... At its base are seen at a distance -only the painted shields which cover the ground and hide it from sight; -in every direction can be seen only the fatal stones and cruel missiles -which fly in the air like dense swarms of bees; the sky itself between -the tower and the clouds is obscured by them. Loud cries are heard, and -everywhere reigns the greatest fear, amid terrible noises. Some attack, -others resist: and the Northmen, clashing their arms, add to the already -cruel horrors of battle. No child of earth has ever laid eyes upon so -many warriors on foot, armed with swords, moving in a single body, under -a painted testudo[455] of such immense size. The Danes made of this -testudo a roof which sheltered them but none dared to raise his head -above its protection, though beneath it their weapons caused a frightful -slaughter.... The fierce nation approached the desolated tower, under -the cover of their large bucklers made of wood and the skins of freshly -killed bulls; some pass the night under arms, others sleep, others scour -the roads, shooting their feathered arrows, from which is dropped -poison.” - - -[A two days’ attack followed, but without success; they tried in vain to -fill up the moat around the walls, throwing into it earth, trees, -leaves, grass, shrubs, slaughtered animals, and even human beings, their -captives.] - - -“Their ill-omened ranks tried in vain to fill up even a single ditch, or -to prostrate the tower by their battering rams. Furious at being unable -to get at us in open field, the Northmen take three of their highest -vessels, quickly fill them with whole trees with all their leaves on, -and set fire to them.” - -_January 31, 886._—“The east wind gently moves these ships vomiting -flame, and with ropes they drag them along the banks to destroy the -bridge and burn the tower; from the wood which fills them burst out -burning flames.” - - -[Then the whole populace call upon their patron saint, St. Germain, and -implore him to save them. The enemy’s vessels get aground upon a large -mass of stones heaped up to render the bridge firm; no harm is done to -it, and the besieged rush out, and sink the vessels in the river Seine. -Thus ended the combat for that day, and the night was quietly passed.] - -_February 1, 886._—“Next day the Danes secretly carry to their camp the -large bucklers which formed their testudo; they abandon two of their -rams, vulgarly called _carcamuses_, which they feared to carry away; and -our men took possession of them, and joyfully broke them in pieces. -Sigefroy, the king, by whom it was feared the gates of our tower would -have been burst in, then led away all his Danes. - -“The third day of this battle was that of the ‘Purification of the -Virgin.’ Nevertheless, the fatal cohorts of the Northmen went on board -their vessels, swifter than birds, and directed their course to the -eastern lands, then subject to the rule of Sad Austrasia, and which had -hitherto not suffered from the enemy’s ravages.” - -[Destroying in their course the deserted cottages of the famous Robert, -whom they slew, and in their turn defeated with great loss, they bravely -escaped to their ships without booty; they met with no greater success -at the church of St. Germain, miraculously defended by the Saint.] - - -_February 6, 886._—“Alas! during the silence of night the middle of the -bridge fell in, carried away by the force of the furious waters. It was -not so with the tower, which, built on land belonging to the happy -Saint, remained standing on its foundations. Both were on the right side -of the city. - -“At sunrise the cruel Danes awoke, boarded their vessels, filled them -with arms and shields, crossed the Seine, surrounded the unfortunate -tower, and assailed it repeatedly with showers of missiles. At last, -after a desperate fight, in which the besieged behaved nobly, the -infamous besiegers, seeing that nothing could bend these brave hearts, -brought before the gates of the unhappy tower a car filled with grains, -and set it on fire. Another fierce struggle takes place; the Danes allow -the flames to do their work, and retire; from want of vessels for -drawing water the tower was destroyed, and the besieged retired to the -end of the bridge which was still standing, and maintained the fight -till sundown.” - - ------ - -Footnote 453: - - _Plutei_: machines covered with _claies_ and skins of oxen, used to - protect sappers. - -Footnote 454: - - _Crates_: large bucklers made of osiers. - -Footnote 455: - - The _testudo_ of the Roman armies, in which the warriors’ shields are - interlocked like the scales of a tortoise, forming a protecting roof - for the undermining or attacking of walls. - - - - - APPENDIX II - FACSIMILES OF OLD NORSE MANUSCRIPTS. - - -[Illustration: - - (Knytlinga Saga.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Landnama, part iv.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Viga-Styr’s Saga, ch. 35.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Hardar Saga Grimkelssonar, ch. 11.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Hardar Saga Grimkelssonar, ch. 3.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Chronological fragment, 12th century.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Earlier Edda, complete page.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Later Edda.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Egil’s Saga.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Heimskringla.—Two columns.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (List of priests from the 12th century. Two columns.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Njal’s Saga.—Two columns.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Part of manuscript of Gragas.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Gunnlaug Ormstunga’s Saga, ch. 4.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Hænsa-Thóris Saga, ch. 5.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Saga of Víga-Styr and Heidarvíg.) -] - - - - - APPENDIX III. - ROMAN COINS FOUND IN SCANDINAVIA. - - -The following is a list of coins found at Hagestadborg, Scania (550); -and at Sindarfe, Gotland (1500). - - Nero (54–68 A.D.) 2 2 - Vitellius (69) 0 1 - Vespasianus (69–79) 1 16 - Titus (79–81) 0 5 - Domitianus (81–96) 2 10 - Nerva (96–98) 1 7 - Trajanus (98–117) 26 150 - Hadrianus (117–138) 33 225 - Sabina, wife of Hadrianus 6 11 - Ælius Cæsar (†138) 2 6 - Antoninus Pius (138–161) 136 321 - Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius 38 130 - Marcus Aurelius (161–180) 145 280 - Faustina the younger, wife of Marcus - Aurelius 52 97 - Lucius Verus (161–169) 21 16 - Lucilla, wife of Lucius Verus 11 22 - Commodus (180–192) 60 91 - Crispina, wife of Commodus 7 11 - Pertinax (193) 0 10 - Septimius Severus (193–211) 6 13 - Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus 1 0 - Barbaric imitations 0 4 - Uncertain (worn) 0 72 - ——— ————— - Total 550 1,500 - ——— ————— - - _Roman coins from Augustus up to the death of Alexander Severus._ - (29 B.C.-A.D. 235.) - - _Found up to 1869._ - - - _Gotland_: - - Augustus (29 B.C.-A.D. 14) (Silver) 1 - Nero (54–68) (Silver) 2 - Galba (68–69) (Silver) 3 - Otho (69) (Silver) 2 - Vespasianus (69–79) (Silver) 23 - Titus (79–81) (1 gold, 4 silver) 5 - Domitianus (81–96) 7 - Nerva (96–98) 5 - Trajanus (98–117) 157 - Hadrianus (117–138) 175 - Sabina, wife of Hadrianus 14 - Ælius Cæsar (†138) 1 - Antoninus Pius (138–161) 263 - Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius 96 - Marcus Aurelius (161–180) 251 - Faustina, wife of Marcus Aurelius 87 - L. Verus (161–165) 19 - Lucilla, wife of L. Verus 18 - Commodus (180–192) 86 - Crispina, wife of Commodus 11 - Pertinax (193) 1 - Manlia Scantilla, wife of Didius Julianus 1 - Clodius Albinus (†197) 1 - Septimius Severus (193–211) 4 - Julia Soæmias, mother of Elagabalus 1 - Alexander Severus (222–235) 1 - Effaced and uncertain 184 - ————— - 1 of gold, 1,422 of silver, total 1,423 - ————— - - - _Öland_: - - Vespasianus (69–79) (Silver) 2 - Trajanus (98–117) (Silver) 2 - Hadrianus (117–138) (Silver) 4 - Antoninus Pius (138–161) (Silver) 19 - Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius (1 brass, 6 silver) 7 - Marcus Aurelius (161–180) (Silver) 19 - Faustina, wife of Marcus Aurelius (Silver) 5 - L. Verus (161–169) (Silver) 3 - Lucilla, his wife (Silver) 4 - Commodus (180–192) (Silver) 9 - Julia Mæsa, grandmother of Elagabalus 1 - Alexander Severus(222–235) (Silver) 1 - Effaced or uncertain (Silver) 6 - —— - 81 of silver, 1 of brass, total 82 - —— - - - _Recapitulation._—_Entire Sweden_: - - Mainland (Gold) 1 - (Gold) (Silver) 15 - (Gold) (brass) 21 - Götland (Gold) 1 - (Gold) (Silver) 1,422 - Öland (Silver) 81 - (Gold) (brass) 1 - ————— - 2 gold, 1518 of silver, 22 of brass 1,542 - ————— - - - _Zealand_: - - Vespasianus (69–79) (Silver) 3 - Trajanus (98–117) (Brass) 1 - Hadrianus (117–138) (Silver) 6 - Sabina, wife of Hadrianus (Silver) 1 - Antoninus Pius (138–161) (Silver) 16 - Faustina senior, wife of Antoninus - Pius (Silver) 2 - M. Aurelius (161–180) (Silver) 5 - Faustina junior, wife of M. Aurelius (Silver) 4 - L. Verus (161–169) (Silver) 2 - Commodus (180–192) (Silver) 3 - Crispina, wife of Commodus (Silver) 3 - Septimius Severus (193–211) (Silver) 1 - Macrinus (217–218) (Silver) 1 - Effaced or uncertain (Silver) 728 - ——— - 475 silver and 1 brass, total 476 - ——— - - - _Fyen_: - - Tiberius (14–37) (Solidus, gold) 1 - Nerva (96–98) (Silver) 1 - Trajanus (98–117). (Silver) 1 - Lucius Verus (161–169) (Silver) 1 - Geta (211–212) (Gold) 1 - — - 2 of gold, and 3 of silver, total 5 - — - - The proportion of effaced or uncertain coins is enormous. - - - _Bornholm_: - - Nero (54–68) (Silver) 1 - Domitianus (81–96) (Silver) 1 - Trajanus (98–117) (Silver) 13 - Hadrianus (117–138) (Silver) 20 - Sabina, wife of Hadrianus (Silver) 2 - Antoninus Pius (138–161) (Silver) 49 - Faustina senior, wife of Antoninus - Pius (Silver) 8 - M. Aurelius (161–180) (Silver) 73 - Faustina junior, wife of Marcus - Aurelius (Silver) 11 - L. Verus (161–169) (Silver) 10 - Lucilla, wife of L. Verus (Silver) 3 - Commodus (180–192) (Silver) 34 - Crispina, wife of Conmmodus (Silver) 3 - Septimius Severus (193–211) (Silver) 1 - Effaced or uncertain (Silver) 7 - ——— - Total 236 - ——— - - - _Jutland_: - - Nero (54–68) (Silver) 1 - Vitellius (69) (Silver) 2 - Vespasianus (69–79) (Silver) 4 - Domitianus (81–96) (Silver) 1 - Trajanus (98–117) (Silver) 8 - Hadrianus (117–138) (Silver) 7 - Ælius Cæsar (†138) (Silver) 1 - Antoninus Pius (138–161) (1 large brass, 16 silver) 17 - Faustina senior, wife of Antoninus - Pius (Silver) 5 - M. Aurelius (161–180) (Silver) 10 - Faustina junior, wife of M. Aurelius (Silver) 3 - L. Verus (161–169) (Silver) 2 - Lucilla, wife of L. Verus (Silver) 2 - Commodus (180–192) (Silver) 8 - Septimius Severus (193–211) (Silver) 1 - Macrinus (217–218) (Silver) 1 - —— - 72 silver and 1 brass, total 73 - —— - - - _Recapitulation._ - - Bornholm (Silver) 236 - Zealand (Silver) 475 - Zealand (brass) 1 - Fyen (Gold) 2 - Fyen (Silver) 3 - Jutland (Silver) 72 - Jutland (brass) 1 - ——— - 2 gold, 786 silver, 2 of brass, total 790 - ——— - - - _Roman Coins from Claudius to the death of Alexander Severus._ - (29 B.C.-A.D. 235.) - - Claudius (41–54), Scania (1 gold, 1 brass) 2 - Vespasianus (69–79), Scania and - Smäland (brass) 2 - Trajanus (98–117), Halland (Silver) 1 - Hadrianus (117–138), Scania (brass), - Upland (Silver), (1 brass, 1 silver) 2 - Antoninus Pius (138–161), Scania, near - Lund (2 brass, 1 silver) 3 - Marcus Aurelius (161–180), Scania (Silver) 2 - Lucilla, wife of L. Verus, Halland (Silver) 1 - Commodus (180–192), 1 Westergotland, 1 - Scania (Silver) 2 - Septimius Severus (193–211), Halland (Silver) 1 - Julia Domna, wife of Septimius - Severus, Scania (Silver) 1 - Caracalla (211–217), Halland (Silver) 1 - Elagabalus (218–222), Halland (Silver) 1 - Alexander Severus (222–235), Scania (large brass) 1 - Effaced or uncertain, Scania (14 brass, 3 silver) 17 - —— - 1 gold, 15 silver, 21 brass, total 37 - —— - - - _Roman coins from the death of Alexander Severus to the death of - Theodosius the Great._ (A.D. 235–395.) - - Found up to 1869. - - - _Norway_: - - Valens (364–378) (Gold) 1 - Valentinianus I. (364–375), Lister and Mandal, near Bergen (Gold) 1 - Gratianus (367–383) (in a grave) (Gold) 1 - — - Total (Gold) 3 - — - - - _Sweden_: - - Gordianus (238–244), Gotland (Silver) 1 - Gallienus (253–268), Scania (brass) 1 - Probus (276–282), 1 Södermanland, 1 - Scania (Gold) 2 - Licinius (307–323), Scania (brass) 1 - Constantinus Magnus (306–337), - 1 Södermanland, 3 Scania, 1 Öland (2 gold, 3 brass) 5 - Constantinus II. (337–340), Gotland (brass) 2 - Constantius II. (337–361), 3 Scania, 1 - Gotland (brass) 4 - Constans (337–350), Scania (brass) 1 - Effaced or uncertain, 1 Upland, 4 - Scania (brass) 5 - —— - 4 gold, 1 silver, and 17 brass, total 22 - —— - - - _Denmark_: - - Decius (249–251), Fyen (Gold) 1 - Aurelianus (270–275), Fyen (Gold) 2 - Tacitus (275–276), Fyen (Gold) 1 - Probus (276–282), Fyen (Gold) 4 - Carus (282–283), Fyen (Gold) 1 - Numerianus (283–284), Fyen (Gold) 1 - Carinus (283–284), Fyen (Gold) 1 - Diocletianus (284–305), Fyen (Gold) 5 - Maximianus (286–305), Fyen (Gold) 5 - Constantius Chlorus (305–306), Fyen (Gold) 2 - Helena, wife of Constantius, Fyen (Gold) 1 - Licinius (307–323), Fyen (Gold) 2 - Constantinus Magnus (306–337), Jutland - 2, Fyen 16 (17 gold, 1 brass) 18 - Constantinus II. (337–340), Fyen 2, - Zealand 1 (Gold) 3 - Constantius II. (337–361), Denmark, - locality unknown; 2 in Fyen, 1 - Jutland (3 gold, 1 brass) 4 - Constans (337–350), Fyen (Gold) 2 - Valentinianus I. (364–375), Zealand 1, - Jutland 1 (Gold) 2 - Other gold coins 5 - —— - (58 gold, 2 brass) 58 - —— - - - _Roman and Byzantine coins from the death of Theodosius the Great to the - death of Anastasius._ (395–518.) - - Found up to 1869. - - - _Swedish Mainland_: - - Honorius (395–423), Småland 1 - Valentinianus III. (425–455), Smäland, Kalmar län 1 - Anthemius (467–472), Scania 1 - Julius Nepos (474–475), 1 Kalmar län, 1 Blekinge 2 - Romulus Augustulus (475–476), Småland 1 - Theodosius II. (408–450), Medelpad 1, Upland 4, Småland 1, 2 in - Kalmar län, 2 in Blekinge, 3 Scania 13 - Marcianus (450–457), Upland 1 - Leo I. (457–474), 3 in Upland, 1 on Hoen 4 - Zeno (474–491), 1 in Medelpad, 11 in Upland, 1 in Södermanland, 2 - in Scania 15 - Anastasius (491–518), 2 in Upland, 1 in Kalmar län, 1 in Scania 4 - Unknown, Upland 1 - —— - Total (all gold) 45 - —— - - - _Öland_: - - Honorius (395–423) 5 - Valentinianus III. (425–455) 13 - Majorianus (457–461) 1 - Libius Severus (461–465) 9 - Anthemius (407–472) 3 - Romulus Augustulus (475–476) 1 - Arcadius (395–408) 2 - Theodosius II. (408–450) 20 - Ælia Eudoxia, wife of Theodosius II 2 - Marcianus (450–457) 4 - Ælia Pulcheria, wife of Marcianus 2 - Leo I. (457–474) 19 - Leo II. and Zeno (474) 1 - Zeno (474–491) 5 - Basiliscus (476–477) 1 - Unknown 11 - —— - Total (all gold) 99 - —— - - - _Gotland_: - - Honorius (395–423) 4 - Majorianus (457–461) 1 - Libius Severus (461–465) 1 - Procopius Anthemius (467–472) 2 - Theodosius II. (408–450) 3 - Marcianus (450–457) 1 - Leo I. (457–474) 10 - Leo II. and Zeno (474) 1 - Zeno (474–491) 15 - Ælia Ariadne, wife of Zeno 1 - Basiliscus (476–477) 1 - Anastasius (491–518) 17 - —— - Total (all gold) 57 - —— - - - _Recapitulation._ - - Sweden, Mainland 45 - Sweden, Oland 99 - Sweden, Gotland 57 - —— - All gold, total 201 - —— - - - _Bornholm_: - - Honorius (395–423) 3 - Placidius Valentinianus (425–455) 8 - Honoria, sister of Valentinianus 1 - Libius Severus (461–465) 1 - Anthemius (467–472) 2 - Julius Nepos (474–475) 1 - Theodosius II. (408–450) 16 - Marcianus (450–457) 1 - Leo I. (457–474) 12 - Leo II. and Zeno (474) 3 - Zeno (474–491) 13 - Basiliscus (476–477) 1 - Basiliscus and Marcus 1 - Anastasius (491–518) 5 - —— - 67 of gold, 1 of silver, total 68 - —— - - Valentinianus (425–455), Fyen 2 - Majorianus (457–461), Fyen 1 - Theodosius II. (408–450), 1 Zealand, 1 Fyen 2 - Marcianus (450–457), Fyen 1 - Leo I. (457–474), 1 Jutland, 5 Fyen 6 - Zeno (474–491), 1 Fyen 1 - Anastasius (491–518), 2 Fyen 2 - Unknown, 1 Jutland, 1 Fyen 2 - —— - All gold, total 17 - —— - - - _Recapitulation._ - - Bornholm (Gold) 67 - Bornholm (Silver) 1 - Rest of Denmark (Gold) 17 - —— - 84 gold, and 1 silver, total 85 - —— - - - _Byzantine coins from the time between_ A.D. 518–850. - - - _Norway_: - - Tiberius Constantinus (578–582) 1 gold. - Mauricius Tiberius (582–602) 1 - Constantinus V. Copronymus(771–775) 1 - Michael III. (842–867) 1 - — - Total 4 gold. - - _Sweden_ (1 Södermanland, 1 Gotland): - Justinianus I. (527–565) 2 gold. - - _Denmark_ (Bornholm): - Justinus I. (518–527) 1 gold. - -In Sweden more than 250 Roman and Byzantine gold coins have been found, -and year after year new ones are brought to light. - -The whole number of Roman and Byzantine coins of the period before A.D. -850 found up to June, 1872, was— - - ─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬──────────┬───────────┬──────────┬─────── - │From the │Augustus-│Alexander │Theodosius-│ After │Total. - │ time │Alexander│ Severus- │Anastasius │Anastasius│ - │ before │ Severus │Theodosius│(395–518). │(518–850).│ - │Augustus.│ (29 │(235–395).│ │ │ - │ │B.C.-235 │ │ │ │ - │ │ A.D.). │ │ │ │ - ─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────────┼───────────┼──────────┼─────── - Mainland │ 3│ 12│ 4│ 37│ 1│ 57 - Scania │ │ 584│ 14│ 19│ │ 617 - Öland │ │ 88│ 2│ 106│ │ 196 - Gotland │ 9│ 3,234│ 4│ 64│ 1│ 3,312 - ─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────────┼───────────┼──────────┼─────── - │ 12│ 3,918│ 24│ 226│ 2│ 4,182 - Among │ │ │ │ │ │ - these │ │ │ │ │ │ - coins │ │ │ │ │ │ - are— │ │ │ │ │ │ - Of gold │ │ 2│ 6│ 226│ 2│ 236 - Of silver│ 12│ 3,894│ 1│ │ │ 3,907 - Of copper│ │ 22│ 17│ │ │ 39 - ─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴──────────┴───────────┴──────────┴─────── - - - - - INDEX. - - - A. - - Abbon, ii. 540 - - Accounts, Greek and Roman, i. 7 - - Ægir, i. 403 - - Æthelred, King, ii. 487–492 - - Æthelstan, King, ii. 465–478 - - Africa, i. 3 - - Alfar, the, i. 409 - - Alfred, King, the Powerful, ii. 465 - - Altars, i. 356 - - America, Discovery of, ii. 519 _seq._ - - Ammianus Marcellinus, i. 12 - - Amulets, i. 377 - - Angeln, i. 19 - - Antiquities, Abstract of, i. 1 _seq._ - - Antiquities, Greek and Roman, i. 259–275 - - Apples of youth, i. 49 - - Archæological track, i. 26 - - Arms and Armour, ii. 65 - - Arvel, the, Inheritance Feast, ii. 47 - - Asar, the, i. 23, 28, 30, 48 - - Asbjörn, i. 465 - - Asgard, i. 44 - - Austrriki, i. 22 - - - B. - - Baldr, The Good, i. 33 _seq._ - - Battles, - Sea—Helga, i. 184 - Svold, ii. 188–197 - Jomsvikings, ii. 197–208 - Land—Brávöll, ii. 436 - Dúnheidi, ii. 441 - Brunanburgh, ii. 469 - Stamford, ii. 505 - Hastings, ii. 512 - - Bayeux tapestry, i. 15; ii. 157, 160, 275, 304 - - Bergelmir, _before_ the Creation, i. 36 - - Berserker, i. 56; ii. 423 _seq._ - - Bertin, ii. 539 - - Betrothals, ii. 7, 16 - - Bifrost, Bridge of, i. 35 - - Björn (Brezki), the Britisher, ii. 206–208, 534 - - Björn, son of Hring, i. 431 - - Black Sea and Sea of Azof, i. 25, 28 - - Boats, ii. 144 - - Bog-finds, i. 193 - - Bohuslän, i. 71 _passim_ - - Bononia, i. 11 - - (Borislav) Búrislaf, ii. 160 - - Bracteates, ii. 332 _seq._ - - Britain, Settlement by Northmen, i. 17 - - Bronze Age, i. 84–124 - - Burials, i. 324–342 - - - C. - - Cæsar, Julius, i. 8, 14 - - Cairns, _vide_ Graves. - - Carausius, i. 11 - - Champions and Berserks, ii. 423 _seq._ - - Chariots and Cars, i. 294–6 - - Charlemagne, ii. 537 - - Children, Birth and bringing up of, ii. 30 - - Christianity, Struggle with Paganism, i. 464 _seq._ - - Chronicles, Various, i. 13, 20 - - Cimbric Chersonesus, i. 10 - - Civilisation of the North, i. 1 _seq._ - - Classes, Ancestry of, i. 487 - - Classes, Divisions of, i. 486 _seq._ - - Claudianus, i. 12 - - Coins found, i. 260–263, 271 - - Coins chronologically arranged, vol. ii. Appendix III. - - Conduct of life, the, ii. 401 _seq._ - - Cosmogony, i. 27 _seq._ - - Creation, i. 29 _seq._ - - Cromlechs, i. 71 - - - D. - - Debts and Debtors, ii. 235 _seq._ - - Denmark, Kings of, Appendix III. - - Derision, Penalty of, i. 589–591 - - Disir, The, ii. 411 - - Divorce, ii. 25 - - Dom rings, i. 369, 533, 564 - - Dress of men, ii. 285 _seq._ - - Dress of women, ii. 301 _seq._ - - Dreams, i. 456–463 - - Duelling, i. 563–567 - - Dvergar, the, i. 39 - - Dwellings, ii. 242 - - - E. - - Edda, Earlier—Extracts from, _passim_ - - Edda, Later—Extracts from, i. 30–68 - - Edmund, King, the Holy, ii. 457 - - Edward the Confessor, ii. 496, 501 - - Egil, i. 419, ii. 469 _seq_ - - Egil i., his sorrow, ii. 414; song, ii. 416 - - Eginhard, i. 23; ii. 537 - - Eïrik Blood-axe and England, ii. 467 - - Eïrik, the Red, ii. 518 - - Ella, King, ii. 452–456 - - Emma, Queen, ii. 487–490 - - Engelhólm, i. 19 - - England—Origin of name, settlement, i. 19 - - Epithets of Odin, i. 56; - Valkyrias, i. 389 - - Epithets of the sea, i. 403–404 - - Epithets of swords, ii. 79 - - Epithets of spears, ii. 88 - - Epithets of axes, ii. 89 - - Epithets of arrows, ii. 91 - - Epithets of shields, ii. 95 - - Epithets of coats of mail, ii. 99 - - Epithets of warships, ii. 136 - - Epithets of battles, ii. 448 - - Epithets of warriors, blood, raven and eagle, the wolf, horses, fire, - ii. 449 - - Eumenius, i. 10, 11 - - Eutropius, i. 11 - - Exercises, bodily, idróttir, ii. 369 _seq._ - - Exercises, mental idróttir, ii. 389 _seq._ - - - F. - - Facsimile of Old Norse MSS., ii. 544–550 - - Fafnir, i. 435 - - Feasts and entertainments, ii. 274 _seq._ - - Fenrir, i. 41–43 - - Finds, chief:— - Bavenhöi, i. 251, 280 - Blekinge, i. 170, 173 - Bohüslän, (ancient Vikin), i. 74, _passim_ - Bröttby, i. 273 - Gökstad, i. 335 - Hjortehammar, i. 306 - Karleby, i. 75 - Kivik, i. 88 - Moklebust Eids, i. 339 - Nydam, i. 219 _seq._ - Thorsbjerg, i. 194 _seq._ - Treenhöi, i. 89–91 - Uby, i. 78, 79 - Valloby, i. 249 - Varpelev, i. 255 - Vimose, i. 108, 207 - Bornholm, i. 128, _passim_ - Burgundy, i. 158 - England—Taplow, i. 319 - Fyen, i. 123–127 - Fyen, Bangstrup, i. 245 - Fyen, Broholm, i. 87, _passim_ - Fyen, Kragehul, i. 216 - Fyen, Mollegaard, i. 128 - Jutland, i. 241, 248 - Ukraine, i. 245 - Wallachia, i. 159 - Zealand (Nordrup), ii. 225 - - Finds, ii. _passim._ - - France (Valland), ii. 464, 536 _seq._ - - Frankish Annals, ii. 536 - - Franks—Franci, Frakki, i. 10 _seq._ - - Frey, worship of, i. 351 - - Freyja, i. 64 - - Frigg, i. 28, 57 - - Frostathing, the, i. 465 - - Fylgjas, the, i. 413 - - - G. - - Games, ii. 352, 357 - - Gardariki, i. 26, 51, 53 - - Gautaland, i. 60, 423 - - Genealogies of the Norse chiefs, i. 66; ii. 479 - - Genealogies of the jarls of Normandy, ii. 464 - - _Get_-ae (Goths, Jutes) Thysa-Massa, i. 26, 343 - - Geography, old Norse, i. 52 - - Germany, i. 3 _passim_ - - Gildas, settlement of Britain, i. 25 - - Ginnungagap, i. 29 - - Glass, i. 276–284 - - Glass, Earliest finds of, i. 126, 255 - - Godi, temple-priest, and Godiship, i. 525–531 - - Godwin—Gudini, ii. 491 - - Göngu Hrolf, ii. 462–464 - - Gorm, King, i. 456 - - Graves, _vide_ Stone, Iron, Bronze Ages - - Graves, Remarkable, i. 247, 258 - - Graves, Various, i. 299, 318–335 - - Greece, i. 3 - - Greek and Roman antiquities, i. 259 - - Greenland, Discovery of, ii. 518 - - Grimnismal, i. 27 - - Ground-finds, i. 235–246 - - Gudrun—Song I., ii. 417 - - Gudrun—Song II., ii. 420 - - Gyda, ii. 492 - - Gyrd, ii. 512, 513 - - - H. - - Hákon Jarl, i. 367, 467 - - Hákon the Good, i. 424, 464–9, 475; ii. 43, 466 - - Halfdan, i. 462 - - Halls and buildings, ii. 241 - - Harald Gormsson, i. 473; ii. 479 - - Harald Gudinason (Godwin’s son), ii. 502 _seq._ - - Harald Hardradi, ii. 499 _seq._ - - Harald Harfagr, i. 361, 448; ii. 514, 531 - - Harald Hilditönn, i. 22, 326; ii. 436–441 - - Harald Knutsson and Hörda-Knut, ii. 496 - - Harbours, ii. 169, 177 - - Hávamál, the, ii. 401 _seq._ - - Hengist and Horsa, i. 20, 25 - - Heid the Sybil, i. 29 - - Heimdall, i. 35 - - Hel, i. 29, 32 - - Herodotus, i. 26 - - High-seat pillars, i. 361 - - Horses and Harness, i. 285–291 - - Hospitality, i. 433; ii. 283 - - Houses, ii. 242 - - Hraesvelg, i. 38 - - Hrimthursar, i. 28, _passim._ - - Hrolf Kraki, i. 354 - - - I. - - Iceland, Discovery of, ii. 514–516 - - Idavöll, i. 45 - - Idols, i. 375, 379 - - Idols, power of, i. 469–472 - - Idróttir (_vide_ Exercises), list of, ii. 45 - - Indemnity, i. 544 _seq._ - - Insurance companies, ii. 233 - - Ireland, ii. 514, 516–518 - - Iron age, i. 125 _seq._ - - Ivar’s dream, i. 459 - - Ivar the Boneless, ii. 453–459 - - Ivar Vidfadmi, i. 22, 23, 68 - - Ividi, i. 29 - - - J. - - Jarl, Attributes of, i. 487 _seq._ - - Jerusalem, i. 52; ii. 500 - - Jomsborg, ii. 109, 162, 479 - - Jorsala, i. 52 - - Jomsvikings, ii. 197–208 - - Jörmungand, i. 42 - - Jötun, &c., i. 28 _seq._ - - Julian, Emperor, i. 12, 14 - - Jutes (Jotnar, Jötunheim, &c.), i. 26 - - - K. - - Ketilbjörn, i. 358 - - King, Meanings and Grades of, i. 497 _seq._ - - Kissing, Laws on, ii. 24 - - Kjökkenmöddinger, i. 70 - - Klakkharald, i. 455, 456 - - Knut, the Mighty, the Old, i. 480, 486 _seq._ - - - L. - - Land, Division, Law, Rights of, i. 487 _seq._ - - Landvoettir, the, i. 418 - - Language, Norse, i. 20 - - Laws of the early English tribes, i. 532 _seq._ - - Loki, i. 32 _seq._ - - London, ii. 481, 484, 489, 492 - - Louis le Débonnaire, ii. 538 - - - M. - - Magnus, the Good, i. 186; ii. 497 - - Man, Creation of, i. 45 - - Manni, i. 23 - - Manuscripts, Old Norse—facsimiles, ii. 544–550 - - Marriage, ii. 1 _seq._ - - Mediterranean, i. 3, _passim_ - - Midgard, i. 44 - - Mimin’s well, i. 32 - - Mistletoe, i. 33 - - Mounds, _vide_ Graves. - - Muspelheim, i. 30 - - Mystic signs and numbers, ii. 341 - - - N. - - Nanna, the Goddess, i. 332 - - Niflheim, i. 29, _passim_ - - Nine Worlds, the, i. 29 - - Njörd, i. 146; - worship of, i. 354 - - Nordimbraland, i. 20, _passim_ - - Normandy, ii. 463, _passim_ - - Nornir, the, i. 385–389 - - Norway, Kings of, Appendix III. - - Norsemen, Mythology of, i. 27, 44 - - - O. - - Oaths, i. 553–559 - - Occupations of men, ii. 344–351 - - Occupations of women, ii. 362–367 - - Ocular delusion, i. 444 - - Odals, _vide_ Land - - Odin, i. 28 _seq._ - - Odin of the North, i. 51 - - Odin’s religion, i. 343 - - Odin’s successors, i. 362 - - Olaf, King and Saint, i. 467–476, 500, 540–543 - - Olaf, King and Saint, ii. 37, 179, 481, 492 - - Olaf of Sweden, i. 540; ii. 480 - - Olaf Raudi, of Scotland, ii. 469 _seq._ - - Olaf Tryggvason, i. 351, 357, 377, 467, 473, 476, 506–7 - - Olaf Tryggvason, ii. 182, 480 - - Omens, i. 450–455 - - Öngulsey, i. 19 - - Ordeal, i. 559–562 - - Orkneys and Hebrides, ii. 531 - - Outlawry, i. 578–583 - - - P. - - Paganism and Christianity, i. 464 - - Pálnatóki, Jarl, ii. 160, 534 - - Palestine, i. 3 - - Paris, siege of, ii. 540–543 - - Pillars, High-seat, ii. 516 - - Plan of Holmganga ground, i. 565 - - Pottery—Stone Age, i. 82, 83 - - Pottery—Bronze Age, i. 94, 95 - - Pottery—Iron Age, i. 137 _seq._ - - Precedence, ii. 251 - - Ptolemy, i. 10 - - Punishments, i. 368, 372, 476, 518 - - Punishments, ii. 236 _seq._, 243, 247 - - - R. - - Ragnar Lodbrók, ii. 435, 450–453 - - Ragnar his sons, ii. 453–459 - - Ragnarök, i. 43 - - Ran, goddess, i. 403 - - Religion, i. 343 _seq._ - - Revenge, i. 584–589 - - Robbery, ii. 236 _seq._ - - Rock-tracings, ii. 116 _seq._ - - Rooms, names of, ii. 259 - - Runes, i. 154–192 - - Runes magical, i. 278, 439 - - Rune-song of Odin, i. 160–163 - - Russia, i. 4, _passim_ - - - S. - - Sacrifices (three principal), i. 344–347 - - Sacrifices human, i. 364–374, 448 - - Sacrifices before a duel, i. 565 - - Sagas fully described, Appendix III. - - Sax, the, i. 15 - - Saxonicum litus.—Town or Army-list, i. 18 - - Saxons a misnomer, i. 18–24 - - Scaldship, ii. 389 _seq._ - - Scepticism among the heathen, i. 354 - - Scotland, ii. 532, _passim_ - - Sculpture, i. 297 - - Sea-god and his Wife, i. 403–408 - - Serkland, Saracens, ii. 500 - - Shape-changing, i. 430 - - Ships, Levy of, ii. 187 - - Ships, Construction of, i. 162–172 - - Sicily, i. 3 - - Sigurd, Hring, ii. 433–441 - - SILENCE OF CENTURIES!, i. 21 - - Slavery—freed slaves, i. 502–514 - - Sorcery, i. 401 - - Sorrow and mourning, ii. 414 _seq._ - - Spain, i. 3 - - Sports, ii. 351, 357, 361 - - Stone Age, i. 69, 83 - - _Sue_-ones, i. 7 _seq._ - - Suicides, i. 423 - - Suitors, bridal, ii. 2 _seq._ - - Superstitions, i. 430 _seq._ - - Svein, Tjuguskegg, King, ii. 479 - - _Sri_-ár, _Sri_-thjod, _Swe_-den, i. 7 - - Sweden, Kings of, Appendix III. - - - T. - - Tacitus, i. 7, 15 - - Taxes, i. 187 - - Temples, i. 356–361 - - Thing, the, and its offshoots, i. 515 _seq._ - - Thor, i. 47 - - Thor, Worship of, i. 353 - - Thraldom, i. 502 - - Time, Divisions of, i. 37 - - Titles, i. 486 _seq._ - - Traders and trading-ships, ii. 249 _seq._ - - Turf-Einar, i. 372; ii. 262, 263 - - Tyr, i. 35, 47 - - Tyrkir (men), i. 20 - - - U. - - Ulf Jarl, ii. 490 - - Utgard, i. 44 - - - V. - - Vafthrudnismál, i. 27 - - Val and its derivatives, i. 389 - - Valhalla, i. 420–429 - - Valkyrias, the, i. 387–393 - - Valland, France, ii. 463 - - Vanir, Their land and river, i. 52 - - Veneti, i. 8 - - Vends—Wends, ii. 160, 188 - - Vikar, Legend of King, i. 421 - - Viken, or Vikin, i. 19, 299, 473; ii. 117, 462 - - Vili and Ve, Odin’s brothers, i. 30 - - Vindland, ii. 188, 479 - - Vinland, America, ii. 519 _seq._ - - Visma, shieldmaiden, ii. 441 - - Völuspa, the, i. 27 - - Volvas, the, i. 394 - - - W. - - Waggons, i. 294–299 - - Wales—Bretland, i. 19; ii. 534 - - Wall-ornamentation, ii. 247 - - War customs, ii. 102 _seq._ - - War ships, ii. 136 _seq._ - - Warfare, Mode of Naval, ii. 181 _seq._ - - Weapons, ii. 65 _seq._ - - Weather vanes, ii. 156 - - Weregild, i. 544 - - Wodin (see Odin), i. 28 _seq._ - - Wood-carving, ii. 244 - - William the Norman, ii. 512, 513 - - Witchcraft, ii. 439–449 - - Witikind, i. 18; ii. 537 - - Women, position of, ii. 1 _seq._ - - Women, rights of, ii. 24 - - Women, restrictions of extravagance of, ii. 28 - - Worlds, the Nine, i. 29 - - Worship of men, animals, groves, i. 379–383 - - - Y. - - Yggdrasil, i. 41 _seq._, 385 - - Ymir, creation from, i. 30 - - Yngvi, i. 64, 497 - - Yule sacrifice, i. 345 - - - Z. - - Zosimus, i. 10 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Added footnote reference numbers to footnotes on pp. 62, - 2. Added missing footnote anchor after “pay the penalty” for first - footnote on p. 406. - 3. Changed “1” to “I” and moved it adjacent to “APPENDIX” on p. 536 to - be consistent with “APPENDIX III.”. - 4. Added “APPENDIX II.” heading on p. 544 to be consistent with - “APPENDIX III.” - 5. Chenged “550 1,500” to “Total 550 1,500” on p. 551 to be consistent - with other tables. - 6. Changed “Derision, Penalty of, ii.” to “Derision, Penalty of, i.” on - p. 558. - 7. Silently corrected typographical errors. - 8. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 9. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Viking Age. Volume 2 (of 2), by -Paul B. Du Chaillu - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIKING AGE. 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