diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/56167-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56167-0.txt | 26171 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 26171 deletions
diff --git a/old/56167-0.txt b/old/56167-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5a55972..0000000 --- a/old/56167-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26171 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Viking Age. Volume 1 (of 2), by Paul B. Du Chaillu - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Viking Age. Volume 1 (of 2) - The early history, manners, and customs of the ancestors - of the English-speaking nations - -Author: Paul B. Du Chaillu - -Release Date: December 13, 2017 [EBook #56167] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIKING AGE. VOLUME 1 (OF 2) *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: - - VIKING SHIP, USED FOR BURIAL (GOKSTAD, NORWAY). - - (Length of keel, 60 feet; total length, 75 feet; broadest part, 15½ - feet; depth from the upper part of bulwark to bottom of keel, 3½ - feet.) - - Judging from the number of holes seen, which were about 18 inches - below the gunwale, it carried sixteen oars, and was consequently a - sixteen-seater. Its preservation is due to the blue clay in which it - was partly embedded, the upper part being eaten away owing to the - clay being mixed with sand, thus allowing the rain and air to - penetrate. It is entirely of oak, clinker built, calked with cows’ - hair spun in a sort of cord. -] - - - - - THE VIKING AGE - - THE EARLY HISTORY MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE ANCESTORS OF THE - ENGLISH-SPEAKING NATIONS - - ILLUSTRATED FROM - _THE ANTIQUITIES DISCOVERED IN MOUNDS, CAIRNS, AND BOGS AS WELL AS FROM - THE ANCIENT SAGAS AND EDDAS_ - - - BY - - PAUL B. DU CHAILLU - AUTHOR OF “EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA,” “LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT - SUN,” ETC. - - - WITH 1366 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAP - - - IN TWO VOLUMES.—VOL. I - - - NEW YORK: - CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS. - 1889. - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1889, BY - PAUL B. DU CHAILLU. - - - Press of J. J. Little & Co., - Astor Place, New York. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TO - - GEORGE C. TAYLOR, Esq., - - OF NEW YORK. - - -_To you, my dear Taylor, who, like myself, have travelled over many -lands, and led the same adventurous life in days gone by, I dedicate -“The Viking Age,” in remembrance of years of friendship, of the many -pleasant days we have spent together, and especially of our wanderings -in the Land of the Midnight Sun, in the home of the old Vikings, while I -was engaged on the present work._ - - _P. B. DU CHAILLU._ - - _NEW YORK, September, 1889_. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -While studying the progress made in the colonisation of different parts -of the world by European nations, I have often asked myself the -following questions:— - -How is it that over every region of the globe the spread of the -English-speaking people and of their language far exceeds that of all -the other European nations combined? - -Why is it that, wherever the English-speaking people have settled, or -are at this day found, even in small numbers, they are far more -energetic, daring, adventurous, and prosperous, and understand the art -of self-government and of ruling alien peoples far better than other -colonising nations? - -Whence do the English-speaking communities derive the remarkable energy -they possess; for the people of Britain when invaded by the Romans did -not show any such quality? - -What are the causes which have made the English such a pre-eminently -seafaring people? for without such a characteristic they could not have -been the founders of so many states and colonies speaking the English -tongue! - -In studying the history of the world we find that all the nations which -have risen to high power and widespread dominion have been founded by -men endowed with great, I may say terrible, energy; extreme bravery and -the love of conquest being the most prominent traits of their character. -The mighty sword with all its evils has thus far always proved a great -engine of civilisation. - -To get a satisfactory answer to the above questions we must go far back, -and study the history of the race who settled in Britain during and -after the Roman occupation. We shall thus find why their descendants are -to-day so brave, successful, energetic and prosperous in the lands which -they have colonised; and why they are so pre-eminently skilled in the -art of self-government. - -We find that a long stretch of coast is not sufficient, though -necessary, to make the population of a country a seafaring nation. When -the Romans invaded Britain, the Brits had no fleet to oppose them. We do -not until a later period meet with that love of the sea which is so -characteristically English:—not before the gradual absorption of the -earlier inhabitants by a blue-eyed and yellow-haired seafaring people -who succeeded in planting themselves and their language in the country. - -To the numerous warlike and ocean-loving tribes of the North, the -ancestors of the English-speaking people, we must look for the -transformation that took place in Britain. In their descendants we -recognise to this day many of the very same traits of character which -these old Northmen possessed, as will be seen on the perusal of this -work. - -Britain, after a continuous immigration which lasted several hundred -years, became the most powerful colony of the Northern tribes, several -of the chiefs of the latter claiming to own a great part of England in -the seventh and eighth centuries. At last the time came when the land of -the emigrants waxed more powerful, more populous than the -mother-country, and asserted her independence; and to-day the people of -England, as they look over the broad Atlantic, may discern a similar -process which is taking place in the New World. - -The impartial mind which rises above the prejudice of nationality must -acknowledge that no country will leave a more glorious impress upon the -history of the world than England. Her work cannot be undone; should she -to-day sink beneath the seas which bathe her shores, her record will for -ever stand brilliantly illuminated on the page of history. The great -states which she has founded, which have inherited her tongue, and which -are destined to play a most important part in the future of -civilisation, will be witnesses of the mighty work she has accomplished. -They will look back with pride to the progenitors of their race who -lived in the glorious and never-to-be-forgotten countries of the North, -the birthplace of a new epoch in the history of mankind. - -As ages roll on, England, the mother of nations, cannot escape the fate -that awaits all; for on the scroll of time this everlasting truth is -written—birth, growth, maturity, decay;—and how difficult for us to -realise the fact when in the fulness of power, strength, and pride! -Where is or where has been the nation that can or could exclaim, “This -saying does not apply to me; I was born great from the beginning; I am -so now, and will continue to be powerful to the end of time.” The ruined -and deserted cities; the scanty records of history, which tell us of -dead civilisations, the fragmentary traditions of religious beliefs, the -wrecks of empires, and the forgotten graves, are the pathetic and silent -witnesses of the great past, and a sad suggestion of the inevitable fate -in store for all. - -The materials used in these volumes, in describing the cosmogony and -mythology, the life, religion, laws and customs of the ancestors of the -English-speaking nations of to-day, are mainly derived from records -found in Iceland. These parchments, upon which the history of the North -is written, and which are begrimed by the smoke of the Icelandic cabin, -and worn by the centuries which have passed over them, recount to us the -history and the glorious deeds of the race. - -No land has bequeathed to us a literature, giving so minute and -comprehensive an account of the life of a people. These _Sagas_ (or -“say”) record the leading events of a man’s life, or family history, and -date from a period even anterior to the first settlement of Iceland -(about 870 A.D.). - -Some Sagas bear evident traces of having been derived, or even copied, -from earlier documents now lost: in some cases definite quotations are -given; others are evidently of a fabulous character, and have to be -treated with great caution; but even these may be used as illustrating -the customs of the times at which they were written. Occasionally great -confusion is caused by the blending of the similar names of persons -living at different periods. - -My method of putting together the series of descriptions which will be -found in the ‘Viking Age’ has been as follows:— - -By reading carefully every Saga—and there are hundreds of them—dealing -with the events of a man’s life from his birth to his death, I was able -to select the passages bearing on the various customs. When in one Saga -the bare fact of a birth, or a marriage, or a burial, or a feast, etc., -etc., was mentioned, in others full details of the ceremonies connected -with them were found. After thus collecting my material, which was of -the most superabundant character, I went over it and selected what -seemed to me to be the best accounts of the various customs with which I -deal in these volumes. I have not been content with the translations of -other persons, but have in every case gone to the original documents and -adopted my own rendering of them. - -Some extracts from the Frankish Chronicles are given in the Appendix, as -showing the power of the Northmen, and bearing strong testimony to the -truthfulness of the Sagas. If I had not been afraid of being tedious, I -could also have given extracts from Arabic, Russian, and other annals to -the same effect. - -The testimony of archæology as corroborating the Sagas forms one of the -most important links in the chain of my argument; parchments and written -records form but a portion of the material from which I have derived my -account of the ‘Viking Age.’ During the last fifty years the History of -the Northmen has been unearthed as it were—like that of the Egyptians, -Assyrians, and Romans—by the discovery of almost every kind of -implement, weapon, and ornament produced by that accomplished race. - -The Museums of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, England, France, Germany, -Russia, are as richly stored with such objects as are the British -Museum, the Louvre, the Museums of Naples and Boulak with the treasures -of Egypt and Pompeii. - -I have myself seen nearly all the objects or graves illustrated in this -book, with the exception of a few Runic stones which have now -disappeared, but are given in an old work of Jorgensen. - -As my materials expanded themselves before me I felt like one of those -mariners of old on a voyage of discovery. To them new lands were -continuously coming into view; to me new materials, new fields of -literary and archæological wealth unfolded themselves incessantly. Thus -carried away by enthusiasm and the love of the task I had undertaken, I -have been able to labour for eight years and a half on the present work, -with some interruptions from exhaustion and impaired health. May I, -then, ask the indulgence of a public, which has always been kind to me, -for all the shortcomings of my work? - -I have received valuable assistance from many friends, but I desire -especially to express my thanks to Mr. Bruun, the Chief Librarian of the -Royal Library of Denmark, for his great kindness in allowing me so many -privileges during the years I have worked in Copenhagen; to Mr. Birket -Smith, of the University Library of Copenhagen; and Mr. Kaalund, Keeper -of the Arna Magnæan Collection of Manuscripts, for the uniform courtesy -they have shown me; among antiquarians, to my friend Professor George -Stephens, author of the magnificent work, ‘Northern Runic Monuments,’ -for his readiness in giving me all the information and help I needed, -which sometimes occupied much of his valuable time (several -illustrations of the runic stones, etc., in these volumes are taken from -his work); to Mr. Vedel, Vice-President of the Royal Society of -Antiquarians; to Messrs. Herbst, Sophus Müller, and Petersen, of the -Royal Museum of Northern Antiquities, for their great courtesy; I am -also indebted to the works of the following distinguished antiquarians -which have been invaluable to me in my researches and which have -furnished me with many of the illustrations for my book: Ole Rygh, -Bugge, Engelhart, Nicolaysen, Sehested, Steenstrup, Madsen, Säve, -Montelius, Holmberg, Jorgensen, Baltzer, and Lorange; also to the works -of the historians, Keyser, Geijer, Munch, Rafn, Vigfusson. My sincere -thanks are also due to my young friend Jon Stefánsson, an Icelandic -student, for his constant help in rendering the translations of the -Sagas as accurate and literal as possible; and to my old friend Mr. -Rasmus B. Anderson, late American Minister to Denmark, and translator of -the ‘Later Edda,’ etc.; in England, to Messrs. A. S. Murray, Franks, and -Read, of the British Museum; to Dr. Warre, the head master of Eton, and -to General Pitt Rivers, author of a valuable work on the excavations in -Cranborne Chase, which contains objects strikingly similar to those of -Scandinavia; also to my friends Mr. J. S. Keltie and Mr. Arthur L. -Roberts; to my old friends Messrs. Clowes, who have taken great pains in -carrying out what has proved to be a very difficult task for the -printer, and who have had the work over two-and-a-half years in type. - -I must thank, above all, my esteemed and venerable publisher, John -Murray, for the great interest he has taken in the present work, which -has tried his patience and liberality many a time, and also for the many -years of uninterrupted friendship and the pleasant business relations -(unhampered by any written agreement whatever), which have existed -between us from the time when I came to him almost a lad, and he first -undertook the publication of ‘Explorations in Equatorial Africa,’ in -1861, not forgetting my dear friends, his sons, John and Hallam, the -former of whom has assisted me materially in seeing the work through the -press, and my old companion Robert Cooke. - -I cannot close this preface without thanking my old and ever true friend -Robert Winthrop, of New York, descendant of the celebrated Colonial -Governor of Massachusetts, to whom I dedicated “The Land of the Midnight -Sun,” for his unfailing kindness and sympathy during the years I have -been engaged in the present work. - - PAUL B. DU CHAILLU. - - _NEW YORK, September, 1889._ - - - - - CONTENTS OF VOL. I - - - CHAPTER I. - PAGE - - CIVILISATION AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE NORTH 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - ROMAN AND GREEK ACCOUNTS OF THE NORTHMEN 7 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE SETTLEMENT OF BRITAIN BY NORTHMEN 17 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE MYTHOLOGY AND COSMOGONY OF THE NORSEMEN 27 - - - CHAPTER V. - - MYTHOLOGY AND COSMOGONY (_continued_) 44 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - ODIN OF THE NORTH 51 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE SUCCESSORS OF ODIN OF THE NORTH 62 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE STONE AGE 69 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE BRONZE AGE 84 - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE IRON AGE 125 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - RUNES 154 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - NORTHERN RELICS—BOG FINDS 193 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - NORTHERN RELICS—GROUND FINDS 235 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - DESCRIPTION OF SOME REMARKABLE GRAVES AND THEIR CONTENTS 247 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES IN THE NORTH 259 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - GLASS 276 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - HORSES—WAGGONS 285 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - VARIOUS FORMS OF GRAVES 299 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - BURIALS 320 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - RELIGION.—WORSHIP, SACRIFICES, ETC. 343 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - RELIGION.—ALTARS, TEMPLES, HIGH-SEAT PILLARS, ETC. 356 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - RELIGION.—HUMAN SACRIFICES 364 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - RELIGION.—IDOLS AND WORSHIP OF MEN AND ANIMALS, ETC. 375 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - RELIGION.—THE NORNIR AND VALKYRIAS 385 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - RELIGION.—THE VOLVAS 394 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - RELIGION.—ÆGIR AND RAN 403 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - RELIGION.—SACRIFICES TO THE ALFAR, DISIR, FYLGJA, HAMINGJA, AND - LANDVŒTTIR 409 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - VALHÖLL-VALHALLA 420 - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - SUPERSTITIONS.—SHAPE-CHANGING 430 - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - SUPERSTITIONS.—WITCHCRAFT 439 - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - SUPERSTITIONS.—OMENS 450 - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - SUPERSTITIONS.—DREAMS 456 - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN PAGANISM AND CHRISTIANITY 464 - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - THE LAND 478 - - - CHAPTER XXXV. - - DIVISIONS OF PEOPLE INTO CLASSES 486 - - - CHAPTER XXXVI. - - SLAVERY—THRALDOM 502 - - - CHAPTER XXXVII. - - THE THING 515 - - - CHAPTER XXXVIII. - - THE GODI AND THE GODISHIP 525 - - - CHAPTER XXXIX. - - THE LAWS OF THE EARLIER ENGLISH TRIBES 532 - - - CHAPTER XL. - - INDEMNITY, WEREGILD 544 - - - CHAPTER XLI. - - THE OATH AND ORDEAL 553 - - - CHAPTER XLII. - - DUELLING 563 - - - CHAPTER XLIII. - - OUTLAWRY 578 - - - CHAPTER XLIV. - - REVENGE 584 - - - - - A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SAGAS - QUOTED IN - THE VIKING AGE, - INCLUDING THE PERIODS WITH WHICH THEY DEAL. - - - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────┬───────────────────── - Name of Saga. │ Century with which - │ they deal. - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────┼───────────────────── - │These are Mythical, - The Earlier Edda │ and no accurate - │ date can be affixed - │ to them. - │ ” - The Later Edda │ ” - │ - Fórnaldarsögur contains:— │ - Völsunga │Partly Mythical. - Hervara │ ” - Thorstein Vikingsson’s (father of Fridthjof)│ ” - Ketil Hæng’s sons │ ” - Grim Lodinkinnis’ │ ” - Fridthjof’s │ ” - │ - Hrolf Kraki’s │VI.(?) - Half’s │VI.(?) - Sögubrot │VI.-VII.(?) - Ragnar Lodbrok’s │VIII.(?) - Ragnar Lodbrok’s Sons’ │VIII.(?) - │ - Norna Gest’s │No date can be - Gautrek’s │ assigned to these. - Orvar Odd’s │ ” - Herraud and Bosi’s │ ” - Egil and Asmund’s │ ” - Hjalmter and Ölver’s │ ” - Göngu Hrelf’s │ ” - An Bosveigi’s │ ” - - ⁂ The above dates are all more or less conjectural, and the Sagas are - chiefly valuable as illustrating manners and customs. - - Egil’s │Middle of IX. to end - │ of X. - Njala’s │End of X. to - │ beginning of XI. - Laxdæla │IX.-XI. (886–1030). - Eyrbyggja │IX.-XI. (890–1031). - │ - Islandinga Sögur contains:— │ - I. Hord’s Saga │X. (950–990). - II. Hœnsa Thoris’ Saga │X.-XI.(990–1010). - III. Gunnlaug Ormstunga’s Saga │X.-XI. - IV. Viga Styr’s Saga │X.-XI. - V. Kjalnesinga Saga │IX.-XI. - VI. Gisli Súrsson │X. - │ - Droplaugarsona Saga │X. - │ - Hrafnkel Freysgodi │X. - │ - Bjorn Hitdæla Kappi │First half of XI. - │ - Kormak’s │X. - │ - Fornsögur contains:— │ - I. Vatnsdæla Saga │IX.-XI. (c. - │ 870–1000). - II. Floamanna Saga │X. (c. 985–990). - III. Hallfred’s Saga │End of X. - │ - Gretti’s Saga │X.-XI. (Grettir died - │ 1031). - │ - Viga Glum │X. - │ - Vallaljots │Beginning of XI. - │ - Vapnfirdinga │IX.-X. - │ - Thorskfirdinga, or Gullthóri’s │X. (c. 900–930). - │ - Heidar Viga (continuation of Viga Styr’s) │First half of XI. - │ - Fœreyinga │X.-XI. (c. 960–1040). - │ - Finnbogi Rami’s │X. - │ - Eirek the Red │ - │ - Thátt of Styrbjörn (nephew of Eirek the │ - Victorious, who fell at the battle of │X. - Fyrisvellir, 983) │ - │ - │IX.-X. (the - Landnama │ colonisation of - │ Iceland). - │ - Islendinga bok │IX.-XI. (c. - │ 874–1118). - Ljosvetninga │990–1050. - Vemund’s Saga │End of X. century. - Svarfdœla │First half of X. - │ century. - │ - Biskupa Sögur contains:— │ - Kristni Saga │X.-XII. (c. - │ 980–1120). - Sturlunga │XII.-XIII. (c. - │ 1120–1284). - │ - Fornmanna Sögur contains:— │ - I. Sagas of Kings of Norway │ - II. Jomsvikinga Saga │X. - III. Knytlinga Saga │XI.-XII. - IV. Fagrskinna (short history of Kings of Norway│IX.-XII. - from Halfdan the Black to Sverrir) │ - │ - │Written in first half - │ of XIII. cent., - Heimskringla Saga contains the Ynglinga Saga, the│ giving history of - great work of Snorri Sturluson │ the Kings of Norway - │ and Sweden from - │ Odin down to 1177. - │ - Flateyjarbok contains lives of Kings of Norway, │ - etc. │ - │ - Fostbrædra Saga │XI. (c. 1015–30). - │ - Konung’s Skuggsja │XIII. - │ - Rimbegla │XIV. - │ - Orkneyinga │IX.-XIII. (c. - │ 870–1206). - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────┴───────────────────── - - - - - A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN, - SOME OF WHOM HAVE SAGAS OF THEIR OWN. - - - KINGS OF DENMARK. - - │ A.D. - Gorm │ 900–940 - Harald Bluetooth │ 945–985 - Svein Tjuguskegg │ 985–1014 - Harald │ 1014–1018 - Knut the Great │ 1018–1035 - Hörda Knut │ 1035–1042 - Magnus the Good, ruled over Denmark and Norway │ 1042–1047 - Svein Ulfsson │ 1047–1075 - - - KINGS OF NORWAY. - - (Mostly petty Kings.) - - │ A.D. - Halfdan the Black, died │ 860 - Harald Fairhair, reigned│ 860–930 - Eirik Bloodaxe ” │ 930–934 - Hakon the Good ” │ 934–960 - Harald Grafeld (greyskin) ” │ 960–965 - Hakon Jarl the Great, the hero of the battle of ” │ - Gomsviking, │ 965–995 - Olaf Tryggvason ” │ 995–1000 - Eirik Jarl ” │ 1000–1015 - St Olaf ” │ 1015–1028 - Knut the Great ” │ 1028–1035 - Magnus the Good ” │ 1035–1047 - Harald Hardradi ” │ 1047–1066 - Olaf the Quiet ” │ 1066–1093 - Magnus Barefoot ” │ 1093–1103 - Three sons:—Eystein, Olaf, Sigurd Jórsalafari │ 1103–1130 - Civil war—Harald Gilli, Magnus the Blind, and others │ 1130–1162 - Magnus Erlingsson │ 1162–1184 - Sverrir (Sigurdson) │ 1184–1202 - - - KINGS OF SWEDEN. - - (Not mentioned in the Odinic Genealogies, vol. i. p. 67.) - - │ A.D. - Ivar Vidfadmi │ Kings of - Harald Hilditönn │ Sweden and - Sigurd Hring │ Denmark. - Ragnar Lodbrók │ ” - │ - Björn Ironside │ - Eirik and Refil │ - Eymund and Björn │ 800–830 - Olaf and Eymund │ c. 850 - Eyrik Eymundsson died │ c. 882 - Björn Eiriksson and Hring │ 900–950 - Eirik the Victorious │ c. 950–994 - Olaf Skaut-konung │ c. 994–1022 - Önund Jakob │ c. 1022–1050 - Eymund the Old │ c. 1050–1060 - Steinkel Rögnvaldson │ c. 1060–1066 - -[Illustration: - - GEOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE OF THE VIKING AGE -] - - - - - THE VIKING AGE. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - CIVILISATION AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE NORTH. - - Early antiquities of the North—Literature: English and Frankish - chronicles—Early civilisation—Beauty of ornaments, weapons, &c. - - -A study of the ancient literature and abundant archæology of the North -gives us a true picture of the character and life of the Norse ancestors -of the English-speaking peoples. - -We can form a satisfactory idea of their religious, social, political, -and warlike life. We can follow them from their birth to their grave. We -see the infant exposed to die, or _water sprinkled_,[1] and a name -bestowed upon it; follow the child in his education, in his sports; the -young man in his practice of arms; the maiden in her domestic duties and -embroidery; the adult in his warlike expeditions; hear the clash of -swords and the songs of the _Scald_, looking on and inciting the -warriors to greater deeds of daring, or it may be recounting afterwards -the glorious death of the hero. We listen to the old man giving his -advice at the _Thing_.[2] We learn about their dress, ornaments, -implements, weapons; their expressive names and complicated -relationships; their dwellings and convivial halls, with their primitive -or magnificent furniture; their temples, sacrifices, gods, and sacred -ceremonies; their personal appearance, even to the hair, eyes, face and -limbs. Their festivals, betrothal and marriage feasts are open to us. We -are present at their athletic games preparatory to the stern realities -of the life of that period, where honour and renown were won on the -battle-field; at the revel and drunken bout; behold the dead warrior on -his burning ship or on the pyre, and surrounded by his weapons, horses, -slaves, or fallen companions who are to enter with him into -_Valhalla_;[3] look into the death chamber, see the mounding and the -_Arvel_, or inheritance feast. - -These Norsemen had carriages or chariots, as well as horses, and the -numerous skeletons of this animal in graves or bogs prove it to have -been in common use at a very early period. Their dress, and the -splendour of their riding equipment for war, the richness of the -ornamentation of their weapons of offence and defence are often -carefully described. Everywhere we see that gold was in the greatest -abundance. The descriptions of such wealth might seem to be very much -exaggerated; but, as will be seen in the course of this work, the -antiquities treasured in the museums of the North bear witness to the -truthfulness of the records. The spade has developed the history of -Scandinavia, as it has done that of Assyria and Etruria, but in addition -the Northmen had the Saga and Edda literature to perpetuate their deeds. - -We are the more astonished as we peruse the Eddas and Sagas giving the -history of the North, and examine the antiquities found in the country, -for we hear hardly anything about the customs of the people from the -Roman writers, and our ideas regarding them have been thoroughly -vitiated by the earlier Frankish and English chronicles and other -monkish writings, or by the historians who have taken these records as a -trustworthy authority. - -Some writers, in order to give more weight to these chronicles, and to -show the great difference that existed between the invaders and invaded, -and how superior the latter were to the former, paint in a graphic -manner, without a shadow of authority, the contrast between the two -peoples. England is described as being at that time a most beautiful -country, a panegyric which does not apply to fifteen or twenty centuries -ago; while the country of the aggressor is depicted as one of swamp and -forest inhabited by wild and savage men. It is forgotten that after a -while the people of the country attacked were the same people as those -of the North or their descendants, who in intelligence, civilisation, -and manly virtues were far superior to the original and effete -inhabitants of the shores they invaded. - -The men of the North who settled and conquered part of Gaul and Britain, -whose might the power of Rome could not destroy, and whose depredations -it could not prevent, were not savages; the Romans did not dare attack -these men at home with their fleet or with their armies. Nay, they even -had allowed these Northmen to settle peacefully in their provinces of -Gaul and Britain. - -No, the people who were then spread over a great part of the present -Russia, who overran Germania, who knew the art of writing, who led their -conquering hosts to Spain, into the Mediterranean, to Italy, Sicily, -Greece, the Black Sea, Palestine, Africa, and even crossed the broad -Atlantic to America, who were undisputed masters of the sea for more -than twelve centuries, were not barbarians. Let those who uphold the -contrary view produce evidence from archæology of an indigenous British -or Gallic civilisation which surpasses that of the North. - -The antiquities of the North even without its literature would throw an -indirect but valuable light on the history of the earlier Norse tribes, -the so-called barbarians, fiends, devils, sons of Pluto, &c., of the -Frankish and English chronicles. To the latter we can refer for stories -of terrible acts of cruelty committed by the countrymen of the writers -who recount them with complacency; maiming prisoners or antagonists and -sending multitudes into slavery far away from their homes. But the -greatest of all outrages in the eyes of these monkish scribes was that -the Northmen burned a church or used it for sheltering their men or -stabling their horses. - -The writers of the English and Frankish chronicles were the worst -enemies of the Northmen, ignorant and bigoted men when judged by the -standard of our time; through their writings we hardly know anything of -the customs of their own people. They could see nothing good in a man -who had not a religion identical with their own. - -Still allowance must be made for the chroniclers; they wrote the history -of their own period with the bigotry, passions, and hatreds, of their -times. - -The striking fact brought vividly before our mind is that the people of -the North, even before the time when they carried their warfare into -Gaul and Britain, possessed a degree of civilisation which would be -difficult for us to realise were it not that the antiquities help us in -a most remarkable manner, and in many essential points, to corroborate -the truthfulness of the Eddas and Sagas. - -The indisputable fact remains that both the Gauls and the Britons were -conquered by the Romans and afterwards by the Northern tribes. - -This Northern civilisation was peculiar to itself, having nothing in -common with the Roman world. Rome knew nothing of these people till they -began to frequent the coasts of her North Sea provinces, in the days of -Tacitus, and after his time the Mediterranean. The North was separated -from Rome by the swamps and forests of Germania—a vague term given to a -country north and north-east of Italy, a land without boundaries, and -inhabited by a great number of warlike, wild, uncivilised tribes. -According to the accounts of Roman writers, these people were very -unlike those of the North, and we must take the description given of -them to be correct, as there is no archæological discovery to prove the -contrary. They were distinct; one was comparatively civilised, the other -was not. - -The manly civilisation the Northmen possessed was their own; from their -records, corroborated by finds in Southern Russia, it seems to have -advanced north from about the shores of the Black Sea, and we shall be -able to see in the perusal of these pages how many Northern customs were -like those of the ancient Greeks. - -A view of the past history of the world will show us that the growth of -nations which have become powerful has been remarkably steady, and has -depended upon the superior intelligence of the conquering people over -their neighbours; just as to-day the nations who have taken possession -of far-off lands and extended their domain, are superior to the -conquered. - -The museums of Copenhagen, Stockholm, Christiania, Bergen, Lünd, -Göteborg, and many smaller ones in the provincial towns of the three -Scandinavian kingdoms, show a most wonderful collection of antiquities -which stand unrivalled in Central and Northern Europe for their wealth -of weapons and costly objects of gold and silver, belonging to the -bronze and iron age, and every year additions are made. - -The weapons found with their peculiar northern ornamentation, and the -superb ring coats-of-mail, show the skill of the people in working iron. -A great number of their early swords and other weapons are damascened -even so far back as the beginning of the Christian era, and show either -that this art was practised in the North long before its introduction -into the rest of Europe from Damascus by the Crusaders, or that the -Norsemen were so far advanced as to be able to appreciate the artistic -manufactures of Southern nations. - -The remnants of articles of clothing with graceful patterns, interwoven -with threads of gold and silver, which have fortunately escaped entire -destruction, show the existence of great skill in weaving. Entire suits -of wearing apparel remain to tell us how some of the people dressed in -the beginning of our era. - -Beautiful vessels of silver and gold also testify to the taste and -luxury of those early times. The knowledge of the art of writing and of -gilding is clearly demonstrated. In some cases, nearly twenty centuries -have not been able to tarnish or obliterate the splendour of the gilt -jewels of the Northmen. We find among their remains—either of their own -manufacture or imported, perhaps as spoils of war—_repoussé_ work of -gold or silver, bronze, silver, and wood work covered with the thinnest -sheets of gold; the filigree work displays great skill, and some of it -could not be surpassed now. Many objects are ornamented with _niello_, -and of so thorough a northern pattern, that they are incontestably of -home manufacture. The art of enamelling seems also to have been known to -the artificers of the period. - -Objects, many of which show much refined taste, such as superb specimens -of glass vessels with exquisite painted subjects—unrivalled for their -beauty of pattern, even in the museums of Italy and Russia—objects of -bronze, &c., make us pause with astonishment, and musingly ask ourselves -from what country these came. The names of Etruria, of ancient Greece, -and of Rome, naturally occur to our minds. - -Other objects of unquestionable Roman and Greek manufacture, and -hundreds and thousands of coins, of the first, second, third and fourth -centuries of the Christian era, show the early intercourse the people of -the North had with the western and eastern Roman empire, and with -Frisia, Gaul, and Britain. - -A careful perusal of the Eddas and Sagas will enable us, with the help -of the ancient Greek and Latin writers, and without any serious break in -the chain of events, to make out a fairly continuous history which -throws considerable light on the progenitors of the English-speaking -people, their migrations northward from their old home on the shores of -the Black Sea, their religion, and the settlement of Scandinavia, of -England, and other countries. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - ROMAN AND GREEK ACCOUNTS OF THE NORTHMEN. - - The three maritime tribes of the North—The fleets of the - Sueones—Expeditions of Saxons and Franks—Home of these tribes—The - tribes of Germania not seafaring—Probable origin of the names - Saxons and Franks. - - -Roman writers give us the names of three maritime tribes of the North, -which were called by them _Sueones_, _Saxones_, and _Franci_. The first -of these, which is the earliest mentioned, is thus described by Tacitus -(circ. 57–117 A.D.):— - - -“Hence the States of the Sueones, situated in the ocean itself, are not -only powerful on land, but also have mighty fleets. The shape of their -ships is different, in that, having a prow at each end, they are always -ready for running on to the beach. They are not worked by sails, nor are -the oars fastened to the sides in regular order, but left loose as in -some rivers, so that they can be shifted here or there as circumstances -may require.”[4] - - -The word _Sviar_, which is constantly met with in the Sagas to denote -the inhabitants of Svithjod (Sweden), or the country of which Upsala was -the capital, corresponds somewhat to the name Sueones, and it is highly -probable that in _Sueones_ we have the root of _Sviar_ and of -_Svithjod_. The ships described by Tacitus are exactly like those which -are described in this work as having been found in the North. - -It stands to reason that the maritime power of the Sueones must have -been the growth of centuries before the time of Tacitus, and from -analogy of historical records we know that the fleets of powerful -nations do not remain idle. Hence we must come to the conclusion that -the Sueones navigated the sea long before the time of Tacitus, an -hypothesis which is implied by the Eddas and Sagas as well as by the -antiquities discovered. - -That the Sueones, with such fleets, did not navigate westward further -than Frisia is not credible, the more so that it was only necessary for -them to follow the coast in order to come to the shores of Gaul, from -which they could see Britain, and such maritime people must have had -intercourse with the inhabitants of that island at that period; indeed, -the objects of the earlier iron age discovered in Britain, which were -until lately classed as Anglo-Roman, are identical with those of the -country from which these people came, i.e., Scandinavia. - -The Veneti, a tribe who inhabited Brittany, and whose power on the sea -is described by Cæsar, were in all probability the advance-guard of the -tribes of the North; their ships were built of oak, with iron nails, -just as those of the Northmen; and the people of the country in which -they settled were not seafaring.[5] Moreover, the similarity of the name -to that of the Venedi, who are conjecturally placed by Tacitus on the -shores of the Baltic, and to the Vends, so frequently mentioned in the -Sagas, can scarcely be regarded as a mere accident. - - -“The Veneti have a very great number of ships, with which they have been -accustomed to sail to Britain, and excel the rest of the people in their -knowledge and experience of nautical affairs; and as only a few ports -lie scattered along that stormy and open sea, of which they are in -possession, they hold as tributaries almost all those who have been -accustomed to traffic in that sea....” - - -“For their own ships were built and equipped in the following manner: -Their ships were more flat-bottomed than our vessels, in order that they -might be able more easily to guard against shallows and the ebbing of -the tide; the prows were very much elevated, as also the sterns, so as -to encounter heavy waves and storms. The vessels were built wholly of -oak, so as to bear any violence or shock; the cross-benches, a foot in -breadth, were fastened by iron spikes of the thickness of the thumb; the -anchors were secured to iron chains, instead of to ropes; raw hides and -thinly-dressed skins were used for sails, either on account of their -want of canvas and ignorance of its use, or for this reason, which is -the more likely, that they considered that such violent ocean storms and -such strong winds could not be resisted, and such heavy vessels could -not be conveniently managed by sails. The attack of our fleet on these -vessels was of such a nature that the only advantage was in its -swiftness and the power of its oars; in everything else, considering the -situation and the fury of the storm, they had the advantage. For neither -could our ships damage them by ramming (so strongly were they built), -nor was a weapon easily made to reach them, owing to their height, and -for the same reason they were not so easily held by grappling-irons. To -this was added, that when the wind had begun to get strong, and they had -driven before the gale, they could better weather the storm, and also -more safely anchor among shallows, and, when left by the tide, need in -no respect fear rocks and reefs, the dangers from all which things were -greatly to be dreaded by our vessels.” - - -Roman writers after the time of Tacitus mention warlike and maritime -expeditions by the Saxons and Franks. Their names do not occur in -Tacitus, but it is not altogether improbable that these people, whom -later writers mention as ravaging every country which they could enter -by sea or land, are the people whom Tacitus knew as the Sueones. - -The maritime power of the Sueones could not have totally disappeared in -a century, a hypothesis which is borne out by the fact that after a -lapse of seven centuries they are again mentioned in the time of -Charlemagne; nor could the supremacy of the so-called Saxons and Franks -on the sea have arisen in a day; it must have been the growth of even -generations before the time of Tacitus. - -Ptolemy (circ. A.D. 140) is the first writer who mentions the Saxons as -inhabiting a territory north of the Elbe, on the neck of the Cimbric -Chersonesus.[6] They occupied but a small space, for between them and -the Cimbri, at the northern extremity of the peninsula, he places ten -other tribes, among them the Angli. - -About a century after the time of Ptolemy, Franks and Saxons had already -widely extended their expeditions at sea. Some of the former made an -expedition from the Euxine, through the Mediterranean, plundered -Syracuse, and returned without mishap across the great sea (A.D. circ. -280).[7] - - -“He (Probus) permitted the Bastarnæ, a Scythian race, who had submitted -themselves to him, to settle in certain districts of Thrace which he -allotted to them, and from thenceforth these people always lived under -the laws and institutions of Rome. And there were certain Franks who had -come to the Emperor, and had asked for land on which to settle. A part -of them, however, revolted, and having obtained a large number of ships, -caused disturbances throughout the whole of Greece, and having landed in -Sicily and made an assault on Syracuse, they caused much slaughter -there. They also landed in Libya, but were repulsed at the approach of -the Carthaginian forces. Nevertheless, they managed to get back to their -home unscathed.” - - -“Why should I tell again of the most remote nations of the Franks (of -Francia), which were carried away not from those regions which the -Romans had on a former occasion invaded, but from their own native -territory, and the farthest shores of the land of the barbarians, and -transported to the deserted parts of Gaul that they might promote the -peace of the Roman Empire by their cultivation and its armies by their -recruits?”[8] - - -“There came to mind the incredible daring and undeserved success of a -handful of the captive Franks under the Emperor Probus. For they, having -seized some ships, so far away as Pontus, having laid waste Greece and -Asia, having landed and done some damage on several parts of the coast -of Africa, actually took Syracuse, which was at one time so renowned for -her naval ascendancy. Thereupon they accomplished a very long voyage and -entered the Ocean at the point where it breaks through the land (the -Straits of Gibraltar), and so by the result of their daring exploit -showed that wherever ships can sail, nothing is closed to pirates in -desperation.”[9] - - -In the time of Diocletian and Maximian these maritime tribes so harassed -the coasts of Gaul and Britain that Maximian, in 286, was obliged to -make Gesoriacum or Bononia (the present Boulogne) into a port for the -Roman fleet, in order as far as possible to prevent their incursions. - - -“About this time (A.D. 287) Carausius, who, though of very humble -origin, had, in the exercise of vigorous warfare, obtained a -distinguished reputation, was appointed at Bononia to reduce to quiet -the coast regions of Belgica and Armorica, which were overrun by the -Franks and Saxons. But though many of the barbarians were captured, the -whole of the booty was not handed over to the inhabitants of the -province, nor sent to the commander-in-chief, and the barbarians were, -moreover, deliberately allowed by him to come in, that he might capture -them with their spoils as they passed through, and by this means enrich -himself. On being condemned to death by Maximian, he seized on the -sovereign command, and took possession of Britain.”[10] - - -Eutropius also records that the Saxons and others dwelt on the coasts of -and among the marshes of the great sea, which no one could traverse, but -the Emperor Valentinian (320–375) nevertheless conquered them. - -The Emperor Julian calls the - - -“Franks and Saxons the most warlike of the tribes above the Rhine and -the Western Sea.”[11] - - -Ammianus Marcellinus (d. circ. 400 A.D.) writes:— - - -“At this time (middle of the 4th century), just as though the trumpets -were sounding a challenge throughout all the Roman world, fierce nations -were stirred up and began to burst forth from their territories. The -Alamanni began to devastate Gallia and Rhætia; the Sarmatæ and Quadi -Pannonia, the Picts and Saxons, Scots, and Attacotti constantly harassed -the Britons.”[12] - -“The Franks and the Saxons, who are coterminous with them, were ravaging -the districts of Gallia wherever they could effect an entrance by sea or -land, plundering and burning, and murdering all the prisoners they could -take.”[13] - - -Claudianus asserts that the Saxons appeared even in the Orkneys:— - - -“The Orcades were moist from the slain Saxon.”[14] - - -These are but a few of many allusions to the same effect which might be -quoted. - -That the swarms of Sueones and so-called Saxons and Franks, seen on -every sea of Europe, could have poured forth from a small country is not -possible. Such fleets as they possessed could only have come from a -country densely covered with oak forests. We must come to the conclusion -that Sueones, Franks, and Saxons were seafaring tribes belonging to one -people. The Roman writers did not seem to know the precise locality -inhabited by these people. - -It would appear that these tribes must have come from a country further -eastward than the Roman provinces, and that as they came with ships, -their home must have been on the shores of the Baltic, the Cattegat, and -Norway; in fact, precisely the country which the numerous antiquities -point to as inhabited by an extremely warlike and maritime race, which -had great intercourse with the Greek and Roman world. - -The dates given by the Greek and Roman writers of the maritime -expeditions, invasions, and settlements of the so-called Saxons and -Franks agree perfectly with the date of the objects found in the North, -among which are numerous Roman coins, and remarkable objects of Roman -and Greek art, which must have been procured either by the peaceful -intercourse of trade or by war. To this very day thousands upon -thousands of graves have been preserved in the North, belonging to the -time of the invasions of these Northmen, and to an earlier period. From -them no other inference can be drawn than that the country and islands -of the Baltic were far more densely populated than any part of central -and western Europe and Great Britain, since the number of these earlier -graves in those countries is much smaller. - -Every tumulus described by antiquaries as a Saxon or Frankish grave is -the counterpart of a Northern grave, thus showing conclusively the -common origin of the people. - -Wherever graves of the same type are found in other countries we have -the invariable testimony, either of the Roman or Greek writers of the -Frankish and English Chronicles or of the Sagas, to show that the people -of the North had been in the country at one time or another. - -The conclusion is forced upon us that in time the North became -over-populated, and an outlet was necessary for the spread of its -people. - -The story of the North is that of all countries whose inhabitants have -spread and conquered, in order to find new fields for their energy and -over-population; in fact, the very course the progenitors of the -English-speaking peoples adopted in those days is precisely the one -which has been followed by their descendants in England and other -countries for the last three hundred years. - -It is certain that the Franks could not have lived on the coast of -Frisia, as they did later on, for we know that the country of the Rhine -was held by the Romans, and, besides, as we have already seen, Julian -refers to the Franks and Saxons as dwelling above the Rhine. Moreover, -till they had to give up their conquests, no mention is made by the -Romans of native seafaring tribes inhabiting the shores of their -northern province, except the Veneti, and they would have certainly -tried to subjugate the roving seamen that caused them so much trouble in -their newly-acquired provinces if they had been within their reach. - -From the Roman writers, who have been partially confirmed by archæology, -we know that the tribes which inhabited the country to which they give -the vague name of Germania were not seafaring people nor possessed of -any civilisation. The invaders of Britain, of the Gallic and of the -Mediterranean coasts could therefore not have been the German tribes -referred to by the Roman writers, who, as we see from Julius Cæsar and -other Roman historians, were very far from possessing the civilisation -which we know, from the antiquities, to have existed in the North. - - -“Their whole life is devoted to hunting and warlike pursuits. From -childhood they pay great attention to toil and hardiness; they bathe all -together in the rivers, and wear skins or small reindeer garments, -leaving the greater part of their bodies naked.”[15] - - -Tacitus, in recording the speech of Germanicus to his troops before the -battle at Idistavisus, bears witness to the uncivilised character of the -inhabitants of the country. - - -“The huge targets, the enormous spears of the barbarians could never be -wielded against trunks of trees and thickets of underwood shooting up -from the ground, like Roman swords and javelins, and armour fitting the -body ... the Germans had neither helmet nor coat of mail; their bucklers -were not even strengthened with leather, but mere contextures of twigs -and boards of no substance daubed over with paint. Their first rank was -to a certain extent armed with pikes, the rest had only stakes burnt at -the ends or short darts.”[16] - - -Now compare these descriptions with the magnificent archæology of the -North of that period—as seen in these volumes—from which we learn that -the tribes who inhabited the shores of the Baltic and the present -Scandinavia had at the time the above was written reached a high degree -of civilisation. We find in their graves and hoards, coins of the early -Roman Empire not in isolated instances, but constantly and in large -numbers, and deposited side by side with such objects as coats of mail, -damascened swords and other examples of articles of highly artistic -workmanship. - -Three kinds of swords are often mentioned by the Northmen—the _mœkir_, -the _sverd_, and the _sax_, while among the spears there is one called -_frakki_, or _frakka_. - -The double-edged sword was the one that was in use among the Romans, and -they, seeing bodies of men carrying a weapon unlike theirs—single-edged, -and called Sax—may have named them after it, and the Franks, in like -manner, may have been called after their favourite weapon, the Frakki; -but we see that neither the _sax_ nor the _frakki_ was confined to one -tribe in the North. There is a Saxland in the Sagas—a small country -situated east of the peninsula of Jutland, about the present Holstein—a -land tributary to the Danish or Swedish Kings from the earliest times, -but far from possessing the warlike archæology of the North, it appears -to have held an insignificant place among the neighbouring tribes. - -In the Bayeux tapestry the followers of William the Conqueror were -called Franci, and they always have been recognised as coming from the -North. - -The very early finds prove that the Sax was not rare, for it occurs in -different parts of the North and islands of the Baltic. The different -swords and spears used were so common and so well known to everybody, -that we have no special description of them in the Sagas, except of -their ornamentation; but in the Saga of Grettir there is a passage which -shows that the Sax was single-edged. - -Gretti went to a farm in Iceland to slay the Bondi Thorbjorn and his son -Arnor. We read— - - -“When Gretti saw that the young man was within reach he lifted his _sax_ -high into the air, and struck Arnor’s head with _its back_, so that his -head was broken and he died. Thereupon he killed the father with his -_sax_.” - - -Whatever may be the origin of local names employed by the Roman writers -we must look to the North for the maritime tribes described by them; -there we shall find the home of the earlier English people, to whose -numerous warlike and ocean-loving instincts we owe the transformation -which took place in Britain, and the glorious inheritance which they -have left to their descendants, scattered over many parts of the world, -in whom we recognise to this day many of the very same traits of -character which their ancestors possessed. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - THE SETTLEMENT OF BRITAIN BY NORTHMEN. - - The Notitia—Probable origin of the name England—Jutland—The language - of the North and of England—Early Northern kings in England—Danes - and Sueones—Mythical accounts of the settlements of England. - - -Britain being an island could only be settled or conquered by seafaring -tribes, just in the same way as to-day distant lands can only be -conquered by nations possessing ships. From the Roman writers we have -the only knowledge we possess in regard to the tribes inhabiting the -country to which they gave the vague name of Germania. From the Roman -records we find that these tribes were not civilised and that they were -not a seafaring people. - -Unfortunately the Roman accounts we have of their conquest and -occupation of Britain, of its population and inhabitants, are very -meagre and unsatisfactory, and do not help us much to ascertain how the -settlement in Britain by the people of the North began. Our lack of -information is most probably due to the simple reason that the -settlement, like all settlements of a new country, was a very gradual -one, a few men coming over in the first instance for the purpose of -trade either with Britons or Romans, or coming from the over-populated -North to settle in a country which the paucity of archæological remains -shows to have been thinly occupied. The Romans made no objection to -these new settlers, who did not prove dangerous to their power on the -island, but brought them commodities, such as furs, &c., from the North. - -We find from the Roman records that the so-called Saxons had founded -colonies or had settlements in Belgium and Gaul. - -Another important fact we know from the records relating to Britain is -that during the Roman occupation of the island the Saxons had -settlements in the country; but how they came hither we are not told. - -In the _Notitia Dignitatum utriusque imperii_, a sort of catalogue or -“Army List,” compiled towards the latter end of the fourth century, -occurs the expression, “Comes litoris Saxonici per Britannias”—Count of -the Saxon Shore in Britain. Within this litus Saxonicum the following -places are mentioned:—Othona, said to be “close by Hastings”; Dubris, -said to be Dover; Rutupiæ, Richborough; Branodunum, Brancaster; -Regulbium, Reculvers; Lemannis, West Hythe; Garianno, Yarmouth; -Anderida, Pevensey; Portus Adurni, Shoreham or Brighton. - -This shows that the so-called Saxons were settled in Britain before the -Notitia was drawn up, and at a date very much earlier than has been -assigned by some modern historians. - -The hypothesis that the expression “litus Saxonicum” is derived from the -enemy to whose ravages it was exposed seems improbable. Is it not much -more probable that the “litus Saxonicum per Britannias” must mean the -shore of the country settled, not attacked, by Saxons? The mere fact of -their attacking the shore would not have given rise to the name applied -to it had they not settled there, for I maintain that there is no -instance in the whole of Roman literature of a country being named after -the people who attacked it. If, on the other hand, the Saxons had landed -and formed settlements on the British coasts, the origin of the name -“Litus Saxonicum” is easily understood. - -Some time after the Romans relinquished Britain we find that part of the -island becomes known as England; and, to make the subject still more -confusing, the people composing its chief population are called Saxons -by the chroniclers and later historians, the name given to them by the -Romans. - -That the history of the people called Saxons was by no means certain is -seen in the fact that Witikind, a monk of the tenth century, gives the -following account of what was then considered to be their origin[17]:— - - -“On this there are various opinions, some thinking that the Saxons had -their origin from the Danes and Northmen; others, as I heard some one -maintain when a young man, that they are derived from the Greeks, -because they themselves used to say the Saxons were the remnant of the -Macedonian army, which, having followed Alexander the Great, were by his -premature death dispersed all over the world.” - - -As to how Britain came to be called England the different legends given -by the monkish writers are contradictory. - -The _Skjöldunga Saga_, which is often mentioned in other Sagas, and -which contains a record down to the early kings of Denmark, is -unfortunately lost: it would, no doubt, have thrown great light on the -lives of early chiefs who settled in Britain; but from some fragments -which are given in this work, and which are supposed to belong to it, we -see that several Danish and Swedish kings claimed to have possessions in -England long before the supposed coming of the Danes. - -Some writers assert that the new settlers gave to their new home in -Britain the name of the country which they had left, called _Angeln_, -and which they claim to be situated in the southern part of Jutland; but -besides the Angeln in Jutland there is in the Cattegat an Engelholm, -which is geographically far more important, situated in the land known -as the Vikin of the Sagas, a great Viking and warlike land, from which -the name Viking may have been derived, filled with graves and -antiquities of the iron age. There are also other Engeln in the present -Sweden. - -In the whole literature of the North such a name as Engeln is unknown; -it may have been, perhaps, a local name. - -In the Sagas the term _England_ was applied to a portion only of -Britain, the inhabitants of which were called _Englar_, _Enskirmenn_. -Britain itself is called _Bretland_, and the people _Bretar_. - - -“Öngulsey (Angelsey) is one third of Bretland (Wales)” (Magnus -Barefoot’s Saga, c. 11). - - -Another part of the country was called _Nordimbraland_. - -It is an important fact that throughout the Saga literature describing -the expeditions of the Northmen to England not a single instance is -mentioned of their coming in contact with a people called _Saxons_, -which shows that such a name in Britain was unknown to the people of the -North. Nor is any part of England called Saxland. - -To make the confusion greater than it is, some modern historians make -the so-called Saxons, who were supposed to have come over with the -mythical Hengist and others, a distinct race from the Northmen, who -afterwards continued to land in the country. - -In the Sagas we constantly find that the people of England are not only -included among the Northern lands, but that the warriors of one country -are helping the other. In several places we find, and from others we -infer, that the language in both countries was very similar. - - -“All sayings in the Northern (norræn) tongue in which there is truth -begin when the Tyrkir and the Asia-men settled in the North. For it is -truly told that the tongue which we call Norræn came with them to the -North, and it went through Saxland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and part of -England” (Rimbegla, iii. c. i.). - - -“We are of one tongue, though one of the two, or in some respects both, -are now much changed” (Prose Edda, ii.) - - -“Then ruled over England King Ethelred, son of Edgar (979). He was a -good chief; he sat this winter in London. The tongue in England, as well -as in Norway and Denmark, was then one, but it changed in England when -William the Bastard won England. Thenceforth the tongue of Valland -(France) was used in England, for he (William) was born there” (Gunnlaug -Ormstunga’s Saga, c. 7). - - -That the language of the North should have taken a footing in a great -part of England is due, no doubt, to the continuous flow of immigration, -from the northern mother country, which entirely swamped the former -native or British element. - -The story given in the English or Irish chronicles of the appearance of -the Danes, in A.D. 785, when their name is first mentioned, is as little -trustworthy as that of the settlement of England, and bears the -appearance of contradiction and confusion in regard to names of people -and facts. - -We must remember that the Sueones are not mentioned from the time of -Tacitus to that of Charlemagne (772–814), and certainly they had not -disappeared in the meantime. - -What were the Danes doing with their mighty fleets before this? Had -their ships been lying in port for centuries? Had they been built for -simple recreation and the pleasure of looking at them, or did their -maritime power arise at once as if by magic? Such an hypothesis cannot -stand the test of reasoning. The turning of a population into a -seafaring nation is the work of time. Where in the history of the world -can we find a parallel to this story of a people _suddenly_ appearing -with immense navies? Let us compare by analogy the statement of the -chronicles with what might happen to the history of England in the -course of time. - -Suppose that for some reason the previous history of England were lost, -with the exception of a fragment which spoke of her enormous fleet of -to-day. Could it be reasonably supposed that this great maritime power -was the creation of a few years? - -A few years after the time fixed as that of their first supposed -appearance we find these very Danes swarming everywhere with their -fleets and warriors, not only in England, but in Gaul, in Brittany, up -the Seine, the Garonne, the Rhine, the Elbe, on the coasts of Spain, and -further eastward in the Mediterranean. - -The Sueones, or Swedes, reappear at the close of the eighth and -commencement of the ninth centuries by the side of the Danes, and both -called themselves Northmen. Surely the maritime power of the Sueones, -described by Tacitus, could not have been destroyed immediately after -his death, only to reappear in the time of Charlemagne, when it again -becomes prominent in the Frankish annals. - -A remarkable fact not to be overlooked is that, in the time of -Charlemagne, the Franks and Saxons were not a seafaring people, though -their countries had an extensive coast with deep rivers. The Frankish -annals never mention a Frank or Saxon fleet attacking the fleets of the -Northmen, or preventing them from ascending their streams, though -Charlemagne ordered ships to be built in order to resist their -incursions. - -While the country of the Saxons was being conquered by this Emperor, we -find that the Saxons themselves had no vessels on the Elbe or Weser in -which, if defeated, they could retire in safety, or by help of which -they could prevent the army of their enemies from crossing their -streams. Such tactics were constantly used by the Northmen in their -invasions of ancient Gaul, Britain, Germania, Spain, &c. - -Thus we see that, though hardly more than three hundred years had -elapsed since the time when, according to the Roman writers, the fleets -of the Franks and Saxons swarmed over every sea of Europe, not a vestige -of their former maritime power remained in the time of Charlemagne, and -the Saxons were still occupying the same country as in the days of -Ptolemy. - -Pondering over the above important facts, the question arises: Were not -the Romans mistaken in giving the names of Saxons and Franks to the -maritime tribes of whose origin, country, and homes they knew nothing, -but who came to attack their shores? Were not these so-called Saxons and -Franks in reality tribes of Sueones, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians? The -Romans knew none of the countries of these people. It seems strange, if -not incredible, to find two peoples, whose country had a vast sea-coast -and deep rivers, totally abandoning the seafaring habits possessed by -their forefathers. - -It cannot be doubted that Ivar Vidfadmi, after him Harald Hilditönn, -then Sigurd Hring and Ragnar Lodbrok and his sons, and probably some of -the Danish and Swedish kings before them, made expeditions to England, -and gained and held possessions there. Several distinct records, having -no connection with each other, being parts of different Sagas and -histories, with the archæology, form the evidence. - - -“Ivar Vidfadmi (wide-fathomer) subdued the whole of Sviaveldi (the -Swedish realm); he also got Danaveldi (Danish realm) and a large part of -Saxland, and the whole of Austrriki (Eastern realm, including Russia, -&c.) and the fifth part of England. From his kin have come the kings of -Denmark and the kings of Sweden who have had sole power in these lands” -(Ynglinga Saga, c. 45). - - -The above is corroborated by another quite independent source. - - -“Ivar Vidfadmi ruled England till his death-day. As he lay on his -death-bed he said he wanted to be carried to where the land was exposed -to attacks, and that he hoped those who landed there would not be -victorious. When he died it happened as he said, and he was -_mound-laid_. It is said by many men that when King Harald Sigurdsson -came to England he landed where Ivar’s mound was, and he was slain -there. When Vilhjálm Bastard came to the land he broke open the mound of -Ivar and saw that the corpse was not rotten; he made a large pyre, and -had Ivar burned on it; then he went up on land and got the victory” -(Ragnar Lodbrók’s Saga, c. 19). - - -We find that not only did the Norwegians call themselves Northmen, but -that both Danes and Sueones were called Northmen in the Frankish -Chronicles.[18] - - -“The Danes and Sueones, whom we call Northmen, occupy both the northern -shore and all its islands.” - - -So also Nigellus (in the reign of Louis Le Debonnaire).[19] - - -“The Danes also after the manner of the Franks are called by the name of -Manni.” - - -The time came when the people of the North, continuing their expeditions -to Britain, attacked their own kinsmen. After the departure of the -Romans the power of the new comers increased, and as they became more -numerous, they became more and more domineering: the subsequent -struggles were between a sturdy race that had settled in the country and -people of their own kin, and not with Britons, who had been so easily -conquered by the Romans, had appealed to them afterwards for protection, -and had for a long period been a subject race. It is not easy to believe -that the inhabitants of a servile Roman province could suddenly become -stubborn and fierce warriors, nor are there any antiquities belonging to -the Britain of yore which bear witness to a fierce and warlike character -displayed by the aboriginal inhabitants. - -From the preceding pages we see that Franks and Saxons are continually -mentioned together, and it is only in the North we can find antiquities -of a most warlike and seafaring people, who must have formed the great -and preponderating bulk of the invading host who conquered Britain. - -Britain after a continuous immigration from the North, which lasted -several hundred years, became the most powerful colony of the Northern -tribes, several of whose chiefs claimed a great part of England even in -the seventh century. Afterwards she asserted her independence, though -she did not get it until after a long and tedious struggle with the -North, the inhabitants and kings of which continued to try to assert the -ancient rights their forefathers once possessed. Then the time came when -the land upon which the people of these numerous tribes had settled -became more powerful and more populous than the mother country; a case -which has found several parallels in the history of the world. To-day -the people of England as they look over the broad Atlantic may perhaps -discern the same process gradually taking place. In the people of the -United States of North America, the grandest and most colossal state -founded by England or any other country of which we have any historical -record, we may recognise the indomitable courage, the energy and spirit -which was one of the characteristics of the Northern race to whom a -great part of the people belong. The first settlement of the country, -territory by territory, State by State—the frontier life with its bold -adventures, innumerable dangers, fights, struggles, privations and -heroism—is the grandest drama that has ever been enacted in the history -of the world. The time is not far distant, if the population of the -United States and Canada increases in the same ratio as it has done for -more than a hundred years, when over three or four hundred millions of -its people will speak the English tongue; and I think it is no -exaggeration to say that in the course of time one hundred millions more -will be added, from Australia, New Zealand and other colonies which -to-day form part of the British Empire, but which are destined to become -independent nations. In fact we hesitate to look still further into the -future of the English race, for fear of being accused of exaggeration. - -There is a mythical version of the settlement of Britain contradictory -of the Roman records. This version is that of Gildas whose ‘De Excidio -Britanniæ’ is supposed to have been composed in the sixth century (560 -A.D.), and whose statements have unfortunately been taken by one -historian after the other as a true history of Britain. His narrative, -which gives an account of the first arrival of the Saxons in Britain and -the numerous wars which followed their invasion, has been more or less -copied by Nennius, Bede and subsequent chroniclers, whose writings are a -mass of glaring contradictions, diffuse and intricate, for they contain -names which appear to have been invented by the writers and which cannot -be traced in the language of those times, while the dates assigned for -the landing of the so-called Saxons do not agree with one another. - -The historians who use Gildas as an authority and try to believe his -account of the settlement of Britain by Hengist and Horsa (the stallion -and the mare) are obliged, in order to explain away the Roman records, -to give a most extraordinary interpretation to the Notitia. - -We are all aware that the people of every country like to trace their -origin or history as far back as possible, and that legends often form -part of the fabric of those histories. The early chroniclers, who were -credulous and profoundly ignorant of the world, took these fables for -facts, or they may have possibly been incorporated in the text of their -supposed works after their time. The description of the settlement of a -country must be founded on facts which can bear the test of searching -criticism if they are to be believed and adopted; Gildas and his -copyists cannot stand that test, and the Roman records, as corroborated -by the archæology and literature of the North and the archæology of -England, must be taken as the correct ones. - -The mythological literature of the North bears evidence of a belief -prevalent among the people, that their ancestors migrated at a remote -period from the shores of the Black Sea, through south-western Russia, -to the shores of the Baltic. This belief seems to be supported by a -variety of evidence. Herodotus describes a people on the Tanais, the -Budini, as being blue-eyed and yellow-haired, with houses built of wood, -his description of the walls reminding one of the characteristics of the -Danavirki (Herodotus, IV. 21, 108, 109). One of his tribes, the -_Thysagetæ_, may possibly be indicated in the _Thursar_ of the Voluspa, -&c. - -When we appeal to Archæology, we find in the neighbourhood of the Black -Sea, near to the old Greek settlement, graves similar to those of the -North, containing ornaments and other relics also remarkably like those -found in the ancient graves of Scandinavia. The Runes of the North -remind us strikingly of the characters of Archaic Greek. If we follow -the river Dnieper upwards from its mouth in the Black Sea, we see in the -museums of Kief and Smolensk many objects of types exactly similar to -those found in the graves of the North. When we reach the Baltic we find -on its eastern shores the Gardariki of the Sagas, where, we are told, -the Odin of the North placed one of his sons, and on the southern shores -many specimens have been discovered similar to those obtained in -Scandinavia. - -In the following chapters the reader will be struck by the similarity of -the customs of the Norsemen with those of the ancient Greeks as recorded -by Homer and Herodotus; for example, the horse was very much sacrificed -in the North, and Herodotus, describing the Massagetæ, says: - - -“They (the Massagetæ) worship the sun only of all the gods, and -sacrifice horses to him” (I. 216). - - -In regard to the Jutes, Jutland = Jöts, Jötnar; Jötland, Jötunheim, we -find them from the Sagas to be a very ancient land and people, and meet -several countries bearing kindred names—even to this day we have -Göteborg, in which the _G_ is pronounced as English _Y_. - -From the Roman, Greek, Frankish, Russian, English, and Arabic records, -we must come to the conclusion that the “Viking Age” lasted from about -the second century of our era to about the middle of the twelfth without -interruption, hence the title given to the work which deals with the -history and customs of our English forefathers during that period. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - THE MYTHOLOGY AND COSMOGONY OF THE NORSEMEN. - - The three poems giving the mythology and cosmogony of the North—The - Völuspa, Vafthrudnismal, Grimnismal, the Asar, Jötnar, and - Thursar—Odin and Vafthrudnir—The nine worlds—Before the - creation—The origin of the Hrim Thursar—Birth of Ymir—Birth of - Odin—Vili and Ve—The ash Yggdrasil—The well of wisdom—Hel, one of - the nine worlds—The bridge Bifröst—Heimdall—Bergelmir born before - the creation—The Jötun—Ymir slain by Odin—The deluge of - blood—Creation of the world—Divisions of time—End of the world—A - new world. - - -In the three poems called _Völuspa_, _Vafthrudnismal_, and _Grimnismal_, -we have the earliest accounts of the cosmogony and of the mythology of -the people of the North. The grand central figure in the mythology is -Odin. He and his kin formed the people known as Asar in the lore and -literature of the North, and were treated as gods. These poems are too -long to be given here in full, but in the following pages we have -endeavoured, by means of extracts, to give a more or less consecutive -account of the subjects with which they deal. - -The Völuspa was an inspired poem of a Völva or Sibyl,[20] and embodies -the records of the creation of the present world, and of the time prior -to it; of the various races, their origin and history, and of the chaos -and destruction which finally will overtake mankind. - -It is in some places so obscure, that if it had not been partly -explained by the later Edda, and had light thrown upon it by the sagas -and ancient laws, it would be impossible to understand its meaning; and -even now it is most difficult, and in some places impossible to fully -comprehend several of its mythical parts, some of which will always -remain enigmatical. - -Vafthrudnismal is especially interesting as compared with the Völuspa, -with much of which it corresponds, and some part of which it amplifies. - -The mythical and the real are so intermingled that it is often -impossible to distinguish the one from the other. - -In the beginning we are confronted by a chief named Odin, the son of -Bör, who lived near the Tanais (the river Don) not far from the Palus -Mæotis (the Sea of Azof), and there we find one Asgard, which in all -probability had its original in some real locality. - -Besides Asar and Jötnar, many other tribes are mentioned which can -hardly be regarded as altogether mythical, some of which may have -inhabited the far north of the ancient Sweden, or part of the present -Russia and Scandinavia; the Thursar, who were also called Hrimthursar -(hoar frost), and the Risar, also Bergrisar (mountain Risar), appear -from these names to have lived in a cold mountainous country, possibly -the region of the Ural Mountains. - -Jötunheim, the chief burgh of which was _Utgard_, would appear to be a -general, vague name given to a very wide extent of country not embraced -in Asaheim (the home of the Asar). Jötunheim, as the name indicates, was -the home or country of the Jötnar and Thursar, between whom and the Asar -there was fierce enmity. - -Some of the Jötnar were considered very wise, and Odin, as the chief of -the Asar, determined to go in disguise to Jötunheim, the home of the -Jötnar, in order to seek out the Jötun Vafthrudnir[21] (the mighty or -wise in riddles), who was renowned for his knowledge. The song begins by -representing Odin as consulting his wife, Frigg, as to the advisability -of undertaking the journey. The stanzas which follow represent Odin -questioning Vafthrudnir in his search for knowledge:— - - Then went Odin - To try word-wisdom - Of the all-wise Jötun. - To a hall he came, - Owned by Ymir’s father; - In went Ygg at once.[22] - - (_As Odin enters he sings_—) - - Hail, Vafthrudnir, - I have come into thy hall - To look at thyself; - First I want to know, - If thou art a wise - Or an all-wise Jötun. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - Who is the man - That in my hall - Speaks to me? - Thou shalt not - Get out of it - Unless thou art the wiser. - - _Odin._ - - I am called _Gagnrad_,[23] - I have now come from my walking - Thirsty to thy hall; - Needing thy bidding - And thy welcome, Jötun; - Long time have I travelled. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - Why standing on the floor - Dost thou speak to me? - Take a seat in the hall. - Then we shall try - Who knows more, - The guest or the old wise one. - - _Odin._ - - When a poor man - Comes to a rich one - Let him speak useful things or be silent; - Great babbling - I think turns to ill - For one who meets a cold-ribbed[24] man. - -We are told in the Völuspa that Odin, in the quest of information, went -to visit the Völva, or Sybil, Heid, who was possessed of supernatural -powers of knowledge and foresight. She asks for a hearing from the sons -of Heimdal, or mankind, and then proceeds to tell what she recollects:— - - I remember Jötnar - Early born, - Who of yore - Raised me;[25] - I remember nine worlds, - Nine ividi[26] - The famous world-tree (Yggdrasil) - Beneath the earth. - -The nine worlds were—1, Muspel; 2, Asgard; 3, Vanaheim (home of the -Vanir); 4, Midgard; 5, Alfheim (world of the Alfar); 6, Mannheim (home -of men); 7, Jötunheim (the home of the Jötnar); 8, Hel; 9, Niflheim. - -The first beginnings of all things were apparently as obscure to the -Völva as to others; nothing existed before the Creation. The world was -then a gaping void (Ginnungagap), and there the Jötun Ymir, or the Hrim -Thursar, lived. On each side of Ginnungagap there were two worlds, -Niflheim, the world of cold, and Muspelheim, the world of heat. - - When Ymir lived - In early ages - Was neither sand nor sea, - Nor cool waves, - No earth was there - Nor heaven above, - There was gaping void - And grass nowhere. - - -“First there was a home (a world) in the southern half of the world -called Muspel; it is hot and bright, so that it is burning and in -flames; it is also inaccessible for those who have no _odals_ (or family -estates); there the one that sits at the land’s end to defend it is -called a Surt. He has a flaming sword, and at the end of the world he -will go and make warfare and get victory over all the gods, and burn the -whole world with fire” (Later Edda, c. 4).[27] - - -The origin of the Hrim Thursar and the Birth of Ymir, who lived in -Ginnungagap, and of Odin, Vili, and Ve, is as follows: - - -“Gangleri asked, ‘How was it before the kindreds existed and mankind -increased?’ Hár answered, ‘When the rivers called Elivagar had run so -far from their sources that the quick venom which flowed into them, like -the dross which runs out of the fire, got hard, and changed into ice; -when this ice stood still and flowed no longer, the exhalation of the -poison came over it and froze into rime; the rime rose up all the way -into the Ginnungagap.’ Jafnhár said, ‘The part of Ginnungagap turning to -the north was filled with the heaviness and weight of ice and rime, and -the opposite side with drizzle and gusts of wind; but the southern part -of Ginnungagap became less heavy, from the sparks and glowing substances -which came flying from Muspelheim.’ Thridi said, ‘Just as the cold and -all things come from Niflheim, the things near Muspel were hot and -shining; Ginnungagap was as warm as windless air. When the rime and the -breath of the heat met so that the rime melted into drops, a human form -came from these flowing drops with the power of the one who had sent the -heat; he was called Ymir, but the Hrimthursar call him Örgelmir, and the -kin of the Hrimthursar have sprung from him.’ Gangleri asked, ‘How did -the kin grow from this, or how came it that there were more men; or dost -thou believe in the god of whom thou didst tell now?’ Hár answered, ‘By -no means do we think him a god; he was bad, and all his kinsmen; we call -them Hrimthursar. It is told that when asleep he sweated, and then there -grew a man and a woman from under his left arm, and one of his feet -begot a son with the other; thence have sprung the kin of Hrimthursar. -We call Ymir the Old Hrimthurs.’ - -“Gangleri asked, ‘Where did Ymir live, or by what?’ ‘It happened next -when the hoar-frost fell in drops that the cow Audhumla grew out of it; -four rivers of milk ran from her teats, and she fed Ymir.’ - -“Gangleri asked, ‘On what did the cow feed?’ Hár answered, ‘She licked -the rime-stones covered with salt and rime, and the first day when she -licked them a man’s hair came out of them in the evening; the second day -a man’s head; the third day a whole man was there; he is called Buri; he -was handsome in looks, large, and mighty; he had Bör for son, who got -Besla, daughter of Bölthorn jötun, for wife, and she had three sons, -Odin, Vili,[28] Ve; and it is my belief that this Odin and his brothers -are the rulers of heaven and earth. We think he is called so. Thus the -man whom we know to be the greatest and most famous is called, and they -may well give him this name’” (‘Gylfaginning,’ c. 5). - - -The ash tree Yggdrasil is one of the strangest conceptions found in any -mythology. - - An ash I know standing - Called _Yggdrasil_, - A high tree besprinkled - With white loam; - Thence come the dews - That drop in the dales; - It stands evergreen - Spreading over the well of Urd. - Three roots stand - In three directions - Under the ash Yggdrasil; - Hel dwels under one, - The Hrim-thursar under the second, - Under the third “mortal” men. - - (Grimnismal). - -Under it stands the well of wisdom for a drink from which Odin pledges -his one eye. - - -“Gangleri said: ‘Where is the head-place or holy place of the Asar?’ Hár -answered: ‘At the ash of Yggdrasil, where the gods give their judgments -every day.’ Gangleri asked: ‘What can be told of that place?’ Jafnhár -said: ‘The ash is the largest and best of trees; its branches spread all -over the world and reach up over the heaven; three roots of the tree -hold it up and spread very widely. One (of the roots) is with the Asar, -another with the Hrimthursar where of yore Ginnungagap was; the third is -over Niflheim, and beneath it is Hvergelmin, but Nidhög gnaws its lower -part. Under the root turning towards the Hrimthursar is Mimir’s well, in -which wisdom and intellect are hidden. Its owner is called Mimir; he is -full of wisdom, for he drinks from the well of the horn Gjallar-horn. -Odin came and asked for a drink of the well, and did not get it till he -pawned his eye.” - - -“What more wonders,” asked Gangleri, “may be told of the ash?” Hár -answered, “Many wonders. An eagle sits in the limbs of the ash and knows -many things; between its eyes sits the hawk Vedrfölnir. The squirrel -Ratatösk runs up and down the ash and carries words of envy between the -eagle and Nidhög. Four harts run on the limbs of the ash and eat the -buds; they are called Dain, Dvalin, Duneyr, and Durathror. So many -serpents are in Hvergelmir with Nidhög that no tongue can number them” -(Gylfaginning, c. 16). - - -Heid in the Voluspa tells about the holy tree, and that the horn of -Heimdall is hidden under it till the last fight of the gods. Yggdrasil -is watered from the water of the well. - - She knows that the blast - Of Heimdal is hidden - Under the bright - Holy tree; - She sees it poured over - By a muddy stream - From the pledge of Valfödr; - Know ye all up to this and onward? - -Under the tree lived the three Nornir (Genii), who shape the destinies -of men. - - Thence come three maidens, - Knowing many things, - Out of the hall - Which stands under the tree; - One was called Urd, - Another Verdandi, - The third Skuld; - They carved on wood tablets, - They chose lives, - They laid down laws - For the children of men, - They chose the fates of men. - -Hel was one of the nine worlds, and stood under the ash Yggdrasil, where -the dead, who did not die on the battle-field, went. Hence, when a man -had died, Hel-shoes were put on his feet for the journey. - -Odin goes to the world of Hel, in which was the Gnipa cave, in order to -inquire about the fate of his son Baldr who had died. - - -“Odin threw Hel (daughter of Loki) down into Niflheim, and gave her -power over nine worlds; she was to lodge all those who were sent to her, -namely, those who died of sickness and old age. She has a large -homestead there, and her house-walls are wonderfully high, and her doors -are large. Her hall is called Eljúdnir, her plate famine, her knife -hunger; ganglati (lazy-goer, idler) her thrall; ganglöt (idler) her -bondswoman; her threshhold is called stumbling-block; her bed the couch -of one who is bed-ridden; her bed-hangings (ársal) the glittering evil. -One half of her body is livid, and the other half skin-colour; therefore -she is easily known, and her look is frowning and fierce” (Later Edda, -c. 34, Gylfaginning). - - -“It is the beginning of this Saga that Baldr the Good dreamt great and -dangerous dreams about his life. When he told them to the Asar they -consulted and resolved to ask for safety for Baldr from every kind of -danger; Frigg (Odin’s wife) took oaths from fire, water, iron, and every -kind of metal, stones, earth, trees, sicknesses, beasts, birds, poison, -serpents, that they would spare Baldr’s life. When this was done and -known, Baldr and the Asar entertained themselves thus: he stood up at -the Things and some gods shot at him, or others struck at him or threw -stones at him. Whatever they did he was not hurt, and all thought this a -great wonder. When Loki Laufey(jarson) saw this he was angry that Baldr -was not hurt. He changed himself into a woman’s shape and went to Frigg -in Fensalir. Frigg asked this woman if she knew what the Asar were doing -at the Thing. She said that they all shot at Baldr, and that he was not -hurt. Frigg said, ‘Weapons or trees will not hurt Baldr; I have taken -oaths from them all.’ The woman asked, ‘Have all things taken oaths to -spare Baldr’s life?’ Frigg answered, ‘A bush grows east of Valhöll -called Mistiltein (mistletoe); I thought it was too young to take an -oath.’ The woman went away; but Loki took the mistletoe and tore it up -and went to the Thing. Höd (Baldr’s brother) stood in the outmost part -of the ring of people. Loki said to him, ‘Why doest thou not shoot at -Baldr?’ He answered, ‘Because I do not see where he is, and also I am -weaponless.’ Loki said, ‘Do like other men and show honour to Baldr; I -will show thee where he stands; shoot this stick at him.’ Höd took the -mistletoe and shot at Baldr as Loki showed him; it pierced Baldr, who -fell dead to the ground. This was the most unfortunate deed that has -been done among the gods and men. When Baldr was fallen none of the Asar -could say a word or touch him with their hands, and they looked at each -other with the same mind towards the one who had done this deed, but no -one could take revenge; it was such a place of peace. When they tried to -speak the tears came first, so that no one could tell to the other his -sorrow in words. Odin suffered most from this loss, because he knew best -what a loss and damage to the Asar the death of Baldr was....” -(Gylfaginning, c. 49). - - -“It is to be told of Hermód that he rode nine nights through dark and -deep valleys and saw nothing before he came to the river Gjöll[29] and -rode on the Gjallar bridge,[30] which is covered with shining gold.[31] -Modgud is the name of the maiden who guards the bridge; she asked him -his name and kin, and said that the day before five arrays of dead men -rode over the bridge, ‘but the bridge sounds not less under thee alone, -and thou hast not the colour of dead men; why ridest thou here on the -way of Hel?’ He answered, ‘I am riding to Hel to seek Baldr, or hast -thou seen Baldr on the way of Hel?’ She answered that Baldr had ridden -over the Gjallar bridge, ‘but the way of Hel lies downward and -northward.’ Hermód rode till he came to the gates of Hel; then he -alighted and girthed his horse strongly, mounted and pricked it with the -spurs; the horse leaped so high over the gate that it touched nowhere. -Then Hermód rode home to the hall, alighted, went in and saw his brother -Baldr sitting in a high-seat; he stayed there the night. In the morning -Hermód asked Hel to allow Baldr to ride home with him, and told how -great weeping there was among the Asar. Hel said she would see if Baldr -was as beloved as was told; if all things, living and dead, in the world -weep over him, he shall go back to the Asar, but remain with Hel (me) if -any refuse or will not weep. Then Hermód rose, and Baldr let him out of -the hall and took the ring Draupnir and sent it to Odin as a -remembrance, and Nanna[32] sent to Frigg a linen veil and more gifts, -and to Fulla a gold ring. Then Hermód rode back to Asgard and told all -the tidings he had seen or heard. Thereupon the Asar sent messengers all -over the world to ask that Baldr might be wept out of Hel, and all did -it, men and beasts, earth and stones, trees, and all metals, as thou -must have seen that these things weep when they come from frost into -heat. When the messengers went home and had performed their errands -well, they found a jötun woman sitting in a cave, called Thökk; they -asked her to weep Baldr (out of) Hel; she answered— - - Thökk will weep - With dry tears - The burning voyage of Baldr; - I never enjoyed - A living or a dead man’s son; - May Hel keep what she has. - -It is guessed that this was Loki Laufeyjarson, who had caused most evils -among the Asar.” - - -“Then also the dog Garm, which is tied in front of Gnipa cave, got -loose; he is the greatest terror, he fights Tyr and they kill each -other” (Gylfaginning, c. 5). - - -The wicked seem to have died twice: first they die and get into Hel, -then they die again and get into _Niflhel_ = _Foggy Hel_. The following -is one of the answers of Vafthrudnir to Odin:— - - Of the runes[33] of Jötnar - And those of all the gods - I can tell thee true, - For I have been - In every world; - I have gone to nine - Worlds beneath _Nifl-hel_; - There die the men from _Hel_. - -The sides of the rim of heaven communicate with each other by a bridge -called Bifröst, or the bridge of the Asar, on which Heimdall, the -watchman of the gods, stood. - - -“Heimdall is the watchman of the gods standing on Bifröst Bridge (the -rainbow)” (Later Edda, 27). - - -“Heimdall is named the White As: he is great and holy; nine maidens bore -him as son, and they were all sisters. He is also called Hallinskidi and -Gullintanni (gold tooth). His teeth were of gold, his horse is called -gold maned. He lived at a place called Himinbjörg (heaven mountains) by -Bifröst. He is the warden of the gods, and sits there at the end of -heaven to guard the bridge against the Berg Risar (mountain Jötnar); he -needs less sleep than a bird, he can see equally by night and by day a -hundred leagues away, and he hears when the grass grows, or the wool on -the sheep, and all that is louder than these. He has the horn called -Gjallarhorn, and his blowing is heard through all worlds. The sword of -Heimdall is called Höfud” (Gylfaginning, 27). - - -We find that the Jötnar and Asar were separated from each other by a -large river whose waters never freeze. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - Tell me, Gagnrad, &c., - How the river is called - Which divides the land - Between the sons of Jötnar and the gods. - - _Odin._ - - _Ifing_ is the river called - That parts the land - Between the sons of Jötnar and the gods; - Open shall it flow - All the days of the world; - No ice will come on it. - -From Vafthrudnismal we learn of the origin of Bergelmir who was born -before the Creation. - -It is an important question which are the most ancient people—the Asar, -or the ancient kinsmen of Ymir? - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Who of the Asar, - Or of the sons of Ymir, - Was the oldest in early days? - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - Numberless winters - Before the earth was shaped - Was Bergelmir born. - Thrudgelmir - Was his father - And Orgelmir his grandfather. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Whence first Orgelmir came - Among the sons of Jötnar, - Thou wise Jötun. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - From _Elivagar_[34] - Spurted drops of poison - Which grew into a Jötun; - Thence are our kin - All sprung; - Hence they are always too hideous. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - How that strong Jötun - Begat children - As he had not beheld a _gyg_?[35] - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - In the armpit - Of the Hrim-thursar, it is said, - Grew a maiden and a son; - Foot begat with foot - Of that wise Jötun - A six-headed son. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - What thou earliest rememberest, - Or knowest farthest back; - Thou art an all-wise Jötun. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - Numberless winters - Ere the earth was shaped - Was Bergelmir born; - The first I remember - Is when that wise Jötun - Was laid in the flour-bin.[36] - -In due course Ymir was slain by Odin, Vili, and Ve, the three sons of -Bör, who was himself a Jötun, and therefore of the same kin as Ymir. -Having slain Ymir, the sons of Bör proceeded to make the earth out of -his body, and to give the sun, moon, and stars their places in heaven. -The flow of his blood was so great as to cause a deluge. Bergelmir was -the only one of the Hrim-Thursar who escaped in a boat with his wife, -and from him came a new race of Hrim-Thursar. - - -“The sons of Bör slew the Jötun Ymir, but when he fell there flowed so -much blood from his wounds that it drowned the whole race of the -Hrim-Thursar, except one who escaped with his household. Him the Jötnar -called Bergelmir; he and his wife went on board his ark, and thus saved -themselves; from them are descended a new race of Hrim-Thursar” (Later -Edda). - - -After the destruction of the earlier Hrim-Thursar we hear how the sons -of Bör created the world, and we are told how the earth and the heavens -were made from Ymir. - - From Ymir’s flesh - The earth was shaped, - And from his blood the sea; - The mountains from his bones; - From his hair the trees, - And the heaven from his skull. - But from his brows - The mild gods made - Midgard for the sons of men; - And from his brain - Were all the gloomy - Clouds created. - - (Grimnismal.) - -We are also told of the creation of the planets and stars, of our world, -of the sea, of the moon, and of day and night. The year was reckoned by -winters (vetr), and the days by nights (nott). - -The year was divided into months (mánud or mánad). - - -“_Haustmánud_ (harvest-month) is the last before winter; _Gormánud_ -(gore-month, called thus from the slaughter of cattle then taking place) -the first month of winter; _Frermánud_ (frost-month); _Hrútmánud_ (the -ram’s month); _Thorri_ (the month of waning or declining winter); _Gói_, -_Einmánud_ ... then _Gaukmánud_ or _Sádtid_ (cuckoo-month or -sowing-tide); _Eggtíd_ or _Stekktíd_ (egg-tide or weaning-tide); -_Sólmánud_ or _Selmánud_ (sun-month or sæter-month in which the cattle -are removed to the sel or sæter); _Heyjannir_ (haymaking-month); -_Kornskurdarmánud_ (grain-reaping month)” (Skaldskaparmal, c. 63). - - -The month was subdivided into six weeks; each week contained five days. -The days were called—Týsdag = Tuesday; Ódinsdag = Wednesday; Thórsdag = -Thursday; Frjádag = Friday; Laugardag (bath-day) or Thváttdag -(washing-day) = Saturday. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Whence the moon came - That walks above men, - And the sun also? - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - _Mundilfori_[37] is called - The father of the moon, - And of the sun also; - Wheel round the heaven - They shall every day, - And tell men of the years. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Whence the day came - That passes over mankind, - Or the night with her new moon? - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - _Delling_ (the bright) is called - The father of _Dag_ (the day) - But _Nott_ (night) was Norvi’s[38] daughter; - The full moons and the new ones - The good gods made - To tell men the years. - - (Vafthrudnismal.) - -The following is the origin of Midgard:— - - Ere the sons of Bör - Raised the lands, - They who shaped - The famous _Midgard_; - The sun shone from the south - On the stones of the hall; - Then the ground grew - With green grass. - - The sun from the south,[39] - The companion of the moon, - With her right hand took hold - Of the rim of heaven;[40] - The sun knew not - Where she[41] owned halls, - The moon knew not - What power he[42] had; - The stars knew not - Where they owned places. - - Then all the powers went - To their judgment seats,[43] - The most holy gods - Counselled about this; - To night and the quarters of the moon - Gave they names; - They gave names to - Morning and midday, - To afternoon and eve, - That the years might be reckoned. - - (Völuspa.) - -Then we have the origin of the wind and of winter. Hræsvelg means the -swallower of corpses. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Whence the wind comes - Who goes over the waves; - Men do not see him. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - _Hræsvelg_ is called - He who sits at heaven’s end, - A Jötun in an eagle’s shape; - From his wings - It is said the wind comes - Over all mankind. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Whence the winter came, - Or the warm summer, - First with the wise gods. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - _Vindsval_[44] is called - The father of winter, - And _Svasud_[45] the father of summer. - -Another amplification of the Creation is given in Gylfaginning. - - -Thridi said: - -“They took Ymir’s skull, and made thereof the sky, and raised it over -the earth with four sides. Under each corner they set four Dvergar, -which were called Austri, East; Vestri, West; Nordri, North; Sudri, -South. Then they took glowing sparks that were loose and had been cast -out from Muspelheim, and placed them in the midst of the boundless -heaven, both above and below, to light up heaven and earth; they gave -resting-places to all fires, and set some in heaven; some were made free -to go under heaven, but they gave them a place and shaped their course. -In old songs it is said that from that time days and years were -reckoned.” - - -The creation of the world, and of the heavens and planets, is followed -by that of the Dvergar and of man and woman, who were helpless and -fateless (their destinies not having been spun by the Nornir); from -these two mankind are descended. - - Then all the gods went - To their judgment-seats, - The most holy gods, - And counselled about - Who should create - The host of Dvergar - From the bloody surf[46] - And from the bones of Blain. - - There did Modsognir[47] - The mightiest become - Of all Dvergar, - And Durin next to him; - They two shaped - Many _man-likenesses_ - In the ground, - As Durin has told.[48] - * * * * * - - It is time to reckon - Down to Lofar, - For mankind (Gónar), - The Dvergar in Dvalin’s host,[49] - Those who went - From the stone-halls, - The host of Aurvangar, - To Jöruvellir (battle-plains). - * * * * * - - Until out of that host[50] - To the house[51] - Came three Asar - Mighty and mild; - They found on the ground - Ask and Embla, - Helpless and fateless - - They had no breath, - They had no mind, - Neither blood nor motion - Nor proper complexion. - Odin gave the breath,[52] - Hœnir gave the mind, - Lodur gave the blood - And befitting hues. - - (Völuspa.) - -Finally the Völva describes the end of the world. - - Eastward sat the old one - In Jarnvid,[53] - And there bred - The brood of Fenrir; - Of them all - One becomes - The destroyer of the sun - In the shape of a Troll. - - He[54] is fed with the lives - Of death-fated men; - He reddens the seat of the gods - With red blood; - The sunshine becomes black - After the summers, - And all weather woe-begone. - Know ye all up to this and onward? - - The herdsman of the Jötun woman, - The glad Egdir, - Sat there on a mound - And struck a harp, - A bright-red cock, - Called Fjalar, - Crowed near him - In the bird-wood. - - Crowed for the Asar - Gullinkambi (golden-comb), - He rouses the warriors - At Herjafödr’s (host-father); - But another crows - Under the ground, - A dark red cock,[55] - In the halls of Hel. - - Garm barks violently - Before the Gnipa cave; - The fetters will break - And the wolf will run; - She (the Völva) knows many tales. - I see further forward - To the doom of the powers - The dark doom of the gods. - - Brothers will fight - And become each other’s slayers; - The sons of sisters will - Break blood ties. - It goes hard in the world, - There is much whoredom, - An age of axes, an age of swords; - Shields are cleft; - An age of winds, an age of wolves, - Ere the world sinks; - No man will spare - Another man. - - The sons of Mimir are moving - But the end draws near, - By the sound of the ancient - Gjallarhorn. - Heimdall blows loud, - The horn is aloft; - Odin talks with - The head of Mimir. - - Shakes the standing - Ash Yggdrasil; - The old tree groans, - And the Jötun (Loki) breaks loose; - All are terrified[56] - In the roads of Hel - Before the kinsman of Surt - Swallows it. - - How is it with the Asar? - How is it with the Alfar? - All Jötunheim rumbles, - The Asar are at the Thing; - The Dvergar moan - Before the stone doors, - The wise ones of the rock wall[57] - Know ye all up to this and onward? - - Now Garm barks loud - Before Gnipa cave; - The fetters will break, - And the wolf will run. - - Hrym[58] drives from the east, - Holds his shield before him. - The Jörmungand[59] writhes - In Jötun wrath; - The serpent lashes the waves, - And the eagle screams; - The pale beak tears the corpses; - Naglfar[60] is loosened. - - A keel (a ship) comes from the east, - The men of Muspell - Will come across the sea, - But Loki is the steerer;[61] - All the monsters - Go with the wolf, - The brother of Býleist (Loki) - Is in the train. - - Surt comes from the south - With the _switch-harm_ (fire); - The sun of the gods - Flashes from his sword; - Rocks clash, - The Jötun women stagger; - Men walk the road of Hel; - Heaven is rent asunder. - - Then comes the second[62] - Sorrow of Hlin, - When Odin goes - To fight the wolf; - And the bright slayer - Of Beli[63] against Surt; - There will fall - The love of Frigg (Odin). - - Now Garm barks loud - Before Gnipa-cave; - The fetters will break, - And the wolf will run. - - Then comes the great - Son of Sigfödr (father of victory) - Vidar to slay, - The beast of carrion.[64] - With his hand he lets - His sword pierce - The heart of the Jötun’s son,[65] - Then his father (Odin) is avenged.[66] - - Then comes the famous - Son of Hlodyn (Thor); - Odin’s son - Goes to fight the serpent; - Midgard’s defender (Thor) - Slays him in wrath; - All men will - Leave their homesteads; - The son of Fjörgyn (Thor), - Walks nine paces - Reeling from the serpent - That shuns not heinous deeds. - - The sun blackens,[67] - The earth sinks into the sea; - The bright stars - Vanish from heaven; - The life-feeder (fire) - And the vapour rage; - The high heat rises - Towards heaven itself. - Now Garm barks loud[68] - Before Gnipa-cave; - The fetters will break, - And the wolf will run. - - (Völuspa.) - -After the destruction of the world, a new one will arise. - - She[69] beholds rising up - Another time - An earth out of the sea, - An evergreen one. - - The waterfalls rush; - Above an eagle flies - Which on the mountains - Catches fish. - - The Asar meet - On the Idavöll (plain) - And talk about - The mighty earth-serpent - And there speak of - The great events - And of the old runes - Of Fimbultyr. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - MYTHOLOGY AND COSMOGONY—_continued_. - - Norse Cosmogony—Midgard, Asgard, and Mannheim—The Asar and - Vanir—Thor and Tyr—The Goddesses—The Apples of Youth. - - -Where the mythical Odin ends in the Völuspa, if there is any ending to -him, is impossible to tell; it appears that he came and built an earthly -_Midgard_,[70] according to the writer of the Later Edda who gives the -tradition and belief of the people in his day. - -Odin himself was originally a Jötun, and it would appear from the -mythological literature of the North that, for some reason, he wished to -found a new religion, and desired to proclaim himself chief and -spiritual ruler over several, if not all the tribes before mentioned; -this claim, from the account of the fights which took place, must have -been hotly contested. In the history of the birth of every nation, -something similar has taken place, and these struggles are always -described with wonderful and often supernatural accompaniments. We are -led to believe that a devoted band of followers attached themselves to -Odin’s cause, and gradually others joined him; thus forming a community -over which he was the leader. To protect themselves from their enemies, -among whom, according to the Eddas, were included Jötnar and Thursar, -&c., the Asar erected a wall round their country, and called the whole -enclosed land Midgard. - -In the centre of Midgard, Odin built for himself, his family, chiefs, -and councillors, _Asgard_,[71] called also Asaheim (home of the Asar), -and Godheim (home of the gods). _As_, in the Northern language, -afterwards denoted one of the gods, who in course of time were also -deified, and to whom, as well as to Odin, sacrifices were offered. - -Within the walls of Midgard, which encircled Asgard, was _Mannheim_,[72] -where Odin’s adherents dwelt, and hence the name of their country. - - -“They gave them clothes and names; the men they called Ash, and the -women Embla. From them all mankind is descended, and a dwelling-place -was given them under Midgard. In the next place the sons of Bör made for -themselves, in the middle of the world, a burgh which is called Asgard, -and which we call Troja (there dwelt the gods of their race), and thence -resulted many tidings and adventures, both on earth and in the sky. In -Asgard is a place called Hlidskjalf, and when Odin seats himself there -in the high seat he sees all over the whole world, and what every man is -doing, and he knew all things that he saw. His wife was Frigg, and she -was the daughter of Fjorgvin, and from their offspring are descended the -race which we call _Asar_, who inhabited Asgard the ancient, the realm -that surrounds it, and all that race are known to be gods, and for that -reason Odin is called Allfather” (Later Edda). - - -After Midgard had been built for the sons of men, there is a golden age -on the _Ida-völl_ (plain of movement). Altars and hearths were raised by -the Asar, showing that work is conducive to happiness. - - The Asar met, - Who raised on the Idavoll - Altars and high temples; - They laid hearths, - They wrought wealth, - They shaped tongs, - And made tools. - - They played chess on the grass-plot; - They were cheerful; - They did not lack - Anything of gold - Until three - Very mighty - Thurs maidens came (Nornir) - From Jotunheim. - -Then followed a great battle between the Asar and their neighbours, the -Vanir. The Asar seem to have been at first defeated, but afterwards made -peace. This fight is the most obscure part of the whole of Völuspa. - - That fight remembers she - First in the world, - When they pierced - Gullveig[73] with spears, - And burnt her - In the hall of Hár;[74] - Thrice they burnt - The thrice-born one, - Yet still she lives. - - Then all the gods went - To their judgment seats, - The most holy gods, - And counselled about - Whether the Asar should - Tribute pay,[75] - Or if all the gods - Should have a feast. - - Odin had hurled the spear - And shot at the host; - That was moreover the first - Fight in the world. - Broken was the timber wall[76] - Of the Asa-burgh; - The war-exposed plains - The Vanir trampled on. - -A fight is also mentioned in the Ynglinga Saga which seems to be the -same as the one referred to in Völuspa. - - -“Odin went with a host against the Vanir, but they withstood him well -and defended their land. Asar and Vanir got the victory by turns; each -waged war in the other’s land and plundered. When they became tired of -this they appointed a meeting for agreement between themselves, and made -peace and gave each other hostages. The Vanir gave their foremost men, -Njörd the wealthy and his son Frey, and the Asar gave a man called -Hœnir, and said he was well fitted to be a chief. He was a tall and very -handsome man. The Asar sent with him a man called Mimir, who was very -wise; in exchange for him the Vanir gave one, who was the wisest among -them, called Kvasir. When Hœnir came to Vanaheim he was at once made -chief; Mimir taught him everything. And when Hœnir was at the Things or -meetings, and Mimir was not near, and some difficult cases were taken to -him, he always gave the same answer, ‘Let others say what is to be -done.’ Then the Vanir suspected that the Asar had deceived them in the -exchange of men. They took Mimir and beheaded him, and sent his head to -the Asar. Odin took the head and besmeared it with the juice of plants, -so that it could not rot. He sang charms over it, and by spells made it -so powerful that it spoke with him, and told him many unknown things” -(Ynglinga, c. 4). - - -Thór was one of the greatest of the Norse gods after Odin; indeed, these -with Frey formed a sort of triad. - - -“Thór is the foremost of them (the gods); he is called Asa-Thór or -Öku-Thór. He is the strongest of all gods and men. His realm is -Thrúdvángar (= plains of strength), and his hall is called Bilskirnir; -in it there are 540 rooms. It is the largest house built by men. (See -Grimnismal.) Thór owns two he-goats, which are called Tanngnjóst -(tooth-gnasher) and Tanngrísnir (tooth-gnasher), and a chariot (reid), -on which he drives and the he-goats draw it. Therefore he is called -Oku-Thór (= the driving Thór). He also owns three costly things. One of -them is the hammer Mjolnir which the Hrim Thursar and Berg Risar know -when it is aloft, and that is not strange, for he has broken many a head -of their fathers or kinsmen. The next best of his costly things is the -belt of strength. When he girds himself with it his Asa-strength -doubles. He owns a third thing, which is worth much, iron-gloves, -without which he cannot hold the handle of the hammer. No man is so wise -that he may reckon up all his great feats, but I can tell thee so many -tales of him that the hours will be whiled away before I have told all -that I know.” - -“Hár said: ‘Furthermore there is an As called Týr. He is the boldest and -most daring and has much power over victory in battles. It is useful for -valiant men to make vows to him. It is a saying that the one surpassing -others in valour and fearing nothing is Tý-brave. He is so wise that the -wisest man is called Tý-wise. One of the proofs of his daring is this. -When the Asar persuaded the Fenriswolf to allow them to tie it with the -chain Gleipnir, it did not believe that they would untie it till they -laid Týr’s hand into its mouth as a pledge. When they would not untie it -then it bit off his hand at the place now called Wolf-joint (wrist). He -is therefore onehanded and said not to be the reconciler of men.’” -(Later Edda, Gylfaginning, 21). - - -The Later Edda differs from the Grimnismal in giving the number of gods -or Asar which it mentions. When Gylfi asks how many Asar there are he is -told twelve, and the names of Odin, Höd, and Baldr are omitted from the -list. Only a few of these gods seem to have been of sufficient -prominence to have had sacrifices offered to them, as is seen in the -chapter on Religion, and we cannot depend on the Later Edda for reliable -information concerning them. - - -“The Asar went to their feast, and the twelve Asar who were to be judges -sat down in the high-seats: their names were—Thór, Njörd, Frey, Týr, -Heimdall, Bragi, Vidar, Vali, Ull, Hœnir, Forseti, Loki” (Later Edda). - - -The following extract from the Later Edda gives us the names of the -principal goddesses, with their leading characteristics. - - -“Gangleri said: ‘Who are the Asynjar?’ Har answered: ‘Frigg is the -highest; she has a very splendid house called _Fensalir_. The second is -Sága, who lives at Sökkvabekk, a large place. The third is Eir; she is -the most skilled healer (= physician). The fourth is Gefjon, who is a -maiden, and those who die as maidens wait upon her. The fifth is Fulla; -she is also a maiden with loose hair, and wears a golden band round her -head; she carries the ashen box of Frigg and takes care of her -shoe-clothes (= shoes and stockings), and partakes in her secret -counsels. Freyja is next in rank to Frigg; she is married to a man -called Ód, their daughter is Hnoss; she is so beautiful that fine and -costly things are called after her—hnoss. Ód went far off and left -Freyja weeping, and her tears are red gold. She has many names; that is -because she called herself by different names when she went among -foreign nations in search of Ód; she is called Mardöll, Hörn, Gefn, and -Sýr. She owns the _Brisinga_ necklace. She is called _Vanadis_ (dis -(goddess) of the Vanir). The seventh is Sjöfn; she applies herself much -to turning the minds of men to love, both males and females; from her -name a loving mind is called _sjafni_. Lofn is so mild and good to -invoke that she gets Allfödr (Odin) or Frigg to allow the marriages of -men, male and female, though they have been forbidden or flatly refused; -from her name is lof (leave), and that which is lofat (= praised) by -men. Vár listens to the oaths of men and the private agreements which -men and women make between themselves; these are called _várar_, and she -punishes those who break them. Vör is wise and asks many questions, so -that nothing can be hidden from her; when a woman knows a thing she is -_vör_ (= aware) of it. Syn guards the door of the hall (Valhalla) and -shuts it to those who are not to enter; therefore when some one denies a -thing he is said to put down _syn_ (= negation, refuse). Hlin has to -guard the men whom Frigg wishes to save from danger. Snotra is wise and -of good manners; a wise man or woman is called _snotr_ from her name. -Gna, Frigg sends into various worlds on her errands; she has a horse -which runs on air and water, called _Hófhvarfnir_ (= hoof-turner)” -(‘Later Edda,’ Gylfaginning, 35). - - -The gods, it would seem, had it in their power, if not to secure -everlasting life, at least to retain perpetual youth, unlike poor -Tithonus of the well-known Greek myth. It may not be inappropriate to -continue here the legend relating to this. Idun, the wife of Bragi, who -was celebrated for his wisdom and eloquence, kept in a box the apples -which when the gods felt old age approaching they ate in order that they -might keep their youth till Ragnarök. - - -“Odin, Loki and Hœnir went from home over mountains and uninhabited -land, and it was not easy for them to get food. When they came down into -a valley they saw a herd of oxen, took one of them and prepared it for -the fire. When they thought it was cooked they took it off, but it was -not cooked. A second time, after waiting a little, they took it off, and -it was not cooked. They considered what might be the cause of this. Then -they heard a voice in the tree above them which said that he who sat -there caused this. They looked up, and a large eagle sat there. The -eagle said: ‘If you will give me my fill of the ox, it shall be cooked.’ -They assented, and the bird came slowly down from the tree, sat down on -the hearth, and at once gobbled up the four shoulder-pieces of the ox. -Loki got angry, took a large pole, raised it, and with all his strength -struck the eagle. At the blow the eagle flew into the air. The pole -adhered to its body, and the hands of Loki to one end of it. The eagle -flew so that Loki’s feet touched the rocks, the stone-heaps and the -trees. He thought his hands would be torn from his shoulders. He -shouted, eagerly asking the eagle to spare him, but it answered that -Loki would never get loose unless he swore to make Idun leave Asgard -with her apples. Loki promised this, got loose and went to his -companions, and no more tidings are told about their journey till they -reached home. At the appointed time Loki enticed Idun to go to a wood -out of Asgard by saying he had found apples which she would prefer to -her own, and asked her to take her own apples with her to compare them. -Thjassi Jötun then came in an eagle’s shape and took Idun and flew away -to his abode in Thrymheim. The Asar were much grieved at the -disappearance of Idun, and soon became grey-haired and old. They held a -_Thing_ and asked each other for news of Idun. The last seen of her was -when she walked out of Asgard with Loki. He was brought to the _Thing_ -and threatened with death or torture. He got afraid and said he would -fetch Idun from Jötunheim, if Freyja would lend him the hawk-skin which -she owned. When he got it he flew north to Jötunheim, and one day came -to Thjassi Jötun, who was sea-fishing. Idun was alone at home. Loki -changed her into a nut, held her in his claws and flew as fast as he -could. When the Asar saw the hawk flying with the nut and the eagle -pursuing they went to the Asgard-wall and carried thither bundles of -plane-shavings. When the hawk flew into the burgh it came down at the -wall. The Asar set fire to the plane-shavings, but the eagle could not -stop when it lost the hawk, and the fire caught its feathers and stopped -it. The Asar were near, and slew Thjassi inside the Asgard-wall, which -is a very famous deed. Skadi, his daughter, took helmet and brynja and a -complete war-dress, and went to Asgard to avenge her father. The Asar -offered her reconciliation and _wergild_,[77] and first that she might -choose a husband from among them, not seeing more than their feet. She -saw a pair of very beautiful feet, and said: ‘This one I choose; few -things can be ugly in Baldr.’ But it was Njörd of Nóatún.” (Later Edda, -Bragarœdur, c. 56.) - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - ODIN OF THE NORTH. - - The Odin of the North—The forefathers of the English—Their migration - from the shores of the Black sea—The geographical knowledge of the - Norsemen—Tyrkland the home of Odin—Sigrlami, one of the sons of - Odin—Odin establishes his family in the North—Death of Odin in the - North—Attributes of Odin—Poetical names of Odin—Sleipnir, the - horse of Odin—Odin as a one-eyed man. - - -In the Norse literature we find Odin referred to not only as a god, but -as a hero and leader of men. It is not necessary to believe that any -real person of the name of Odin ever existed, but from the frequency -with which a migration northwards is mentioned, and from the details -with which it is described, it is legitimate to infer that the -predecessor of the Norsemen came from the south or south-east of -Europe—probably, to judge from literature and archæology combined, from -the shores of the Black Sea. - -At the time of Odin’s arrival in the North we find not only a country -called Gardariki, which is often mentioned in the Sagas, and seems to -have adjoined the south-eastern shores of the Baltic, but also the large -Scandinavian peninsula and that of Jutland, and the islands and shores -of the Baltic, populated by a seafaring people whose tribes had constant -intercourse with each other, and, to judge by the finds, seem to have -had an identical religion. These people intermarried with the Asar who -came north with Odin, and hence arose tribes called half-Risar and -half-Troll. - - -“It is written in old books that Alfheimar[78] were north in Gandvik and -Ymisland, between it and Hálogaland. And before the Tyrkjar and Asia-men -came to the Northern lands, Risar and half-Risar lived there; then the -nations (peoples) were much mixed together; the Risar got wives from -Mannheimar, and some of them married their daughters there” (Hervarar -Saga, ch. i.). - - -The account given in the Hervarar Saga agrees with that in the Ynglinga -Saga, which is important not only as giving an idea of the conception -the people of the North had of our world, but as describing the names of -the lands and countries mentioned in the earlier Eddas and Sagas. - - -“The round of the world on which men dwell is much cut by the sea; large -seas stretch from the outer sea round the earth into the land. It is -known that a sea runs from Njörvasund (Straits of Gibraltar) all the way -up to Jorsalaland (the land of Jerusalem). From it a long bay runs -north-east, called the Black Sea, which separates the three parts of the -world; the part east of it is called Asia, but the one west of it is -called Europa by some, and Enea by others. North of the Black Sea is the -great or the cold Sweden; some say that Sweden is no smaller than -Serkland (the land of Saracens) the great; some say she is as large as -Blaland (the land of the blue (black) men) the great. The northern part -of Sweden is uninhabited, on account of frost and cold, as the southern -part of Blaland is on account of the sun’s burning heat. In Sweden there -are many large herads (districts). - -There are also many kinds of people and many tongues: there are Asar, -Dvergar, and Blamenn (blue (black) men), and many kinds of strange -people; there are beasts and dragons wonderfully large. From the north, -in mountains which are beyond all settlements, a river springs that -flows through Sweden; its right name is Tanais; it was in old times -called Tanakvísl,[79] or Vana-kvísl; it flows into the Black Sea. The -land round Vanakvísl was then called Vanaland or Vanaheim (home or world -of the Vanir). This river[80] separates the two-thirds of the world; -east of it is Asia, and West of it is Europa” (Ynglinga Saga, 1). - - -“A large mountain ridge runs from north-east to south-west; it separates -Sweden the Great[81] from other lands. South of the mountain, not far -off, is Tyrkland; there Odin owned a great deal of land. At that time -the chiefs of the Rómverjar (Romans) went widely about the world and -underlaid (conquered) all nations; and many chiefs on that account left -their lands. As Odin was foreknowing and skilled in witchcraft he knew -that his descendants would live in the northern part of the world. Then -he set his brothers Vili and Vé to rule Asgard; he left, and all the -Díar with him, and many folk. First he went westwards to Gardaríki, then -southwards to Saxland. He had many sons; he became owner of land at many -places in Saxland, and left his sons to defend Saxland. Then he went -northwards to the sea and settled on an island; that place is now called -Odinsey (Odin’s island) in Fjón (Fýen). Then he sent Gefjon[82] -northwards across the Sound to discover lands; she came to Gylfi, and he -gave her one plough-land. Then she went to Jötunheim and there got four -sons by a Jötun; she changed them into oxen, and harnessed them to the -plough, and drew the land out to sea, and westwards, opposite to -Odinsey, and the land is called Selund (Zealand); she afterwards lived -there. Skjöld, a son of Odin, married her; they lived at Hleidra -(Leire). There is a lake or sea called Lög (Mälaren). The fjords in the -Lög lie as the nesses in Selund. When Odin heard that Gylfi’s land was -good he went there, and he and Gylfi made an agreement, for Gylfi -thought he had not strength enough to withstand the Asar. Many devices -and spells did Odin and Gylfi use against each other, and the Asar -always got the better of them. Odin took up his abode at the Lög -(Mälaren), which is now called the old Sigtúnir; there he made a great -temple and sacrificed according to the custom of the Asar. He gave -abodes to the temple-priests; Njörd lived at Nóatún, Frey at Uppsalir, -Heimdall at Himinbjörg, Thor at Thrúdvang, Baldr at Breidablik; he gave -good abodes to them all” (Ynglinga, c. 5). - - -While Odin, according to the sages, was in Sweden[83] his son Sigrlami -ruled over Gardaríki; during the life of his father or after his death -he had to fight against the Jötnar, and, like Skjöld his brother, he -married a daughter of King Gylfi, who ruled over the present Sweden, -whose authority is made to extend to the principal islands which form -part of the present Denmark. - - -“At this time the Asia-men and Tyrkjar came from the east and settled in -the northern lands; their leader was called Odin; he had many sons, and -they all became great and strong men. One of his sons was called -Sigrlami; to him Odin gave the realm now called Gardaríki; he became a -great chief over that land; he was handsomer than any man. He was -married to Heid, the daughter of King Gylfi; they had a son called -Svafrlami.” (Hervarar, c. 2). - - -Sigrlami fell in a fight against Thjassi the Jötun. When Svafrlami heard -of his father’s death he took for himself all his realm, and became a -powerful man. It is said that on one occasion when riding in a forest he -chased a stag for a long time, and did not kill it until sunset, when he -had ridden so far into the forest that he lost his way. He saw a large -stone and two Dvergar beside it, whom he was going to sacrifice to the -gods, but on their begging to be allowed to give a ransom for their -lives Svafrlami asked their names. One was called Dyrin, the other -Dvalin. Svafrlami at once recognised them to be the most skilful of -Dvergar, and insisted upon their making a sword for him, the hilt to be -of gold, and the scabbard to be ornamented and inlaid with gold. The -sword was never to fail, and never to rust; to cut iron and stone as -well as cloth; and it was to bring victory in all battles and duels -(einvigi) to every one who carried it. - -On the appointed day Svafrlami came to the rock; the Dvergar gave him -the sword; but Dvalin, standing in the door of the stone, said: “Thy -sword, Svafrlami, shall be a man’s bane (death) every time it is drawn; -and with it shall be performed the greatest nithing’s deed; it also will -be thy death.” Svafrlami then struck at the Dvergar so that both edges -of the sword entered into the rock, but the Dvergar ran into the rock. -Svafrlami, we are told, called the sword Tyrfing, and carried it in -battles and single fights; with it he killed in a duel Thjassi the -Jötun, his father’s slayer, whose daughter Frid he married” (Hervarar -Saga, c. 3). - - -We not only have accounts of how this Odin established his family in the -North, but also how he died there. Feeling that his days were coming to -an end, he prepared to die on a pyre, as was the custom of those times; -and we find the belief existed that after his death he returned to the -old Asgard. - - -“Odin fell sick and died in Sweden. When he was at death’s door he let -himself be marked (wounded) with a spear-point, and said he was the -owner of all the men slain by weapons, and would go into Godheim (the -world of the gods), and there welcome his friends. Now the Swedes -thought he had gone to the old Asgard, and would live there for ever. -Then there again arose worship of Odin, and vows were made to him. The -Swedes often thought he appeared to them in dreams on the eve of great -battles; to some he gave victory, others he invited home; either of -these alternatives was considered good. After death he was burnt with -great splendour.[84] It was their belief that the higher the smoke rose -in the air the more glorious would the burnt man be in heaven,[85] and -the more property that was burnt with him the wealthier would he be” -(Ynglinga Saga, c. 10). - - -Whether a hero and leader of the name of Odin ever lived or not we -cannot tell, but that we know from the records the people believed that -he and the Asar had existed, and the creed they had established was -their religion; and this belief lasted with many to the end of the pagan -era, which did not entirely disappear till the twelfth century. Odin and -some of the Asar were deified and worshipped in all the countries of the -North, and with the lapse of time their fame increased. - - -“Odin was a mighty warrior and travelled far and wide, and became owner -of many realms (countries). He was so successful that in every battle he -gained the victory, and at last his men believed that in every battle -victory was in his power. It was his custom, when he sent his men into -fight or on other errands, first to lay his hands on their heads and -give them bjanak;[86] they believed that luck would then be with them. -Also it happened that whenever his men were in need on land or at sea -they called on his name, and always felt relieved by it; for every kind -of help they looked to him. He often went so far away that he was on a -journey many seasons” (Ynglinga, c. 2). - - -“It is said with truth that when Asa-Odin, and with him the Díar,[87] -came into the northern lands, they began and taught those ídróttir[88] -which men afterwards long practised. Odin was the foremost of them all, -and from him they learned the _ídróttir_, for he first knew them all, -and more than any other. He was highly honoured on account of the -following things. He looked so fair and noble when he sat with his -friends that every mind was delighted; but when he was in a host, then -he looked fierce to his foes. This was because he knew the ídróttir of -changing looks and shapes in any way he liked. Another of his ídróttir -was that he spoke with such skill and so glibly that all who listened -thought it the only truth; he always spoke in poetry (hendingar) like -that which now is called skáldskap (skaldship, poetry). He and his -temple-priests are called Ljódasmidir (lay-smiths, song-smiths), for -that ídrótt came from them into the northern lands. Odin had power to -cause his foes to grow blind or deaf or full of fear, and to make their -weapons bite no more than wands (sticks of wood). His own men fought -without armour madly, like dogs or wolves, bit their shields, and had -the strength of a bear or bull; they cut down the foe, and neither fire -nor iron hurt them. That is called berserksgang (rage or fury of -Berserks)” (Ynglinga, c. 6–7). - - -In the poetical language of the Sagas and Eddas a very great number of -figurative names are given to Odin, which show how numerous his -attributes were believed to be, and many of which recall the language of -Homer; among them we may mention:— - - The thunderer.[89] - Father of ages. - The wise walker. - The lord. - The helmet bearer. - The cheerful. - The loving one. - The high one. - The fickle. - The true-guessing one. - The evil-eyed. - The manifold. - The wise in beguiling. - The much knowing. - The father of victory. - The father of the slain. - The conqueror in fights. - The entangler. - The feared one. - The rover. - The serpent (from his being able to assume its shape). - The soother. - God of the hanged.[90] - God of the ravens. - God of victory. - God of the Gautar. - The shouting god. - The one-eyed one. - The fierce one. - God of the earth. - Friend of Mimir. - The foe of the Fenrir-wolf. - The lord of the spears. - The god of hosts. - The father of all. - The wish-god. - The wind-whispering. - The burner. - The wide-ruling. - The work-skilled. - The swift-riding. - The god of battle. - The almighty god. - The host blinder. - The true one. - The long-bearded. - The god of cargoes. - The father of hosts. - The useful adviser. - The shaper of battle. - The swift rider. - - -“Then Thridi said: Odin is the highest and oldest of the Asar; he rules -over everything, and, however mighty the other gods are, they all serve -him as children a father. Frigg, his wife, knows the fates of men though -she cannot prophesy. Odin is called Allfödr, because he is the father of -all the gods; he is also called Valfödr, because all those who fall in -battle (valr = the slain) are his chosen sons. These he places in -Valhöll and Vingólf (a hall owned by the goddesses), and then they are -called Einherjar. He is also called Hanga-gud (god of the hanged), -Hapta-gud (god of the chained), and Farma-gud (god of cargoes), and he -gave himself still more names when he was at King Geirröd’s. Gangleri -said: ‘Wonderfully many names have you given to him, and surely it needs -great wisdom to know the events which are the reasons of every one of -these names.’ Hár answered: ‘Great wits are needed to explain this -carefully, but, to tell it shortly, most of the names have been given -because, as there are many different tongues in the world, every nation -thinks it necessary to change his name according to their language, that -they may invoke and pray to him for themselves. His journeys have given -rise to some of these names, and they are told among people’” (Later -Edda, c. 20). - - -“Two ravens[91] sit on his shoulders and tell into his ears all the -tidings, which they see or hear; these are Hugin and Munin. At the dawn -of day he sends them out to fly all over the world, and they come back -at day-meal time (the biggest meal of the day); hence he knows many -tidings; therefore he is called Hrafnagud (Raven-god)” (Gylfaginning, c. -38). - - -Among the earlier myths connected with Odin may be mentioned the -following account of the origin of his horse Sleipnir. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1.—Earlier runic stone at Tjängvide, Götland, with the - eight-footed horse of Odin.—Height about 5 feet; width, 4 feet 4 - inches; thickness, 1 foot. Another similar stone with representation - (in relief) of an eight-footed horse has been found also in Laivide - in Götland. -] - - -“Gangleri asked: ‘Who owns Sleipnir the horse, or what hast thou to tell -of him?’ Hár answered: ‘Thou knowest nothing about Sleipnir nor whence -he sprang, but it will seem to thee worth a hearing. In early times when -the gods had built up Midgard and made Valhalla there came a smith who -offered to make a burgh for them in three seasons (half-years) so good -that it would be strong and safe against Bergrisar (mountain-jötnar) and -Hrimthursar, though they entered Midgard. In the place of wages he -wanted to marry Freyja and get the sun and moon. The Asar came together -to counsel among themselves, and it was agreed with the smith that he -should get what he wanted if he could make the burgh in one winter, but -if any part of it was unfinished on the first day of summer he was to -lose his pay; he would not be allowed to use the help of any man in the -work. When they told him these conditions he asked leave to make use of -his horse Svadilföri; on the advice of Loki this was conceded to him. -The first day of winter he began to build the burgh, and during night he -carried stones on his horse to it; the Asar wondered much how the horse -could drag such large rocks, and it did much more work than the smith. -Strong witnesses were brought and many oaths were taken at their -agreement, because the jötun thought it unsafe to stay with the Asar if -Thor, who had gone to Austrveg (eastern countries) to kill Jötnar, -should come home. As the winter passed the building of the burgh -proceeded, and it was so high and strong that it could not be taken. -When three days of the winter were left it was almost all finished -except the gate. Then the gods sat down on their judgment-seats and -tried to find an expedient; one asked the other on whose advice Freyja -was to be married in Jötunheimar and air and heaven defiled by taking -sun and moon away and giving them to the Jötnar; they all agreed that -the causer of most evils, Loki Laufeyjarson, had caused this, and that -he deserved an evil death if he did not find a way to cause the smith to -lose his pay. They rushed at Loki, who got afraid, and took oaths that -he would manage, whatever it might cost him, that the smith should lose -his pay. The same evening when the smith drove out with his horse -Svadilföri, to fetch stones, a mare ran out of the wood towards it and -neighed to it. When the stallion saw what kind of horse this was he got -wild, tore his ropes and ran towards it; the mare ran into the wood, and -the smith followed and wanted to get hold of it, but the horses -continued running all night, and no work was done that night; next day, -as before, the work did not proceed. When the smith saw that the work -could not be finished he got into Jötun-fury. When the Asar knew for -certain that he was a Bergrisar (mountain jötun), they could not keep -their oaths and called Thor; he came at once, and then the hammer -Mjollnir went aloft; he paid him for the work, not by giving him the sun -and moon, but by preventing him from living in Jötunheimar; at his first -blow the jötun’s skull was broken into small bits, and he was sent down -to Nifl-hel. But Loki had had such dealings with Svadilföri that he gave -birth to a foal; it was grey, and with eight feet, and it is the best -horse among gods and men” (Gylfaginning, 41–42). - - -Odin was believed not only to give victory to his favourites, but other -gifts, and is represented as coming to the aid of his followers, in the -guise of an one-eyed old man— - - Ride shall we - To Valhalla, - To the holy place. - Let us ask the father of hosts - To be kind (to us); - He pays and gives - Gold to his host; - He gave to Hermód - A helmet and brynja, - And to Sigmund - He gave a sword. - - He gives victory to his sons, - And wealth to some; - Eloquence to many, - And wisdom to men; - Fair winds to warriors, - And song to poets, - And luck in love - To many a man. - - She (Freyja) will worship Thór, - And ask him - That he always - Be at peace with thee; - Though he is no friend - To the jötun-brides.[92] - - [Hyndluljód.] - - -“King Siggeir ruled Gautland; he was powerful and had many men; he went -to King Völsung and asked him to give Signy to him in marriage. The king -and his sons received this offer well; she herself was willing, but -asked her father to have his way in this as in other things referring to -herself. Her father made up his mind that she should be married, and she -was betrothed to Siggeir. The wedding-feast was to be at King Völsung’s, -and Siggeir was to come to him. The king prepared as good a feast as he -could. When it was ready the guests and Siggeir’s men came on the -appointed day; Siggeir had many men of rank with him. It is said that -great fires were made along the hall,[93] and the large tree before -mentioned stood in the middle of the hall, and that when men were -sitting before the fires in the evening a man walked into the hall whom -they did not know. He wore a spotted hekla (frock); he was barefooted, -and had linen breeches fastened to his legs; he had a sword in his hand, -and wore a hood low down over his face; he was very grey-haired, and -looked old, and was one-eyed.[94] He went to the tree, and drew the -sword, and stuck it into the trunk so that it sank up to the hilt. No -man dared to speak to him. He said: ‘He who pulls this sword out of the -trunk shall get it as a gift from me, and will find that he never had a -better sword in his hand than this one.’ The old man then went out, and -no one knew who he was, or where he went. Then all the foremost men -tried to pull out the sword, and could not. Sigmund, the son of King -Völsung, pulled it out as easily as if it had been quite loose. No man -had seen so good a sword, and Siggeir offered three times its weight in -gold for it. Sigmund answered that he should have pulled it out; now he -should never get it, though he offered all the gold he owned” (Volsunga, -c. 3).[95] - - -Of Odin it is said: - - -“Odin changed shapes; then his body lay as if sleeping or dead, and he -was in the shape of a bird or a beast, a fish or a serpent, and in the -twinkling of an eye went into far-off lands on his own errands or on -those of other men. Besides, he could, with words only, extinguish fire, -calm the sea, and turn the winds into whatever direction he wished. He -had a ship called Skídbladnir, on which he crossed large seas; it could -be folded together like cloth.[96] He had with him Mimir’s head, which -told him many tidings (news) from other worlds. Sometimes he raised -(awaked) dead men out of the earth (ground), or sat down beneath hanged -men (hanging in gallows);[97] therefore he was called the lord (dróttin) -of the ghosts or of the hanged.[97] He had two ravens, which he taught -to speak, and they flew far and wide over lands (countries) and told him -many tidings. Therefore he became very wise. So much lewdness followed -this witchcraft when it was practised that it was thought a disgrace for -men to practise it; and the priestesses (gydjur) were taught the idrótt. -Odin knew where property was hidden in the ground, and he knew songs by -which he unlocked (opened) the earth, the rocks, and the stones, and the -mounds, and bound (held fast) with mere words those who dwelt in them, -and went in and took what he wished. On account of these powers he -became very famous; his foes feared him, but his friends trusted in him -and believed in him and his power. He taught most of his idróttir to the -sacrificing-priests; they were next to him in all wisdom and witchcraft. -Many others, however, learned a great deal of them, and from them -witchcraft has spread widely and been kept up long. But men worshipped -Odin and the twelve chiefs (höfdingi) and called them their gods, and -believed in them long afterwards” (Ynglinga Saga, ch. 7.) - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - THE SUCCESSORS OF ODIN OF THE NORTH. - - Njörd the successor of Odin—Frey succeeds Njörd—A great temple built - at Uppsalir by Frey—The ship of Frey—Death of Frey—Frey’s death - kept secret from the people—Freyja, the priestess—Fjölnir, the son - of Yngvi Frey—Svegdir—Genealogies of the Norse chiefs from Odin - Skjöld, the founder of the Danish branch of chiefs. - - -According to the sagas, after the death of Odin, Njörd of Nóatún became -the ruler of the Swedes. - - -“Thereupon Njörd of Nóatún became ruler over the Swedes, and continued -the sacrifices; the Swedes called him their dróttin (lord); he gathered -taxes from them. In his days there was very good peace, and seasons were -so good in every respect that the Swedes believed that Njörd ruled over -good seasons and the wealth and welfare of men. In his days most of the -Díar died, and all of them were afterwards burnt and sacrificed to. -Njörd fell sick and died; he also let himself be marked (with a spear) -before he died, as a token that he belonged to Odin. The Swedes burnt -him, and wept very much over his mound” (Ynglinga, c. 11). - - -“Njörd of Nóatún then begat two children. His son was Frey and his -daughter Freyja. They were beautiful in looks and mighty. Frey is best -of the Asar. He rules the rain and the sunshine, and also has power over -the growth of the ground. It is good to make vows to him for good -seasons and peace. He also rules over men’s fortune in property.” -(Gylfaginning, c. 24.) - - -In Vafthrudnismal Odin asks Vafthrudnir the origin of Njörd. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me ... - Whence Njörd came - Among the sons of Asar; - He rules hundred-fold - Temples and altars - And he was not born among Asar. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - In Vanaheim - The wise powers shaped him, - And gave him to the gods as a hostage; - At the doom of the world - He will come back again, - Home to the wise Vanir. - -The Njörd who is related to have been punished by uncontrollable sadness -for falling in love with Gerd and sitting on Odin’s high-seat is a -mythical Njörd. - - -“A man was called Gýmir whose wife Orboda was of Berg (mountain) Risar -kin. Their daughter Gerd was the most beautiful of all women. One day -Frey had gone to _Hlidskjalf_[98] and could see over all worlds. When he -looked to the North he saw on a farm a large and fine house towards -which a woman was walking. When she lifted her arms, opening the door, a -light shone from them on the sea, and the air and all worlds were -brightened from her. His great boldness in sitting down in the holy seat -thus was revenged upon him, for he went away, full of sorrow. When he -came home he did not speak or sleep or drink and no one dared question -him. Then Njörd called to him Skirnir, the shoe-boy of Frey, and told -him to go to Frey, address him and ask with whom he was so angry that he -would not speak to men. Skirnir said he would go, though not willingly, -as unfavourable answers might be expected from him. When he came to Frey -he asked why he was so sad and did not speak to men. Frey answered that -he had seen a beautiful woman and for her sake he was so full of grief -that he would not live long if he should not get her. ‘Now thou shalt go -and ask her in marriage for me and take her home hither whether her -father is willing or not; I will reward it well.’ Skirnir answered that -he would undertake this message if Frey gave him his sword. This sword -was so good that it fought of itself. Frey did not fail to do this and -gave it to him. Skirnir then went and asked the woman in marriage for -him and got her promise that she would come after nine nights and keep -her wedding with Frey. When Skirnir had told Frey of his journey Frey -sang: - - “Long is one night, - Long is another, - How can I endure three? - Often a month to me - Shorter seemed - Than one half of this wedding-night.” - (Later Edda, Gylfaginning, 37.) - - -After the death of Njörd, Frey, one of his sons, succeeded him as high -priest of the sacrifices, and, according to tradition, built the great -temple at Upsala, which became of great repute as a most holy place -among the people of the North, who came from all parts of the country to -assist at the sacrifices. The Sagas say that great Things were held -there, all important quarrels settled, friendship sealed, and peace -concluded between chieftains and countries. - - -“Frey took the realm after Njörd; he was called the dróttin of the -Swedes, and took taxes of them. He was as well liked as his father, and -in his days also were good seasons. Frey raised a large temple at -Uppsalir, and had his head burgh (höfud stad) there; all his taxes, -lands, and loose property he gave thereto. That was the beginning of the -Uppsalir wealth, which has been kept up ever since. - -“In his days the peace of Fródi[99] (King in Denmark) began; then there -were good seasons in every land. The Swedes attributed that to Frey. He -was worshipped more than other gods, because in his days the people of -the land became wealthier than before, on account of the peace and the -good seasons. His wife was called Gerd, daughter of Gýmir;[100] their -son was Fjölnir. Another name of Frey was Yngvi; this name was long -afterwards used among his kin as a name of honour, and his kinsmen were -afterwards called Ynglingar. Frey fell sick; when he was near death they -took counsel and allowed few men to see him; they made a large mound -ready for him with a door and three holes. When Frey was dead they -carried him secretly into the mound and told the Swedes that he was -alive, and kept him there for three winters. They poured all the taxes -into the mound, the gold through one hole, the silver through another, -and the brass pennings through the third. Then peace and good seasons -continued” (Ynglinga, c. 12). - - -“When all the Svíar knew that Frey was dead, and peace and good seasons -continued, they believed it would last while Frey was in Svithjód, and -would not burn him, and called him the god of the world (veraldar god), -and sacrificed ever since chiefly to him for good seasons and peace” -(Ynglinga, c. 13). - - -After the death of Frey, Freyja, the daughter of Njörd, became the -priestess, and offered the sacrifices. - - -“Freyja upheld the sacrifices, for she alone of the godar was then -living, and she became so renowned that all high-born women are called -_fruvor_.[101] Thus every woman is the freyja of her property, and she -who has a household is hús-freyja[102] (housewife). Freyja was rather -many-minded (fickle); her husband was Ód; her daughters were Hnoss -(costly thing) and Gersemi (precious thing); they were very beautiful, -and the costliest things are called by their names” (Ynglinga, c. 13). - - -According to the Ynglinga, Yngvi Frey was the son of Njörd, and Fjölnir -the son of Yngvi Frey. Fjölnir ruled over the Swedish and Upsala domain, -and died in Zeeland. A strong friendship existed between him and Fródi -the grandson of Skjöld, the son of Odin, and it was the custom of these -two chiefs to visit each other. - - -“Fjölnir the son of Yngvi Frey then ruled over the Swedes and the -Upsala-wealth; he was a powerful king, and peace-happy and season-happy. -At that time Peace-Fródi was at Hleidra (Leire); they were friends and -invited each other. When Fjölnir came to Fródi in Zeeland there was a -great feast prepared for him, and people were invited to it from far and -wide. Fródi had a large house; in it there had been a large vat, many -feet high, held together by large timbers; it stood in the lower story, -and there was a loft above in which there was an opening through which -the drink could be poured in; the vat was full of mixed mead,[103] a -very strong drink. In the evening Fjölnir and his men were shown to -their room on the next loft. In the night he went out on the svalir (a -kind of balcony) to look for something; he was overcome with sleep and -dead-drunk. When he returned to his room he walked along the balcony to -the door leading into the next room, and there he missed his footing and -fell into the mead-vat and perished” (Ynglinga, c. 14). - - -Svegdir succeeded his father, Fjölnir, and though several generations -had passed away since the death of the last Odin, the veneration towards -Asgard, the old home of the earlier Odin, was strong in the heart of the -people. - - -“This Sweden they called Mannheimar (the world of men), but the large -Sweden they called Godheimar (the world of gods); from Godheimar many -tidings and wonders were told” (Ynglinga, c. 10). - - -“Svegdir took the realm after his father; he made a vow to search for -Godheim and Odin the old. He went with twelve men far and wide about the -world; he came to Tyrkland and to Sweden the great, and met there many -of his friends and kinsmen, and was five winters on that journey.[104] -Then he came back to Sweden, and stayed at home for some time. He had -married a woman called Vana in Vanaheim; their son was Vanlandi. Svegdir -went again in search of Godheim. In the eastern part of Sweden there is -a large bœr called Stein (stone); there stands a rock as large as a big -house. One evening after sunset, when Svegdir ceased drinking and went -to his sleeping-house, he saw a Dverg sitting outside the rock. Svegdir -and his men were very drunk, and ran to the rock. The Dverg stood in the -door and shouted to Svegdir to come in if he wanted to meet Odin. -Svegdir rushed into the rock, which at once closed upon him, and he came -not back” (Ynglinga, c. 15). - - -A description of the leading events in the life of each of the remaining -mythical or semi-mythical rulers named in the genealogies is given in -the Ynglinga, but we have only thought it necessary to place before the -reader these few typical examples, as the scope of the work will not -admit of a fuller treatment of the subject; though some extracts have -been incorporated in the Chapter on Customs, &c. - -The Northern chiefs traced their ancestry from this Odin of the North, -whose influence had become so great with King Gylfi that two of his -sons, as we have seen, married the latter’s daughters. - -When reading the Saga literature we are particularly struck by the -frequent references made to pedigrees in which the people of the North -took great pride. There are three great genealogical branches through -which the Northern chiefs traced their descent from Odin. - - -“All who are truly wise in events know that the Tyrkjar and Asia-men -settled in the northern lands. Then began the tongue which has since -spread over all lands. The leader of these people was called Odin, and -to him men trace their families”[105] (Sturlaug’s Saga (Fornaldarsögur, -111), c. 1). - - -These genealogical branches are:—1. The _Ynglinga_; or that of Hálfdán -the black, the nephew of Rögnvald Jarl. 2. The _Háleygja_; or that of -Hakon Jarl the great. 3. The _Skjöldunga_; or that of Harald Hilditönn -or the Danish branch. - -If we could admit that these genealogies are more or less correct, and -if we struck an average by generations (of thirty years) the result -would make Odin live about the beginning of the Christian era; if a -longer average of life is allotted, he would have lived some centuries -before that date. But of course the genealogies must be treated as in -the main mythical. - -The _Ynglingatal_,[106] a genealogical poem,[107] composed for Rögnvald -Heidumhœri (the uncle of Harald Fairhair), traces the family of Rögnvald -through thirty generations up to Odin, and being probably composed a -little after 900, it would make Odin live _about 100 before Christ_. - -Ari in ch. 12 of Islendingabók traces his family through thirty-seven -degrees up to Yngvi Tyrkja King. - -These are the names of the forefathers of the Ynglingar and -Breidfirdingar (Men of Breidifjord):— - - 1. Yngvi Tyrkjaking. - - 2. Njörd Sviaking. - - 3. Frey. - - 4. Fjölnir, who died at Frid-Fródi’s. - - 5. Svegdir. - - 6. Vanlandi. - - 7. Vísbur. - - 8. Dómaldi. - - 9. Dómar. - - 10. Dyggvi. - - 11. Dag. - - 12. Alrek. - - 13. Agni. - - 14. Yngvi. - - 15. Jörund. - - 16. Aun the old. - - 17. Egil Vendikráka. - - 18. Ottar. - - 19. Adils at Uppsalir. - - 20. Eystein. - - 21. Yngvar. - - 22. Braut-önund. - - 23. Ingjald the evil. - - 24. Ólaf, wood-chopper (tretelgja). - - 25. Hálfdán Whiteleg Upplendingaking. - - 26. Godrod. - - 27. Ólaf. - - 28. Helgi. - - 29. Ingjald, the son of the daughter of Sigurd, son of Ragnar Lodbrok. - - 30. Oleif the white (king in Dublin). - - 31. Thorstein the red. - - 32. Glei Feilan, the first of them who settled in Iceland. - - 33. Thórd gellir. - - 34. Eyjólf, who was baptized in his old age when Christianity came to - Iceland. - - 35. Thorkel. - - 36. Gellir, the father of Thorkel and Brand and Thorgils, Ari’s father. - -As another example of these genealogies we give that of - -THE SKJOLDUNGA BRANCH. - - Odin Asa-king. Fródi. Fridleif. - Skjöld. Vermund the Wise. Fródi the Valiant.[108] - Fridleif. Ólaf the Humble. | - Fridfródi. Dan the Proud. | - Fridleif. Fródi the Peaceful. | - Hávar the Hand- | - strong. | - +-----------------------+---------------------+ - | | - Ingjald. Hálfdán. - Hrœrek Ringniggard. Helgi. - Fródi. Hrolf Kraki. - Hálfdán. Hróar. - Hrœrek Ring-thrower. Valdar the mild. - Harald Hilditönn. Harald the old. - Hálfdán the Valiant. - Ivar Vidfadmi. - Aud the Deep-minded = married, 1. Hrœrek - Ring-thrower. - | 2. Randbard. - | | - +-------------------------+---------+------------------+ - | | - Randver. Aslaug. - Sigurd Hring. Sigurd Hart. - Ragnar Lodbrok. Ragnhild. - Sigurd Snake-eye. Harald Fairhair (A.D. 872–933). - -The following passage from the ‘Later Edda,’ which refers to this -branch, may help the curious to fix the dates of these chiefs. According -to it Odin the hero lived some years before the beginning of the -Christian era. - - -“Skjöld (Shield) was the son of Odin, from whom the Skjöldungar are -descended. He dwelt in and ruled over the lands now called Danmörk, -which were then called Gotland. Skjöld had a son, Fridleif, who ruled -the lands after him. - -Fridleif’s son Fródi got the kingship after his father, about the time -when the Emperor Augustus made peace all over the world; then Christ was -born. As Fródi was the most powerful of all kings in the Northern lands, -all who spoke the Danish (Dansk) tongue[109] attributed the peace to -him, and the Northmen called it the Peace of Fródi. No man did harm to -another, even if he met the slayer of his father or his brother bound or -loose; no thieves or robbers were then found, so that a gold ring lay -for a long time in Jalangr-heath (_i.e._, was not taken by any one)” -(‘Later Edda.’ Skáldskaparmal, c. 43). - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - THE STONE AGE. - - Prehistoric ages of man—Use of metal unknown—First traces of - man—Weapons of flint, bone, &c.—Graves of the Stone - Age—Introduction of domestic animals—The cromlech or dolmen always - near the sea—Gallery or passage graves—The passage grave of - Karleby—Stone coffin graves—Sepulchral chambers—Objects of the - Stone Age. - - -We have now given accounts of the literature which contains the earliest -records of the people of the North. Let us pause and study for a while -its archæology, which will throw considerable light also on its -inhabitants and their customs. - -It is now generally recognised by archæologists that all people who have -advanced to a certain degree of civilisation have passed through three -periods of development, which according to the material of which their -implements, weapons, and utensils were made, have been named the -_stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_ age. We have very abundant -evidence that the people of the North passed through these three stages, -and indeed had reached the iron age before they came within the ken of -history. Beginning with the stone age, let us see what we can learn of -the civilisation of the North from the various articles which were in -use during the three stages. - -The finds in the North have been classified under the name “_grave_,” -“_bog_,” and “_earth_” _finds_; that is, objects found in graves, bogs, -or in the ground. In the latter case they are often hidden under stones, -in obedience to the injunctions of Odin. Those of the iron age are found -as far as 69° North latitude. - -The custom of burying different objects with the dead, and also that of -throwing objects and weapons into springs or bogs, or of hiding them in -the ground, has helped in a most remarkable manner to give us an idea of -the industries and daily life of the people there at a remote period. - -In the earliest age the use of metal was unknown, the weapons were made -of stone, horn, and bone,[110] and towards the close of this age pottery -was made. - -The first traces of man in some parts of the present Scandinavia are the -_kjökkenmöddinger_ (kitchen refuse heaps), consisting of oyster and -mussel shells, bones of fish, birds, and mammals, such as the deer, -bear, boar, beaver, seal, ure-ox, wolf, fox, &c., &c., with remains of -clay vessels. Among and near these heaps of refuse are found a great -number of rude implements and weapons made of flint, bone, horn, and -broken flint chips, also fireplaces made of a few stones roughly put -together, thus showing that the inhabitants lived in a very primitive -state. - -No graves of the earliest period of the stone age have thus far been -found in the North. Towards the latter part of this age we see a great -improvement in the making of weapons and tools; the latter were -beautifully polished, and graceful in form. Domestic animals had also -been introduced, as shown by the bones of cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, -and dogs, that have been found in the graves. Beads of amber and bone -were worn as ornaments. The graves of the stone age discovered in the -present Scandinavia and on the islands and shores of the Baltic may be -classified in four groups: the _cromlech_ or _dolmen_; the _passage_ or -_gallery graves_; the _free-standing stone coffins_; and the _stone -coffins covered by a mound_.[111] - -The cromlechs consist of from three to five large stones standing -upright, and so placed as to form a ring, with a large block or boulder -on the top. These were intended for a single body, buried in a sitting -position, with flint implements and weapons. The walls of the chamber -were made by large stones, smooth inside, and the floor consisted of -sand or gravel. Certain marks on the tops of stones seem to indicate -that sacrifices to the dead were prevalent; holes about 2 inches in -width are found on the roofs of some cromlechs and passage graves. These -cromlechs always occur near the sea, seldom more than seven miles from -the coast. The other graves of the stone age are often found far inland, -but they are almost always near a lake or river having connection with -the sea. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 2.—Cromlech near Haga, Bohuslän. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 3.—Cromlech (stendös) with concave recesses on the roof-stone, - near Fasmorup, in Skåne. -] - -The cromlechs which appear to be the latest graves of this age have a -much wider distribution than the other forms; they are found in nearly -all the provinces where the older forms of graves occur. Most of them -were in or on the top of a mound, which almost always had the roof, and -in most cases part of the wall, uncovered. The mound, which is generally -round, sometimes oblong, is surrounded at its base by stones often very -large; when this was oblong, the grave was nearer the one end than the -other. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 4.—One of three oblong cromlechs, distance between each about 120 - feet, length 52 feet, and width 20 feet, position north and south, - Lille Rorbœk, Zeeland. The central one had two stone-built chambers, - both with the entrance from the east. The southern burial chamber is - now destroyed, while the northern is completely preserved. It is 5½ - feet long, and 3 feet wide, and has four walls of stone, three of - which support a stone roof. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 5.—Sepulchral chamber covered with a mound, Kallundborg, Zeeland; - height about 16 feet. In levelling the mound the earth was found to - contain articles which tend to show the existence of a - “kjókkenmödding.” -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 6.—Passage grave on Axvalla heath, near Lake Venern, - Vestergötland, Sweden, situated on a hill overlooking a flat - country. Numerous graves belonging to that period are found in the - neighbourhood. - - The walls are made by large slabs, those in the passage being lower - than the slabs of the quadrangle. The roof is of flat slabs of - granite, 5 to 6 feet above the floor, a similar one serving as a - door, closing the outer end of the passage, which is 20 feet long, - and 2½ to 3 feet broad, and 3 feet high. The mortuary itself (the - quadrangle) is 32 feet long by 9 feet broad. - - _The dead sit along the walls_, young and old, men and women, the chin - resting in both hands, with their legs drawn up. Thin slabs form the - cells round each skeleton, and are about 3 feet high, consequently - do not reach the roof. Arrow points, knives, etc., of flintstone, - are found with the men, pieces of amber with the women. - - Numbers of similar graves are found in Sweden and Denmark, a single - grave sometimes containing nearly one hundred bodies. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 7.—Plan of above grave. -] - -Gallery or passage graves consisted of a chamber and a narrow gallery -leading into it, the whole being covered by a mound, the base of which -was generally surrounded by a circle of larger or smaller stones. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 8.—Passage grave near Karleby—front view; length of the main - gallery, covered by nine large stones, 52 feet; width, 7 feet; - length of passage, 40 feet; height, 6 feet. -] - -The chamber in a passage grave is either oblong, square, oval, or nearly -round; the walls are formed by large upright blocks, not quite smooth, -though even on the inside; the interstices are generally carefully -filled up with gravel or fragments of stone, and birch bark is sometimes -found between the blocks. The roof was formed by immense flat slabs or -blocks, smooth on the under side, but rough on the top, the interstices -being closed in the same manner as those in the walls. The floor is -sometimes covered with small flat stones, but usually with earth. On the -long side of the chamber there is an opening, from which a passage was -built in the same manner as the chamber, only longer and narrower. This -passage, or more precisely its inner part, was covered with blocks -resembling the roof blocks of the chamber, but smaller; near the inner -opening of the passage, and the outer end of its covered part a kind of -door setting has been often found, consisting of a stone threshold and -two narrow doorposts. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 9.—Side view of passage grave near Karleby. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 10.—Ground-plan of passage grave near Karleby. - - The irregular lines show the position of the slabs covering the grave. -] - -The passage graves vary much in size. The length of the chamber is -generally from 11½ to 23 feet, its width from 5 to 10 feet; height from -3½ to 4½ feet. The passage is often as long as the chamber, or even -longer, and its width is from 2 to 4 feet, and height from 3 to 5 feet. -But some are much larger, and are called giants’ graves. One of the -largest of these graves is that of Karleby, near Falköping, -Vestergötland, in Sweden, where a great number of the graves of the -stone age have been found. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 11.—Stone coffin (hällkista) near Skattened, in Södra Ryrs - parish, Vestergötland, 21¼ feet in length. Graves of this type are - very numerous in Bohuslan also, and in Dal and south-western - Vermland. -] - -This grave[112] was found under a large but not very deep mound, and is -divided into a large chamber and two smaller ones, separated by stone -slabs. - -In it were remains of sixty skeletons, and by their side a large number -of poniards, spear-points, arrow-heads, and other objects of flint and -stone, showing that the grave belonged to the period when stone -implements were still in use; but among the skeletons in the lower part -of the grave a couple of bronze beads and a bronze spear-point were -found. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 12. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 13.—Plan of above Mound. - - Mound, Broholm. Sepulchral chamber made of boulders, with short - passage leading to it. Stones from 4 feet 15 inches to 4 feet high, - and 2½ to 4 feet wide; inside of the chamber 9 feet wide. Only four - stones remain of the passage leading to the chamber, which is about - 2 feet wide, and turns south-west. The space between the boulders is - filled with small stones. In the chamber were charcoal and different - things. To the left of the entrance lay remains of two skulls close - to each other; and spread in every direction were daggers, blades, - and points of spears, points of arrows, numerous amber beads, a - necklace of amber, four clay vessels, and fragments of others, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 14.—Entrance to passage grave at Uby, Holbæk amt, Denmark. - Diameter 100 feet, height 14 feet. The length of the chamber is 13½ - feet, width 7½ feet, height 7½ feet. Entrance towards the south - passage is 18 feet long, 2½ feet wide, and 5½ feet high. There were - found in the passage many human bones and several flint implements - and three small clay urns. -] - -The isolated stone coffins were formed of flat upright stones, and were -four-sided, though the two longer sides were not parallel, thus making -the coffin narrower at one end than at the other. Most of them were -probably covered with one or more stones; and although these have in -many places long ago been destroyed or removed, they are sometimes still -found in their place. The direction of these coffins is almost always -from north to south, and they are generally surrounded by a mound of -stones of more or less stone-mixed earth. This form of grave was -probably the outcome of the omission of the passage. Several -intermediate forms have been found, showing how the passage was -gradually lessened until it can only be traced in the opening which -narrows at the south end of the coffin. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 15.—Interior of the passage grave at Uby. The spaces between the - large stones filled with pebbles. The roof is formed by two large - stones which have been cut from a large block. -] - -The length of the stone coffin was generally from 8 to 13½ feet, width -from 3 to 5 feet, height from 2½ to 5 feet. A few, especially in -Vestergötland, are from 19½ to 31 feet in length, one of the longest -graves of this kind in Sweden being one on Stora Lundskulla, in -Vestergötland, with a length of 34 feet, and width of 8 feet. Nearly all -other stone coffins found are, like the gallery graves, without a stone -at the southern end. This cannot be accidental. - -Besides the stone coffin above described, several have been found -covered with a mound. The chambers are generally formed of upright flat -stones, and roofed also with stones. They are generally smaller than the -stone coffins, being from 6 to 10 feet long, and closed on all four -sides; sometimes, however, there is found in the southern end an opening -as previously mentioned. - - POTTERY. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 16.—Clay urn—Stone age—⅓ real size. In passage grave, Stege, - island of Möen, Baltic, found with remains of some skeletons. Two - stone axes, a flint saw, 2 arrow-points, 3 spear-heads, fragments of - clay vessels with covers, pieces of a wooden tub, 2 awls of bone, a - chisel of bone, 3 flint wedges, 2 flat scrapers of flint, and 17 - amber beads for necklace were also found in the grave. The same - mound was afterwards used for burials belonging to the bronze age, - with cinerary urns with burned bones, on the top of which was a - double-edged bronze knife, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 17.—Amber-beads forming a necklace found in the grave with the - clay urn. - - The same mound was afterwards used for burial belonging to the bronze - age; near the top, and entirely separate from the burial-chambers, - there was discovered a very small stone coffin containing an urn - with burnt bones, and on these lay a fine double-edged knife, a - knife, and a pair of pincers, all of bronze. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 18.—Clay vessel found near Fredericia, Jutland. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 19.—Clay urn. Stone age grave, with flint weapons and - amber-beads. ⅓ real size. Island of Möen. -] - - POTTERY OF THE STONE AGE. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 20.—Necklace of amber beads found with other amber beads and - ornaments, altogether about 2,500, in a bog at the hamlet of Lœsten, - Viborg amt, Jutland. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 21.—Clay vessel which had a top, Stone age. ⅓ real size.—Möen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 22.—Stone axes, of the form of some bronze axes. Several - specimens in the Copenhagen Museum. ⅓ real size.—Fyen. - - The two axes in this page are given on account of their peculiar form, - similar - to that of the bronze age. Many other forms of weapons will be found - illustrated in ‘The Land of the Midnight Sun.’ -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 23.—Clay vessel found in a burial chamber with flint implements - and other objects near Aalborg, Denmark. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 24.—Clay vessel found in a large passage grave, with flint, and - other implements, near Haderslev, Slesvig. ⅓ real size. -] - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - THE BRONZE AGE. - - Abundance of gold—Stone occasionally used for - arrow-heads—Pottery—Graves—Commencement of cremation—Objects of - this period—Proficiency in the art of casting—Weapons—Ornaments - more varied than in the stone age—The Kivik grave—Oak - coffins—Clothing of the bronze age—Sewing implements—Burnt and - unburnt bodies sometimes found in the same grave—Gold vessels and - ornaments—Bronze vessels—Battle-horns—Bronze knives. - - -While the three ages to some extent overlap, while we find stone -articles running into the bronze age, and bronze and even stone into the -iron age, still the distinction between the three periods is too clearly -marked to be overlooked. Thus in the bronze age, characterised by the -use of that metal and of gold, the weapons were almost entirely of -bronze; amber still continued to be used for ornaments, and towards the -close of this epoch glass, in the shape of beads, and iron appeared, but -silver seems to have been unknown. Sometimes stone continued to be used -for arrow-heads and spear-points. - -The pottery shows a distinct improvement on that of the stone age. - -The graves of the bronze age, as in the preceding stone age, are covered -by a mound of earth, or a cairn, and contain several burial places. -During the latter part of the bronze age the custom of burning the dead -was introduced, but in the earlier part the bodies were unburnt. When -the custom of cremation commenced and how long it lasted it is utterly -impossible to tell, but from the numerous finds it is evident that it -must have been in use long before iron became known. The graves of this -period also generally lie on the top of some high hill, or the cairns -are placed on the summit of some promontory having an unobstructed view -of the sea or some large sheet of water. These graves prove that the -shores of the Baltic and of the Cattegat were once thickly inhabited by -a people having the same customs and religion; and from the situations -of the graves, as well as from the objects, etc., in them, we learn that -they were a seafaring people. North of the great lakes on the large -Scandinavian peninsula these antiquities become more rare, thus showing -that country not to have been so thickly settled. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 25.—Cake of a rosin-like substance made of a paste of birch bark, - and containing fragments of amber, used as a kind of putty to fill - up the hollows of objects of bronze, &c., found in bogs and urns - belonging to the bronze age. -] - -From the finds of beautiful and often costly antiquities belonging to -the bronze age,[113] and from their great numbers, the fact is brought -vividly to our mind, that even before iron was discovered there existed -in those regions a remarkable culture. - -The people had attained very great proficiency in the art of casting, -most of the objects are cast, and some of the weapons have still the -mark of the clay upon them; the model was sometimes made of wax and clay -put round it, the bronze was cast into the mould thus made, and the wax -melted into the mould which afterwards was broken in order to take out -the sword or object manufactured. Some of the small daggers especially -are marvels of casting, which could not be surpassed to-day. The largest -swords are cast in one piece. In the collection at Copenhagen nine of -these are perfect, the size of the longest being from 35 to 38 inches. -The swords, daggers, poniards often have their hilts ornamented or -twisted with threads of gold. - -The weapons of the bronze epoch are the same as those of the stone age; -poniards, axes, spears, bows and arrows. The sword and the shield seem -to have been in common use; one of these now in Copenhagen was found -covered with thin gold. - -The simple ornaments of the stone age are replaced by more varied and -beautiful ones. Gold jewels and vases become common and testify to the -wealth of the people. In this age as in the preceding age of stone, the -people of the North attained a greater degree of proficiency, and seem -to have possessed a higher degree of civilisation than the people of -Central and Northern Europe belonging to the same period. - -The graves containing unburnt bones which belong to the early period of -the bronze age are very similar to those of the preceding period of the -stone age, they contain several skeletons then finally decrease in size -until they become about 7 feet long, or just large enough to contain one -body. - -The bodies were often not buried in stone chambers but in coffins made -of the trunks of oak trees. It may be that at a later period the customs -of burning bodies and burying bodies unburnt co-existed, as will be seen -in the account of the iron age. The warrior was buried with his weapons -just as in the stone age. - -One of the most interesting graves which I have seen, belonging, -probably, to the bronze age, is the Kivik cairn (see p. 88), near the -sea on a beautiful bay near the town of Cimbrisham. This monument is the -only one of its kind known in the North. It shows perfect resemblance to -others of the bronze age, and differs only from the cairns found on the -hilltops of Bohuslän in its larger size. We have looked with great care -at the tracings, which are not so deep as those of the rock-tracings -situated in the neighbourhood. The signs carved on the stones are -evidently symbolical, and were so made as to look upon the great chief -that had been buried there. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 26.—Skeleton in a grave, about 8 feet 5 inches long, lying - south-west and north-east. The mound, which was about 4 feet high, - with a diameter of 50 feet, contained in the centre another grave. - Hesselagergaard, Broholm, Fyen. The original position of the head of - the warrior was 19 inches from the line of stones. The warrior was - buried with his weapons just as in the stone age. The following were - some of the objects found in the grave: Fragments of a bronze - fibula, a little above the head to the right. Two bronze rings, on - each side of the head, 6 inches from it. A bronze necklet; 13 inches - below the lower edge of the necklet was a large, flat, bronze - titulus (sort of shield boss) ornamented with three rows of spirals. - Above the edge of the large titulus was a bronze dagger, in a - scabbard, 8½ inches long. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 27.—Man buried with ornaments. Grave, 9 feet 6 inches long, 2 - feet 3 inches wide, in a mound, Hesselagergaard. Among the ornaments - were some spiral bracelets and finger rings, amber beads and one - light blue glass bead. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 28. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 29. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 30. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 31. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 32. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 33. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 34. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 35. - - Slab, from the Kivik grave.[114] -] - -The Kivik grave, like many others belonging to the bronze age situated -by the sea, is about 700 feet in circumference. The coffin, of flat -upright slabs, was discovered in 1750; its length is fourteen feet; -width, three feet. It is formed by four slabs on each side, and one at -the north end. These were nearly four feet high, three feet wide, and -eight to nine inches thick, and placed side by side. The inner surfaces -were more or less smooth, though neither cut nor polished, and on these -were the tracings. Two of these stones were lost about seventy years -ago. The grave was covered with three slabs, and pointed north and -south. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 36.—Oak coffin. Kongshöi find (Jutland). -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 37.—Oak coffin, with skeleton body covered with a woollen cloak, - Treenhöi, Jutland; one half serving as bed. -] - -In a mound at Havdrup in Ribe amt, Jutland, there were found in 1861 -three well-preserved oak coffins. The contents of two had been taken out -before the discovery was notified to the authorities, but the third was -found in the state shown in the illustration. Near this mound was that -of Kongshöi, containing four well-preserved oaken coffins. The contents -of these were however not as well preserved as those in the coffins of -Treenhöi. At the top of this mound there were discovered clay urns with -burnt bones. - -In some of these oaken coffins are found wooden bowls with handles, and -ornamented with inserted pins of tin. - -The articles of dress, found in a most extraordinary state of -preservation in the oak coffin, kept from decay no doubt by the tannin -in the oak, show how the people of the North dressed well before iron -had come into use among them. These are the earliest perfect garments -known, and even the latest period to which they belong cannot be far -from three thousand years ago, and they may be of a much earlier date. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 38.—Oak coffin, Treenhöi, Jutland; one half serving as bed. -] - -Among the most interesting graves which have given remarkable results in -regard to dress are the mounds of Treenhöi by Vandrup, near Kolding, in -Jutland. - -In a man’s grave was a small cap covering the head of the body, which -was wrapped in a deer-skin, composed of several sewn pieces of woven -material, and ornamented outside with woollen threads, which had been -inserted, and terminating with knots. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 39.—Cap. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 40.—Woollen shawl. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 41.—Cap. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 42.—Coarse woollen cloak. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 43.—Woollen skirt held by a striped band. - - Articles of clothing, Treenhöi, Jutland. -] - -On the left side under the cloak lay a bronze sword in a wooden sheath, -of lath lined with deer-skin, the hair being inside. The hilt was -ornamented by an oval bronze button at its top. There were no traces of -leggings or other protection for the legs, but the feet seem to have -been protected by strips of wool, and to have had leather shoes or -sandals on. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 44.—Woman’s skirt and bodice of wool, found with bronze - ornaments, and a bronze poniard with horn handle by the side of the - body which had been wrapped in a deer-skin.—Aarhus, North Jutland. -] - -The graves of women contain daggers, which may possibly imply that the -women had been warriors; also large spiral rings, various ornaments, -finger-rings, bracelets, glass beads, &c. - -Women’s dress of the bronze age seems to have consisted of the skirt and -bodice as at the present time, but the men’s clothes were quite -different from those of the iron age; in the earlier time trousers were -not worn, while we see them in use in the latter. - -Many sewing implements of bronze have been found in the graves, the -needles like those of the stone age are sometimes made of bone, but many -are of bronze; awls were used to pierce the holes in garments that were -made of skins, and some peculiar shaped knives have been found which -were probably used in the making of skin clothing, or in cutting -leather. - -In a grave-mound near Aarhus, in North Jutland, a coffin made of two oak -logs was found. The bottom of the coffin was covered with an untanned ox -or deer-hide. On this lay a large cloak, made of coarse wool and -cattle-hair. In the cloak, which was partly destroyed, was wrapped the -skeleton of a woman dressed. The hair was long and dark, and a net -covered the head, tied under the chin. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 45.—Profile of mound of the bronze age, with large coffin and - unburnt body, and stone cist with cinerary urn containing burnt - bones, also three smaller stone cists filled with burnt bones. - Dömmerstorf, S. Halland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 46.—Mound and sepulchral cist. The stones in this grave were of - size of the fist, and formed a pavement of a diameter of about a - yard. The urn contained burnt bones, among which were found a bronze - awl, and fragments of a bronze saw. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 47.—Mound at Elsehoved, Fyen. At the bottom, in the centre of the - mound, was found an irregular grave filled with earth, of about 4 - feet 9 inches in length, 1 foot 9 inches in width, 1 foot 10 inches - in depth (measured inside). Outside, on the natural soil, was spread - a bed of earth, rich in charcoal, which contained remains of burnt - bones and pieces of a clay urn, &c. -] - -Burnt and unburnt bodies are sometimes found in the same mound; the -latter generally at the bottom of the graves, the former at the top, -this shows that the graves with unburnt bodies are considerably the -older of the two. A mound with several graves may possibly have been the -burial place of one family. The graves of the later bronze age are more -numerous on the shores of the Baltic than in other parts of Europe. -Sometimes the burnt remains have been found wrapped in clothing, and -placed in an ordinary sized coffin, but more generally these burnt bones -are preserved in urns of clay enclosed in a small stone cist. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 48.—Cairn covered with earth, bronze age, Kongstrup, Zealand. - Diameter nearly 40 feet; height, 10 feet; covered with about 3 feet - of clay, containing over thirty urns, one of which was fastened with - a resin-like substance; with burnt bones and cinders, protected by - little sepulchral cists made of slabs. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 49.—Mound of the bronze age, covering a double ring of stones; - diameter of outside ring 86 feet; containing several burial-places, - with urns and burnt bones.—Near Kallundborg, Zealand. -] - -These stone cists of about the length of an average man are interesting -as indicating the transition to the small ones containing burnt bones; -some of these of a size large enough for an unburnt body have contained -only a small heap of burnt bones, and evidently belonged to the period -when the cremation of the dead began to prevail. Many of these little -cists are only large enough to enclose a clay pot, in which the bones -were collected; sometimes no coffins were found, but only clay pots -containing ashes, a small bronze knife, a bit of bronze saw, or -something of that kind. In some cases the bones were put simply into a -hole in the mound and the whole covered with a stone slab. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 50.—Clay vase; ⅙ real size. Found in stone cist in the mound with - an urn containing burnt bones, among which lay two bronze - knives.—Mound at Gjöttrup, near Lögstör, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 51.—Pot of burned clay; ¼ real size. Found in a mound with urns - and bronze objects.—Vidstrup, Hjörring amt, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 52.—Cinerary urn, ⅙ real size. Burnt bones.—Holstein. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 53.—Cinerary urn, ⅙ real size. With burnt bones.—Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 54.—Fragment of woollen cloth. Real size. Found at the bottom of - a mound at Dömmestorp, in Halland; in a fold of it lay a - well-preserved bronze poniard with its leather scabbard. The shawl - was 5 feet long and 20 inches wide. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 55.—Maglehöj mound; height about 14 feet, diameter 40 to 50 feet; - with sepulchral chamber, height, 5 feet; width, 5½ feet; length, 7 - feet. Inside the chamber the ground was laid with cobble-stones; on - top of these flint-stones, 2 to 3 inches in thickness; and then - again a layer of cobble-stones, and among these were found: a diadem - of bronze, two pieces of shields or breast-armour, the blade of a - dagger, &c., &c.—Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 56.—Floor of chamber.—Maglehöj. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 57.—Interior of chamber with cinerary urn.—Maglehöj. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 58.—Gold vessel, ½ real size, found with ten other similar ones. - All of 20-carat gold. Placed with the handles downward in the bronze - urn, Fyen (see p. 101). -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 59.—Gold vessel, ⅓ real size, handle surrounded with gold - threads. Found with a gold vessel in a mound, Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 60.—Bottom of the vase. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 61.—Gold vessel, about ½ real size, found under a slab, Halland. - Weight, 2 oz. 5 dr. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 62.—Design forming the bottom part of the vase. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 63.—Bracelet of solid gold, ¾ real size; weight, 6 oz.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 64.—Diadem of gold, ⅔ real size, Balsby, Scania; deposited, - together with four massive bronze axes, upon a slab below the - surface of the ground. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 65.—Hollow bracelet of gold, real size, found with four spiral - gold bracelets near a large stone.—Skärje, Bohuslan. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 66.—Spiral ring of double thread of gold.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 67.—Pincers of gold. Real size.—Halland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 68.—Bronze pincers. ¾ real size.—Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 69.—Bronze pincers. Real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 70.—Bronze vessel, with representation of sun ship, with prow and - stern alike, as in northern ships. ⅓ real size.—Bog near Aalborg, - Denmark. -] - -Vessels of bronze are uncommon in the graves; some by their form seem to -be of Greek origin, while others appear to be of Northern make. Some -beautifully cast, and of peculiar shape, seem to have been made to be -suspended. Some are ornamented with the svastica[115] and other symbolic -signs, and may have been used to carry offerings to the gods. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 71.—Bronze vase, in which were found eleven gold vessels with - handles like illustration. Representation of sun ship, ⅓ real - size.—Bog find, Rönninge, Fyen, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 72.—A vase of bronze found in a grave-cist in a mound, Fyen. The - cist was three feet wide, built of stone slabs, with one on the top. - ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 73.—Bronze vase, with burnt bones, a gold arm-ring, four double - buttons (two of gold and two of bronze), two bronze knives, &c., - Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 74.—Bronze vase. ½ real size.—Broby, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 75.—Bronze pail. ¼ real size.—Ögemose, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 76.—Hanging vase of bronze. ½ real size.—Bog, Senāte, - Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 77.—¼ real size. Svastica. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 78.—⅓ real size. Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 79.—¼ real size. - - Patterns of the bottom of different vases. -] - -The bogs[116] of Denmark contain large horns or trumpets, made entirely -of bronze, with pendant chains (see p. 104). Nothing exactly -corresponding to them has yet been discovered in other countries. They -have been cast in several pieces, and with surprising skill, and are -carefully fastened together by rivets which interlace each other. -Sometimes they have been buried in the bogs in a broken state, but -generally have been so well preserved that they can still be blown. They -produce a dull and not very loud sound. On one occasion they have been -found with a shield of bronze and a few bronze swords, hence their use -in battle may be inferred. But generally several of them are found -together, rarely less than two, and sometimes as many as six on the same -spot. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 80.—Battle horn of bronze, ⅛ real size.—Bog, Fredriksborg Amt, - Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 81.—Ornament to battle-horn. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 82.—Horn of bronze, ⅐ real size.—Bog, Scania, at a depth of over - 6 feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 83.—Battle horn of bronze, with chain ornamented with birds; ⅛ - real size, or 30 inches long.—Bog, Ribe Amt, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 84.—Bronze boats covered with gold.—Nors parish, North Jutland. -] - -A perfectly unique find belonging to the bronze age is that discovered -at Nors parish, Northern Jutland, in 1885. In an urn, greatly damaged, -were about 100 small boats of bronze canoe-shaped, about four to five -inches in length, placed one into another, all covered inside and -outside with a thin sheet of gold; some have been found to be ornamented -with concentric rings on the side. What was the meaning of the offering -or find will always remain a mystery. - -The curiously-shaped knives, which are found in very great numbers, seem -to be peculiar to the North, and the North of Germany. What they were -used for is hard to tell, possibly as sacrificial knives. It can hardly -be doubted that the signs upon them are symbolical; some may be -representations of the sun-ship, others are somewhat like minute -representations of the rock-tracings, or designs upon Greek coins, while -the heads of horses remind us of the gold vases represented in this -chapter. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 85.—Bronze knife, with sun ship and fish. Real size. In a mound - at Skjellerup, near Aarhus, North Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 86.—Bronze knife, without handle, with a serpent. Real size. In a - mound, Jutland, with three stone coffins. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 87.—Bronze knife. Real size. Found in mound in Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 88.—Bronze knife in clay urn, with burnt bones, two other knives, - &c. ⅔ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 89.—Bronze knife, with a vessel. ⅔ real size. In a mound.—Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 90.—Bronze knife.—Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 91.—Bronze knife; ship, with two suns and S. Skanderborg Amt, - Denmark. ⅔ real size.—Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 92.—Bronze knife, with ship, sun, and triskele. ⅔ real size.—In - an urn in Holstein. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 93.—Bronze knife, mound at Dömmestorp, Halland, in a ruined stone - cist. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 94.—Bronze knife, with two ships very like those on - rock-tracings. Real size.—In a mound near Vimose on Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 95.—Bronze knife, Scania. Real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 96.—In a mound.—Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 97.—Found in a field in Fyen, near Svendborg, with two other - swords. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 98. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 99.—Found with bones and charcoal in a mound.—Fyen. - - Handles of bronze swords. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 100.—Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 101.—Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 102.—Real size.—Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 103.—In urn with burnt bones, together with a bronze knife, - tongs, and an arrow-point. Real size.—Möen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 104.—Real size.—Möen. - - Daggers. - - Varying in size from 3 inches to 6½ inches. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 105.—½ real size. - - In a field in the side of a lake with 163 pieces of bronze. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 106.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 107.—¼ real size. - - Found with Fig. 105. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 108.—½ real size. - - Spear-heads, bronze. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 109.—In a bog, Falster. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 110.—In a bog, Jutland. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 111.—In mound, Jutland. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 112.—Upper part of bronze sword. ½ real size.—Scania. - - Swords.—These peculiar bronze swords are found in various towns in - England and Germany. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 113.—Spear-point of bronze. ½ real size. In a heap of coals with - twenty other spear-points.—Nordre Aurdal, Christiania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 114.—Spear-head of bronze. ⅓ real size.—Fálköping, Vestergötland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 115.—Knife of bronze. ⅙ real size. In stone coffin in a mound, - Island of Möen, in the Baltic, with a sword and a knife. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 116.—Knife of bronze. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 117.—Knife of bronze. ⅓ real size. In mound, Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 118.—Knife of bronze. ½ real size.—Halland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 119.—½ real size. In urn, Holstein. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 120.—⅓ real size. In urn, Fyen. - - Knives of bronze. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 121.—Bronze sword. ⅓ real size.—Vestergotland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 122.—Sword of bronze, ⅕ real size.—Lake Längsjon, Uppland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 123.—Dagger of bronze; full length, 24 inches.—Köngshöi find, - Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 124.—Leather sheath for bronze dagger, handle of horn; in tumulus - at Dömmestorp, Halland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 125.—One-edged bronze sword, found in a bog, Östergötland, - Sweden. Length, about 20 inches. The only one of this type found in - the North. Prof. Stephens in his ‘Runic Monuments’ shows that the - type is Assyrian, and that it has come by the trade routes through - Russia into Sweden from Asia. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 126.—Bronze shield with handle. ⅕ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 127.—Thin shield of bronze, ⅛ real size, found in a bog at a - depth of a little more than 3 feet. 66 inches full size diameter; - bird-like figures round centre.—Halland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 128.—One-eighth part of a small bronze shield, measuring only 27 - inches in diameter, containing eight triangles; ½ size. In a bog, - Falster. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 129.—⅓ real size.—Flensborg amt. Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 130.—⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 131.—Massive bronze axe, ⅓ real size, ornamented on three - sides.—Veile amt, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 132.—In Randersfjord, Jutland. ½ real size. - - Bronze axes. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 133.—Bronze axe; ½ real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 134.—Bronze axe; ⅓ real size.—Bohuslän, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 135.—⅓ real size. Ploughed up in a field, Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 136.—Fragment of bronze axe, ⅓ real size, with handle of - oak.—Near Eskilstuna, Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 137.—Axe of thin layer of bronze, ⅙ real size, cast upon a mould - of clay, ornamented with some round plaques of gold, in the midst of - which are pieces of amber.—Södermanland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 138.—Two forms of stone for casting; one for four saws, the other - for two knives. ⅓ real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 139.—Necklace of bronze. ⅓ real size.—Bog, V.-Götland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 140.—Saw of bronze. ½ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 141.—Bronze ring. Real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 142.—One of two bronze bracelets round wrist of skeleton in - tumulus, Dömmestorp, Halland. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 143.—Bronze ring. Real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 144.—Bronze bracelet, ½ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 145.—Fibula of bronze. ⅔ real size. Found with a bronze ring in - bog, Zeeland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 146.—Head ornament or hair-ring. Little less than ½ size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 147.—Long spiral bracelet, found near a big stone, Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 148.—Tutulus of bronze, with many other objects, in a large mound - at Bosgården, near Lund, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 149.—Bracelet. ½ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 150.—Bracelet of bronze. ⅔ real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 151.—Diadem of bronze. ½ real size.—Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 152.—Button of bronze. Real size.—Scania. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 153.—Button found with other objects in a small clay urn, with - burnt bones, surrounded by little slabs; real size.—Dömmestorp, - Halland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 154.—Fibula of bronze. ⅖ real size.—Scania.[117] -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 155.—Bronze pin. ⅓ real size.—Bohuslän. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 156.—In a private collection. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 157.—Found in a bog among the contents of a bronze vessel—rings, - pins, knives, etc. ½ real size.—Fyen. - - Bronze pins. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 158.—⅔ real size.—Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 159.—In urn with burnt bones. ⅔ real size.—Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 160.—Bracelet of gold. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 161.—Twisted necklace of bronze, ½ real size, found in a bog at a - depth of 1m. 5c. at Langhö, Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 162.—Ornament of bronze, ⅛ real size, for wooden pail.—Bog of - Balkåkra, near Ystad, Scania. -] - - - - - CHAPTER X. - THE IRON AGE. - - The three historic ages overlap each other—Division of the iron age - by archæologists—Gradual development in the mode of burial during - the three ages—Appearance of silver, lead, and glass—Greek and - Roman objects—Cinerary deposits—Cremation—The Kannikegaard - cemetery—Primitive kettle-shaped graves—Intentional destruction of - weapons and armour in graves—Cinerary urns—Symbolic - signs—Ornaments of the iron age. - - -In the iron age, when the knowledge of all the metals was known, and -weapons were made of iron, bones were still sometimes used for -arrow-heads; this age gradually merges into the historic period. It is -impossible to assign definite limits of time to the three prehistoric -ages; they run by degrees into each other; the classification specifies -no division of time, but marks degrees of development in man. - -Northern archæologists divide the iron age in the North into the -_earlier_, _middle_, and _later_ iron age, in the same manner as they -have divided the preceding stone and bronze ages; and it may safely be -said that in all these ages the North surpasses other countries in the -beauty and number of its objects. All the antiquities, as well as the -Eddas and Sagas, plainly show that the people who inhabited the eastern -and southern shores of the present Scandinavia[118], the islands of the -Baltic, and the southern shores of that sea, to a certain distance -inland, which now comprise Northern Germany, were of the same origin and -belonged to the same race; and the vast number of weapons of various -kinds testify equally with the records to the warlike character of the -people. The finish of the weapons of the later stone age is something -wonderful, many of them are as polished as glass; the weapons of bronze -are equally remarkable. - -In the beginning of the iron age appear the shears, which are very -similar to those now in use. Clothes during this period were generally -kept together by pins and buckles, which have been found in great -numbers; horns were used as drinking cups, and domestic vessels of -glass, bronze, silver, gold, wood, or burnt clay, and objects of Roman -manufacture, dice, checkers or draughtsmen, and chessmen, have also been -unearthed. - -At a very early period of this age remains of brynjas, or coats of ring -armour, have been found in graves where burning of the dead has taken -place; this shows that they were known in the North even in the -beginning of the Christian era, if not before; they are also met with in -graves of a later period, and in the bog finds of the third and fourth -century. - -Along with iron the people became also acquainted with silver, lead, -glass, &c., and knew the art of soldering and gilding metals. The jewels -and ornaments in their design and workmanship show a considerable -advance in taste. - -At what time the use of iron began to be known among the people and when -it superseded bronze is impossible to tell: the change must have taken -place a long time before the ships of the Suiones were described by -Tacitus, a wonderful example of the accuracy of whose description is -found in the Nydam boat of which I will speak hereafter. Iron is very -abundant in Sweden and Norway, and bog iron was no doubt plentiful in -the islands of the Baltic; the use of the latter is proved by masses of -slag, weapons, &c. found in the earliest graves of the iron age. The use -of the bronze of the preceding period continued, and many objects of -bronze are evidently of home manufacture. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 163.—Cinerary deposit. Hole, filled with stones, 4½ feet deep, 3 - feet in diameter.—Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 164.—Cinerary deposit. Grave, 5 feet in diameter, 4 feet deep, - lined with cobble stones, burnt bones, and broken fragments of clay - urns.—Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 165.—Cinerary deposit. Grave, 16 feet long, 6 feet wide, running - from north-west to south-west, with hole 2½ feet deep, containing - burnt bones and fragments of ornamented clay urns, remains of a - large one-edged knife, &c.—Grönneskev field, Fyen. -] - -The earliest graves[119] belonging to this iron age in the North are -called by Northern archæologists _depôts cineraires_ (cinerary -deposits). These graves are round bowl-shaped holes, the excavations -being from about two to four feet in diameter, and three to four feet -deep: into these the remains of the funeral pyre, such as burnt bones of -the corpse, ashes, charcoal, fragments of clay, urns, ornaments, jewels, -other objects and weapons are thrown in, without order or method. The -burnt bones and the charcoal are scattered sometimes over a bed covering -a certain space, or sometimes in a heap together. - -In other graves the antiquities are found resting on the black mould -itself. What were the causes which led to the temporary disuse of the -mound-burials we cannot tell. - -Then came a period when after the burning of the corpse on the pyre the -pieces of the bones were gathered into urns of clay, wooden buckets with -metal mountings, vessels of bronze or glass bowls; these latter being -very rare. These urns, &c., which are frequently found covered, for -protection, by other vessels, were placed in chambers of varying sizes, -those of the earliest graves being made of slabs, and just large enough -to contain the sepulchral urn. - -It should be mentioned that the development of the form of these graves -runs in an unbroken chain, beginning with the large grave chamber of the -stone age, and culminating in the insignificant receptacles for -preserving a mere handful of burnt bones. - -These graves are found sometimes singly, and at others in many hundreds, -and even thousands, together. - -The Kannikegaard cemetery on the island of Bornholm in the Baltic, and -that of Möllegaard by Broholm on the island of Fyen, are perhaps the two -richest antiquarian fields of the earliest iron grave period. -Kannikegaard must have been a very large common graveyard; it is over -1,000 feet long and over 150 feet wide, and formed, no doubt, part of a -more extensive burial ground, as there are other graves some 200 feet -further on. In nearly all the graves scorched stones have been found, -often in such quantities that they nearly fill the grave; a clay urn was -also often found standing at the bottom of the burnt spots or lying on -its side, sometimes with the bottom up or in broken pieces; many graves -contain no antiquities, and hold only burnt bones and charcoal.[120] - -In no other part of Europe do we see such a vast number of graves of -this period, showing that the North must then have been inhabited by a -far more dense population than other countries; from the number and -contents of these _depôts cineraires_, we gather that the population -burned its dead in large burial-grounds. - -The practice of burning the dead had already become common in the latter -part of the bronze age, and prevailed most extensively, if not entirely, -during the iron period immediately following it. - -Connected with the burning of the dead was the intentional damage done -to objects which were exposed to the heat of the funeral pyre. Special -care seems to have been taken to render swords and other weapons -thoroughly useless. Swords are cut on the edges, bent and twisted; -shield bosses are dented or flattened; and jewels and other objects are -entirely ruined, and the illustrations seen in these volumes will show -how thorough the destruction was. Bent swords and shield bosses, &c., -were sometimes placed over the cinerary urn, at other times they were -put at their side. - -We find that the same custom also existed during the cremation period of -the bronze age,[121] many of the swords of that period being broken in -several places. - -Among the objects most commonly found are shears, iron knives, silver -and bronze fibulæ, glass beads, melted or whole in many of which the -colours are unaltered, and as fresh as if made to-day; iron and bone -combs, tweezers of iron, amber beads, buckles, dice, draughtsmen, -fragments of trappings for horses and waggons, ornaments of gold and -silver, fragments of cloth, weapons, iron keys, fragments of bronze and -iron vessels, iron clinch nails, spurs of bronze and iron (showing that -horses were used at a very early period in the North), clay urns, &c., -&c. A remarkable fact is that the earliest swords seem to be chiefly -single-edged, a departure from the shape of the bronze swords: the -fragments of the shields are of wood, with heavy iron bosses and -handles. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 166.—Axe, ruined by cuts on its edge.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 167.—Shield boss, ruined by cuts, Norway. Found with a - double-edged sword, blade broken in two places, a bit for a horse, - &c. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 168. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 169. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 170. - - Half-moon shaped knives, sharp on the outside edge, with one end - ending in a loop or ring, and the handle twisted; found at - Kannikegaard. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 171.—Single-edged sword, from cinerary deposit at Kannikegaard. ⅕ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 172.—Found in cinerary deposit at Kannikegaard, one of nineteen - nearly perfect swords. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 173.—Double-edged sword, found over a clay urn with burnt bones. - ½ real size.—Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 174.—Shield boss. ½ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 175.—Sword of iron, found with unburnt bones, fragments of a - knife, and wooden scabbard. Kannikegaard. ⅛ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 176.—Bronze needle. Real size. Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 177.—Two-edged sword, found in cinerary deposit at Kannikegaard. - ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 178.—Iron knife; ⅓ real size. Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 179.—Sword, _Odense Amt Fyen_. ⅛ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 180.—Bent sword. Real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 181.—Single-edged sword, found in cinerary deposit Bornholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 182.—Single-edged sword, from cinerary deposit at Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 183.—Sword from the grave-place near Horsens; found with a bronze - kettle, containing burnt bones, a heavy finger-ring of gold, a torn - shield-boss of bronze, a shield handle of iron with nails of bronze, - a spear-head, two iron spurs, one pair of iron shears, two knives, - one iron buckle, bronze mountings for a drinking horn, melted glass, - fragments of a pan and sieve of bronze, different mountings of - silver, numbers of pieces of melted iron and bronze; not far from - the grave were found more than thirty urns containing burnt bones, - and several skeleton graves. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 184.—Neck-ring of silver. ½ real size. Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 185.—Sword. ⅕ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 186.—Spear-point, found near Kannikegaard. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 187.—Bent sword. ⅕ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 188.—Iron comb, real size, found with an urn containing burnt - bones of a child, &c., with other objects. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 189.—Stone cist with three layers of stone on the top, containing - unburnt bones.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 190.—Inside of stone cist. Length, 6½ feet; width, 2 feet 10 - inches; height, 22 inches. On left shoulder of skeleton, under the - right shoulder, on the breast and by the head, were silver - fibulæ.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 191.—Stone coffin, 7½ feet long, 20 inches wide, 18 inches high, - showing how the beads were placed.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 192.—Fibula of bronze, plated with silver. ⅔ real size. Found in - a piece of woollen cloth, with numerous beads, &c., in a stone - coffin.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 193.—Bead of gold and silver mixed. Real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 194.—Mosaic bead, of red colour. Real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 195.—Mosaic bead, real size, found with a silver - ring.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 196.—Glass bead. Real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 197.—Fibula of bronze: on its pin was a piece of linen—found with - mosaic beads in a stone coffin. Real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 198.—Fibula of silver, with fragments of bone comb, long knife, - with remains of wooden scabbard, &c. Stone coffin 9 feet long. Real - size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 199.—Bead of gold and silver mixed, made of three pieces soldered - together.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 200.—Axe of iron, found together with human teeth, horn comb, &c. - ½ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 201.—Cylinder-shaped receiver of bronze ⅔ real size, with a cover - and pieces of a leather band; in it were 7–8 pointed pieces of wood, - probably toothpicks or pins.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 202.—Iron sword, slightly more than ⅛ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 203.—One-edged sword, from a grave-mound, Norway. 2/9 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 204.—Double-edged sword, from a grave-mound, Norway, found with - other damaged weapons, &c. 2/9 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 205.—Iron spear-point, found in clay urn. Skovlyst, Ribe, - Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 206.—Spear-point, from a cairn, Norway; found with two unburnt - bodies, seven bronze buckles, a bronze key, seven beads of glass and - amber, &c. 2/9 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 207.—Stirrup, from a grave-mound, Norway, found with another - similar stirrup, a double-edged sword, spear-point, axe blade, &c., - all damaged. 2/9 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 208.—Cinerary urn and bent sword with iron sheath.—Skovlyst, - Ribe, Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 209.—Black clay urn, with hollow spots, ¼ real size, containing - burnt bones.—Broholm, Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 210.—Clay urn with svastica, ¼ real size, top of which was closed - by the bottom of another, containing burnt bones, a pointed iron - knife, a needle of bronze, melted lumps of glass from beads of - different colours, &c.—Bornholm. -] - -The cinerary urns are of different sizes and shapes, many of which are -not ungraceful: the clay of which they are made is of a black or greyish -colour, coarse and rough, porous, and often very tender; the people even -at a later period never seeming to have been skilled in the potter’s -art. Many of the designs upon them are peculiar, and were, no doubt, -symbolical. Among these are circles with dots, triangles, the svastika -and triad, &c., &c. Glazed pottery was unknown in the North. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 211.—Dark brown clay urn, ⅓ real size.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 212.—Urn with fine vertical stripes and punctuation, containing - burnt bones, bone comb with bronze rivets, ornamented with - concentric lines along the back. ¼ real size.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 213.—Urn of dark grey colour, containing burnt bones, - &c.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 214.—Black urn, containing only burnt bones. ¼ real - size.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 215.—Urn of reddish clay, ⅓ real size, which had another urn on - the top like a cover.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 216.—Small urn. Real size, containing nothing but - earth.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 217.—Clay urn, ⅛ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 218.—Clay urn.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 219.—Small greyish clay urn found in a burned spot. ⅓ real - size.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 220.—Urn, ⅓ real size, and glass mosaic beads, real size; two of - the beads found were blue, with bands of red, yellow, and red; two - more were blue, with a pattern repeated four times, containing - black, yellow, red, and white grounds; one was white, with a - wheel-like pattern, repeated three times, having a red centre and - black spokes—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 221. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 222. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 223. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 224. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 225.—Clay urn filled with burnt bones, and numerous objects. ¼ - real size—Möllegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 226.—Wooden bucket with bronze hoops. ¼ real size. Found in large - mound, with burnt bones, and a piece of gold spiral ring.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 227.—Wooden bucket, with bronze fittings, ⅓ real size. Found in a - large round tumulus inside a stone sepulchral chamber, with two - pairs of iron scissors, fragments of two double-edged swords, - fragments of several arrow-heads, two shield bosses, &c., - &c.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 228.—Clay urn, ⅓ real size, found in a tumulus with another clay - urn. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 229.—Clay urn, upside down, to cover a bronze basin, of Roman - manufacture, placed on a slab filled with ashes and burnt bones, - fragments of bronze ornaments and glass vessels which had been - exposed on the pyre; ashes and bones were scattered round, showing - the burning to have taken place on the spot. ⅓ real size.—Harf - Medelpad, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 230.—Clay urn in a stone cist containing the remains of a - skeleton, &c. ¼ real size.—Sojvide, Gotland. -] - -In Gotland, the graves are made of lime slabs. Some of these stone cists -are not deep under the ground, and without apparently any mound. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 231.—Clay urn, ⅓ real size, found in a round mound, inside a - sepulchral chamber of the length of 6 feet, width 2 feet, height 1 - foot 8 inches.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 232.—Clay urn, ½ real size, found in a mound containing a large - stone cist, with fragments of iron objects and another clay - urn.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 233.—Clay urn, in a mound. Bohuslan. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 234.—Clay urn in a stone cist.—Gotland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 235.—Clay urn, covering one filled with burnt bones. ¼ real - size.—Nafverstad, Bohuslån. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 236.—Clay urn, with three partitions (on the outside are ten - knobs), found, with fragments of a belt hook, under a stone slab. ⅔ - real size.—Himmelshöi, Bornholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 237.—Clay urn, ⅓ real size, found in a round mound, inside a - sepulchral chamber.—Stavanger, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 238.—Clay urn, ¼ real size, found in a mound.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 239.—Clay urn, ¼ real size, containing burnt bones.—Norway. - Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 240.—Clay urn, ⅓ real size, found in a mound placed over burnt - bones contained in a clay urn.—Norway. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 241.—Clay urn.—Norway. ½ real size. Skeleton grave, found with - five other clay urns, a silver fibula, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 242.—Clay urn filled with burnt bones and covered with another - vase. ¼ real size. Found in a large round tumulus—Bohuslån. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 243.—Clay urn, containing burnt bones and fragments of a bone - comb, glass beads, lever balance of spindle, &c., found, covered - with a slab, in an oblong mound. ⅓ real size. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 244.—Iron urn or kettle, 10 inches high, 12¾ inches in diameter, - and 6 inches deep.—Norway. Three other kettles of same shape and - workmanship have been found: one in a grave-mound. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 245.—Bronze cinerary urn; ⅕ real size.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 246.—Bronze kettle, ⅕ real size.—Norway. Found under a slab in - the border of a round mound. It contained burnt bones, among which - was a gold bracelet, and other objects. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 247. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 248. - - Small clay vessels found in an oblong mound at Greby, Bohuslån, found - with a clay urn filled with burnt bones, on which were fragments of - a bone comb, glass beads, &c. ½ real size. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 249.—Round clay urn, found in a mound, Greby, Bohuslån, - containing burnt bones and two melted glass beads, &c. ¼ real size. - Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 250.—Clay urn, ¼ real size, containing burnt bones, found inside - a sepulchral chamber of stone, 6 feet long, nearly 4 feet wide, and - 3 feet high, in a round tumulus.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 251.—Cinerary vase of clay, ⅕ real size, found surrounded by - burnt bones in a mound at Björkö. Later iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 252. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 253. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 254. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 255. - - Four of seven mosaic glass beads, real size.—Broholm grave. - - Of variegated colours, yellow, white, black, blue, and red, and of - different designs. Besides those represented were 26 blue glass - beads, one of which had red stripes, one red, another lilac; there - were also eight amber beads, different shapes, and a fibula of - bronze, to which was attached a coarse woven cloth, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 256. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 257. - - Iron knives, ½ real size, in an urn on the top of burnt bones without - coal and ashes.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 258. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 259.—Porcelain beads, and beads of gold and silver mixed. Real - size.—Bornholm. Earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 260.—Curved iron knife, ½ real size, and with the remains of a - large urn containing burnt bones. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 261.—Iron knife, ⅓ real size; found in a cinerary urn containing - burnt bones, two pairs of shears, a buckle, awl, and ring, all of - iron; a bronze fibula, &c.—Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -The following objects in one grave in Möllegaard will give a thorough -idea of the destruction wrought on the pyre. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 262.—Handle of iron for kettle.—Möllegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 263.—Remains of a damaged iron instrument and silver fibula - rusted together. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 264.—Silver fibula and other objects rusted together. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 265.—Iron comb, ½ real size. Möllegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 266.—Blue and light green. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 267.—Dark grey, with white eyes. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 268.—Red, with red, black, and yellow design. - - Melted glass mosaic beads, real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 269. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 270. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 271. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 272. - - Four of eleven iron ornaments, shaped like buckets. Real - size.—Möllegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 273.—Bronze vessel, 9 inches in diameter, with handle fastened - with rivets. It contained numerous articles taken from the pyre, but - rust had united them all. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 274. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 275. - - Two iron spurs in burnt spot.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 276.—Iron buckle, ⅔ real size.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 277. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 278. - - Two prismatic dice, real size, damaged by fire, the sides pointing - towards each other always counting seven; found in an urn with burnt - bones, remains of a glass cup, &c., one foot under the - ground.—Kannikegaard. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 279. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 280. - - Fragments of bone comb and iron rivet, real size, found in a cinerary - urn.—Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 281.—Spiral ring of massive gold, showing the two sides, found - near a large bronze cauldron, and fragments of the mountings of a - carriage, several iron swords, shield bosses, &c. Real - size.—Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 282.—Spiral gold ring much alloyed with silver, showing the two - sides. Real size.—Broholm. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - RUNES. - - Early knowledge of the art of writing—Knowledge of rune writing very - remote—Archaic Greek characters—Jewels with earlier runes—Runes on - memorial stones—Runic alphabets—The origin of runes—Their mystical - meaning—Memorial runic stones—Runic staves—The Runatal—Archaic - inscriptions compared with runes. - - -As the early form of writing known as runes occurs so frequently in -connection with these Northern relics, it will be well to devote a -chapter to the subject. The written records and finds in the North give -numerous examples showing that at a very early period the tribes of the -North knew the art of writing. The characters used were called “rúnir” -runes. - -The knowledge of rune writing was so remote, that it was supposed by the -people to have come with Odin, thus showing its great antiquity and -possibility of the theory that the runes were brought to the North by -the people who had migrated from the south-east, and who may have -obtained their knowledge from the Greek colonies situated on the shores -of the Black Sea or Palus Mæotis. The numerous runic inscriptions, -showing in many cases the archaic form of these characters, bear witness -to the truth of the Northern records, though it cannot be denied that -they often closely resemble the Etruscan letters. To corroborate these -records a considerable number of antiquities, the forms of which are -unknown in Italy and are similar to those of the North, have been found -in Southern Russia, and may be seen in the museums of that country. - -At what early date the art of writing runes became known in the North it -is impossible to tell. From the Roman coins found in the Nydam, Vimose, -Thorsberg, &c. finds we know that the people knew the art at the period -to which the coins belong, but this is far from proving to us that they -had just learned the art of writing; people do not learn how to write -first on objects of gold and silver; but, at any rate, we can fix a date -as early as the second or third century of the Christian era. It must be -admitted as surprising, if the Northern peoples were so advanced as to -manufacture the beautiful weapons and artistic articles found in the -graves and elsewhere, they had not also instituted a coinage of their -own. - -That the knowledge of runes did not come to the North before that of -working iron is almost certain, as no runes have been found there on the -objects belonging to the bronze age. A fact we must bear in mind is, -that in the earlier graves of the iron age, many of which are of greater -antiquity than the bog finds,[122] the objects were so thoroughly -destroyed on the pyre, that all traces of runic character upon them -would disappear. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 283.—Diadem of gold, with earlier runes inside; found in oblong - mound of sandy mould with remains of a stone coffin.—Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 284.—Silver fibula, with earlier runes,[123] richly gilt, the - zigzag and runes filled with blue niello; ⅔ real size; earlier iron - age.—Etelhem, Gotland. -] - -Besides the runes found inscribed upon jewels, weapons, coins,[124] &c., -there are others engraved on rocks and memorial stones, which are of -very great antiquity, some of which seem to be earlier than the runes of -the bog finds. - -There are two alphabets; the earlier one numbered twenty-four, the later -sixteen letters. - -[Illustration: - - Earlier Runes from the Vadstena bracteate. -] - -[Illustration: - - Later Runes. -] - -The Vadstena alphabet is divided into three sections, each containing -eight letters or characters. The earlier runes were written from the -right to the left; the later runic inscriptions are read from the left -to the right. The later runes differ considerably from the earlier ones, -from the gradual changes that took place, some falling out of use, till -only sixteen existed in later times. Their signification also changed. - -Were it not for the evidence of the finds having runic inscriptions of -the fuller runic alphabet, it would have seemed more probable that the -less developed one was the earlier; but in the face of the most -indisputable proofs of the antiquity of the fuller alphabet, such -assertions cannot be made. The only conclusion to which this leads us -therefore is, that the runic alphabet must in the course of time have -become simplified. There are runic inscriptions which contain both -earlier and later runes, but the former at last gradually disappeared. - -It seems that the custom of having alphabets on objects such as the -Vadstena bracteate existed in Greece and Etruria.[125] The earliest -graves in the Roman colonies in which there is writing are very few; -what writing there is is never in the language of the people, but always -in Latin; and nearly all, if not all such graves, are those of Christian -people. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 285.—A fibula of silver, partly gilt, with same runic letters, - with slight variations. Real size.—Charnay, Burgundy, France (of - Norse origin). -] - -The art of writing shows the advanced civilisation of the people of the -North compared with that of the other countries mentioned. The language -of Tacitus[126] is plain enough, and any other interpretation is not -correct. The assertion made that the knowledge of writing came to the -North through the present Germany is not borne out by the facts. Runic -monuments do not occur south of the river Eider, either on detached -stones or engraved on rocks. The few jewels found scattered here and -there, either in France or Germany are thoroughly Northern, and show -that in these places the people of the North made warfare, as -corroborated by the testimony of the Eddas and Sagas, as well as of -Frankish and old English and other records. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 286.—Neck-ring of gold, with runes; ½ real size; found (1838) in - a round mound.—Wallachia. -] - -Great indeed has been, and still is, the harvest of runic monuments or -objects in the North. Every year several new objects with these -characters are discovered in fields, bogs, and graves, or when old walls -or buildings are demolished. - -England, being the earliest and most important of the Northern colonies, -possesses many monuments and objects with runes; among them a large -knife, now in the British Museum, found in the bed of the Thames, the -blade of which is ornamented with gold and silver, and an inscription in -runes.[127] - -From the sagas we learn that runes were traced on staves, rods, weapons, -the stem and rudder of ships, drinking-horns, fish bones, and upon the -teeth of _Sleipnir_, &c. - -In Runatal (Odin’s Rune song), or the last part of Havamal, there is a -most interesting account of the use that could be made of runes. It -shows plainly that in earlier times they were not used by the people in -general for writing; that they were mystic, being employed for -conjurations and the like, and therefore regarded with a certain awe and -superstition; just as to-day writing is looked upon by certain savage -tribes, who cannot be made to understand how speech can be transmitted -and kept on paper for an indefinite period. - -In this song, Odin is supposed to be teaching some one, and giving -advice; he reckons up his arts thus:— - - I know that I hung - On the windy tree - Nine[128] whole nights, - Wounded with a spear, - Given to Odin, - Myself to myself; - On the tree - Of which no one knows - From what roots it comes. - - They gave me no food - Nor a horn (drink); - I peered downward, - I caught the runes, - Learned them weeping;[129] - Thence I fell down. - - Nine songs of might - I learnt from the famous - Son of Bölthorn, father of Bestla;[130] - And I got a draught - Of the precious mead, - Taken out of Odrerir.[131] - - Then I became fruitful - And wise: - I grew and I throve; - Word followed word - With me; - Act followed act - With me. - - Thou wilt find runes - And letters to read, - Very large staves, - Very strong staves, - Which the mighty wise one drew, - And the high powers made, - And the Hropt of the gods (Odin) carved. - - Odin (carved runes) among the Asar;[132] - Dain with the Alfar; - Dvalin with the Dvergar; - Alsvid (the All-wise) - With the Jötnar; - Some I carved myself. - - Better ’tis not to invoke - Than sacrifice too much; - A gift always looks for reward; - Better not to send - Than offer too much; - Thus Thund[133] carved - Before the origin of men; - He rose there; - There he came back. - - I know incantations - Which no king’s wife knows, - And no man’s son. - Help is the first one called, - And it will help thee - Against strife and sorrows, - Against all kinds of grief. - - A second I know, - Which the sons of men need, - Who would as leeches live.[134] - - The third I know, - If I am in sore need of - Bonds for my foes; - I deaden the edges[135] - Of my foes; - Neither weapons nor wiles hurt for them. - - The fourth I know, - If men lay - Bonds on my limbs; - I sing (incantations) so - That I can walk; - The fetter flies off my feet, - And the shackles off my hands. - - The fifth I know, - If I see an arrow flying, - Shot to harm in the array; - It flies not so fast - That I cannot stay it - If I get sight of it. - - The sixth I know, - If a man wounds me - With the roots of a young tree;[136] - Illness shall eat - The man - That lays spells on me, - Rather than me. - - The seventh I know, - If I see a hall burning - Round the sitting men; - It burns not so broadly - That I cannot save them; - Such an incantation can I sing. - - The eighth I know, - Which for every one is - Useful to learn; - Where hate arises - Among sons of kings - I can allay it soon. - - The ninth I know, - If I am in need - To save my ship afloat, - I hush the wind - On the waves, - And calm all the sea. - - The tenth I know, - If I see hedge-riders[137] - Playing in the air, - I cause that - They go astray - Out of their skins, - Out of their minds. - - The eleventh I know, - If I shall to battle - Lead my old friends, - I sing under the shields, - And they go with might - Safe to the fray, - Safe out of the fray, - Safe wherever they come from. - - The twelfth I know, - If I see on a tree - A halter-corpse[138] swinging; - I carve so - And draw in runes, - That the man shall walk - And talk to me. - - The thirteenth I know, - If I do on a young thegn[139] - Water sprinkle; - He will not fall - Though he go into battle; - That man sinks not by swords. - - The fourteenth I know, - If I shall reckon up - The gods for the host of men; - Asar and Alfar[140] - I know all well; - Few unwise know so much. - - The fifteenth I know, - That which Thjodreyrir[141] sang, - The Dverg, before the door of Delling;[142] - He sang strength to the Asar - And fame to the Alfar, - Wisdom to Hroptayr.[143] - - The sixteenth I know, - If of the comely maiden - I want all the heart and the love, - I change the mind - Of the white-armed woman - And turn all her heart. - - The seventeenth I know, - That the youthful maiden - Will late forsake me. - These songs - Wilt thou Loddfafnir[144] - Long have lacked, - Though they are good if thou takest them, - Useful if thou learnest them, - Profitable if thou takest them. - - I know the eighteenth, - Which I will never tell - To maiden or man’s wife, - Except to her alone - That holds me in her arms, - Or is my sister; - All is better - That one alone only knows.[145] - This is the end of the song. - - Now the song of Har is sung, - In the hall of Har; - Very useful to the sons of men, - Useless to the sons of Jötnar.[146] - - Hail to him who sang! - Hail to him who knows! - May he who has learned profit by it! - Hail to those who have listened! - - -“Atli was a great, powerful, and wise king; he had many men with him, -and took counsel with them how he should get the gold; he knew that -Gunnar and Högni were owners of so much property[147] that no man had -the like of it; he sent men to the brothers and invited them to a feast -in order to give them many gifts; Vingi was the leader of the -messengers. The queen knew of their secret talk, and suspected treachery -against her brothers. She cut runes, took a gold ring, and tied on it a -wolf’s hair; she gave this to the king’s messengers. They went as the -king had told them, and before they landed Vingi saw the runes and -changed them so that they meant that Gudrún wished them to come to Atli. -They came to the hall of Gunnar and were well received; large fires were -made before them; there they drank merrily the best drinks. Vingi said: -‘King Atli sent me hither and wanted you to visit him to get honour and -large gifts, helmets and shields, swords and coats-of-mail, gold and -good clothes, warriors and horses and large estates, and he says he -would rather let you than any others have his realm.’ Then Gunnar turned -his head and said to Högni: ‘What shall we accept of this offer? He -offers us a large realm, but I know no kings owning as much gold as we, -for we own all the gold which lay on Gnitaheath, and large skemmas -(rooms) filled with gold and the best cutting weapons and all kinds of -war-clothes; I know my horse to be the best, my sword the keenest, my -gold the most renowned.’ Högni answered: ‘I wonder at his offer, for -this he has seldom done, and it is unadvisable to go to him. I am -surprised that among the costly things which Atli sent to us I saw a -wolf’s hair tied on a gold ring, and it may be that Gudrún thinks he has -a wolf’s mind (mind of a foe) towards us, and that she wants us not to -go.’ Then Vingi showed him the runes which he said Gudrún had sent. The -men now went to sleep, while they continued drinking with some others. -Then Högni’s wife, Kostbera, a most handsome woman, went to them and -looked at the runes. She and Gunnar’s wife, Glaumvör, a very -accomplished woman, brought drink. The kings became very drunk. Vingi -saw this, and said: ‘I will not conceal that King Atli is very heavy in -his movements, and too old to defend his realm, and his sons are young -and good for nothing; he wishes to give you power over the realm while -they are so young, and he prefers you to enjoy it.’ Now Gunnar was very -drunk, and a great realm was offered to him, and he could not resist -fate; he promised to go, and told it to his brother Högni, who answered: -‘Your resolve must be carried out, and I will follow thee, but I am -unwilling to go’” (Volsunga, c. 33). - - -Runes were occasionally used as charms in cases of illness. - -Egil went on a journey to Vermaland to collect the tax from the Jarl -Arnvid, who was suspected of having slain King Hakon the Good’s men when -they went thither for this purpose. On the way he came to the house of a -bondi named Thorfinn. - - -“As Egil and Thorfinn sat and took their meal, Egil saw that a woman lay -sick on the cross-bench, and asked who she was. Thorfinn answered that -she was his daughter Helga. She had been long ill from a very wasting -sickness; she could not sleep at night, and was like one -_ham-stolen_[148] (crazy). ‘Has anything been tried for her illness?’ -said Egil. Thorfinn said: ‘Runes have been traced by the son of a bondi -in the neighbourhood, but she is far more ill since than she was before; -canst thou do anything for such an illness?’ Egil answered: ‘It may be -that it will not be worse though I take charge of it.’ When he had done -eating he went to where she lay and spoke to her. He bad that she be -taken out of bed and clean clothes put under her, which was done. Then -he examined the bed, and there found a piece of whalebone with runes on -it. He read them, cut them off, and scraped the chips into the fire; he -burned the whalebone and had her clothes carried into the open air. Then -Egil sang:— - - As man shall not trace runes - Except he can read them well, - It is thus with many a man - That the dark letters bewilder him. - - I saw on the cut whalebone - Ten hidden[149] letters carved, - That have caused to the leek-linden (woman) - A very long sorrow. - -“Egil traced runes, and placed them under the pillow in the bed where -she rested. It seemed to her as if she awoke from a sleep, and she said -she was then healed, though she had little strength. Her father and -mother were very glad” (Egil’s Saga, c. 75). - - -When persons were deaf, they communicated with others by means of runes. - - -“Thorkel told his sister Orny that the steersman had come to his house, -saying: ‘I wish, kinswoman, that thou shouldst serve[150] him during the -winter, for most other men have enough to do.’ Orny carved runes on a -wood-stick, for she could not speak, and Thorkel took it and read. The -wood-stick told this: ‘I do not like to undertake to serve the -steersman, for my mind tells me that, if I do, much evil will come of -it.’ He became angry because his sister declined, so that when she saw -it she consented to serve Ivar, and continued to do so during the -winter” (Thorstein Uxafót, Fornmanna Sögur, 110). - - -Runes traced on sticks (_kefli_), which were sometimes used, did not -offer proper security against falsification, unless personal runes were -used, which however were known only to a very limited number. - -An Icelandic settler named Gris, who had gone on a journey to Norway, -was going back to Iceland from Nidaros (Throndhjem). - - -“A woman came to him with two children, and asked him to take them with -him. He asked: ‘What have they to do there?’ She said that their uncle -Thorstein Svörf lived in the district where Gris had a bœr, and that her -name was Thorarna. Gris said: ‘I will not do that without some -evidence.’ Then she gave him from under her cloak a stick on which were -many words known to Thorstein. Gris said: ‘Thou wilt think me greedy for -property.’ She asked: ‘Ask as much as thou wilt.’ He answered: ‘Four -hundreds in very good silver, and thou must follow with the children.’ -‘It is not possible for me to follow them,’ she said, ‘but I will pay -what thou askest.’ She told him the name of the boy Klaufi, and of the -girl Sigrid. Gris added: ‘How hast thou become so wretched, thou who art -of such good kin?’ She replied: ‘I was taken in war by Snækoll Ljotsson, -who is the father of these children; after which he drove me away -against my will.’ - -“Gris had a favourable wind after he had taken these children on board, -and sailed to Iceland into the same river-mouth as usual; and as soon as -he had landed he carried away both children, so that no one knew of his -coming. That evening he went to Thorstein at Grund, who received him -very well, mostly because his son Karl had gone abroad at the time that -Gris had been abroad, and Thorstein wanted to ask about his journey. -Gris spoke little. Thorstein inquired if he was ill. Gris answered that -it was rather that he was not well pleased with his doings; ‘for I have -brought hither two children of thy sister.’ ‘How can that be?’ said -Thorstein. ‘And I will not acknowledge their relationship unattested.’ -Then Gris showed him the stick, and he recognized his words thereon, -though it was long since he spoke them. He acknowledged the children, -but paid Gris to bring up Klaufi” (Svarfdæla, c. 11). - - -“Klaufi and Gris sailed from Solskel southward along the Norwegian -coast, until they came to an islet, where lay two ships with no men on -them. They jumped on board one of the ships, and Klaufi said: ‘Tell -thou, Gris, who has steered these ships, for here are runes, which tell -it.’ Gris said he did not know. Klaufi answered: ‘Thou knowest, and must -tell.’ Gris was obliged to do so, against his will, and thus read the -runes: ‘Karl steered the ship when the runes were carved’” (Svarfdæla, -c. 14). - - -“One summer in the time of King Harald Hardradi it happened, as was -often the case, that an Icelandic ship came to Nidaros (Throndhjem). On -this ship there was a poor man who kept watch during the night. While -all slept he saw two men go secretly up to Gaularas with digging tools -and begin to dig; he saw they searched for property, and when he came on -them unawares he saw that they had dug up a chest filled with property. -He said to the one who seemed to be the leader that he wanted three -marks for keeping quiet, and some more if he should wish it. Thorfinn -assented to this, and weighed out to him three marks; when they opened -the chest a large ring and a thick necklace of gold lay uppermost. The -Icelander saw runes carved on the chest; these said that Hakon Jarl had -been the owner of this property” (Fornmanna Sögur, vi. 271). - - -One day Thurid, the old foster-mother of Thorbjörn Öngul, an enemy of -Grettir, asked to be taken down to the sea. - - -“When she came there, she found the stump of a tree with the roots on, -as large as a man could carry. She looked at the stump, and had it -turned round. On one side it looked as if it had been burned and rubbed. -On this side she had a small spot smoothed with a knife. Then she took -her knife and carved runes on it, and reddened it with her blood, -singing words of witchcraft over it. She walked backwards around the -stump, in the opposite direction to the sun’s course, and pronounced -many powerful incantations thereover. Then she had it pushed out into -the sea, and said it should be driven out to Drangey, and cause great -mischief to Grettir. When Grettir was cutting the stump for firewood -with an axe, he wounded himself severely above the knee”[151] (Gretti’s -Saga, c. 81). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 287.—Stone axe with earlier runes; ⅔ real size.—Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 288.—Earlier runic inscription discovered (1872) on a - perpendicular bluff 20 feet high and about 200 feet from the shore, - at Valsfjord, Fosen, North, Throndhjem. The runes are carved in a - perpendicular line from the bottom up. Hardly anything is left of - the letters. The Runes; 1/15 real size. -] - -The deeds of warriors were recorded on runic staves:— - -Örvar-Odd, when very old, desired to revisit the scenes of his -childhood, where a Völva had foretold him that his death would be caused -by the head of the horse Faxi, at his birthplace, Hrafnista. When he -arrived there he walked around on the farm, and his foot struck the -skull of a horse, and a viper came out of it and bit him in the leg. - - -“He suffered so much from this wound that they had to lead him down to -the shore. When he got there he said: ‘Now you must go and hew a stone -coffin for me, while some shall sit at my side and carve that song which -I will compose about my deeds and life.’ Then he began making the -song,[152] and they carved it on a tablet,[153] and the nearer the poem -drew to its end, the more the life of Odd ebbed away” (Orvar Odd’s Saga; -Fornaldar Sögur. p. 558). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 289.—Stone, with earlier runes, height over 6 feet.—Krogstad, - Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 290.—Earlier runes on granite block. About 10 feet high, 4 feet - 11 inches at widest part, and 9 inches thick.—Tanum, Bohuslän, - Sweden. -] - - -“The two brothers Jokul and Thorstein were to meet Finnbogi for a -Holmganga.[154] As he did not come, they took a post from the latter’s -farm; Jokul carved a man’s head at one end, and traced in runes an -account of what had occurred that day” (Vatnsdæla, 34). - - -The inscriptions of the earlier runes, the translation of which must be -received with extreme caution, are short, while those of a later period -are much longer. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 291.—Runic stone, showing transition between earlier and later - runes, about 4½ feet above ground; breadth, 2 feet 4 - inches.—Stentofte, Blekinge, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 292.—Part of stone block, with earlier runes.—Torvik, Norway. - Eight feet 10 inches in length by 2 feet 2 inches wide, with a - thickness of from 2⅓ to 3⅛ feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 293.—Red quartz stone, with earlier runes and warrior on - horseback. Height, 8 feet 3 inches, but only 6 feet above ground; - greatest breadth, 5 feet.—Hagby, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 294.—Granite slab of a stone coffin in a grave-mound, forming one - of the sides 1/15 real size.—Torvik, Hardanger, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 295.—Runic stone, earlier runes. Length, 7 feet 2 inches; width, - 2 feet 4 inches.—Berga, Södermanland, Sweden.[155] -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 296.—Runic stone, earlier runes. Height, over 13 feet; greatest - width, a little over 3 feet; with letters about 6 inches long; near - a dom ring.—Björktorp, Blekinge, Sweden. See p. 314 for grave. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 297.—Earlier runic stone; about 7 feet 7 inches long, and at its - broadest part 3 feet 6 inches.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 298.—Granite block with earlier and later runes (the earlier - runes in the centre). Height, 5 feet 3 inches; greatest breadth, 3 - feet; average thickness, 1 foot.—Skå-äng, Södermanland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 299.—Earlier runic stone, Sigdal, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 300.—Earlier runic stone discovered in 1880, in a ruined - grave-mound which contained a slab stone chest; one of the side - slabs bore runes, and is given here. It has probably stood on - another mound before it was put to this use.—Bergen Museum, Torvik, - Hardanger, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 301.—Tune stone (with earlier runes) of red granite; found in a - graveyard wall surrounding the church of Tune, near Moss, entrance - of Christiania fjord. Height, 6 feet 7 inches; greatest width, 2 - feet 4 inches. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 302.—Earlier runic inscription on a bluff, 11 feet above - high-water mark.—Væblungsnæs, Romsdal, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 303.—Runic stone, having the longest runic inscription known, - composed of over 760 letters. Height, 12 feet; width, 6 feet.—In the - Churchyard of Rök, Ostergötland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 304.—Marble lion, with later runic inscription. Height, 10 feet. - Now at Venice, whither it was brought from the Piræus in 1687.[156] -] - -Not only do the finds prove to us how extensive were the voyages and -journeys of the vikings, but many of the runic stones add their -testimony to these and the sagas, often mentioning journeys in distant -lands both for peaceful and warlike purposes. There are four runic -stones extant on which Knut the Great is mentioned as “Knut who went to -England”; the _Thingamenn_ or _Thingamannalid_ is mentioned on at least -two runic stones. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 305.—Later runic stone, with animal and bird.—Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 306.—Later runic stone, with animals, possibly a representation - of Fylgja at Svartsjö Castle, Lake Mälaren, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 307.—Later runic stone, with birds.—Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 308.—Stone with later runes. Height above ground, 10 feet; the - width over 5 feet.—Nysätra parish, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 309.—Later runic stone, Edssocken, Upland. “Runa rista lit - Rahnualtr huar a Kriklanti uas lisforunki.” -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 310.—Later runic stone, 7½ feet above the ground. “Sterkar and - Hiorvardr erected this stone to their father, Geiri, who dwelt west, - in Thikalid (Thingmannalid). God help his soul.”—Kålstad, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 311.—King Gorm’s stone, with later runes.—Jellinge, Jutland. - Front view. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 312.—Back view of King Gorm’s stone. -] - -The inscription on the above stone runs thus, the translation being -literal: “_Haraltr kunukr bath kaurua kubl thausi aft kurm (Gorm) fathur -sin auk aft thæurui muthur sina, sa haraltr ias sær uan tanmaurk ala auk -nuruiak auk tana ... t kristnæ_” = Harald king bade make mounds these -after Gorm, father his and after Thyra, mother his, that Harald who -swore, Denmark all and Norway and Dane ... to christianize. - -The historical mounds of King Gorm and his queen Thyra are respectively -200 and 230 feet in diameter, and about 40 feet high (see p. 183); the -burial chamber of King Gorm was of wood, 22 feet long, 4½ feet high, 8 -feet wide. In the grave were found a small silver cup, a bronze cross -covered with gold, a wooden figure representing a warrior in armour, -several metal mountings, &c. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 313.—Wooden shield with later runes.—Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 314.—Runic stone in ship-form grave, Upland. In the grave was - found a helmet, apparently made of iron-plate, with ornaments of - bronze in imitation of eyebrows; also a helmet-crest. On the helmet - were numerous representations of horsemen with spears and carrying - shields on their left arms, in front of the horses a snake, and in - front of and behind each horseman a bird flying. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 315.—Baptismal stone font.—Langhem Church, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 316.—Baptismal stone with runes and a representation of Gunnar in - the snake-pit, used as font in a church, Bohuslän. No Christian - symbol is marked upon it. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 317. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 318. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 319. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 320. - - Baptismal fonts with runic inscriptions, some apparently heathen. -] - -Two rock-tracings found at Ramsund and Gœk, on the southern shores of -Lake Mälar, province of Södermanland, Sweden, show how deeply preserved -in the memory of the people all over the North is the history of the -Volsungar as told in the earlier Edda, and the Saga of that name. To the -late Professor Carl Säve we are indebted for the discovery of these two -mementoes of the past. I here give the representation of the finer of -the two, which is engraved on granite. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 321.—Tracing of later runes illustrating the Eddaic songs and - Volsunga saga. Length, 16 feet; width, from 4 to 5 feet.—Ramsund - Rock, Södermanland, Sweden. -] - -The scene is surrounded below by sculpture, and covered with runes above -are two serpents twisted together, one without runes. Below the large -snake Sigurd on his knee pierces with his sword the body of the reptile. -In the midst between the snake the horse Grani is standing, made fast to -a tree where two birds are seen. On the left Sigurd, seated, roasts on -the fire, at the end of a stick, the heart of Fafnir. Round the fire are -deposited pincers, an anvil, bellows, and hammer; the head of the smith -(blacksmith) Regin is seen separated from the trunk. Then above is -sculptured an animal, which looks like a fox—no doubt the otter—for the -murder of which was given, as ransom, the rich treasure so fatal to -Fafnir and to all those who possessed it after him. The runic -inscription has not the slightest connection with the scene, not even -with Sigurd Fafnisbani. As Mr. Säve remarks, Sigurd or Holmger, and -perhaps both, believed that they were descended from Sigurd Fafnisbani, -the famous hero of the Volsunga. - -The tracing on the stone of Gœk, not far from the city of Strengenæs, is -about half the length of that on the Ramsund stone, but of the same -width, and is not as fine. The subject is treated in a somewhat similar -manner: the hammer is on the ground, while on the Ramsund stone it is in -the man’s hand. Above the horse Grani is a Christian cross. - -The runic inscription, here also upon a snake, surrounds the figures, -but has nothing to say about Sigurd Fafnisbani. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 322.—Oscan inscription (first three lines) on a bronze tablet in - British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 323.—Greek inscription on bronze axe from Calabria, in the - British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 324.—Archaic Greek inscription in the British Museum. -] - -From the facsimile illustrations given of Etruscan, Greek and earliest -Roman inscriptions chosen at random from the museums, the reader will be -able to judge for himself, and probably see how much more closely the -earlier runes resemble the Greek archaic and Etruscan inscriptions than -the Latin ones. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 325.—Bronze tablet, first three lines. Treaty between the Eleans - and Heræans of Arcadia; copied from “Ancient Greek Inscriptions” in - the British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - (Euphorbos.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Menelaos.) -] - -[Illustration: - - (Hector.) - - Fig. 326.—These three archaic inscriptions are found on a vase from - Camirus in Rhodes, now in the British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 327.—Etruscan inscription on a sepulchral urn in the British - Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 328.—Etruscan inscription on an urn in the British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 329.—Etruscan inscription on a sarcophagus from Toscanella, in - the British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 330.—Plaque of terra-cotta, representing Poseidon, painted. Found - near Corinth. Now in the Louvre. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 331.—Latin inscription. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 332.—Early Latin inscription: painted on a vase in British - Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 333.—Etruscan inscription, on a sarcophagus from Toscanella, in - the British Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 334.—On an Etruscan sepulchral monument in terra-cotta, British - Museum. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 335.—Bronze spear-point, with earlier runes, and svastica and - triskele stamped on it. Length 16½ inches.—Venice, island of - Torcello. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 336.—Iron spear-point, with runes and figures inlaid with silver, - discovered in a mound with burnt bones and weapons.—Müncheberg, - Mark-Brandenburg. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 337.—Iron spear-point, with runes and figures inlaid with - silver.—Volhynia, Russia. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 338.—Runic stone found at Collingham, Yorkshire. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - NORTHERN RELICS—BOG FINDS. - - Numerous Greek and Roman objects—Intentional destruction of - weapons—Thorsberg find—Coats of mail—Garments and harness—Weapons - and ornaments—The Vimose find—The sax—Bronze and iron - spurs—Carpenter’s plane—The Kragehul find—The Nydam find—Discovery - of a large oak boat—Its construction—Various weapons, tools, and - ornaments—Damascened swords. - - -Before passing on to other parts of our wide subject, let us examine -somewhat more minutely and in detail the various classes of remarkable -objects which have been found in the lands of the old Norsemen, -belonging to the earlier iron age. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 339.—Shield boss of bronze with Latin inscription AELAELIANVS. ⅕ - real size.—Thorsbjerg find. -] - -The bog finds[157] are very important, and throw additional light on the -earlier history of the people. From them we are able to see how people -were dressed, and to learn about their riding equipment, agricultural -implements, cooking utensils, household vessels, waggons, tools, and -offensive and defensive weapons; from one of these also we were first -made acquainted with their sea-vessels. Many of the objects appear to be -of Greek or Roman origin, and Roman coins are found, so that we can -approximate closely the date when the objects were in use, and -consequently the taste and manner of living of the period. - -We can dress a warrior from head to foot, and wonder at his costly and -magnificent equipment, and his superb and well-finished weapons, and can -realise how magnificent must have been some of his riding and driving -vehicles. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 340.—Bronze breast-plate, covered with gold and - silver.—Thorsbjerg find. -] - -All these antiquarian bog-finds are within very easy access of the sea, -varying in depth beneath the surface of the earth—in the Thorsbjerg bog, -10–14 feet; in the Nydam, 5–7 feet; the Vimose, 4–5 feet. Those of -Denmark have proved far richer than those of the present Sweden, Norway, -and the countries situated on the eastern and southern shores of the -Baltic. In numerous instances the objects are unique, and many present a -great similarity to those found in the skeleton graves, such as swords -with Roman characters upon them, fragments of wooden buckets, checkers, -dice, &c. - -Here also, as in the graves where the bodies were burnt, we find objects -intentionally damaged. This bending, twisting, and hacking of weapons -seems to have been a religious custom. The spear-handles, scabbards, -bows, arrow-shafts, and shields are often broken into fragments, or -rolled together in inextricable knots. Ringed coats of mail and garments -are torn to pieces, which afterwards were wrapped carefully together; -and the skulls and skeletons of horses are cleft in many places. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 341.—Fragments of silver shield boss, with gilt - ornaments.—Thorsbjerg find. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 342.—Silver helmet.—Thorsbjerg find. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 343.—Bronze serpent: probably ornament to helmet.—Thorsbjerg - find. -] - -These masses of objects seem to imply that they were either the spoils -and remains of great fights between different chieftains, or offers to -the gods thrown into sacred springs. In this latter case the finds must -be the produce of a long series of years, and have been given to the -gods at different times, the destruction, instead of taking place on the -pyre, having taken place on the water. - -This destruction was not apparently peculiar to the inhabitants of the -North, for Cæsar relates of the Gauls, that when they went into battle -they made a vow to consecrate the booty to the god of war. After the -victory the captured animals were sacrificed, and the rest of the booty -was brought together into one spot. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 344.—Bronze buckle inlaid with gold and silver, for ring armour; - the back shows how the rings were attached. ⅔ real size.—Thorsbjerg - Bog-find. -] - -[Illustration: - - Reverse. -] - -The narrative of Crosius offers the most striking similarity between -this custom and that of the Cimbrians and Teutons, who, when coming from -the North after their victory over the Romans at Arausia (near the river -Rhone), in the year 105 before Christ, sacrificed the whole of the -booty. He relates:— - - -“When the enemies had taken possession of two camps and an immense -booty, they destroyed under new and strange imprecations all that had -fallen into their hands. The clothes were torn and thrown away, gold and -silver thrown into the river, the ring armour of the men cut to pieces, -the accoutrements of the horses destroyed, the horses themselves thrown -into the water, and the men with ropes around their necks suspended to -the trees, so that there was no more booty for the victors than there -was mercy for the conquered.” - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 345.—Bronze plate, covered with gold and silver, belonging to - ring armour.—Thorsbjerg find. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 346. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 347. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 348. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 349. - - Figures, made of thin silver plates, belonging to bronze plate. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 350.—Fragment of ring armour. Real size. -] - -One might suppose that Orosius has here described the feast of victory -at Nydam or Thorsbjerg. - -If any proofs were needed to show that the objects were intentionally -placed in the water, we have them in the fact that several clay vessels -have been sunk by heavy stones being put in them, and that other objects -were fastened to the bottom by means of large wooden hooks. Finally, we -ought to add, the space within which the antiquities were found was in -several places marked off by fence-like wicker hurdles of twigs, or by -poles, spears or swords, stuck into the mud. - - -_The Thorsbjerg[158] Bog-find._—The researches in this find cover a -period of six years, from 1856 to 1862, and is one of the most -remarkable, for here were brought to light objects unknown in other -similar finds. From the coins[159] enumerated below, we must come to the -conclusion that many of the objects found belong to the second century -of our era. Among the most remarkable antiquities of warfare are the -superb coats of mail found in the North, and the skill displayed in -making war accoutrements at such an early period shows an advanced state -of civilisation. These coats of mail (which are also found in graves) -are a network of rings each of which is run through four others. In -their workmanship they vary:—in some the rings are clinched; in others -only every other ring is riveted, the alternate ones being welded -together, so that each clinched ring grasps four welded ones, and each -welded ring grasps four riveted. - - THORSBJERG FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 351.—Trousers of woven woollen cloth.[160] Length 45 inches. - Width round waist 38½ inches. On the waistband were several small - loops which probably held the waistbelt. The socks which are sewn to - the trousers are of the same pattern as that of the sleeves of the - shirt, but the squares are smaller. 1/18 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 352. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 353. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 354. - - Fragments of woollen cloak, with border. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 355.—Woollen shirt or blouse 33½ inches long, 20 inches wide, - with wristbands of a stronger cloth and a lighter colour than the - shirt, which is brownish red. Both sleeves are of a stronger cloth - than that of the body of the shirt. 1/20 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 356.—Woven border at bottom of the shirt. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 357.—Pattern of the body of the shirt. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 358.—Horse head-gear of leather. The heads of the bronze rivets - resembling rosettes are covered with ornamented silver plates: the - bridle and other mountings are of bronze. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 359.—Flat round wooden shield, made of planed boards of different - widths. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 360.—Wooden sword-hilt with bronze nails, the middle surrounded - with braided bronze thread. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 361.—Fibula of bronze with engraved ornament. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 362.—A pendant of gold. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 363.—Amber die, rounded so as not to stand on the number. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 364.—Remains of leather shoe. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 365.—Rake of wood with teeth, about nine inches long. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 366.—Ornament of bronze for scabbard. Heads of rivets plated with - silver. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 367.—Rein, made of three pieces of leather, with bronze ring. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 368.—Leather sandal in one piece, for left foot. ⅓ real size. - Fastened over the foot with narrow straps and buttons. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 369.—Shoulder clasp of bronze for ring armour, inlaid with gold - and silver. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 370.—Fragment of a sandal with silver-plated rivets. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 371.—Ornament of bronze for wooden scabbard, with inscription in - earlier runes. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 372.—Bronze ornamentation for scabbard, plated with silver and - gold. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 373.—Scabbard of wood, with bronze mounting. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 374.—Embossed mounting of a scabbard strap, silver-plated, the - whole centre inlaid with a thin gold plate. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 375.—A bridle of bronze, the end-piece plated with silver and - gold. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 376.—Silver-plated bronze buckle. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 377.—Bronze mounting on horses’ head-gear, apparently plated. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 378.—Shield boss with silver top. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 379.—Mountings to leather straps with svastica and gilt knobs. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 380.—Bronze and silver-plated mounting for leather used on - horses’ head-gear. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 381. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 382. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 383. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 384. - - Iron axe-heads. ⅓ real size. -] - - -_Vimose Bog Find._—The explorations in the Vimose bog,[161] situated -about five miles from Odense, Fyen, commenced in 1848, and since that -time 3,600 objects have been gathered together, all of which were found -in a space of 9,000 square feet. Sometimes there seemed to be a certain -order in the way in which the articles had been sunk, for all the ring -armour was together, and a number of small articles had been placed -inside a shield-boss, while other articles were surrounded with broad -bands of cloth. Many of the objects here were also badly damaged. Only -one coin has been found, _i.e._ a silver denarius of the time of the -Empress Faustina Junior (d. 175), with “Pudicitia” on its reverse. The -number of single and double-edged swords, many of which are in tolerably -good preservation, is 67. The single-edged swords, between 15¾ and 24 -inches long, are simply welded, sometimes having ornaments traced on the -blade, and several of these were still in their wooden scabbards when -found. The double-edged swords vary in size from about 19 or 20 inches, -to 35 or 36 inches. On several are factory stamps—a star-shaped sign on -one side of the blade near the tongue or hilt point, and a ring-shaped -figure on the sides of the hilt points, a mark which looks rather like a -scorpion; in one stamp are Latin letters, which are somewhat difficult -to decipher. Many are welded or forged from two united blades, while -others are made of a single blade and have no factory mark. Fourteen are -damascened in different patterns. - - VIMOSE FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 385.—One of four bronze buckles, enamelled in red, green, and - blue, the inside borders of black mosaic enamel. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 386.—Sax, or single-edged sword. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 387.—Damascened sax. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 388.—Bent sax, or single-edged sword. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 389.—Single-edged sax or iron sword. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 390. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 391. - - Sax, or single-edged swords, one in wooden scabbard. ¼ real size. -] - -In this remarkable find several enamelled objects have been discovered. -This art appears to have been unknown to the nations of classical -antiquity. There is no word for it in Greek or Latin. Philostratus,[162] -when describing a wild boar hunt, mentions the beauty and fine colour of -the harness of the horses, and, when stating how these colours were -produced, mentions that they were made by the barbarians living on the -shores of the ocean. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 392.—Griffon’s head, ornament belonging to helmet of bronze. Real - size. -] - -This description may very well refer to the people of the North, the -great splendour of whose riding gear and chariots we see from the finds -and sagas. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 393.—Fragments of ring-armour of hammered iron. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 394.—Bronze mounting, plated with gold silver, and belonging to - ring-armour. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 395.—Remains of ring-armour of iron, with traces of gold plating. - ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 396. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 397. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 398. - - Spurs, one of bronze, with iron point; the others of iron. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 399.—Wheel. 1/20 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 400.—Man’s head on a piece of bronze covered with a thin gold - plate. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 401.—Ferrule of silver for hilt plated with gold. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 402.—Parts of a wooden plane. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 403.—Shoulder-strap of leather, with bronze button and design of - dolphin. About ⅐ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 404.—Silver ornament plated with gold. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 405.—Fragment of wooden shield with gilt-headed nails. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 406.—Silver-plated bronze ornament. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 407.—Silver mounting to scabbard. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 408.—Silver mounting for scabbard. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 409.—One of 1,000 spears, inlaid with concentric circles. ⅓ real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 410.—One of 1,000 spears. ⅓ real size. -] - -Over 1,000 spears were found; the handles of most of them were broken -off, but five have been preserved complete; these are 8 feet 7⅔ inches -long, 9 feet 2 inches long 9 feet long, 11 feet long, and 6½ feet long. -The handles are made of ash, and some spears are ornamented with threads -of gold, silver or bronze inlaid in concentric circles; sometimes -ornaments are traced up the middle of the blade, and originally these -also were filled with some kind of metal. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 411.—Crocodile’s head carved in wood. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 412.—Brynja, or coat of mail, 3 feet long. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 413.—Bone comb with _svastica_. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 414.—Fragments of checker-board. ⅙ real size. - - VIMOSE FIND. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 415.—Bronze enamelled bowl (1867), 2¾ in. high, 4¾ in. wide, in - bog at Maltbœk, Jutland. The enamel in the serpentine line is red. -] - - -_Kragehul Find._—In a small bog called Kragehul, situated near the city -of Assens on Fyen, objects have been found which seem to belong to the -4th or 5th century. The first mention of the Kragehul bog is in 1751, -when some articles with rune inscriptions were found, which, -unfortunately, have been lost, but it was not until 1864 that a regular -exploration took place.[163] - - KRAGEHUL FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 416.—Bundle of bent weapons. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 417.—Bronze vessel destroyed by sword cuts. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 418. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 419. - - Iron spears with ornaments carved on the wooden handles. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 420.—Spear, ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 421.—Spear, ⅓ real size. -] - -The antiquities, none of which are of Roman origin, seem to have been -thrown in without any order, but spears with thin iron points on the end -formed the boundary of the find. - -In this as in the other bog finds, weapons are twisted together in -extraordinary knots and many objects destroyed. - - -_The Nydam Bog Find._—The remarkable bog find at Nydam[164] is extremely -valuable on account of the boat, and the discovery of Roman coins -enables us to approximate the date of the objects,[165] which is -probably about the years 250 and 300 of our era. - -The Nydam oak boat was discovered in 1863 near Slesvig, in Southern -Jutland. Its length is about 75 feet; its widest part, about 10½ feet. -It held 14 benches, and was rowed with 28 oars, the average length of -which was 12 feet. By its side was the rudder, about 10 feet long. - -The bottom plank, which is not a keel proper, is 45 feet 3 inches long, -and of a single piece. The oar-tholes are fastened to the gunwales with -bast ropes, and, though they have all one general shape, there are no -two alike. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 422. -] - -The boat is clinch-built; that is, the planks are held together by large -iron bolts with round heads outside, and clinch plates on the inside, at -a distance of 5½ inches from each other. The space between the planks is -filled with woollen stuff and a pitchy sticky mass. The boards are -joined in a very common manner to the frame with bast ropes. In the -frame are holes, which correspond to elevated pieces on the boards which -are also bored through; these pieces had not been nailed to the planks, -but were hewn out of the latter, which thereby had lost more than half -their thickness. Vessels by this peculiar manner of joining frame and -boards acquired great elasticity, which must have been of good service -in the surf and in a heavy sea. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 423.—Oar-thole of red pine. ⅒ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 424.—Oar-thole of the Nydam Boat. ⅐ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 425.—Inside view of one of the stems of the Nydam boat. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 426.—Rib of boat, showing seat attached. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 427.—Wooden pegs fastening stem to bottom plank. 1/17 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 428.—Showing how the boards joined the ribs. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 429.—End face view of oar-thole. ⅒ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 430.—Rudder, 10 feet long, found alongside Nydam boat. -] - -The boat was shaped alike both fore and aft, so that it could be rowed -in either direction; and in both stems, which are fastened to the bottom -plank, are two holes through which, judging from the manner in which -they are worn, ropes were probably drawn, by which to drag the boat -ashore at the beginning of winter. In the bottom there is a hole, which -probably after the ship had been drawn up served to give outlet to the -water collected in the boat. - -The boat had undoubtedly been intentionally sunk, for in the planks -under the water-line had been cut large holes to let in the water. Rust -had destroyed the ends of the iron bolts which had held the planks -together, and also the ropes with which the boards and the frame had -been held together. The planks fell apart, therefore, and took their -original straight shape; the oar-tholes were loosened from the gunwale; -the frame fell on different sides, and the two high stems fell down. As -the joints loosened, the separate pieces sank to the bottom, and -remained lying at about an equal depth, while the turf grew up above -them and preserved them from destruction. After all the parts of the -boat had been carefully collected and dried, it was possible to restore -it to its original shape. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 431.—Wooden scoop for baling water. ⅑ real size. -] - -Another boat of red pine wood was discovered alongside it. This one was -laid on the field and covered with bog mould, until the work connected -with the other boat was finished. Unfortunately the war of 1864 put an -end to the examination of the Nydam bog, so that the boat was left lying -on the field, and strangers have carried off many pieces of it. The -bottom plank was about 50 feet long, 13 inches broad, and ends in two -spurs or rams. How high the prows were raised above the plank cannot be -stated. Since this date the diggings have been done by inexperienced -men, and consequently have given but little results. This sacred part of -the land of the Danes had passed into the hands of its German -conquerors, for the _Nornir_[166] are fickle, and what is fated to one -generation to accomplish is often, in the course of time, undone by -another. - - NYDAM BOG FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 432.—The end of the bottom plank of a vessel of red pine, with a - ram at each end, from Nydam Bog-find. The pointed lines show how the - spurs protruded from the stem. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 433. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 434. - - Fragments wooden scabbard with bronze mountings. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 435.—A throwing spear with line attached, length of spear 10 - feet. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 436.—Spear-head. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 437.—Leaf-shaped spear-point ornamented with engraved lines. ⅓ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 438.—Iron axes. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 439.—Iron celt. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 440.—Tweezer and earpick of bronze hanging on a bronze ring. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 441.—Wooden club. ⅛ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 442.—Black glass bead. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 443.—Light-green glass bead, with yellow points on a dark-red - ground. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 444.—Green glass bead with red stripes. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 445.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 446.—½ real size. - - Buckles. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 447.—Silver tweezers. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 448.—Silver ear spoon. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 449.—Iron knife with wooden handle. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 450.—Double-barrelled tube of silver found with ear pick. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 451. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 452. - - Wooden bows, with notches at the end for fastening the string. 1/11 - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 453.—Part of a wooden bow. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 454.—Part of arrow-shaft bearing runic stave. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 455.—Arrow-shaft. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 456.—Arrow-shaft with owner’s mark. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 457.—Arrow-point of iron. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 458. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 459. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 460. - - Bronze mountings for a quiver. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 461.—¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 462.—½ real size. - - Fragments of wooden scabbards with bronze mountings. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 463.—Wooden quiver. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 464.—Bearded spear-head, bent and twisted. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 465. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 466. - - Bearded spear-points of iron. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 467.—Iron spear-point, bayonet shaped. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 468. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 469. - - Iron spear-points. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 470.—Leaf shaped iron spear-point. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 471.—Iron sword, damascened, bearing Latin inscription. ⅔ real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 472.—Iron sword bearing Latin inscription. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 473.—Iron sword bearing Latin inscription. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 474.—Part of sword blade with runes inlaid with gold. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 475. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 476. - - Damascened blades. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 477.—Wooden bowl. ⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 478. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 479. - - Iron ferrules to scabbard, inlaid with flat hammered gold wire. ½ real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 480.—Wooden trough. ⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 481. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 482.—Ornaments of bronze plated with thin silver and gold. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 483.—Bit of bronze. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 484.—Bit of iron. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 485.—Double-edged damascened sword with silver handle. ⅕ real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 486.—Double-edged damascened sword. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 487.—Spiral bracelet of gold with triangular ornaments, ½ real - size, found in a bog near Horsens, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 488. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 489. - - Damascened iron sword, ¼ real size, of the later iron age, with - mounting for scabbard, made of silver, in relief work and gilt. - Found in a bog near Slagelse on Zealand, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 490.—Iron sword, with bronze handle, ⅙ real size, found in a bog - at Fremlöse, not far from the town of Odense, on Fyen, with - fragments of two other iron swords, &c. Earlier iron age. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - NORTHERN RELICS—GROUND FINDS. - - The custom of hiding objects—Discovery of numerous golden objects - near the surface—Necklaces of gold—Golden horns discovered at - Mögletönder—The Bangstrup find. - - -The objects found in the earth, and classified under the name of _ground -finds_, are often not only very valuable but also very beautiful; in -many instances they are of the same type and period as those of the bogs -and graves. The custom of intentionally hiding objects which existed in -the stone and bronze age lasted until the end of the Viking age, and one -of the finest archæological fields in the whole of Scandinavia is that -of Broholm, situated on the island of Fyen. These finds are divided into -three principal groups, viz.:—Lundeborg, Gudme, and Elsehoved. Almost -all the objects were so near the surface of the soil that they were -discovered either when ploughing, or digging with a spade. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 491.—Denarius; Trajan (98–117). Broholm. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 492.—Fibula of bronze. Broholm. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 493.—Solidus: temp. Constantine II. (337–61), found near - Hesselagergaard, Broholm, 1875. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 494.—Largest Neck-ring, Broholm. Heaviest rings, weight 3 lbs., 1 - lb. 14½ oz., 1 lb. 2½ oz.; ½ real size. Among other objects - discovered with this neck-ring were three other neck-rings, one - weighing about 2 lbs. 2 ozs., another 1½ lb.; six pieces of massive - gold belonging to neck-rings; six spiral gold rings; a spiral - finger-ring of gold; bent gold bars probably used as money; and - bracteates. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 495.—Roll of flat gold band. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 496.—Gold bead. Real size. Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 497.—Gold band. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 498.—Solidus: temp. Constantine II. Broholm. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 499.—Gold Neck-ring, from Hesselagergaard, Broholm. ⅗ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 500.—Fibula of gold. Broholm. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Reverse of Fig. 500. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 501.—Hollow gold object, ornamented with cornelians, found at - Lundeberg, Broholm. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 502.—Gold Mounting for sword scabbard. Real size. Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Reverse of Fig. 502. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 503. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 504. - - Gold bracteates. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 505.—Mosaic bead. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 506.—Gold bracteate, showing fibula on the neck. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 507.—Gold ring used as money. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 508.—Gold spiral ring. Elsehoved, Broholm. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 509.—Fibula of copper covered with gold, and ornamented with - garnets, one of which remains intact; a bird will be seen at the - bottom. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 510.—Roman coins of the 5th century, forming part of a necklace, - with a string of gold beads (Valentinianus, 425–455; Julius - Majorianus, 457–461; two Leo I., 457–474; Zeno, 474–491; two - Anastasius, 491–515). -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 511.—Gold rings used as money. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 512.—Ring of gold. Real size. -] - -Among the finest and most valuable objects found in the North were the -two superb golden horns discovered at Mögeltönder on the peninsula of -Jutland, which were once the pride of the great Museum of Northern -Antiquities in Copenhagen. - -They were without equals in any part of the world; their exterior was -made of different bands of gold, with figures in repoussé work, fastened -to the harder gold of the body of the horn. Both were stolen from the -old Danish Museum on the 4th of May, 1802, and the ignorant thief melted -them; thus those two superb specimens were for ever lost to science, and -with an unfortunate fatality the cast of each has also been lost; but -luckily the drawings made can be relied on. The thief was captured a -year after, and his punishment was not adequate to the crime he had -committed. - -The representations given upon them must have had a meaning; these were -symbolical, and were probably very significant and not used for mere -ornamentation; what the figures and symbolical signs meant is impossible -for us to tell. Among the most remarkable of the former is the -three-headed man, holding in one hand what appears to be an axe, while -with the other he leads some kind of horned animal. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 513.—Golden horn discovered at Mögeltönder, 1639, with thirteen - broad rings round it. Length, 2 feet 9 inches; weight over 7 lbs. - - ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 514.—Golden horn discovered at Mögeltönder, 1734. The exact - length of this horn, which had round its broadest end an inscription - in earlier runes, has not been stated, but, judging from a - _facsimile_ in silver gilt made by command of Frederick VII. from - the old drawing, and presented by him to the old Northern Museum, it - must have been over 20 inches long. Though the lower part was broken - off and lost, it still weighed more than 8 lbs. - - ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 515.—Inscription in earlier runes on horn. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 516.—Facsimile of each ring of the damaged horn (Fig. 514). -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 517.—Facsimile of the rings of the perfect horn (Fig. 513). -] - - -_Bangstrup Find (Fyen)._—Conspicuous among many remarkable finds is the -Bangstrup find (Fyen, 1865), in which rings of gold used as money, -ornaments of peculiar shape, and 46 gold Roman coins, which were pierced -or had a loop attached to the top, were discovered. The coins, ranging -from the time of Trajanus Decius (249–251) to that of Constantine II. -(337–351), give an approximate idea of the time of the deposit of the -find; for, while most of the earlier coins are well worn, the later ones -are very well preserved and the coinage is very sharp and clear, thus -indicating that they cannot have been long in circulation. As the dates -of these later coins are about 340–350, the find cannot have been buried -much later than that time. - -[Illustration: - - 307–323. - - Fig. 518. - - IMP. LICINIVS. P. F. AVG. - ORIENS AVGVSTORVM. -] - -[Illustration: - - 306–337. - - Fig. 519. - - CONSTANTINVS PFAVG. - VICTORIA. CONSTANTINI. AVG. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 520.—Gold coin. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 521.—Crescent-shaped pendant of gold. -] - -The crescent-shaped ornaments have, so far as is known, never been found -elsewhere in the North; but in the Ukraine similar ones have been -discovered, and are described in the work “Account of the Mounds, &c., -of the Government of Kiew,” by Privy Councillor J. Foundoukleï, Kief, -1848. - - BANGSTRUP FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 522.—Crescent-shaped pendant of gold. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 523.—Crescent of gold pendant-shaped: representing two lions - drinking out of a cup. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 524.—Leaf-shaped pendant of thin sheet gold. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 525.—Leaf-shaped pendant, sheet gold. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 526.—Rectangular pendant of sheet gold, with embossed human - figure. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 527.—Semi-spherical gold ornamentation of unknown use. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - DESCRIPTION OF SOME REMARKABLE GRAVES AND THEIR CONTENTS. - - Sepulchral chambers containing skeletons—The objects in these graves - not destroyed—Numerous Roman and Greek objects—The Vallöby - grave—The Bavenhöi grave—The Varpelev graveyard. - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 528.—Mound, about 13 feet above the ground, showing sepulchral - chamber five feet below the surface. The body had been placed upon - woollen pillows filled with down. Six oak logs supported the side - planks forming the sepulchral chamber, which had an oak floor. The - space between the timbers had been filled with tresses of wool and - other hair of animals. The chamber had been carefully covered with - clay.—Bjerring, near Viborg, Northern Jutland. -] - -To return to the subject of graves, we will now speak of the sepulchral -chambers containing skeletons. They generally vary in size, from the -length of a man upwards, being about four feet wide and two or three -feet high. Sometimes the corpse had been laid upon woollen stuff, -cattle-hair, or birch-bark, the head turned southwards, and the feet -towards the north. The inside lining is often of planks, between which -and the outer stone wall bark has been placed, the seams between the -timber being filled with pitch. Above the burial-chamber, which was -sometimes below the level of the ground, a mound or cairn was often -raised. - -The objects found in these graves have not been destroyed, and the -weapons, which are few, have not been made useless. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 529.—Burial Chamber, Nörrevingstrup, near Hjörring, Jutland. - Inside measurement—height, 4 feet; length, 5½ feet; breadth, 3½ - feet. -] - -In the graves containing skeletons are found costly silver and glass -cups, pottery, wooden pails with metal mountings, drinking-horns or -their fragments; gold, silver, bronze, or silver-gilt jewelry; great -masses of glass, amber, gold and mosaic beads; metal mirrors (these are -scarce), bone combs, riding and driving harness, &c. The damaged weapons -are often richly ornamented, and of exquisite workmanship. - -A remarkable fact is the number of unmistakable Roman and Greek objects, -and sometimes coins, which occur in the finds. In the graves of women -the objects chiefly found are pins, needles, buttons, jewels, ornaments, -combs, knives, &c. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 530.—Vallöby Grave; showing the natural eminence, with - arrangement of stones, cist, and mound. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 531.—Horizontal view; showing how the objects were placed. Coffin - proper, 9 feet long, 2 feet deep. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 532.—Bird’s-eye view of grave, seen from above. Length of outer - inclosure between 11 and 12 feet; height about 2 feet; width about - 2½ feet. -] - -_Vallöby Grave._—The antiquities in this grave plainly show two -civilisations: the Roman or Greek, as represented by the bronze vessels; -and the Northern, by the silver cups and black clay vessels, &c., &c. - -The grave was made with especial care, and was sunk about six feet below -the natural surface of the bank; the stone inclosure was built of -rounded stones, of the size of a man’s fist, placed together with great -regularity.[167] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 533.—Samian Clay Bowl. Hunting scenes in bas-relief. Inscription - (“Cos. L. Viri—”) partially defaced. ⅖ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 534.—One of two flat bronze bowls. In the earth above were two - small silver knobs, one covering the other, the use of which is - unknown. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 535.—Fluted bowl of bronze. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 536.—⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 537.—⅖ real size. - - Fragments of bronze kettle. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 538.—Kettle handle. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 539.—Side view. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 540.—Front view. - - Handle of kettle. ⅖ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 541.—Bottom of bronze kettle. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 542.—Side view of bottom of kettle. ⅕ real size. -] - - -_Bavenhöi Grave Find_—At Bavenhöi, in Himlingöi, Zeeland, is a large -bank of gravel, of slight elevation, only about 200 to 230 feet in -length. This had evidently been used as a common cemetery, as the bodies -were found deposited in the earth without a coffin, though partly -surrounded by stone settings. The antiquities found at various times -with the skeletons seem to belong to the latter part, or perhaps the -middle, of the early iron age. - - BAVENHÖI GRAVE FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 543.—Bronze vase. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 544.—Border of silver goblet; plaqué with gold and ornamented - with figures in relief—viz., a double head with moustaches and - helmets; a helmeted man crouching, with a dagger in his hand; two - quadrupeds with manes; a horned animal; and three birds. Between the - figures are dots, circles, and crosses. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 545.—Silver cup. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 546.—Silver goblet, with repoussé work of silver plated with - gold; similar to the Vallöby one. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 547.—Flat basin or stewpan of bronze, containing two goblets of - silver, &c. ⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 548.—Bronze pail. ⅙ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 549.—Bronze vase, ¼ real size, with border upon which are - engraved hunting scenes, a lion, two horses, a tiger or leopard, and - two bucks, a dog and two deer; these animals are separated by trees - and plants, the leaves of which, to judge from some traces, must - have been silvered over. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 550.—Part of the design round the border of vase, representing - hunting scene. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 551.—Bronze fibula covered with gold, with an inscription - scratched in earlier runes. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 552.—Bronze fibula plated with embossed gold ornamented with 3 - blue glass knobs and an oval piece of glass of the same colour. ⅔ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 553.—Fibula from Storeheddinge, Zeeland, showing the part missing - in the one above. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 554.—Gold ring of three spirals flattened and ornamented with - heads of animals, found still adhering to the bone of the hand. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 555.—Ground plan of the Graveyard at Varpelev. -] - -At Varpelev, Zeeland, a grave was found covered by several slabs; it is -nearly 4 yards long, 1¾ yard broad, the bottom being about 3 yards under -the surface of the earth. Within lay the skeleton of a full-grown man, -with its head to the S.S.W., and its feet to the N.N.E.; alongside of it -were numerous objects, the most interesting of which are those of -glass.[168] - -The graveyard at Varpelev is a low bank 200 feet long, 125 feet wide. -The bodies were laid down, generally, in a bent position in the sand or -gravel, in their clothes or grave-dress, but without a coffin. Old and -young men, women and children lay buried here, and one corpse bears the -mark of a heavy sword-cut. In the centre of this skeleton graveyard -stood a single clay urn, containing burnt bones. At one place there was -a bed made of paved stones burnt and smoked, which had evidently been -used as a pyre. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 556. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 557. - - Grave at Varpelev. -] - -The richest grave was situated under the highest point of the bank, at a -depth of 9 feet under the surface; it was made in the gravel, and was -surrounded by sixteen rough stones of different size and shape. The -majority were 2 feet in diameter; the large stone at the head measured 3 -feet in length and width, and was 2 feet thick. The interstices were -filled up with blue clay. A large slab, 2 feet long, 1½ feet broad, and -8 inches thick, was laid on the head, which like the rest of the bones -was much decomposed, and proved to be that of a heavy-built man. The -corpse lay on its back, nearly straight, with its head to the -south-west; it had originally had over it some kind of covering, as -there are remains of clothes or a grave-dress. - - VARPELEV GRAVE FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 558.—Skull (with sword-cut?). Varpelev Grave. 2/9 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 559.—Skeleton of man; above the head two large stones. Varpelev. - 1877. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 560.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 561.—Real size. - - Two silver buckles: one found near the middle of the corpse, one near - the head. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 562.—Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 563.—Real size. - - Gold rings found on finger bones. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 564. Fig. 565. - - Roman Coin of Probus, 276–82; found lying by right ear of corpse. Real - size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 566.—Fragment of thin ornamented silver plating, probably the - mounting of a drinking-horn. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 567.—Fibula of silver, _svastica_ shape, plated with gold, with - amber knob in the centre; beautiful small birds may be noticed on - each arm; found in a woman’s grave. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 568.—Hair-pin of gold, top ornamented with garnet; found in a - woman’s grave. ⅔ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 569.—Skeleton of woman. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 570.—Skeleton lying on its left side, with an iron knife near the - hands. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 571. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 572. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 573. - - Skull, seen from three sides. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES IN THE NORTH. - - Similar antiquities in the North and in Southern Russia—Roman - coins—The trade of Gotland in earlier times—Ornaments and other - objects of bronze. - - -Among the archæological wealth of the North still belonging to the -earlier, but not earliest, iron age, we find a class of graves and -antiquities which are of special importance, for they help us to fix -very closely a date for the period to which they belong, and for this -light we are indebted to Roman coins and other objects, both Roman and -Greek, which these graves contain. - -Many of the finds of this period are most interesting, as showing the -taste of the people in the North, and a wealth and civilisation of which -we were not aware. They are the more valuable because we see from them -the wide extent of the maritime expeditions and overland trading -journeys of the people towards the beginning of the Christian era. They -show, as has already been pointed out, the intercourse which the people -of the North had with those of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and -also with the newly-acquired north-western provinces of the Roman empire -(Gaul, Britain, and Frisia). But, what is still more important, they -help to prove the general truthfulness of the earlier Edda and Sagas, -for they show that the Asar, or whoever the emigrants were, who came -north, and who were said to have brought their civilisation with them -and to have given it to the people there, were either related to or on -intimate relations with the people who inhabited the shores of the Black -Sea; for many of the antiquities which were claimed to be of a peculiar -northern origin are identical with those found there; while similar -ornaments of unmistakable Greek origin are found in both regions. To -complete the chain of proof, many of the antiquities, both in the -Museums of Kief and Smolensk, are similar to those of the North. - -Many of the forms of the antiquities, such as neck-rings and gold -snake-shaped bracelets, fibulæ, &c., which were thought to belong -exclusively to the North, are found in great number in the graves of -Kertch, in Southern Russia, where they lie almost side by side with the -exquisite Grecian antiquities—the pride of the Hermitage Museum in St. -Petersburg—mementoes of the colonies established by Greece on the shores -of the Black Sea. They show that at that period there were two distinct -civilisations and peoples living near each other—one Greek, the other -native. The natives were probably of the same stock as a great number of -the people of the North. - -Western and Eastern, Roman and Byzantine, coins have been found; the -gold solidi were for the most part used by the people in the North as -ornaments, for loops have been attached to or holes made through them. -The two largest discoveries hitherto made of Roman coins are those of -Hagestaborg, in Scania, southern Sweden (550 denarii), found in 1871, -and of Sindarfe (Hemse parish), Gotland, at which latter spot about -1,500 Roman coins were found, in 1870, in a clay urn.[169] Few coins -dating before the Christian era have been found. - -The people had to learn that these coins had an intrinsic value, and -that with them they could buy goods. In every country where barter takes -place it has taken a certain, sometimes a great, number of years for the -people to learn this value.[170] The fact that the earlier coins are -rare does not conclusively prove that intercourse between the North and -the Western parts of Europe had not taken place before that time. - -Judging from the extensive hoards of coins discovered, it is not -improbable that they were kept for some opportune time when their need -would be required, such as for purchases when travelling back to the -Western or Eastern Roman provinces. That the people were well acquainted -with the value of these coins is beyond dispute, for otherwise they -would not have kept them. - -We must remember that human nature is and always has been the same; -there were misers in those early days as there are now. The Sagas give -us some examples of the practice of hoarding, and the probability is -that some of the hoards found may have been collected during the -lifetime of one or more persons. But the numbers found, in hoards or -otherwise, even without those which remain undiscovered, show the -existence of commercial intercourse. - -One of the countries of whose earlier history we know nothing, except -that it is mentioned here and there in the Sagas, is the island of -Gotland; but from the finds, which are especially rich in coins, we are -led to the conclusion that it was a great emporium of trade at least -from the beginning of the Christian era to the twelfth century. Roman, -Byzantine, Arabic, and earlier English coins are found in far greater -numbers than in all the Scandinavian lands together. Of the latter, -those of Ethelred are even more numerous than in England itself. -Situated in a sea whose shores at that period seem to have been -inhabited by a dense population, Gotland appears to have occupied the -position of commercial supremacy which England holds in Europe to-day. - -We have historical evidence of its being a great emporium of trade as -late as the fourteenth century, until Wisby, its chief town, was -destroyed by the Danes. Its magnificent towers, walls, and ruined -churches still bear witness to its past greatness.[171] - -From the time of Alexander Severus (A.D. 235) to Theodosius (A.D. 395), -which comprises a period of 160 years, the coins become very scarce, and -Roman gold coins take the place of silver.[172] From the finds we see -that this period in the North becomes exceedingly rich in gold jewels, -and it seems probable that the people preferred gold coins to those of -silver. - -The North is particularly rich in finds of bronze vessels, which appear -to be more specially of Greek, or some perhaps of Roman manufacture; the -scarcity of them in Britain and Gaul would imply that they are chiefly -of Greek origin; they seem to have been highly prized by the people. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 574.—Bronze vessel, ⅕ real size, containing burnt bones, ring - armour, coat or mail, dipper of bronze with a sieve belonging to it, - two glass tumblers, &c., under a stone slab buried in the ground. -] - -Near the fishing village of Abekås, Southern Scania, in Jutland, a -dipper has been found with the name of the Roman manufacturer on it, and -the words “P. CIPI POLIBI.” Another, with a name on it, was also found -in Helsingland, Sweden. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 575.—Piece of the coat of mail. Real size. Oremölla. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 576.—Vessel of glass. ⅓ real size. Oremölla. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 577.—Dipper of bronze, with sieve. ⅓ real size. Oremölla. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 578.—Urn. ⅖ real size. Oremölla. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 579.—Bronze vessel of Roman workmanship, containing burnt bones, - and a few pieces of melted glass. Height, 18 inches. Inscribed on it - are the following words in silver:[173] “Apollini Granno donvm - Ammillivs Constans præfectvs templi ipsivs votvm solvit libentissimo - merito.” Mound, Fycklinge, Vestmanland, Sweden. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 580.—Roman bowl of bronze, found, with several antiquities, under - a slab at Sojvide, Gotland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 581.—Ornament of a large bronze vase, with hole for the handle; - found when ploughing. ⅔ real size. Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 582.—Handle of a Roman bronze vase. ⅔ real size. Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 583.—Bronze vessel, ⅕ real size, with burnt bones, in a tumulus, - with two bronze spurs exactly alike, a bent double-edged sword, a - spear-head damaged purposely, lying over the kettle, another larger - spear-head well preserved, &c. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 584.—Restored bronze vase, containing ashes and bones, length 8½ - inches, encircled by glittering stones and inlaid with silver. - Angvaldnœs, Karmoen, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 585.—Bronze statuette,[174] representing Juno. ⅓ real size. Ösby, - Gräsgard parish, Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 586.—Silver vase. 3/7 real size. Byrsted, Aalborg amt, North - Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 587.—Sieve of bronze, ⅓ real size, found with ornaments of bronze - and a drinking horn, a gold charm, two gold rings, and a small gold - button found in a sepulchral chamber of little over 4 yards in - length, and about 2 feet 3 inches wide. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 588.—Handle of the sieve. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 589.—Ornament of a bronze vase, 3/7 real size, found in a - tumulus. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 590.—Ornament of bronze. ½ real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 591.—Bronze vessel from Mosbœk bog. Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 592.—Fragments of a bronze chain, probably part of riding gear. ⅓ - real size. Bog, Karby on Mors. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 593.—Head at fastening of the handle of the bronze vessel. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 594.—Bronze basin, over a kettle containing burnt bones, ¼ real - size, in round tumulus, inside a little stone cist built of slabs; - with it also were a bronze kettle and a glass cup. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 595.—Bronze vase containing burnt bones, wrapped in a dark green - woollen cloth with greenish and yellow stripes, fastened with a - fibula of silver. In the chamber were a pair of shears and other - objects. Ringkjobing amt, Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 596.—Vase, ¼ real size, found in a round mound, Vang Hdm., - Norway, with fragments of another bronze vessel of the same size, - but of a somewhat different form. It has on it the inscription - “LIBERTINVS. ET. APRVS. CVRATOR [ES. POS] VERVNT.” Originally it - must have belonged to a Roman temple of one of the northern - provinces of the empire, and was offered to this temple by two of - the administrators (curatores) named above. The shape of the letters - leads to the conclusion that the vase belongs to the first century - of our era. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 597.—Bronze bucket of Roman make, ⅕ real size, found in a - round mound, Norway, together with a spear of iron and other - objects of the same metal, but these were so decayed as to be - undistinguishable. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 598.—Bronze vessel about 10 inches high. Angvaldnœs mound, - Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 599.—Flat finger-ring of silver and alloyed gold, real size, - found together with fragments of Roman or Greek bronze vessels, four - small beads of greenish glass, and two bronze fibulæ, in a mound, - Hjörring, Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 600.—Bronze ring, real size, with Latin inscription, “Divo - Trajano Parth. Avg. Patri.” Holbæk, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 601.—Part of bent sword, real size, showing inscription in Latin - “RANVICI,” probably a name, and above it a stamp, probably - constituting the trade-mark of its maker.—Similar swords have been - found at other places in the North, in the Nydam and Vimose bogs. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 602.—Bent sword, ¼ real size, found in a mound at Einang, - Kristians Amt, Norway, on a layer of charcoal and burnt bones. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 603.—Bronze vessel, of Roman manufacture, mound 48 to 50 feet - diameter, 6 feet high, found in a mound at Harf, Meldelpad Sweden, - above a slab, filled with burnt bones, an iron spear-point, fibula - of bronze, fragments of clay urns, &c. ¼ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 604.—Bronze kettle, ⅑ real size, Brokær, Ribe, Jutland; found - with fragments of Roman bronze vessels; and of two massive coats of - mail; fragments of artistically woven cloth; double-edged sword with - scabbard; comb, fragments of checkers, oblong dice of bone, and - fragments of a silver drinking-horn, &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 605.—Ornaments of silver for drinking-horn, Brokær, Ribe, - Jutland. ½ real size. -] - -On the farm of Brottby, Ösby, Upland, a grave-mound of about 150 feet in -circumference and 13 feet in height was found. The mound, the exterior -of which was of earth, covered a cairn, in which was found a stone -burial chamber enclosing a clay urn. The upper part contained bones, -which were entirely unburnt, below which were pieces of the skull, also -unburnt.[175] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 606.—Grave-chamber found at Bröttby, Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 607.—A buckle of bronze found with an iron needle. Bröttby. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 608. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 609. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 610. - - Glass beads, of pale red colour, with white flowers with light and - dark-green leaves; one is fastened to a silver wire. Of the twelve - beads, three are represented here. Bröttby. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 611. - - Bronze chain, found in a small elevation ½ foot deep, with a bead - covered with some metal, and a silver wire _like the one in Bröttby - parish_. Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 612. Fig. 613. - - Denarius of Marcus Aurelius A.D. 162. Bröttby. -] - - AARESLEV FIND. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 614.—Fibula of gold, ornamented with eight garnets. Aareslev, - Fyen. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 615.—Fibula with hanging ornament of gold, real size, - representing a lion’s head; the filagree work is ornamented with - garnets, found with another large silver fibula, a crystal ball, a - vase of bronze, an imitation of a Roman coin, &c. Aareslev, Fyen. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 616.—The crystal ball with Greek inscription found near a - skeleton with hanging ornaments, &c. Aareslev, Fyen. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 617.—Part of a belt buckle, silver gilt. ⅓ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 618.—Bronze vessel, ⅕ real size, so brittle, that only by - covering it all around with clay could it be moved away. It is made - of two parts joined together in the middle with small flat rivets of - bronze, and contained six quarts of burnt bones, among which were - seventeen human teeth, different articles of iron and bronze, which - had been packed in apparently coarse linen, small fragments of which - only remained; a bronze mounting for a drinking-horn, and different - kinds of iron knives; iron mounting for a knife-handle, remains of - two iron awls, an iron key, two small melted lumps of silver, - remains of about thirty-two bone needles, a glass bead with green - ground and yellow stripes, remains of four earthen vessels, &c. - Möllegaard, Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 619.—Bronze ornament, real size, found with kettle. Möllegaard, - Broholm. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 620. Fig. 621. - - Byzantine gold coins, fifth century, Libius Severus and Leo, found in - Björnhofda, Öland, with thirty-three other coins of the same - century. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 622. Fig. 623. - - Barbaric imitation of Byzantine coin of the fifth century. Real size. - Mallgards, Gotland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 624. Fig. 625. - - Antonini Pii. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 626. Fig. 627. - - Faustina the younger. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - GLASS. - - Vessels with painted figures—Vessels with Greek - letters—Drinking-horns of glass—Cut glass. - - -Nothing perhaps can give us a better idea of the refined taste of some -of the Northmen than the beautiful glass objects which have been found -in different parts of the country. Many of these are evidently of Greek, -some perhaps of Roman, origin. In the museums of Italy, Greece, or -Russia no such exquisite bowls are found, which after having been -painted they seem to have been baked or subjected to heat in order that -they might retain their colour. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 628.—2½ inches high; diameter across top, 3 inches; across - bottom, 1–7/10ths of an inch. A blue panther, with grey or brown - contours and dots, attacks a brown stag; on the other side of which - is a brown lioness. Between the animals are circles of dots, brown - and yellow by turns, with a brown spot in their middle. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 629.—3½ inches high; 3–9/10th inches diameter. A brown bull, with - a blue band with brown dots, attacks a brown bear. To the left a man - in yellow coat and green breeches, holding a whip in one hand, in - the other a blue shield; to the right a stag, being torn by a lion, - both brown. - - These two vessels were found in a field, Nordrup, Zeeland, in a grave - 3 feet 4 inches under the ground. It contained a skeleton, and, - besides the two vessels, a Roman bronze vessel and bronze sieve, a - gold finger-ring, a silver fibula, forty-one beads of glass and - glass mosaic, a clay vessel, and fragments of two clay vessels. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 630.—4 inches high, 3¾ inches in diameter across top. In a mound, - Viborg amt, Jutland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 631.—Fragment of glass vessel, with gladiator and shield of blue - tint, the gloves and shoulders are brown. Arm and legs of the other - gladiator flesh colour. Thorslunde. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 632.—Fragments of glass bowl found in a grave by Thorslunde, - Fyen. ⅗ real size. The wolf is greyish upon light yellow ground. The - arm and legs are of a brown tint, the dots yellow and brown. These - lay alongside remains of skeletons which seem to have been buried in - sitting posture; some of the designs are raised. -] - -Glass, as we have seen, has been found in the later bronze age: the -ancient name for _amber_ in the North was _gler_,[176] which was well -known by the stone age people; but we are aware that glass was unknown -to them. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 633.—Fragment of a glass bowl of a green tint, ⅗ real size, found - in a grave mound by Thorslunde. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 634. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 635. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 636. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 637. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 638. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 639. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 640. - - Border of the vase. -] - -Besides the glass vessels of Roman or Greek workmanship others of -inferior quality, as is the case in every country, have been found; some -of these, which are generally of a bluish green, yellow or white tint, -are cut, some ornamented with thread patterns in relief. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 641. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 642. - - Fragments of what must have been a magnificent glass vase of a dark - blue colour; the figures in relief are of an opaque white and - represented most probably some mythological subject. Sölberg, Lower - Eker, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 643.—Glass drinking-horn. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 644.—Thin greenish glass vessel, open at both ends. ¼ real size. - Varpelev. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 645.—Amethyst-coloured glass bowl. ¼ real size. Varpelev. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 646.—Glass drinking-horn, length 8 inches, diameter of mouth 2½ - inches; very rare in the North. ¼ real size. Bavenhöi. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 647.—Vessel or goblet of greenish glass, ornamented with fillets. - ¼ real size. Bavenhöi. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 648.—Glass vessel. ⅓ real size. With white and blue ornamented - threads, found with beads, and bronze pans and sieves, in a woman’s - skeleton grave. Ringsted, Zeeland. - - Glass with thread-like lines have been found in a stone coffin, Roman, - near Dusseldorf. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 649.—Dark blue glass bowl mounted with silver, on which was - inscription in Greek letters, ΕΥΤΥΧΩΣ (with good luck). ½ real size. - Above the head of the skeleton in the grave, but more or less - damaged by the large stone, were at least six glass vessels and - fragments of clay urns. Varpelev. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 650.—Vessel of greenish white glass with representations of - various animals, found broken in many pieces. ⅔ real size. Bavenhöi. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 651.—Animals represented on this glass vessel. Lion, yellow and - brown; bear, dark brown with light yellow outlines; animal with fore - part of body missing, probably an ox. ⅓ real size. Bavenhöi. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 652.—Portion of glass vessel, much damaged. ½ real size. Two - lions, light yellow, blue outlines, a double cross in the middle. - Bavenhöi.[177] -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 653.—Vessel of whitish green glass, ornamented in various colours - which have been burnt on the vessel itself. The colour of the four - letters D.V.B.P. represented on the cup has been destroyed by the - effects of time, as has also that of the beak, wings and legs of the - bird. This, however, perfectly resembles the bird on the opposite - side of the cup, which is better preserved, and on which the wing is - light yellow with dark brownish outlines, the beak and legs red. ⅔ - real size. Varpelev.[178] -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 654.—General design of vase. ⅖ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 655.—Glass cup, funnel shape. Bjorko, Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 656.—Glass cup, ¼ real size, found in a round tumulus, with a - large bronze vase with two arms, the bronze ornamentation of a - wooden bucket, &c., &c. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 657.—Glass vessel. ½ real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 658.—Glass vessel. ¼ real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 659.—Found deep in a stone circle. The cup or glass covered an - urn of clay with burnt bones and some glass beads, etc. ½ real size. - Upland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 660.—In a stone cist, with a skeleton, some arrow-heads of bone, - and a clay urn, etc., etc. ¼ real size. Oland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 661.—Glass vessel found in a stone cist containing a skeleton, - with a clay vessel, an iron knife, and bronze mounting for two - drinking-horns. ⅓ real size. Gotland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 662.—Tumbler of thick green glass. ½ real size. Varpelev. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 663.—Glass vessel found in a mound with unburnt skeleton. Norway. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - HORSES—WAGGONS. - - Favourite colours of horses—Splendour of the harness—Iron and bronze - bits—Spurs—Bridles. - - -We have ample proof from the Sagas that the people of the North were -great breeders of horses, and took pride in their adornment. We are told -of the favourite colours of horses, and the finds bear witness to the -gorgeousness of their harness and trappings. - - -“Stein was for a while with King Knút, and was conspicuous for his -weapons and clothes, and was called Stein the Proud. Old and wise men -have told how Stein was so haughty that he had his horse shod with gold, -and the hoof above adorned. King Knut thought Stein vied with him in -magnificence, and therefore Stein left him” (Fms. v. 181). - - -“King Adils liked good horses very much, he had the best horses at that -time. One of his horses was called _Slöngvir_ (the flinging one), and -another _Hrafn_ (Raven); the latter he took from Ali when he was dead, -and another horse also called _Hrafn_ was bred by him; he sent it to -King Godgest in Hálogaland. Godgest rode on it and could not stop it and -fell down, and was killed”[179] (Ynglinga Saga, ch. 33). - - -The chief Thorstein Kuggason had to seek shelter during bad weather at -the farm of Björn Hitdælakappi while going to help his foes. When -Thorstein took leave: - - -“Björn sent for the stud-horses which were near the hay-house, for -fodder was given to them while the bad weather lasted. The stallion was -a son of _Hvíting_ (some famous stallion) and was white, but the mares -were chestnut. Another son of Hvíting, also white, was in Thórarinsdal; -but the mares (with him) were black. Björn had the stud-horses led to -Thorstein, and said he wished to give them to him. Thorstein said he -would not take them; ‘for I am not yet worthy of gifts from thee, and if -I reward thee not for this entertainment which I have now received from -thee then I shall probably not reward thee for further benefits, but, if -I reward the entertainment as well as thou deservest, then I will -receive the horse, and see that thou gettest something in return’” -(Björn Hitdælakappi’s Saga, p. 55). - - -An Icelander, Odd Úfeigsson, had traded with the Finns, which no man was -allowed to do without the king’s leave. Thorstein, one of Harald -Hardrádi’s hirdmen, saved him from Harald, who wanted to slay him, and -Odd escaped to Iceland. On one occasion, when Hárek, Thorstein’s kinsman -came to Iceland: - - -“Odd sent with him to Norway a good stud of horses as a gift to -Thorstein, and said, as was true, that Thorstein had saved the lives of -him and his crew. Hárek came to Norway to his kinsman Thorstein, who was -still with the king. He brought him the horses and said they were sent -to him by Odd. Thorstein said: ‘This is very unfortunate for me as but -for this the help that I gave Odd and his men would not have been known; -now I cannot hide it, and it is somewhat difficult to escape.’ Thorstein -showed the horses to the king, and said, ‘they were a gift sent by Odd.’ -The king answered: ‘I was not worthy of gifts from Odd; he has sent them -to thee and not to me’”[180] (Fornmanna Sögur, vi. 383–384). - - -The magnificence with which the harness used by these people was -ornamented is shown by their horse-collars, several of which, made of -wood and richly decorated, are now in the Museum of Northern Antiquities -in Copenhagen. The fact that such collars have always been found in -pairs shows that two horses were generally harnessed to the waggons -used; the pair is always similar, and the ornamentation at the ends, -often of bronze gilt, or silver, or gold, generally consists of animals’ -heads such as are so commonly represented on fibulæ. At the top of the -collars is a hole, through which the rein passed, and the wood is -decorated with representations of human heads of metal, the triskele, -and birds, &c., riveted on. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 664.—Collar for driving of gilt bronze, grave mound, Jutland. ¼ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 665.—2/9 real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 666. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 667. - - Front view. ⅓ real size. - - Horse-collar found in sepulchral chamber at Sollested, Assens, Fýen. - Among other interesting finds in this sepulchral chamber were the - remains of a cinerary urn with burnt bones and fragments of iron; - equipment for two horses, including remains of a magnificent saddle, - horses’ bits ornamented with gold and silver; stirrups inlaid with - silver and gold, &c., &c. -] - -A remarkable horse-collar was found at Sollested, Assens, Fýen, in a -sepulchral chamber, 30 feet long, 9 feet broad, with its entrance facing -the north-east; the representations of heads riveted to the collar are -similar to numerous ones found in Southern Russia, of which many -examples are to be seen in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 668.—Fragments of harness with nails and other ornaments of iron - covered with silver, sewn on leather. Real size. Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 669.—Iron bits. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 670.—Chains of iron, ¼ real size, with large rings at the end. - Sollested. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 671.—End of waggon-pole. Real size. Sollested. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 672. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 673. - - Parts of a bit of bronze gilt, ⅔ real size, found in a round tumulus - explored in 1852, containing the remains of a ship and a waggon, - pieces of a wooden saddle riveted with gilt bronze ornaments, - several stirrups, bones of several animals, &c. Vold Borre, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 674.—Iron spur found in a tumulus. ⅓ real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 675.—Ornament to horse collar of bronze gilt. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 676.—Iron spur, found in a tumulus with a stone vase, a - single-edged sword, an axe, two spear-heads, a shield-boss, a pair - of stirrups, &c. ⅓ real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 677.—Part of horse collar of bronze. ½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 678.—Bronze bridle, little less than ⅕ real size, found in a - tumulus. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 679.—Iron bit, 2/9 real size, found in a tumulus with a two-edged - sword, two spear-heads, an axe, three knife-blades, fragments of a - shield-boss, &c., all of iron. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 680.—Iron bit, 2/9 real size, found in a tumulus with a large - axe, a spear-head, thirteen arrow-heads, six shield bosses, two - knife-blades, clinch nails, &c. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 681.—Iron bit found in a tumulus. 2/9 real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 682.—Iron bit. 2/9 real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 683.—Iron bit, 2/9 real size, found in a tumulus, with burnt - bones. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 684.—Iron bit for horses. ⅓ real size. Ultuna. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 685.—About ¼ real size. Norway. In a mound. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 686.—Stirrup, ⅓ real size, found in a mound upon the island of - Bjorko. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 687.—Stirrup of iron inlaid with silver. ⅓ real size. Viborg, - Jutland. In a grave with other riding gear. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 688.—Iron stirrup. 2/9 real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 689.—Iron stirrup, found in the upper part of a large round - mound, with two double-edged swords bent in two, three spear-heads, - five horses’ bits, a pair of shears, pincers, two bronze fibulæ, - horses’ teeth, burnt bones, &c. 2/9 real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 690.—Iron stirrup. 2/9 real size. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 691.—Gold spur, ⅔ real size; weight, 9 ozs. Smaalenenes, Norway; - earlier iron age. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 692. -] - -[Illustration: - - Full view. - - Fig. 693. - - Ornaments of above spurs, real size; weight, 1⅙ ozs.; the point of - iron missing; traces of the rust still seen. Smaalenenes, Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 694.—Bridle and bit in bronze, Småland. Collection of Count G. - Essen. ⅕ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 695. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 696.—Spur of iron, ⅓ real size. Found in a large heap of stones - of oblong shape, with a spear-head of iron, a double-edged sword, - &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 697.—Spur of iron, real size, found in a paved circle, with burnt - bones, two spear-points, &c. Norway. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 698.—Spur of bronze. Öland. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 699.—Spur of bronze, real size, found in mound, with another spur - quite similar, a bronze kettle, a bent double-edged sword, a - spear-head spoiled intentionally, &c. Norway. -] - -Waggons are seldom mentioned in the Sagas, and no description of their -appearance is given; but we learn that dead warriors were sometimes put -in them and burned on the pyre, and the correctness of this statement is -proved by the finds in various graves, among others in one at Broholm, -Fyén, where fragments of a waggon have been found together with burnt -bones, a large kettle, several iron swords, shield bosses, gold jewels, -&c., &c. But though remains of waggons have been found, it was not till -the discovery in the bog of Deibjerg, Ringkjöbing in the North of -Jutland, that we obtained a knowledge of their shape and of the -splendour of their ornamentation. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 700. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 701. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 702. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 703. - - Parts of perch of waggon with symbolic signs, Denmark. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 704. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 705. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 706. - - Parts of sides of different waggon; with symbolic signs. Denmark. ¼ - real size. -] - -In this bog two waggons of a similar pattern, one of which in an almost -complete state of preservation is represented here, were discovered. The -spokes of the wheels had evidently been bent by heat, and the iron tires -round them had apparently been bent by force; the pole, which was also -richly ornamented with bronze, and the bottom and sides were well -preserved, but the waggon of which a representation is given was more -copiously ornamented with mystic signs than its companion. The following -extracts from Sagas refer to the use of these waggons by the people. It -is interesting to note that these waggons are almost identical in shape -with the modern _Kärra_, used in Sweden. (See ‘Land of the Midnight -Sun,’ Vol. i., p. 51). - - Gunnar said he was ready - To offer gold, - To redress claims, - And also Högni; - She (Grimhild)[181] asked - Who would go - To saddle the horse, - To horse the waggon, - To ride the steed, - To fly the hawk, - To shoot arrows - Of the yew-bow.[182] - - Then on a horse - Was every warrior seen, - And into waggons - Welsh (foreign) wives were lifted. - We rode seven days - Over the cold land, - And other seven - We pressed the waves, - And the third seven - We stepped on dry land. - - (Gudrúnar Kvida, ii. 18, 35.) - - -“King Sigurd of Hringariki had two children, a daughter Ragnhild, and a -son Guthorm. Haki the Berserk slew him and took his son and daughter -home with him. Hálfdán the black sent one hundred men for them, who -fetched them and burned the hall of Haki. They tented a very fine -waggon, and put Ragnhild and Guthorm in it” (Hálfdán the black’s Saga, -ch. 5). - - -“One summer King Eirek had a feast made at Uppsalir. Then he had two -waggons driven to the place where he sacrificed to the god called Lýtir. -It was customary for the waggon to stand there during the night and for -the god to come in the morning. Now Lýtir did not come as he usually -did, and the king was told that he disliked to do so. The waggon stood -for two nights and he did not come. Then the king began to offer much -greater sacrifices than before, and the third morning they became aware -that Lýtir had come. Then the waggon was so heavy that the horses fell -dead from exhaustion before they could pull it to the hall. The waggon -was then put on the middle of the floor of the hall, and the king walked -to it with a horn, and welcomed Lýtir, and said, he wanted to drink to -him and was very anxious that he should undertake the journey, and that -he would give him large gifts as before” (Flateyjarbók, i. 579–580). - - -“When he was ready to ride away two white horses with black ears were -led forward, they belonged to Thord Breidavad and had disappeared that -summer at the Thing” (Heidarviga Saga, c. 20). - - -“The queen ‘Yrsa’ had twelve horses led forward, they were all brown -except one which was white as snow, and on this one Hrolf was to ride. -They were the best horses of King Adils and covered all over with -armour” (Hrolf Kraki Saga, c. 44). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 707.—Scene with waggon; bas-relief; length, 5 feet 9 inches; - height, 4 feet 6 inches. This remarkable stone had been a good deal - cut in order to range with other stones forming the flooring of the - church of Alskog, Gotland. It was preserved from entire destruction - by Prof. P. A. Save. Unfortunately, from the softness of the - sandstone and the tramping of feet, it has become very indistinct. - What the scene was intended to represent it is difficult to say. -] - - -“There were four stud horses of Thorstein’s of red colour. They looked -well but not fully broken. Thorstein offered to give him the horses, but -Gunnlaug said he needed no horses as he was to leave Iceland. Thereupon -they rode towards the stud horses, there was a gray stallion with four -mares. It was the best stallion in Borgarfjord” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. -5). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 708.—Runic stone, with waggon and horse.—Near Levede, in - Gotland.[183] -] - -We find that the laws contained regulations in regard to the making of -the roads, and the shutting of gates. - - -“The highroad shall be so broad that a man can sit on a saddled horse -and put his spear-handle on the ground and put his thumb as high up as -he can and the spear shall be one span longer. It shall be laid down -across the road. It shall not be broader” (Gulath). - - -“If a man walks through the gate of a fence he who opens it shall be -answerable as to shutting it. If cattle or horses go inside and spoil a -field or meadow, then the opener of the gate shall pay back according to -valuation all the damage made” (Gulath). - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - VARIOUS FORMS OF GRAVES. - - Different forms of graves—Picturesque situation—Various shapes of - mounds—Bautastones—The Hjortehammar burial-ground—Stone-set - graves—Ship-form graves—Triangular graves—Anund’s mound. - - -Mouldering bones and ashes of mighty heroes and noble women now -forgotten under the mounds, or in the graves made hoary by the centuries -that shroud you by their oblivion, I salute you! We also shall be -forgotten. - -The thousands of mounds, cairns, _bautasteinar_ (memorial stones) and -graves found to this day all over the North show the high veneration the -earlier English-speaking tribes had for their dead; these mounds or -cairns are always situated on some conspicuous place by the coast, from -which a magnificent view can often be had. - -We have already treated of graves at some length with special reference -to the age—stone, bronze, or iron—to which they belonged, and also with -relation to the objects found in them. Before, however, proceeding to -speak of the burial customs of the Norsemen it may be well to give some -further idea of the various classes of graves. - -Sweden is particularly rich in these mementoes of the past, in the midst -of which the high roads not unfrequently pass, forming a most impressive -scene. What emotion have I felt when standing upon many of these graves, -deeply impressed by the beauty or loneliness of the site chosen and of -its surroundings; perhaps never more so than on the coast of -Bohuslän—the Viken of yore.[184] There the cairns have been erected on -the summit of the bare solid rocky hills of primary formation, several -hundred feet above the level of the water, and overlooking a panorama of -fjords, sounds, barren islands and desolate coast, with the open seas -beyond, and with the sun sinking below the horizon. The waves strike at -their base, and with the wind sing mournfully a requiem over the -forgotten dead; their work is done, the glorious mission they had to -accomplish in the history of the world is ended, the mighty drama of the -sword is closed. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 709.—Cairn, Bohuslän, Sweden. -] - -It is towards evening, before the twilight fades gradually into -darkness, that the scene of this weird landscape is most impressive, and -no one can really imagine its effects until he stands upon the spot and -sees the view spread before him. - -In some parts of Norway the contrast is often great in the extreme; the -mounds there have huge mountains in the background with their summits -clad in snow, and in the foreground the grand open sea. One of the -bleakest spots in the country, where these have been erected, is on the -flat gravelly coast of Lyster, which lies between the mountain and the -sea;—there, over the last resting-places of those warriors, the wind -blows most fearfully in winter-time, and the sea dashes on the shore in -huge foamy white waves. - -In Denmark and parts of Sweden there are places on the elevated points -of the coast full of charms, looking over the Sound, the Cattegat, the -Baltic, or the waters of some of the great lakes. Many of these -resting-places of man are now covered by forests, and upon some of the -mounds huge oaks sprung from the acorn of their sires tell forcibly of -the centuries that have passed over them. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 710.—Grave, Einang, Norway; diameter, 50 feet; earlier iron age. -] - -We can vividly realise why the people laid their dead to rest by that -sea they loved so much during their lifetime, and upon which they had -sailed so often. The mariner as he passed by could behold the graves of -the dead and victorious champions, whose memory was always kept fresh by -the _scalds_[185] who sang his exploits generation after generation, -thus filling the youth of the country with pride, and making them wish -to emulate the deeds of these men, often their kinsmen of old, who had -gone to Valhalla. - -The mounds and cairns are not always round, they are sometimes square, -oblong, rectangular or triangular. The round mounds and cairns exist in -different parts of the world, and in Scandinavia as far back as the -stone and bronze ages; the vast number of bautastones seen all over the -country shows also how well the injunctions of Odin were carried out by -his followers in that respect. Some of these are very imposing, and -their dark forms look weird enough against the landscape or the clear or -gloomy sky. One of the finest stood in Brastod parish, Bohuslän, now -lying prostrate and broken, its height being 26 feet; and its place was -on one corner of a stone set of rectangular graves 40 feet in length and -28 feet in width. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 711.—Bautastone (from grave shown on p. 301) with nineteen runes; - 1/15 real size; 5 feet 8 inches in height; width, 3 feet 2 inches; 9 - inches thick; length of rune, 2 feet 1½ inches. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 712.—Bautastone on a mound 200 feet in circumference and 7 feet - high, Runesten Grimeton (Bohuslän), Halland; 19½ feet high, 4½ feet - wide. Surrounding it are mounds and graves of various shapes. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 713.—Oblong mound, Yttersala, Södermanland; 33 feet in diameter. - In the vicinity are numerous other graves of various shapes. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 714.—Square stone-set grave. Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 715.—Rectangular stone-set graves with bautastones. Length, 70 - feet; width, 24 feet.—Färentuna parish, Upland, Sweden. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 716.—Rows of mounds with bautastones from 4½ to nearly 6 feet - high, Rekarnebygden, Södermanland. Near by are many other mounds and - stone-set graves. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 717.—Square stone-set graves with large boulders at the corners - and centre. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 718.—Triangular grave; sides of triangle about 50 feet; corner - stones about 3 feet high. In the middle of the south-west side are - two stones, 5 feet apart, with a slab between them, one 3 feet, the - other 4 feet high. Thorsbacken, Nerike, Sweden. -] - -The most interesting of the graveyards which I have seen is that of -Hjortehammar, situated in the province of Blekinge on a narrow -promontory lost in the maze of islands which dot the coast of Sweden on -this part of the Baltic. It is joined now to an island situated near its -further end by a causeway and a small bridge. This is not only -remarkable from its position and size, but on account of the numerous -forms of graves of various sizes it contains. The length of the cape is -about 1,200 feet, and its greatest breadth about 200 feet. The engraving -gives an idea of the shape and size of the different graves, some of -which are shown in large scale. This cape is but a continuation of a -ridge full of graves; heather and juniper cover many of them; and well -chosen was this secluded and quiet spot for the last resting-place of -their departed kinsmen or friends.[186] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 719.—Hjortehammar burial-ground, with various shaped graves. -] - -In the _Háleygjatal_, a poem on the genealogy of the famous Hákon jarl, -tracing his pedigree to Odin, there is a passage which recalls the -burial-place Hjortehammar. - - Straumeyjar-nes which is - Stone-marked - Round the Fylkir’s[187] body - Is widely known. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 720.—Vedby ridge, Blekinge. The large stones are from 4 to 6 feet - high. Length of each side, 40 feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 721.—Stone-set grave, Blekinge. Length, 38 feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 722.—Triangular grave. Sides 60 to 65 feet long, with a small - elevation in the middle, and a bautastone nearly 5 feet high and 2 - feet 6 inches broad. Lyngstad, Södermanland. -] - -Among the most remarkable and not uncommon stone-set graves are those of -the so-called “_ship-form_” setting; they belong both to the earlier and -later iron age. This peculiar form of grave is found on the peninsula of -Scandinavia and on the islands of Gotland, Öland, and other islands of -the Baltic, in Courland and Livonia, and was also erected in England and -Scotland by the people of the North. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 723.—Blekinge. Diameter, 30 feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 724.—Listerby ridge, Blekinge. Diameter, 18 feet. - - Stone-set graves. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 725.—Graveyard with mounds and stone-set graves at Åsby, - Södermanland. -] - -One of the most interesting is that where the rowers’ seats are marked, -and even a stone placed in the position of the mast. - -The longest ship-form grave which I think is known is one near Kåsberga, -a fishing village in the southern part of Sweden, with a length of 212 -feet and a width of 60 feet. It is made by thirty-eight stones, the two -forming the prow being 12 and 18 feet in height above the ground—the -latter being the northern one. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 726.—Ship-form grave, Karums parish, Öland. -] - -But the finest of all, though less in size, is the famous one of -Blomsholm, near Strömstad, the whole neighbourhood of which is -surrounded with mementoes of the past—graves, dom-rings, mounds, -bautastones, and rock-tracings.[188] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 727.—Ship-form graves, Blomsholm, Bohuslan, made of forty-nine - upright stones (formerly there were fifty-one). Length, 141 feet; - greatest breadth, 31½ feet; prows north and south, the northern - headstone 11 feet high, the southern 14½, the stones gradually - diminishing in size towards the centre, where the largest is about 3 - feet. Built on a small mound or elevation which was higher in former - times. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 728.—Sjusta mound, Skog parish, Upland; 204 feet in - circumference; 28 feet high; with a row of stones at its base. At - the south end is another stone-set mound. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 729.—Type of Mound with bautastone at the top and circle of - stones at the base. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 730.—Mound, 3 feet high, with bautastone, Balunda parish, - Westmanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 731.—Triangular graves; stone forming the apex, with runes, is - about 25 feet from the two others, which are 14 feet - apart—Björktorp, Blekinge. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 732.—Incomplete mound; 50 feet in circumference; 10 feet high; - largest stone over 6 feet high; in Thortuna parish, Westmanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 733.—Mounds on Kjula-ridge. Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 734.—Mound set with boulder-stones, Dalsland; circumference of - boulders, 100 feet; height of mound, 4 feet, on the top of which are - two flat stones standing on edges. Near it is a boulder - stone-setting, probably a dom-ring. -] - -Many of the cairns, which are often beautifully arranged, are small, -being 4 or 5 feet in height, or sometimes almost even with the ground, -their diameter varying from 20 to 80 feet. Numbers of them have -stone-settings, sometimes close, sometimes not. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 735.—Diameter, 20 feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 736.—Diameter, 16 feet. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 737.—Diameter, 16 feet. - - Cairns—Blekinge. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 738.—Round cairn at Björkeby, Foresund, Södermanland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 739.—Square cairn, island of Öland. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 740.—Anund’s mound, Vestmanland. Circumference, 652 feet; height - 84 feet. A great number of standing or fallen bautastones are found - near the mound. -] - -One of the most interesting graves which have been recently opened in -England is one belonging to the manor of Taplow, near Maidenhead, about -fifty miles by river above London. The mound, 240 feet in circumference, -and 15 feet high, overlooks the Thames and the surrounding lands. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 741.—Gold fibula ornamented with garnets and red glass. ⅔ real - size. Taplow, England. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 742.—Fibula of bronze, ½ real size, the edge of the triangle and - nail heads of bronze, the middle a thin silver plate. Found in a - mound with 14 urns and burned bones, a spear point of iron, &c. - Zeeland, Denmark. -] - -Among the objects were two shield bones, one sword, fragments of others, -fragments of a spear head, one bronze vessel, one wooden bucket so -common in the graves of the North, with bronze hoops, &c., two pairs of -glass vessels (one of which is here represented) similar to one found -with a burial ship in Vold in Norway, forty checkers, two pairs of -ornaments for drinking horns (all of silver gilt), one green glass bead, -&c. &c.; a fibula of the same form as those of the North. But the most -remarkable article was a quantity of gold thread belonging to a garment, -the triangular form of the pattern still remaining. - -This grave, like the one of King Gorm of Denmark and several others of -the North, is in the old churchyard where the ancient parish church -stood. On the slope of the mound itself several Christian graves are -seen. The viking, like some of the chiefs of the North, was probably -buried on his estate, on the land that had descended to him through his -ancestors or which possibly he might have conquered from some of his -foes. These antiquities by their form seem to belong to the later iron -age. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 743.—Vessel of green glass. ⅔ real size. Taplow, England. 11⅛ - inches in height. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 744.—Ornament of silver gilt, showing end of drinking horn. ½ - real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 745.—Silver gilt ornamentation for mouth of drinking horn. ½ real - size. The horn itself, found in a mass of small fragments. Taplow, - England. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - BURIALS. - - The two modes of burial—Burning of the dead on the pyre—The law of - Odin—Ceremonies after death—Laws and superstitions connected with - the dead—The journey to _Hel_—The burial of Sigurd and - Brynhild—Burial on waggons—Burial of weapons with the dead—Burials - in ships—The Gökstad ship’s sepulchral chamber—The Moklebust - mound. - - -The Eddas and Sagas abound with descriptions of funeral rites and -burials, the accuracy of which is most fully vindicated by the finds. - -Two modes of burial were prevalent among the people, one that of burning -the dead, the other of burying them unburned.[189] - -It was the belief of the people that the dead burned on the pyre would -go to Valhalla with all the weapons and wealth burned with them, and -that these would afterwards resume their original shapes. Horses, dogs, -falcons, or other animals which the deceased had liked, were often -added, and sometimes some of his thralls were killed and burned on the -pyre with him. - - -“Odin enacted the same laws in his land as had formerly prevailed with -the Asar. Thus he ordered that all dead men should be burned, and on -their pyre should be placed their property. He said thus: that with the -same amount of wealth should they come to Valhalla as they had on the -pyre; that they should also enjoy what they had themselves buried in the -ground. But the ashes should be thrown into the sea or buried in the -earth; that over great men mounds should be raised, as memorials; and -over men who had some manfulness _bautasteinar_ should be erected, and -this custom was observed for a long time” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 8). - - -“It was the custom of powerful men, whether kings or jarls, at that time -to learn warfare and win wealth and fame; that property should not be -counted with the inheritance, nor should sons get it after fathers, but -it should be placed in the mound with themselves” (Vatnsdæla, 21). - - -“The first age is called the age of burning; then all dead men were -burned and bautastones raised after them. But after Frey had been -mound-laid at Uppsalir many chiefs raised mounds as well as bautastones -to the memory of their kinsmen. Afterwards King Dan the Proud had his -own mound made, and bade that he and also his horse with the saddle on -and much property should be carried to it when dead in king’s state and -in war-dress. Many of his kinsmen did the same afterwards, and the -mound-age began in Denmark. But the burning age lasted a long time after -that with the Northmen and the Swedes” (Prologue of Heimskringla). - - -“The first age was the one when all dead men were to be burnt. Then the -mound-age began when all powerful men were laid in mounds and all common -people buried in the ground” (St. Olaf’s Saga. Prologue). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 746.—Largest pavement of pyre, 33 feet in diameter.—Broholm, - Fyen, Denmark. -] - -As we read the Sagas we get a vivid and impressive idea of the grand and -solemn pageant that must have taken place when the body of a great -warrior was put on the funeral pile, and his companions in arms, -relatives or former foes bid him happy speed to Valhalla, as the flames -ascended high up towards the sky, or the ship sailed from the land in a -lurid blaze, while the purifying fire was consuming the corpse. Then -followed the ceremony of carefully gathering the charred bones, which -were sacredly preserved in an urn or valuable vessel.[190] - -The first duty to the dead was to close the eyes and mouth and pinch -together the nostrils, which ceremony was called _nabjargir_. - - Ninthly I advise thee - To take care of corpses[191] - Wherever on earth thou findest them; - Whether they die from disease, - Or are drowned, - Or killed in battle, - Let a bath be made[192] - For those who are dead; - Wash their hands and head, - Comb and dry them - Ere they are laid in the coffin, - And bid them sleep happily. - - (Sigrdrifumál.) - -It appears to have been a case of outlawry not to cover a body with -mould, and if a slayer maimed the body of his enemy when dead he was -fined. The body seems to have been left on a cover until they could lay -it in the mound. - - -“No man shall have a dead man longer than five days in his house except -in a necessity, such as if there is impassable ice or a snowstorm. Then -it shall be taken to an outhouse and covered with timbers or straw, and -removed as soon as the weather is good” (Eidsivathing law II. 41). - - -If the deceased had during life been a wild and unruly man, fierce in -temper, who it was feared might after death, as a ghost, cause trouble -in the house where he had lived, some very peculiar ceremonies were -observed. The person who was to perform the _nabjargir_ did not approach -the body from the front, but from behind, and closed the eyes, and not -till then did any one else venture to approach to prepare it for -funeral. Such a corpse was not carried out of the house through one of -the usual entrances, but a hole was broken in the wall behind it, -through which it was carried backward. - - -“Snorri godi (temple priest), the great chief, had received a forest -from Thorólf Bœgifot (lame-foot), who wanted to get it back. - -“Thorólf Bœgifot (after visiting his son to get his help in this matter) -came home in the evening, and spoke to no one. He sat down in his -high-seat, but did not eat that evening. He sat there when the people -went to sleep, and in the morning when they rose Thorólf still sat -there, and was dead. The housewife sent a man to his son Arnkel to tell -him the death of Thorólf. Arnkel rode to Hvamm with some of his -servants, and saw that his father sat dead in the high-seat. All the -people were full of fear, for all thought there was something frightful -in his death. Arnkel went into the hall and in along the seats to the -back of Thorólf; he bid every man to beware of walking in front of him -while the _nabjargir_ had not been performed. Arnkel then took hold of -the shoulders of Thorólf, and he had to use his strength ere he could -lay him down. Then he wrapped a cloth around his head, and prepared his -corpse for burial according to custom. Thereupon he had the wall broken -behind him, and got him out there. Then oxen were yoked to a sledge, on -which Thorólf was placed, and driven up to the valley of Thorsa; but he -was not easily brought to the place where he should be. There they -buried him carefully. After the death of Thorólf many thought it bad to -be out of doors after the sun had set; and as the summer was about to -close, they became aware that Thorólf did not rest quiet, for then men -could never be at peace outside after sunset. In the spring, Arnkel took -Thorólf’s body out on a ness, and there buried it anew. He had a fence -made across the cape above the grave, so high that nothing but a flying -bird could get over it. There Thorólf lay as long as Arnkel lived, but -when he afterwards again became troublesome his body was burned, and the -ashes thrown into the sea” (Eyrbyggja, c. 33).[193] - - -The ceremony was sometimes considered as an incitement for the performer -to avenge the dead. - -Höskuld, an illegitimate son of Njal and Hródný, was attacked by six men -on his way home and slain. Hródný’s shepherd found the corpse and told -her. They went during the night to Njal’s farm, Bergthórshvál. - - -“Then they both walked to the house and knocked at the door. A húskarl -opened the door. She ... went to Njal’s bed. She asked if Njal was -awake. He answered: ‘I have slept till now, but now I am awake, and why -art thou here so early?’ She said: ‘Rise from the bed of my rival and -walk out with me, with her, and with thy sons.’ They rose and went out. -Skarphédin (Njal’s son) said: ‘Let us take our weapons with us.’ Njal -said nothing; they ran in and came out armed with their weapons. Hródný -walked in front till they came to the sheephouse. She went in and told -them to follow her. She took a creeping light (lantern) and said: ‘Here, -Njal, is thy son Höskuld. He has got many wounds and now needs to be -healed.’ Njal said: ‘I see marks of death on him but no marks of life. -Why hast thou not given him nabjargir as his nostrils are open?’ She -answered: ‘I intended that for Skarphédin.’ Skarphédin walked to the -corpse and performed the nabjargir. Then he said to his father: ‘Who, -sayest thou, has slain him?’ Njal answered: ‘Lýting of Sámsstadir with -his brothers has probably slain him.’ Hródný said: ‘I intrust it to thy -hands, Skarphédin, to avenge thy brother. I expect thou wilt do thyself -honour though he is not legitimate, and that thou wilt take the revenge -into thy hands’” (Njala, c. 98). - - -Before putting a body in the mound _hel_ shoes were put on for the -journey to Hell. - - -“Thereafter Gisli and all his household made ready for the mounding of -Vestein, his brother-in-law. He intended to mound him in the sand plain -... below Sæból. When they were on their way with the corpse Thorgrím -with many men joined him. When they had made the mound Thorgrím godi -walked to Gisli and said: It is now the custom, brother-in-law, to tie -Hel-shoes on the feet of men before they are mound-laid. For it was said -that they (the shoes) should go to Hel when the man was dead, and -therefore a man who dresses much when he goes out, or is long in -dressing, is said to prepare for Hel. Thorgrím said: I will do this with -Vestein and tie the Hel-shoes on his feet. When he had done it, he said: -I know not how to tie Hel-shoes if these are unfastened” (Gis Súrsson’s -Saga). - - -In the weird description of the burial of Sigurd and Brynhild[194] we -see that the mound was reddened with blood, and that human beings were -burned with them on the pyre. - - I will ask of thee - Only one boon; - It will in the world - My last one be; - Let so wide a burgh - Be raised on the plain - That under us all - It be equally roomy, - Beneath us all who shall die - With Sigurd. - - Surround that burgh - With tents and shields, - With welsh linen, finely painted, - And Welsh people (thralls); - Burn the Hunnish one[195] - At my one side. - - Burn at the other side - Of the Hunnish one - My servants, - With good necklaces, - Two at his head - And two hawks; - Then all is - Equally shared. - - Let there yet lie between us - A ring-wound weapon,[196] - A sharp-edged iron - As it before was laid, - When we both - Stepped into one bed - And were called - Husband and wife. - - The shining hall-door, - The ring-ornamented[197] - Will not then - Strike him on the heel[198] - If my retinue - Follows him hence; - Then our journey - Will not be poor. - - For there follow him - Five bond-maids, - Eight servants, - Of good kin, - My bond-nurse, - And the inheritance[199] - Which Budli gave - To his child. - - Much have I told, - More would I tell, - If fate - Gave more time for speaking; - My voice decreases, - My wounds swell, - I told only truth,[200] - Now I will cease. - - (Third Song of Sigurd.) - -Another custom no less imposing was to bury the chiefs with their -carriages and horses, so that they might make their entries driving into -Valhalla, or riding on horseback; and it was considered honourable to go -to Odin with many slain. - - -“The second day after the battle (of Bravoll), in the morning, King -Hring caused a search to be made among the slain for the body of King -Harald, his kinsman, and a great part of the slain host lay on the top -of it. It was mid-day before the search was completed and it was found. -King Hring took the body of his kinsman, and washed the blood from it, -prepared it magnificently, according to old custom, and laid it in the -waggon which King Harald had in the battle. He then raised a large -mound, and caused the body to be carried in the same waggon with the -horse which King Harald had in the battle, and thus he had him driven to -the mound. There the horse was killed. Then King Hring took the saddle -he himself had ridden on and gave it to King Harald his kinsman, and -bade him do as he liked, either ride to Valhalla or drive. He held a -great feast to celebrate the going away of his kinsman. Before the mound -was closed, King Hring bade all his high-born men and champions who were -present to throw into the mound large rings (gold and silver) and good -weapons, to honour King Harald Hilditönn, and the mound was carefully -closed” (Sögubrot of Fornkonungum).[201] - - -If circumstances allowed, the deceased seems to have been placed on a -bed prepared for the purpose, until the burial could take place. - - -“Glúm also went home with his men, and had the dead carried into an -outhouse, where Thorvald’s body was prepared more honourably than the -others, for clothes were laid under him, and he was sewed up in a skin” -(Viga Glúm’s Saga, c. 23). - - -In a large burial chamber at Lower Aure, Norway, were found the remains -of a chair, thus confirming the accounts of the Sagas about men being -placed on their chair in the grave. Some of these chambers were -occasionally built of wood. - - -“Aran, a foster-brother of Asmund, died suddenly. Asmund had a mound -raised over him, and placed at his side his horse with saddle and -bridle, his standards, and all war-dress, his hawk and dog. Aran sat on -a chair in all his armour. Asmund let his chair be put into the mound -and sat down upon it, and then the mound was closed. The first night -Aran rose from the chair, killed the hawk and the dog, and ate them -both. The second night he rose, killed the horse and cut it to pieces, -tearing it much with his teeth; he ate the horse, the blood streaming -down from his mouth; he invited Asmund to eat with him. The third night -Asmund began to feel sleepy; and suddenly Aran seized his ears and tore -them off. Then Asmund drew his sword, and cut Aran’s head off; and -afterwards burned him to ashes. He thereupon went to the rope and was -drawn up, and the mound was closed; Asmund took with him the property -which had been placed in the mound” (Egil and Asmund’s Saga, c. 7). - - -“Angantyr had a large mound raised below the Havada-mountains, at the -place where the king had been slain. It was built with timber, and was -very strong” (Hervarar Saga, c. 16). - - -Sometimes the body of a man was divided into several portions, and each -of these buried in different parts of the country. - - -“While he (Hálfdán) was king there were very good years. The people made -so much of him that when they heard he was dead, and that his body had -been taken to Hringariki to be buried there, powerful men from -Raumariki, Vestfold and Heidmörk came, and all asked for leave to take -his body and mound it in their _fylki_;[202] they thought that those who -got it were likely to have good seasons. They agreed to divide the body -in four pieces, and the head was mounded at Stein in Hringariki; the -others took their pieces home and mounded them, and they are all of them -called the mounds of Hálfdán (in Snorri’s time)” (Hálfdán the Black’s -Saga, ch. 9) (Heimskringla). - - -Friends often wished to be buried near each other, for they believed -that their spirits could talk to each other or look over their household -before important events occurred. - - -“Then Thorstein fell sick. He said to Fridthjof: ‘My son, I beg of thee -that thou wilt yield to the king’s sons with regard to thy temper, for -that befits thee on account of their dignity, and I have good hope of -thee. I want to be laid in a mound opposite to King Beli, on this side -of the fjord, near the sea, for then it will be easy for us to call to -each other before great events.’ The foster-brothers of Fridthjof were -Björn and Asmund; they were tall and strong men. A short time after -Thorstein died; he was mounded as he had prescribed, and Fridthjof got -his land and personal property” (Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 1). - - -Several persons were often buried in the same mound; and after a battle -many of the slain were buried together. - - -“After this Hjálmar died. Odd then placed the Berserks in a heap, and -piled upon them boughs. This was near the sea. He put with them their -weapons and clothing, divesting them of nothing. He covered this with -turf and cast sand over it. He then took Hjálmar on his back, carried -him to the sea, and laid him down on the shore. He went out on the -ships, took ashore every one who had fallen, and there threw up another -mound over his men. It is said by those who have gone thither, that to -this day are seen those mounds which Odd there made” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, -c. 14).[203] - - -“On the following morning Hrolf had the field cleared, and divided the -booty among his men. There were raised three very large mounds. In one -Hrolf placed his father Sturlaug and Krák, Hrafn’s brother and all the -best champions of their host who had fallen. In that mound were put gold -and silver and good weapons, and all was well performed. In the second -was placed King Eirik, Brynjólf and Thórd and their picked men. In the -third was Grim Ægir, near the shore, where it was thought least likely -that ships would approach. The warriors were buried where they had -fallen” (Göngu Hrolf’s Saga, ch. 34). - - -From many descriptions we see with what awe the ancient Vikings regarded -the mounds under which renowned chiefs were buried. Over the mounds of -great warriors flames were seen at night, and the ghost of the departed -was believed to remain there. - -When the burning did not take place, the warrior was buried with his -weapons and entire equipment. Sometimes he slept with his sword under -his head. Angantyr’s shoulders rested upon the famous sword _Tyrfing_, -and Angrim’s sons were buried there in that manner. Many of the weapons -placed with them were very famous and supposed to possess special or -supernatural qualities, and mounds were sometimes broken for the sake of -getting. - - -“A little after she (the Amazon Hervör) left by herself in a man’s dress -and weapons and went to Vikings, and was with them for awhile, and was -called Hervard. A little after the chief of the Vikings died, and -Hervard got the command of them. Once they came to Sámsey. Hervard went -up on land, and none of his men wanted to follow him, for, they said, it -would not do for any man to stay out there at night. Hervard said that -much property was likely to be in the mounds, and went up on the island -near sunset. They lay in Munarvag. She met a herd-boy there, and asked -him about news. He said, ‘Dost thou not know the island? Come home with -me, for it will not do for any man to stay out here after sunset; I am -going home at once.’ Hervard replied: ‘Tell me; where are the mounds of -Hjörvard?’ The boy said: ‘Thou art unwise, as thou wantest to search for -that at night which few dare search for at mid-day; burning fire plays -on the mounds after sunset.’ Hervard replied he would certainly go to -the mounds. The shepherd said: ‘I see that thou art a bold man, though -thou art unwise. I will give thee my necklace if thou wilt come home -with me.’ Hervard answered: ‘Though thou wouldst give me all thou ownest -thou couldst not hinder me from going.’ When the sun set they heard -hollow noises in the island, and the mound fires appeared. The shepherd -got frightened and took to his feet, and ran into the forest as quickly -as he could, and never looked back.” - - -As she comes by the mound she sings:— - - Awake, Angantyr! - Hervör thee rouses, - The only daughter - Of thee and Svafa; - Yield to me from the mound - The sharp sword - Which the Dvergar - For Svafrlami forged. - - Hjörvard! Hervard! - Hrani! Angantyr! - I awaken you all - Beneath the tree-roots, - Who are clad in - Helmet and coat of mail - With shield and sharp sword, - And reddened spear. - - Sons of Arngrim! - Much harm doing, - Much have you - The mould increased, - As no one - Of the sons of Eyfura - Will speak to me - At Munarvag. - - Hjörvard! Hervard! - Hrani! Angantyr! - So be the mind - Of you all - As if you were rotting - In an ant-hill - Unless ye yield - The sword forged by Dvalin; - It is not fit for ghosts - Costly weapons to hide. - - _Angantyr._ - - Hervör, my daughter! - Why callest thou thus - Full of baneful words; - Thou art going to fare badly; - Mad hast thou become - And out of thy senses, - Mind-bewildered, - As thou awakenest the dead. - - Neither father buried me - Nor other kinsmen; - The two who lived - Kept _Tyrfing_; - Although at last - One became its owner. - - _Hervör._ - - Thou dost not tell me truth; - The As shall leave thee - Unharmed in the grave-mound - If thou hast not Tyrfing; - Thou art unwilling - To give the heritage - To thy only child. - - -Then the mound opened and looked as if it were all on fire and flame. - - -Angantyr sang: - - Ajar is the gate of Hel; - The mounds are opening, - All the island-coast - Looks as if on fire; - Outside all - Is awful to behold; - Hasten thee, maiden, if thou canst, - To thy ships. - - _Hervör._ - - Ye can not light - Such a flame at night - That I would - Fear your fires; - The _mind-town_ of thought[204] - Of the maid does not quail - Though she sees a ghost - Standing in the door. - - _Angantyr._ - - I will tell thee, Hervör, - Listen the while, - Wise daughter, - What will happen; - This _Tyrfing_ will, - If thou canst believe it, - All thy kin, - Maiden, destroy. - - Thou shalt beget a son - Who afterwards will - _Tyrfing_ carry - And trust to his own strength; - This one will the people - Heidrek call, - He will be the mightiest born - Under the tent of the sun. - - _Hervör._ - - I thus spellbind - The dead champions - That you shall - All lie - Dead with the ghosts, - Rotting in the mound, - Unless thou yieldest me, Angantyr, - The slayer of Hjalmar,[205] - The one to armours dangerous, - Out of the mound.... - - _Angantyr._ - - Young maiden, I say, - Thou art not like man - As thou art strolling about - Among mounds in the night - With inlaid spear - And the Goth’s metal, - With helmet and mail-coat - Before the hall-door. - - _Hervör._ - - I thought hitherto I was - A human being - Ere I called - At your halls; - Hand me from the mound - The hater of mail-coats,[206] - It will not do for thee - To hide the Dvergar’s smithying. - - _Angantyr._ - - The slayer of Hjalmar - Lies under my shoulders; - All around it is - Wrapped in fire; - No maiden I know - Above the mould - That dares this sword - Take in her hand. - - _Hervör._ - - I will hold - And take in my hands - The sharp _mœkir_ - If I may have it; - I do not fear - The burning fire; - At once the flame lessens - When I look at it. - - _Angantyr._ - - Foolish art thou, Hervör, - Though courage owning, - As thou with open eyes - Into the fire rushest; - I will rather yield thee - The sword from the mound, - Young maiden! - I cannot refuse it to thee. - -Then the sword was flung out into the hands of Hervör. - - _Hervör._ - - Thou didst well, - Kinsman of vikings, - When thou gavest me - The sword from the mound; - I think, king! - I have a better gift - Than if I got - The whole of Norway. - - _Angantyr._ - - Thou knowest not, - Thou art wretched in speech, - Imprudent woman, - At what thou art glad. - This _Tyrfing_ will, - If thou canst believe it,[207] - All thy kin, - Maiden, destroy. - - _Hervör._ - - I will go down - To the steeds of the sea;[208] - Now is the king’s daughter - In a good mind; - I fear little, - Kinsman of chiefs, - How my sons - May hereafter quarrel. - - _Angantyr._ - - Thou shalt own it - And enjoy it long, - But hidden keep - The slayer of Hjalmar; - Touch thou not its edges, - Poison is in both, - This doomer of men - Is worse than disease. - Farewell, daughter, - I would quickly give thee - The vigour of twelve men - If thou would’st believe it;[209] - The strength and endurance, - All the good - That the sons of Arngrim - Left after themselves. - -“Then she went down to the sea, and when it dawned she saw that the -ships had left. The vikings had been afraid of the thunderings and the -fires in the island”[210] (Hervarar Saga, c. 10). - - -_Burial in ships._—The mode of burial in ships would appear to have -belonged exclusively to the North, where it seems to have been in much -favour, and shows in a remarkable manner the seafaring character of the -people. - -Until recently few descriptions have been more ridiculed by persons who -did not believe in the Saga literature, than those which gave accounts -of burials of chiefs, warriors, and others in ships. Here again -archæology has come to our aid to prove the truthfulness of the Sagas, -and in such a perfect manner as to settle the question beyond -controversy; for we find ships in which the body of the dead warrior was -not burned, and other ships which have been used as a pyre. The earliest -account of such burial is in Voluspa, amplified in the later Edda, which -gives us a vivid description of the funeral of Baldr, the son of Odin. - - -“The Asar took the body of Baldr and carried it down to the sea. -Hringhorni was the name of Baldr’s ship; it was larger than any other -ship. The gods wanted to launch it for the _burning-voyage_ of Baldr, -but it did not move. Then the _gyg_ (Jötun-woman)[211] in Jötunheim, -named Hyrrokkin, was sent for. She came riding on a wolf, with snakes -for reins. She leapt from the steed, and Odin called to four Berserks to -take care of it, but they could not hold it except by throwing it down. -She went to the stem of the ship and pushed it forward at the first -attempt, so that fire issued from the rollers and the ground trembled. -Then Thor grew angry, seized his hammer, and would have broken her head -if the gods had not asked him to spare her. The body of Baldr was -carried out on the ship, and his wife Nanna, Nep’s daughter, on seeing -this died from grief. She was laid on the pyre and it was set on fire. -Thor went to it and consecrated it with _Mjölnir_. At his feet there ran -a Dverg named Lit. Thor pushed him with his foot into the fire, and he -was burned. To this burning came many kinds of people. First went Odin -and his ravens and Frigg, as well as the Valkyrias. Frey drove in a -carriage drawn by the boar called _Gullinbursti_ (gold bristle) or -_Slidrugtanni_ (the awful-tusked). Heimdal rode the horse _Gulltopp_ -(gold tuft), and Freyja with her cats. There came also many Hrim Thursar -and Bergrisar. Odin laid on the pyre the gold ring _Draupnir_; -afterwards every ninth night there dropped from it eight equally heavy -gold rings. The horse of Baldr was led on the pyre in full harness” -(Gylfaginning, ch. 49). - - -“They carried him in the snowstorm to Naustanes, where a tent was put -over him at night. In the morning, at high water, Skallagrim was laid in -a ship, and they rowed to Digranes. Egil had a mound made near the end -of the ness (cape), and in this he was laid, with his horse, his -weapons, and smithying tools. It is not mentioned that loose property -was put in the mound with him. Egil took the inheritance, lands, and -loose property; he took care of the farm” (Egil’s Saga, c. 61). - - -Gudrun after having slain her husband Atli said: - - I will buy a ship (knörr),[212] - And a painted coffin, - Wax well the sheets[213] - To wrap thy corpse with; - Think of every need, - As if we were friends. - - -“Geirmund died at Geirmundsstadir, and was laid in a ship in the woods -near the farm (gard).” - - -Of this Geirmund much is told of in Sturlunga as a great chief. - - -“Thórir, An’s brother, fell in a battle against king Lugjaldi of -Naumdœlafylki. - -“An had a mound made and put a ship in it and placed Thórir in its -lypting, but the king’s men he placed along both sides of the ship that -it might look as if all served him” (An Bogsveigi’s Saga, ch. 6). - - -“The brothers Eirik and Jorund became very famous by this deed (slaying -King Gudlaug of Hálogaland), and they thought themselves far greater men -than before. When they heard that King Haki had allowed his champions to -go away, they sailed to Sweden and collected a host, and when it was -known that the two Ynglings had returned the Swedes flocked to them in -great numbers. They sailed up into the Log (Lake Mälar) and went to -Uppsalir against King Haki, who met them on Fyrisvellir. A great battle -ensued; King Haki rushed forward with such valour that he slew all that -were near him, he finally killed Eirik and cut down the standard bearers -of the brothers, whereupon Jorund fled to his ship with his men. Haki -received such severe wounds that he saw his days would not be long. He -then had a _skeid_ which he owned loaded with dead men and weapons, he -had it launched on the sea, and the rudder adjusted and the sea sail -hoisted. He had tarred wood kindled and a pyre made on the ship, the -wind blew towards the sea. Haki was almost dead when he was laid on the -pyre. Then the burning ship sailed out to sea. This was very famous for -a long time after” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 27). - - -“King Hakon then took the ships belonging to Eirik’s sons, which lay on -the dry beach, and had them dragged ashore. He placed Egil Ullserk, -together with all who had fallen on his side, in a ship, which was -covered with earth and stones. He also had dragged ashore several more -ships, and into these were laid the dead. The mounds are still to be -seen south of Frædarberg. High bautastones stand at the mound of Egil -Ullserk” (Hakon the Good’s Saga, ch. 27). - - -Women were sometimes buried in ships. - - -“After this Unn, who was now quite old, as was her custom, went into her -sleeping-house to rest, but bade her guests enjoy themselves, and -ordered that they be entertained as splendidly as possible. When she -retired the feast continued until it was time to go to bed. The next -day, as Unn remained longer than usual in her sleeping-room, Olaf went -in and found her dead. He returned to the guests and announced this to -them, who all said that Unn had well kept up her dignity to the last. - -“At the same time Olaf’s wedding and Unn’s _arvel_ were held. On the -last day of the feast her body was carried to the mound which had been -prepared for it. She was placed in a ship therein, and with her a great -deal of property, and then the mound was closed.” Olaf then took -possession of his grandmother’s property, and, after the feast was over, -gave fine presents to the foremost of those present, and all departed -(Laxdæla, ch. 8).[214] - - -Men were sometimes buried in a ship’s boat. - - -“Ingimund was laid in the boat of the ship Stigandi, and his body -prepared honourably as was the custom with high-born men. Thorstein said -to his brothers: ‘It seems to me right that we shall not sit in our -father’s seat at home, or at feasts, while his slaying is unavenged.’ -This they did, and neither went to games nor other gatherings” -(Vatnsdæla Saga, 22). - - -One of the most valuable discoveries, showing the burial of a warrior in -a ship without his body being burned, is that of the Gökstad ship. - -Very few things in the North have impressed me more than the sight of -this weird[215] mausoleum, the last resting-place of a warrior, and as I -gazed on its dark timber I could almost imagine that I could still see -the gory traces of the struggle and the closing scene of burial when he -was put in the mortuary chamber that had been made for him on board the -craft he commanded. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 747.—Sepulchral chamber, Gökstad ship. - - The greatest length of the mound was from N.E. to S.W. About 150 feet - in diameter, height above the soil 15 feet; above the sea 18 feet. - The roof of the structure had been broken through by the weight of - the earth of the mound above it. The large cut in the side was - probably made by thieves wishing to get possession of the weapons, - &c. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 748.—Bedstead, upon which the dead warrior had been placed, found - in the sepulchral chamber, Gökstad ship. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 749. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 750. - - Axe, ¼ real size, found in mound. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 751. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 752. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 753. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 754. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 755. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 756. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 757. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 758. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 759. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 760. - - Some objects of bronze or iron.—Gökstad ship. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 761.—Part of a sledge. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 762. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 763. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 764. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 765. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 766. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 767. - - Some objects of bronze or iron. Gökstad ship. See Vol. ii., - Frontispiece and pages 162 to 168. -] - -The warrior had been buried according to his position in life; remains -at least of twelve skeletons of horses were found in different parts of -the mound on each side of the ship; there were also remains of skeletons -of several dogs. The bones and feathers of a peacock were inside the -ship, the prow of which, like that of the Tune boat, looked towards the -sea as if ready for a voyage. - -One of the finest discoveries, illustrating the use of a ship as a pyre -for the burial of the dead warrior, was in a mound 12 feet high and 92 -feet in diameter, opened in 1874 in Moklebust Eids parish, Bergen Stift, -Norway. - -Among the objects were a vast number of rivets or clinch-nails, and a -great number of shield-bosses belonging to shields which adorned the -sides of the ship; perhaps several warriors had been burned together. On -the bottom of the mound, on the level of the ground, was a layer of -charcoal and burned soil intermingled with small pieces of bone, which -extended nearly to the sides, but was heaviest in the middle. Separated -from this by a layer of light shore-sand was another similar layer. - -Inside an oval about 28 feet in length and 14 feet in width these two -layers were interspersed with burned bone-splints, clinch-nails, and -spikes.[216] In the eastern half of the charcoal layer were found six -shield-buckles; and in the western half, shield-buckles scattered about -in various ways, sometimes singly, sometimes close to one another. In -nearly every one of them lay a clinch-nail, evidently placed there -intentionally, just as some of the shield-buckles were filled with bone -fragments and charcoal. - -A little to the west of the centre of the mound was found a large bundle -of strongly-bound and intentionally bent weapons and other implements. -Right under this bundle was a bridle-bit of iron, and under this, in a -hole dug below the natural level of the ground, a whole collection of -shield-bosses, which all lay with their convex sides downward, and -formed a covering for a large bronze kettle, represented above, without -any other protection but the above-mentioned bosses. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 768.—Bronze kettle filled with burnt bones mixed with ashes, - charcoal, &c., and covered with twelve shield-bosses; nearly ⅓ real - size. Moklebust. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 769.—Handle of kettle; real size. Moklebust. -] - -In the middle of the bones lay an arrow-point 6 inches long; also six -draughtsmen and three dice of bone. The draughtsmen were ball-shaped; on -one side a small part was cut off, so as to give a flat surface, in the -middle of which there was a small hole (fitting the pegs in the board -itself, as seen from other finds of boards with pegs which were -undoubtedly made thus for use at sea, so as to keep the pieces in -position). - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 770.—Enamelled bottom of kettle on p. 340 (inside), ⅔ real size; - found in a mound, Moklebust. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 771.—Enamelled bottom (outside), of most brilliant colours, real - size. Moklebust. -] - -It seems as if the men of this warrior had dragged his ship ashore, -placed the corpse therein with all his weapons and one or more horses, -and had adorned it and hung their shields on its sides, hoisted the -sails, and then let the flame consume the whole. The bones were then -gathered and placed in the urn, and the twelve shield-bosses placed over -it, provisions placed at its side, and the whole covered with a mound. -But right over the urn the bridle had been placed, so as to be near at -hand; then his weapons and the remains of the ship’s chest, and then the -two layers of other remains from the pyre. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 772. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 773. - - Bronze figure representing a man; with inscription. Found with a - bronze kettle containing burnt bones, a double-edged sword bent, - several spear-heads, a shield boss, melted pieces of glass, &c.; - earlier iron age. Norway. -] - - - - - CHAPTER XX. - RELIGION.—WORSHIP, SACRIFICES, ETC. - - Odin’s religion—Sun worship—The Three Annual Sacrifices—The - Atonement Boar and Bragi Toast—The Victory Sacrifice—Temple - Priests—Animals for Sacrifices—Sacrificial - ceremonies—Divination—Chips—Drawing of lots—Consecration of land - and property—Worship of Thor—Sign of the Hammer—The Svastica—Story - of Framar. - - -The earlier Edda or Sagas which relate to us the traditions about Odin -and the Asar do not give any description of the sacred ceremonies or -rites they performed. - -From the Ynglinga Saga we learn that the hero Odin of the North -sacrificed after the manner of the Asar, and that the sacrifices made by -him, Njörd, Frey, and Freyja, were to a power worshipped by them, but we -are not told who the god or power was. It probably was in some instances -the sun, represented perhaps by the eye of the earlier and mythical Odin -of the Völuspa—who, as we have seen, pledged his eye for a drink from -the well of Urd; we know that the worship of the sun was widely spread -at one period in the history of the world.[217] How the change from the -worship of this unknown power to the worship of Odin and the other gods -took place we are not told; but it may, we think, be taken for granted -that many of the ceremonies and beliefs mentioned in the Sagas were of -very ancient origin. - -It is only by a study of all the Sagas that we gain a knowledge of the -beliefs, religious ceremonies, mode of worship and superstitions of the -people of the North, which are often minutely described. It is somewhat -difficult for the present generation of English people, living in Great -Britain and other countries, to realise that no more than eight -centuries ago many of their forefathers believed and practised the rites -we are going to describe, and that so slow was the march of -Christianity, that six or seven hundred years ago the provinces of -North-Eastern Prussia, Vindland, Pomerania, &c., whose inhabitants are -among the finest in Europe, were still heathen. - -It is certain that Odin and some of the Asars were deified and -worshipped in all the countries of the North, and with the lapse of time -their fame is found to increase. The attributes of Odin were believed to -be many. - -There were three principal sacrifices a year, at which the people -assembled in the chief temples:—_Vetrarblót_, _Midsvetrarblót_, and -_Sigrblót_. - - -“It is their custom to have a sacrifice in the autumn and welcome the -winter, another at mid-winter, the third at the beginning of summer; -then they welcome the summer. The _Eynir_, _Sparbyggjar_, _Verdælir_ and -_Skeynir_ take part in this. There are twelve men[218] who are the -foremost in managing the sacrifice-feasts: this spring Ölvir is to hold -the feast; he is now very busy in Mæri, and all provisions needed for -the feast are brought thither.” (St. Olaf, 115; cf. id. 123). - - -The first of these, called _Vetrarblót_[219] (Winter sacrifice), which -took place on winter nights[220] in the month of Gói, was a sacrifice -for a good winter. The 14th of October, which was the ancient month of -Gói, is still called winter-night, or the first night of winter. - - -“That autumn the news was told King Olaf from Thrándheim that the -Thrands had had great feasts during the winter nights: there had been -great drinking. The King was told that all cups were hallowed to the -Asar according to ancient custom. It was also said that cattle and -horses were slaughtered there, the altars reddened with blood, and -sacrifices made for the bettering of the year. Also it was said that -they all thought it evident that the gods were angry because the men of -Hálogaland had become Christians” (St. Olaf, 113. Heimskringla). - - -The second _Midsvetrarblót_ (Mid-winter sacrifice), also called -_Jólablót_[221] (Yule sacrifice), was held at mid-winter, or in the -beginning of the month of Thór (middle of January), to ensure a good -year and peace, and lasted three days; at this feast it was customary to -make vows to some of the gods, especially Frey, at Yule-eve. It seems to -have been the greatest and most important of all, and many animals were -slaughtered at it.[222] The 12th of January is still called mid-winter -in Norway.[223] This sacrifice plainly shows that the blessings of peace -were appreciated by this warlike race. The Swedes, as we have read, wept -over the death of Njörd, for during his time there were good years and -peace. - - -“King Fornjót ruled Jötland (Jötunland) which is called Finnland and -Kvenland, that is east of the arm of the sea which goes on the opposite -side of Gandvik and which we call Helsingjabotn (Bothnian Gulf). Fornjót -had three sons: Hler, whom we call Ægir, Logi, and Kári, who was father -of Frosti, the father of Gnár the old; his son was Thorri, who had two -sons, Nor and Gor; his daughter was Gói. Thorri was a great sacrificer; -he had a great sacrifice every year at mid-winter which was called -Thorra blót; from this the month was named (Thorri). One winter Gói -disappeared at the Thorri sacrifice; she was searched for and not found. -When the month had passed Thorri had a sacrifice in order to find out -where Gói was; this they called _Góiblót_, but they learnt nothing about -her” (Fornaldar Sögur ii., p. 17). - - -On the Yule-eve it was the custom to lead in procession a boar, -consecrated to Frey, called _Sónar golt_ (atonement-boar), and on this -those present placed their hands, made solemn vows, and drank the -_Bragi_ toast. - - -“King Heidrek had a boar fed; it was as large as the largest bull, but -so fine that it seemed as if every hair on it was of gold. He placed one -hand on its head and one on its bristles, and made a vow that never -should a man transgress so much that he should not have the lawful -judgment of his wise men, and these men should take care of the boar, or -else he should come with riddles which the king could not guess” -(Hervarar Saga, c. 14). - - -In the evening vows were made, and the atonement-boar (_sónar golt_) was -led forward; the men laid their hands on it, and made vows at the -_Bragi_ toast (Helga Kvida Hjörvardssonar).[224] - - -“In the winter the foster-brothers (Ingólf and Leif) made a feast for -the sons of the Jarl (Herstein, Hástein and Hólmstein, the sons of -Atli-jarl). At this feast Hólmstein made a vow that he would marry -Helga, the daughter of Örn, or no other woman. Men disliked this vow, -but Leif was seen to become red (in his face), and he and Hólmstein were -no friends when they parted at the feast” (Landnáma i., c. 3.) - - -“Thórodd was with another man at Thórar’s. There was a great Yule-feast, -the ale being provided by each one himself. There were many besides in -the hamlet, who all drank together during Yule. A short way off there -was another hamlet. There the brother-in-law of Thórar, a powerful and -wealthy man, lived; he had a grown-up son. They were to drink during the -half of the Yule at each other’s farm, and first at Thórar’s” (St. Olaf, -c. 151). - - -“One winter at Yuletide, when the people were assembled to drink, Finn -said: ‘Vows will be made in many places this evening, where it is not -better to be than here; now I vow that I will serve the king who is the -highest and in all things surpasses others’” (Fornmanna Sögur ii., ch. -201). - - -The third, called _Sigrblót_ (Victory sacrifice), for luck and victory, -occurred in the beginning of spring, about the middle of April, being -fixed at that time of the year because warfare and most Viking -expeditions took place in the summer. It was in honour of Odin, to whom -alone, as we see from the Sagas, sacrifices were made for victory.[225] - -In those warlike days sacrifices relating to war were the most -important, for the life of the nation depended upon victory, and they -were consequently foremost among the people. - - -“Dag, son of Högni, made a sacrifice to Odin, to avenge his father (who -was slain by Helgi); Odin lent his spear to him. Dag met his -brother-in-law Helgi at the place called Fjoturlund, he pierced him with -the spear, and Helgi fell there” (Helga kvida Hundingsbana II).[226] - - -“In Sweden it was an old custom, from heathen times, that the chief -sacrifice (höfudblót) should be at Uppsalir in the month of Goi, and -that the sacrifice should be for peace and victory for the King, and men -should come thither from all over the Swedish realm” (St. Olaf, c. 76, -Heimskringla). - - -When Hakon jarl returned from Denmark, he ravaged both shores. - - -“When he had sailed eastward as far as the Gauta Skerries (rocky -islets), he went ashore and made a great sacrifice. Two ravens, which -croaked loudly, flew towards him, and the jarl thought that Odin must -have accepted the sacrifice and that he would have a good chance of -victory. He thereupon set fire to his ships and burned them all, and -went into the country with his men with warlike intentions” (Fornmanna -Sögur, vol. i.). - - -_Sacrifices._—The superintendents of the sacrifices as we have seen were -in the earliest times in the North the _Hofgodi_ (_temple priests_), who -were called Diar and Drotnar, and were held in great esteem and -veneration by the people; but in later times temporal rulers were also -priests, and had charge of the sacrifices.[227] - - -“All over Sweden men paid taxes to Odin; one penning (piece of money) -for every nose; and he had to defend their land against war; and -sacrifice for a good year” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 8). - - -The animals for sacrifice, which were generally oxen, horses, sheep, -boars, and falcons, fattened in order to be of large size and fine -appearance, were slaughtered by the temple priest, and in later times, -as a rule, in front of the idols.[228] Sometimes the superintendence of -the sacrificing feast alternated between a certain number of the -foremost bœndr[229] of the fylki.[230] - - -“It happened in Sweden that the bull which was to be sacrificed was old -and so well fed that it was vicious; when men wanted to capture it it -ran into the woods and became furious” (Ynglinga, ch. 30). - - -The people believed that good or bad years were often caused by faith, -or want of faith, in the Asa creed; a year was good when their chiefs -sacrificed much, bad when they were not zealous sacrificers.[231] - -The ceremony was divided into two parts: first the slaughtering of -animals, and reddening of the temple and altars with blood—probably on -the first night; then the sacrificial feast. - -In some places the expenses[232] of these feasts were defrayed by the -godi, who in return had the care of the temple possessions and of the -temple tolls:[233] in the earliest times people had to pay taxes—a -custom said to have been instituted by Odin. - -It was the custom to cook the flesh of the slaughtered animals in large -kettles hanging over these fires along the floor of the temple. The -people then assembled to eat it seated along the walls, and the filled -horns were carried between or round the fires, which were probably -regarded as holy, the person having charge of the feast consecrating the -horns and the meat (_i.e._, making the sign of the hammer of Thor over -them). First was drunk the horn of Odin, for victory and power; then -Thor’s horn by those who trusted in their own strength and power; -Njörd’s and Frey’s horn for good years and peace; Bragi’s when solemn -vows were made; and the memorial toast for dead kinsmen which was -proposed by the sacrificing priest.[234] - -Of the solemn ceremonies which took place at the slaying of the living -animals we have no description, but the blood from the sacrifices of -either animals or human beings was collected into a bowl -(_Hlaut-bolli_), generally of copper, which had its place in the temple -at the principal altar. The altars and walls of the temple, and the -people and idols, were spattered with blood with a kind of broom called -_Hlaut-tein_ (blood-twigs). - - -“Sigurd Hlada-jarl was a very great sacrificer, as his father Hakon had -been; he kept up all the sacrificing-feasts in Thrandheim on the king’s -behalf. It was an old custom when a sacrifice was to take place that all -the bœndr should come to the temple, and take with them the provisions -needed while the feast lasted. Every man was to bring ale; there were -also slaughtered all kinds of small cattle, as well as horses. All the -blood which came therefrom was called _hlaut_ (sacrifice blood), the -vessels for holding it _hlaut-bowls_, and the twigs, _hlaut-twigs_. With -them the altars had to be reddened all over, and also the walls of the -temple inside and outside; then the men were to be sprinkled with them, -but the flesh had to be boiled for people to eat. - -“Fires were to burn on the middle of the temple floor, and kettles to be -put on them; the drinking-horns had to be carried around the fire. The -chief who made the feast had to consecrate the horns, and all the -sacrifice-food. The horn (toast) of Odin must be drunk first, for the -victory and power of their king; and then the horn of Njörd and Frey, -for a good year and peace. Many used to drink Bragi’s horn next to -these. Men also drank horns for those of their kinsmen who had been -great men; these were called _minni_ (memorial horns). Sigurd jarl was a -most open-handed man; he did a very famous deed, as he held a great -sacrificing feast at Hladir, and himself alone paid all the costs” -(Hakon Adalsteinsfostri (Hkr.), ch. 16). - - -It was customary to try and find out the decrees of fate or the will of -the gods by a kind of divination or casting of lots with chips dipped in -the blood of sacrifices; the most common way of making inquiry was by -_Blótspán_ (sacrifice chip) and by lots (_hlut_)—both methods of casting -lots, but differently performed—the former of which apparently meant the -throwing these sacred chips of wood. - -Mention is made of the use of scales with lots in them, on one side -favourable, on the other side unfavourable; if the favourable one went -higher up than the other, it was a good omen. - -Einar, an Icelander, and one of Hakon jarl’s scalds, wanted to leave him -and join Sigvaldi his foe at the battle of the Jomsviking, for he -thought he had not as much honour with the jarl as formerly. - - -“When Hakon saw that he was going, he shouted for him to come and speak -with him, and so he did; the jarl took two scales of burnished silver, -gilt all over; with them were two weights, one of gold, the other of -silver, on each of which a likeness was made; they were called _lots_ -and were of the kind customary with men. Strong qualities were in them, -and the jarl used them for all things of importance to him. He used to -put them on the scales and tell what each of them should signify to him. -When it went well, and the one he wanted came up, the lot in the scale -which signified what he wanted never kept quiet, but moved on the scale -and made a tinkling sound. These costly things he gave to Einar, who -became merry and glad, and desisted from going to Sigvald. From this he -got a name and was afterwards called Skálaglam = ‘scale tinkle’” -(Jomsviking Saga). - - -“Ingjald gathered men and went against Granmar and his son-in-law, -Hjörvard; he had a far larger host than the two others. The battle was -hard, and after a short time the chiefs of Fjadrundaland, -Vestr-Gautland, Nœriki, and Attundaland (they were with Ingjald), and -all the host from these lands, fled. Ingjald received many wounds, and -with difficulty escaped to his ships; his foster-father Svipdag the -Blind fell there, with both his sons, Gautvid and Hulvid. Ingjald went -back to Uppsalir dissatisfied with the expedition; he saw that the hosts -from the kingdoms he had conquered were unfaithful. After this there was -a great war between the kings; but when it had lasted some time the -friends of both brought about a reconciliation. The kings appointed a -meeting, met, and all three made peace, which was to stand while they -lived; this was bound with oaths and pledges. The next spring Granmar -went to Uppsalir to sacrifice for peace, as was the custom towards -summer. The sacrifice-chip fell so as to show that he would not live -long” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 42). - - -Marks were cut on pieces of wood or other material, and each person had -his mark. Sometimes the places at feasts were assigned by lot, and lots -were also drawn for human sacrifice. The images of some of the gods were -sometimes marked on the lots.[235] - - -“At the advice of powerful men it was agreed that the kings should draw -lots as to which of them should hereafter rule, and the _lots were to be -cut_ and put in the folds of a cloak. Then Eystein asked his brother -King Olaf with whom he sided in this matter. He answered: ‘We have long -kept our love for each other and agreed well; thy will in regard to the -rule of the land and the laws, King Eystein, is also mine. Eystein said: -‘I advise thee, King Sigurd, to cut the third lot for the cloak, for -King Olaf, like ourselves, is the son of Magnús.’ Sigurd answered: ‘Men -can see that every expedient has now been tried, for thou wantest to -have two lots where I have one, but I will not deprive King Olaf of any -honour.’ Then the lots were put into the cloak, and the lot of King -Sigurd came up, and he was to rule” (Sigurd Jorsalafari’s Saga, c. 21). - - -It seems to have been the custom among zealous sacrificers to consecrate -their lands and property to the gods, without however denying themselves -the use and enjoyment thereof. That this was customary all over the -North we may conclude from the mass of names of farms, villages, &c., -named after the gods Odin, Frey, and Thor. - -In their colonies the people followed the same custom of dedicating -their settlements or lands to the gods, and we find ample proof of this -in England, Normandy, Iceland, the Orkneys and Faroe Islands. - -Among the gods most worshipped besides Odin were Frey, Thor and Njörd. - -We find from the Sagas that Frey was worshipped equally in Norway, -Iceland, and Sweden, and no doubt also in Denmark. - -One summer when Hallfred and his followers came from Iceland to Norway, -and asked for tidings, they were told that there had been a change of -chiefs in Norway; that Hakon Jarl was dead, and Olaf Tryggvason had come -instead with a new creed and commandments. - - -“Then the men on the ship agreed to make a vow; they vowed to give much -property to Frey if they got a fair wind to Sweden, but to Thor or Odin -if they got to Iceland; if they should not get a fair wind to sail, the -King should have his way.” They never got a fair wind, and had to sail -to Thrándheim (Hallfredar Saga, c. 5). - - -“When Hrafnkel had settled at Adalbol (Iceland) he had a great -sacrifice. He had a large temple made. He loved Frey more than other -gods, and gave him one-half of all his most precious things. He settled -in the whole valley and gave lands to the people, but wanted to rule -them and became _godi_ (= temple-priest and judge) over them. After this -his name was lengthened and he was called Frey’s godi.” - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 774.—Runic stone, with hammer, at Stenqvista Södermanland, - Sweden. Stones with a similar-shaped hammer have been found in - several places in Denmark and Sweden. -] - - -“Hrafnkel owned one valuable thing which he loved more than any other. -This was a horse with a dark stripe along its back which he called -Freyfaxi; he devoted to his friend Frey one-half of this horse, and -loved it so much that he made a vow to slay any man who rode it against -his will” (Hrafnkel Freysgodi’s Saga). - - -Thorkel had been forced to sell his land to Glum. Before he departed -from Thverá he went to the temple of Frey, leading thither an ox, and -said: - - -“Frey, who long hast been my patron, and hast accepted many gifts from -me and rewarded me well, now I give this ox to thee, so that Glum may -leave Thveráland as much against his will as I do now: let me see some -token whether thou acceptest it from me or not. At this the ox bellowed -loud and fell dead, which Thorkel liked well, and he was less sad -because he thought his prayer was heard”(Vigaglum’s Saga, c. 9). - - -Thor[236] like Frey was invoked. The poetical and figurative names given -to him are far from being as numerous and beautiful as those given to -Odin. It was customary, at least in the earliest times, to make the sign -of the hammer at burials and marriages.[237] This hammer was called -Mjollnir, and (Lokasenna) when Thor is taunted by Loki, he answers each -time by these lines— - - “Be thou silent, coward, - My Thrudhamar (mighty hammer) Mjollnir[238] - Shall take thy talk from thee.” - -But that the svastica was emblematic of the sign of Thor, and had been -adopted as such by the people of the North, is only an hypothesis, for -it is also found in Greece and other countries; there is nothing in the -Sagas to prove the assertion. - - -“Asbjörn Reyrketilsson and his brother Steinfinn took up land above -Krossá, and east of Fljot. Steinfinn lived at Steinfinnstadir, and no -man has descended from him. Asbjörn consecrated his land to Thor, and -called it Thorsmörk” (Landnama v., 2 ch.). - - -The hammer as an ornament is not uncommon, and may have been used as an -amulet, as is seen on several runic stones (see p. 352). - -Even Christians called upon Thor for help in sea voyages and -difficulties. - - -“Eyvind, from Sweden, went on expeditions westward, and in Ireland -married Raförta, daughter of the Irish king Kjarval. She bore him a son, -Helgi, and they sent him to the Hebrides to be fostered. Two winters -later they came back to the Hebrides, and did not recognise him, as he -had been starved. They therefore called him Helgi the Lean, and took him -away. He was after this fostered in Ireland, and when grown up became a -highly honoured man, and was married to Thórun Hyrna, daughter of Ketil -Flatnose. They had many children; Hrólf and Ingjald were their sons. -Helgi the Lean went to Iceland with his wife and children. He had a very -mixed creed; he believed in Christ, but nevertheless invoked Thor for -help in sea voyages and in difficulties. When he saw Iceland, he -inquired from Thor where he should take up land. The answer told him to -go to the north coast of Iceland” (Landnama iii., 12).[239] - - -_Worship of Njörd._—Njörd[240] was also worshipped, though we have no -account of sacrifices made to him; but the formulary of the oath, “So -help me Frey, Njörd, and the Almighty As (Odin)!” shows the existence of -his worship. Egil calls upon him and the two other gods to drive Eirik -Blood-axe from the land.[241] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 775.—½ real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 776.—Thor’s hammer. In a field. Läby, Uppland. Real size. -] - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 777.—Thor’s hammer and chain of silver.—Bredsätra, Öland. Real - size. -] - -There were men who did not believe in and did not worship Odin, as may -be seen from the following example:— - - -“Then came to Hrafnista, Framar, a viking king; he was a sacrificer and -iron did not wound him. He demanded in marriage Hrafnhild, the daughter -of Ketil Hæng. Ketil answered that she should choose a husband herself. -She refused Framar. Therefore Framar challenged Ketil to _holmganga_ at -Arhaug, on the first day of Yule, and said he should be every man’s -nithing if he did not come. On Yule-eve he came to Arhaug. Framar and -the men of the land sacrificed for good years. - -“Bödmód, the son of Framar, after inviting Ketil to his hall, mentioned -Odin. When he named Odin, Ketil got angry, for he did not believe in -him; and sung a song:— - - Odin worship - Did I never, - Though long I have lived; - I know that Framar - Will fall sooner than - This high head. - -Twice the sword of Ketil did not bite; the third time it cut Framar from -the shoulder down to the loins. Then Framar sung:— - - There is courage in Hæng, - _Dravendil_ is sharp, - It bit the word of Odin - As if it were nothing; - Now the father of Baldr proved false - It is unsafe to trust him; - Enjoy well thy hands, - Here we shall part. - -Framar thereupon died, and Ketil went home” (Ketil Hæng’s Saga, c. 5). - - - - - CHAPTER XXI. - RELIGION.—ALTARS, TEMPLES, HIGH-SEAT PILLARS, ETC. - - The most primitive form of altar—The earliest Asa temple in the - North—The temples in Norway and Denmark—Size and materials of - temples—Their magnificence—Temple priests—Support of - temple—Holiness and sacredness of temples—High-seat pillars—Sacred - pegs. - - -The _hörg_ was a sacred altar, built of stones, often mentioned in the -Eddas and Sagas, but never described, and was quite distinct from the -_stalli_, or altar. Perhaps it was an enclosed structure, or was built -over a sacrificing mound or upon some elevation. Its primitive form -makes it undoubtedly of far greater antiquity than the temple, though -both were retained as we see in later times by the people in their -worship. It seems to have been especially used for sacrifices to the -Alfar and Asar;[242] and from the words of Freyja to Hyndla, who was her -friend, when speaking of Ottar, we find that a hörg had been raised to -her by the latter, and sacrifices made to her. - - He made me a hörg - Reared of stones; - Now have these stones - Become _gler_.[243] - - He reddened it in - Fresh ox blood. - Ottar believed - Always in Asynjur. - - [Hyndluljód, st. 10.] - -The first temple belonging to the Asa creed which Odin is fabled to have -established was at Sigtuna; afterwards the most celebrated of all the -temples in the North was that of Upsala, but unfortunately we have no -description of it in the Sagas; its fame was so great that on special -occasions people from all over the North came to it. - -The two principal temples in Norway were in Hladir in Thrandheim, and in -Gudbrandsdal. - - -“Gudbrand of Dalir was a great friend of Hakon Jarl. They owned a temple -which was the second for size in Norway, the largest being at Hladir (in -Thrandheim). The former was never unlocked except when the Jarl came -thither” (Njala, 87). - - -The largest one in Denmark was in Hleidra (Zeeland), but unfortunately -in this case also the Sagas give no description. Other temples of less -repute were also built. - -The _Hof_ or temple was often of large size, and the Sagas give us -examples of their appearance, some of them being of great splendour; -they were generally if not always rectangular buildings,[244] with a -rounded addition at one end like the apse of a church. Some had two -parts: an inner or more sacred one, where the images of the gods were -placed; and an outer one, where the sacrificial feasts were held. At the -_blotveitsla_ or sacrificial feast the people seem to have remained -standing, high seats existing only for the _blotgodi_ (sacrificing -priest). At the farther end the _God_ (god-idols) stood on their _stall_ -(altar). - - -“Olaf sailed to Hladir, and had the temple broken down, and all the -property and ornaments taken out of it and off the gods. He took a large -gold ring from the temple door, which Hakon Jarl had made, and then had -the temple burnt. - -“Olaf sent the large gold ring which he had taken from the temple door -to Queen Sigrid, Storrada (the Proud) in Sweden (he wanted to marry -her). She had it broken, and brass was found inside. She got angry, and -said that Olaf was likely to be false in more things than this” (Olaf -Tryggvason, 65, 66). - - -Sometimes these buildings were magnificently furnished and adorned with -costly and precious metals; their walls were hung with tapestries, and -otherwise ornamented,[245] and on the door was a golden ring.[246] Many -of them must have been the property of powerful and wealthy bœndr,[247] -as may be inferred from the fact that some chiefs when they left the -country tore them down and took them away, together with the temple -mould on which they stood, which was holy. - - -“Ketilbjörn, a famous man in Norway, went to Iceland, and dwelt at -Mosfell. He was so rich in personal property that he told his sons to -make a cross-beam of silver in the temple which they were building. As -they would not, he with his thrall Haki and his bondmaid Bót drove the -silver up on the mountain with two oxen; they hid it so that it has -never been found since; then he killed Haki in Hakaskard, and Bót in -Bótarskard” (Landnama v. 12). - - -“Thorhad the old was temple-priest in Thrandheim, in Mœri. He wished to -go to Iceland, but first took down the temple, and carried with him the -temple mould and the altars. He came into Stödvar-fjord and made the -whole fiord as holy as the temple place in Mœri, and allowed nothing to -be slain there except homestead cattle. He lived there all his life -afterwards; the Stodfirdings are descended from him”[248] (Landnama). - - -The _hof-godi_ or temple-priest was occasionally a woman. - - -“Steinvör was a priestess, and took care of the head temple; to this all -bœndr had to pay temple tax. Steinvör went to the chief Broddhelgi, for -she was related to him, and told him her trouble, that Thorleif, the -Christian, did not pay temple tax like other men. Broddhelgi said he -would take up this case for her against Thorleif.”[249] - - -A tax, as we have seen, was said to have been imposed in Odin’s time for -the support of the temple; in the time of Frey a change took place, -according to the sagas, and certain lands and properties in the several -districts called _Uppsala-Aud_ (Uppsala wealth) were set apart for this -purpose; but in later times again, in Norway at least, and probably in -other parts of the North, the bœndr had to pay taxes for the support of -the temples, some of which seem to have been the private property of the -godi. - -The temples were considered so holy that any one damaging them or -entering them armed was declared an outlaw, and no one who had committed -an offence punishable by law was allowed to enter; such person was -called _Varg i Veum_ (wolf in the sanctuary). The grove or fields -surrounding the temples were often regarded as inviolate, so that no act -of violence would be permissible within their precincts. This was -expressed by the ancient name of _Ve_ (sanctuary, sacred place), which -was extended so as to embrace the _Thing_-place, which was also regarded -as sacred, while the _Thing_ was going on. - - -“Ingimund went into the temple, and before he was aware of it Rafn ran -in with a sword. Ingimund turned towards him and said, ‘It is not the -custom to bring weapons into the temple, and thou wilt turn the wrath of -the gods against thee; such a thing is impossible unless it is atoned -for’” (Vatnsdœla, c. 17). - - -“Búi went to the temple, and when he arrived there, saw that the -enclosure as well as the temple was unlocked. He entered and perceived -that Thorstein lay on his face in front of Thor. Búi walked silently -until he came to Thorstein, and grasped his knees with one hand and his -shoulders with the other in such a manner that he lifted him and struck -his head so hard against a stone that his brains were scattered over the -floor; he died immediately. Búi carried him out and threw him near the -fence of the enclosure, and entered the temple again. He took the sacred -fire, and, kindling lights, carried them around the temple and set the -hangings on fire. The fire quickly caught one thing after the other, and -in a short time the temple was in flames. He went out and locked both -the temple and the enclosure, and threw the keys into the fire and -departed. Thorgrim Godi awoke in the morning and saw the temple burning; -he called on his people, men and women, to run with water vessels and -save it; he also called upon his son, Thorstein, but he was nowhere to -be found. When they reached the gate of the enclosure it was not easy to -pass, for it was locked, and the keys were nowhere to be found; they -were obliged to break open the door, for the fence was so high that they -could not get over it. Entering the enclosure, they saw Thorstein there -dead; the temple was also locked, and nothing in it could be saved. -Hooks were brought and the temple was pulled down, and thus part of the -temple was saved” (Kjalnesinga Saga, c. 4). - - -For this Búi was outlawed by Harald Fairhair, but was subsequently -forgiven. - - -“King Beli ruled over Sygna-fylki (in Norway); he had three children; -Helgi and Hálfdán were his sons, and Ingibjörg his daughter. Ingibjörg -was fair-looking and wise; she was the foremost of the king’s children. -On the shore west of the fjord there was a large bœr,[250] called -Baldr’s hagi (Baldr’s field or enclosure), which was a place of -peace,[251] where a large temple stood, surrounded by a high wooden -fence; there were many gods, though Baldr was most worshipped. The -heathen[252] men were so careful about the temple that neither man nor -beast was to be hurt there; men were not allowed to stay with women -there” (Fridthjóf’s Saga, 1).[253] - -“When Fridthjóf had left Norway the kings held a _Thing_, and outlawed -him from all their lands, and took to themselves all his possessions. -King Hálfdán settled at Framnes, and rebuilt the burned part of the -farm; and they repaired the whole of Baldr’s hagi, but it was a long -time before the fire was extinguished. King Helgi disliked most of all -that the gods had been burned. It was very costly to build Baldr’s hagi -again as good as it was. King Helgi then resided at Syrstrond” -(Fridthjóf’s Saga, c. 10). - - -The fact that some of the old temples were a subject of pilgrimage to -those who had emigrated from the land is further proof of the veneration -paid to them. - - -“Lopt Ormsson went from Gaulardal in Norway to Iceland when young, and -took up land along the Thjórsá river. Lopt went to Norway every third -summer for himself and for his mother’s brother Flosi, to sacrifice in -the temple which his grandfather Thorbjörn had guarded” (Landnama v., -ch. 8). - - -Inside the principal door of the temple stood the high-seat pillars, -which were highly venerated, and in which were placed the so-called -_reginnaglar_ (sacred pegs). It was the custom for families to take -these pillars when they left their old home for Iceland, and when at sea -to throw them overboard, and settle where they came ashore: they, the -timbers of the temple, and the mould under the altars of the gods, were -considered sacred. - - -“The summer that Ingólf and Hjörleif went to settle in Iceland, Harald -Fairhair had been king in Norway for twelve years. There had passed from -the beginning of this world six thousand and seventy-three winters; but -from the birth of our Lord, eight hundred and seventy-four winters. - -“They sailed together till they saw Iceland, and then separated. When -Ingólf saw Iceland, he threw overboard his high-seat pillars for luck, -saying that he would settle where the pillars went ashore. - -“Ingólf took up his abode where his high-seat pillars had come to land; -this was at Reykjarvik, and there the high-seat pillars still remain in -a hall”[254] (Landnama). - - -“Thórólf Mostrarskegg made a great sacrifice, and inquired from his -beloved friend Thor whether he should reconcile himself to the King -(Harald Fairhair), or go away from the country and seek other fate. The -answer pointed out to him Iceland. Thereupon he got a large seagoing -ship, and made it ready for the Iceland journey, and took with him his -household and live stock. Many of his friends went on the journey with -him. He took down the temple and carried with him most of the timbers -which had been in it, and also the earth and mould from under the altar -on which Thor had sat. Thereupon he sailed out to sea with fair winds, -reached the land, and went along the south coast westward past -Reykjanes. Then the fair wind ceased, and they saw that large fjords -went into the land. Thórólf threw overboard his high-seat pillars, which -had been standing in the temple; the image of Thor was carved on one of -them. He declared that he would live in Iceland, at the place where Thor -landed them. As soon as they left the ship they drifted to the western -fjord. Then there came a breeze; they sailed westward past Snjófellsnes -and into the fjord; they saw it was very broad and long, with very high -mountains on both sides. Thórólf named it Breidifjord (broad fjord). He -landed on the southern side, nearly at its middle, and laid the ship in -the bay, which they afterwards called Hofs-vag. They searched the shore, -and found on the point of a ness north of the bay that Thor had there -landed the pillars. The ness was called Thórsness. After this Thórólf -went with fire around the land which he took up from Stafá (river) to -the river which he called Thórsá, and there settled his ship’s crew. He -raised a large house at Hofs-vag which he called Hofstadir. There he had -a large temple built; there was a door on the side wall, near the one -end; inside stood the high-seat pillars, and pegs were in them; they -were called _regin naglar_. Inside this there was a great _peace-place_; -in the innermost part of the temple was a room like the choirs in -churches now, and a platform was raised on the middle of the floor like -an altar, on which there lay a jointless ring weighing two ounces, and -on this all oaths had to be sworn. The temple priest had to wear that -ring on his arm at all meetings” (Eyrbyggja, c. 4). - - -After Ingimund had departed from Norway for Iceland he landed at -Borgarfjord. He was met by Grim and Hámund, the former of whom invited -him to remain with him, and take whatever he wanted, whether real or -portable property. For the offer Ingimund thanked him, but said he would -only remain over winter, and in the spring would go to look for the -place he intended to settle on. The following summer he wandered about, -and in the autumn took winter quarters in a valley called Vididal, at a -place which was afterwards named Ingimundarhöll. - - -“When spring came and the snow began to melt on the mountain sides -Ingimund said, ‘I should like some men to go up on a high mountain to -look if there is less snow in other places, for I do not think we will -settle in this valley, for it is not an equal bargain.’ They went up on -a high mountain and saw far away. They returned and told him that the -mountains on the north-west were very snowless, and soon they were all -on their way thither. As they approached the Vatnsdal valley Ingimund -recognised it from the description given by the Fins; and when they came -to the Vatnsdal river Vigdis said ‘I must rest a little while, for I -feel sick.’ She gave birth to a girl who was named Thordis, after -Ingimund’s mother. He then said that the place should be called -Thordisarholt. He chose a site for his residence in a very beautiful -grove, raised a large temple, one hundred feet in length; and when he -was digging holes for his high-seat pillars he found the image of Frey -of silver, as he had been foretold. Then he said, ‘It is indeed true -that you cannot go against fate, but nevertheless I like this. This farm -shall be called Hof (temple)’” (Vatnsdæla, 15).[255] - - -Lodmund the old, a Norwegian from Voss, went to Iceland: - - -“He threw his high-seat pillars overboard at sea, and said he would -settle where they were driven ashore. They landed in the eastern fjords, -and he settled in Lodmundarfjord, where he lived that winter. When he -heard that his high-seat pillars were on the south coast he carried on -board the ship all his property, hoisted the sail, laid himself down, -and bade no one be so bold as to utter his name. After he had been lying -down for a short time a loud crash was heard, and it was seen that a -large land-slip had come down upon the farm where Lodmund had dwelt. He -rose and said, ‘It is my imprecation that the ship which hereafter sails -out from here shall never come undamaged back from the sea.’ He took up -land where the high-seat pillars had come ashore” (Landnama iv. 5).[256] - - - - - CHAPTER XXII. - RELIGION.—HUMAN SACRIFICES. - - Sacrifices to Odin—Human sacrifices resorted to on momentous - occasions—Kings sacrificed—Children sacrificed by their - fathers—Sacrifice to prolong life—Warriors given to Odin after - battle—Sacrificing springs—Sacrifices on Thor’s stone—Sacrificing - place at Blomsholm—Sacrificing mound—The blood-eagle - sacrifice—Giving oneself to Odin on a sick-bed—The earliest - account of human sacrifice in the North—The abandonment of human - sacrifices. - - -Besides the sacrifices already mentioned others were held when the aid -of the gods was required; the most important of them were human -sacrifices, which were offered in times of great calamity, such as -famine, or in order to avoid some great evils, or to obtain victory, or -for some other weighty reasons. - - -“At this time occurred a very bad year in Reidgotaland, and it looked as -if the land would become a waste. Lots were then thrown by the wise men, -and they threw the sacrificing-chip; the answer came that there never -would be a good year in Reidgotaland until the highest-born boy in the -land should be sacrificed. A _Thing_ was summoned, and all agreed that -Angantýr, son of Heidrek, was the foremost there, because of his kin, -but nobody dared to mention it. Then they resolved to submit this -question to the decision of King Höfund in Glœsisvöll (Heidrek’s -father); the most high-born were to be chosen for the journey, but -everybody declined. King Harald and many others asked King Heidrek to -assist in deciding this question, and he consented. He at once had a -ship made ready, on which he went with many renowned men, and sailed to -Risaland. When King Höfund heard of his arrival he at once wanted to -have him slain, but Queen Hervör remonstrated, and so managed that they -were quite reconciled. Then Heidrek told his errand and asked for his -decision, and Höfund said that his son was the foremost in the land. At -this King Heidrek changed colour and thought the case became difficult; -he asked his father to give him advice how to save the life of the boy. -Höfund said: ‘When thou goest home to Reidgotaland, thou must summon the -men to a Thing from thy possessions and those of King Harald, and there -pronounce thy decision about thy son. Then thou shalt ask how they will -reward thee if thou allowest him to be sacrificed. Say that thou art a -foreigner, and that thou wilt lose thy land and people if this is to -take place. Then thou shalt make it a condition that one-half of the men -of King Harald present at the Thing shall become thy men or else thou -wilt not give up thy son, and this shall be confirmed by oaths. If thou -dost get this I need not give thee advice as to what thou shalt do -thereafter.’ Heidrek thereupon took leave of his father and mother, and -sailed away from Risaland. When Heidrek returned to Reidgotaland he -summoned a Thing, to which he spoke thus: ‘It is the decision of my -father, King Höfund, that my son is the foremost here in the land, and -is to be chosen for sacrifice; but in return for this, I want to have -power over one-half of those of King Harald’s men who have come to this -Thing, and you must pledge me this.’ That was done, and they came into -his host; then the bœndr asked that he should deliver his son to them, -and thus improve their season. But after the hosts had been divided, -Heidrek asked his men to take oaths of allegiance. This they did, and -swore that they would follow him out of the land and in the land to -wherever he wanted. Then he said: ‘I think that Odin gets the value of a -boy if, instead of him, he gets King Harald and his son and his entire -host.’ He bid them raise his standard to attack King Harald and slay him -and all his men. The war horns were sounded and the attack made. The -battle soon turned against King Harald and his men, for they had far -fewer men and were unprepared. But when they saw there was no escape -they fought with great valour, and cut down the men of King Heidrek so -fiercely that it seemed uncertain which would be defeated. When Heidrek -saw his men fall thus in heaps, he rushed forth with the sword _Tyrfing_ -and killed one after the other; at last King Harald and his son and a -great part of their men fell there, and Heidrek became the slayer of his -father and brother-in-law. This was reckoned to be the second -_nithings-deed_ committed with Tyrfing according to the spell of the -Dvergar. King Heidrek reddened the temple-altars with the blood of King -Harald and Halfdan, and gave Odin all the dead men who had fallen there, -in the place of his son Angantýr, in order to improve the season. When -Queen Helga heard of the death of her father she was so affected that -she hanged herself in the _disar-hall_[257] of the temple” (Hervarar -Saga, c. 11 & 12). - - -Several instances are mentioned in which powerful kings were sacrificed -or offered their children on the altars of the gods. - - -“There was a great crowd of men who left Sweden because of King Ivar’s -rule. They heard that Olaf Tretelgja[258] had good lands in Vermaland, -and so many went thither that the country could not support them. There -then came a very bad season and a great famine. They attributed this to -their king, as the Swedes are wont to hold him accountable for both good -and bad seasons. King Olaf was not a zealous sacrificer, and this the -Swedes did not like, thinking that therefore arose the bad years. They -then gathered a host, went against the king, surrounded his house, and -burned him, giving him to Odin as a sacrifice for good years. This was -at Vœnir (Venern)” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 47). - - -The custom of sacrificing a beloved child of a chief was considered, as -it well might be, the highest atonement that could be offered, and is -one of such antiquity that its birth is lost in the dim light of past -ages. We have remarkable instances of this custom mentioned in the -Bible; the story of Abraham and Isaac, and of Jephthah’s vow show the -existence of the practice in very early times. In Lev. xx. 2–4, the -practice is mentioned as taking place among the heathen; and we see -that, as in the North, the father had absolute power over the life of -his child, otherwise he could not sacrifice him. - -The most thrilling accounts of sacrifice of children are those of the -sacrifice by Hakon Jarl of his own son, and by King Aun of nine -sons.[259] - -In the beginning of the battle of the Jomsvikings against Hakon Jarl and -his sons luck was against him, and the Jarl called his sons ashore, -where he and they met and took counsel. - - -“Hakon Jarl said: ‘I think I see that the battle begins to turn against -us; and I dislike to fight against these men; for I believe that none -are their equals, and I see that it will fare ill, unless we hit upon -some plan; you must stay here with the host, for it is imprudent for all -the chiefs to leave it, if the Jomsvikings attack, as we may at any -moment expect. I will go ashore with some men and see what can be done.’ -The Jarl went ashore north to the island. He entered a glade in the -forest, sank down on both his knees and prayed; he looked northwards and -spoke what he thought was most to the purpose; and in his prayers he -called upon his fully trusted Thorgerd Hórdatróll; but she turned a deaf -ear to his prayer, and he thought that she must have become angry with -him. He offered to sacrifice several things, but she would not accept -them, and it seemed to him the case was hopeless. At last he offered -human sacrifices, but she would not accept them. The Jarl considered his -case most hopeless if he could not please her; he began to increase the -offer, and at last included all his men except himself and his sons -Eirik and Svein. He had a son Erling, who was seven winters old, and a -very promising youth. Thorgerd accepted his offer, and chose Erling, his -son. When the Jarl found that his prayers and vows were heard, he -thought matters were better, and thereupon gave the boy to Skopti Kark, -his thrall, who put him to death in Hakon’s usual way as taught by -him”[260] (Fornmanna Sögur, xi. 134). - - -Human sacrifices were resorted to by kings in order to lengthen their -own life. - - -“When King Aun was sixty he made a great sacrifice in order to secure -long life; he sacrificed his son to Odin. King Aun got answer from Odin -that he should live another sixty winters. Thereupon he was king for -twenty-five winters at Uppsalir. Then Áli the Bold, son of King Fridleif -(in Denmark), came with his host to Sweden against King Aun; they -fought, and Áli always gained the victory. King Aun left his realm a -second time and went to the western Gautland. Áli was king at Uppsalir -for twenty-five winters, till Starkad the Old slew him. After his death -Aun came back to Uppsalir and ruled the realm for twenty-five winters. -He again made a great sacrifice for long life and offered up another -son. Odin told him that he should live for ever if he gave him a son -every tenth year, and would call a _herad_[261] (district) in the land -after the number of every son whom he thus sacrificed. During ten -winters after he had sacrificed seven of his sons he was unable to walk, -and was carried on a stool. He sacrificed his eighth son and lived ten -winters more in bed. He sacrificed his ninth son and lived ten winters -more, and drank from a horn like a young child. He had one son left and -wanted to sacrifice him, and thereupon to give Uppsalir with the -_herads_ belonging to it to Odin, and call it Tíundaland.[262] The -Swedes stopped him; then he died and was mound-laid at Uppsalir” -(Ynglinga, c. 29). - - -Men, particularly the slain after a battle, were sometimes given to Odin -for victory, the largest number ever given being those who fell at the -famous battle of Bravalla. It seems to have been customary to redden the -altars with the blood of the fallen chiefs.[263] - -Prisoners of war, no matter what their rank, were called thralls, and -were sacrificed; sometimes they were slaughtered like animals, their -blood put into bowls, and their bodies thrown into bogs or a spring -outside the door of the temple called _blót-kelda_ (sacrificing spring), -or their backs broken on sharp stones; sometimes they were thrown from -high cliffs.[264] - - -“Thorgrim Godi was a great sacrificer; he had a large temple raised in -his grass-plot,[265] one hundred feet in length and sixty in breadth, -and every man was to pay temple-tax to it. Thor was most worshipped -there; the inmost part of it was made round as if it were a dome; it was -all covered with hangings, and had windows; Thor stood in the middle, -and other gods on both sides. There was an altar in front made with -great skill and covered above with iron; on it there was to be a fire -which should never die out, which they called holy fire. On the altar -was to lie a large ring of silver, which the temple priest was to wear -on his arm at all meetings. Upon it all oaths were to be taken in cases -of circumstantial evidence. On the altar was to stand a large bowl of -copper, in which was to be put the blood which came from the cattle or -men given to Thor; these they called _hlaut_ (sacrifice-blood), and -_hlaut-bolli_ (sacrifice-bowl). The _hlaut_ was to be sprinkled on men -and cattle, and the cattle were to be used for the people (to eat) when -the sacrificing feasts were held. The men whom they sacrificed were to -be thrown down into the spring which was outside near the doors, which -they called _blót-kelda_. The cross-beams which had been in the temple -were in the hall at Hof, when Olaf Jónsson had it built; he had them all -split asunder, and yet they were still very thick” (Kjalnesinga, c. 2). - - -“On Thorsness, where Thórólf Mostrarskegg landed, there was a very holy -place (helgi-stad); and there still stands Thor’s stone, on which they -broke[266] those men whom they sacrificed, and near by is that -_dom-ring_ where they were sentenced to be sacrificed” (Landnama ii., c. -12). - - -This passage shows that the dom-ring where men were sacrificed was -different from the dom-ring where the people met to judge; the former -seems to have been always made with stones, while the latter, as we have -seen from Egil’s Saga, were made with hazel poles. It is probable that -many of the _dom-rings_ which are now seen were used as sacrificing -places. - -Not far from the large ship-form grave of Blomsholm, in a silent pine -forest, stands a magnificent _Dom-ring_ (see next page 370), a witness -of the great past. What unwritten records are stamped upon its stones! -what unrevealed histories lie for ever buried from our sight! how much -they would tell if they could speak! The ring is about 100 feet in -diameter, and is composed of ten standing stones. Near by is the -eleventh. In the centre is a huge boulder, overlooking the rest; its -uncovered part stands about 5 feet above the ground; it is 9 feet long -by 7 feet wide. - - -“When Thórd gellir established the fjordungathing (quarter Things) he -let the Thing of the Vestfirdingar be there (on Thorsness); thither men -from all the Vestfjords were to come. There may still be seen the -_dom-ring_ within which men were doomed to be sacrificed. Within the -ring stands Thor’s stone, on which those were broken who were used for -sacrifice, and the blood-stains can still be seen on the stone” -(Eyrbyggja, c. 10). - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 778.—Dom-ring, or sacrificing ring, Blomsholm, Bohuslän. -] - -Many dom-rings[267] are seen in the country without the sacrificing -stone in the centre; these may have been used as enclosures for -duelling, while others similar to the above engraving may have been horg -or sacred altars. - -Sacrificing mounds, and apparently mounds in which offerings were -deposited, are mentioned, but unfortunately we have no description of -them. - - -“King Olaf[268] had there (Karlsá) broken the sacrificial mound of the -heathens; it was so called because usually, when they had great -sacrifices for a good season, or for peace, all were to go to this -mound, and there sacrifice prescribed animals; they carried thither much -property, and put it into the mound before they went away. King Olaf got -very much property there” (Fornmanna Sögur v. 164.) - - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 779.—Probably a sacrificing slab, on a rocky ridge at Viala, - Vingåkers parish, Södermanland, overlooking Lake Kolsnaren; 7 feet - 10 inches in length, 5 feet 10 inches in width, and 10 inches thick. -] - - -“A mound composed of earth and pure pfennings; for thither must be -carried a handful of silver and a handful of mould for every one who -dies, and also for every one who is born. Odd said: ‘Then kinsman -Gudmund you shall go ashore with your men to the mound this night, -according to this man’s direction; and I will take care of the ships -with my men.’ They did this, and went to the mound, where they collected -as much money as they could carry, and with their burden returned to the -ships. Odd was well satisfied with the results, and delivered the man -into their keeping. ‘Keep good watch over him,’ he said, ‘for his eyes -are all the time turned towards the shore, so that he could not have -found it as disagreeable there as he says.’ Odd with his men then went -ashore, and up to the mound. Gudmund and Sigurd, meanwhile watching the -ships, put the man between them, and began to sift away the mould from -the silver; but when they least expected it he jumped up and overboard, -and swam towards the land. Gudmund snatched a harpoon and shot after -him; it pierced the calf of his leg, but he reached the shore and -disappeared in the forest. When Odd with his companions arrived at the -mound, they each decided to take burdens according to their strength, -but on no account heavier than could be easily carried”[269] (Orvar -Odd’s Saga, c. 9 & 10). - - -Among the human sacrifices were those called _blódörn_ (blood eagle), so -called on account of the skin or flesh being cut down the whole back to -the ribs, from both sides of the spine, in the shape of an eagle, and of -the lungs being drawn through the wound. This special mode of sacrifice -seems to have been practised on the slayer of a man’s father.[270] - - -“After King Harald Fairhair’s sons had grown up they became very unruly, -and fought within the country. The sons of Snœfrid, Halfdan Háleg (high -leg) and Gudröd Ljómi, slew Rögnvalld Mœra Jarl. This made Harald very -angry, and Halfdan fled westward over the sea, but Gudröd got reconciled -to his father. Halfdan went to the Orkneys, and Einar Jarl fled from the -isles to Scotland, while Halfdan made himself king of the Orkneys. Einar -Jarl returned the same year, and when they met a great battle took -place, in which Einar was victorious, and Halfdan jumped overboard. The -following morning they found Halfdan on Rinar’s hill. The Jarl had a -blood eagle (blodörn) cut on his back with a sword, and gave him to Odin -for victory. After that he had a mound thrown up over Halfdan. When the -news of this reached Norway his brothers were very angry, and threatened -to go to the islands and avenge him; but this Harald prevented. Somewhat -later Harald went westward across the sea to the isles; Einar went away -from the islands, and over to Caithness (Katanes). After this men -intervened and they became reconciled. Harald laid a tribute on the -islands, and ordered them to pay sixty marks of gold. Einar Jarl offered -to pay the tribute, and in return possess all the _odals_ (allodial -rights). This the bœndr agreed to, for the rich thought they would buy -them back, and the poor had not property enough to pay the tribute. -Einar paid it, and for long after the jarls possessed all the odals, -until Sigurd Jarl gave them up to the men of the Orkneys. Einar Jarl -ruled long over the Orkneys, and died on a sick bed” (Flateyjarbók, p. -224, vol. i.). - - -The custom of a man giving himself to Odin on a sick bed by marking -himself or being marked with the point of a spear, probably arose from -the disgrace which was supposed to attach to a man who died unwounded in -his bed, and not in battle. Odin himself[271] followed this practice, -which enabled a man to come to Valhalla.... When tired of life, or of -old age, men gave themselves to Odin by throwing themselves from the -rocks. - -Eirik the victorious, who fought against Styrbjörn, gave himself to Odin -in order to get the victory; and Harald Hilditönn was killed by Odin -himself, because he had become so old. - -The earliest account given of a human sacrifice in the North is that of -Domaldi, which, if we may trust the genealogies, took place about the -beginning of the Christian era. - - -“Domaldi inherited and ruled the land after his father Visbur. In his -days there was in Sweden great hunger and famine; then the Swedes made -large sacrifices at Uppsalir. The first autumn they sacrificed oxen, but -the season did not improve; the second autumn they sacrificed men, but -the season was the same or worse; the third autumn the Swedes came in -crowds to Uppsalir when the sacrifice was to take place. The chiefs held -their consultations, and agreed that the hard years were owing to their -king, and that they must sacrifice him for good years, and should attack -and slay him, and redden the altars with his blood. And thus they did” -(Ynglinga Saga, ch. 18). - - -“Before the holding of the Althing (in the year 1000) in Iceland the -heathens held a meeting, and resolved to sacrifice two men from every -district of the land (Iceland was divided into four quarters), and to -invoke their gods that they should not let Christianity spread over the -country. Hjalti and Gizur had another meeting with the Christians, and -said they would have human sacrifices as many as the heathens, adding: -‘They sacrifice the worst men and cast them dawn from rocks and cliffs, -but we will choose them for their virtues, and call it a victory-gift to -our Lord Jesus Christ; we shall live the better, and more warily against -sin than before. Gizur and I will give ourselves as a victory-gift on -the behalf of our district’” (Biskupa Sögur i.). - - -From the following passage it will be seen that when Christianity gained -a footing in Iceland, human sacrifices were abandoned:— - - -“Thorólf Heljarskegg (Hel-beard) settled in Forsœludal (Iceland); he was -a very overbearing man and unpopular, and caused many a quarrel and -uproar in the district. He made himself a stronghold (virki) south at -Fridmundará, a short way from Vatnsdalsá, in a ravine; a ness was -between the ravine and the river, and a large rock in front of it. He -was suspected of sacrificing men, and there was not one in the whole -valley that was more hated than he” (Vatnsdœla, ch. 16). - - -Hallstein, an Icelandic chief, son of the Norwegian chief, Thorólf -Mostrarskegg, - - -“Dwelt at Hallsteinsnes. There Hallstein sacrificed his son, in order -that Thor might send him high-seat-pillars (126 feet); thereafter a tree -came on his land, sixty-three ells in length and two fathoms (6 ells = -12 feet) thick; this was used for his high-seat-pillars, and of it are -made the high-seat-pillars of nearly every farm in the Thverfjords” -(Landnama ii., c. 23).[272] - - - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - RELIGION.—IDOLS AND WORSHIP OF MEN AND ANIMALS, ETC. - - The introduction of idol worship—The gods magnificently - dressed—Besmearing the gods—Descriptions of the gods in - temples—Amulets representing the gods—Worship of men after - death—Animal worship—Worship of groves and natural objects—Fire - regarded as holy. - - -It is impossible to tell at what time idols or representations of the -gods came to be introduced; it is however certain from the Sagas, that -they were already very common in the temple before Christian -missionaries came to preach a new religion. At some period, and we know -not how the change took place, we see that likenesses were made to -represent some of the gods, which were often adorned with fine clothes -and ornaments of silver and gold, and as a rule stood on an elevation or -pedestal, which also seems to have served as an altar.[273] Occasionally -they were besmeared with fat, possibly to give them a bright appearance. - -There must have been many idols representing different persons who were -worshipped besides the Asar, as we find that Thorgerd Hördabrud was also -represented. - -In the great temple in Mœri, in Norway, all the gods were seated on -chairs, and the idol of Thor was magnificently adorned with precious -metal. This god was also in the temple belonging to Hakon and Gudbrand -in Gudbrandsdal. - - -“Then they (Fridthjof and Björn) heard that Beli’s sons were in Baldr’s -hagi at the _disablót_;[274] they went up there, and asked Hallvard and -Asmund to damage all ships small and large which were near; and so they -did. They went to the door in Baldr’s hagi; Fridthjof wanted to go in; -Björn told him to be wary, but he wanted to go alone. Fridthjof asked -him to stay outside and keep watch. Then Fridthjof went in, and saw that -few people were in the _disar-hall_. The kings were at the _disablót_ -and sat drinking; there was fire on the floor, and their wives sat at -the fireside and warmed the gods, and some besmeared them with grease -and wiped them with a cloth” (Fridthjof’s Saga, 9). - - -When Sigmund was ready to start for an expedition to avenge his father— - - -“The Jarl (Hakon) went out with him and asked, ‘What belief hast thou?’ -Sigmund answered, ‘I believe in my might and strength.’ The Jarl -replied, ‘It must not be so; thou must seek for help where I put all my -trust, which is in Thorgerd Hördabrud. Let us go to her, and try to get -luck for thee from her.’ Sigmund told him to do as he liked; they went -to the woods, and then, by a little by-path, to an open space in the -forest where there was a house with a fence around it; this house was -very fine, and the carvings were ornamented with gold and silver. Hakon -and Sigmund entered with a few men; there were many gods, and so many -glass-windows, that there was no shadow anywhere. A splendidly dressed -woman was in the inner part of the house opposite the entrance. The Jarl -threw himself down, and lay long before her feet; then he rose and told -Sigmund that they must make her some sacrifice, and put silver on the -stool before her. ‘But as a mark that she will accept, I want her to let -loose the ring she wears on her arm; thou, Sigmund, wilt get luck from -that ring.’ The Jarl took hold of the ring, but it seemed to Sigmund -that she clenched her fist and he did not get it. He threw himself down -a second time before her, and Sigmund saw that he wept; he rose, and -took hold of the ring, which then was loose, and gave it to Sigmund, who -promised not to part with the ring” (Færeyinga Saga, ch. 23). - - -When Hakon Jarl, after having been baptized in Denmark, had again -adopted the practice of the pagan religion, - - -“He heard of a temple which was the largest in Gautland, while it was -heathen. In that temple were one hundred gods. Hakon took all the -property which was in it. The men who guarded the temple and the -sacrificing-place fled, while some of them were slain; Hakon went back -to his ships with the property and burnt and destroyed all that he met -with on the way, and had very much property when he came down. While he -was making this ravage in Gautland, Ottar Jarl, who ruled over a great -part of Gautland, heard of it; he quickly started and gathered all the -land host against Hakon Jarl, and attacked him. They at once began the -battle; Hakon was overpowered, and at last fled with his men, and went -to Norway. Thereafter Ottar Jarl summoned a _Thing_, and declared at it -that Hakon should be called _varg-i-veum_ (wolf in the holy place), -because, said he, no man had done worse deeds, for he had destroyed the -highest temple in Gautland, and wrought many other evil deeds; that no -one knew any example of such things, and that wherever he went he should -have that name” (Jómsvikinga Saga, ch. 12). - - -“King Olaf Tryggvason (995–1000) went to Thrandheim to christianize the -bœndr; they agreed that he should go into their temple and observe their -customs. He went into the temple, with a few of his men and some of the -bœndr. They were all unarmed except the king, who had a staff ornamented -with gold in his hand. As they entered there was no lack of carved -idols: Thor sat in the middle, for he was most worshipped; he was large -and ornamented all over with gold and silver; he sat in a splendid -chariot, to which were harnessed two very well-made wooden he-goats. -Both the chariot and the he-goats rested on wheels, and the rope around -their horns was of twisted silver. All was made with wonderful skill” -(Flateyjarbók i., p. 319). - - -Votive offerings of jewels and other valuable objects have been made in -temples and churches in all lands and ages, and to this day the practice -holds in some Roman and Greek Catholic countries. - -The use of small images as amulets by the Northmen is shown by Kálf’s -answer when asked by the King (Olaf Tryggvason) where Halfred was. - - -“‘He probably still adheres to his custom of sacrificing secretly; he -has the image of Thor made of a tooth in his purse, and too little is -told to thee, lord, about him, and thou canst not see how he really is.’ -The King asked them to call Halfred that he might answer for himself. -Halfred came. The King said, ‘Is it true of thee, that thou -sacrificest?’ ‘It is not true, lord,’ answered Halfred; ‘now search my -purse; here no trick is possible, even if I had wanted to use one.’ -Nothing of the kind was found with him” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga). - - -“When King Olaf (Tryggvason) had been a short while in Thrandheim he -heard a rumour that some men in Thrandheim still kept up heathendom, and -that the idol of Frey stood there unbroken, and that those men who were -there sacrificed to the idol. When he heard this he was displeased, and -at the time he got these evil tidings he was at a feast. There were also -some men from Thrandheim with him. He accused them of sacrificing to -Frey as some witnesses had told him, and as they knew that they were not -guiltless they did not deny it boldly, but would not acknowledge it. He -said: ‘It will be seen how much of your words is true, and I will try it -in this way—I command you to break the idol of Frey, to which I am told -you sacrifice, and if you will not do that I believe that the accusation -I bring against you is true.’ They answered: ‘We will not break the idol -of Frey, for we have served him long, and it has helped us well.’ He -said: ‘I and my men will break it though you forbid it.’ They answered: -‘Certainly we will forbid and hinder the destruction of Frey, though we -expect that he will valiantly defend himself and help us if we follow -him boldly, for he has more power than thou thinkest.’ He said: ‘This -shall be tried. You shall defend Frey and I will attack him with God’s -grace and the help of good men. Let him then defend himself if he is -able. To-morrow we shall hold a _Thing_ where I appoint. I will take -Frey there and judge him boldly, and slay him, and do the good for you -which God teaches me, if you will leave your false belief.’ They did not -think this very advisable, but saw it had to be as the king wished. They -went to their ships and rowed in the fjord and strove with both sails -and oars. The luck of the king was stronger than the witchcraft of Frey -and the evil belief of those who followed him, and therefore it happened -as the best one (God) wished, and the king’s ship went much faster and -he got first to the temple. When he came ashore his men saw some stud -horses near the road which they said belonged to Frey. The king mounted -a stallion and let others take the geldings, and they rode to the -temple. He alighted from the stallion, went into the temple, and struck -down the gods from their altars. Then he took Frey under his arm and -carried him out to the horse, and shut up the temple. He rode with Frey -to the meeting and came before those summoned. His land-tent was -pitched, and he waited there. Now the men of Thrandheim came to the -temple and opened it and went in. They saw that Frey had disappeared and -the other gods were maimed, and they knew for certain that the king had -caused this. They went to the meeting. When they had come there the king -spoke mostly of things connected with the rule of the land and the laws. -He then sent men to his tent and bad them carry Frey out, and when he -was brought to the king the king took him and set him up and said: ‘Do -you know this man?’ They answered: ‘We know him.’ ‘Who is he then?’ said -the king. ‘One whom thou dost not know; he is Frey, our god.’ He said: -‘What good can Frey do, that you think it needful or a great necessity -to believe in him?’ They answered: ‘We thought him very powerful until -within a few years.’ ‘Why is he less powerful now?’ said the king. They -answered: ‘Because he is now angry with us, which thou causest, for -since thou didst tell us to believe in another god, and we partly -followed thy persuasions, he thinks we have forsaken him, and therefore -will not take any care of us.’ He then said, as if in mockery or jest: -‘It is unfortunate that Frey is angry with you, but in what way did he -before show the power which you now miss?’ They answered: ‘He often -spoke with us and foretold future things, and gave us good years and -peace.’ He said: ‘I maintain that Frey has not spoken with you, but the -devil himself.’ ... He took a large axe and went to Frey, and said: ‘Now -I will try, Frey, if thou canst talk and answer me.’ Frey was silent. -‘If thou,’ said the king, ‘canst not or wilt not, then may the one who -is in thee, and has long strengthened thee, answer.’ ... Frey was -silent. The king said: ‘Still I speak to thee, Frey; if thou canst give -to men strength or power, then spare it not, and do what thou art able -to do, and if thou sleepest, awake and defend thee, for now I will -attack thee.’ He raised his hand and cut off Frey’s hand, but he did not -move. Then he struck one blow after the other until he had cut asunder -the whole idol....” (Flateyjarbók, I. Olaf Tryggvason). - - -The gods were not the only beings worshipped, for we have some examples -of men being worshipped after their death. - - -“Olaf Geirstada-alf had a dream, at which he was much surprised, and -which he would not tell when asked. He then summoned a _Thing_ from all -his realm, which was held at Geirstadir. The king asked the people to -finish their cases, and afterwards he would make known why he had -summoned them, as many might think that there was little reason for it. -‘I will tell my dream here,’ said he. ‘It seemed to me that a large -black and fierce-looking bull entered the land from the east; it went -about the whole realm. It seemed that so many men fell before its -breath, that only half were left. Finally it killed my hird.’ He asked -them to explain it, for he knew it must signify something. They answered -that he himself could guess best what it meant. He added: ‘There have -long been peace and good seasons in this kingdom, but many more people -than it could sustain. The bull of which I dreamt is probably a -foreboding of a sickness which will begin in the eastern part of this -land, and cause many deaths. My hird will be attacked last, and it is -most probable that I shall follow, for I cannot, more than others, -survive my destined death-day. Now this dream is explained, and it will -prove to be true. I advise the multitude here assembled to throw up a -large mound out on the cape, and make a fence across it higher up, so -that no cattle can go thither. Into the mound let every man of -prominence put half a mark of silver to be buried with him. Before the -disease ceases, I shall be placed in the mound. I warn all not to behave -like some who worship by sacrifice, after their death, those in whom -they trusted while alive, for I think dead men can do nothing useful. It -may also happen that those who are worshipped will be suddenly -bewitched. I think the same evil spirits (_vœttir_) sometimes do useful, -sometimes harmful things. I fear much that a famine will come in the -land after I have been _mounded_, and nevertheless we shall be -worshipped and afterwards, bewitched in spite of ourselves.’ It happened -as King Olaf said, and according to his explanation of the dream. The -disease came before it was expected, many died, and all men of any -prominence were laid in the mound; for King Olaf immediately sent men to -make an exceedingly large mound, and the people made the fence according -to his advice. It also happened that the hird died last and was _mound -laid_. At last Olaf died, and was quickly laid among his men with much -property and the mound was closed. Then fewer people died. Bad seasons -and famine followed. It was then resolved to offer sacrifice to King -Olaf for good seasons, and they called him Geirstada-alf” (Flateyjarbók -ii. c. 6). - - -“There was a king named Godmund in Jötunheim; his farm was called Grund, -and the _herad_ (district) in which it was situated Glæsisvellir. He was -a powerful man and old, as well as all his men, and lived for so many -generations that people believed Odains Akr (the land of the undying) to -be in his realm. The place is so healthy that sickness and old age -vanish from every man who comes there, and nobody can die there. It is -said that after the death of Godmund, men worshipped him and called him -their god. King Godmund had a son, Höfund, a seer and a wise man; he was -made judge over all the adjoining lands; he never gave a wrong judgment; -nobody dared or needed to doubt his judgment” (Hervara Saga, c. 1). - - -“Thórólf Smjör (butter, because he said Iceland was so fertile that -butter dripped from every blade of grass) was the son of Thorstein -Skrofa, son of Grim, who was worshipped after his death on account of -his popularity and called Kamban” (Landnama i., ch. 14). - - -_Animal Worship._—The worship of animals and birds seems to have -sometimes taken place. - -Once some men went to Eystein and told him that a large host had come -into his realm so hard to deal with that it had devastated all the land, -and left no house standing. - - -“When Eystein heard these tidings he thought he knew who these vikings -were. He sent an _arrow-message_ all over his realm and summoned all who -were willing to help him and could wield a shield. ‘Let us take with us -the cow Sibilja, our god, and let her run in front, and I believe that, -as before, they will not be able to stand her bellowing. I urge you all -to valiantly drive away this large and evil host.’ This was done, and -Sibilja let loose; Ivar saw her coming, and heard her fierce bellowing; -he bade all the host make a great noise both with weapons and war-cries, -lest they should hear the voice of the evil beast which went against -them. Ivar told his hearers to carry him forward as far as they could, -and when the cow came at them to throw him on her, and then either he or -she should die; and to take a large tree and cut it into the form of a -bow, and also bring him arrows; this strong bow was now brought, and the -large arrows he had ordered, which were not manageable by any other. -Ivar then urged every one to do his best. Their host went onward with -great rushing and tumult, and Ivar was carried in front of their ranks. -The bellowing of Sibilja sounded so loud that they heard it as well as -if they had been silent and stood still; they were so startled that all, -except the brothers, wanted to fight among themselves. When this wonder -was going on, those who carried Ivar saw that he drew his bow as if it -were a weak elm twig, and they thought he was going to draw his arrows -beyond the point.[275] They heard his bowstring sound louder than they -had ever heard before; they saw that his arrows flew as swiftly as if he -had shot with the strongest cross-bow, and so straight that one arrow -went into each eye of Sibilja; and she stumbled and fell down on her -head, and her bellowing was much more than before. When she came at them -he bid them to throw him on her, and he was as light to them as a little -child, for they were not very near to the cow when they threw him; he -came down on the back of Sibilja, and became as heavy as if a rock fell -on her, and every bone in her was broken and she was killed. - -“Although the sons of Ragnar were valiant, they could not stand both an -overwhelming force of men and witchcraft; nevertheless they made a stout -resistance, and fought like warriors with great renown. Eirik and Agnar -were in the front that day, and often went through the ranks of King -Eystein, but Agnar fell” (Ragnar Lodbrok’s Saga). - - -“King Olaf was at a feast in Ögvaldsnes. One evening there came to the -farm an old man, very wise in talk, one-eyed, with a hood low down over -his face; he could tell of every country. He began to talk with the -king, who liked it very much and asked about many things, but he was -able to answer any question, and the king did not go to bed for a long -time that night. Then the king asked if he knew who Ögvald was, after -whom the bœr and the ness (cape) were named. The guest said he had been -a king and a great warrior, and had worshipped a cow more than anything -else, and taken it with him wherever he went, as he thought it wholesome -to drink its milk. Ögvald fought against a king called Varin, and fell -in the battle; he was _mounded_ there a short way from the bœr and the -bautastones raised, which stand there still. In another place near to -this bœr the cow was _mounded_” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 71). - - -“Floki Vilgerdarson, a great Viking, made himself ready in Rogaland to -search for Snow-land (Iceland). He made a large sacrifice to the three -ravens, which were to show him the way. They sailed to the Faroes, and -then put to sea with the three ravens, to which sacrifice had been made -in Norway; when the first was let loose it flew in the direction of the -stern; the second rose into the air, and came back to the ship; the -third flew in front of the prow in the direction in which they found the -land. - -“They landed at the place called Vatnsfjord, in Breidifjord. The fjord -was so full of fish that they neglected to gather hay on account of the -fishing, and during the winter therefore all their cattle died. The -spring was rather cold there, and Floki went up on a mountain on the -north side of the fjord, and on the other side saw a fjord filled with -ice. Therefore they called the land Iceland” (Landnama i., c. 2). - - -Natural objects, such as groves and the sacrificing stone, were -worshipped, and no one was allowed to look at Helgafell (a holy -mountain) before he had washed himself in the morning, and no cattle -were to be killed there. - - -“Eyvind, the son of Lodin, settled in the valley of Flatey (his land -extending) as far as Gunnsteinar (Gunn-rocks), which he worshipped.” - -“Thorir Snepil took up the whole of Fnjóskadal to Odeila, and dwelt at -Lund (grove); he worshipped the grove” (Landnama iii., ch. 17). - - -“Hord’s brother-in-law Indridi wished to slay the bondi Thorstein -Gullknapr (gold-button), and waited for him on the way to his -sacrificing house, whither he was wont to go. When Thorstein came, he -entered the sacrificing house and fell on his face before the stone he -worshipped, which stood there, and then he spoke to it. Indridi stood -outside the house; he heard this sung in the stone:— - - Thou hast hither - For the last time - With death-fated feet - Trodden the ground; - Before the sun shines, - The hard Indridi - Will justly reward thee - For thy evil doings. - -“Thorstein went out and home; Indridi distinctly saw him going, and told -him not to run so fast. He went in front of him, and at once struck him -with the sword of Soti under the chin so that his head flew off” (Hörd’s -Saga, c. 37). - - -“On the ness stands a mountain, which he (Thórólf Mostrarskegg) held in -such reverence that no one was allowed to look on it unwashed, and -nothing was to be killed on it, neither men nor cattle. He called it -Helgafell (holy mountain), and he believed he would go thither when he -died, as well as all his kinsmen on the ness. On the point at which Thor -had landed he made the place for all judgments, and there established a -_herad-thing_ (a _Thing_ for the district). This place was so holy that -he would not allow the field to be defiled in any manner” (Eyrbyggja, c. -4). - - -Fire seems to have been looked upon as holy; and it was sometimes the -practice to ride round the land with fire, or to throw a burning arrow, -so as to signify ownership. - - -“Jörund godi (temple-priest), son of Hrafn Heimski, settled west of -Fljót, where it is now called Svertingsstadir; there he raised a large -temple. A small piece of land lay unsettled east of Fljót, between -Krossá (river) and Jöldustein; Jörund went with fire around this, and -made it the property of the temple” (Landnama v., c. 3). - - -“Onund the wise took up land in the valley east of Merkigil. When Eirik -(from Goddalir) wanted to settle in the valley west of it, Onund threw -sacrificing-rods to ascertain when Eirik would come and take up the -land. Onund then forestalled him, and shot with a burning arrow across -the river, and thus took possession of the land west of it and dwelt on -it” (Landnama iii., c. 8). - - -The chief Blundketil was burnt in his house by his foes. When the chief -Tungu-Odd heard of it he rode to the place with the son of the burnt -chief. - - -“Odd rode to a house which was not quite burnt down. He stretched out -his hand and pulled a rafter of birch-wood out of the house, and then -rode against the sun (from west to east) round the houses with the -burning brand and said: ‘Here I settle on this land, for I do not see -any homestead; may the witnesses present hear it. He then whipped his -horse and rode away” (Hœnsa Thori’s Saga, c. 9). - - - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - RELIGION.—THE NORNIR AND VALKYRIAS. - - The shaping of man’s future at his birth—The three Nornir—Their - dwelling-place—Their kin—Good and Evil Nornir—They water the ash - Yggdrasil—The maids of Odin—They determine the issue of - battle—Choose the warriors for Valhalla—Figurative names—They ride - through the air—Their appearance—They help warriors in - battle—Their sojourn among men—The first and second songs of - Helgi. - - -It was believed by the Northmen that the future life of all men was -shaped at their birth by genii called _Nornir_, who preordained the -fates of men and all that happened in the world. The gods themselves -seem to have been under their control. - -There were three Nornir, called _Urd_, the past; _Verdandi_, the -present; and _Skuld_, the future, they dwelt by Urd’s well, situated at -the foot of the ash Yggdrasil, whose roots they watered with their -wisdom and the experience of the past:[276] they spun the threads of -fate at the birth of every child, and measured the boundaries of his -doings, and the days of his life.[277] - -The names of these three Nornir were to those men of old the embodiment -and philosophy of life. They could not have existed without their -fathers before them, hence Urd was the symbol of the great past. - -Verdandi, the present, symbolised the present life itself, consequently -was closely connected with Urd. - -Skuld, the future, represented the growth, the shooting forward, and was -an inseparable part of the triad. - - -“There stands a fine hall under the ash, near the well, and from that -hall come three maidens, who are named Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld. These -forecast the lives of men, and are called Nornir.” - - -In Vafthrúdnismal, Odin asks Vafthrúdnir— - - Much have I travelled, - Much have I tried, - Many powers have I known; - Who are the maidens - That soar over the sea; - The wise-minded ones travel. - -In Voluspa, Heid the sybil, in her vision— - - Thence come three maidens,[278] - Knowing many things, - Out of the hall - Which stands under the tree; - One was called Urd, - Another Verdandi, - The third Skuld; - They carved on wood tablets, - They chose lives, - They laid down laws - For the children of men, - They chose the fates of men. - They disturbed the peace of the golden age of the gods. - - The Asar met, - Who raised on the Idavöll[279] - Altars and high temples; - They laid hearths, - They wrought wealth, - They shaped tongs, - And made tools. - - They played chess on the grass-plot; - They were cheerful; - They did not lack - Anything of gold - Until three - Very mighty - Thurs maidens came - From Jötunheim. - - -“But there are other Nornir who come to every one that is born, to shape -his life. Some are of the kindred of the gods, others of Alfar kin, and -some of Dvergar kin” (Gylfaginning, c. 15). - - - _Vafthrúdnir._ - - Three great rivers - Fall over the field - Of the maidens of _Mögthrasir_. - They are the only destinies - That are in the world, - Though they dwell with Jötnar. - -In time the number of Nornir seems to have increased. - -In Fafnismál, Sigurd asks the following question of Fafnir:— - - _Sigurd._ - - Tell me, Fafnir, - As thou art said to be wise - And know many things well, - Who are the maidens - That are helping in need - And deliver mothers of children? - - _Fafnir._ - - Very different born - I think the Nornir are; - They own not kin together, - Some are Asar-born, - Others are Alfar-born, - Others are daughters of Dvalin.[280] - - (Fafnismál.) - -Atli says to his wife Gudrún:— - - The Nornir have just - Roused me - With forebodings of evil; - I want thee to read them. - Methought that thou, - Gudrún, Gjúki’s daughter, - Didst thrust me through - With a poisoned sword. - - _Gudrún._ - - It forebodes fire - When one dreams of iron; - The anger of woman - Means pride and sorrow; - I shall have to burn thee[281] - Against sickness, - Heal thee and help thee, - Though I hate thee. - - (Gudrúnarkvida, 11.) - - -“Gangleri said: ‘If the Nornir rule the fates of men, they deal them out -very unevenly, for some have a happy and rich life, while others have -little property or praise—some a long life, some a short one.’ Hár -replied: ‘Good Nornir, and of good kindred, forecast a happy life; but -when men have evil fates, the evil Nornir cause it’” (Gylfaginning, c. -15). - - -The water with which the Nornir watered the ash Yggdrasil was considered -holy. - - -“Further it is told that the Nornir who live at Urd’s well take water -out of it every day, and also the clay which lies round it, and pour it -over the ash-tree that the branches may not dry up or grow rotten. This -water is so holy that everything which comes into the well grows white -like the film called _skjall_ which lies next to the eggshell. The dew -which falls thence on the earth is called honey-dew, and the bees feed -on it. Two birds live in Urd’s well, called swans, and from them has -sprung the kin of birds with this name” (Gylfaginning, c. 16). - - -The Valkyrias were the maids of Odin, and were sent by him to determine -the issue of battle, and choose those who were to fall and dwell with -him in Valhalla. The belief in Valkyrias appears to have been of very -great antiquity, and is one of the most striking, poetical, and grand -features of the Asa faith. In no record of the religions that have come -down to us do we find anything that would make us suppose that such -belief ever existed in other parts of the world, and it was well adapted -to the creed of a people among whom war and the conquest of other lands -were leading features. - -Heid in Voluspa gives the names of the Valkyrias and in her version we -learn that - - She saw Valkyrias - Come from far off, - Ready to ride - To Goth-thjód.[282] - Skuld held a shield, - Skögul was next, - Gunn, Hild, Göndul, - And Geirskögul; - Now are numbered - The maidens of Herjan,[283] - The Valkyrias ready - To ride over the ground. - -So we see that originally the number of Valkyrias belonging to Odin was -only six, afterwards their number increased. Sometimes they appear nine -together, at others treble that number. - -Others are mentioned in Grimnismal. Odin, speaking to Geirrod, says— - - “I want Hrist and Mist - To carry the horn to me; - Skeggjöld and Skögul, - Hild and Thrúd, - Hlökk and Herfjötur, - Göll and Geirahöd, - Randgrid and Rádgrid, - And Reginleif, - They carry ale to the Einherjar.”[284] - - -“Hjörvard and Sigrlin had a large and handsome son. He was silent, and -no name had been fastened to him.[285] He sat on a mound, and saw nine -Valkyrjas riding, and one of them seemed the foremost—she sang:— - - Late wilt thou, Helgi, - Rule over rings[286] - On the Rodulsvellir,[287] - If thou art ever silent.” - -“The daughter of King Eylimi was Svava; she was a Valkyrja and rode over -air and sea; she gave this name to Helgi, and often afterwards sheltered -him in battles” (Helga Kvida Hjörvardssonar). - - -The following among other poetical and figurative names are given to the -Valkyrias:—The maidens of victory, the goddesses of the fight, the -graspers of spears, the witches of the shield, the maidens of the slain, -the exultant ones, the strong one, the entangling one, the silent one, -the storm-raisers. They are mentioned as riding through the air, over -the sea, and amid the lightning, helmet-clad, with bloody brynjas, and -glittering spears; the spear which carried death and victory being the -emblem of Odin. When their horses shake their manes, the froth which -comes from their bitted mouths drops as dew into the valleys, and hail -falls from their nostrils into the woods. - -The slain were called _Val_ (chosen), and belonged to Odin. From the -word _Val_ are derived the names of Valkyrias, Valfödr (the father of -the slain), Valhalla (the hall of the slain), Valól (field of battle, -field of the slain), and probably also of those birds of prey which -after the battle visited the field of action. - -_Skuld_, the youngest of the three Nornir, who personified the future, -followed the Valkyrias, probably in order to witness the decrees of fate -given to men at their birth. - - -“There are others that have to serve in Valhöll, carry drink and take -care of the table-dressing and the beer cups. These are called -Valkyrias; Odin sends them to every battle; they choose death for men -and rule victory. Gunn and Róta and the youngest Norn, Skuld, always -ride to choose the slain and rule _man-slayings_” (Gylfaginning, ch. -36). - - -It was believed that during a battle warriors sometimes saw Valkyrias -coming to their help: how grand and beautiful must have been the vision -created in their mind by their faith in them, as they thought they saw -them riding on their fiery steeds, and sweeping over the battle-field, -by land or by sea. It is hard to realise a grander picture for a warrior -to behold. - -Helgi saw:— - - Three times nine maidens, - But one rode foremost - A white maiden under helmet; - Their horses trembled, - From their manes fell - Dew into the deep dales, - Hail on the lofty woods; - Thence come good seasons among men, - All that I saw was loathsome to me. - - [Helga Kvida Hjörvardssonar.] - -Sometimes the Valkyrias came to earth and remained among men. - - -“Nidud was a king in Sweden. He had two sons and one daughter, whose -name was Bödvild. There were three brothers, sons of the Finna-king, one -Slagfinn, the other Egil, and the third Völund; they ran on snow-shoes, -and hunted wild beasts. They came to the Ulfdal, where there is a lake -called Ulfsjár (Wolf’s lake), and there made themselves a house. Early -one morning they found at the shore of the lake three women who were -spinning flax, near them lay their swan-skins; they were Valkyrias. Two -of them were daughters of King Hlödver (Louis), Hladgunn Svanhvit -(Svan-white), and Hervör Alvitr (All-wise); and the third Ölrún, -daughter of Kjar of Valland. The brothers took them to their house. Egil -got Ölrún; Slagfinn, Svan-white; and Völund, All-wise. There they dwelt -for seven winters; after which the women went to visit battle-fields, -and did not return. Then Egil went on snow-shoes to look for Ölrún, and -Slagfinn for Svan-white, while Völund remained in Ulfdal. He was the -most skilled smith that is spoken of in ancient Sagas. King Nidud had -him captured, as is told in the song” (Völundar Kvida). - - -Helga Kvida gives an account of how Sigrun, a Valkyria, betrothed -herself to Helgi, and of how she comes with other Valkyrias to protect -him. Their appearance is thus described:— - - Then gleams flashed - From Logafjöll,[288] - And from those gleams - Came lightning; - The high ones[289] rode helmet-clad - Down on the Himinvangar; - Their brynjas were - Blood-bespattered, - And from their spears - Sprang rays of light. - - Early (in the day) asked - From the wolf-lair - The _dögling_ (the king) about this - The southern disir[290] - If they would home - With hildings[291] - That night go; - There had been clang of bowstrings. - - But from the horse - The daughter of Högni (Sigrun) - Hushed the clatter of shields; - She said to the king, - I think we have - Other work to do - Than drink beer - With the ring-breaker. (Helgi) - -In the second song of this poem we learn the mode of thought, the -religious ideas and customs of the people of the North, and glean some -new facts; that men and women were sometimes thought to be born again; -that Helgi derived his name from Helgi Hjörvardson, and that he was -brought up by Hagal. His foes, and not the sons of Hunding, search for -him, but he escapes by dressing himself in the garb of a bondwoman. This -episode of his life and the following fights must have taken place after -those of the first song. The connection between the two poems is -somewhat obscure. - - -“Granmar was a powerful king who lived at Svarinshang; he had many sons, -among them Hödbrod, Gudmund, and Starkad. Hödbrod was at an appointed -meeting[292] of kings; he betrothed himself to Sigrun,[293] daughter of -Högni. When she heard this she rode with Valkyrias over the sea and air -to search for Helgi. He was then at Logafjöll (Fire-mountains), and had -fought against the sons of Hunding; there he slew Alf and Eyjolf, -Hjorvard and Hervard; he was very weary of the fight, and sat down at -Arastein (Eagle’s stone); where Sigrun found him, threw her arms about -his neck and kissed him, and told him of her errand, as is related in -the old Völsunga-kvida:—[294] - - Sigrun sought - The glad king,[295] - She took Helgi’s - Hand in hers; - - She kissed and greeted - The king under his helmet; - Then did his mind - Turn to the maiden. - - She said she loved - With all her mind - The son of Sigmund - Ere she had seen him. - - I was to Hödbrod - In the host betrothed, - But another chief - I wanted to have. - - Yet I fear, chief, - The anger of my kinsmen; - I have broken - The _mind-marriage_ of my father.[296] - - The maiden of Högni - Spoke not against her mind; - She said she would - Have the love of Helgi. - - _Helgi._ - - Do not care for - The wrath of Högni, - Nor for the ill-will - Of thy kin; - Thou wilt, young maiden, - Live with me; - Thou, good maiden, hast kinsmen - Whom I do not fear. - -“Helgi then gathered a large fleet, and sailed to Frekastein (Wolf’s -stone). At sea they met with a dangerous tempest, and lightning flashed -down on the ships. They saw nine Valkyrias riding in the air, and -recognised Sigrun; then the storm abated, and they came safely to the -land. The sons of Granmar sat on a rock when the ships sailed towards -the shore. - -“Gudmund rode home with news of war; then the sons of Granmar gathered a -host. Many kings came there. There were Högni, the father of Sigrun, and -his sons Bragi and Dag. There was a great battle, and the sons of -Granmar fell, with all their chiefs, except Dag, son of Högni, whose -life was spared, and who promised on oath to follow the Völsungs. Sigrun -went among the slain, and found Hödbrod near death’s door. She sang:— - - Sigrun of Sevafjöll[297] - Will not, - King Hödbrod, - Fall into thy arms; - Gone is the life - Of Granmar’s sons; - The grey steeds[298] of jötun-women - Many corpses tear. - - -She met Helgi, who answered:— - - - All is not given to thee, - Mighty wight;[299] - For I say the Nornir - Wield some power. - - This morning fell - At Frekastein - Bragi and Högni; - I was their slayer. - -“Helgi married Sigrun, and they had sons; but Helgi did not live long. -Högni’s son Dag sacrificed to Odin for revenge on his father, and Odin -lent him his spear. Dag met his brother-in-law Helgi at Fjoturlund; he -thrust the spear through him, Helgi fell, and Dag rode to Sevafjoll and -told Sigrun the tidings:— - - Loth am I, sister, - To tell thee the sorrow, - For unwilling have I - Made my sister weep; - This morning fell - At Fjoturlund - The Budlung[300] who was - The best in the world, - And stood on - The neck of hildings.[301] - - _Sigrun._ - - Thee shall all - Oaths harm[302] - Which thou to Helgi - Hast sworn - At the bright - Waters of Leiptr[303] - And at the rain-cold - Rock of the sea. - The ship shall not move - Which should carry thee, - Though a fair wind to thy wish - Blows on it. - The horse shall not run - Which is to run with thee, - Though thou hast to - Escape from thy foes. - - The sword shall not bite - Which thou drawest, - Except when it sings - About thy own head; - Then were the death - Of Helgi avenged, - If thou wert an outlaw - Out in the forest, - Lacking property - And all enjoyment, - And hadst not food - Unless thou tearest corpses. - - _Dag._ - - Mad art thou, sister, - And out of thy wits - As thou invokest curses - On thy brother; - Odin alone - Causes all the ills, - For between kinsmen - Runes of strife he bore. - - Thy brother offers thee - Red rings,[304] - All Vandilsve[305] - And Vigdalir;[306] - Take half of my lands - As indemnity for sorrow, - Thou ring-adorned maiden - And thy sons. - -“Sigrun was short-lived from grief and sorrow. It was the belief in -olden times that men were reborn, but now it is called an old woman’s -story. It is said that Helgi and Sigrun were born again; he was then -named Helgi Haddingjaskati, and she Kara,[307] Hálfdán’s daughter, ‘as -is sung in the lay of Kara,[308] and she was a Valkyria.’” [Helgi -Hundingsbani II.] - - - - - CHAPTER XXV. - RELIGION.—THE VOLVAS. - - Prophetic sibyls—Great reputation of some Volvas—Ceremonies - attendant on their prophecies—Payment to the sibyls—Their - descent—Incantations—Cats favourites of the sibyls. - - -The utterances of the _Volvas_ or sibyls,[309] who could tell the past -and the future, were given to the people as coming from the gods; and by -special preparations and conjurations they made men believe that they -were placed in such a state that they could see into the decrees of -fate, or, as they themselves expressed it, had been informed of things -which were previously secret. - -Some _Volvas_ had a greater reputation than others, and in time of great -calamity people sent for them, in order to know the decrees of impending -fate. When the _Volva_ came a seat of honour was assigned to her, a -separate feast[310] prepared, and among the dishes one made of the -various hearts of animals. - -When the principal question was to be answered, special preparations -were required. _Seid_[311] was to be performed. A _Seid-hjall_, or -platform consisting of a flat stone, was laid upon three or four posts, -and women were to be found who knew how to recite or sing the so-called -Vardlokur.[312] When all this was ready, and the _Volva_ on the -platform, the women formed in a circle round it, and the effective song -was chanted while the seeress, with the strangest gesticulations, made -her conjurations and received her revelations.[313] - -The two brothers Hálfdán and Fródi were kings (in Denmark). Fródi slew -Hálfdán, but could not find his sons Helgi and Hróar, and therefore -invited Sœvil jarl, who was married to their sister Signý, to a feast, -as Fródi suspected that the boys were staying with him. - - -“A _Volva_ called Heid was there; Fródi asked her to use her art, and -try what she could tell of the boys. He entertained her splendidly, and -seated her on a high _seid-platform_. The King asked what tidings she -saw, ‘for I know that many things will pass before thy eyes now, and I -see great luck on thee; and answer me as quickly as thou canst, -seid-woman.’ She then threw open her jaws and yawned much, and a song -came out of her mouth: - - ‘Two are inside, - I trust neither of - The handsome ones - Who sit at the fires.’ - -“The King asked: ‘Is it the boys, or those who saved them?’ She -answered: - - ‘It is those who long - Were in Vifilsey - And were called there - With the names of dogs, - Hopp and Hó.’ - -“At this moment Signý threw a gold ring to her; she became glad at this -gift, and now wished to change what she had told. She said: ‘Why was -this so? All that I told was a lie, and now all my telling is gone -astray.’ The King said: ‘Thou shalt be tortured to tell it.’ ... He -shook the seid-woman hard, and asked her to tell the truth, if she did -not want to be tortured; she yawned much, and the seid-telling was -difficult. She sang:— - - ‘I see where sit - The sons of Hálfdán, - Hróar and Helgi, - Both unhurt; - They will rob - The life of Fródi - -unless they are killed soon, which will not take place;’ thereupon she -leapt down from the seid-platform, and sang:— - - ‘Keen are the eyes - Of Ham and Hrani;[314] - The high-born are - Wonderfully bold.’ - - -“Thereafter the boys ran out to the wood with great fear; their -foster-father Regin recognized them and was very glad. The _Volva_ had -given them the good advice to run away when she ran out of the hall -herself. The king asked men to rise and search for them. Regin -extinguished all the lights in the hall, and each man held the other -back, for some wished them to escape, and in this way they got into the -wood” (Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, c. 3). - - -The _Volva_ Gróa used spell-songs in order to get a whetstone out of -Thor’s head. - - -“The _Volva_ Gróa, wife of Örvandil the skilled, came and sang her -spell-songs over Thor until the whetstone got loose. When Thor felt -this, and had hope of getting rid of the whetstone, he wanted to reward -Gróa for the cure, and make her glad, he told her the tidings that he -had waded southward across Elivagar, and carried Örvandil in a basket on -his back away from Jötunheimar; the proof of this was that one of his -toes had projected out of the basket and frozen so that Thor broke it -off and threw it upon the heaven, and made of it the star called -Örvandil’s toe. Thor said he would soon come home. Gróa became so glad -that she remembered no spell-songs, and the whetstone did not get loose, -and still sticks in the head of Thor” (Skáldskaparmal, c. 17). - - -The descent of the Volvas is thus described:— - - All Volvas come from - Vidólf, - All wizards from - Vilmeid, - All sorcerers - From Svarthöfdi, - All Jötnar - From Ymir. - -The Sagas give an interesting insight into the incantations and ceremony -used by the _Volvas_. - - -“Ingjald dwelt at Hefni, north in Halogaland. He went on warfare in the -summer, remaining quiet during the winter. Friendship existed between -Ingjald and Thorstein Ketilsson, and the former became the fosterer of -Ingimund Thorsteinsson. - -“Once at a feast, according to ancient custom, Ingjald prepared -incantation (_seid_), that men might know their fates. There was there a -Finn woman skilled in witchcraft. Ingimund and Grim (son of Ingjald) -came to the feast with a great many men. The Finn woman was placed high, -and splendid preparations made for her; each of the men went from his -seat to inquire of her about their fates. She told every one his fate, -but they did not all like it quite as well. The two foster-brothers sat -in their seats and did not go to inquire; they had no mind for her -prophesying. The _Volva_ said, ‘Why do these young men not ask about -their fates, for they seem to me the most noteworthy of those present?’ -Ingimund answered, ‘I do not care to know my fate until it comes, and I -think my life does not depend on thy tongue-roots.’ She replied, ‘I -will, however, tell thee unasked. Thou wilt settle in a land called -Iceland; it is still to a great extent unsettled; there thou wilt become -a man of rank and grow old; many of thy kinsmen will also be famous men -in that land.’ Ingimund said, ‘This is well told, because I have made up -my mind never to go to that place, and I should be a poor trader if I -sell my many good family lands and go into deserts.’ The Finn answered: -‘It will happen as I tell, and it shall be a token that the image has -disappeared from thy purse which King Harald gave thee in Hafrsfjord, -and it now lies on the stone ridge where thou wilt settle; a Frey of -silver is marked on it; when thou buildest thy farm my tale will prove -true.’ Ingimund said: ‘If I should not offend my foster-father by it, I -would reward thee by knocking thee on the head; but because I am not an -overbearing or fretful man, I shall not do it.’ She said he need not be -angry. Ingimund said she had brought bad luck there, and she said that -it would be thus, whether he liked it or not. She added: ‘The fate of -Grim also points thither, as well as that of his brother Hrómund, and -both will be great bœndr.’ Next morning Ingimund searched for the image, -but did not find it; he thought this a bad omen. Ingjald told him to be -merry, and not let this affect him, or hinder his joy, saying that many -famous men now thought it honourable to go to Iceland, and that it was -only for good that he invited the Finn. Ingimund said he could not thank -him for this, but nevertheless their friendship would never cease” -(Vatnsdæla Saga, c. 10). - - -“At that time there was a very bad season in Greenland; the men who had -gone a-fishing had a small catch, and some had not returned. There was a -woman in that district (Herjolfsnes), Thorbjörg, who was a _spákona_, -and was called ‘the little _Volva_.’ She had had nine sisters, all -_spákonas_, but she alone was then living. It was her custom in the -winter to go to feasts, and those especially who wanted to know about -their fate, or the season, invited her. As Thorkel was the greatest -bondi in Herjolfsnes, it was thought he ought to know when the bad -season would cease. He invited the prophetess, and she was well -received, as war customary with such women. A high seat was prepared for -her, and a cushion of hen’s feathers placed upon it. That evening, when -she came with the man sent for her, she was dressed in a blue cloak with -straps, set with stones down to the skirts; she wore glass beads on her -neck, and a hood of black lambskin lined with white catskin; she had a -knobbed staff in her hand, ornamented with brass and with stones around -the top; at her belt hung a large skin-bag, in which she kept the charms -which she needed for her foretelling. She wore hairy calfskin shoes with -long thongs with large tin buttons on the ends; she had on her hands -white catskin gloves with the fur inside. When she entered every one -thought it his duty to greet her with words of respect; she received -this according to her liking of each of those present. Thorkel took her -hand and led her to the seat prepared for her, and then begged of her to -let her eyes run over the people of the household, and over the herd, -and over the homestead. She spoke a little of everything. The tables -were set in the evening; the food prepared for her was porridge made -with goat’s milk, and the hearts of all kinds of animals which were -there. She had a spoon of brass and a knife of brass with a handle of -walrus-tusk, mounted with two rings; its point was broken off. After the -tables were taken away, Thorkel went to her and asked how she liked the -looks of things there in the homestead and the behaviour of the men, and -how soon she would ascertain what he had asked her, which all were most -anxious to know. She said she could not tell until the next morning, -after she had slept. Towards the end of the following day such -preparations were made for her as she needed for performing the _seid_. -She bade them get women who knew the witchcraft songs which were used -for the _seid_, called _vard-lokkur_ (weird or fate songs); but such -women could not be found; search was made on the farm if any one knew -them. Then Gudrid (the daughter of an Icelander by name Thorbjörn, who -had emigrated to Greenland) said: ‘I am neither skilled in witchcraft -nor a prophetess, but nevertheless Halldis, my foster-mother, taught me -a poem in Iceland, which she called _vard-lokkur_.’[315] ‘Then thou art -wise in good time,’ replied Thorkel. She answered, ‘This is the only -custom at which I will not assist, for I am a Christian woman.’ -Thorbjörg added, ‘It may be that thou wilt help people herewith and -wouldst not be a lesser woman than before (and still wouldst not be -lowered by it), and of Thorkel I will ask the things needed.’ Thorkel -pressed Gudrid hard, and she consented. The women placed themselves in a -ring around the _seid-hjall_ on which Thorbjörg sat, and Gudrid sang the -song so well that all present thought they had never heard a finer -voice. The _spákona_ thanked her, and said that many spirits who had -before wanted to depart and give no help had now come, and found -pleasure in listening, as the song was so well sung; ‘and many things -which before were hidden from me and others are now made clear. I can -tell thee, Thorkel, that this bad season will not last longer than this -winter, and that it will improve with the spring; the sickness which has -been here will also be better sooner than you expect. I will at once -reward thee Gudrid for thy help, for thy fate is now very clear to me; -thou wilt be married very honourably here in Greenland, though thou wilt -not enjoy it long, for thy ways lie to Iceland, where a great and good -family will spring from thee, and such bright rays shine over thy -offspring that I have not power to see this clearly; and now farewell, -daughter.’ Then they went to the _spákona_, and every man asked what he -wished most to know. She spoke willingly, and what she did not fail much -to prove true. Then she was called for to another farm, and went there. -Thorbjörn was then sent, for he would not stay at home while such -superstitions were performed. The weather soon improved, as Thorbjörg -had told” (Saga Thorfin’s Karlsefnis, c. 3).[316] - - -Cats seem to have been special favourites with these sorceresses. - - -“Thórolf Sleggja became a very unruly man; he was a thief, and in other -respects a very wicked man. People very much disliked his neighbourhood, -and thought they might expect any evil from him. Though he had not many -men with him, he had animals which he trusted, namely, twenty cats; they -were all black, and exceedingly large and strongly bewitched. People -went to Thorstein (a chief) and told him this trouble, as the rule of -the _herad_ belonged to him; they said Thórolf had stolen from many, and -done many other unmanly deeds. Thorstein said this was true, ‘but it is -not very easy to deal with this man of Hel and his cats, and I do not -want to lose any of my men against them.’ They answered he could -scarcely keep his honour if he did nothing. Then Thorstein gathered men, -as he wanted to have many with him. His brothers and his Norwegian guest -were with him. They went to Sleggjustadir. Thórolf did not trouble -himself about this; he could never have good men with him. He went in -when he saw them coming on horseback, and said: ‘Now the guests must be -welcomed, and I intend my cats to do it, and I will place all of them in -the entrance, and it will take them long before they get in if they -defend the door.’ Then he made them very strong with spells, and they -looked very fierce, mewing and rolling their eyes. Jökul (Thorstein’s -brother) said to Thorstein: ‘It was good advice of thine not to let this -human fiend be undisturbed any longer.’ They were eighteen men. Thórolf -said to himself: ‘Now fire shall be made, and I do not care though smoke -follows it, for the coming of the Vatnsdal men is not likely to be -peaceful. He put a kettle over the fire, and laid under it wool and all -kinds of rubbish, and the house became full of smoke. Thorstein came to -the door and said: ‘We ask thee to go out, Thórolf.’ He answered that -their errand could not be peaceful. Then the cats at once began to whine -and act hideously. Thorstein said: ‘This is a wicked company.’ Jökul -answered: ‘Let us go in at them, and not care for these cats.’ Thorstein -said they should not, ‘for it is most likely that our men will be hurt -by all the cats and Thórolf’s weapons, for he is a great champion; I -should prefer that he gave himself up and walked out, for he has so much -smoke from the fuel that he cannot well stay in.’ Thórolf took the -kettle off the fire and threw it on the wool-pile, and so strong a smell -came out that Thorstein and his men could not stand very near the door. -Thorstein said: ‘Beware of the cats that they do not clutch you, and let -us throw the fire into the houses.’ Jökul took a large firebrand and -threw it into the entrance, so that the cats drew back and the door fell -back. The wind blew on the houses and the flames were fanned up. -Thorstein said: ‘Let us stand at the fence where the smoke is thickest -and see what he does, for he has so much fuel that he cannot stay long.’ -Thorstein guessed right. Thórolf jumped out with two chests full of -silver, and went with the smoke; when he came out the Norwegian was -there, and said, ‘Here is the fiend running, and he looks wicked now.’ -He ran after Thórolf down to Vatnsdal river, until they came to some -deep pits or fens. There Thórolf turned round towards him, took hold of -him, laid him under his arm, and said: ‘Thou triest to run now; let us -then both run.’ He jumped into the bog and they sank, and neither came -up again. Thorstein said: ‘A great mishap was this that my Norwegian -should perish, but it is well that Thórolf’s property will be enough to -pay his wergild.’ And so it was. The abode of Thórolf was after this -called Sleggjustadir, and cats were often seen there, and it was often -thought evil to be there” (Vatnsdæla, c. 28). - - -Men and women with the power of foreseeing and foretelling were thought -to be born with the same gifts as the _Volva_;[317] by foretelling evil -they had a great hold on the people, and received good rewards for their -knowledge.[318] - - -“A woman, by name Oddbjörg, went about the _herad_. She was merry, wise -and foreknowing. She made it a great point that the housewives should -receive her well, and she told favourable things according to her -entertainment. She came to Upsalir. Saldis received her well, and asked -her to foretell something good about her boys. She said: ‘These boys -look promising if they have luck, which I do not see.’ Saldis said: ‘I -think thou wilt not find the entertainment very good for this taunt.’ -She answered: ‘Thy entertainment will not depend on this, and thou -needest not be so sensitive as to words.’ Saldis said: ‘Little shalt -thou say of it if thy mind does not think it good.’ She answered: ‘I -have not as yet said too much, but I do not think their love to each -other will last long.’ Saldis replied, ‘I thought I deserved other words -for the sake of good entertainment, and thou wilt be driven away if thou -tellest evil foretellings.’ Oddbjörg said: ‘I think I need not spare -thee as thou mayest this without reason; I will not visit thee again, -and thou mayest bear this as well as thou wilt, but I can tell thee that -they will carry spears of death against each other, and one thing after -another, worse and worse, will be caused by this in the _herad_’” (Viga -Glum, c. 12). - - -“When Hákon, Pal’s son, was in Sweden, he heard of a man who practised -sorcery and foretelling, whether he used for it witchcraft or other -things. He became very curious to see this man, and know what he could -tell about his fate. He went to him, and at last found him in a district -near the sea where he received feasts and foretold seasons and other -things to the bondi. When he met him he asked how he would succeed in -getting the realm or other luck. The wizard asked who he was, and he -told his name and kin, that he was a son of the daughter of Hákon, -Ivar’s son. The wizard said: ‘Why shouldst thou ask witchcraft or -foretelling from me? Thou knowest that thy kinsmen little liked men of -my kind. It may be needful for thee to ask thy kinsman, Olaf the Stout, -in whom thou trustest fully, about thy fate, but I guess that he will -not condescend to tell thee what thou art anxious to know, or is not so -powerful as thou thinkest him.’ Hákon answered: ‘I will not blame him, -for I think it is rather my unworthiness to learn wisdom from him than -his incapability to teach it to me. I have come to thee because I think -that neither of us need envy the other as to virtue or religion.’ The -man answered: ‘I am pleased that thou trustest fully in me, and more -than in the belief of thyself and thy kinsmen. It is strange with those -who have this belief, they fast and have vigils, and think thus to be -able to know the things they desire, and though they do such things they -know less of the things they wish to know the more important they are. -We undergo no afflictions, and yet always know the things our friends -think important. Now it will be so that I will keep thee, because I see -thou thinkest thou canst rather get truth from me than from the -preachers of King Ingi whom he trusts fully. Thou shalt come after three -nights, and then we shall see whether I am able to tell thee any of the -things thou wishest to know.’ They parted, and Hákon passed three nights -in the district, and then went to the wizard. He was alone in a house -and sighed heavily when Hákon entered, stroked his forehead with his -hand, and said it had taken him much trouble to know the things he -wished to hear of; Hákon said he wanted to hear his fate. The wizard -began: ‘If thou wishest to know thy fate it is long to tell, for it is -great, and many great tidings will spring from thy life and doings—I see -in my mind that thou wilt at last become sole chief over the Orkneys, -but it may be thou thinkest the waiting time long. I also think that thy -offspring will rule there, and thy next journey westward to the Orkneys -will lead to great events when that which springs from it appears. Thou -wilt also in thy days commit a crime which thou mayest redress or not to -the god in whom thou believest. Thy steps go further out into the world -than I can trace, though I think thou wilt rest thy bones in its -northern half. Now I have told thee what I can tell thee this time, and -thou mayest be satisfied or not with it.’ Hákon answered: ‘Much tellest -thou if it is true, but I think it will turn out better than thou -sayest, and maybe thou hast not seen the truth.’ The wizard said he -might believe what he liked, but that this would take place” -(Orkneyinga, c. xxvi. p. 100). - - -The crime was the slaying of St. Magnus; and the steps out in the world, -Rögnvald’s journey to the Holy Land. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - RELIGION.—ÆGIR AND RAN.[319] - - Ægir the god of the sea—His wife Ran—The origin of wind and - fire—Figurative names of the sea, the wind, ice, rocks, clouds, - hail, and rain—Ran’s net—The nine daughters of Ægir and - Ran—Superstitions connected with Ran. - - -Ægir seems to have been one of the earlier gods worshipped in the North -as the god of the sea. His worship must have been deeply implanted in -the hearts of the people, and he was worshipped to the end of the pagan -era. He was believed to govern the wind and the sea, and with his wife -Ran to receive all shipwrecked people. He is fabled to have lived in the -island of Læssö, was the son of the Jötun Fornjot, who ruled over -Jötland, and had two brothers, Wind and Fire. - - -“‘How is the wind called?’ ‘The son of Fornjot, the brother of Ægir and -of the Fire.’ ‘How is the fire called?’ ‘The brother of the wind and of -Ægir’” (Skáldskaparmál, cc. 27, 28). - - -“Then Gangleri said, ‘Whence comes the wind? He is so strong that he -moves large oceans and stirs up the fire, but however strong he is he -cannot be seen, so he must be strangely shaped.’ Hár answered, ‘I can -tell thee easily. On the northern end of heaven there sits a jötun -called Hrœsvelg in an eagle’s shape; when he flaps his wings the winds -rise from under them’” (Gylfaginning, c. 18). - - -The Sagas teem with poetical and allegoric expressions about the sea, -the wind, fire, ships, &c., &c. The sea is called— - - Ymir’s blood. - Ran’s husband. - The land of Ægir’s daughters. - The land of the ships. - The sea king’s road. - The house of the sands. - The land of the fishing tackle. - The land of the sea birds. - The land of the fishes. - The land of the keel. - The land of the ship’s beaks. - The necklace of the earth. - The belt of the earth. - The father of the billow. - The father of the nine daughters of Ægir. - The glittering home. - The clashing chain of the rock. - The hidden path. - -It is also called the land of different sea kings. - -In Virgil the sea is called Arva Neptuni, the fields of Neptune. In the -North it is called the land of Ægir, or Ran. - -The sky which hangs over land and water was called— - - The tub of the wind. - The helmet of the wind. - The wash-basin of the winds. - The highway of the moon. - The tent of the sun. - The hall of the moon. - The hall of the mountains. - The wind weaver. - The dripping hall. - The sea of mist. - The upper world, &c. - -The wind and storms are called— - - Ægir’s brother. - The brother of fire. - The wolf of the earth. - The wolf of the sail. - The bane of the ships. - The bane of the woods. - The stone-mad = very mad. - The coldly dressed. - The crasher, clasher. - The soother, comforter. - The squall maker. - The whistler, howler. - The breaker of the tree. - The dog of the sail. - The breaker of the rigging. - The shower driver. - The one madly rushing. - The never silent, &c. - -The ice against which ships had to contend was called— - - The heaven of the deep. - The roof of the salmon hall (the sea). - The elk’s gallows. - -The rocks were called— - - The bones of the sea. - The bones of the earth. - -The anchor was called— - - The one with the cold nose. - -The clouds are called— - - The harbinger of the shower. - The wind floating. - The strength of the storm. - The hiding helmet, &c. - -The hail— - - The stones of the clouds. - -The rain— - - The tears of the clouds. - -The Asar wanted to get a kettle large enough for them all, and sent Thór -to the jötun Hýmir to get it from him. Thor went, and we have from the -Later Edda the story about his fishing for the serpent with Hýmir. He -came back with the kettle after having slain many Jötnar. - - -“Ægir, who is also called Gymir, had made ale for the Asar when he had -got the large cauldron which has been told of. To that feast came Odin -and his wife Frigg. Thor did not come, for he was in Austrveg (eastern -lands). Sif, Thór’s wife, Bragi and his wife Idun were there. Týr was -there; he had only one hand. The Fenris-wolf tore off his hand when he -was tied. Njörd and his wife Skadi, Frey and Freyja, Vidar, Odin’s son, -Loki, Beyggvir and Beyla, the servants of Frey, were there. Many Asar -and Alfar were there. Ægir had two servants, Fimafeng and Eldir; shining -gold was used instead of lights there; the ale carried itself; there was -a great peace-place (_grida stad_)” (Lokasenna). - - -“A man is called Ægir, or Hler; he lived on the island now called Hlésey -(Læssö on the Kattegat); he was very skilled in witchcraft. He went on a -journey to Asgard; when the Asar knew this he was well received, but -with many ocular delusions. In the evening, when they were going to -drink, Odin had swords carried into the hall; they were so bright that -they shone, and no other light was used while they sat drinking. Then -the Asar went to their feast, and the twelve Asar who were to be judges -sat down in high-seats. Their names are: Thór, Njörd, Frey, Týr, -Heimdall, Bragi, Vidar, Vali, Ull, Hœnir, Forseti, Loki. Also the -Asynjur: Frigg, Freyja, Gefjon, Idun, Gerd, Sigun, Fulla, Nanna. Ægir -thought that all looked splendid there. The walls were all covered over -with fine shields, the mead was strong, and much of it was drunk” -(Bragarœdur). - - -“Why is gold called the fire of Ægir? The following tale is told of it. -Ægir, as has been told, had been invited to a feast in Asgard, and when -he was ready to go home he invited Odin and all the Asar to visit him in -three months. On that journey went Odin, Njörd, Frey, Týr, Bragi, Vidar, -Loki, and the Asynjur Frigg, Freyja, Gefjon, Skadi, Idun, Sif. Thór was -not there; he had gone to the eastern lands to slay Tröll. When the gods -had seated themselves, Ægir had _lýsigull_ (light gold, bright gold) -brought in on the floor of the hall, which lighted up and brightened the -hall like fire, as the swords do in Valhalla. Loki quarrelled with all -the gods and killed Fimafeng, Ægir’s thrall; another of his thralls was -called Eldir. - - - Early the gods of the slain (the Asar) - Took their food, - And at the feast - Ere they were satisfied - Shook the twigs - And looked on the blood, - They found there was - Enough at Ægir’s. - - (Hymis Kvida, 1.) - -Ran, who was the wife of Ægir, and like him also worshipped, was -supposed to have a net in which she caught all those who were lost at -sea, and the people seem to have been superstitious as to the manner in -which shipwrecked persons were received by her. - - -“Ægir’s wife is called Ran, and their nine daughters have been named -before. At that feast everything came by itself, food and drink and all -that was necessary for the feast. The Asar became aware that Ran owned a -net in which she caught all men that came out on the sea. Now this -saying relates why the gold is called the fire,[320] or the light or the -brightness of Ægir, or Ran, or Ægir’s daughters” (Skáldskaparmál, c. -33). - - -The nine daughters of Ægir and Ran had names emblematic of the sea and -its waves. - -In the Later Edda (Skáldskaparmál), c. 25, we read— - - -“How is the sea to be called? Ymir’s blood, the visitor of the gods, the -husband of Ran, the father of Ægir’s daughters, who have the following -names:— - -“_Himinglœfa_—the heaven glittering (implying the glittering of the sun -and moon on the waves). - -“_Dùfa_—the dove (symbolising the stillness of a quiet sea, heaving up -and down gently). - -“_Blódughadda_—the bloody-haired (so named from the sunset or blood -giving colour to the waves). - -“_Hefring_—the hurling, heaving—may mean the overdrifting, moving -heavily along by a gale. - -“_Unn_ (_Ud_)—the loving or beloved one. - -“_Hrönn_—the towering one. - -“_Bylgja_—the billowing, swelling one. - -“_Bara_—the one carrying, lashing against the rocks. - -“_Kólga._—the cooling one.” - - -“Thorod had been lost with his men at sea, and the wreck was thrown up -on the shore, but no bodies. His wife and son invited the neighbours to -the _arvel_.[321] The first evening of the _arvel_, when the men had sat -down in their seats, Thorod and his companions walked into the hall, all -wet. They were well received, for this was thought a good omen; men in -those days believed that drowned men had been well received by Ran, if -they visited their own _arvel_, for there still remained some of the old -beliefs, although men had been baptized, and were named Christians” -(Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 54). - - -In Hervarar Saga, Gest asks King Heidrek, “Who are those widows who, -according to the habits of their fathers, live together, and who seldom -are partial to men, &c.?” The latter replies: “They are Ægir’s daughters -(the waves); they always go three together, and the winds awaken them.” - -Egil’s son Bödvar having been drowned, the old father in his grief over -his loss composed a poem about him. Vol. ii., p. 416. - - Very roughly has Ran - Handled me, - I am very much bereft - Of beloved friends. - The sea tore asunder - The ties of my kin, - A string twisted[322] - By myself. - - Knowest thou that - If I avenged this[323] with the sword - Then the _ale-smith_[324] - Would be luckless.[325] - If I could slay - The brother of the upheaver of waves[326] - I would go and fight - Against the wife of Ægir. - - But I did not - Think I had - Strength to fight a battle - Against the _plank-bane_,[327] - For the helplessness - Of an old man - Is before the eyes - Of all people. - - Ran has me - Robbed of much; - It is bitter to tell - Of a kinsman’s death - Since my family-shield[328] - Parted from life - To the _joy-ways_.[329] - - (Egil’s Saga, c. 81.) - -Fridthjof, for having violated the peace of Baldr’s temple, was -condemned by the Kings, Helgi and Hálfdán, to proceed to the Orkneys to -collect the tribute from Angantyr the Jarl. - - -“Then came a wave dashing so strongly that it carried away the gunwales -and part of the bows, and flung four men overboard, who were all lost. - -“‘Now it is likely,’ said Fridthjof, ‘that some of our men will visit -Ran. We will not be thought fit to come there unless we prepare -ourselves well. I think it right that every man should carry some gold -with him.’ He cut asunder the ring of Ingibjörg and divided it among his -men, and sang— - - We will cut the red ring - Which the rich father - Of Hálfdán owned. - Before Ægir slays us. - Gold shall be seen on the guests - In the middle of the hall of Ran, - If we need night quarters there, - That befits open-handed warriors.” - - (Fridthjof’s Saga, ch. vi.) - - - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - RELIGION.—SACRIFICES TO THE ALFAR, DISIR, FYLGJA, HAMINGJA, AND - LANDVŒTTIR. - - Sacrifices to the Alfar—Early worship of the Alfar—Spirits of the - Alfar—Sacrifices to the Disir—Ceremonies attending the - sacrifices—The Fylgja and Hamingja or following and family - spirits—They take various shapes—They appear in dreams—Guardian - spirits of the land. - - -The people made sacrifices to the Alfar (_Alfa-blót_) mentioned in the -earlier Edda, as well as to the Asar and Disir, who we have seen were -closely related to the former.[330] These sacrifices, of which there are -few accounts, and which seem to have been made in houses, are perhaps -traces of a religion previous to that of Odin of the North. - -King Olaf Haraldsson sent as messengers to Olaf, King of Sweden, Björn, -his marshal, and the Icelandic scald Sigvat. After leaving Norway they -went across the Eidaforest. - - -“Then they went through Gautland, and one evening came to a farm called -Hof. The door was shut and they could not enter; the husband and wife -said it was holy there, and they went away. Then they came to another -farm; the housewife stood at the door and asked them not to go in, -saying they were holding _Alfa-blót_. Sigvat sang:— - - Do not go farther in, - Wretched man; - I fear the wrath of Odin, - We are heathens.” - - (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 92.) - - -We have seen that the Alfar, from whom some people claimed their -descent, as others did from the Asar, were of two kinds, and dwelt at -Alfheim, not far from the Urd well by the ash Yggdrasil. They made the -fetter _Gleipnir_, with which the Fenris-wolf was kept tied; also the -ship _Skidbladnir_, Odin’s spear _Gungnir_, and Sif’s golden hair, &c. - - -“Why is gold called the hair of Sif? ‘Loki, son of Laufey, had, through -cunning, cut off all the hair of Sif (wife of Thor). When Thor knew it -he took Loki and would have crushed every bone in him if he had not -sworn to get the Svartalfar (black Altar) to make hair of gold for Sif -which would grow like other hair. Thereafter Loki went to the Dvergar, -called the sons of Ivaldi,[331] and they made the hair and _Skidbladnir_ -and the spear of Odin, _Gungnir_. Then Loki staked his head to the Dverg -Brok that his brother Sindri would not be able to make three things as -good as these. When they came to the smithy, Sindri laid the skin of a -swine on the hearth and asked Brok to blow (the bellows), and not to -stop before he had taken from the hearth what he had put on it. When he -had left the forge and Brok had made the bellows blow, a fly[332] sat -down on his hand and pecked at it; he continued until the smith took -from the hearth a boar with golden bristles. Then Sindri put gold on the -hearth and asked him to blow and not to stop till he came back. He went, -and the fly came and sat down on his neck and pecked twice as hard, but -he blew until the smith took from the hearth a gold ring called -_Draupnir_. Then Sindri laid iron on the hearth and asked him to blow, -as this would be of no use if he stopped it. Then the fly settled down -between his eyes and pecked at his eyelids. When the blood ran down into -his eyes so that he saw nothing he swept away the fly as quickly as he -could, and the bellows fell down; then the smith came and said that now -all that was on the hearth had been made nearly useless. He took a -hammer from it and gave all these (three) things to his brother Brok, -and asked him to take them to Asgard for the wager.... Loki gave to Odin -the spear _Gungnir_, to Thor the hair for Sif, to Frey _Skidbladnir_.... -Then Brok gave the ring (_Draupnir_) to Odin, and said that every ninth -night eight rings equally heavy would drop from it; he gave the boar to -Frey, and said it could run over sea and air by night and day faster -than any horse, and that the night or mijrk-heimar (the black world) -would never get so dark but there would be enough light from the shining -of its mane. He gave the hammer to Thor, and said that whatever he met, -however large the object was, he might strike it with the hammer and it -would never fail; if he threw it at anything it would never miss, and -never go so far as not to come back into his hand’” (Skáldskaparmal, -35). - - -“Ragnar (the son of Sigurd Hring) grew up in his father’s hird; he was -taller and handsomer than any man people had seen, and like his mother -and her kin to look at, for it is known from all old sayings about the -people that are called Alfar that they were much finer than other kinds -of men in the northern lands. The parents of his mother Alfhild and all -her kin sprung from Alf the old” (Sögubrot, c. 10). - - -“The land which King Alf ruled was called Alfheim, and all the people -that spring from him are of the Alfa-kin; next after the Risar they were -finer than other people. King Alf was married to Bryngerd, daughter of -King Raum, in Raumariki; she was tall but not handsome, for Raum was -ugly;[333] the men who are tall and ugly are called _raumar_” -(Thorstein’s Saga Vikingssonar, c. 1). - - -The people thought that the spirits of the Alfar sometimes lived not far -from human habitations. - -Kormak and Thorvard had fought, and the latter had been wounded; he -recovered slowly, and as soon as he could get on his feet went to find -Thordis (a Volva), and inquired how he could best recover his health. He -replied:— - - -“A short distance from here there is a hill, in which Alfar live. Thou -must get the bull, which Kormak killed, and with its blood redden the -outside of the hill, and make a feast for the Alfar of the meat, and -thou wilt recover” (Kormak’s Saga, c. 22). - - -_Disa-blót._—The sacrifices offered to the Disir, or genii who specially -guarded men and families and appeared when important events -happened,[334] seem to have been performed by women only, and to have -been usually made in the autumn or winter nights; sometimes human -sacrifices were made to them. - -This worship from its very nature was probably of great antiquity, and -belonged to the religion practised by the Asar. - -The earliest account of a _Disa-blót_ is in Hervarar Saga. - - -“A man named Arngrim was a Risi and mountain dweller, who took Ama Ymi’s -daughter from Ymisland, and married her; their son was Hergrim, called -_half-Tröll_. He was sometimes with the mountain Risar, and sometimes -with men; he had the strength of a Jötun; was much skilled in witchcraft -and a great Berserk;[335] he carried off Ogn Alfasprengi from Jötunheim -and married her; they had a son called Grim. Starkad then lived at -Ölfossar; he was by kin a Thurs, and like them in strength and nature; -his father was Störkvid. Ogn Alfasprengi was betrothed to Starkad, but -Hergrim took her from him while he was travelling north over Elivágar; -when he came back he asked him to give him back his wife, and at the -same time challenged him to ‘holmganga.’[336] They fought at the -uppermost waterfall at Eydi. Starkad had eight hands, and fought with -four swords at once. He won the victory, and Hergrim fell. Ogn was -looking on, and when Hergrim had fallen she stabbed herself and would -not marry Starkad. Starkad took all the property of Hergrim with him, -and also his son Grim, who grew up with him, and was both tall and -strong. King Alf, who ruled in Alfheimar, had a daughter Alfhild. At -that time the land between Gautelf and Raumelf was called Alfheimar. One -autumn there was a great _disablót_ (sacrifice to the Disir)[337] at -King Alf’s, and Alfhild went to it; she was more beautiful than any -other woman, and all the people in Alfheimar were handsomer than other -people at that time; but in the night, as she was reddening the _hörg_ -with blood, Starkad Aludreng took her away to his home. Then King Alf -invoked Thor to seek for Alfhild, and Thor killed Starkad, and made -Alfhild go home to her father, and Grim the son of Hergrim with her. -When Grim was twelve winters old he went into warfare and became one of -the greatest warriors; he married Bauggerd, the daughter of Alfhild and -Starkad. He settled on an island in Halogaland called Bólm, and was -therefrom called Eygrim Bólm; their son was Arngrim Berserk, who -afterwards lived in Bólm, and was a most famous warrior” (Hervarar Saga, -c. 1). - - -“King Eirik Bloodaxe and Gunnhild came the same evening to Atli, where -Bard had prepared a great feast for him, and there was to be a -_disablót_. There was much drinking and feasting in the hall. The king -asked where Bard was, for he saw him nowhere. A man replied: ‘Bard is -outside helping his guests.’ ‘Who are those guests,’ inquired the king, -‘that he thinks it more his duty to be there than inside with us?’ The -man told him they were the huskarlar (servants) of Thorir hersir. The -king added: ‘Go to them as speedily as possible, and call them in here.’ -When they came, the king received Ölvir well, and made him sit opposite -him in the high-seat, and his men on both sides of him. Egil was next to -Ölvir; then ale was brought in, and many memorial toasts were drunk, a -horn to be emptied at each. As the evening was drawing to a close many -of Ölvir’s men became drunk; some of them vomited in the hall, but -others went outside” (Egil’s Saga, c. 44). - - -Even at Upsala sacrifices were offered to the Disir. - - -“King Adils was at a _disablót_, and rode on a horse round the disarsal -(hall of the Disir); his horse stumbled and fell, and the king was -thrown off, and his head hit a stone so that it broke and his brains lay -on the stone. This caused his death. He died at Uppsalir, and is -mound-laid there; the Swedes called him a powerful king” (Ynglinga Saga, -c. 33). - - -Among the Disir two women, who are mentioned several times in the Sagas, -seem to have been regarded as special objects of worship. These are the -sisters Thorgerd Hörgabrud, or Hölgabrud, and Yrpa. The name of -Hörgabrud signifies the bride of the altars, and indicates her supposed -holiness; and the second name, Hölgabrud, undoubtedly shows that she has -been especially worshipped in Hálogaland, whence the family of the great -Hakon Jarl hailed; thus Thorgerd and her sister came to be the special -guardians of that family (see Human Sacrifice, page 367). - - -“A king called Hölgi, after whom Hálogaland is named, is said to have -been the father of Thorgerd Hölgabrud. To both of them sacrifices were -made, and a mound was raised for Hölgi; one layer was of gold and -silver, which were offerings, and another was of earth and stones” -(Later Edda (Skáldskaparmál), c. 45). - - -The Disir are often spoken of as Fylgja (following spirit), and Hamingja -(good luck or family spirit); but there must have been some distinction -between them and the Disir proper, as no sacrifices were offered to the -Hamingja and Fylgja.[338] - -The latter seem to be synonymous, but the former spirit, which at the -hour of death left the dying person and passed to a dear son, was the -more personal, and it was believed that it could be transmitted from one -man to another. - -The expressions _kynfylgja_ (kinguardians), _attarfylgja_ (family -guardians), which sometimes occur in the Sagas, seem to indicate a -belief that the eminent qualities of a family were protected by these -spirits. - -King Volsung married his daughter Signy to King Siggeir. When Siggeir -departed— - - -“Signy said to her father: ‘I do not want to go with Siggeir, and my -mind does not feel love towards him, and I know by my foresight, and -from our _kynfylgja_, that this marriage will cause much sorrow to us if -it is not soon broken off” (Volsunga Saga, c. 4). - - -Sometimes the guardian spirit of one man would follow another. Thorstein -went to find the Dverg Sindri, and gave him good gifts, and they -separated with the greatest friendship. The Dverg said— - - -“Now must we separate for some time, and fare thee well. I tell thee -that my _Disir_ will constantly follow thee. Thereupon Thorstein went to -his boat and rowed to his men” (Thorstein Vikingsson, ch. xxii.). - - -“At the time when Olaf came to Gardariki there were many men in Hólmgard -who foretold future things; they all could tell by their wisdom that the -_fylgjas_ of a young foreigner had come into the country, and that these -were so lucky-looking that never had they seen the fylgjas of any man -like them; but they knew not who or whence he was; nevertheless they -showed with many words that the bright light shining over him would -spread all over Gardariki and widely through the eastern half of the -world” (Fornmanna Sögur, I. c. 57). - - -“Glum dreamed one night that he was standing outside his farm, and -looking over the fjord, and that he saw a woman going up the district -from the sea, and walking towards Thverá (the farm of Glum). She was so -large that her shoulders touched the mountains on both sides of the -valley; he went from the house to meet her, and invited her to him, and -then he awoke. All thought it marvellous, but he said: ‘The dream is -great and remarkable; but thus will I interpret it: that my mother’s -father Vigfus must be dead, and that woman who was taller than the -mountains is probably his hamingja, for he surpassed others in most -things of honour, and his luck will dwell where I am.’ Next summer, when -ships arrived from Norway, the death of Vigfus was heard of” (Viga Glum, -c. 9). - - -The shapes of the various _Fylgjas_ can best be found from the forms in -which the people thought they perceived them. They were inherited from -one man by his descendants and even relatives, so that some families had -their permanent guardianship; to them accordingly was often ascribed the -success of some individuals. - -The shapes most frequently assumed were those of birds and animals, and -in some such shape every man was supposed to have his _fylgja_ -indicative of his character; cunning people were said to have foxes for -their _fylgja_; fierce warriors, wolves; great chiefs, eagles, oxen, -bears, and other animals.[339] From numerous Sagas we find that they -frequently assumed the shape of bears, which went in front of the -persons they wanted to guard, and sometimes presented themselves in the -form of the human being whose genii they were, but _never_ in the _shape -of women_[340] like the Disir proper. Those of the deceased were -believed to warn their relatives, kinsmen, and friends, and appeared at -or before important events in the life of the person whom they guarded, -sometimes while he was awake, but as a rule in dreams, and it was -believed that a sudden sleepiness foreboded their coming. Wherever those -under their protection went they accompanied them, preceding them to -such places as they intended to visit. - -When Halfred while on a voyage to Iceland fell sick— - - -“A woman was seen to walk along the ship; she was large and had on a -coat of mail, and walked on the waves as if on land. Halfred looked and -saw that it was his female guardian (fylgja-kona), and said: ‘I declare -myself altogether sundered from thee.’ She asked, ‘Wilt thou, Thorvald, -receive me?’ He replied he would not. Then Halfred the young (a son of -the poet Halfred) said, ‘I will receive thee;’ she then vanished. Then -Halfred said: ‘I will give to thee, my son, the sword of the king, but -the other things shall be laid in my coffin if I die on board the ship.’ -He sang (‘God rules; I fear hell; every man must die’). A little after -he died, and was laid in a coffin with his things, a cloak, a helmet, -and a ring, and then thrown overboard” (Halfredar Saga, c. 11). - - -The chief Hall of Sida had a feast. In the night Thidrandi his son heard -some one knocking repeatedly at the door, and went out with a sword in -his hand. - - -“He heard the sound of horses’ feet from the north, and saw nine -women[341] riding in black clothes with drawn swords in their hands. He -also heard horse-feet from the south, and saw nine women all in white -clothes on white horses. He wanted to go in and tell this vision to -people, but the black-dressed women were quicker and attacked him, while -he defended himself valiantly. - -“A long while after Thórhall (one of the guests) awoke and asked if -Thidrandi was awake, and got no answer. He said it was too late. They -went out. The moon shone and the weather was frosty. They found -Thidrandi lying wounded” (Fornmanna Sögur). - - -“One summer King Ivar Vidfadmi went with his host west from Sweden to -Reidgotaland, and landed in Selund. He sent word to his son-in-law -Hrœrek to come to him; he told this to Aud his wife, who asked if he -intended to go to meet his kinsman and invite him to a feast on shore. -In the evening, when King Hrœrek retired, Aud had prepared a new bed -with all the clothes in it new, and placed it on the middle of the -floor; she requested him to sleep therein, to remember what he dreamt, -and tell it her in the morning; and she made herself another bed. In the -morning, when asked about his dream, ‘I dreamt,’ he said, ‘that I was -standing near a forest, beside a fine level field, and there saw a stag. -Then a wild beast, with a mane like gold, ran out of the forest; the -stag thrust its horns under the shoulder of the beast, and it fell dead. -Thereupon I saw a large dragon fly to where the stag was, at once seize -it in its claws, and tear it asunder. Then I saw a she-bear with her -cub, which the dragon wanted to take, but the bear defended it; and then -I awoke.’ She answered: ‘This is a remarkable dream; and beware thou of -King Ivar, my father, that he does not deceive thee when thou meetest -him, for thou hast seen kings’ _fylgjas_, and there will be fights with -them, and it will be well if this stag is not thy own _fylgja_, which -seems most likely to me”[342] (Sögubrot, c. 2). - - -“That morning Thorstein awoke in his room, and said: ‘Art thou awake, -Thórir?’ ‘I am,’ answered Thórir, ‘but have slept till now.’ Thorstein -said: ‘I want to get ready to go away from this room, for I know that -Jökull will come hither to-day with many men.’ ‘I do not think so,’ said -Thórir, ‘and will not go; but how hast thou found it out?’ ‘I dreamt,’ -said Thorstein, ‘that thirty wolves ran hither and seven bears, with an -eighth red-cheeked bear, which was large and fierce; with them also were -two she-foxes, which ran ahead of the flock and were rather -fierce-looking; I disliked them most. All the wolves attacked us, and it -seemed to me that at last they tore all my brothers asunder, except thee -alone; but nevertheless thou didst fall. Many thought I was killed by -the bears, but I killed all the wolves and the smaller she-fox; then I -fell. What thinkest thou this dream signifies?’ said Thórir. ‘I think,’ -said Thorstein, ‘that the large red-cheeked bear is Jökul’s _fylgja_, -but that the other bears are the _fylgja_ of his brothers, and all the -wolves I have seen are men with them, for they are likely to show the -tempers of wolves to us. With regard to the two she-foxes, I do not know -the men who have those _fylgja_; I think they have lately come to Jökul, -and they must be disliked by most men’” (Thorstein Vikingsson, c. 12). - - -The child of an Icelandic woman by name of Orny, having been -exposed,[343] was saved by a bondi named Krumm, and by him raised as his -own, and called Thorstein. One day when the boy was seven years of age -Krumm went with him to Krossavik, where the grandfather of the boy, -Geitir, lived. While there he rushed forward on the floor, as is the -habit of children, stumbled and fell. As Geitir laughed, the boy asked -him why he found it so funny. Geitir answered:— - - -“‘It is true; for I saw that which thou didst not see.’ ‘What was it?’ -said Thorstein. ‘I can tell thee. When thou camest into the room a young -white bear followed thee, and ran before thee on the floor; when he saw -me he stopped, but thou didst rush on and stumble over the young bear; I -think thou art not the son of Krumm, but of higher kin’”[344] (Fornmanna -Sögur, iii. p. 113). - - -“He (Thórhalli) dreamt a dream and went northward to Finni. When he came -to the door he said: ‘I should like thee to explain a dream which I have -dreamt.’ Finni said: ‘Go; I will not hear thy dream,’ and pushed the -door and said: ‘Go away as quick as thou canst, and tell it to Gudmund -of Mödruvellir, or else thou shalt be driven away with weapons at once.’ -Then he went away to Mödruvellir. Gudmund had ridden that day out into -the district and was expected home that night. Einar, his brother, lay -down and fell asleep. He dreamt that an ox, very fine-looking, with -large horns, walked up through the district; it walked up to Mödruvellir -and went to every house of the farm, and at last to the high-seat, and -there fell dead. Thereupon Einar said: ‘This forebodes great tidings, -and this is the fylgja of a man.’ Then Gudmund came home, and it was his -custom to go to every house of the farm bœr. When he had come to his -high-seat he leant back and talked with Thórhalli, who told him his -dream. Then he rose in the seat when food was brought. It was hot milk, -warmed with stones. Gudmund said: ‘This is not hot.’ Thorlaug said: ‘Now -I do not know where thy liking for the heat comes from.’ He drank again -and said: ‘This is not hot.’ Then he sank backward and was dead. -Thorlaug said: ‘This is great tidings, which will be heard widely; no -man shall touch him, and often has Einar had forebodings of lesser -tidings.’ Then Einar came and prepared the body and said: ‘Thy dream, -Thórhalli, has no small power,[345] and Finni has seen in thee that the -man to whom thou didst tell the dream would be death-fated, and he liked -Gudmund to become so. Cold must he have been inside, as he did not feel -anything’” (Ljósvetninga, c. 21). - - -The country as well as the people had its guardian spirits, or -_Landvœttir_, by which it and its inhabitants were protected, and which -were supposed to assume different shapes. What the Disir and Hamingja -were to the family, the Landvœttir were to the whole or a large tract of -the country; and though they were sometimes attached to special men, -whom they followed, they were more closely connected with the land than -with the people, and there was a heathen law in Iceland preventing the -people from disturbing them. - -They were subordinate to the guardian gods of each country, and excited -dreams in men, and on behalf of the guardian god watched over those -places at which they dwelt; they especially liked to dwell on mountains, -and sometimes the dead were assigned places with them.[346] - - -“It was the beginning of the heathen laws that men should not go with a -head-ship (with dragon-heads) out on the main sea, or, if they did, they -should take the heads off before they saw land, and not approach it with -gaping heads and yawning snouts, that the _landvœttir_ might not be -frightened” (Landnama, c. 7) - - -These landvœttir sometimes loved special men, and followed them. - - -“Björn (an Icelander) dreamt one night that a rock-dweller came to him -and offered to enter into partnership with him, and he consented. -Thereafter a he-goat came to his goats, and they increased so much that -he soon became very rich. After this he was called He goat Björn. -_Second-sighted_ men saw that all _landvœttir_ followed He-goat Björn to -the _Thing_, and Thorstein and Thórd (his brothers) to hunting and -fishing” (Landnama, iv. c. 12). - - -Egil, fleeing from the pursuit of King Eirik Bloodaxe and his men, got a -vessel to go to Iceland. - - -“And when they were ready to sail Egil went upon an island. He took into -his hand a hazel-pole and went on a projecting rock, pointing landwards. -He took a horse’s head and fastened it upon the pole; then he said the -following words: ‘Here I raise a pole as a curse, and I turn this curse -upon King Eirik and Queen Gunnhild.’ He turned the horse’s head so that -it pointed landwards. ‘I turn this curse on the guardian spirits who -dwell in this country, so that they shall all go astray, and no one of -them shall meet or find his home until they have driven King Eirik and -Gunnhild from the land.’ He thrust the pole into a rift in the rock, and -let it stand there; he carved runes on the pole which told all this -imprecation. Thereupon he went on board ship and sailed” (Egil’s Saga, -c. 30). - - - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - VALHÖLL-VALHALLA. - - Influence of the belief in “the hall of the slain”—A warrior’s - death a pass to Valhalla—Figurative offer of warriors to - Odin—Self-sacrifice to Odin—Entrance to Valhalla—Food and drink - in Valhalla—Odin’s welcome to warriors. - - -The belief in a Valhalla (the hall of the slain) by the ancestors of the -English tribes was destined to exert a most potent influence upon the -future history of Europe. It made the people of the North most powerful -and skilled warriors; it infused into their minds an utter disregard of -death, and led them to accomplish great deeds of valour in their own and -distant lands. To fall gloriously on a battle-field was held to assure a -certain entry to Valhalla; it was a sign of the favour of Odin. This -part of the Valhalla faith was so deeply rooted in the minds of the -people that it lasted to the very end of the Pagan era, or about the -12th century. - -In Grinismal, which gives a description of the home of some of the gods -and of the goddesses, Freya and Saga, we read:— - - _Gladsheim_[347] is the fifth called - Where the gleaming - Valhalla stands; - There Hropt (Odin) chooses - Every day - Weapon-dead men.[348] - - That hall is very - Easily known to those - Who come to Odin; - The hall is roofed with shafts; - It is thatched with shields; - The benches are strewn with _brynja_.[349] - - That hall is very - Easily known to those - Who come to Odin; - A wolf hangs[350] - West of the door; - An eagle hovers above it. - - Five hundred doors - And forty more - I think are in Valhalla; - Eight hundred _Einherjar_[351] - Go through a door at once - When they go to fight the wolf. - -To those men of old, death was but one of the phases of their lives; it -had no terrors for them, and they faced it smilingly, bravely, and -contentedly. It was in their eyes preferable to dishonour, or the -humiliation of defeat; vanquisher and vanquished when dying parted -friends, and praised the deeds of each other, one bidding the other -speed to Valhalla as the fire was lighted on the pyre, or as the burning -ship that was to consume the body sailed from the shore. The victor -often mourned that he had not been among the slain and chosen, and -consoled himself by thinking that he must obtain more renown and do -braver deeds before he could aspire to meet Odin. There is something -grand and noble in this despising of life, and in aspiring, during its -continuance, to do great and noble deeds. - -Before the fight the combatants told each other that they would go to -Valhalla, and the hosts of the enemy were figuratively given to Odin by -throwing a spear over them;[352] King Vikar, of Hördaland, was thus -given to the god by his mother.[353] Odin himself steered Harald -Hilditönn’s war-waggon in the battle, and killed his favourites with -Harald’s weapons for he was old, and could not bear the brunt of any -more fighting. Eirik the victorious threw over Styrbjörn’s host the -spear which Odin gave him, accompanying the action with the words “Odin -owns you all.” - - -“King Vikar sailed from Agdir north to Hördaland with many men. He -stayed a long time in some islands and had strong headwinds. They threw -chips (sacrifice-chips) to get fair wind, and it fell thus that Odin was -to receive a man out of the host to be hanged by drawing of lots. The -host was divided for lot-drawing, and the lot of King Vikar was drawn. -At this all grew silent, and it was resolved that the counsellors should -next day have a meeting about the difficulty. About midnight -Hrosshársgrani (Odin) roused his foster-son Starkad, and asked him to go -with him. They took a little boat and rowed to an islet inside the -island. They walked up to a wood, and found a clearing crowded with men. -A _Thing_ was held there, and eleven men sat on chairs, but the twelfth -was not occupied. They went forward to the _Thing_, and Hrosshársgrani -(Odin) sat down on the twelfth chair. They all greeted Odin. He said -that the judges should judge about the fate of Starkad. Thor said: -‘Alfhild, the mother of Starkad’s father, chose a bad Jötun as father -for her son instead of Asathór, and I forecast for Starkad that he shall -neither have a son nor a daughter, and thus end his kin.’ Odin answered: -‘I forecast for him that he shall live as long as the lives of three -men.’ Thor said: ‘He shall do a _nithing’s_ deed in each of the three -lives.’ Odin answered: ‘I forecast for him that he shall have the best -weapons and clothes.’ Thor said: ‘I forecast for him that he shall -neither own land nor sea.’ Odin answered: ‘I give him that he shall have -very much loose property.’ Thor said: ‘I lay on him a spell which shall -make him think he never has enough.’ Odin answered: ‘I give him victory -and skill in every fight.’ Thor said: ‘He shall become maimed in every -fight.’ Odin said: ‘I give him skaldship so that he shall make poetry as -quickly as he talks.’ Thor said: ‘He shall not remember the poetry he -makes.’ Odin said: ‘I forecast for him that he be thought the greatest -by the most high-born and best men.’ Thor said: ‘He shall be disliked by -all people.’ The judges judged all that they had said of Starkad to be -his fate, and then the _Thing_ was dissolved. Hrosshársgrani and Starkad -went to their boat. Hrosshársgrani said to Starkad: ‘Now thou must -reward me well, foster-son, for the help I gave thee.’ Starkad assented. -‘Then,’ said Grani, ‘thou shalt send King Vikar to me, and I will tell -thee how to do it.’ He handed Starkad a spear, and said it would look -like a reed. They came back to the host when it was nearly day. The next -morning the counsellors of the king met to take counsel, and agreed to -make some semblance of sacrifice, and Starkad told their counsel. There -stood a fir-tree near them, and a high stump near it; low on the fir was -a slender shoot which reached up to the limbs. Servants prepared the -food of the men, and a calf was killed and cut up. Starkad had the -entrails taken out, mounted the stump, bent down the slender twig, and -tied the entrails to it. Then he said to the king: ‘Now a gallows is -ready for thee, king, and it will not seem very dangerous for men. Go -hither and I will lay the string round thy neck.’ The king said: ‘If -this contrivance is not more dangerous than it looks to me, then I do -not think it will hurt me; but, if it is otherwise, then fate will rule -it.’ Then he mounted the stump, and Starkad laid the string round his -neck, and stepped down from the stump. Then he struck him with the reed, -and said, ‘Now I give thee to Odin.’ He let go the twig, and the reed -changed into a spear which pierced the king; the stump sank down under -his feet, the calf’s entrails were turned into a strong withy, and the -twig rose and lifted the king up to the limbs, and there he died” -(Gautrek’s Saga, c. 1). - - -Men occasionally sacrificed themselves by throwing themselves from -cliffs so that they might be acceptable to Odin and go to Valhalla. - - -“Once King Gauti, of Vestr Gautland, was hunting and lost his way; he -found a small farm where the people were afraid of him. When he went to -bed a girl came to him, and when he asked about her family she answered: -‘My father is called Skafnörtung (pincher), because he is so stingy that -he cannot bear to see food or anything else which is his decrease; my -mother is called Tötra (tattered), because she never wants to wear any -clothes but those which are worn and in tatters; she calls that thrift.’ -The king asked: ‘What are the names of thy brothers?’ She answered: ‘One -is called Fjölmódi, the second Imsigul, the third Gilling.’ The king -asked: ‘What art thou and thy sisters called?’ She answered: ‘My name is -Snotra,[354] because I was thought the wisest of us all; my sisters are -called Hjötra and Fjötra. There is a rock close to our farm called -Gillingshamar, and near it a steep rock, which we call Ætternisstapi -(family rock); it is so high and so steep that anything alive falling -down from it is killed. We give it the name Ætternisstapi, because by -its help we reduce our family in number when it seems to us that some -great wonders happen. All our forefathers died there without any -sickness, and then went to Odin; we need not have any burden or -sulkiness from our fathers and mothers, for this place of joy has been -equally easy for all our kinsmen to get to; we need not live with loss -of property, or want of food, or any other wonders or portents that may -happen. Now my father thinks it the greatest wonder, that thou hast come -to our house; it would have been a very uncommon thing even if a man of -low birth had taken food here; but this is most strange that a king, -chilled and without clothes, has come to us, for that has never before -happened. To-morrow my father and mother intend to divide the -inheritance, among us their children; they will then with the thrall go -down the Ætternisstapi, and journey to Valhalla. My father will reward -the thrall for his goodwill, in intending to drive thee from the door, -with nothing less than that he shall enjoy the happiness with him, for -he is sure that Odin will not go to meet the thrall unless he is in his -company.’[355] Then she slept with the king, who when he took leave -asked her to let their child, if a boy, he called Gautrek. - -“When Snotra came home, her father said: ‘A great wonder has happened -that this king has come to our farm and eaten up a great deal of our -property which we least of all wanted to lose. I think we cannot -maintain our family on account of poverty, and therefore I have brought -together all my property, and want to divide the inheritance between my -sons. I and my wife and my thrall intend to go to Valhalla. I cannot -reward the thrall better for his faithfulness than by taking him with -me; Gilling together with his sister Snotra shall get my good ox; -Fjölmódi and his sister Hjötra shall have my gold-bars; Imsigul and his -sister Fjötra shall have all the corn and the fields; but I ask you, my -children, not to increase your number so that you cannot preserve my -inheritance.’ When Skafnörtung had said what he liked they all went up -on Gillingsrock, and they led their father and mother down on the -Ætternisstapi, and they went cheerfully and merrily to Odin. Now when -they came home they consulted how to manage; they took wooden pins and -pinned the vadmal (thick woollen cloth) round every one, so that none of -them touched the other naked; they thought this the best way of -preventing their number increasing. Snotra became aware that she was -with child; she moved the wooden pin in the vadmal so that she could be -touched with the hand, and affected sleep. When Gilling woke he touched -her cheek with his hand, and said: ‘This is bad that I have hurt thee; -it seems to me thou art much stouter than before.’ She answered: ‘Hide -this as well as thou canst.’ He said: ‘That shame I will not have, for -this cannot be hidden when our number is increased.’ - -“Two black snakes crept on the gold-bars of Fjölmódi, who therefore with -his wife threw himself down from the Ætternisstapi. Imsigul saw a bird -take corn from his field; therefore he and his wife went down from -Ætternisstapi. Gilling, the third brother, did the same after Gautrek, -Snotra’s boy, had slain his ox. Snotra being left alone went to King -Gauti” (Gautrek’s Saga, c. 1, 2). - - -The scald Eyvind composed a poem on King Hakon Adalsteinsfostri after -his death in the battle of Stord against the sons of Eirik Blood-axe, -and in this poem we see how he made his entrance into Valhalla, and how -Odin sent Valkyrias to choose those he loved. - - -“The body of King Hakon Adalstein’s foster-son, after the battle, was -carried to Sœheim in Lygrisfjord, in North Hördaland, and a mound thrown -up over it. Before he fell eight sons of Harald (fair-hair) had been -slain in light, as Eyvind has told, and he has said that the king went -to Valhalla, for it was the belief of the heathen that all who died of -wounds were taken to Valhalla.”[356] - - - Göndul and Skögul[357] - Gautatýr[358] sent - To choose among kings - Who of Yngvi’s kin[359] - Should to Odin go - In Valhalla to dwell. - - They found the brother of Björn[360] - Putting on his mail-coat, - The well-endowed king - Stood under the war-banner. - The battle-oars drooped,[361] - The spear trembled, - And then the battle began. - - He called to the Halogalanders - And the Rogalanders; - The only slayer of jarls[362] - Walked into the fight; - The generous one had - A good host of Northmen; - The frightener of Eydanir - Stood early under a helmet.[363] - - The chief of the host - Ere he began the fight - Stripped himself of his war-dress, - Flung his mail-coat on the plain. - He played with the sons of men;[364] - He had to defend his land; - The merry king[365] - Stood under a gold helmet. - - Thus did the sword - In the king’s hand - Cut the cloth of Váfad[366] - As if it cut water. - The spears cracked, - The shields were broken. - The clashing swords rattled - Upon the heads of men. - - The shields and heads - Of Northmen were trodden - By the hard feet - Of the warriors’ hilts.[367] - There was fray on the island, - And the kings reddened - The shining shield-burgh - With the blood of men. - - The wound-fires[368] burned - In bloody wounds. - The halberds sunk - Into men’s bodies; - The wound-drops gushed[369] - On the cape of swords;[370] - The flood of arrows (blood) swelled - On the shore of Stord. - - The gales of Skögul (fights) - Were mingled together - Under the reddened sky of shields; - The clouds (arrows) played about the shields. - The sea of sword-points sounded - In the tempest of Odin;[371] - Many men did sink - In the stream of the sword. - - Then sat the chiefs - With drawn swords, - With broken shields - And coats-of-mail cut. - The host that had to fight - For Valhalla - Was not in high spirits. - - Then Göndul said, - Leaning on her spear-shaft: - “Now the following of the gods increases; - For the powers have - Bidden Hakon home - With a great host.” - - The king heard - What the Valkyrjas said. - The high ones on horseback - Bore themselves handsomely - And sat helmeted - With shields in front. - - _Hakon._ - - Why didst thou decide the battle - As thou didst yesterday, Skögul? - We surely deserved - Victory from the gods. - - _Skögul._ - - We have caused - Thee to keep the field - And thy foes to flee. - - Now we shall ride, - Said the mighty Skögul, - To the good homes of the gods - To tell Odin - That the All-ruler is coming - To see him. - - Hermód and Bragi, - Said Hroptatýr,[372] - Go you to meet the king - As one[373] - Who is thought a champion - Comes this way to the hall. - - Thus spoke the king - As he came from the battle - All bespattered with blood: - Odin to us - Sullen seems - If we can read his mind. - - (_Bragi._) - - Thou shalt have peace - With all _Einherjar_ - And get cheer from the Asar; - Fighter of jarls, - Thou hast here within - Eight brothers,[374] said Bragi. - Our war-dress, - Said the good king, - Will we keep ourselves; - Helmet and coat-of-mail - Must be well cared for; - It is good to have them ready. - - When it was known - That the king had - Respected well the temples, - All the powers and gods - Did Hakon - Welcome bid. - - On a lucky day - Is the king born - Who has a mind like this; - His time - Will always - Be mentioned for good. - - The Fenrir-wolf will be - Let loose - Upon the seat of men[375] - Before as good - A king arises - In the empty land. - - Cattle die, - Kinsmen die, - Land and ground are laid waste. - Since Hakon went - To the heathen gods - Many men are mournful. - -The warriors who went to Valhalla were named _Einherjar_, and their food -and drink are thus described:— - - -“Then said Gangleri: ‘Thou sayest that all men who have fallen in battle -since the beginning of the world have now come to Odin in Valhalla: what -has he to give them to eat? It seems to me that there must now be a -great multitude.’ Hár replied, ‘Thou sayest true that there are very -great hosts of men there; but there will be many more, nevertheless they -will be thought too few, when the wolf comes; but there are never such -hosts in Valhalla that there is not more than enough of the flesh of the -boar called Sæhrimnir. He is boiled every day, and every night he is -whole again. As to this question which thou now askest, I think few are -wise enough to be able to tell the truth about it’” (Later Edda). - - -“Then Gangleri said: ‘What have the Einherjar[376] to drink which may -last as long as the food? Is water drunk there?’ Hár answered: -‘Strangely dost thou ask; as if Allfödr (Allfather = Odin) would invite -to him kings or jarls or other powerful men and give them water to -drink; and, by my troth, many of the comers to Valhalla would think the -drink of water dearly bought if no better cheer were to be had there, -and they have before suffered pains and wounds unto death. I can tell -thee another thing. The goat Heidrún stands on the roof of Valhalla, and -bites buds off the branches of a very famous tree, Lerad, and from her -teats flows a mead which fills a large vessel every day; the vessel is -so large that all the Einherjar may get quite drunk out of it.’ Gangleri -said: ‘That is an exceedingly useful goat for them; the tree on which -she feeds must be very good.’ Hár said: ‘Still more remarkable is the -stag Eikthyrnir which stands on Valhalla and feeds on the branches of -this tree. From his horns there falls such a large drop that it comes -down into Hvergelmir, and thence fall the rivers named, Sid, Vid, Sekin, -Ekin, Svöl, Gunnthró, Fjörm, Fimbulthul, Gipul, Göpul, Gömul, Geirvimul, -which run through the Asa-land’” (Later Edda, Gylfaginning, c. 39). - - -The warriors in Valhalla appear to have divided their time between -drinking and fighting. - - _Odin._ - - Tell me,... - Where men in the grass-plot - Fight every day? - They slay whom they choose - And ride from the fight - And sit together well agreeing. - - _Vafthrudnir._ - - All the _Einherjar_ - In the grass-plot of Odin - Fight every day; - They slay whom they choose - And ride from the fight - And sit together well agreeing. - - (Vafthrudnismal.) - -In Grimnismál we are told that the cook in Valhalla was called -Andhrimnir, and the cauldron Eldhrimnir:— - - Andhrimnir does - Cook Sæhrimnir - In Eldhrimnir; - The best of pork, - But few know - By what the Einherjar live. - - -“Then Gangleri said: ‘A great many men are there in Valhalla; surely -Odin is a very great chief, as he rules over such a host. What is the -entertainment of the Einherjar when they are not drinking?’ Hár -answered: ‘Every day after having dressed they put on their war clothes, -and go out into the enclosure and fight and slay each other. This is -their game; near day-meal[377] they ride home to Valhalla and sit down -to drink[378]’” (Later Edda, c. 40). - - -Odin did not eat, for wine was to him both food and drink. - - -“Then said Gangleri: ‘Has Odin the same fare as the Einherjar?’ Hár: -‘The food which stands on his board he gives to his two wolves, Geri and -Freki;[379] he needs no food, for wine is both drink and food to him. - - -“King Eirek (blood-axe of Northumberland), son of Harald Fairhair, one -summer made warfare west of Scotland, and in Ireland, and in Bretland -(Wales), and did not stop before he came south to England, and ravaged -there as in other places, because King Adalstein (Ethelstan) was then -dead, and his son Jatmund ruled England” (Fagrskinna, c. 27). - - -“Eirik had a host so large that five kings followed him. As he was a man -of great bravery and a victorious man he trusted so well himself and his -host that he went far inland with warfare. Then King Olaf, King -Jatmund’s tax-king,[380] came against him; they fought, and Eirik was -overpowered by the land-host, and fell there with all his men. Arnkel -and Erlend, the sons of Torfeinar (jarl in the Orkneys), fell there with -him” (Fagrskinna, c. 28). - - -After the death of Eirik, Gunnhild (his wife) caused a poem to be made -on him, how Odin welcomed him, which gives us an idea of the belief of -people about the Valhalla. - - What dreams are those? - Methought a little before day - That I made Valhöll ready - For slain people; - I bid the valkyrjas carry wine, - As a king (visi) was coming; - I expect - From the earth - Some famous warriors; - Therefore is my heart glad. - - What is thundering, Bragi, - As if a thousand were moving, - Or a multitude of men? - The wainscot walls do creak (Bragi answers) - As if Baldr were coming - Back to the halls of Odin. - Foolish talk (said Odin) - Sayest thou, wise Bragi, - Though thou well knowest all things - It is thundering for Eirik - Who will come here - The chief into the halls of Odin. - - Sigmund and Sinfjotli! - Rise quickly - And go meet the chief; - Bid him come in - If it be Eirik, - For him I now expect. - - I awakened the Einherjar; - I bid them rise - To spread the benches with straw, - To wash the beer-vessels, - Why expectest thou Eirik (Sigmund said) - More than other kings? (konung) - In many a land (said Odin) - Has he reddened the sword (mœkir) - And carried the bloody blade. - - Why didst thou then deprive him of victory - As thou thoughtest he was brave? - Because it is uncertain - When the grey wolf looks - To the seat of the gods. - - Hail now, Eirik (said Sigmund), - Thou shalt be welcome here; - Enter the hall, wise man; - I would ask - Who follows thee - Of kings (jöfr) from the thunder of edges (battle)? - - There are five (said Eirik). - I shall tell the names of all. - I am myself the sixth. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - SUPERSTITIONS.—SHAPE-CHANGING. - - Popular belief in the power of shape-changing—Journeys taken under - assumed shapes—The language of birds—Use of animal food to incite - to bravery—The drink of oblivion. - - -We have many instances in the Sagas showing that there was a popular -belief in the power of some persons to change their shape[381] -(_hamhleypa_), either by their own will or by the power of witchcraft. -No matter into what animal shape an individual had been changed, no -spell could ever touch the human eye, which remained unchangeable. - -Men often undertook journeys under an assumed shape, in which case their -own body was supposed to lie as dead, in a magical sleep; and a spirit -was considered most fit for a journey when it was in animal shape: the -name of the person who was on the journey was never to be mentioned, and -it was considered most important that a sleeper should not be aroused, -for if disturbed the whole enchantment was destroyed. - -Women who undertook journeys in such animal shapes were called -_hamhleypa_, or runners under another shape. - - -“It is said that Ulf, a hersir,[382] every night became so cross that no -one could speak to him, and that in the evening the _sleeping sickness_ -came over him, so that he fell asleep. But there were those who said -that he could change his shape and roam about far away as a wild beast, -and that it was only his body which sat sleeping in the house; therefore -his name was lengthened, and he was called _Kveldulf_ (Evening Ulf)” -(Egil’s Saga, ch. 1). - - -“It is mentioned that once when Signy was sitting in her _skemma_[383] -there came to her a Völva very skilled in witchcraft. - -Signy spoke to her: ‘I want to exchange shapes with you.’ She said, -‘Thou shalt have thy will;’ so she caused by her witchcraft that they -exchanged appearance; the sorceress sat down on the bed of Signy, as she -told her, and went to bed with the king in the evening, and he did not -know that Signy was not with him. Of Signy it is said that she went to -the earth-house of her brother Sigmund, and asked him to lodge her -during the night, as she had gone astray in the forest, and did not know -where she was. He said she could stay there, and he would not refuse a -lonely woman lodgings, and thought she would not reward him for the good -entertainment by telling where he was. She went into his room and they -sat down to eat; he often looked at her, and she seemed fair and fine to -him.... Thereupon she went home, met the sorceress, and asked to -exchange shapes again, and thus she did. When time passed on Signy gave -birth to a boy, who was called Sinfjötli. When he grew up he was large -and strong and good-looking, and resembled much the Volsunga family; he -was not quite ten winters old when she sent him to Sigmund in the -underground house. She had tried her other sons before she sent them to -Sigmund by sewing gloves to their hands through flesh and skin. They did -not bear it well, and grumbled at it. She did the same to Sinfjötli, and -he did not wince; she tore the kirtle off him so that his skin followed -the sleeves;[384] she said he must feel pain. He answered, ‘Little will -a Volsung feel this pain.’ Then he came to Sigmund, who asked him to -knead their meal while he fetched firewood. He handed him a bag, and -then went after wood. When he returned, Sinfjötli had baked the bread. -Sigmund asked if he had found anything in the meal. He replied, ‘I fancy -there was something alive in the meal when I began to knead it, but I -have kneaded it also herein.’ Sigmund said, laughing: ‘I guess thou wilt -not eat this bread to-night, for thou hast kneaded in it the most -poisonous worm.’ Sigmund was so strong that he could eat poison without -being hurt; and Sinfjötli could stand poison externally,[385] but was -unable to eat or drink it”[386] (Volsunga Saga, c. 7). - - -“King Hring, of Uppdalir, in Norway, had a son, Björn (bear), and when -his wife died he married a woman from Finnmörk. She changed her stepson -into a bear in this way. She struck him with a wolfskin glove, and said -that he should become a fierce and cruel lair-bear, ‘and use no other -food than the cattle of thy father; thou shalt kill it for thy food, so -much of it that it will be unexampled, and never shalt thou get out of -this spell, and this revenge shall harm thee.’ - -“Thereafter Björn disappeared, and no one knew what had become of him. -When he was missed he was searched for, and nowhere found, as was -likely. Then it is told that the king’s cattle were killed in large -numbers, as a big and fierce grey bear began to attack them. One evening -the bondi’s daughter (Björn’s sweetheart) happened to see this fierce -bear, which came to her and fondled her much. She thought she recognized -in this bear the eyes of Björn, Hring’s son, and did not shun him much. -The bear walked away, and she followed until it came to a cave. When she -came there a man greeted Bera,[387] the bondi’s daughter. She recognized -Björn, and they were very glad to see each other. They stayed in the -cave for a while, for she would not part before she need. He said it was -unfit for her to stay there with him, as he was a beast by day and a man -by night. King Hring came home from his warfare, and was told what had -occurred while he was away, that his son Björn had disappeared, and a -large beast had come into the country and attacked his own cattle -mostly. The queen urged much to have the beast slain, but it was delayed -a while; the king disliked this, and thought it strange. One night, when -Bera and Björn were in their bed, Björn said, ‘I expect that to-morrow -is my death-day, and that I shall be hunted up, and I take no pleasure -in life because of the ill fate that lies on me, though I have one -enjoyment, namely, that we are two, which will now be changed. I will -give thee the ring which is under my left arm; to-morrow thou wilt see -men who attack me, and when I am dead go to the king and ask him to give -thee what is under the left shoulder of the bear, which he will grant. -The queen will suspect thee when thou goest away, and give thee the -flesh of the animal to eat, but thou shouldst not eat it, for thou art -pregnant, as thou knowest, and wilt bear three boys, who are ours, and -on them will it be seen if thou eatest of the bear’s flesh, and this -queen is the greatest witch. Then go home to thy father, and there bring -up the boys; one of them will seem the worst to thee, and, if thou art -not able to have them at home for the sake of their overbearing and -unruliness, then take them away with thee to this cave. Thou wilt find -here a chest with three compartments; the runes by its side will tell -what is to belong to each of them; three weapons are in the rock, and -each of them shall have the one intended for him. The first-born of our -sons shall be called Thórir, the second Elgfrodi, the third Bödvar, and -I think it probable that they will not be little men, and their names -will long be remembered.’ He foretold her many things, and then the -bear’s skin fell over him. The bear went out, and she after him, and -looked round. She saw many men coming past the spur of the mountain, -with many large dogs in front. The bear ran out of the cave and along -the mountain; the dogs and the king’s men came against it, and it was -difficult to hunt it; it maimed many men before it was slain, and killed -all the dogs. At last they made a circle round it, and it ran in the -circle, and saw that it could not escape; it turned to the king’s side, -caught the man next to him, and tore him asunder alive; then it was so -exhausted that it threw itself down on the ground; they soon rushed at -it and slew it. The bondi’s daughter saw this, went to the king, and -said: ‘Will you, lord, give me what is under the left shoulder of the -bear?’ The king consented, as it could only be a thing well fit to be -given to her. The king’s men had then flayed off much of the skin of the -bear; she went and took the ring, and kept it, but they saw not what she -took, and did not search; the king asked who she was, as he did not know -her; she gave him a wrong name”[388] (Hrolf Kraki, cc. 25, 26). - - -Some women could shape themselves into a _Mara_ or _Kveldrida_ -(evening-rider, or nightmare), in which shape they could hurt or kill -people in their sleep. In the Eidsifja Kristinrett we find that there -was a punishment for women who had this power. - - -“Geirrid and Gunnlaug conversed during the greater part of the day, and -late in the evening she said to him: ‘I should like thee not to go home -to-night, for many are the _sea-sliders_ (those who slide over the -sea—witches, spirits, etc.), and there are often witches beneath a fair -skin, and thou dost not look very lucky in my eyes now.’ He answered: ‘I -shall not be hurt, as we are two together.’ She said: ‘Odd will be of no -use to thee, and thy self-will is worse for thyself.’ Then Gunnlaug and -Odd left, and went to Holt. Katla was already in her bed, and asked Odd -to invite Gunnlaug to stay; he said he had done so, but he wanted to go -home. ‘Then let him go, and meet what he deserves,’ she answered. -Gunnlaug did not come home in the evening, and they talked about -searching for him, but did not. In the night, when Thorbjörn looked out, -he found his son Gunnlaug at the door; he was lying there, and was mad. -He was carried in and his clothes pulled off. He was bruised and bloody -all over his shoulders, and his flesh torn off the bones. He lay all the -winter in wounds, and his sickness was much talked of. Odd Kötluson said -that Geirrid had ridden on him, as they had parted abruptly that night; -and most people thought it to be so. The next spring, during the -citation days, Thorbjörn rode to Máfahlid and summoned Geirrid, charging -her with being an _evening-rider_ and causing the sickness of Gunnlaug. -The case came to the Thorsnesthing, and Snorri godi helped his -brother-in-law, Thorbjörn, while Arnkel _godi_ defended the case for his -sister, Geirrid. The verdict of twelve (_tylftarkvid_)[389] had to -decide; but neither Snorri nor Arnkel were allowed to deliver the -verdict, on account of their relation to prosecutor and defendant. Then -Helgi Hofgardagodi, the father of Björn, whose son Gest was the father -of Skald-Ref, was called upon to deliver the verdict of the twelve. -Arnkel _godi_ went to the Court and took an oath at the altar-ring that -Geirrid had not caused the sickness of Gunnlaug. Thórarin (a son of -Geirrid) and ten others took oath with him, and then Helgi gave verdict -for her (Geirrid), and the suit of Snorri and Thorbjörn was made void, -and this brought dishonour on them” (Eyrbyggja, c. 16). - - -It was believed that some people understood the language of birds.[390] - - -“Dag, the son of King Dyggvi, took the kingship after him; he was so -wise that he could understand the talk of birds. He had a sparrow which -told him many tidings; it flew into various lands. The sparrow once flew -into Reidgotaland, to a farm called Vörvi; it went on the field of the -owner and took food. The owner came there, took up a stone, and wounded -the sparrow to death. King Dag became sorry when the sparrow did not -return; he then made a sacrifice to inquire, and got the answer that his -sparrow had been killed at Vörvi. Then he levied a great host and went -to Gotland, and made warfare and plundered. One evening when he went -down to his ships with his host a thrall ran out of a forest and threw a -pitchfork at them, which hit the king and killed him. His men went back -to Sweden” (Ynglinga Saga, ch. 21).[391] - - -“One summer when King Olaf’s men had been gathering land-taxes he asked -where they were best treated. They said by an old bondi who knew many -things before they happened, and who had answered many of their -questions, and they thought he understood the voice of birds.” ... The -king took this bondi on board his ship to show the way along the coast. - -“As they were rowing a crow flew over the ship with loud shrieks. The -bondi looked at it. The King said: ‘Does it mean anything to thee?’ ‘It -does, lord,’ answered he. Another crow flew over the ship, shrieking. -The bondi forgot to row, and his oar got loose in his hand. The king -said: ‘Thou art very attentive to the crow, or to what it says, bondi.’ -He answered: ‘I have some misgivings, lord.’ A crow passed over the ship -a third time, shrieking louder than the two others, and flying nearer -the ship. The bondi rose and stopped rowing. The king said: ‘This -signifies much to thee, or what does it tell?’ The bondi answered: ‘That -which it is unlikely that I or it knows.’ The king said: ‘Tell me.’ The -bondi sang:— - - The one winter old crow tells, - It knows not; - The two winters old one tells, - I believe it not; - But the three winters old one tells, - Which I think not likely, - That I row - On a mare’s head, - And that thou, king, - Art the thief of my property.” - - (Olaf the Quiet’s Saga (Heimskr.), c. 10.) - - -Not only was it believed that the form could be changed, but it was -further believed that by eating some peculiar kind of food the temper of -men could be changed. The meat and blood of strong and fierce beasts, -especially of wolves, were held potent to make men brave and fierce, and -thus partake of the nature of animals. - - -“Thereafter Regin came to Sigurd, and said: ‘Hail, my lord; a great -victory hast thou won, as thou hast slain Fafnir, and no one was so bold -before as to dare to sit in his way, and this deed of fame will be -remembered while the world stands. Regin stood looking on the ground for -a long while, and then suddenly said, with great anger: Thou hast slain -my brother, and scarcely can I be innocent of this deed.’ Sigurd took -his sword _Gram_ and wiped it on the grass, and said to Regin: ‘Thou -wast far off when I did this deed, and tried this sharp sword with my -hand and my strength. I had to fight the power of the serpent, when thou -didst lay in a heather cluster, and didst not know heaven from earth.’ -Regin answered: ‘This serpent might have lain long time in his lair if -thou hadst not used the sword which I made for thee with my hand, and -then thou hadst not done this alone.’ Sigurd said: ‘When men come to -fight, it is better to have a good heart than a sharp sword.’ Then Regin -said to him very sadly: ‘Thou didst slay my brother, and scarcely can I -be innocent of this deed.’ - -“Then Sigurd cut out the serpent’s heart with a sword called _Ridil_. -Regin drank the blood of Fafnir, and said: ‘Do one thing for me which is -easy to thee; go to a fire with the heart and roast it, and give it me -to eat.’ Sigurd went away and roasted it on a spit, and when the blood -came out of it, he touched it with his finger to see if it were roasted; -he put his finger in his mouth, and when the serpent’s heart-blood -touched his tongue he understood the speech of birds; he heard -nuthatches (_Sitta Europæa_) chirp in the brushwood near him—‘There thou -sittest, Sigurd, roasting the heart of Fafnir; he (Sigurd) should eat it -himself, then he would become wiser than any other man.’ Another said: -‘There lies Regin, wishing to betray the one who trusts him.’ The third -one said: ‘Let him (Sigurd) cut off his head, then he can rule alone -over the great gold.’ The fourth one said: ‘He would be wiser if he -acted according to our advice, and rode to the lair of Fafnir, and took -the great gold which is there, and then rode up to Hindarfjall -(Hind-fell), where Brynhild sleeps, where he will learn great wisdom; he -would be wise if he took your advice, and thought of what he ought to do -(namely, to slay Regin); where I see the ears I expect the wolf.’ The -fifth said: ‘He (Sigurd) is not so wise as I think if he spares him -(Regin), having slain his brother.’ The sixth said: ‘It would be a bold -deed if he slew him, and ruled alone over the gold.’ Then Sigurd said: -‘It is not my fate that Regin is my slayer, but both the brothers ought -rather to go the same way.’ He drew the sword _Gram_ and cut off Regin’s -head. After this he ate part of the serpent’s heart, and kept part of -it. Then he jumped on his horse and rode on Fafnir’s track to his room, -and found it open; all the doors were of iron, and also the -door-fittings, and all the beams, and it was dug into the ground. Sigurd -found there very much gold, and the sword _Hrotti_, and there he took -the helmet of terror, and the golden coat-of-mail, and many costly -things. He found there so much gold that he thought likely that two or -three horses would not carry more. He put it all in two chests, and took -the bridle of the horse Grani, which would not walk, and it was no use -to whip it. He found what the horse wished, jumped on its back and -spurred it, and it ran as if it had no burden on its back” (Volsunga -Saga, c. 19). - - -“When it drew near to Yule, people became uncheerful, Bödvar asked Hött -why this was. He told him a large and terrible animal had come there for -two winters; it had wings on its back, and always flew: for two autumns -it had come, and done much damage; weapons did not wound it, and the -best champions of the King did not come home. Bödvar said: ‘The hall is -not so well manned[392] as I thought, if one creature is to lay waste -the realm and property of the king.’ Hött replied that it was not an -animal, but the worst fiend. On Yule-eve the King said: ‘I want people -to be quiet and silent this night, and I forbid all my men to endanger -themselves against the animal; with the property let it happen as it -may, but I do not want to lose my men.’ Every man promised to do as he -ordered. Bödvar stole away in the night with Hött, who went unwillingly, -saying that he was taken to death, while Bödvar said it would not be so. -As they left the hall, Bödvar was obliged to carry him, he was so -frightened. When they saw the beast, Hött shouted as loud as he could, -and cried that it was going to swallow him. Bödvar told the animal to be -silent, and flung him down in the moss; there he lay, not without fear, -nor dared he go home. Bödvar now went against the beast; it happened -that his sword was fast in the scabbard; at last he got the scabbard -turned, so that the sword came out; he thrust at once under its shoulder -so strongly that he pierced the heart, and it fell dead. Then he went to -where Hött lay; he took him, and carried him to the place where the -beast lay dead. Hött trembled violently. Bödvar said: ‘Now thou shalt -drink its blood.’ He was long unwilling, but dared not, however, -disobey. Bödvar made him swallow two large mouthfuls, and eat some of -the beast’s heart; then took hold of him, and they wrestled a long -while. Bödvar said: ‘Thou hast become rather strong, and I do not think -thou art now afraid of the hirdmen of King Hrolf.’ Hött replied: ‘I will -not be afraid of them nor of thee hereafter.’ Bödvar answered: ‘That is -good, my companion Hött; let us go and lift up the beast, and arrange it -so that others will think it alive.’ This they did. After this they went -home quietly, and no one knew what they had done” (Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, -c. 35).[393] - - -There were several different drinks, known under different names, -prepared in a special manner and with incantations, which were supposed -to possess special properties. For these magical drinks, which were -believed to have great power, many things were mixed, and runes were -used, partly as formularies over the drink, or carved on trees or bones -which were thrown into it[394]; in the latter case this was done to -excite love for the one in whose behalf the potion was given. Chief -among these drinks was the drink of oblivion (_Uminnisveig_), a drink -prepared to remove sorrow from the mind. - -Gudrun went from Denmark home to her mother Grimhild who gave her the -drink of oblivion. - - Grimhild brought to me - A cup to drink, - A cold and bitter one; - I forgot my sorrows; - It was mixed - With the might of the earth, - With ice-cold sea-water, - With sacrificed blood. - In the horn were - All kinds of letters - Carved and painted in red; - I could not read them; - A long ling-fish, - The unreaped corn-ear, - The bowels of beasts. - Many evils - Were mixed in that beer; - The herbs of every forest, - Burnt acorns, - The soot of the hearth, - Sacrificed bowels, - A boiled swine-liver, - For it soothes the sorrows. - - (Volsunga, c. 32.) - -After taking this drink of oblivion she forgot all her sorrows, and -married King Atli, who afterwards murdered her brother at a feast where -they were invited by him. Gudrun revenged herself by killing the -children she had by Atli, and then had him murdered. - - - - - CHAPTER XXX. - SUPERSTITIONS.—WITCHCRAFT. - - Two kinds of witchcraft—Use of runes with incantations—Power of - witchcraft—Ceremonies attending it—The Finns great masters in the - art—Magical characters on weapons—Witchcraft—Knowing women—Raising - dead people—Power of the eye to blunt weapons—Charmed swords—The - life-stone—Charmed garments—Ocular delusions—Appearance of ghosts - at feasts considered lucky—Protection against ghosts—Punishment of - witchcraft in later times. - - -The worshippers of the Asa creed were strong believers in witchcraft; it -is most difficult for us now to comprehend such superstition, but we -need not go back to that remote period to find the same diseased state -of mind in Europe and America. - -Two kinds of witchcraft, _Galdr_ and _Seid_, were practised. Galdr, -derived from _gala_, to sing, was a form of sorcery; Odin was called the -father of galdr, and those who practised it were called _galdrasmid_, or -galdr-smiths, and sometimes galdra-men, who, while singing their -formularies, used at times to mark certain mystic runes[395] which were -used with the incantation; and it appears that caution in the use of -these runes was necessary, as their use by an impostor was held to cause -danger.[396] It was supposed that such gald were able to cure wounds and -sickness, allay fire and storm, rouse up the dead in order to consult -them as to the future, and win the love of women. - - -“He (Odin) taught with runes and with songs called galdrar; therefore -the Asar are called galdra-smiths. Odin knew and himself practised the -greatest of idróttir, which is called seid: by it he could tell the -destiny of men and future things, and cause death or bad luck, or -illness, and take away men’s wit or strength, and give them to others. -He taught most of his idróttir to the sacrificing priests; they were -next to him in all wisdom and witchcraft. Many others, however, learned -a great deal of them, and from them witchcraft has spread widely and -been kept up long” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 7). - - -The seid, which had been learnt by the Asar from the Vanir, like the -_galdr_, was performed with songs and incantations, and generally at -night. It was used mostly for evil purposes, and its knowledge was not -held as noble as that of galdr. It had been taught by Freyja, and was -chiefly performed by women. - -Among the ceremonies attending seid was that of cooking strange dishes, -the objects composing which were kept secret by the seid persons. - - -“Kotkel had a large seid-platform made; they all went up on it and sung -there their wisdom, namely, galdr” (Laxdæla, c. 35). - - -“Kotkel and Grima and their sons left their home during the night; they -went to the farm of Hrút and there made a great seid. When the -seid-sounds were heard, those inside could not understand what it was, -but the song was fine to listen to. Hrút alone knew these sounds, and -said that no man must look out that night, and that every one who was -able must be awake, and they would not be harmed if they did this. -Nevertheless all fell asleep. Hrút was awake the longest time, but -nevertheless fell asleep. Kári, his son, was then twelve winters old and -the most promising of his sons, and much loved by him; he could scarcely -get any sleep, for all this was intended against him; he did not get -much rest. He jumped up, looked out, and walked on the seid place, and -fell down dead at once” (Laxdæla, c. 37). - - -The Finns were looked upon as great masters in witchcraft, and their -advice was in much favour; they were considered especially clever in -going on journeys in another shape. - - -“Vanlandi, the son of Svegdir, succeeded him and ruled the realm of -Upsala; he was a great warrior, and travelled far and wide. He lived one -winter in Finnland with Snjar the old, and married his daughter Drifa. -In the spring he went away, and Drifa remained; he promised to come back -in three winters, but for ten winters he did not come. Then Drifa sent -for the seid-woman, Huld, and sent Visbur, their son, to Sweden. Drifa -made a bargain with the seid-woman, Huld, that she should get Vanlandi -by seid to Finnland, or slay him. When the seid was performed Vanlandi -was at Uppsalir; thereupon he wished to go to Finnland, but his friends -and advisers prevented him from going, and said that his wish was owing -to the witchcraft of the Finns” (Ynglinga, c. 16). - - -_Mal_ was a name given to magical characters, runes, &c., which were -inlaid upon weapons, and which were believed to enable their owners to -hold others spell-bound. - - -“Thorgrim Nef dwelt at Nefstadir, near the Haukadal river. He was versed -in witchcraft and magic, and a very great wizard. Thorgrim and Thorkel -invited Thorgrim Nef to their home, for they had a feast. Thorgrim was -skilled in iron work. The three went together to the smithy, and -thereupon shut the door. The pieces of the sword Grásida (grey-side), -which Thorkel got at the division of property between himself and his -brother, were taken, and from these Thorgrim made a spear, which was -finished at night. Ornaments (mal) were inlaid on it” (Gisli Sursson’s -Saga). - - -Witchcraft-knowing women were accustomed to rub with their hands the -whole body of the man who was to go to war or fight; by this means they -found the most vulnerable part of the body, for they believed that on -this place they could find a knot which was supposed to be the spot that -was to be wounded, and if they found such a knot they had a special -protection made for it. - - -“Helga’s foster-mother used to touch men (with her hands) before they -went into a fight; she did this with Ögmund before he left, and said she -did not find a vulnerable spot” (Kormak i.). - - -“It is told that Hrói gathered men and got 30 before he left; his -foster-mother wanted to touch his body with her hands before he went -from home, and thought she knew then best how he would succeed. She -found a vulnerable point on his foot, but in other places she was -satisfied” (Vemunds Saga, c. 5). - - -The champion Thormód came very often to talk with the widow’s daughter -against Grima’s will. Then she sent a man, Kolbak, to lie in ambush for -Thormod one evening. - - -“She (Grima) touched him all over with her hands. Then Kolbak went his -way.... Thormód walked in front of the sheephouse door, and at that -moment a man with a drawn sax ran out of it and struck at Thormód. The -blow hit Thormód’s arm above the elbow and the wound was large. Thormód -threw his shield down and drew his sword with his left hand and struck -at Kolbak with both arms, the one blow after the other. The sword did -not bite, for Kolbak was so strengthened with witchcraft that iron did -not bite him. Kolbak did not strike any more blows at Thormód, but said: -‘Now I can do with thee, Thormód, what I like, but I will not do more.’ -Kolbak went home and told Grima the news” (Fóstbrædra Saga, c. 14). - - -Among the numerous kinds of witchcraft practised was that of a man -sitting out of doors at night in the open air, and, by some magical -action not described, raising troll (wizard or witch) or dead people, in -order to ask them questions as to the future.[397] - -Hakon and Ingi were pretenders to the crown of Norway, and were going to -fight a battle. - - -“It is told that Gunnhild, to whom Simon had been married, and who was -the foster-mother of King Hakon, had out-sitting for the victory of -Hakon. The result was that they should fight against Ingi at night, but -never by day, and then it would go well. The woman who was said to have -sat out is called Thórdis Seggia, but I do not know it for true” (Hakon -Herdibreid’s Saga, c. 16). - - -Some people were supposed to have power in their eyes, by which they -could blunt swords in the fight. - - -“Gunnlaug Ormstunga challenged the viking Thórorm to a hólmganga, -because he would not pay back money which he had borrowed from Gunnlaug. -Gunnlaug was then at the hird of King Adalrad in London, who told him -that this man blunted every weapon, and gave him a sword to fight with -and told him to show only his own sword to the viking” (Gunnlaug -Ormstunga’s Saga). - - -“She (Thordis the witch) blunted Kormak’s sword so that it could not -bite” (Kormak’s Saga, c. 23). - - -Men who carried charmed weapons were always held to be lucky in fight. -When using such charmed swords, good care had to be taken that the charm -should be effective, or part of the power was lost: for instance, the -famous sword _Sköfnung_—taken from the mound of Hrólf Kraki—was not to -be drawn in the sight of people, nor must the sun shine on the -hilt,[398] and the wounds inflicted by these could not be cured except -by touching them by the so-called _lifstein_ (life-stone) which was -attached to the sword. The wounds of the sword Sköfnung could only be -healed by the stone set in its hilt. - - -“Bersi had a sharp sword, Hviting, with a lifstein attached to it, which -he had carried in many dangers” (Kormak’s Saga, c. 9.) - - -Bersi, on account of his many duels, was called Holmganga Bersi. - - -“Kormak said to him: ‘I challenge thee, Bersi, to holmganga (a duel) at -the end of half a month on Leidholm.’ ... - -“Bersi had a sharp sword called Hviting, with a lifstein attached to it, -which he had carried in many dangers. - -“Dalla (mother of Kormak) advised him to find Midfjord Skeggi and ask -for Sköfnung (Holf Kraki’s sword). Kormak went to Reykjar (Skeggisbù) -and told him his case. Skeggi answered that he was unwilling to lend him -the sword, for they ‘Sköfnung and Kormak’ were unlike in temper. -‘Sköfnung is slow, but thou art impatient and headstrong.’ Kormak rode -away ill pleased, returned to Mel, and told his mother that Skeggi would -not lend him the sword. Skeggi used to give Dalla advices; and there was -friendship between them. Dalla said: ‘He will lend thee the sword, -though he will not yield readily (at once).’ Kormak did not think it was -fair if he withheld not the sword from her, but did from him.... A few -days later she told Kormak to go to Reykjar, as Skeggi would now lend -him the sword; Kormak found him and asked for Sköfnung. ‘The management -of it may seem difficult to thee,’ said Skeggi; ‘a bag (covering) -follows it (goes with it) and thou shall leave it quiet; the sun must -not shine on the upper guard, nor shall thou draw it except thou -preparest for fight; but, if thou comest to the fighting-place, sit -alone, and there draw it. Hold up the blade and blow on it; then a small -snake will creep from under the guard; incline the blade, and make it -easy for it (the snake) to creep back under the guard.’ Kormak said: -‘Many things do you the wizards use?’ Skeggi replied: ‘This, however, -will help thee fully.’ After this, Kormak rode home and told his mother -what had happened; and said that her will had much power over Skeggi; -showed her the sword, and tried to draw it: but it would not leave the -scabbard. Dolla said: ‘Too self-willed art thou, kinsman.’ Kormak put -his feet on the guard, and tore off the bag; Sköfnung howled at this, -but could not be drawn from the scabbard. - -“The time for the holmgang approached, and Kormak left home with fifteen -men. In the same manner Bersi rode to the place with as many men. Kormak -came first, and said to Thorgils that he wanted to sit there alone. -Kormak sat down and unfastened the sword, and did not take care that the -sun did not shine on its guard; he had girt himself with it outside his -clothes, and tried to draw it; but did not get it out until he stepped -on the guard; the small snake came, but it was not handled as he should -have been, and the luck of the sword was changed, and it went howling -out of the scabbard” (Kormak’s Saga, c. 9). - - -There were also garments which were supposed to be impenetrable. - -When about to leave the house of his parents, Hrólf went to his mother -Asa and said: - - -“I want thee, mother, to show me the cloaks which Vefreyja, thy -foster-mother, made for my father a long time ago.’ She opened a large -chest and answered: ‘Here thou canst see them, and they have decayed but -little as yet.’ Hrólf took them up; they were with sleeves, a hood at -the top, and a covering for the face; they were wide and long; no iron -could cut them, and poison could not damage them. Hrólf took two which -were the largest, and said: ‘I do not carry away too much from the house -of my father, though I take the cloaks’” (Göngu Hrólf’s Saga, c. 4). - - -Among the kinds of witchcraft mentioned in the sagas is one called -_sjonhverfingar_ (ocular delusion). - - -“At Froda there was a large hall and a locked bed adjoined it, as then -was customary. On each side of the hall was a small room; one of them -was filled with dried fish and the other with flour. Meal fires were -made every night in the hall as was the custom. People used to sit long -at the fires before they went to their meal. When the gravediggers came -home that night, and men were sitting at the fires at Froda, they saw a -half moon appearing on the wall of the room. All those who were inside -could see it. It moved backwards against the course of the sun through -the room. It did not vanish while they sat at the fire. Thorod asked -Thorir Wood-leg what this foreboded. Thorir answered it was the -Urdarmani (moon of Urd). Deaths of men will follow upon this. This -continued all the week; the urdarmani entered every night” (Eyrbyggja, -c. 52).[399] - - -“Late in the summer Hörd went to Saurbœr with twenty-three men, for -Thorstein Öxnabrodd (ox-staff) had boasted that his witchcraft-knowing -foster-mother Skroppa could with her sorcery effect that the Hólmverjar -(men of Hólm, the island) were not able to harm him. They came to the -bœr; Skroppa and the daughters of the bondi Helga and Sigrid were at -home, but Thorstein was at his sæter at Kuvallardal, in Svinadal. -Skroppa opened all the rooms; she made sjonhverfingar, so that the three -(women) sitting on the cross-bench seemed to them three boxes standing -there. The men of Hörd talked about wanting to break these boxes. Hörd -forbade that. They then left the farm and turned northward to see if -they could find any cattle. They saw a young sow running with two pigs -in that direction; they got ahead of it. Then it seemed to them that a -large crowd of men was coming against them with spears and fully armed, -and the sow with its pigs shook their ears. Geir (Hörd’s foster-brother) -said: ‘Let us go to our boat; there will be odds against us.’ Hörd said -it was best not to run away so soon without any trial. At the same time -he lifted up a large stone and struck the sow to death. When they came -to it they saw Skroppa lying dead there, while the bondi’s daughters, -whom they had taken for pigs, stood at her side. When she was dead they -at once saw that the crowd which came against them was oxen and not men; -they drove the cattle down to the boat, killed them, and loaded their -boat with the meat. Geir took Sigrid away against her will, and they -went out to the Hólm (Hörd’s Saga, 25).”[400] - - -When drowned men came to their own _arvel_, or burial feast, as ghosts, -it was looked upon as a good sign for the survivors of the family, for -then the dead men had been well received by Ran. - -The people were strong believers in ghosts, and thought that the spirit -of the dead could come into the mound where the body was buried. When -they were seen at night at their mounds they were surrounded by fire, -and it was said that the gate of Hel, where the dead were supposed to -be, was open. These ghosts of the dead were harmless. - -The bondmaid of Sigrun, when walking one evening past the mound of -Helgi, saw that he rode to it with many men; she sang: - - Is it an illusion - Which I think I see, - Or the doom of the gods?[401] - Dead men ride; - You prick your horses - With spur points, - Or have the Hildings[402] - Got leave to go home?[403] - -Helgi sang: - - It is not an illusion - Which thou thinkest thou seest, - Nor the doom of the world, - Though thou seest us, - Though we our horses - Prick with spurs, - But the Hildings have got - Leave to go home. - -The bondmaid went home and told Sigrun. - - Go out, thou Sigrun - From Sefafjöll, - If thou wantest to - Meet with the leader of men.[404] - The mound has opened; - Helgi has come; - The prints of the sword bleed - The Dogling[405] asked thee - That thou the wound-dripping (blood) - Shouldst stop. - -Sigrun went into the mound to Helgi, and sang: - - Now I am as glad - Of our meeting - As the greedy - Hawks of Odin[406] - When they know of slain men - A warm prey, - Or dew-besprinkled, - See the dawn of day. - I will kiss - The dead king - Ere thou throwest off - The bloody brynja; - Thy hair, Helgi, - Is covered with hoar-frost; - The king is all wet - With the dew of the slain. - The hands of Hogni’s son-in-law - Are cold from wet, - How shall I, king, - Better this for thee? - * * * * * - -Helgi and his men rode their way, and the maidens went home to their -house. The next evening Sigrun let a bondmaid keep watch at the mound; -and at sunset, when Sigrun came to the mound, the bondmaid sang: - - Now would have come, - If to come he intended, - The son of Sigmund[407] - From Odin’s halls; - I say that the hope - Of the king’s coming lessens, - As on ashtree boughs[408] - Eagles sit, - And all men throng - To the meeting of dreams.[409] - Be not so mad - As to go alone, - Sister[410] of Skjöldungs, - To the houses of the ghosts. - Stronger, maiden, become at night - All dead fiends,[411] - Than in the light of day. - - (Helgikvida Hundingsbani, ii.) - -There were ghosts who were supposed to kill people; the best means of -protection against them was to burn the body and throw the ashes into -the sea, or to cut off the head and put it at or between the feet, as -the body had then to walk on its own head. Another way of getting rid of -them was to pursue them by law, and sentence them at the door of the -house they haunted.[412] - -Án had slain an outlaw, Garan, in a wood. - - -“Án left him dead; he cut off his head, dragged him out (of his house), -and put his nose between his legs, that he should not appear after his -death” (An’s Bogsveigis Saga, c. 5). - - -“The overbearing of Klaufi became so great that he maimed both men and -cattle. Karl thought it a great evil that his kinsman should be a ghost. -He went to his mound and had him dug up. He was then still undecayed. He -had a large fire made on the rock above the house of Klaufabrekka, and -burned him to ashes. He had a case of lead made, and put the ashes in -it. Two bars of iron were on it, and he sunk it into the hot spring -south of Klaufabrekka. The stone on which Klaufi was burnt was rent in -two parts, and Klaufi never did harm after this”[413] (Svarfdæla, 30). - - -“At this time Thórodd Thorbrandsson lived in Alptafjord. He owned both -Úlfarsfell and Örlygsstadir, but then the haunting of Thórólf Bœgifót -became so strong that people could not dwell on these farms. Bólstad was -also empty of people, for Thórolf began to haunt there as soon as Arnkel -(the bondi, Thórolf’s son) was dead, and killed men and cattle. And no -man has dared to settle there since because of this. When this farm was -quite deserted, Bœgifót haunted Úlfarsfell, and caused great trouble -there. All the people were struck with terror when they became aware of -him. The bondi went to Kársstadir and complained of this to Thórod, for -he was his tenant. He said it was the opinion of people that Bœgifót -would not stop before he had devastated the whole fjord of men and -cattle, and if no means were tried against this he would not be able to -keep himself there any longer. When Thórod heard this, he thought it was -not easy to deal with. Next morning he sent for his horse, and told his -huskarls (servants) to go with him, and also had men from the next farms -with him. They went to Bœgifótshöfdi (Cape of Bœgifót) to Thórolf’s -grave. He was then still not decayed, and very _troll-like_ to look at. -He was blue like Hel, and stout like a bull. When going to move him, -they could not lift him at all. Then Thórod had a felled tree pushed -under him, and thus they lifted him out of the grave. Then they rolled -him down on the beach, cut wood, made a large pile, set it on fire, -rolled Thórolf on it, and burned the whole into cold ashes, though it -lasted long before the fire could take in Thórolf’s body. It was blowing -a hard gale, and the ashes were blown far and wide while the burning -lasted, and all the ashes they could they raked out on the sea. When -they had finished this work, they went home and came there about -bedtime” (Eyrbyggja, c. 63). - - -In later times the seid people were feared and punished, because they -did evil. Harald Fairhair burnt one of his own sons because he had mixed -himself up with this form of witchcraft.[414] - - -“If a woman is accused of using witchcraft, “galdr,” and sorcery, six -women shall be named on both sides of her who are known to be good -housewives; they shall give evidence that she knows neither galdr nor -sorcery. If they do not, she is an outlaw. The king gets one half of her -property, and the bishop the other” (Gulath 28). - - -“Rögnvald Réttilbeini owned Hadaland; he learned witchcraft, and became -a seid-man. King Harald disliked seid-men. In Hördaland there was a -seid-man called Vitgeir; Harald sent him word to leave off seid. He -answered and sang: - - It does little harm - Though we the children - Of bœndr - Make seid - When Rögnvald - Réttilbeini, - The famous son of Harald, - Makes seid in Hadaland. - -When Harald heard this, he sent Eirik (Blood-axe) to Uplönd; he came to -Hadaland and burnt his brother Rögnveld, together with eighty seid-men, -in his house; this deed was much praised” (Harald Fairhair, c. 36). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - SUPERSTITIONS.—OMENS. - - Belief in omens—The sight of blood on food a foreboding of - violent death—Blood dripping from weapons a sign of fierce - conflict—Peculiar appearances of the moon—Ravens—Howling - wolves—Stumbling when going to fight—The second song of Sigurd - Fafnisbani—Supernatural beings—Visions. - - -The people were strong believers in omens, to which they paid great -attention, and which were supposed to be seen by persons when awake or -in their dreams. Some omens repeated themselves before recurring events -of the same kind. - -If any one imagined that he saw blood on his food, or that his food -disappeared, he expected a speedy and violent death;[415] and it was a -common belief that blood dripping from weapons, or their sounding loud -when used, foreboded a fierce battle or conflict.[416] - - -“He (Hildiglúm) heard a crash so loud that he thought both earth and -heaven shook from it. Then he looked into the west, and saw a ring with -the colour of flame, and in it a man on a grey horse. He passed quickly; -and had a burning firebrand in his hand. He rode so near him that he -could easily see him. He was black as pitch. He sang this stanza with a -loud voice:— - - I ride on a - Rime-frost maned horse, - With dewy wet mane, - Causing evil; - Fire is in the ends of the brand. - Poison in the middle; - Thus is it with Flosi’s plan - As if a stick were thrown, - Thus is it with Flosi’s plan - As when a stick is thrown. - -It seemed to him that he flung it eastward to the mountains, and that -such fire rose from it that he did not see the mountains for it. It -seemed to him the man rode eastward to the fire and disappeared there. -Then he went in to his bed, and fell in a long swoon, but woke from it. -He remembered all that had passed before his eyes, and told it to his -father, who asked him to tell it to Hjalti Skeggjason. He went to Hjalti -and told him. ‘Thou hast seen a _gandreid_,’[417] said Hjalti, ‘and it -always forebodes great tidings’” (Njala, c. 125). - - -Before the burning of Njal the following omen, which proved true, -appeared at his farm Bergthorshval:— - - -“Bergthóra (his wife) carried food to the table. Njal said: ‘Strange -does this look to me now; I think I look all over the room, and that -both the gable-walls are off, and the table and the food all covered -with blood.’ All except Skarphédin were startled at this. He asked them -not to grieve or look sorrowful so that people would talk of it” (Njala, -c. 127). - - -“It happened when Gunnar and Kolskegg rode towards Rangá that blood fell -on the halberd of Gunnar. Kolskegg asked why this was so. Gunnar -answered that when this happened in other countries it was called -blood-rain, and Olver bondi in Hising said that this usually foreboded -great tidings” (Njala, c. 72). - - -Among these omens must be reckoned the so-called _Urdarmáni_ (the moon -of Urd), a peculiar kind of appearance of the moon which foreboded the -death of many people.[418] There were also natural omens, good and bad. -It was considered a good omen if a warrior saw a raven follow him when -going to fight—the interpretation probably being that the raven followed -a victor in order to eat the corpses of the enemy; it was also a good -omen to see or meet two men conversing, or to hear a wolf howl. When a -man who was slain by any kind of weapon fell on his face it was thought -to be an omen that he would be revenged, and the vengeance would come -down upon the man who stood just in front of him when he fell;[419] but -to stumble when going to fight, or to hear the croaking of ravens, was -considered a bad omen. - -The second song of Sigurd Fafnisbani relates how Sigurd was going to -make war on the sons of Hunding. As he sailed along the coast a man -stood on a rock and asked him who they were. They answered, and when -they asked who he was he said he was called _Hnikar_ (one of Odin’s -names), but they might call him the man of the rock, _Feng_ or _Fjölnir_ -(Odin’s names). He went on board and the storm ceased. - - _Sigurd sang_ - - Tell me, Hnikar, - As thou knowest both - The luck of gods and men, - Which are best - If one should fight - Omens at the swoop of swords. - - _Hnikar._ - - Many warnings are good - If men knew them - At the swoop of swords; - I think the following - Of the black raven - Is good for a _sword-tree_.[420] - - A second (warning) is, - If thou hast walked out - And art ready on thy way, - And thou seest - Standing on the path - Two men anxious to praise thee. - - A third is that - If thou hearest a wolf - Howl under ash-branches. - Good luck wilt thou get - Against _helmet-staffs_[420] - If thou seest the wolves ahead. - - No man should fight - With his face against - The late shining - Sister of the moon;[421] - - Those gain victory - Who are able to see - The feats of the sword-play, - Or can array in wedge-shape.[422] - - It is a great danger - If thou stumblest - When thou rushest into fight; - Faithless _Disir_ - Stand on either side of thee - And long to see thee wounded. - - Combed and washed - Should every wise man be, - And well fed in the morning, - For it is uncertain - Where he may be at night; - It is bad to hurry ahead of one’s luck. - - -“One morning a raven came to the lighthole at Brekka, and croaked -loudly; then Hromund sang— - - - Outside I hear in the morning twilight - The dark blue swan[423] of the sweat of the wound-thorn[424] croak; - The prey wakes the wary-minded one;[425] - Thus of yore screamed - The hawk of Gunn[426] before - Chiefs were death-fated, - When the birds of Gaut[427] foretold the fray. - - _Thorbjorn._ - - The hail-sprinkled gull[428] of the wave of heaps of slain - Screams when it comes from the sea; - Its mind craves - The prey of the morning; - Thus of yore screamed - The bird of corpses - From the old tree - When the hawks wanted the mead of kings.[429] - - _Hromund._ - - Tree of the shield,[430] - Death was not fated to me - To-day or yesterday; - I[431] make ready for the sound of Ilm.[432] - I care little though plays - The dyed wand of Hedin’s cloth[433] - Against red shields; - To us life was marked before.” - - (Landnama, ii. c. 33.) - -When there was to be an important event there were always some omens -before it took place, in the shape of visions, or supernatural beings -who sang songs which foretold the event. - -It foreboded a violent death if a man saw his _fylgja_ bloody. - - -“Once Njal and Thórd (his servant) were outside the farm. A he-goat was -in the habit of going about the grass-plot on the farm, and no one was -allowed to drive it away. Thórd said, ‘This is strange.’ Njal asked, -‘What dost thou see which seems strange?’ He answered, ‘It seems to me -that the he-goat lies here in the hollow place, and is bloody all over.’ -Njal replied there was no he-goat there, nor anything else. ‘What is it, -then?’ inquired Thórd. ‘Thou must be a death-fated man, and hast seen -thy _Fylgja_,’ said Njal, ‘and guard thyself well.’ ‘That will not -help,’ added Thórd, ‘if death is fated to me’” (Njala, c. 41). - - -“It is said that King Gorm once invited to a Yule-feast his -father-in-law Harald, who promised to come in the winter, and the -messengers so reported. - -“When the time for preparation came the Jarl chose such followers to the -feast as he wanted. Knut went with him, but it is not said how many men -he had. They arrived at the Limafjord, and as they were about to cross -it they saw there an oak which appeared somewhat unusual. There were -growing on it acorns, which were small and quite green, but under it lay -others both ripe and large. At this they wondered much, and the Jarl -thought it very strange that there should be green acorns at that time -of the year, for there lay near the oak those which had grown during the -summer. ‘We will go back,’ said the Jarl, ‘and proceed no farther.’ He -thereupon returned home, where he remained with his hird the next -season. The King deemed it strange that the Jarl did not come, but -thought something important had prevented him. All was quiet during the -summer, and when winter came the King invited the Jarl to the -Yule-feast, as in the previous year. The Jarl promised to go, as before, -and when the time came departed with his followers, and journeyed until -he came to the Limafjord. He had now come on board, and intended to -cross the fjord. It is said that they had with them pregnant bitches. -After they had got on board the Jarl thought he heard the whelps in the -bellies of the bitches barking, while the mothers themselves were -silent. This the Jarl and all regarded as the greatest wonder, and they -therefore turned back, and stayed at home during that Yule. On the third -winter the King again invited the Jarl, who promised to come; and when -the time came he departed, and journeyed until he arrived at the -Limafjord, resolving to remain there overnight. Then a sight presented -itself which was thought very strange. They saw a wave rise within, and -another without, the fjord, and the two advanced to meet each other. The -waves were large and made a great noise when they met and fell together; -then it seemed as if the sea became bloody. Then the Jarl said, ‘This is -a fearful portent, and we must turn back and not accept the invitation.’ -This they did, and the Jarl remained at home also that Yule.... - -“It was resolved that the King should send messengers to the Jarl to -ascertain why he had not come. The Queen advised that they should first -meet and talk to him, and thus see what the reason was. When the -messengers told the Jarl of their errand, he quickly got ready and went -to visit Gorm with a fine retinue. The King received his father-in-law -well, and quickly went to speak with him. The King asked why he had not -once come at his bidding, and thus shown disrespect to the King and his -invitation. The Jarl replied that he had meant no disrespect, but had -not once come to the feast, because other things had prevented him. He -then told the wonders which they had seen, as mentioned before, and -asked if he would like to know what he thought each wonder meant. To -this the King assented. The Jarl then said: ‘I will first take that one -where we saw an oak with small green acorns, with the old and large ones -underneath. That I think must foretell a change of belief which will -come over these lands, which will flourish more, and the fine acorns -foretell that; but the present belief is betokened by the old acorns on -the ground, and they will rot and become mere dust; this belief will -also fall and be destroyed when the new one rises. The second wonder was -when we heard the whelps bark in the bitches. That I think must foretell -that young men will take the words from the mouths of the older, and -become so reckless that they will have no less to say, though the older -are oftener wiser in counsels. And I think that those of whom this will -be true have not yet come into the world, for the whelps which barked -while the mothers were silent were yet unborn. - -“‘The third, when we saw the waves, one from the outer part, and the -other from the inner part of the fjord, meet midways and fall each on -the other’s neck, and the water become bloody from the disturbance -therefrom forebodes, I think, that some enmity will arise between great -men within the country, whence will come fights and much disturbance. It -is very likely that some offshoot of this war will take place at the -Limafjord, because it is there we have seen these wonders of which I -have spoken.’ - -“King Gorm was satisfied with the words of the Jarl, and thought him -wise; he gave him peace, and his anger departed. It is said that before -they went into the speech-room the King had set men to slay the Jarl, if -haughtiness and disrespect were the only reasons for his not coming to -the feast when invited; but the King now thought he had good cause for -not coming. They went away from the speech-room, and the Jarl remained -with him for a while. They then separated in peace, and the Jarl -received good gifts. He left with his followers, and had a good journey -home. - -“A short time after Klakkharald gave his foster-son and kinsman Knut all -his realm, and Knut took the rule of Holtsetaland and all the realms of -Harald Jarl. - -“The Jarl made ready to leave, and began his journey southward to -Valland. He there embraced Christianity, and never returned to Denmark” -(Flateyjarbók, vol. i.). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - SUPERSTITIONS.—DREAMS. - - Faith placed in dreams—Revelations of the gods in dreams—Their - interpretation an important gift—Absence of dreams considered a - misfortune—Magical sleep. - - -The faith of the Northmen in dreams[434] was almost as great as that -which they placed in their gods; like the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, -Jews, and other earlier nations, they believed that by them they were -informed of coming events. Instances frequently occur in the Sagas of -men wishing to dream in order to know the future. Those dreams which -were of greatest importance were believed to be influenced by the -revelations of the gods to the sleeper. Odin in a dream showed King -Eirik the Victorious how it would go in the battle against -Styrbjörn.[435] - -The place where any one dreamt was considered important, especially if -the dream was in a new house; the interpretation of dreams consequently -was considered an important gift, and men and women who could explain -them were called _draum-spekingar_ (dream-wise),[436] amongst whom the -Queens Ingigerd and Thyri had great renown. - - -“Harald was a Jarl who ruled over Holtsetaland (Holstein); he was -nicknamed _Klakkharald_. He was a wise man, and had a daughter Thyri, -who was the wisest of women, and interpreted dreams better than others. -She was also handsome. The Jarl looked to her for the rule of the land, -consulted her in everything, and loved her much. When Gorm had grown up -and had taken the kingship, he left, and intended to ask for the hand of -Harald Jarl’s daughter, or else attack him. When Harald Jarl and his -daughter heard of King Gorm’s journey and of his intentions, they sent -messengers to invite him to a grand feast. This he accepted, and sat -with them at the feast in good friendship and honour. Then he announced -his errand to the Jarl, who said that his daughter should decide for -herself, as she was much wiser than he. His suit was brought before her, -and she said: ‘It shall not be decided forthwith, and thou shalt return -with good and honourable gifts. If thou thinkest much of me, thou shalt, -when thou comest home, quickly cause to be built a house large enough -for sleeping in. It must stand where no house has stood before. Therein -shalt thou sleep the first night of the winter, and three nights -together; and remember if thou dreamest anything. And thou shalt send -men to tell me of thy dreams, if thou hast any, and I will then say -whether I will marry thee or not. But do not send if thou dost not -dream.’ After this talk, King Gorm remained but a short time at the -feast, and made ready to go home, as he was anxious to try her wisdom. -He left with much honour and suitable gifts. When he returned home, he -did in all things as she had told him: had the house built, and went -into it as directed. He left three hundred fully-armed men near the -house, and bade them watch and guard, as he thought there might be some -treachery connected with it. He lay down on the bed which had been made -in the house, and fell asleep and dreamt; and there he slept three -nights, and then sent men and writings to Holtsetaland to the Jarl. - -“The messengers arrived and told Harald Jarl and his daughter of King -Gorm’s dreams, and their errand to Thyri. When she had heard the dreams, -she said: ‘You may stay here as long as you like, but you shall tell -your king that I will marry him.’ They returned and told the king, who -was very glad. - -“He made his journey to Holtsetaland with many and well-dressed men. -Harald Jarl heard of it, and had a splendid feast and grand -entertainment prepared for him; and now they were married and loved each -other well. At the feast Gorm entertained them by telling his dreams. ‘I -dreamt the first night, and all the three nights which I slept in the -house, that I was outside and overlooked my whole realm. I saw the sea -recede from the land so that all islands, sounds, and fjords were dry. -After that I saw that three oxen went out of the sea upon the land where -I was, and bit off all the grass closely where they walked, and then -went away. - -“‘The second dream was very like the first, for it seemed as if three -oxen again came up from the sea; all were red, with large horns; they -bit off the grass as closely as the previous ones, after which they -returned. - -“‘In the third dream, which was like the others, I saw three oxen come -up again; they were all black, and much larger horned than the others; -after a while they returned to the water. After that I heard such a -terrible crash that I thought it must be heard all over Denmark, and I -saw that it was caused by the sea returning toward the shore. Now,’ he -said, ‘I want thee, queen, to interpret the dream for the entertainment -of those present, and thus show thy wisdom.’ She consented, and -interpreted the dream as follows: ‘When three white oxen went up out of -the sea on the land, that must mean three severe winters, when so much -snow will fall that the season will be bad. When thou sawest three other -red oxen, that means there will come three snowless winters, but yet not -good ones, for they bite the grass off the ground. The three black oxen -signify that there will come three winters, which will be so bad that -none have ever seen the like, and such a black and bad season and famine -will come over the land that it will be unexampled. That thou sawest -them with large horns means there will be many outcasts who will lose -all their property; that they went again into the sea means that the bad -season will leave the land like they did; and that thou heardest a loud -crash when the sea again came back on the shore means the war of -powerful men, who shall meet here in Denmark, and have fights and great -battles. It seems to me likely that some of the men in some of the wars -will be near kinsmen to thee. If thou hadst first dreamt those things -that were last, then these wars would have taken place in thy time, but -now this will do no harm; and I would then not have gone with thee if -thou hadst dreamt as I have before said. I can hinder all these dreams -about the famine from being fulfilled.’ After this feast King Gorm and -Queen Thyri went home to Denmark, and had many ships loaded with corn -and other food, and transported this to Denmark; the same was kept up -every year until the arrival of those severe years which she had -foretold. When the hard time came they wanted for nothing on account of -their preparations, and there was no want in Denmark, for they -distributed much grain among the people. Thyri was thought to be the -wisest woman that had ever been in Denmark, and was called Thyri -Danmarkarbót (Denmark’s helper, saver)” (Flateyjarbók, vol. i.). - - -People were often forewarned of death in their dreams:— - - -“One night when King Ivar slept in the _lypting_[437] (upper deck) on -his dragon-ship, it seemed to him that a great dragon flew out of the -sea. Its colour was golden, and it glowed in the air as if sparks were -flying from the hearth of a forge, and shone over all the lands nearest -it. Behind it flew all the birds that he knew of in the northern lands. -He saw a great cloud rising in the north-east, followed by such a -rain-storm that it seemed to him all the forests and the whole land were -floating in the water which had fallen: this was accompanied by thunder -and lightning. When the large dragon flew towards the land, he met the -rain-storm, and such a darkness arose that he could see neither the -dragon nor the birds, but only heard the loud sound of the thunder and -the tempest. This passed south and west over the land, and all over his -realm. Then it seemed to him all his ships had been changed into whales, -and swam out to sea. At this he awoke and called his foster-father, -Hörd, told him his dream, and asked him to interpret it. Hörd said he -was so old he could not understand dreams. He stood on a rock near to -one end of the gangway, but the king lay in the _lypting_, and was -unfastening the lower border of the tent as they talked. The king was in -a bad humour, and bade Hörd go down on the ship and interpret his dream. -Hörd answered that he would not, and said, ‘I need not interpret thy -dream; thou must know thyself what it means. It is likely it will not be -long before others rule Sweden and Denmark. Now a greediness foreboding -death has come upon thee, as thou wantest to conquer for thyself every -realm, and dost not know that on the contrary thou wilt die and thy foes -take thy realm.’ The king said, ‘Come here and tell thy evil -prophecies.’ Hörd said, ‘I shall stand here and tell them.’ The king -said, ‘To whom of the Asar was Halfdan the Valiant like?’ Hörd answered, -‘He was as Baldr was with the Asar, over whom all the gods wept, and not -like thee.’ The king said, ‘That is good. Come here and tell it.’ Hörd -answered, ‘I will stand here and tell.’ The king replied: ‘To whom of -the Asar was Hrærek like?’ ‘To Hænir, who was the greatest coward of the -Asar, though he was less cowardly than thou art.’ The king asked, ‘To -whom of the Asar was Helgi the Sharp like?’ Hörd replied, ‘He was as -Hermód, who was very bold, and did harm to thee.’ The king said, ‘To -whom of the Asar was Gudröd like?’ Hörd: ‘He was as Heimdal, who was the -most foolish of all the Asar, and nevertheless a lesser fool than thou.’ -The king: ‘To whom of the Asar am I like?’ ‘Thou resemblest the worst of -all serpents existing, the Midgardsorm.’ The king answered in great -anger: ‘If thou tellest me I am death-doomed, I can tell thee thou shalt -live no longer, for I know thee, thou great Thurs. Now come nearer, thou -Midgardsorm, and let us try our strength.’ The king rushed from the -_lypting_, and was so angry that he jumped out under the lower edge of -the tent. Hörd plunged into the sea from the rock, and the men on the -watch on board the king’s ship saw neither of them come up on the -surface afterwards” (Sögubrot, c. 3). - - -“He (Gjúki) had three sons, Gunnar, Högni, and Guttorm. Gudrún, his -daughter, was a most famous maiden.... Gjúki was married to Grímhild, -the witchcraft-knowing. King Budli was more powerful than Gjúki, though -both were powerful. Atli, the brother of Brynhild (Budli’s daughter), -was a cruel, large, swarthy man, but of an imposing look, and the -greatest warrior. Grímhild was a woman of fierce mind. The Gjúkungs -flourished much, mostly because of their children who surpassed most -others. Once Gudrún told her maidens that she could not be merry. A -woman asked her what was the reason. She answered: ‘We did not get good -luck in dreams, and the sadness of my heart thou didst ask about is -caused by a dream.’ The woman said: ‘Tell me, and let it not sadden -thee, for dreams often forbode the weather.’ Gudrún said: ‘This one does -not. I dreamt that I saw a fine hawk on my hand; its feathers had a -golden colour.’ The woman said: ‘Many have heard of your beauty, wisdom, -and courtesy; the son of some king will ask thee in marriage.’ Gudrún -said: ‘Nothing did I think better than the hawk, and I would rather have -lost all my property than lose it.’ The woman said: ‘Thy husband will be -a great man, and thou wilt love him much.’ Gudrún said: ‘It grieves me -that I do not know who he is; let us go to Brynhild, she will know it.’ -They made ready with gold and great beauty, and went with their maidens -till they came to Brynhild’s hall, which was adorned with gold, and -stood on a mountain. When they were seen, Brynhild was told that many -women in gilded waggons[438] drove towards the burgh. She replied: ‘That -must be Gudrún, Gjúki’s daughter; I dreamt of her this night; let us go -out and meet her; handsomer women (than she) cannot visit us.’ ... -Gudrún said: ‘I dreamt that many of us walked together from the _skemma_ -and saw a large hart which far surpassed other deer; its hair was of -gold. We all wished to catch it, but I alone succeeded, and I loved it -above all other things. Then thou didst shoot it at my knees, which was -such a sorrow to me that I could scarcely bear it. Then thou gavest a -wolf’s cub to me, which besprinkled me with the blood of my brothers.’ -Brynhild answered: ‘I will explain what will happen. Sigurd, whom I -chose for my husband, will come to you; Grímhild will give him a mixed -mead which will cause heavy trials for all of us; thou wilt marry him -and quickly lose him; thou wilt marry King Atli; thou wilt lose thy -brothers and slay Atli.’ Gudrún said: ‘A sore sorrow is it to us to know -such things.’ They went away home to King Gjúki” (Volsunga, c. 25). - - -The following dream foreboded the death of Gisli, who fell after one of -the most memorable defences recorded:— - - -“Gisli laid himself down and tried to sleep, while they (Aud and Gudrid) -were awake; and a sleep came over him. He dreamt that two birds came to -the house and fought by stealth; they were rather larger than cock -ptarmigans, and screamed rather loudly; they were dyed all over in -blood. He awoke after this. And (his wife) asked if he had dreamt -anything: ‘Thy sleep-journeys are not good now,’ said she. He sang a -song (describing what he had dreamt)” (Gisli Sursson’s Saga, p. 95). - - -When the brothers Gunnar and Hogni were invited on a visit by King Atli, -by whom they were afterwards slain, their wives dreamt bad dreams. -Kostbera, Hogni’s wife, tells her dream to her husband, and Glaumvör -afterwards to hers, in order to dissuade them from going. - - _Kostbera._ - - It seemed to me thy sheets - Burned in fire, - And that a high flame - Broke through my house. - - _Hogni._ - - Here lie linen clothes, - For which you care little; - They will soon burn - Where thou didst see sheets (burning). - - _Kostbera._ - - I thought a bear had come in here: - He broke the walls; - He shook his paws so that - We were frightened; - He caught many of us in his mouth, - So that we were helpless. - There was no little[439] - Hard pushing. - - _Hogni._ - - It is a storm that will rise, - And soon become violent; - What thou thought’st to be a white bear - Will be a rainstorm from the east. - - _Kostbera._ - - I thought an eagle flew in here - Through the length of the house: - That forebodes to us heavy fight; - It bespattered us all with blood. - Because of its threats, I thought - It was a shape of Atli’s.[440] - - _Hogni._ - - We kill cattle speedily; - Then we see blood. - It often means oxen - When we dream of eagles. - True is the mind of Atli, - Whatever thou mayest dream. - They ceased; - The talk ended. - - _Glaumvör._ - - I fancied a gallows made for thee, - And thou wert going to hang thereon; - I thought that snakes ate thee, - That I buried thee alive; - That the _ragnarok_ came. - Guess what it was. - - _Glaumvör._ - - A bloody sword I saw, - Drawn out of thy shirt. - It is sad to tell of such a - Dream to a near kinsman.[441] - A spear, I thought, - Had pierced thy side; - Wolves howled - At both its ends. - - _Gunnar._ - - It is dogs that run, - Barking very loud; - The yelping of dogs often - Forebodes the flying of spears. - - _Glaumvör._ - - It seemed to me a river ran - Through the length of the house, - Roaring in anger, - Rushing over the benches, - Breaking the feet of your - Two brothers here. - The water spared nothing: - This may forebode something. - - _Glaumvör._ - - It seemed to me that dead women - Came hither this night; - They were well dressed, - Wanted to choose thee;[442] - They bade thee come quickly - To their benches. - I say, the _Disir_[443] - Have abandoned thee. - - (Atlamál.) - -Never to dream was considered a misfortune. - - -“It happened that the son of a high-born woman lost his memory, as if he -was insane. His mother came to King Harald, and asked him for good -advice. The king advised her to go and see King Magnus, for he knew -there was none better in the land, and he would give counsel. She went -to King Magnus accordingly, who said, ‘Did you not see King Harald?’ ‘I -did,’ answered she, and told him what he said. King Magnus added, -‘Nobody is wiser than King Harald in this land, and he can give some -advice if he have the will.’ King Harald, on hearing this, said: ‘Then I -shall give some. I think I see what ails thy son: he is -_draumstoli_,[444] for it is not the nature of a man that he dream not. -I advise thee to go to where King Magnus has washed his hands, and let -the boy drink from the water. Then you shall make him sing. Though he is -struck by sleepiness and yawning, you shall not let him sleep, but take -him to where the king has rested himself, and let him fall asleep there, -and then it is most likely that a dream will appear to him.’ She did all -as she had been told, and her son slept there a while; and when he awoke -he smiled and said, ‘I dreamed, mother. It seemed as if the Kings Magnus -and Harald came to me, and each spoke in one of my ears.’ ‘Rememberest -thou, my son,’ asked she, ‘what each one of them said?’ ‘I do,’ he said. -‘King Magnus said, “Be as good as you can.” Not long after, King Harald -said, “Be most quick at learning, and retain in your memory what you -learn as best you can.”’ This boy afterwards became a remarkable man.” - - -“King Halfdan (the Black) never dreamt. He sought advice from Thorleif -the Wise what to do. The latter told the king what he himself used to do -when he wanted to know something beforehand. He used to lay himself to -sleep in a pigsty, and was then always sure of a dream. The king in -consequence did the same, and also had a dream” (Halfdan the Black, c. -7). - - -There was supposed to be a kind of magical sleep which came over any one -who was stung by a sleep-thorn (_svefn-thorn_) placed in the ear. This -magical sleep could not be broken until the sleep-thorn fell out of the -ear of the person under the spell. - - -“The king (Helgi) had drunk so heavily that he at once fell asleep on -the bed, and the queen seized her opportunity and stung him with a -_sleep-thorn_; when all was quiet she rose, shaved off all his hair and -besmeared him with tar, then she took a leather bag and put some cloth -in it in which she wrapped him up, and bade some men take him down to -his ships. She roused his men, saying that their king had gone on board -and wished to sail, as there was a fair wind. They all jumped up as -quickly as they could, but as they were drunk did not know what they -were doing; they went to the ships, and saw no king but a very large -leather bag. They wanted to see what was in it and wait for the king, as -they thought he would come later on. When they untied it they found the -king inside. The sleep-thorn dropped down and he awoke from a bad dream, -and was enraged with the queen” (Hrólf Kraki’s Saga, c. 7).[445] - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN PAGANISM AND CHRISTIANITY. - - The old Asa belief and Christianity—Clinging to the old faith—King - Hakon the Christian and the heathen bœndr—Mixture of the two - creeds—Hakon attempts to Christianize the people—Their - opposition—Performance of ancient rites in secret after the - introduction of Christianity—Sceptics—Adaptation of Christian - ideas to the old belief—Cruelty of the earlier Christian kings. - - -In the following accounts we see the struggle between Christianity and -the old Asa belief. Hakon, the foster-son of Athelstan, so named because -he had been fostered by that king in England, came back to Norway a -Christian, but his people clung to the old faith, and to strengthen -himself in the country he at first found it necessary to observe the -tenets of his religion in secret. He ordered the Yule-feast to be -celebrated at Christmas, and persuaded some of his best friends to adopt -Christianity. - - -“Hakon was a good Christian when he came to Norway; but as all the land -was heathen, and there were much sacrificing and many chiefs, and he -much needed the help and friendship of the people, he decided to conceal -his Christianity, and kept Sundays, and fasting on Fridays, and the -greatest festivals. He made it a law that the Yule should begin at the -same time as that of the Christians, and that every man should have a -certain measure of ale, or pay a fine, and keep the days holy while Yule -lasted. It formerly began on hökunótt (the midwinter-night), and it was -kept for three nights. He wanted to make the people Christians, when he -got established in the land and had fully subjected it to himself. He -sent to England for a bishop and other priests. When they came to -Norway, Hakon made known that he would try to Christianize the land” -(Hakon the Good’s Saga, c. 15; Fornmanna Sögur, 1). - - -“Wise men say that some of those who settled in Iceland had been -baptized, and that most of those who came from the West (British -Islands) had been baptized. Among them are named Helgi the Lean, Örlyg -the Old, Helgi Bjóla, Jörund the Christian, Aud the Deep-minded, Ketil, -and others who came from the West; and some of them kept Christianity -well till their death-day; but their families seldom preserved it, for -some of their sons raised temples and sacrificed, and all the land was -heathen for nearly one hundred winters” (Landnáma, v., c. 15). - - -Sigurd Thorisson, when a heathen, was accustomed to keep the three -feasts held during the year; he afterwards adapted them to the new -religion, which was destined finally to oust paganism. - - -“When he became a Christian he continued his custom with the feasts. He -then had in the autumn a great feast for his friends, and a Yule-feast -in the winter, and still invited many people; the third feast he had at -Easter-time (_Páskar_), and then also invited many. This he continued -while he lived” (St. Olaf’s Saga, 123). - - -But the struggle continued for some time, for the people were loth to -abandon the ancient faith, and Hakon was obliged, as king, to assist at -the sacrificial feast at the temple at Hladir. Sigurd jarl on one -occasion dedicated the first toast to Odin, and the king drank out of -the horn, first making the sign of the cross over it. One of those -present who watched him saw this, which displeased him very much; -whereupon we see by the answer of Sigurd that he tried to make the -people believe that it was Thor’s sign, from which we must conclude that -the two signs were very much alike. - -The following day the bœndr, who wanted the king to observe the tenets -of the ancient belief, wished him to eat horseflesh, then to drink the -gravy, and finally to eat the fat; but as he would do none of these, he -had to “open his mouth over the handle of the kettle.” At the -_Frostathing_, Hakon made a speech, wherein he said he wanted the people -to be Christians and keep Sundays, which the bœndr did not like. -Asbjörn, a powerful bondi, answered thus:— - - -“‘When thou didst hold a _Thing_ the first time in Thrándheim, and we -had taken thee for king and got our odals, we thought we had grasped -heaven with our hands; now we do not know whether we have become free, -or thou wilt make us thralls again in a curious manner, as thou wantest -us to scorn the belief which our fathers and forefathers had before, -first in the _burning age_ and now in the _mound age_; many of them have -been much more eminent than we, but nevertheless this belief has been -good for us. We have loved thee highly, so that we have given thee with -us the rule of all laws and land-rights. Now it is our will and decision -to have and keep the laws which thou didst establish at the -_Frostathing_, and to which we then consented; we will all follow thee -and hold up thy kingship while any of the bœndr here at this _Thing_ are -alive, if thou, king, wilt show moderation and ask of us only what we -can grant thee, and what is not unfeasible. But if thou wilt go so far -in this matter as to deal with us by force and overbearing, we have all -of us determined to part from thee, and take another chief, that we may -be free to hold the belief we wish to have; now thou shalt make thy -choice, king, before the _Thing_ is closed.’ The bœndr cheered this -speech much, and said they wanted to have it as Asbjörn said; it was a -loud noise. Sigurd jarl said, when he got a hearing: ‘It is the will of -King Hakon to assent to all that the bœndr want, and never to part from -your friendship.’ The bœndr said they wanted the king to sacrifice for -good seasons and peace, as his father did. The grumbling ceased, and -they closed the _Thing_. Thereupon Sigurd spoke to the king, and told -him not to flatly refuse the wish of the bœndr, and that it would not do -to act otherwise, ‘for, as you have heard, it is the strong will of the -chiefs and all the people; but I will find some way out of the -difficulty.’ The king assented to this. - -“In the autumn during the winter-nights there was a large -sacrificing-feast at Hladir, and thither came King Hakon. He had been -accustomed when he was present at sacrifices to take his meals in a -small house with few men. The bœndr complained that he did not sit in -his high-seat at such a great feast; the jarl told him to do it, and he -did it. When the first horn was filled, Sigurd jarl spoke and -consecrated it to Odin; he drank from it to the king; the king took it -and made a sign of the cross over it; then a man called Kár of Grýting -said: ‘Why does the king behave thus? Will he no longer worship[446] the -gods?’ Sigurd jarl answered: ‘The king acts like all others who believe -in their own strength and might; he signs his cups to Thor; he made a -hammer-sign over it before he drank it.’[447] That evening all was -quiet. Next day when they sat down at the tables the bœndr crowded -towards the king and asked him to eat flesh (horseflesh, another text); -the king would by no means do it. Then they asked him to drink the -broth, which he would not. Then they asked him to eat the grease [fat of -the soup; another text, the blood], and he would not. Thereupon they -were going to attack him. Sigurd tried to reconcile them, and asked the -bœndr to stop the tumult; he said the king was going to open his mouth -over the handle of the kettle where the steam of the horseflesh-broth -had made it greasy. The king went to it and wrapped a linen cloth round -the handle, and opened his mouth over it. Then he went to his seat, and -none of them, bœndr or king, liked it well” (Fornmanna Sögur, i., c. 22, -23). - - -“King Olaf went with his men after Yule to Thrándheim. Kjartan, Bolli -and Halfred Ottarsson were with him, and many Icelanders; and he had a -large and fine host. When he came to Mœri those chiefs of the Thrands -who were most opposed to Christianity were there, and with them all the -great bœndr who had before been accustomed to keep up the sacrifices -there; a great crowd was present, and, as had been agreed upon at the -Frostathing, a _Thing_ was summoned, and both parties went fully armed -to it. At first there was noise and tumult; but when it subsided, and a -hearing could be got, King Olaf bade the bœndr be christianized, as he -had done before. Járnskeggi (Iron-beard) answered on behalf of the bœndr -as before, and said: ‘Now, as before, king, we do not want thee to break -our laws; it is our will, king, that thou sacrificest like other kings -have done here in the country before thee and other chiefs of the -Thrands, Sigurd Hlada jarl, and Hakon jarl (the great), who before thee -was chief over the greater part of this country; he was a famous man on -account of his wisdom and bravery, though he had not king’s name; for -long his rule was very well liked, and he did not lose it through -preaching such lawlessness that no one should believe in the god he -liked; nor did his father. Hakon Adalsteinsfostri has been the only one -who brought this forward; the Thrands got bitter and threatened him if -he continued this, and after the persuading of Sigurd jarl and other -friends of his he thought right to give in to the bœndr; the only thing -that will do for thee is to act as we told thee before this winter, for -we have not changed our mind since about the belief.’ The bœndr cheered -loudly the speech of Skeggi, and said they wanted it all to be as he had -said. Then the king said: ‘I will do as we agreed to at the _Thing_ of -Frosta; I will now enter the temple, and see your proceedings and the -preparing of the sacrifice.’ The bœndr were well pleased, and went to -the temple. The king went in with a few of his men and some of the -bœndr. All who went in were unarmed; the king had a gold ornamented -staff in his hand. When they came into the temple there was no lack of -idols. Thor sat in the middle, and was most worshipped; he was tall, and -ornamented all over with gold and silver. The king raised the staff and -struck Thor so that he fell down from the altar and was broken; then the -king’s men who had entered rushed forward and knocked down all the gods -from their altars. While they were in, Járnskeggi was slain outside the -door of the temple by the king’s men” (Fornmanna Sögur, c. 166, 167). - - -It was so difficult to make any progress in christianizing the people, -that they were for a time allowed to perform their rites secretly. The -bœndr were little satisfied with the religious belief of their king. The -eight chiefs who superintended the sacrifices (probably from the eight -fylkis of the Thrándheim district) united to exterminate the Christian -religion. - - -“These eight men who ruled over the sacrifice made an agreement that the -four chiefs from outer Trandheim should overthrow Christianity, and the -four from inner Thrandheim should force the king to sacrifice” (Hakon -the Good’s Saga, c. 19). - - -“Gunnhild’s sons had embraced Christianity in England, but when they -began to rule in Norway they could not make any progress in -christianising the people; but wherever they could they tore down the -temples and spoiled the sacrifices, and thus became very much disliked -by the people. The good years also soon ceased in the land. The kings -were many, and each had his hird around him, and therefore spent much -and were greedy of property; so they did not well observe the laws -established by King Hakon. They were handsome men, large and strong, and -great men of _idróttir_”[448] (Fornmanna Sögur, 1). - - -“Thorbjörn Ongul (hook) had a foster-mother, Thurid; she was very old, -and people thought her good for little. In heathen times when she was -young, she had been very skilled in witchcraft, but she appeared to have -forgotten all this. Although Christianity prevailed in the land, there -were many traces of heathendom left. It had been the law of the land -that it was not forbidden to sacrifice secretly or perform other old -customs, but if it was discovered it was to be punished by lesser -outlawry” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 80). - - -The following passage shows how firmly rooted amongst the people was the -belief in the power of Thor, the sight of whose image was alone -sufficient, in their minds, to make the God of the Christians vanish -before it, and how hard was the struggle when they had to give up that -belief. - - -“Olaf had all the most prominent men there (in Upplönd) taken, both in -Lesjar and in Dofrar, and they were forced to accept Christianity or -suffer death, or, if able, flee away. Those who received Christianity -gave into the hands of the king their sons as hostages and pledges of -their faith. The king stayed overnight at Bœar in Lesjar, and left -priests there. Then he went through Lorodal and came to Stafabrekka. The -river Otta runs through the valley, and the fine district on both sides -is called Lóar. The king could look over the whole length of the -district. ‘It is a pity that we must burn a district so fine,’ said the -king. He came down into the valley with his men, and they stayed -overnight at the farm Nes, and the king chose a loft as his -sleeping-room, which is there still (Snorri’s time) and has not been -changed since. He stayed there five nights, and cut a _Thing-summons_, -summoning men from Vagar, Lóar, and Hedal, and at the same time let them -know that they should either fight battles against him and suffer from -his ravages, or accept Christianity, and bring him their sons as -hostages. Thereafter they came to him and obeyed, but some fled south to -Dalir. - -“Dala-Gudbrand was the name of a man who ruled like a king over the -Dalir, and was _Hersir_ by title. Sigvat Scald compared him in regard to -power and large possessions to Erling Skjálgsson. Gudbrand had a son who -is mentioned here. When he heard that King Olaf had come to Lóar and -forced men to accept Christianity he cut a war arrow and summoned all -the men of Dalir to the farm Hundthorp to meet him. They all came, and -it was a multitude of men, because the lake Lög lies near there, and -they could come as well by water as by land. Gudbrand held a _Thing_, -and said: ‘A man, by name Olaf, has come to Lóar, and wants us to take a -new belief and break all our gods asunder, and says he himself has a -much greater and mightier god. It is a wonder that the earth does not -burst asunder under him when he dares speak such things, or that our -gods allow him to live any longer. I expect if we carry Thor out of our -temple at the _bœr_ where he is, and if he looks on Olaf and his men, -Olaf’s god and himself and his men will melt and vanish, for this has -always helped us.’ They all shouted at once that Olaf should never -escape thence if he came to them, and they said he would not dare to -advance farther south in the Dalir. They sent seven hundred men north to -Breida to spy, with the son of Gudbrand, eighteen winters old, as -leader, and many other prominent men. These men came to the farm Hof and -remained there three nights, and many who had fled from Lesjar and Lóar -and Vagar, unwilling to adopt Christianity, joined them there. King Olaf -and Sigurd, the bishop, left teachers in Lóar and Vagar. - -“The king went to the bœndr and held the _Thing_ with them. The day was -very wet. When the _Thing_ was opened the king rose and told them that -the men of Lesjar, Lóar and Vagar had accepted Christianity and torn -down their sacrificing-houses, and now believed in the true God, who -shaped heaven and earth and knew all things. The king sat down, and -Gudbrand answered: ‘We do not know about whom thou art talking; dost -thou call him God whom neither thou nor any other can see? We have a god -whom we may see every day, but he is not out to-day because the weather -is wet. He will look terrible and great to you. I expect that fear will -creep into your breasts if he comes to the _Thing_. But as thou sayest -that thy God is so powerful, then let him make the weather to-morrow -cloudy, with no rain, and we will meet here.’ Thereupon the king went -home to his room, and with him Gudbrand’s son as a hostage, while the -king gave them another man in his place. In the evening the king asked -Gudbrand’s son how their god was made. He answered he was made after -Thor (his likeness); had a hammer in his hand; was of a large size, and -hollow inside; that a platform was made under him, on which he stood -when outside the temple; that he did not lack gold and silver on him: -that four loaves of bread were brought to him every day, and as much -meat. Then they went to bed. But the king was awake all that night and -prayed. When it was day he went to mass, then to his meal, and then to -the _Thing_. The weather was as Gudbrand had said. The bishop rose in -his gown with a mitre on his head and a crozier in his hand, and -preached to the bœndr and told them many tokens which God had shown, and -ended his speech well. Thórd Istrumagi (paunch-belly) answered: ‘This -horned man with a staff in his hand with a top like a crooked ram’s horn -talks much. As you, comrades, say that your god works so many tokens, -then ask him to-morrow before sunrise to let the weather be bright and -sunny, then we will meet and do one of two things—agree on this matter, -or fight a battle.’ They parted for a time. - -“Kolbein the Strong, who was with King Olaf, had his kinsmen in the -Fjords. He was always so dressed that he was girt with a sword, and had -a large stick in his hand which some call ‘club.’ The king told him that -he should stand next him that morning, and then said to his men: ‘Go -this night to the boats of the bœndr and bore holes in all of them, and -take away their horses from the farms where they are and ride on them. -This was done. The king stayed all night at the farm, and prayed God to -clear this difficulty with His mercy and grace. After the matins, about -daybreak, he went to the _Thing_. When he came some of the bœndr had -arrived. They saw a large crowd of bœndr coming to the _Thing_, carrying -a large image, ornamented all over with gold and silver. When the bœndr -present saw it, they all rushed up and bowed to the monster. Then it was -placed on the middle of the _Thing-plain_. On one side sat the bœndr, on -the other the king and his men. Then Dala-Gudbrand rose and said: ‘Where -is your god now, king; I think he now carries his chin rather low. It -seems to me that your boasting, and that of the horned man whom you call -bishop, sitting at your side, is less than yesterday. It is because our -god, who rules all, has come, and looks on you with keen eyes; and I see -that you are full of terror now, and dare scarcely look up with your -eyes. Now throw off your superstition and believe in our god, who has -you altogether in his power.’ He ended his speech. The king said to -Kolbein the Strong, so that the bœndr did not hear: ‘If during my speech -it happens that they look away from their god, then strike him as hard a -blow as thou art able with the club.’ Then he rose and said: ‘Many -things hast thou (Gudbrand) spoken to us this morning; thou wonderest -that thou art not able to see our God, but we expect He will soon come -to us. Thou dost threaten us with thy god, who is blind and deaf, and -can neither help himself nor others, and can move nowhere from his place -unless he is carried: I expect that in a short time evil will happen to -him. Now look into the east; there comes our God with great light.’ The -sun was rising, and all the bœndr looked towards it. At the same moment -Kolbein struck their god so that he burst all asunder, and mice large as -cats, and vipers and worms, ran out. The bœndr were so frightened that -they fled, some to their ships; but when they launched them they were -filled with water, and they could not get on them. Those who ran to -their horses found them not. The king had them called to him, and said -he wished to speak with them, and they came back to the _Thing_. Then -the king rose and said: ‘I do not know why you make this tumult and -uproar; now you can see what power your god had to whom you brought gold -and silver, food and provisions; you saw what beings had eaten him, mice -and worms, vipers and adders. Those who believe in such things, and will -not leave off their folly, are the worse for it. Take your gold and -costly things scattered on the plain; bring them home to your wives, and -never hereafter ornament tree or stones with them. Now here are two -choices: either you accept Christianity now, or fight a battle against -me to-day, and may those get the victory whom the God in whom we believe -wills.’ Dala-Gudbrand rose and said: ‘A great loss have we suffered in -our god, but as he could not help us we will now believe in the God in -whom thou believest.’ They all accepted Christianity, and the bishop -baptized Gudbrand and his son. King Olaf and Sigurd the bishop left -teachers there; and those who were foes parted as friends, and Gudbrand -had a church made in the Dalir” (St. Olaf, Heimskringla, 117–119). - - -But even in early times, before Christianity had made any advance among -the Northmen, there were sceptics such as Hrolf Kraki, Orvar Odd, and -others, who had little or no belief. Examples are given in the Sagas of -others in later times, when Christianity had gained a footing in the -country, who also had no belief. When King Olaf Tryggvason asked -Eindridi what was his religious belief, the latter answered:— - - -“‘I have made up my mind never to believe in logs or stones, though they -be in the shape of fiend or man, whose power I don’t understand; and -though I have been told that they have great power, it seems to me very -unlikely, for I find that those images which are called gods are in -every way uglier and less powerful than myself.’ The king asked: ‘Why -dost thou then not believe in the true God, who is all powerful, and let -thyself be baptized in his name?’ ‘Because,’ Eindridi replied, ‘it has -never before been put before me, and no one on your behalf has told me -about this God, whom you call almighty; but another more important -reason is that, as I would not believe what my father and kinsmen told -me about their gods, I have decided never to hold that belief which is -in every way so unlike theirs, unless I am fully convinced that your God -is as almighty as you call him’” (Fornmanna Sögur). - - -When Christianity predominated among the people, we find that sacrifices -and worship of heathen gods were forbidden. - - -“When Harald Gormsson the Dana king had become a Christian, he sent an -order throughout his realm that all the people should get baptized and -be converted to the true faith. He went round himself, and punished and -forced those who were unwilling. He sent two jarls to Norway with many -men to preach Christianity there; their names were Urguthrjót and -Brimisskjar. Many people were baptized in the Vikin which belonged to -King Harald. After Harald’s death his son Svein Tjúguskegg (forked -beard) soon went on an expedition to Saxland and Frisland, and later to -England. The Northmen who had adopted Christianity turned again to their -sacrifices as before, like the people did in the northern part of the -country (Norway). Olaf Tryggvason said he would christianize the whole -of Norway or lose his life. ‘I will make you all great and powerful men, -for I trust you best for the sake of kinship and other relationship.’ -They all consented to do whatever he commanded, and follow him in all -that he wished, with all those who would take their advice. Then Olaf -made known to the people that he would preach Christianity to all men in -his realm” (Olaf Tryggvason, Heimskringla, c. 59). - - -“Blót (worship by sacrifice) is forbidden to us—we shall neither worship -heathen _vœttir_ (guardian spirits), nor gods, nor mounds (_haugar_), -nor altars (_horgs_). If a man is known and convicted of secretly -throwing up a mound, or making a house and calling it hörg, or raising a -pole and calling it _skaldstong_ (_i.e._, imprecation-pole), he shall -thereby forfeit every penny of his property” (King Sverri’s -Kristinrétt).[449] - - -It is curious to see how Christian ideas were transformed. The poet -Eilif Gudrúnarson says of Christ, that he is “_strong against the -Jötnar_”; he was possibly thinking of Thor. Halfred says the Christian -dogmas are not more poetical than the old belief. - -In a fragment of a song on Christ, the poet Eilif Gudrúnarson says that -Christ sits at the well of Urd (Later Edda, Skáldskaparmál, 52)— - - “Men say he (Christ) sits on a rock - South at the well of Urd. - Thus the mighty lord of the gods - Has strengthened himself with the lands of Rome.” - -It appears that the eating of horseflesh was forbidden by the early -Christians. The Emperor Otto having consulted his chiefs as to what -steps should be taken to provide provisions for the army, when fighting -against the Danes south of Danavirki, was advised by them either to -withdraw from the country, or slay some of the horses for food. To this -the Emperor replied:— - - -“To this advice there is a great drawback, for it is the greatest -sacrilege for baptized men who can in any other manner prolong their -lives to eat horseflesh” (Olaf Tryggvason, Fornmanna Sögur, c. 1). - - -The Halfred’s Saga, which relates how Halfred, who had been baptized, -was for some time with the King, Olaf Tryggvason, and asked him to hear -a song, which at first the king declined to hear, as too heathen for -him, shows how hard was the struggle with some men to entirely give up -the old faith. - - “Of yore I worshipped well - Him the bold-minded - Lord of Hlidskjalf (Odin); - The luck of men changes.” - -The king said: “This is a very bad stanza; thou must improve it.” - - “Every kindred has made songs - To win the love of Odin; - I remember the songs - Of the men of our time, - But because I serve Christ - I must hate against my will - The first husband of Frigg (Odin), - For his power I liked well.” - -The king replied: “The gods dwell much in thy mind, and I do not like -it.” - - “Enricher of men, I forsake - The god-name of the raven-worshipper (Odin) - Who in heathendom performed - A trick praised by the people.”[450] - -“This makes it no better; make a stanza to mend this.” - - “Frey and Freyja and the strong Thor - Ought to be angry with me; - I forsake the offspring of Njörd.[451] - The angry (gods) may be friends with Grimnir (Odin); - I will call on Christ, for all love - The only Father and God; - The anger of the Son I dislike, - He is the famous ruler of earth.” - -“This is a good song, and better than none; sing more.” - - “It is the custom with the Sygna king[452] - To forbid sacrifices; - We must shun most of - The time-honoured dooms of the Nornir; - All men throw - The kindred of Odin to the winds; - Now I am forced to pray to Christ - And leave the offspring of Njörd.” - - (Halfred’s Saga, c. 6.) - -That conversion to Christianity did not always at first have a softening -influence over the character of its converts is to be seen from the -following passages:— - - -“The great Hákon jarl was a zealous sacrificer. When he came to Vikin he -found that the (Emperor Otto’s) jarls Urguthrjót and Brimisskjar had -broken down the temples and christianized all the people they could. -Hákon had all the broken temples rebuilt, and sent word all over Vikin -that no man should believe in the faith which the jarls had imposed. He -went northward across the land to Thrándheim, and there first remained -quiet. He ruled over the whole of Norway, but never afterwards paid any -taxes to the King of Denmark. Afterwards he was in all things worse and -more heathen than he had been before he was baptized” (Fornmanna Sögur, -vol. i., ch. 73). - - -“Hákon was open-handed with property toward his men, and for a long time -beloved by the whole people; but he had the greatest misfortune to his -dying day, which was not strange, for he was always guileful, unfaithful -and treacherous, both to friends and foes, and the greatest -_god-nithing_ and sacrificing man: the time had come when Almighty God -had intended that the sacrifices and heathendom, and the evil messenger -of the devil, Hákon jarl, should be condemned, and the holy faith and -true customs take their place. When Hákon was slain, he had been Jarl -thirty-three winters since the fall of his father, Sigurd Jarl; he was -twenty-five when his father fell, and lacked two winters of sixty” -(Fornmanna Sögur, i., c. 104). - - -“‘Now, Sigurd, thou hast jarlship over this realm, which I call my own, -as well as all other realms, which King Harald Fairhair owned, and each -of his descendants have inherited one after the other. As it has -happened that thou hast come into my power, thou hast two choices: the -first is that thou and all thy dependents shall embrace the true faith -and be baptized, and then thou shalt hold from me the rule thou hast -heretofore, and what is worth more, live with Almighty God eternally in -the kingdom of heaven, if thou observest His commands. The other choice -is very bad, and very unlike the former: that thou shalt die in this -place, and I will go with fire and sword over the islands and lay waste -this whole realm, unless the people will believe in the true God; and, -if thou shalt make this choice, then thou wilt, as all others who -believe in a skurdgod (carved god, idol), after a sudden death, suffer -terribly with the fiend in the flames of hell without end.’ As the Jarl -was then situated, he chose to embrace the true faith. - -“The Jarl and all his men were therefore baptized. Thereupon he became -King Olaf’s man, and bound this with oath. Sigurd Jarl then took the -country as fief from the king, and gave him as hostage his son _Hvelp_ -(whelp) or _Hundi_ (dog), whom King Olaf had baptized with the name -Hlödver, and taken to Norway. Thereupon King Olaf sailed from the -Orkneys, and left behind learned men to teach the people in the holy -faith. The king and the jarl then separated as friends” (St. Olaf’s -Saga). - - -The later accounts of the struggle between the two creeds show how many -crimes were committed avowedly in the name of conscience and religion, -but really in that of superstition and ignorance, which brings with it -bigotry, vandalism and murder, the curse of mankind; and we see that the -people had a dislike to the adoption of Christian names. - - -“He (King Olaf, the Saint) had Hrærek blinded in both eyes and took him -with him; he had the tongue of Gudröd, King of Dalir, cut out; Hring and -two others he forced to give oaths that they would leave Norway and -never come back” (St. Olaf, Heimskringla, c. 74). - - -“Olaf Tryggvason and Bishop Sigurd both went with many worships to Godey -(god-isle), where Raud the Strong, a man of sacrifices, lived. Olaf -attacked the loft where Raud slept, and broke it and went in. Raud was -taken and tied, and of the men in there some were killed and others -taken. Raud was led before the king, who bade him let himself be -baptized; ‘then,’ said the king, ‘I will not take thy property, but be -thy friend if thou wilt do this.’ Raud cried out against this, and said -he would never believe in Christ, and blasphemed much. The king grew -angry, and said Raud should die the most hideous death. He had him taken -out and lashed to a beam, a stick was placed between his teeth to force -open his mouth, in which a snake was placed; but it would not go in, and -recoiled, because he blew against it. Then the king had a stalk of -angelica put in Raud’s mouth; some say that the king put his war-horn -into his mouth with the snake in it; he had a red-hot iron bar put on -the outside of it. The snake recoiled into the mouth of Raud, and down -his throat, and ate its way out of his side, and Raud died. The king -took thence a large quantity of gold and silver and other loose -property, weapons, and many costly things. He had slain or tortured all -those of Raud’s men who would not be baptized” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 87). - - -“Olaf Sviaking had a son by his queen who was born on the day of St. -James’ vigil; when he was baptized the bishop called him Jacob. The -Sviar disliked that name, and said that never had a Sviaking been called -Jacob” (St. Olaf, c. 89). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - THE LAND. - - Division of the land—Supposed origin of the division—The odal—How - land could become odal—Redemption of the odal—Laws in regard to - redemption—Purchase of land and closing of the bargain—Existence - of leaseholds—Commons—Rights of common—Laws regulating commons. - - -In old Sweden and Norway, and no doubt all over the North, the land was -divided into _Herad_ and _Fylki_. In Sweden there were small and large -_Herad_; in Norway there were both _Herad_ and _Fylki_, the latter -probably corresponding to the larger _Herad_ in Sweden. - -We are unable to find how and when such division of land began to take -place among the people: that a sudden emigration burst upon the country -we have no proof whatever. - -The word _her_ (“host”) implies a certain number of people or families -coming together for mutual protection or otherwise, and the whole was -called host. These either took by force or settled peacefully upon -certain tracts of land, which were then called _Herad_, probably on -account of being the land of the _her_. In the course of time—perhaps -for mutual protection, or for some other reason unknown to us—those -_Herad_ or _Fylki_, though entirely independent of each other in their -internal affairs, were united together, and were called _thjod_, or -_veldi_, which means a nation made up of different _Fylki_ and _Herad_. -So the land of the Swedes was called Svi-thjód, or Svia-veldi: and that -of the Danes and Norwegians, Dana-veldi and Noregs-veldi. - -A man who settled upon a Herad without lawful right could be summarily -ousted without resorting to legal remedies. - -Thormod and Thorgeir made themselves obnoxious to the people of the -neighbourhood by their wild habits. Those who thought themselves wronged -by them went to Vermund (chief of the Herad), and laid their complaints -before him. Vermund summoned Hávar and Bersi (the fathers of the two -young men) to him, and told them that the people disliked their sons. - - -“‘Thou, Hávar,’ he said, ‘art a man not belonging to the herad, and hast -settled here without permission. We did not object to thy living here -till thy son Thorgeir caused dissension; we want thee to break up thy -residence and depart from Isafjord; but Bersi and his son we will not -drive away, for they are _heradsmen_’” (Fostbrœdra Saga). - - -_Odal._—We find a great part of the land divided into _Odal_—i.e., the -title to which was absolute, and not dependent on a superior—but how -this was acquired we do not know. The probability is that in the -beginning of the migration or conquest each head of a family took, or -had allotted to him, a certain amount of land as _odal_—the extent of -land being proportionate to the size of his family or to his rank. Then -the settler became a _buandi_[453] (a dweller), that is, of the Herad of -which he formed an integral part. The word _bondi_ is still applied in -Norway to odal men, who own farms in their own name. To this day there -are _odal_ farms in Sweden and Norway which have remained in the same -family almost from time immemorial; and such were the safeguards in -olden times against alienation of land, that it has been impossible for -those estates to be gradually absorbed into the hands of comparatively -few men, as has been unfortunately done in some other countries; and as -no conquerors have come to dispossess the original owners, and give -large tracts of land to their followers, the land in many parts of -Scandinavia, with the exception of Denmark, has remained much divided to -this day. Besides _odal_ there was _kaup land_, the latter being -freehold land that could be bought, and loose property. - -The Gulathing’s Law enumerates seven ways in which landed property could -become _odal_:— - - -“1. When it had descended through four generations in unbroken -succession. 2. When the land had been given as _weregild_.[454] 3. When -it had been got by so-called _branderfd_. - - -4. When it was received as _heidlaun_ (fee-reward), i.e., when, in later -times, it was given by a king to his servant for faithful services. 5. -At a later period, when it was given by the king as _drekkulaun_ -(drink-reward), either for having been well entertained, or as a reward -for nursing the king. 6. When it was received as reward for fostering a -child (barnfóstrlaun). 7. When it had been acquired in exchange for -another odal” (Gulathing’s Law, 270). - - -“The inheritance is called _branderfd_ if a man receives another to keep -him in bad and good circumstances, and feeds him till fire and pyre -(until he dies)” (Gulath., 108). - - -In all the last six modes of acquiring the land, it is of course -understood that the land must have been the _odal_ of the grantor. - -The odal could not be alienated from the family, and if sold to any one -outside the family, the latter had the right of redemption, which -consisted in this: that in case the land was sold to a stranger, the -nearest of kin had the right to redeem the odal from the new owner -within a certain time and on certain conditions. These differed in the -different laws. The Gulathing’s Law, which most extensively treats this -subject, sets as a rule for the redemption, that it could be made by the -nearest of kin after lawful notice, on payment of a sum one-fifth less -than that at which the land was appraised by arbitrators. The kinsman, -however, in order to keep this right open, had to publicly announce it -at the Thing under whose jurisdiction the land lay, within _twenty -years_ after the sale, so that twenty years should never be allowed to -pass between two announcements. If this was neglected, the next of kin -had not thereby lost his right of redemption, but he had to pay the full -value of the land. - - -“If the land lies (is in possession of the buyer) for twenty winters and -no notice is given, full value must be paid for it” (Gulath., 272). - - -The right of redemption was not forfeited until the land had been in the -family of the new owner for the period of sixty years without any notice -of redemption having been given. - - -“If the land belongs to the same line of family for sixty years or more, -it becomes the odal of the owner, so that no man can buy it from him” -(N. G. L., ii. 93). - - -“If there are two brothers, and one of them dies before his father and -leaves a son, then he shall redeem that part of the odal at -four-fifths[455] of the value from his father’s brother. But he cannot -do it before his grandfather is dead” (Gulathing’s Law, 294). - - -“When the redeemer has claimed the land according to law, he shall carry -the money to the land at the middle of the fast on the morning next -after the washing-day (Saturday), when three weeks of the fast are left. -He shall put it on a stone where field and meadow meet. He shall speak -thus: ‘Be here on the land Thursday in the Easter-week, and take the -value of the land, as much as it is valued in lawful money. I will come -here with honest men, and thou shalt have as many here. They shall value -the land as it is done when men redeem their odals. The half of the -money shall be in gold and silver, and the other half in native bondsmen -not older than forty and not younger than fifteen winters’” (Gulath., -266). - - -If the king was _odalsman_ (i.e., next of kin) to land in the possession -of another, then the redemption was to take place within the reigns of -three kings, for otherwise the right of redemption was forfeited. - - -“If land falls to the king it must be redeemed from his steward who has -the survey in the _Fylki_ in which the land lies. If there is no king’s -steward in the _Fylki_, it must be redeemed from the steward who is next -in rank and before the lives of three kings are gone. If the land is not -redeemed before, it must lie where it is. Though three kings rule the -land the time is reckoned as the life of one king. If the king wants to -redeem land his steward shall redeem it as we do among ourselves. He -must have redeemed it also before the lives of three kings are gone, -else it lies where it is. Land cannot be redeemed while the king is in -the _Fylki_ in which the land lies” (Gulath., 271). - - -“The land of no man can become odal before three generations have owned -it in unbroken succession and it falls to the fourth (as inheritance)” -(Frostath., xii. 4). - -“Land becomes the odal of a church if she has owned it for thirty -winters” (Frostath., xii. 4). - - -The land was bought in the following manner, and the bargain was closed -by _weapon-taking_ and the shaking of hands. - - -“If a man buys land in the presence of many men, the thingmen shall -convey the land to him. He shall summon the other man home, and thence -to the Thing, and have witnesses at the Thing that he has lawfully -summoned him. He shall take mould, as is mentioned in the laws, to the -four corners of the hearth, and to the high-seat, and where field and -meadow meet, and where pasture and stone-ridge meet, and have witnesses, -and those who were present at their bargain, at the Thing that he has -taken the mould lawfully. If he has full witnesses, the Thingmen shall -with weapon-taking convey the land to him. Wherever they agree about the -bargain, and the sale and the mould is rightly taken, it, and also the -conveyance, shall be kept at a church and at an ale-house, and at a -manned ship with several rowing-seats, as if it were made at a Thing. -Wherever the king conveys land it shall be kept”[456] (Gulath., 292). - - -“The silver was then all counted, and every _penning_ paid for the land. -Börk then took the money, and by a _hand-shaking_ transferred the land -to Snorri” (Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 14). - - -“If a woman is _baugryg_,[457] she can inherit both odal and (loose) -property, and no man can redeem it from her. The women who are -odal-women and whom the odals follow are these. Daughter and sister, and -father’s sister, and brother’s daughter, and son’s daughter. The -daughter and sister are two _baugrygs_. They can pay and receive wergild -like men. They also have, like men, the first right to buy the land” -(Gulath., 275). - - -Leaseholds also existed in these early days. - - -“Thrand leased out the lands at Gata to many, and took as high a rent as -possible” (Færeyinga Saga, c. 2). - - -_Commons._—From time immemorial the large extents of land and sea, which -belonged to no individual, and used by one or more communities as their -common property, were called _almenning_ or commons, and were under the -power of the _herad_. Every one had the right to make use of wood and -water on these commons; to build himself _sæter_,[458] as well as -smithies and hunting-huts; to fish in the waters, hunt and trap animals; -to cut timber and mow grass, observing the previous rights of any -earlier user. The settler ought then to fence around his property within -twelve months. Outside his home field he owned as outgrounds all the -surrounding land as far as he could throw his knife. All fishing-places -at some distance from the coast were commons, but the king had a right -to get a fee or tax from those who fished there, which tax was one of -his sources of revenue.[459] - - -“Every man is allowed to use water and wood on a common. Every one shall -have his common as he has had it from old time. If a settlement is made -on a common, the king owns it. If there is a field and meadow fenced in, -he owns the land as far from the fence as he can throw his knife. The -remaining is common. All that is thrown up on the coast of a common is -owned by the king. If people sail along the coast or from sea and their -ships founder, whoever owns the land where they are wrecked owns as much -property as he can prove with witnesses. The king owns all other -sea-wrecks” (Gulath., 145). - - -“This law have the kings given to all the men of Hálogaland; namely, the -kings have given up all _fish-gifts_ (taxes) from all capes and all -fishing-places, except that men shall give to the king five fishes. That -shall every man do who fishes in Vagar (in Hálogaland)”[460] (Frostath., -xvi. 2). - - -“The law of seal-catching places is, that within three weeks from St. -John’s Mass, and six weeks from Yule, all such places are holy, and no -man shall go into another’s ground without leave. If a man is found in -another’s fishing-ground during these weeks and catches seals, he is a -thief. Between these times they shall protect their seal-catching places -like their land with a law stick (lag kelfi), and a _ran baug_ (fine); -if the thief goes then, he is fined for trespassing in another man’s -land....” (Frostath., xiv. 11). - - -“Deer-enclosures every man can make on common land, if he does not spoil -another’s hunting.... A spear-fence shall not stand longer than ten -winters” (Frostath., xiv. 9). - - -Later, and after the establishment of the kingdom of Harald Fairhair, -the commons as well as the odal became the property of the king; and -William the Conqueror, after the conquest of England, considered himself -to have the same powers as those usurped by Harald Fairhair and other -northern kings. - - -“King Harald became the owner of all _odals_, and of all the land -cultivated and uncultivated in every _Fylki_, and even of the sea and -the rivers and lakes. All _bœndr_ were to be his tenants, both those who -cultivated the field and the saltmakers; and all fishermen, hunters and -trappers, both on sea and on land, were his men” (Egil’s Saga, c. -4).[461] - - -If a person had been living on a common during the time of three kings, -none of whom reigned less than ten years, he had thereby acquired full -and legal rights to his land, even though he lacked the formal consent -of the king. - - -“If a steward or messenger of the king charges a man with dwelling on -land taken from the common without the king’s leave, and the man answers -that the land has been held by him during the lives of three kings, none -of whom ruled less than three winters, then if the steward or king’s -messenger denies this he shall bring forward witnesses” (Frostath., xiv. -7). - - -When the king gave land to a man, his successor could take it back, so -the gift was only valuable for the lifetime of the king. - -The customs which regulated settlements made on the land in Iceland were -probably very ancient, but it is impossible to tell whether they were -handed down from the time of the first settlers in the North. - -Asbjörn, son of Heyangrs-Björn, a _hersir_ (chief)[462] in Sogn, died at -sea on his journey to Iceland, but Thorgerd, his wife and their sons -came to Iceland. - - -“It was the custom that a woman should not take up more land than a -half-grown and well-kept heifer, two winters old, could be led across -during the spring-long day from sunrise to sunset; therefore Thorgerd -led her heifer from Thoptufell, near Kviá, southwards to Kidjaklett at -Jökulsfell” (Landnáma, Pt. iv., c. 10). - - -“Those who came out later thought the first comers had taken too much -land, and on that account King Harald Fairhair established a law that no -one should take up more land than he could walk over with fire in one -day with his ship-companions. They were to light fires when the sun was -in the east, which were to burn until night; then they were to walk -until the sun was in the west and make other fires; the smoke was to be -seen from the one fire to the other” (Landnáma, v., c. 1). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXV. - DIVISIONS OF PEOPLE INTO CLASSES. - - Antiquity of class divisions in the North—Influence of education—The - classes into which society was divided—The Jarl the progenitor of - kings—Primogeniture—The thrall—Description of freemen—The freeman - a farmer or bondi—Occupation of Jarl and his wife—High-born - women—Marriage of the high born—Sons of Jarls—Divisions of the - people at the close of the Pagan era—The Hersir or leader of the - host—Customs of ancient chiefs—The Jarl in earlier and later - times—The Lendirmenn the leaders and advisers of the bœndr—The - position and power of the Bondi—The Haulld, a higher grade of - bondi—The king—Grades of kingship—Sea kings—Consent of the Thing - to the election of a king—Manner of selecting a king. - - -From very early times the people of the North were divided into classes. -Men and women were educated from their childhood to believe in the -superiority or inferiority of their own being, of the position inherited -by them at their birth, and consequently to think themselves superior or -inferior to the other people of the commonwealth. This belief was -intensified by the education they received, their surroundings and their -mode of life, as seen throughout from the day of their birth to the time -when they were buried. The class that governed held that they were born -to rule, and the slave to remain a slave. The lot of each had been -hereditary, fate had so decreed. - -This demarcation into classes was acquiesced in by the people of the -land, for it could not have existed a single moment without their will, -and formed an integral part of the social and political fabric -throughout the whole history of the people. - -But as will be seen in the perusal of these volumes, no man was allowed -to rule over the people unless he excelled in many things. - -The _Rigsmál_ gives in a striking manner the mode of life of early -times, and shows into how many classes society was divided: viz., the -_slave_; the _karl_ or _bondi_; the _jarl_, and the _hersir_. - -In the first stanza of the Voluspa we have seen that all men are called -the sons of Heimdall, of which we have an explanation in the Rigsmál. -Heimdall travels about under the name of Rig, from house to house; first -he goes to _Ai_ and _Edda_ (great-grandfather and great-grandmother), -then to _Afi_ and _Amma_ (grandfather and grandmother), and then to -_Fadir_ and _Módir_ (father and mother). - -In the poem we see the ancestry of each class under a sort of developing -system—how the jarl and hersir are the progenitors of chiefs and kings; -and we learn of _odal_, or of primogeniture and entail; of the hersir we -learn nothing, except that he existed. - - It is told there went - Along the green paths - A mighty and old - And wise As, - The strong and nimble - Rig the wanderer. - - He went on thereafter - Along the middle of the path, - And came to a house; - The door was ajar; - He went in; - Fire was on the floor; - Man and wife sat there - Hoary, at the hearth, - Ái and Edda, - With her old-fashioned hood. - - Rig gave them - Good advice; - He sat down - In the middle seat, - And on either side - The man and wife of the house. - - Then Edda took - A lumpy loaf, - Heavy and thick, - Mixed with bran; - Then she put more - On the middle of the trencher - Broth was in the bowl; - She put it on a table. - There was boiled veal - The best of dainties. - - Rig could give them - Good advice; - He rose from there, - Went to sleep, - And lay down - In the middle of the bed, - And on either side - The man and wife of the house. - - There he stayed - Three nights altogether; - Then travelled on - Along the middle of the path; - Then passed - Nine months. - Edda gave birth to a child, - They sprinkled it with water. - - _Appearance of the Thrall._ - - They called him Thrall. - He grew - And throve well; - There was on (his) hands - Wrinkled skin; - Crooked knuckles. - - * * * * * - - Fingers thick, - Face ugly, - Back bent, - Heels long. - - Thereafter he began - To try his strength - To bind bast, - To make loads - Thereafter he carried home - Faggots the weary day. - - There came to the house - The leg-walking;[463] - Scars were on her soles; - Her arm was sunburnt; - Her nose crooked; - (She) was called Thir.[464] - - She sat down - In the middle of the seat; - The son of the house - Sat at her side; - They talked and whispered, - Made a bed - Thrall and Thir - Through the wearisome days. - - They had children, - Lived and were happy; - * * * * * - They laid fences, - Enriched the plough-land, - Tended swine, - Herded goats, - Dug peat. - - _Description of Freemen._ - - Then Rig went - Right on his way; - He came to a hall; - The door was on the latch. - He went in; - Fire was on the floor,[465] - Husband and wife sat there, - Busy with their work. - - A man cut there - A log into a loom-beam, - (His) beard was trimmed; - Hair lay on (his) forehead, - His shirt was tight; - There was a chest on the floor. - - There sat a woman; - She twirled a distaff, - Stretched out her arms, - Made cloth; - There was a sveig[466] on her head, - A smock on her breast, - A kerchief on her neck, - Pin-brooches on her shoulders; - Afi and Amma[467] - Owned the house. - - Amma gave birth to a child; - (They) sprinkled it with water, - Called it Karl, - The wife wrapped it in linen; - (It was) red and ruddy, - (Its) eyes rolled. - - _The Freeman, a Farmer or Bondi._ - - He did grow - And thrive well; - He broke oxen, - Made ploughs; - Timbered houses, - Made barns, - Made carts, - And drove the plough. - - They (the parents) drove home - The maiden with the hanging keys - And with the goatskin kirtle; - They married her to Karl; - She was called Snör, - She sat down under bridal linen. - (They) lived as man and wife, - Divided rings (wealth), - Spread bedclothes, - And set up a household. - - They had children; - They lived together happy. - -Then follows a description of the jarl, who possessed all the qualities -given by Odin, from whom many claim descent. From this we learn the -occupation of himself and wife and their manner of living, that he was a -warrior, and had a knowledge of runes. - - Rig went thence - Right onwards; - He came to a hall, - The door was to the south, - And it was shut; - A ring[468] was in the door-post. - - Then he went in; - The floor was strewn with rushes; - The man and the wife sat, - Looked into (each other’s) eyes; - Fadir and Modir - Played with their fingers. - - The husband sat, - And twisted strings, - Bent an elm, - Shafted arrows; - And the housewife - Looked at her arms, - Smoothed the linen, - Folded the sleeves. - - She let her fald stand out;[469] - A brooch was on her breast; - She wore long trailings,[470] - A blue-dyed sark; - A brow brighter, - A breast lighter, - A neck whiter, - Than pure snow. - - The mother took - A broidered cloth, - A white one of flax, - Covered the table; - Then she took - Thin loaves, - White loaves of wheat, - And laid them on the cloth. - - Forth she set - Full trenchers, - Silver covered, - On the table, - Shining pork - And roasted birds; - Wine was in a jug; - The cups (were) mounted; - They drank and talked; - The day was passing away. - - Rig could give them - Good advice; - Then he rose, - And made his bed; - He was there - Three nights together: - Then he went on - In the middle of the path; - Then there passed - Nine months. - - Modir gave birth to a boy, - Wrapped him in silk - Sprinkled him with water, - Called him jarl. - His hair was fair, - Cheeks bright; - His eyes were keen, - As a young snake’s.[471] - - The Jarl grew up - There in the house; - Shook the lind,[472] - Laid the strings, - Bent the elm, - Shafted the arrows, - Threw the javelins, - Shook the spears, - Rode horses, - Set on the hounds, - Brandished the sword, - Practised swimming. - - Out of the brushwood - Came Rig walking, - Taught him runes, - Gave him his name, - Said he was his son; - He bade him own - The _Odal_-fields, - The old homestead. - - He rode on thence - Through a dark wood, - Over hoar-frosted mountains, - Till he came to a hall; - He brandished the spear, - Shook the linden, - Let the horse gallop, - Drew his sword, - Stirred up war, - Reddened the field, - Felled men for land. - - He alone then ruled - Eighteen farms, - Dealt out wealth, - Gave to all - Treasures and costly things, - Bare-ribbed horses; - Scattered rings,[473] - Cut them asunder. - - _Appearance of the High-born Women._ - - The messengers drove - On the wet paths,[474] - And came to the hall - Where Hersir lived;[475] - He had a daughter - Slender-fingered, - White and gentle, - She was called Erna. - - _The High-born Marry together._ - - They asked for her - And drove home, - And married her to Jarl; - She walked under linen; - They lived together - And were happy, - Increased the kin, - Enjoyed life. - - Bur was the oldest, - Barn the second, - Jód and Adal, - Arfi, Mög, - Nid and Nidjung, - They played - Son and Svem (swain) - And played chess. - One was called Kund,[476] - Kon was the youngest. - - _Sons of Jarls are called Kon._ - - Up grew - The sons of Jarl, - They brake horses, - Bent shields, - Smoothed shafts, - Shook ash-spears. - - But Kon[477] the young - Knew runes, - Everlasting runes,[478] - And life runes; - And further he knew - How to save men’s lives, - To blunt edges, - To calm the sea.[479] - - -From this we see that the Jarl was supposed to have qualities not -possessed by the lower class, which was kept in awe of him on this -account. - - - He learnt the chirping of birds,[480] - To quench fires, - To soothe minds, - To allay sorrows; - He had the strength and energy - Of eight men. - - He coped in runes - Against Rig jarl; - Used tricks - And outdid him; - Then he got - And then he owned - The name of Rig, - The knowledge of runes. - - The young Kon rode - Through copse and forest, - Shot the bolt, - Killed birds. - - Then said a crow; - It sat alone on a bough: - “Why wilt thou, young Kon, - Kill birds? - Thou shouldst rather - Horses ride - And fell the host.[481] - - Dan and Danp - Own costly halls, - A higher odal - Than you have; - They know well - To ride the keel, - To teach the edges - To cut wounds.” - -Towards the end of the Pagan era the grades of the people were Konung, -Jarl, Hersir or Lend mann, Hauld, Bondi, Leysingi, and Thrall. - -_The Hersir._—The dignity of Hersir was hereditary and of great -antiquity, but was not as ancient as that of the Drottin or Godi.[482] -The records in regard to his functions are very meagre. He was the -leader of the _her_ (host, or community), their chief in war and in the -administration of justice; high “priest (Godi)” in regard to worship, -and as such took care of the temple, superintended the sacrifices and -other religious ceremonies. As a godi he held the farms and estates -belonging to the temple, and sometimes received a temple-tax from the -bœndr for the maintenance of the temple and sacrifices. In most -instances the temple property from time immemorial belonged to the -Hersir who presided at the Thing. The change of the name of the ruler -from that of Godi to that of Hersir seems to point to the time when the -temporal and spiritual authority were united, but we have no knowledge -how it came to pass—probably it did so very gradually and insidiously. - -By Harald Fairhair the independence of the Hersir, consequently of the -Herad, was well-nigh annihilated, and the former never regained his -position. Thus died this ancient and noble dignity, connected with the -very earliest history of the ancestors of the English-speaking people. -It was an office of a patriarchal nature belonging to the social -structure of that period, intimately connected with the Bondi of the -Herad of which the Hersir was the hereditary head; and with the loss of -his independence came that of the freedom of the Herad and of the -people; and never has Norway been herself since that time. But out of -evil came good. These men, who could not bear the yoke of this Royal -despot, in whom there is but little to admire, except his personal -bravery, afterwards migrated into different parts of Europe, as is seen -from several Sagas. - - -“In the old age of Ketil, Harald Fairhair established his rule over -Norway, so that no Kings of Fylkis or other great men could thrive there -without acknowledging his power. - -“When Ketil heard that King Harald intended to make him submit to the -same conditions as other powerful men, to get no wergild for his kinsmen -and become his tenant, he summoned a Thing of his kinsman and said: ‘To -your knowledge must have come our dealings with King Harald, which need -not be told, for it is more necessary to take counsel about the hard -conditions which he wishes to impose on us. I know for certain his -enmity toward us, and that we can hope for nothing from him. It -therefore seems to me that we have the choice of only two things—either -to flee the country, or be slain each at his place; and I prefer to die -like my kinsmen, but I do not wish to lead you into such danger by my -self-will, as I know the temper of my friends and kinsmen: they will not -leave me though it may be some danger to follow me.’ - -“Björn, Ketil’s son, replied: ‘Quickly will I proclaim my choice, for I -will follow the example of other high-born men, and flee this land, -rather than remain here as the thrall of King Harald.’ All thought this -well and manfully spoken, and it was decided that they should all leave -the country. Björn and Helgi wanted to go to Iceland, as they had heard -that the land was good, with plenty of game and fish. Ketil however said -that he would not go to that wild country in his old age, but westward, -where he knew many places, as he had ravaged widely there” (Laxdœla, 2). - - -“Úlf Gyldir was a powerful hersir in Thelamörk. He resided at -Fiflavellir, and his son Asgrim dwelt there after him. King Harald -Fairhair sent his kinsman Thórorm from Thruma to get tribute from -Asgrim, but he would not pay any, for he had shortly before sent to the -king a Gautaland horse and much silver, but said that this was a gift, -and no tax, for he had never before paid any. The king returned the -property, and would not accept it” (Landnáma, v., c. 6). - - -“A man was called Dala-Gudbrand; he had the name of Hersir, but ruled -like a king over the _Dalir_ (district). Sigvat Scald compared him in -power and in vast possessions to Erling Skjálgsson” (St. Olaf, -Heimskringla, c. 118). - - -“Arnvid the blind replied: ‘Lord (Herra), most unlike are red gold and -clay, but greater is the difference between King and Thrall. You -promised your daughter Ingegerd, who is high born in all pedigrees of -Uppsvia family, which is the highest in the northern lands, for it is -descended from the gods themselves’” (St. Olaf, Hkr., 96). - - -It was the custom of the Hersir and of chiefs to sit daily or often on -the mound raised over the remains of their ancestors’ kinsmen or wives, -so that they could be seen for a long distance, and that every one might -have access to them. At such times it seems to have been customary for -the chiefs to be alone. They occupied themselves there in playing with -their dogs, hunting with hawks, cutting the manes of their horses, or -looking at games, &c.; or they quietly contemplated the panorama, and -saw before them visions of Odin, of the Valhalla, and of their kinsmen -who had gone there. - -This custom of sitting on mounds seems to be of very great antiquity, -and was mentioned in the earlier Edda, and in many places in the Sagas. - - -“Thrym the Jotun had stolen Thór’s hammer, and Loki, having borrowed the -eagle-shape of Freyja, goes in the dress of Freyja (see Wedding-dress), -as a bride to Jotunheim, and there beholds Thrym. - - Thrym sat on a mound, - The Lord of Thursar, - Braiding gold bands - For his grey hounds,[483] - And cutting even the manes - Of his horses.” - - (Thrymskvida, 6.) - - -Thorleif the wise was a chief who would not accept Christianity, and -Ólaf Tryggvason sent the poet Hallfred to him on this account. - - -“Thorleif was wont, as was often the custom of men in ancient times, to -sit on a mound not far from the bœr, and there he was when Hallfred -came” (Fornmanna Sögur). - - -“Thorgnýr Jarl had much loved his queen, and her mound was near the -burgh. The jarl sat there often at good meals, or when he held councils, -or had games played before him” (Göngu Hrólf’s Saga, c. 5). - - -_The Jarl._—The term Jarl, in the Earlier Edda, was not hereditary, but -was a name of distinction given to a high-born chief who possessed -warlike qualities, to the commander of a host, and, at a later time, to -a chief ruling over certain districts. - -In the historical period, when _Fylkis_ existed, we have independent -jarls of Hálogaland, whose jarldom was only different in name from that -of king, to whom he was next in dignity. Later the jarldom was an office -given by the king for life. Harald Fairhair named jarls for every Fylki, -to govern on his behalf; but this was never completely carried out, even -in his own time, for his sons became sub-kings. In the course of the -tenth century the jarls, except those of Hálogaland,[484] disappeared in -Norway. In Harald Fairhair’s time the jarldom was inherited in the -Orkneys, and the jarl, who sometimes possessed large tracts of land in -Scotland, had to pay taxes to the Norwegian kings. During Harald -Hardrádi’s rule, in the middle of the eleventh century, there was only -one jarl in Norway as a help to the king (Harald Hardrádi, Hkr., ch. -49). They often traced their title, which was sometimes considered a -family title, through a long descent; and the famous _Háleygja jarls_ -(the jarls of Hálogaland) traced their pedigree from Odin.[485] - - -“Hákon jarl ruled over Norway all along the coast over sixteen Fylkis. -After Harald Fairhair had ordered that a jarl should be in every Fylki -the custom was continued for a long time. Hákon had sixteen jarls under -him” (Olaf Tryggvason, Heimskringla, c. 50). - - -In the time of Harald Fairhair there seems to have been a certain -ceremony at the making of a jarl. - - -“In Naumudal two brothers, Herlaug and Hrollaug, were kings. They had -been making a mound for three summers; it was made of stones, and lime -and wood. When the mound was finished the brothers heard that Harald -Fairhair was coming with a host. Then Herlaug had a great deal of food -and drink conveyed to the mound, and went with eleven men into the mound -and had it shut. Hrollaug went to the mound on which the kings used to -sit and had his high-seat prepared for him there and sat down; he had -cushions laid on the footboard where the jarls used to sit; then he -rolled himself down from his high-seat into the jarl’s seat, and gave -himself the name of a jarl. Thereafter he met Harald and gave him his -whole realm, and offered to become his man, and told him what he had -done. Harald took a sword and fastened it to his belt; then he fastened -a shield to his neck and made him his jarl, and led him up to his -high-seat; he gave him Naumudalsfylki and made him jarl over it” -(Heimskringla, p. 53). - - -“Hálfdán the old had nine sons by Alvig the Wise, daughter of King -Eyvind of Hólmgard. They were called Thengil, Ræsir, Gram, Gylfi, -Hilmir, Jöfur, Tyggi, Skyli or Skuli, Harri or Herra.[486] These nine -brothers became so famous in warfare that in all songs their names are -used as names of rank, like the names of kings or jarls. They had no -children, and fell in battle” (Hálfdán the Old, Later Edda). - - -_The Lendir menn._—With the disappearance of the Hersir a new class of -men, called _Lendir menn_, arose, who ranked below the Jarl, and whose -office was somewhat similar to that of the Hersir; but they received -their dignity, which was not hereditary, from the king, and it seldom -happened that any one but the son of such a one was raised to the -dignity. - -Before a hundred years had passed after Harald Fairhair’s usurpation of -power, the Lendir menn had won such a position in the state that the -rulers of the country always had to seek their help. They were the -leaders and trusty advisers of the Bondi. - - -“Shortly after Yule, Svein Jarl gathered men all around Thrándheim, -summoned the levy, and prepared his ships. At this time there were in -Norway many lendir menn, several of whom were powerful, and so high-born -that they were near descendants of kings or jarls; they were also very -rich. Kings and jarls ruling the country had great support from the -lendir menn, for in each Fylki it was the lendir menn who ruled over the -mass of the bœndr” (St. Olaf, c. 44). - - -_The Bondi_ was a name of honour given to him who possessed lands which -he cultivated with men under him consequently the foremost chiefs of the -country were bœndr. - -They made and unmade the laws in the Thing, accepted or deposed the men -who were to rule or ruled over them. In them lay the strength and power -of the country; from their earliest youth we find them practising all -kinds of athletic games, fitting themselves to be warriors on land and -sea. - -The _Haulld_ seems to have been a higher grade of bondi, on account of -the nature of the odal which he had inherited from his father and -mother, and which his forefathers had owned before them. The haulld and -the bondi were the only classes who could be regarded as hereditary; -they formed an integral part of the herad, and were the representatives -of all that was powerful and influential in the land. Throughout the -whole Northern literature we see their power when assembled in the -Thing. - -The desire to show this power caused chiefs and rich bœndr to surround -themselves with a retinue of free and warlike men. - - -“When Ólaf Tryggvason ruled over Norway, he gave his brother-in-law -Erling one half of the land-rents, and one half of all the revenues -between Lidandisnes (Lindesnœs) and Sogn. Ólaf married his other sister -to Rögnvald Jarl Úlfsson, who ruled long over Western Gautland. -Rögnvald’s father Úlf was the brother of Sigrid the Proud, mother of -Ólaf King of Sweden. Eirik Jarl did not like Erling to have so much -power, and took to himself all the possessions which King Ólaf had -granted to Erling; but Erling continued to take all the land-dues in -Rogaland, and the inhabitants often paid them twice to him. Little did -the Jarl get of the fines, for the _sýslumenn_ (tax-gatherers) could not -remain there. The Jarl never went to _veizlas_ (entertainments, feasts) -there unless he had many men with him. - -“Eirik did not dare to fight against Erling, for he had many and mighty -kinsmen, and was powerful and popular. He also constantly had with him -as many men as a king’s bodyguard. Erling was often on warfare during -the summer, and won property, for he kept up in the same manner his -liberality and high living, though he had smaller and less revenues than -in the days of King Ólaf” (St. Ólaf’s Saga, 21). - - -“Thorstein Thorskabit became a most powerful man; he always had with him -sixty free men” (Eyrbyggja Saga, ii.). - - -_The King._—_Kon_[487] in the old Northern tongue meant a man of high -birth; in the Rigsmál, the word is konung. - -All descendants of Rig[488] retained the name of konung. Dyggvi, who was -the first of the Ynglings, assumed this title, and later arose a class -of chiefs to whom the name of konung was applied. - - -“His son Dyggvi then ruled the lands and of him is nothing told except -that he died of sickness.... The mother of Dyggvi was Drótt, the -daughter of King Danp, the son of Rig, who was the first that was called -king (konung) in the Danish tongue; his kinsman always afterwards held -the king’s name to be the highest name of honour. Dyggvi was the first -of his family who was called king. - -“Before, they (the family) were called dróttnar (lords) and their wives -dróttningar and the hird was called drótt. Each one of them was called -Yngvi all his life and all together they were called Ynglingar. Drótt -the drottning (queen) was the sister of Dan the Proud, after whom -Danmörk (Denmark) is named” (Ynglinga, c. 20). - - -The process of the transfer of the ruling authority from the hands of -the Hersir to those of the King cannot be clearly shown; it was most -probably gradual and slow, the one being absorbed by the other. The -dignity of Hersir was earlier than that of Konung. - -At first the name of king was a dignity which implied power or rule with -it; there were several grades. - -The _Fylki_ kings; the _Herad_ kings; the _Skatt_ kings = tax-kings or -sub-kings; the _Sea-kings_, and the _Host-kings_. - -The _Herad-kings_, the kings of the whole realm, who ruled over several -Fylkis or Herads, were the most powerful. They were originally spiritual -rulers, and traced their origin to Odin and his sons. - - -“At that time there were many kings in Upplönd who ruled over Fylkis, -and most of them sprang from Harald Fairhair. Two brothers, Hrœrek and -Hring, ruled Heidmörk, and Gudröd ruled the Gudbrandsdal. There was also -a king in Raumaríki” (St. Ólaf, 34). - - -“Harald Fairhair reigned over Norway for a long time; but before that -the country was ruled by many kings, some having one _Fylki_ to govern, -and others somewhat more. All these kings Harald deposed.... He placed a -jarl in every Fylki, to rule the land and administer the laws” -(Flateyjarbók). - - -Many of the bold spirits of the North could ill brook the yoke of the -first king of Norway. - -Sölvi, son of King Húnthjóf, escaped from a battle against Harald -Fairhair in which his father fell. He went to King Arnvid of Sunnmœri -and told him to fight against Harald. - - -“‘Though this trouble has come on our hands, it will not be long before -the same will come on yours, for I guess that Harald will soon come here -when he has subjugated and made thralls of any one he pleases in -Nordmœri and Raumsdal. You will have to do the same as we had to do, -defend your property and your freedom, and gather together all those -from whom you may expect help. I offer my help and that of my warriors -against this overbearing and insolence; else you must do like the men of -Naumudal, go of your free will under his yoke and become his thralls. My -father thought it a victory to die in his kingship with honour, rather -than become the _under-man_[489] of another king in his old age. I -expect thee to think the same, and others who are of some rank and wish -to use their strength’” (Egil’s Saga, c. 3). - - -“Once King Hrólf invited his brother-in-law Hjörvard to a feast; while -Hjörvard stayed at the feast it happened when the kings were outside -that King Hrólf untied his breeches belt and meanwhile gave his sword to -King Hjörvard; when King Hrólf had again fastened the belt he took back -the sword, and said to King Hjörvard: ‘We both know that it has long -been said, that he who receives the sword of another man while he unties -his breeches belt, shall ever after be his _under-man_; now thou shalt -be my under-king, and bear it as well as others.’ Hjörvard became -exceedingly angry at this, but had to submit. He went home dissatisfied, -nevertheless he paid tax to King Hrólf like others of his under-kings -who had to pay him homage” (Hrólf Kraki’s Saga, c. 23). - - -But there were men to whom the name of king was given who had neither -land nor power, and finally it came to imply a leader who ruled over -warriors, and who was called host-king, in the same way that the -commander of a ship was called a sea-king. The latter sometimes -possessed no land, and they were only leaders of smaller or larger -parties of Vikings.[490] As soon as a king’s son or some other prominent -man had acquired a number of warships, he was at once called king by his -companions. These men roamed wherever they pleased, plundering every -man’s land; their estate was upon “Rán’s land”—the sea; their ships were -their houses. Their acts of daring must have been numerous indeed, and -the following passage gives a vivid idea of a sea-king:— - - -“Eystein the son of Adils ruled Svíaveldi after his father; at that time -Hrólf Kraki fell at Hleidra, and kings plundered much in the Swedish -realm, both Danes and Northmen. There were many sea-kings who ruled over -many men, and had no land. He only was thought to fully deserve the name -of sea-king, who never slept under a sooty rafter and never drank at the -hearth-corner (fire-place)” (Ynglinga Saga, c. 34). - - -“As soon as Olaf got men and ships, his warriors gave him the name of -king, for it was the custom that _host kings_, who went on Viking -expeditions, if they were _king-born_, should be given the name of king, -although they ruled over no lands” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 4). - - -Many of the valorous deeds of the sea-kings, whose names are only -mentioned, are lost to us, but this confirms how much of the history of -the famous men of the North has been lost. - -It was the custom for the head kings to receive taxes from tributary or -tax-kings. - - -“Now Knút the Powerful had won England by battles and fights, and he met -with much difficulty before the people of the land became obedient to -him. He considered himself as possessing all Norway as an inheritance; -but Hákon, his nephew, thought he owned part of it, and that he had been -forced to leave it in a shameful manner. One reason that Knút and Hákon -had kept quiet over their claim on Norway was, that when first King Olaf -Haraldsson came into the land, the whole people gathered together and -would hear of nothing but that he should be king of the whole country; -but afterwards, when they thought they were oppressed on account of his -overbearing, some left the country. Many eminent men and sons of -powerful bœndr had gone to Knút on various errands; and each one who -came to Knút asked his friendship, and obtained much property. There was -also greater splendour to be seen there than in other places, both on -account of the number of men which were daily there, and of the -furnishing of the rooms which he possessed. Knút the Powerful took taxes -and dues from those countries of the northern lands which were richest, -but as he received more than other kings, he also gave away more. In all -his realm there was such peace that no one dared break it; the -inhabitants themselves had peace and ancient land-rights. From this Knút -won great renown in all lands” (St. Olaf’s Saga, 139). - - -A king could give to a friend the _title_ of king without the power of -one. - - -“King Hring said: ‘I would not give her to thee unless it were that I am -sick, and I like thee to have her rather than others, for thou art the -foremost of all men in Norway; I will also give thee the name of king, -for her brothers will not give either her or the honour away to thee -like I do.’ Fridthjóf answered: ‘I thank you much, lord, for your -favour, which is greater than I expected, but I do not want more than a -jarl’s name as a title.’[491] Hring gave Fridthjóf power over the realm -he had ruled with hand-fastening (joining of hands) and jarl’s name. He -was to rule until the sons of Hring were full-grown and could rule the -land” (Fridthjóf’s Saga, c. 14). - - -“Then Heidrek went about the land, and made it tributary to King Harald -of Reidgotaland as it had formerly been, and then returned to the king. -He had won very large treasures and a great victory. Harald welcomed him -and thanked him with many fine words. A wedding-feast was prepared, and -Heidrek married the daughter of the king, who celebrated it with great -honour; he gave to Heidrek the name of king and half of his kingdom; he -ruled Reidgotaland long after this, and was thought wise and victorious; -he had a son by his wife called Angantýr. King Harald also in his old -age begot a son called Hálfdán; they were both most promising, and were -thought far above other men in Reidgotaland” (Hervarar Saga, c. 10). - - -No king could rule over the people or the land without the consent of -the _Thing_.[492] - - -“Some Fylkis-kings summoned a Thing, and Olaf made a speech wherein he -asked the bœndr to take him for king over the country, and promised to -keep to the old laws and defend the land against foreign chiefs and -hosts; he spoke long and well, and was cheered. Then the kings rose one -after the other, and all spoke in favour of this to the people. At last -the name of king over the whole land was given to Olaf according to the -laws of Upplönd”[493] (St. Olaf, Heimskringla, c. 35). - - -When Olaf had made a long speech to the bœndr— - - -“The whole crowd of people arose and would hear of nothing but that Olaf -Tryggvason should be king; and so he was chosen king at the -_Allsherjarthing_ (general Thing) over all the country which Harald -Fairhair possessed, and the rule given to him according to ancient laws. -The bœndr promised to give him many men in order to get the realm, and -afterwards to hold it; and he, on the other hand, promised to uphold the -laws and rights of the land” (Fornmanna Sögur, 1). - - -If a king attacked a man, the people of all the Fylkis might gather -against him and kill him. The _bœndr_, as soon as a king or jarl had -encroached upon the property or violated their domestic peace, were -obliged to cut up _herör_ (host arrow, war arrow)—if it was a king in -every Fylki, if it was a jarl in four, and after such a summons to -gather together, attack, and slay or drive the offender away. This legal -enactment was undoubtedly of very ancient origin. - - -“No man shall attack another (with armed men), neither the king, nor any -other man. If the king does so, an arrow shall be cut and sent inland -through all the Fylkis, and he shall be attacked and slain if taken. If -he escapes he shall never come back to the country. Whoever will not -attack him, or drops the arrow, shall pay three marks” (Earlier -Frostathing’s Law, iv., 50). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXVI. - SLAVERY—THRALDOM.[494] - - Slavery among the Asar—Its early existence in the North—Contempt in - which the slave was held—Nationalities of captives in war—Purchase - of slaves—Daughters of foreign kings taken as slaves—Slaves - considered chattels—Slaves could buy their freedom—Ceremonies - attending the attainment of freedom—Relations between the freed - slave and his former master—Freedom obtained through bravery in - war—Masters empowered to kill slaves—Positions of trust given to - slaves—Indemnity payable to masters for injury to slaves—Laws - relating to slaves’ children—Price of slaves—Laws of purchase. - - -Slavery flourished with the Asar on the shores of the Black Sea, and -their slaves seem to have been of foreign birth, as we see from the -words of Skirnir, when he comes to ask Gerd in marriage for his master -Frey. He thus speaks of himself:— - - I am not of Álfar, - Nor of Asa-sons, - Nor of the wise Vanir: - Though alone I came - Through the wavering fire - Your halls to behold. - - (Skirnismál, 18.) - -Slavery existed in the North from the earliest time, and was probably -introduced by the followers of Odin. - -Among thrall men, the _thjon_ and _bryti_ (steward) were the most -prominent, and among the thrall women the _seta_ and _deigja_, the -latter being a kind of housekeeper or forewoman. - - -“Two are the best bondwomen of a man, seta and deigja, and two thralls, -thjón and bryti” (Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 198). - - -Though serfdom, a modified form of slavery, existed afterwards in other -parts of Europe, the land of the Swedes, Gautar, and Norwegians was -never degraded by it; but, alas, it took root in Denmark, and showed -there to what a miserable condition a free people can be gradually -brought by not watching over their liberties. - -There are in the Sagas numerous examples showing the contempt in which -the thrall was held; his mark was closely cropped hair, and his dress -was of white vadmal, to distinguish him from the free man. - - -“Thrand said he had two young thralls to sell him. Rafn answered that he -would not buy them before he saw them. Thrand led forward the two boys; -their hair was cropped, and they were in white coats (kulf)” -(Flateyjarbók, i.). - - -“Almstein thrall had many children. ‘Now I think it is thy kin, Úlf, as -Almstein was thy grandfather, but I am Hálfdán’s grandson; thy family -has got hold of the king’s property, as can be seen, by ale-service and -other outfittings. Now take here the white kirtle which my grandfather -Hálfdán gave thy grandfather Almstein, and therewith take thy family -name, and be a thrall henceforth; for it was decided at the Thing, when -Hálfdán got a king’s name, that thy grandfather should wear the kirtle, -and the mother of his children came to the Thing, and all his children -put on clothes of the same kind, and all their offspring had to do the -same.’ Harald had a white kirtle carried before the eyes of Úlf, and -sang:— - - Knowest thou this kirtle? - Thou hast to pay the Skjöldung a cow, - And a full-grown ox - Thou hast to pay the Skjöldung; - A pig and a fattened goose - Thou hast to pay the Skjöldung; - Children and all which thou earnest - Thou hast to pay the Skjöldung.” - - (Fornmanna Sögur vi., Harald Hardrádi.) - - -Captives in war formed the chief supply of slaves, who consequently came -from many different countries whither expeditions were made, as -Hunaland, Friesland, Valland (France), Britain, Ireland, Scotland, -Spain, and other countries on the shores of the Mediterranean. - - -“When Egil went to Iceland from a journey to England, Norway, and -Vermaland, the district (south-western part of Iceland) was all settled; -the first settlers were dead, but their sons or grandsons dwelt there. -Ketil Gufa had come to Iceland when the land was much settled; he was -the first winter at Gufuskalar in Rosmhvalanes; he had come from Ireland -across the sea, and had many Irish thralls with him” (Egil’s Saga, c. -80). - - -“Leif (Ingólf’s foster-brother) went on warfare in the west; he made war -in Ireland, and there found a large underground house; he went into it, -and it was dark, until a sword which a man wore made it light. Leif slew -him and took the sword and much property; then he was called Hjörleif -(Sword-Leif). Hjörleif made war widely in Ireland, and got much booty; -he took there ten thralls, Dufthak, Geirröd, Skjaldbjörn, Haldór, -Drafdrit; the others are not named” (Landnáma). - - -Purchases of slaves took place wherever the people traded. - - -“Thangbrand (a priest) bought a fair Irish maiden; he went home to -Brimaborg (Bremen) with Bishop Albertus, and took the maiden with him” -(Fornmanna Sögur, i., 81). - - -“It happened in the beginning of the summer that King Hákon the good -went with a ship-host eastward to Brenneyjar to make peace (renew -treaties) on behalf of his country according to the laws. This meeting -between chiefs (höfdingi)[495] was to take place every third summer, and -matters on which the kings (of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) had to -decide were settled there. It was thought a pleasant journey to go to -this meeting, for men came there from almost all lands of which we have -tidings. Höskuld (an Icelander) launched his ship; he also wanted to go -there, for he had not seen the king during the winter, and a fair was -held there at the same time. This meeting was very large; there was a -great deal of amusement, drinking, and games, and all kinds of -merriment. Nothing remarkable happened there. Höskuld met with many of -his kinsmen who lived in Denmark. One day when Höskuld walked with some -others to amuse himself he saw a splendid tent far from the other -booths. He walked there and entered the tent, in which sat a man in -clothes of gudvef (a costly stuff), with a Gardariki hat on his head. -Höskuld asked for his name. He called himself Gilli, from Gardariki. -Höskuld said he had often heard his name mentioned, and that he was the -richest of all traders. Höskuld said: ‘Thou art likely to have things to -sell us which we want to buy.’ Gilli asked what they wanted to buy. The -followers of Höskuld said that he wanted to buy a bondmaid, if he had -any to sell. Gilli said: ‘You mean to get me into difficulty, when you -demand for purchase things which you think I have not got; but it is not -sure that I have them not.’ Höskuld saw that there was a curtain hanging -across the booth; this Gilli lifted, and Höskuld saw twelve women -sitting inside. Gilli told Höskuld to go to them and see if he liked to -buy any of these women. Höskuld did so. They sat all together from wall -to wall in the booth. Höskuld looked carefully at them; he saw that one -poorly dressed sat next to the edge of the tent; he thought she was -beautiful of face as far as he could see. He asked: ‘How dear will that -woman be, if I want to buy her?’ Gilli said: ‘Thou must pay for her -three marks of silver.’ Höskuld said: ‘I think thou valuest this -bondmaid rather high, for this is the price of three.’ Gilli said: ‘Thou -art right; I value her higher than the others; choose any of those -eleven, and pay for her a mark of silver, and let this one be my -property.’ Höskuld said: ‘First I will see how much silver there is in -my money-bag (sjód), which I have at my belt.’ He asked Gilli to take -the scales. Then Gilli said: ‘This matter shall be without guile from my -side; the woman had a great defect, and I want thee to know it, Höskuld, -before we make this bargain.’ Höskuld asked what it was. Gilli said: -‘She is dumb; I have tried to get her to talk in many ways, but I have -never got a word from her; it is certainly my belief that this woman -cannot speak.’ Then Höskuld said: ‘Come with the scales and let us see -how much the money-bag which I have here weighs.’ Gilli did so; he -weighed the silver, and it was three marks. Then Höskuld said: ‘Now it -has happened that this will be our bargain; take thou this silver, and I -will take this woman; I think that thou hast shown thyself generous in -this matter, for surely thou didst not want to cheat me.’ Then Höskuld -went home to his booth. Next morning when people dressed Höskuld said: -‘Little liberality is seen on the dress which Gilli the Wealthy has -given to thee; it is also true that it was more difficult for him to -dress twelve than it is to dress one.’ Höskuld then opened a chest and -took up a fine woman’s dress and gave it her; and all people said that -fine clothes suited her. When the chiefs had settled matters according -to law, the feast and the meeting ended. Then Höskuld went to find King -Hákon, and greeted him honourably, as was fit. The King looked at him -and said: ‘We should have accepted thy greeting, Höskuld, even hadst -thou greeted us a little earlier; but still we will do it now.’ - -“It occurred one morning when Höskuld went out to look over his farm -(bœr), and the weather was fine, and the sun shone and was low above the -horizon, that he heard some talking; he went to where a brook flowed in -front of the slope of the tun (grass-plot). He there saw two people, and -recognised them; it was his son Olaf and his mother (the bondwoman); -then he saw that she was not dumb, for she talked much to the boy. Then -Höskuld went to them and asked for her name, and told her it would not -do to conceal it longer. She said she would not. They sat down on the -slope; then she said: ‘If thou wantest to know my name, it is Melkorka.’ -Höskuld asked her to tell more about her kin. She said: ‘My father is -named Myrkjartan; he is king in Ireland, and I was taken captive thence -fifteen winters old.’ Höskuld said she had too long been silent about -such good kin. Then Höskuld went in and told Jorun (his wife) about what -had happened on his walk. Jorun said she knew not whether she told the -truth, and that she did not like uncouth people, and then they left off -speaking; Jorun was not friendlier to her than before, but Höskuld -somewhat more. A little later, when Jorun went to bed, Melkorka pulled -off her shoe-clothes (skóklædi = shoes and stockings) and laid them on -the floor. Jorun took the stockings and struck her head with them. -Melkorka got angry and struck Jorun’s nose with her fist so that blood -spurted out. Höskuld came and parted them. Thereafter Höskuld let -Melkorka go away, and gave her a bœr in Laxárdal; it has since been -called Melkorkustadir, and is now waste; it is south of the Laxá (a -river). Melkorka had a household there, to which Höskuld gave all that -was needed, and Olaf their son went with her; it was soon seen in Olaf, -when he grew up, that he would surpass other men in beauty and good -manners” (Laxdæla, c. 12, 13). - - -“Astrid, Olaf Tryggvason’s mother, went with her son, who was then three -winters old, on board a trading-ship bound to Gardariki; her brother -Sigurd was with King Valdimar there. - -“On their voyage eastward Vikings met them; they were Eistr -(Esthonians); they took the property and the people and killed some of -them, while they divided the others among themselves as slaves. Olaf was -parted from his mother, and Klerkon, an Esthonian, took him and Thórólf -and Thorgils (two of Astrid’s followers). Klerkon thought Thórólf too -old for a thrall and unfit for work, and killed him; but took the boys -with him and sold them to a man called Klerk, and got for them a very -good he-goat. Another man bought Olaf for a good rain-cloak; his name -was Reas, that of his wife Rekon, of his son, Rekoni. Olaf stayed there -long, and was well kept and liked by the bóndi, and remained six winters -in Eistland in this outlawry” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 5). - - -Lodin, a Norwegian trader, once was at a market in Eistland. - - -“There he saw a woman who had been sold as thrall, and when he looked at -her he recognised in her Astrid, Eirik’s daughter, the widow of King -Tryggvi, and then she was unlike what she had been the last time he saw -her. She was pale and lean, and badly dressed. He went to her and asked -how it was with her. She answered: ‘Heavy is it to tell that. I have -been sold into slavery and taken hither for sale.’ Then they knew each -other, and Astrid also him. She asked him to buy her and take her home -to her kinsmen. ‘I will,’ answered he, ‘take thee to Norway if thou wilt -marry me.’ And because she was then hardly situated, and knew that Lodin -was a man of great kin, brave and wealthy, she promised him this to get -away. Then Lodin bought Astrid and took her home to Norway, and married -her there with the consent of her kinsmen” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, -Heimskringla, c. 58). - - -Sigurd, Astrid’s brother, came to Eistland to gather taxes for the King -of Hólmgard. - - -“He saw on a market-place a very fine boy, who seemed to him a -foreigner, and asked for his name and family. He said he was called -Olaf, and his father Tryggvi Olafsson, and his mother Astrid, daughter -of Eirik Bjódaskalli. Sigurd recognised in him his sister’s son, and -asked why he was here. Olaf told him what had happened. Sigurd took him -to Reas’ bóndi and bought the boys Olaf and Thorgils, and took them to -Hólmgard”[496] (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 6). - - -“One day Olaf was in the market-place, which was crowded. There he -recognised Klerkon, who had slain his foster-father Thórólf Lúsaskegg; -he had a small axe in his hand, and went up to Klerkon and cut his head -down to the brains. Thereupon he at once ran home and told his kinsman -Sigurd. Sigurd took him to the room of Queen Allogia (Olga, which is a -corruption of the Northern name Helga) with these tidings, and asked her -to help the boy. She looked at him, and said, ‘Such a handsome boy must -not be slain;’ and ordered all her men to come thither fully armed. In -Hólmgard there was such great _fridhelgi_ (peace-holiness), that the law -bade that any one who slew another, not condemned, should himself be -slain. Therefore the people rushed forward according to their custom and -laws to search for Olaf and take his life, as the law bad. It was said -that he was in the queen’s house, and that there was a fully armed host -to defend him. When the king heard this he quickly went thither with his -hird, and as he did not want them to fight, first procured a truce, and -then a settlement. He adjudged a fine for the murder, which was paid by -the queen. It was the law in Gardariki that there should be no king-born -men except with the king’s permission. Therefore Sigurd told the queen -of what family Olaf was, and also why he had come thither, that he could -not remain in his own country on account of the hostility (and -persecution) of his enemies. Sigurd asked her to tell this to the king, -and beg him to help this king’s son, who had been so ill-treated. She -did so, and he assented to her request. He therefore took Olaf under his -protection, and treated him well, as befitted a king’s son. Olaf -remained in Gardariki nine winters (years) with King Valdimar. He was -handsome, larger and stronger than most others, and in _idrottir_ -superior to all other Northern men of whom the Sagas tell” (Olaf -Tryggvason, Fornmanna Sögur, i., p. 81). - - -Daughters of foreign kings and other beautiful women who were often -prisoners of war were generally made concubines, and called kings’ -thrall-women, and became bones of contention in the household circle. - - -“Olaf, King of Sweden, son of Eirik, had a concubine Edla, a daughter of -the Jarl of Vindland, who had been taken in war, and was therefore -called the king’s thrall-woman” (St. Olaf, c. 72). - - -“Ketil Thrym, a settler (in Iceland), went abroad and was with Vedorm, -the son of Vemund the old. He bought from Vedorm, Arneid, daughter of -Jarl Asbjörn Skerjablesi, whom Hólmfast, son of Vedorm, had captured -when he and Grim, the nephew of Vedorm, killed Asbjörn Jarl in Sudreyjar -(Hebrides). Ketil Thrym bought Arneid two parts dearer than Vedorm -valued her at first; when the bargain was made he married her” -(Landnáma, iv., c. 2). - - -Thralls, who were considered chattels, and had no personal rett,[497] -being regarded as the exclusive property of the master and classed among -his _kvikfé_ or live goods, could not acquire anything for themselves -unless allowed by their owner; but this permission seems to have often -been granted, as they generally had property, and even seem to have -possessed weapons, of which the master had not the right to arbitrarily -deprive them.[498] - - -“If cattle damages cattle, horn or hoof or thrall, it shall be paid at -half value” (Bjarkey Law, 140). - - -Those who belonged to rich masters were allowed to work for themselves, -and thus acquire means to buy their freedom, and it was more usual for a -slave to buy his freedom than to be made free. He either paid the full -sum and became a free man at once, or paid part of the sum down and the -rest by work for his master. - -After this he had personal rett, but had to work one year for his -master, without whose consent he could not marry or make bargains; but -when he had paid the sum and wished to become free, he made his -freedom-ale—a feast with a certain measure of ale—to which he had to -invite his master and his wife, and seat them in the high-seat. - -On the first evening of the feast he had to pay the price of his -freedom, namely 6 aurar, to the master, which he could give up or not. -Then he became _leysingi_ (freedman) and could marry and make bargains -not exceeding a certain amount. - -Even after the freedom-ale there was a special relation between the -freedman and his former master and his descendants, which was called, on -the side of the master, _vörn_ (defence), on that of the freedman -_thyrmsl_ (obligation, dependence); these terms meant that the master -protected the freedman, and that the latter was dependent on the former. -The freedman was not by birth a member of any family that could help -him, so “his former master had to do that duty.” - -The master had to take care of his freedman if he became a pauper; if -the latter went against his former master in anything, whether in law or -in enmity, he became his thrall again. - -The master and his descendant took the inheritance after their freedman -or his descendant, if he had no free kinsmen within a certain degree. -This custom varied in different parts of the country; according to the -Frostathing’s Law, it was the fourth degree.[499] - - -“The family of a leysingi is four men in thyrmsl, but the fifth (degree) -is no more in it, though not bought free” (Frostath., ix. 11). - - -“If a man wishes to buy himself off thyrmsl and dependence, rather than -make his freedom-ale, it shall be so if his master will pledge his faith -in granting it, and then it shall never be broken” (Frostath., ix. 16) - -“If a leysingi wishes to have the power of bargains and marriage, he -shall make his freedom-ale, with at least 3 sáld (measures) of ale, and -invite his master to it, with witnesses, and seat him in the _öndvegi_, -and lay 6 aurar in balances the first evening, and offer him the sum of -a leysingi.[500] If he receives it, it is well; if he gives it up, it is -as if it were paid” (Gulathing’s Law, 62). - - -“If a thrall gets land or lives (for himself), he shall make his -freedom-ale with 9 mœlirs (measures) of ale, and kill a ram, and a -family-born man[501] shall cut off its head, and his master shall take -the neck-band[502] from his neck. If his master allows him to make his -freedom-ale, he shall ask his leave to make it with two witnesses, and -invite him, with four others, to the feast which is his freedom-ale” -(Frostathing’s Law, ix. 12). - - -Though a slave had been made free, he could not leave the _fylki_ -without permission. - - -“If a freedman leaves the fylki without the permission of his master, -and obtains for himself property, his lord should go after him with -witnesses. If he is willing to return, all is well; if not, his lord may -by the witnesses prove that he is his freedman, and bring him back to -his old place, bound or not, as he chooses, and seat him where he sat -before” (Gulathing’s Law, 67). - - -“When a thrall or bondmaid pays his sum of redemption they shall be -taken to the church, a book laid on their heads, and freedom given to -them. They shall work a twelvemonth (xii manad) for their master” -(Gulath., 61). - - -Slaves and freedmen who had made their freedom-ale were limited in their -bargains. - - -“A pauper must not make or have power over any bargain. Nor must a -thrall, except only about his knife. Also a freedman who has not made -his freedom-ale must not make a bargain higher than an ‘_ortug_’” -(Gulath., 56). - - -A thrall who proved that he had for twenty years lived and acted as a -free man without any one during that time having made any objection -thereto, was, according to law, a free man, even if no freedom-ale or -formal liberation had taken place. - - -“If a thrall goes about like a free man for 20 winters or more and no -one hurts him or his bargains or his marriage out of the fylki or in the -fylki, then he is free if he wants to be called free” (Gulath., 61). - - -In order to replenish the waste of war, we find that thralls were -allowed to follow their masters on expeditions, and that they could win -their liberty by bravery. - - -“If they meet a host and fight, and a thrall slays a man, then he is -free, though he was a thrall before” (Gulathing’s Law, 312). - - -“A bondi is not allowed to send his paid servant into a levy instead of -himself, unless the steersman (of the ship) consents to it; for, if a -servant comes from the harbour for the bondi, he shall redeem himself -from flogging. If a thrall comes in a levy instead of his master, the -king may take him if he wants to, or pronounce him free in relation to -every man” (Jutland Law, iii. 2). - - -Sometimes thralls were rewarded by their masters for meritorious -actions. Vebjörn and his brothers went to Iceland, but in a heavy storm -their ship was wrecked on some rocks, and they got ashore. - - -“There they were entertained during the winter by Atli, Geirmund -Heljarskinn’s thrall. When his master got the news of this, he asked why -he had taken care of Vebjörn and his companions. The thrall replied: ‘I -wanted to show thus what a great and splendid chief the man was who -owned a thrall that dared to undertake such things.’ Geirmund thanked -him for his deed, and as a reward gave him his liberty, and land to -settle on” (Sturlunga, Part i., ch. 3). - - -“Every man who is free and able shall own shield, spear, and cutting -weapons. Only in cases of extreme necessity, where a general rising of -the people takes place, the thrall goes out armed like the free men” -(Gulathing’s Law, ch. 312). - - -Any one who captured a runaway slave and brought him back to his master -could ask a reward according to the distance at which the slave was -found or captured. - - -“If a man’s thrall runs away and another gets hold of him inside the -fylki and outside the quarter (of the fylki), he shall have one eyrir. -If he capture him outside the fylki but inside our law district, he -shall get two aurar. If he captures him in the country and out of our -law district, he gets half a mark. If he brings him home in chains the -owner has to redeem him, but not otherwise” (Gulath., 68). - - -Without being held responsible, a master could kill or maim his thrall; -only in the former case he had to publicly announce the slaying on the -day it was done. - - -“If a man beats his thrall to death, he shall tell it to men the same -day. Then he is not answerable to any one but God. But if he does not -this, he is a murderer”[503] (Earlier Frostathing’s Law, v. 20). - - -The slaying of another man’s thrall was paid for by an indemnity of -twelve aurar. - - -“It was the law at that time that if a man slew the thrall of another, -the slayer should carry home indemnity therefor to the owner, before the -third rising of the sun after the deed. This indemnity was twelve aurar -of silver; and if it was paid according to this law, no suit could be -commenced for the slaying of the thrall”[504] (Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 43). - - -“Steinar summoned Thorstein for thrall-killing, and claimed that the -slaying of each be punishable by _fjorbaugsgard_ (lesser outlawry); this -was the law if a man’s thralls were killed, and the indemnity was not -paid up before the third sunrise after. Two cases of lesser -outlawry[505] were to count the same as one of full outlawry” (Egil’s -Saga, c. 85). - - -Thralls were given duties and positions of trust. King Ann’s thrall, -Tunni, as we have seen, became the King’s adviser, and became so -powerful that he rebelled against his own master. - - -“Erling Skjálgsson said to King Olaf: ‘To this I will quickly reply, -that I deny reproaching Aslak or others for being in your service; but I -acknowledge that now, as heretofore, each one of us kinsmen wants to be -above the others. I will also confess that I willingly submit to thee, -King Olaf, but it will be hard for me to bow before Selthorir, who is -thrall-born in all his kindred,[506] though he is now your _árman_ -(tax-gatherer)”[507] (St. Olaf’s, c. 122). - - -The chief Thorolf Skjalg was a great friend of the wife of the bondi -Lodin. Lodin was slain at night, it was not known by whom, and Thorolf -took the widow home. - - -“He wanted to make the sons of Lodin thralls, and succeeded in making a -thrall of Rögnvald, but not of Ulf, who was sold as a thrall into -far-off countries.... Thorolf had Rögnvald among his thralls, and when -he was grown up he placed him over other thralls to command them and -keep them at work” (Fornmanna Sögur, c. 145). - - -If any harm was done to thralls, the master took payment in the same -manner as he did for harm done to his cattle, horse, &c. In two cases -only did the thrall himself take payment—when offended by another -thrall, or when at the Thing, church, or feast with his master; in the -first case taking all the payment, in the last one-twelfth. - - -“A hauld shall get 3 aurar (as rett) on the behalf of his _bryti_ and -_thjon_, and _deigja_ and _seta_; and 2 aurar for all other slaves. A -thrall’s rett shall be two-thirds less than his master’s. If a thrall -beats another thrall this shall be paid, but the master owns it not” -(Frostath., xi. 21). - - -“If a man’s thrall follows him to church, or to a feast, or to a Thing, -then he is holy where the ships land or stand. If a man beats him in -either place, a fine in silver shall be paid to the king” (Frostath., -61). - - -The child of a free woman by a thrall was free, and belonged to the -family of the mother. - -The child of a thrall woman by a free man was a slave, and belonged to -the master of the mother, unless the father publicly declared it to be -his own, and it gained liberty before it was three nights old.[508] - -The price of thralls varied somewhat, and in Egil’s Saga we have mention -of a thrall for whom three marks in silver were paid, or twice as much -as the average; they were generally sold at two and three marks; a -common thrall woman being usually sold for one mark. The Swedes and -Danes considered three marks as the average value of a thrall.[509] - - -“Steinar saw a thrall called Thrand, one of the strongest of men. -Steinar wished to purchase him and offered a high price; but his owner -charged three marks of silver for him, and valued him twice as much as a -common thrall. And that was their bargain” (Egil’s Saga, c. 84). - - -“The wergild of a Gotlandman is three marks of gold if he is slain. The -wergild of every other man is ten marks of silver, except that of a -thrall, which is 4½ marks of penning (money)” (Gotland Law, i. 15). - - -A thrall could not be sold out of the country unless he was a criminal. - - -“No man is allowed to sell a thrall or thrall-woman out of the country, -unless he is known to be a criminal; but if he does so, he must pay the -king three marks” (Earlier Frostathing’s Law, 20). - - -When a slave was sold the seller had to tell the defects, if any, in -regard to his body or health. - - -“If a man buys a thrall from another, the seller shall be answerable as -to stitches[510] and epilepsy for the nine next years” (Frostath., v. -3). - - -Thralls were used to do the killing for their masters—in a word, to -commit murder for them—and to expose children.[511] - - -“Kári in Iceland quarrelled with Karli about an ox. Kári thereupon -persuaded his thrall to slay Karli. The thrall feigned to have gone mad, -and ran south across Hraun. Karli sat on his threshold. The thrall -struck him a death-blow. Kári killed the thrall” (Landnáma, ii.). - - -Even with thraldom a master had his retinue of fixed male and female -free servants in his household. These were called house-folk. Workmen -and labouring men were also engaged on estates. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXVII. - THE THING. - - The people in assembly—Different assemblies—The general - assembly—Local assemblies—Analogy of the United States—Retinues of - Thingmen—Attendance at the Thing—The summons—Place of assembly—Its - sanctity—Breach of the peace at a Thing a sacrilege—Laws - regulating judgments of the Thing—Appeals—Common law of the - towns—Confirmation of resolutions passed at the Thing—Amusements - between the sessions—Accommodation of members—Assemblies in - Iceland—Jurymen. - - -From the most ancient times we find that the people in assembly, called -_Thing_, exercised their judicial and legislative power. There they -deliberated, not only on the questions concerning their small -communities, but also on the internal or external affairs of the whole -country. There were smaller and larger Things, classified under the -different names of _Thing_, _Mót_, and _Hús-thing_, the latter being a -private meeting to which the chief summoned his own men. - -In order to preserve freedom of deliberation and the individual liberty -of each person who came, the most stringent laws and regulations were -laid down. - - -“With laws shall our land be built, and not be laid waste by -lawlessness. But he who will not allow others the laws shall not enjoy -them himself” (Frostath., i. 6). - - -The _Herad-things_ were apparently held very often, and were only -attended by the people belonging to the Herad; every one who wished a -question to be settled, and required a Thing, had the right to summon -one.[512] - -There were general Things, or _Fylkis-things_, in which several herads -were represented, under the leadership of the hersir or king. - -Every Herad was independent of the Fylki in its local affairs, and every -Fylki was independent one from the other, each having self-government. -When the affairs of the country required the presence of all the people, -then the bœndr of the Herads and Fylki met together at a general Thing -called _Allsherjar-thing_ (Thing of all the hosts), and all had to abide -by the decision taken. In fact the country was a union of states bound -together for mutual protection; but they felt that a general government -was not able in all things to attend to the affairs of each Herad or -Fylki, and could not know the wants of the people, as the majority of -those who would have had the management of affairs lived far from them, -and many had never seen other Herads or Fylki than their own. The -nearest approach to this ancient form of government is that of the -United States. - -When we say that the Thing was the assembly of the people, we must -qualify the expression, for only bœndr (or free men) who owned land had -a voice in the deliberations. The sons and other relations of these -bœndr, or free men, who did not own land had no voice whatever in the -affairs of the country. The Thingmen were followed by a more or less -large retinue, according to their rank or wealth. - -All the bœndr of the Herad were bound to appear at the Herads-thing on -pain of fine, unless a bondi had such a small farm as to be _einvirki_ -(sole worker). These latter were not obliged to appear at any other -Thing than (1) _Konungs-thing_, i.e. a _Thing_ summoned by the king -himself; (2) _Manndráps-thing_, i.e. a _Thing_ in consequence of a -murder; (3) _Manntals-thing_, i.e. a _Thing_ for the equalization of the -tax; and (4) _Vápna-thing_, i.e. a _Thing_ to examine if every man -possessed the weapons prescribed by law. All members of the Thing -according to law had an equal vote. - -The summons was by sending out a _Thingbod_ (Thing-summons), or, in case -of murder, an _ör_ (arrow) throughout the whole Thing-district; the -summons or arrow was sent from farm to farm, and called upon all -Thingmen to meet at the usual Thing-place, generally the fifth day after -the issue of the summons. - - -“Every man who thinks a Thing necessary may have one. Every man shall -carry the summons and not drop it. It shall go between the winter-houses -and not between the sœters. The Thing-summons shall delay nowhere in -weather fit for travelling except in night-quarters, and not unless -there is necessity. If a man drops the summons he is liable to pay three -_aurar_.... The man who carries a summons shall cut three notches on the -door-post or door ... and put the summons over the lintel. All bœndr -shall go to the Thing when the summons comes to their house except -single-workers. They shall go only to three Things—a Thing for murder, a -Thing for choosing a king, a man-reckoning (census) Thing. During all -other Things they shall sit at home.... A _widow_ and a disabled bondi -shall not go to the Thing against their will. All other bœndr shall go -to the Thing when the summons comes to their house, or pay a Thing-fine” -(Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 131). - - -The Thing was held in an open place called _Thingvöll_ (_Thing-plain_), -in earlier times near a temple.[513] On the Thingvöll, or near it, there -always seems to have been a _Thing-brekka_, or Thing-hill, from which -all announcements were made. - -The Tiling-plain was a sacred place, which must not be sullied by -bloodshed arising from blood-feud (_heiptarblód_) or any other impurity. -The Thing, from the time it was opened until it was dissolved, was -during pagan times under the protection of the gods. It was opened with -certain religious ceremonies, which included a solemn peace declaration -(_grida setning_) over the assembly, which in earlier times was -pronounced by the Hersir near whose temple the Thing took place. Every -breach of the peace at a Thing was a sacrilege which put the guilty one -out of the pale of the law—he was like the violator of the temple -peace—a _varg í veum_ (wolf in the sanctuary), an outlaw in all holy or -inhabited places, and an _útlagi_ (outlaw) for all until he had made -reparation for his crime. - -A struggle having arisen between the godi Thorstein and his followers -and some descendants of a chief Kjallak who had announced their -intention not to respect the sanctity of the Thing and proceeded to act -in defiance of the remonstrances of Thorstein, recourse was had to -arbitration, and Thord Gellir was appointed arbitrator. - - -“No peace was made between them, for neither would have it. The plain on -which they fought was covered with blood, and also the place where the -Thornes-thing stood during the fight....” - -“He began the arbitration by saying that both parties should be content -with their lot, that neither slain men nor wounds should be paid for, -and that the plain was spoiled by the blood of hate which had come down -on it and was no longer holier than other ground. Those who attacked -first had caused this which was the only breaking of peace. He said that -no Thing should thereafter be held there”[514] (Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 9, -10). - - -On the journey to and from the Thing, and during its duration, all the -men were peace-holy. - - -“All men named for Gulathing journey shall be at peace with each other -until they come back to their homes. If any one breaks the peace and -wounds or maims a man, he has forfeited loose property and peace in the -land, and shall never come to the country” (N. G. L., ii. 16).[515] - - -The punishment given to those who did not heed the judgment given at a -law-thing, and confirmed by weapon-taking, was a fine. - - -“If a man breaks the judgment given at a law-thing, and confirmed by -_vápnatak_ inside and outside the law-court, then he is to pay the king -four marks of silver, and one mark to the plaintiff” (N. G. L., ii. 17). - - -“If a man has been fined for breaking a judgment once, and persists in -disregarding it, then the king’s stewards shall summon him to a Thing -and outlaw him unless he pays what is then due. A man is liable to the -same if he breaks the judgment given at the Frostathing, and confirmed -by _vápnatak_ inside and outside the law-court” (Earlier Frostathing’s -Law, v. 46). - - -In Iceland Things were held regularly twice a year, namely, before and -after the Althing (Thing for the whole land). The one taking place in -the springtime lasted at least four days, or at most a week.[516] The -other, called _Leid_, at the end of summer, lasted not more than two -days. - - -“We (the people) shall have _Leid_ (autumn-thing), and those godis who -hold a Thing together shall have _Leid_ together.... The _Leid_ shall -not be held before fourteen nights after the Althing. No _Leid_ shall -last less than one day, or longer than two nights” (Gragas (1852), iii. -§ 61). - - -The country was divided into four quarters, and each of these into three -Thing-districts, except the northern quarter, which was divided into -four.[517] Every Thing-district was divided into three parts, each of -which was ruled by a godi who was temple-priest. At the Quarter-thing -all the bœndr of the quarter assisted.[518] - -The Althing, which was held once a year, took place between the two -other Things. This was natural, as at the Spring-thing they prepared for -the Althing, and at the Thing held at the end of summer it was usual to -make known what had taken place at the Althing. - - -“The Althing was placed where it is now, according to the advice of -Úlfljót and all the men of the land. Before this the Thing was at -Kjalarnes, established by Thorstein, son of Ingolf, the (first) settler, -and father of Thorkel Máni (moon), lawman, and other chiefs” -(Islendingabók, c. 3). - - -The appeal of a cause from a lower Thing to the higher one was expressed -in the Gulathing’s Law, which probably had the greatest authority over -the larger part of the country; every dispute had first to be treated at -the smaller Thing of the _Herad_, and only when it could not be -satisfactorily settled there was it to go before the _Fylkisthing_. A -Thing from two Fylki had less power than one of four, and one from four -less than one from eight. - - -“In every case when all the men of the Fylki agree, no lawful judgment -of theirs in matters about which they have right to judge shall be -broken, though kinsmen on the male or female side or near relatives do -not come. But if one-fourth or more of the right Thingmen do not come, a -new Thing shall be summoned from two Fylkis for the case.... If they do -not agree at the Thing of two Fylkis, it shall be sent to a Thing of -three Fylkis. If they do not agree, a Thing of four Fylkis. If they do -not agree, a Thing of eight Fylkis; that which is agreed upon by all -there and brought into the law-court shall stand” (Frostath., x. 30). - - -To this Thing as well as to lesser Things, every bondi who was a working -man had to come. In later times, if the king was not present, his -representatives the lendir men were bound to be there. Among these -lesser Things were those which dealt with questions relating to paupers. - - -“It is customary in Iceland for the bœndr to have a Thing in the autumn -in order to deal with the poor; the one first named among the poor was -Thorljót, the father of Thjódolf” (Flateyjarbók, iii. 421). - - -In the course of time and towards the latter part of the pagan era there -arose from the Herad towns proper (_kaupstad_ = trading-places), and the -people formed a separate class whose interests were not identical with -those of the bondi, and who required a special government and Thing. The -common law of the towns is known under the name of _Bjarkeyjar-rétt_ -(town law). Each town had its _mót_, formed by all householders -(_húsfastir_). - -There were also meetings of people of the _Hrepp_, which was a tract of -country consisting of at least 20 bœndr, who were able to give pay to -Thingmen. Their meetings were ordinary or extraordinary. For -extraordinary meetings they had to send the cross (or in early times the -war-arrow) around. At the meeting the affairs of the poor and other -burdens of the community, and the regulations concerning order, were -settled. Five men were chosen, who were the representatives or executive -power of the community. These men had not necessarily to be landowners. -Their duty was to prosecute vagabonds or criminals, and to be present at -oath-taking. - - -“There shall be lawful Hrepps in this country (Iceland). It is lawful -when 20 bœndr or more are in it. If the lögréttu-men (law-court men) -allow it there may be fewer (bœndr).... Five landowners (bœndr) shall be -chosen in every Hrepp to prosecute all those who do not fulfil their -duties in the Hrepp, and also to divide the tithes and food-gifts (to -the poor), or see to the keeping of oaths taken by men. They need not be -landowners if all the men of the Hrepp agree.... If a pauper is -unlawfully brought into the Hrepp, the man to whom he is sent shall cut -a cross if he thinks he needs a Hrepp-meeting, and carry it to the next -house, and there appoint a Hrepp-meeting within seven nights or more, -and tell the others to carry the cross. Then each of them shall have it -carried as directed by the man who cut it, and it shall be sent in all -directions” (Grágás, p. 171, § 234). - - -The resolutions taken at the Thing were finally confirmed by the -_vápnatak_ (weapon-taking), for, as we know, the thingmen during the -deliberations put away their weapons, and by again taking them up and -shaking them they declared matters settled and the Thing dissolved. - - -“King Sverri summoned the people to _Eyrathing_[519] in Thrándheim, and -named twelve men from each Fylki of the eight which are on that side of -Agdanes. When they came, the name of king was given to Sverri at this -Thing of eight Fylkis, and it was done with weapon-taking, and the -people of the land took oaths to him, according to the old laws of the -land” (Fornmanna Sögur, viii. 41). - - -Sigurd Slembidjakn, who pretended to be the son of Magnus Bare-foot, -murdered Harald Gilli of Norway in his bed at night, and then asked the -people to take him as king. - - -“Many from the king’s house came down to the piers, and all answered, as -with one mouth, declaring it should never be that they would yield -homage and service to a man who had murdered his brother; ‘for if he was -not thy brother, thou art not born to be king.’ They clashed their -weapons together, and declared them all to be outlawed and peaceless. -Then the king’s horn was blown, and all the lendirmen and hirdmen were -gathered” (Harald Gilli’s Saga, c. 18). - - -Between the sessions of the Thing amusements took place, among them that -of saga-telling; and the people who attended were often finely dressed. - - -“Thormod the scald wondered that no man was in the booth, as many were -there when he fell asleep. Fifl-Egil entered and said: ‘Too far art thou -now from great fun.’ Thormod answered: ‘Where wast thou, or what is the -fun?’ Egil answered: ‘I was in the booth of Thorgrim Trölli, and a great -part of the Thing-assembly is there.’ Thormod asked: ‘What is their -amusement?’ Egil answered: ‘Thorgrim Einarsson is telling a saga.’ -Thormod asked: ‘Of whom is he telling a saga?’ Egil answered: ‘I know -not about whom the saga is, but I know that he tells it well and -entertainingly; he sits on a chair outside the booth, and the people sit -round and listen to the saga.’ Thormod said: ‘Thou must be able to name -some man mentioned in the saga, especially as thou sayest it is so -entertaining.’ Egil answered: ‘One Thorgeir, a great champion, was -mentioned in the saga as having fought very well, as is likely. I should -like thee to go and listen to the saga.’ Thormod answered: ‘I can do -it,’ and rose”[520] (Fostbrœdra Saga, c. 32). - - -“The sons of Hjalti made an arvel after the death of their father. They -were summoned to the Thorskafjardar-thing. When they came to the Thing -they were so well dressed that people thought the Ásar had come” -(Landnáma, iii. c. 10). - - -As the people often came from a long distance, there were erected near -the Thing-place Thing-booths for their accommodation, some of which were -very large. - -Thorstein had slain the thrall of a neighbour, and therefore was -summoned to the Thing. - - -“Thorstein, son of Egil (Skallagrimsson), had very many men with him at -the spring Thing, and went there one night earlier than the others, and -he and his Thingmen tented their booths.[521] When they had made their -own booths ready, Thorstein bade his Thingmen go and raise large -booth-walls; then he had a much larger booth than the others, in which -there were no men” (Egil’s Saga, c. 85). - - -In Iceland we find the _kvid_ (a law term which may mean both the -witnesses and the jury). The men who were in the _kvid_ did not need to -be eye-witnesses; but had to be men who were impartial, and who could -form the best judgment from the circumstances of the case. They had to -give a verdict under oath. The number of the men of the _kvid_, and the -manner of choosing them, varied according to the matter to be -considered. In some important cases, recourse was had to the -_Tylftarkvid_ (a body of twelve men) summoned at the instance of the -plaintiff by the godi of the district, who with him named or chose -eleven of his Thingmen. - -The second kind of _kvid_ was _Búakvid_ (bondi kvid), which was used in -cases of murder and other crimes, consisting of five or nine neighbours -chosen by the plaintiff. - -The third kind or Bjargkvid (saving kvid) consisted of five men, also -chosen by the plaintiff and of the same place. The defendant had the -right to challenge jurors out of the _kvid_, but only for lawful -reasons, and the places had to be filled up. If the _kvid_ after -deliberation could not agree, the majority ruled; and if in the -_Tylftarkvid_ the votes were equal, the godi had the casting vote; but -the verdict was nevertheless to be given unanimously, though the -minority were not responsible if the verdict was found to be wrong. - -In the earliest times the same practice seems to have held in Norway, -till Christianity coming in brought with it the purification oath. - -Men could be turned out of the jury if they were not bœndr. - -In a law case at the Althing after the burning of Njál, Eyjólf -Bölverksson, a man skilled in law, said the following with regard to the -jury or _kvid_: - - -“‘I name witnesses to this that I take these two men out of the _kvid_, -and name them both, because they are booth-sitting men (less than bœndr) -and not bœndr.’ Mörd went to the court and said: ‘I name witnesses to -this that I make void the lawful challenging of Eyjólf Bölverksson, -because he challenged men out of the _kvid_ who are rightly in it. Every -man who owns three hundreds[522] in land or more, though he has no milch -cattle, has the right to be in a jury of bœndr, as also he who has milch -cattle, though he is a tenant.’ He had the witnesses before the court, -went to where the bœndr (of the jury) were and told them to sit down, -and that they had a right to be in the kvid. Then there was a great -uproar, and all said that the case of Flosi and Eyjólf was made -perfectly void” (Njala, c. 142). - - -It seems that it was usual to have twelve judges to decide important -cases. - - -“Thereafter King Heidrek went home with his queen and they loved each -other well; he left off all warfare and made laws in the land; he chose -twelve of the wisest men to judge in important cases in his realm, and -prevented all warfare in his land; he became a great chief and was well -liked” (Hervarar Saga, c. 14). - - -Gunnar, when attacked, slew Thorgeir Otkelsson, and was summoned before -the Thing to answer for it. - - -“Many chiefs tried to effect a reconciliation, and the result was that -twelve men were to arbitrate in the case” (Njala, c. 74). - - -King Olaf, of Sweden, always had with him twelve of the wisest men, who -assisted him in difficult cases. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXVIII. - THE GODI AND THE GODISHIP. - - Power and functions of the godi or temple-priest—The leaders at - sacrifices and spiritual rulers in the earliest times—The law only - above the godi—He is the administrator of the law among the - Thingmen—The post hereditary—Ceremony attending the assumption of - office—The godi’s office transferable—Appearance of the godi—Their - attendance at the Althing compulsory—The weapon-thing—Sanctity of - the law-courts. - - -The power and functions of the godi, or temple-priest, whose name has -been mentioned in the chapter on Religion, were probably the same in -Norway as in Sweden or Denmark before the time of Harald Fairhair of -Norway, Gorm of Denmark, and Eirik of Sweden. In the earliest times the -godis, whose office was called _godord_ (godiship), were the leaders at -sacrifices and spiritual rulers of the people, and their descendants -united both the spiritual and temporal power. - -The original number of holders of the godiship in Iceland was -thirty-nine, but in the year 1004 twelve new members were added. - -The position of the godi among the Thingmen was of a special nature, and -was grounded on birth or privilege, such as purchase; the only thing -above him was the law, which was in the keeping of all the godis of the -country. He had to see that the law was carried out among the Thingmen, -and had to help his own Thingmen when they had a case against a Thingman -of another district.[523] - -The temple-priest as such had certain revenues; he had, besides, a share -of the pay given to the Thingmen by the bœndr who did not go to the -Thing; parts of certain fines and forfeited property, and fees for -certain legal formalities which could only be performed by him.[524] He -was named by the district or by the family, and the bœndr[525] under a -certain godi were called the Thingmen of the godi. - -The _godord_ was looked upon as property; it was inherited, and could be -given away, sold, or forfeited. If the godi forfeited the godiship, then -the men of the _Thridjung-district_[526] to which the godiship belonged -had to elect another; and also, when the heir was not of age, they could -elect a provisional godi. The heir to a godiship would become godi, if -the bœndr allowed him, at the age of twelve. If the heir was a woman, -she could give the godiship to whichever man of the district she -preferred. - -When a man became a godi he killed a ram and dipped his hands in its -blood. - - -“Höskuld said: ‘Let us redden ourselves in the blood of the godi -according to ancient custom.’ He killed a ram, reddened his hands in its -blood, and declared Arnstein’s godiship to be his....” (Ljosvetninga -Saga, c. 4). - - -If the godi broke the law he was prosecuted like another man, -consequently there was a check upon his powers, and he had to take great -care that law and justice were properly executed. - - -“The men of the _Thridjung-district_ always have power over the godiship -when the godi is outlawed and loses it. They shall draw lots among -themselves. If a man has bought a godiship, or it has been given to him, -then it shall be inherited (by his heirs).... If the godi becomes sick, -he has the right to sell the godiship. If he dies and leaves a son 12 -winters old he gets it (the godiship) if the people allow it. If a woman -is heiress she shall sell the godiship to some man of the district. If -the godi dies before _einmanud_[527] they shall draw lots and have a -meeting as to who shall get the godiship; crosses[528] shall be cut and -sent in all directions. If he dies after _einmanud_ they (the people) -shall come one night before others to the Spring-thing and draw lots who -shall be godi. If he dies towards the Althing (time), or on the way to -the Thing, then his nearest kinsman at the Althing shall be godi. If -there is no kinsman his Thingmen[529] shall decide who is to be godi, -and must come to their decision before the courts (are formed). If there -are cases at the Spring-thing the godi is liable to lesser outlawry if -he has not arrived at the beginning of the Thing” (Grágás (1852), p. -142). - - -If the godi for one reason or another could not rule over his district, -he could give it to whomsoever he liked within the district; though the -office could be owned by more than one, it could only be _represented_ -by one man. - - -“Hrafnkel sat on his farm (_bu_) and continued to be honoured. He died -and his mound is in Hrafnkelsdal outside Adalbol. Much property, all his -war-dress, and his good spear were _mound-laid_ with him. His sons -assumed his rule. Thorir lived in Hrafnkelsstadir and Asbjörn at -Adalbol. They both owned the godiship and were thought to be powerful -men” (Hrafnkel Freysgodi’s Saga). - - -If there were several owners, and the power had only been given to one -of them, it went by turns one year at a time. - - -“Helgi Asbjarnarson lived at Oddsstadir near Hafrsá; he was godord-man -(godi); he was married to Droplaug, daughter of Spakbessi. They had many -children. Hrafnkel, the first cousin of Helgi, lived at Hafrsá and was -young. He and Helgi both had the same godord (godiship) and Helgi -wielded the godiship. - -“Hrafnkel claimed the godiship from Helgi Asbjarnarson, his kinsman, and -did not get it. - -“In the spring people went to the Spring-thing. Helgi Asbjarnarson then -named An Trud into the court (dóm), though it was to be concealed, for -An had given to Helgi seven stud horses. When An was seated in the court -Helgi put on his head a felt-hood to disguise him and asked him to speak -little. Thereupon Hrafnkel with the sons of Droplaug and many men walked -up to the court. Helgi Droplaugarson walked up to the seat of An Trud in -the court; he jerked up the felt-hood with the guards of his sword and -struck it down and asked who sat there. An told his name. Helgi said: -‘Who named thee into the court on the behalf of his godiship?’ He -answered: ‘Helgi Asbjarnarson did it.’ Helgi Droplaugarson then asked -Hrafnkel to name witnesses and claim that Helgi Asbjarnarson had -forfeited the godiship; he said all his cases were made void as he had -named An into the court. Then there was great pressing forward and a -fight nearly ensued, but Hólmstein intervened and tried to reconcile -them. The agreement was that Hrafnkel should have the godiship as long -as Helgi had had it before, and thereupon they should have it both -together; Helgi should, however, help Hrafnkel in all cases at Things -and meetings of men and wherever needed. Helgi Droplaugarson said to -Hrafnkel: ‘Now it seems to me I have helped thee.’ He answered that it -was so. Then people rode home from the Thing” (Droplaugarsona Saga). - - -The godis seem to have worn long beards, which apparently was the custom -among rulers, for Edward is represented on the Bayeux tapestry with a -beard. - - -“Rolf was a great chief and a most powerful man; he had to keep the -temple of Thor on that island (Mostr), and was a great friend of Thor, -on which account he was called Thorolf. He was tall and strong, fair of -face, and had a large beard, wherefore he was called Mostrarskegg; he -was the most prominent man on the island” (Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 3). - - -When the heir to the godiship was a minor, the fittest Thingman took the -office till he came of age. - - -“It was law at that time that when the heirs were minors the Thingman -who was thought the fittest should keep the godiship (until they were of -age)” (Vatnsdæla, c. 41, 42). - - -The men of Vatnsdal had a meeting at Karnsá about the godiship. - - -“They spoke about the godiship and did not agree; every one of them -wished to become godi. Then they laid lots in a cloak-skirt, and the lot -of Thorkel Silfri (a chief) always came first, for he was skilled in -witchcraft. Thorgrím (a kinsman of the deceased godi) walked out and met -Thorkel Krafla (his own illegitimate son) in the entrance with other -boys. Thorgrím said: ‘Now I want thee to pay the price for the axe.’ -Thorkel answered: ‘I should like very much to have the axe, and can -easily pay its price now, though I have not the ware thou likest.’ -Thorgrím said: ‘Other things than ware will be taken.’ Thorkel asked: -‘Dost thou want me to slay Silfri?’ ‘Yes,’ answered Thorgrím. The lot of -the godiship had then been drawn by Silfri. Thorkel walked into the -room, and so near Silfri that he touched his foot; Silfri pushed him -away and called him the son of a bondmaid. Thorkel jumped up on the next -seat and struck his head with the axe (_taparöx_); Silfri at once died, -and Thorkel said the axe was not too dear. Thorgrím said the boy had -been badly tempted, and did not stand it well, but had shown himself to -be a kinsman of the Vatnsdælir (by his bravery), and he would -acknowledge that he was his son. Thereupon Thorgrím got the godiship, -and was called the godi of Karnsá” (Vatnsdæla, c. 41, 42). - - -“The godi if he likes shall go upon the Thing-slope at the Spring-thing -and name witnesses that he asks all Thingmen of his district (thridjung) -to go to the Althing, and they shall decide it with lots or in other -ways. Every ninth of his Thingmen shall go. The Spring-thing shall be -dissolved at mid-day when men have been four nights at it, but not -before, unless all the Thingmen agree otherwise and all cases brought -before it are decided” (Grágás, i. 116). - - -Every Thing-district had a fixed Thing called Herad-thing, which was -presided over by the three godis of the Thing-district. - -The godi in whose district the Thing-place lay declared the Thing holy; -if the Thingman could not come himself, he could send a freeman of his -house in his place. - - -“We shall have a Spring-thing in our country. Three godis shall have -one together. They shall not hold a Thing for longer than one week, -nor for less than three nights, unless they are allowed by the -_Lögrétta_[530].... The godi who owns _Thinghelgi_ (declaration of -thing-peace) there shall declare the Thing holy the first evening -when they come there.... The godi shall decide what are the -Thing-boundaries, and he shall declare it holy, as at the Althing, -and declare what is its name”[531] (Grágás, p. 96, § 56). - - -A Thingman could declare himself the Thingman of another godi. Every -godi had to have a booth on the plain, large enough to hold all his -Thingmen; but the great bœndr often had with them their own booths, and -their friends, women, children, and servants, &c. The godi who declared -the Althing holy was called _allsherjar godi_ (the godi of the whole -host). - -We see that in Iceland at first the _Kjalnesinga godi_ had the high -office at the Althing,[532] but later the godi in whose district the -Althing lay. - -The Althing began on Thursday when ten weeks (fifty days) of summer had -passed, and lasted fourteen days.[533] - -To the Althing all the godis had to come, and to arrive on Thursday -night, before the sun had left the plain; if not, they forfeited their -godiship. If a godi had met with lawful hindrances, the godi of the same -Thing-district decided who should take his place. He had the right to -call upon every ninth man of his Thingmen to follow him to the -Spring-thing.[534] - -All the bœndr who had come to the Althing on Thursday night were -considered _right Thingmen_, but the bœndr who remained at home had to -pay a fine. If they came before the first Sunday of the Thing they were -_right Thingmen_, but received no pay. The Thingmen were not allowed to -leave the precincts of the Thing before the assembly was dissolved.[535] - - -“All godis shall come to the Thing on the fifth day of the week when 10 -weeks of the summer have passed before the sun leaves the Thing-plain. -If they do not come they are fined and lose their godiship, unless -necessity causes their absence. The Thingmen shall come to the Thing on -the fifth day of the week and go to their booth with the godi in whose -Thing-district they are; each of them shall have a partition of cloth -across the booth; each shall get Thing-journey pay, and they are -Thingmen both in their own matters and in those of others. The godi is -then bound to give a Thingman room in his booth; if he does not, then -the Thingman does not break the law though he go to another booth, and -has also a claim to the Thing-journey pay. Men shall pay Thing-journey -pay as they agree upon in every district with the godi.... The Thingmen -shall not be one night or longer away from the Thing; nor are they -Thingmen when they go outside the Thing-marks” (Grágás, i. 24). - - -Sometimes meetings took place called _Vápnathing_, where all the bœndr -had to appear, and produce for inspection the arms which every man was -legally obliged to have. - - -“Wherever a weapon-thing is to be, the king’s steward (árman) or a -_lend-man_ shall announce it in the autumn, and hold the Thing in the -spring. All free and full-grown men shall come to it or pay a fine of -three _aurar_ each. Then men shall show their weapons as is laid down in -the laws. A man shall have a broad-axe or a sword, a spear, and a shield -which must have at least three iron-rims across it, and whose handle -must be fastened with iron nails. Three _aurar_ are to be paid for every -folk-weapon (missing or not in good order). For every rowing-bench the -bœndr shall furnish two dozen arrows and one bow. One _eyrir_ shall be -paid for every missing arrow, and three _aurar_ for a bow” (Earlier -Gulathing’s Law, 309). - - -The place where the judges sat was holy, and ropes, _vebönd_, marked out -the boundaries of the enclosure. - - -“The court was held in a level field and hazel poles were put down in a -circle into the ground with ropes around them; these ropes were called -_vebönd_ (sacred bands). Inside the circle sat the judges, twelve from -Firdafylki, twelve from Sygnafylki, and twelve from Hördafylki; these -thirty-six men were to judge in all cases. Arinbjörn chose the judges in -Firdafylki, and Thórd of Aurland (the brother of Björn) those from -Sygnafylki and these twenty-four acted together” (Egil’s Saga, c. 57). - - -“It is an old right that stewards from every Fylki shall make the vebönd -on the Thing-plain. The vebönd shall be so wide that those appointed for -the law-court shall have room to sit inside. The stewards shall name for -the law-court as many men as are fixed for each Fylki. From the inner -Thrándheim forty men shall be named for each Fylki, and from the outer -Thrándheim sixty men from each Fylki, and the oldest and most able men -shall be named into the law-court. No lendirmen must go into the -law-court unless the bœndr allow it. It is also law that no man who is -not named must sit inside the vebönd without being liable to pay a mark. -If a man leaves the law-court and goes outside the vebönd to another -place he is to pay a full mark” (Frostathing’s Law, i. 2). - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIX. - THE LAWS OF THE EARLIER ENGLISH TRIBES. - - Comprehensiveness of the codes of the Northmen—The earlier laws—The - Icelandic laws—The Grágás law-book—Judgment rings—Power of the - lawmen—Their office hereditary in early times—Their office - elective in Iceland—Manner of election—Duty of the lawman—Ceremony - at the close of his term of office—Length of the term of - office—Norway divided into four law-districts—Law originally - vested in the people—Members of the law-court—Mode of their - election—Judicial decisions. - - -For clearness of language, comprehensiveness, and minuteness of detail, -we find nothing in Europe during the first ten centuries of the -Christian era that can compare with the earlier laws of the Norsemen; we -must go back to Rome to find such comprehensive and exhaustive codes. -They give us a very clear insight into the life and civilisation of the -North, which from these records seem to have been far above those of -neighbouring countries at that period. Some of the laws given in the -course of this work demonstrate the mode of life of the time. We can see -from these that, above all, the Norsemen abhorred perjury, murder, -seduction, adultery, and the violation of the sanctity of -blood-relationship. - -The earlier laws, as all laws in every country, were but a codification -of the customs of the people, handed down in many cases from very -ancient times. - -The Icelandic laws were based upon those of the mother-country, just as -those of the English colonies are to-day based on the old English laws, -and those of other colonies on those of the countries that founded them. - - -“When Iceland was widely settled, an eastern (Norwegian) man called -Úlfljót was the first who brought laws there; this Teit told us; they -were called Úlfljót’s laws; Úlfljót was the father of Gunnar, from whom -the Djupdælir in Eyjafjord are descended. The laws were mostly taken -from the Gulathing-laws as they were then, or made according to the -advice of Thorleif the Wise, son of Hördakári, with regard to what -should be added or taken away, or altered” (Islendingabók, c. 2). - - -One of the great authorities for our knowledge of the administration of -justice among the Norwegians is the law-book, the Grágás.[536] - -Sigvat Scald made a song wherein he says the king (Magnus) was too hard -towards the bœndr. - - -“After this the king became milder; also many spoke to him about this. -At last he had a talk with the wisest men, and they made laws. Then he -had a law-book written which is still in Thrándheim, and is called -Grágás (the grey goose). He became popular and was liked by all the -people of the land, and therefore was called Magnus the Good” (Magnus -the Good’s Saga, Heimskringla, c. 17). - - -All over the Northern lands are yet seen numerous judgment rings, made -of large stones, where justice was administered; some were used for -religious ceremonies, some for duellings. - - -“The defender in a case can name six judges whom he does not want to -judge in his case. They are to rise from the court (dóm), and sit inside -the dómhring (sacred precincts) while the case is judged” (Grágás, i. p. -78). - - -The lawmen, or _lögmenn_, were the most influential and powerful men in -the land; they were respected and loved by the people, and great faith -was placed in their advice. Extensive knowledge of the earlier customs -and ancient laws was absolutely necessary for this important office, in -order to put before the Thing in a proper light the subjects under -discussion. From the Sagas we see that their office in the earlier time -was probably hereditary; but in Iceland, as the emigration broke the -hereditary succession, the lawmen were chosen by election. - - -“Hákon was one of the most merry, eloquent, and modest of all men; he -was very wise and especially fond of law-making. He enacted the -Gulathing’s law, with the advice of Thorleif the Wise; also the -Frostathing’s law, with the advice of Sigurd jarl and other Thrands who -were very learned; but the _Heid-sævi’s_ law (Eidsivia law) had been -enacted by Halfdan the Black (father of Harald Fairhair)” (Fornmanna -Sögur, i., p. 31). - - -“At this feast were Gunnar and many others of the best men. After the -feast Njal asked if he might take home Thorkall, Asgrim’s son, for -fostering, and he was with Njal long after. He loved Njal more than his -father. Njal taught him the laws, so that he became the greatest lawman -in Iceland” (Njala, 27). - - -The lawman was the representative of law, though he had neither judicial -nor legislative power; he was selected by the law-court, or Lögretta, on -the first Friday of the Althing, before the cases which were to be tried -at the Thing were made public on the law-hill. Then if the election was -not unanimous, it was decided by throwing of lots which quarter should -elect him; the law-court men of the quarter could elect him from their -own quarter or from another, but the majority decided the question. The -lawman, followed by the members of the law-court, walked up to the -law-hill and took the seat intended for him. An election was good for -three years, and the same man could be elected again; but he could -forfeit his office through injustice or carelessness. - -His duty was to expound the laws to the people, and therefore it was -necessary for him to know them well; before the law was written he was -looked upon as a living law-book for the people; any who were in -difficulties on points of law went to him, not only to the Althing, but -to his home. - -The part of the law relating to the regulations of the Thing was recited -every summer on the first Friday of the assembly, and this was the -lawman’s first duty; all the remaining parts of the law had to be -recited by him during the course of his three years of office. - -At the dissolution of the Thing he made public from the law-hill the -_timereckoning_, a kind of almanack for the coming year. Supposing that -he was doubtful on any point he was allowed to take counsel with five or -more men, wise in law, and their advice was considered sacred. - -If the lawman had not arrived on the first Friday before the people went -to the law-hill he had to pay a fine of three marks, and they could -elect another man in his place. The yearly pay for this office was 248 -ells[537] of vadmal from the property of the law-court, besides the half -of all the fines. - -The closing ceremony at the term of office was for the lawman to recite -the regulations of the Thing. This ceremony took place on the first day -of the fourth summons, after which he was free. When the lawman died, a -man was taken from his quarter to recite the regulations, and his -successor was at once elected. - -A lawman, when at home, could be a godi as well as a lawman, but at the -Thing he was obliged to have a representative of his godiship. - - -“It is a law that there shall always be a man in our country whose duty -it is to tell people the law, and he is called lawman (lögsögu-man = -law-telling man). If the lawman dies, a man shall be taken the next -summer from the quarter of the country in which he dwelt last, to recite -the regulations of the Thing. Then the lawman is to be elected on the -Friday before the cases are proclaimed. It is also good if all agree -about one man. If one of the law-court men is against that which most -want, it shall be decided with lots from which quarter the lawman is to -be elected. The men of the quarter who win the lot shall choose the -lawman, if he is willing to undertake the office, whether he is from -their own quarter or from some other. If they do not agree, the majority -shall rule; but if those who disagree about the lawman and sit in the -law-court are equal in numbers, the bishop of the quarter shall -decide.... From the law-court where the electing takes place the men -shall go to the law-hill. The lawman shall go thither and sit in his -seat, and seat those whom he wishes on the law-hill, and then the cases -are to be brought forward. It is also law that it is the lawman’s duty -to recite all parts of the law in three summers, and the -Thing-regulations every summer. The lawman has to recite all -declarations of innocence (_e.g._ of outlawry), if possible, when the -greater part of the people are present; also he shall recite the -reckoning of seasons; and if people shall come to the Althing before ten -weeks of the summer have passed and inquire about keeping the ember-days -and the beginning of fasts, he shall make known all this at the -dissolution of the Thing.... If he is not wise enough, he shall take -counsel with five or more law-skilled men. Every intruder is fined three -marks, and the lawman has to prosecute him. The lawman shall receive -every summer 400 feet of vadmal from the law-court property for his -work; also half of all the fines. When the lawman has had the -law-telling for three summers, he shall recite the Thing-regulations for -the first Friday of the fourth summer; then he can give up office if he -likes. If he wishes to keep office, the greater part of the law-court -men can again decide. The lawman is to be fined three marks if he does -not come to the Althing on the Friday before people go to the law-hill, -no necessity hindering, and another lawman is to be elected if the -people wish” (Grágás, i.) - - -The following table shows how long the elected lawmen usually remained -in office, and how great was the order and stability of government in -those days, the lawman having to stand for election once a year:— - - Rafn (Lawman) 930–950 (20 years) - Thórarin (Lawman) 950–970 (20 years) - Thorkel (Lawman) 970–985 (15 years) - Thorgeir (Lawman) 985–1002 (17 years) - -The whole of Norway was divided into four law districts, but not before -the time of Hakon the Good, who codified the laws: (1) _Frostathing’s -Law_ district, (2) _Gulathing’s Law_ district, (3) _Eidsifjathing’s_, -(4) _Borgarthing’s_; but we find that the Gulathing existed, and had -probably existed long, before Harald Fairhair.[538] - -In the course of time changes and additions were made. In regard to how -these new laws were to be made, the laws themselves contain no -provision; but that they were made by the co-operation of king and -people is evident, and their adoption depended, no doubt, on the -standing, wisdom, and influence of him who proposed them. - -When Harald Fairhair became king of all Norway his idea seems to have -been that the royal power established by him should be exalted far above -existing laws, and from it every change in these laws ought to emanate -for the future. - -King Hákon yielded up to the country the proprietary right which his -father had usurped. New legal relations were then entered into between -king and people; these seem to have been called _landsrétt_ (law of the -land), which could not be changed without the consent of both king and -people. - -The _lög_, or law proper, dealing with the relations existing between -man and man, was regarded as having originated from the people alone, -and therefore was their private property. But royalty being acknowledged -as a necessary part of the state, and as such amenable to the _lög_, was -on that account given a voice in its changes or revisions. - -In the first place, the legislative power of the country was transferred -from the _Fylkisthings_ to the _Lawthings_, and was placed in the hands -of representative men (_nefndarmenn_)[539] instead of in the hands of -all the _bœndr_ of the _fylki_. Thus the Lawthings became the only -legislative power in the country, each one legislating for its separate -district. Then the various earlier laws were consolidated into one law -for every district. - -By this important change royalty appears in a highly influential aspect; -however, as is clearly shown, only in consequence of a special power -given it for the time being, and not as a right established for all -time. - -The highest power was not in the Althing, but in the _Lögretta_ -(law-court), composed of two kinds of members—those who were self-named, -or godis by right (they were thirty-nine), and those who were elected -(twelve for the northern quarter, and nine for each of the others); but -these godis took three men from each quarter which had only nine godis, -and so the number was increased to forty-eight, to which number was -added the lögmadr (lawman). The number of judges or godis of the -Lögrétta at the Gulathing seems to have been thirty-six. - -The elected members were appointed thus. Every one of the forty-eight -chose two of his Thingmen and a third man as advisers; thus the -law-court men consisted of 144 members (besides the lawman, who made the -number 145). - -The _Lögthing_ (law-thing) did not appear before the time of Hákon the -Good, when the country was divided into four districts. - -The law-court had a certain place on the Thing-plain, and was part of -the Thing. There were three benches, one behind the other; on the middle -bench sat the forty-eight self-elected law-court men and the lawman; on -the front and the last bench were seated the elected members. The -judicial power rested with those on the middle bench, for the law-court -men on the two other benches could only give advice. - -When a decision had a majority for it from the middle bench, all the -law-court men assented, and it was made public from the law-hill by the -lawman. - -The court was to come together on both Sundays and on the closing day, -and the lawman could call the members together when he wanted, but only -if the majority of the Thingmen wished. - -Less important matters could be decided though the full number were not -present, provided there were not less than forty-eight; and the lawman -could take men from the two other benches to fill the empty seats on the -middle bench. No man but a member was allowed a seat on the law-court -benches. The Thingmen sat round, and only the one who had something to -say to the law-court was allowed to rise.[540] - - -“We shall also have a law-court every summer at the Althing, and it -shall always sit on the place where it has long been. There shall be -three benches round the law-court, so long that forty-eight men may sit -on each of them easily, namely twelve men from each quarter who have the -right to sit in the law-court, and the lawman besides; these rule laws -and licenses, and they, and also our bishops, shall sit on the middle -bench. From the northern quarter those twelve men shall sit in the -law-court who have the twelve godiships which were there when they had -four districts with three godis in each. From all the other quarters -those nine shall sit in the law-court who have the full and old -godiships, which were three in every Spring-thing, when three -Thing-districts were in each of the three quarters, and they shall each -of them take one man from each of the old Thing-districts, so that -twelve men sit in the law-court from each quarter.... - -“Each man who sits in the law-court has to have two men to give him -advice, one in front of himself, and the other behind him and his -Thingmen; then the benches are fully occupied, with forty-eight men on -each bench. No man shall sit inside the benches on the space of the -law-court except those who have cases; but at other times they can sit -there, and the lawman has to dispose of the seats. The people shall sit -outside the benches. Only those who have cases ... have the right to -rise in the law-court when laws or licenses are considered. He who rises -(without the right to do so) is to be fined three marks, and whoever -likes can prosecute him. People who crowd so much to the _Lögrétta_ -purposely, or make so much noise or tumult that cases are disturbed, are -liable to lesser outlawry, as in the case of every disturbance at the -Thing. If men come to the law-court who have to sit there and others -have sat in their seats, they shall ask for their seats, and the men are -not punished if they go away; but if they tarry when the seat is asked -for, they are fined three marks. Then the man shall ask for his seat -with witnesses, and if the other does not rise he is liable to lesser -outlawry.... - -“The law-court shall sit both Sundays (Drottnisdag) of the Thing and the -last day of the Thing, and always between those days when the lawman or -the greater part of the people wish.... There their laws shall be -changed and new laws be made if people want them; there all innocence -(e.g. of outlawry) shall be asked for. As soon as the godis get into -their seats each of them shall place a man on the bench before him and -another on the bench at his back for advice. Then the men who have cases -shall tell what they disagree upon: then they shall think on the case -until they are decided in their mind on it and ask all law-court men who -sit on the middle bench to tell what each of them wants in this case -according to law. Thereupon each godi shall tell what the laws say and -with whom he will go in this case, and the majority shall rule. If an -equal number of law-court men on both sides say that two different -decisions are lawful then the decision of those with whom the lawman -sides shall rule. If the others are more they shall rule, and both shall -take _véfangseid_ (oath of division) to this that they think what they -decide in this case is lawful and follow it up because it is law.... It -is the lawman’s duty to tell all those who ask him what is law, both at -the Thing and at home, but not to give advice in a suit.... If the -lawman commits something which the greater part of the Thingmen would -call Thing-breach then he is liable to lesser outlawry” (Grágás, i. 4). - - -“We shall go to the law-hill in the morning, and lead the courts forward -for challenging not later than when the sun is to be seen on the western -rock of the chasm seen from the seat of the lawman on the law-hill. The -lawman shall go out first if he is in good health, then the godis with -their judges if they are not hindered; otherwise every one of them shall -get a man in his place” (Grágás, i. 26). - - -“If one or more judges retire, then the prosecutor has the right to -invite to lot-drawing at the court all those who have cases before it, -and decide the place where they shall draw lots about proffering the -case. Every man who has a case before the court shall put one lot in a -cloak skirt, though he has more than one case. Every man shall mark out -his lot, and they shall all be put into a skirt, and four shall be taken -out in one” (Grágás, 37). - - -“The first summer that Bergthór (Hrafnsson) recited laws a new law was -made that our laws should be written in a book the next winter in the -house of Haflidi Másson, after the dictation and ruling of Bergthór and -other wise men chosen for it. They were to make new laws wherever they -thought them better than the old ones. These were to be recited the -following summer in the _Lögrétta_ (law-court), and all those were to be -kept against which the greater part of the people did not vote. -_Vigslódi_ (part of the laws treating about man-slayings) and many other -laws were written and recited in the Lögrétta by priests the following -summer. All liked them well, and none were against them” (Islendingabók, -c. 10). - - -From the following account we can see what great power the lawman had -over the people, and how well the latter understood that the price of -freedom was constant watchfulness. - -King Olaf of Sweden and St. Olaf of Norway constantly quarrelled about -the frontiers of their countries. The bœndr in the Vikin got St. Olaf to -send men to the King of Sweden to make peace. Rögnvald jarl of Vestr -Gautland, who was friendly to Norway, helped the men sent, whose leader -was Björn Stallari (marshal). The following account tells how they -succeeded, with the help of Thorgnýr, lawman: - - -“At this time there was in Tíundaland a lawman named Thorgnýr, the son -of Thorgnýr Thorgnýsson, whose family had for many reigns been lawmen in -Tíundaland. Thorgnýr was old, and kept a numerous bodyguard around him. -He was said to be the wisest man in Sviaveldi, and was the kinsman and -foster-father of Rögnvald jarl of Vestr Gautland. - -“Rögnvald jarl came one night to the bœr of Thorgnýr the lawman.... -There were many outside, who received him well, and took charge of his -horses and harness. The jarl went into the hall, which was full of men. -In the high-seat there sat an old man. Björn (King Olaf’s marshal) and -the others had never seen a man so tall or so stout before; his beard -was so long that it lay on his knees and covered his whole breast; he -was handsome, and looked like a high-born man. The jarl walked up and -saluted him. Thorgnýr welcomed him, and told him to go to the seat where -he was used to sit, and the jarl sat down opposite Thorgnýr. It was some -nights before the jarl told his errand; he asked Thorgnýr to go with him -into the speech-room, and Björn and his men followed him there. The jarl -began by relating how Olaf Norway’s king had sent men in order to make -peace; he spoke long of what troubles the war with Norway caused to the -Vest-gautar, and how he had promised to follow these envoys to the King -of Sweden, who disliked the matter so strongly that no one dare broach -it. ‘Now, foster-father,’ said the jarl, ‘I do not trust myself alone in -this matter; therefore I come to thee, and expect thy good advice and -help.’ When the jarl had ended his speech Thorgnýr was silent for a -while, and then answered: ‘You behave strangely; you like to have the -high name of jarl, and yet you know no expedient when you get into some -difficulty. Why didst thou not remember, before promising this journey, -that thou hast not power to speak against King Olaf. It seems to me more -worthy to be reckoned among bœndr and be free in one’s speech, though -the king be present. I will go to the Upsala Thing, and give thee such -help that thou shalt say without fear before the king what thou likest.’ -The jarl thanked him for this promise, and remained with Thorgnýr and -rode with him to the Thing. A great crowd was with King Olaf, who was -with his bodyguard. The first day, when the Thing began, King Olaf sat -on a chair, and around him stood his bodyguard. In another place sat -Rögnvald jarl and Thorgnýr, and in front of them the jarl’s guard and -Thorgnýr’s troop of _húskarlar_ (house carls); behind the chair stood a -crowd of bœndr in a circle. Some even went up on the hills and mounds to -listen. When the king had made his customary speech at the Thing, Björn -Stallari rose near the jarl’s seat and said aloud: ‘King Olaf sent me -hither to say that he offers the King of Sweden reconciliation, and the -division of land which of old existed between Norway and Sweden.’ He -spoke so loudly that the King of Sweden heard it distinctly. At first, -when the King of Sweden heard King Olaf of Norway named, he thought he -came on some errand of his own; but when he heard of reconciliation and -division of land between Sweden and Norway he started up and shouted -loudly that this man should be silent; so Björn sat down. When he could -get a hearing, the jarl arose and spoke of King Olaf the Stout’s message -and offer of reconciliation to Olaf, King of Sweden. He said that the -Vestr Gautar asked that reconciliation should be made with Norway’s -king; he enumerated every difficulty which the Vestr Gautar had on hand -because they missed all those things from Norway which they needed in -order to live well, and on the other hand were exposed to attacks and -plundering if the Norway king should gather a host and make war on them. -He added that Olaf, Norway’s king, had sent men thither to ask for the -king’s daughter Ingigerd. After the jarl had finished speaking, Olaf, -King of Sweden rose and answered that he highly disliked the -reconciliation; he reproached the jarl very greatly for his boldness, as -he had made truce and peace with the stout man (King Olaf) and made -friends with him. He added that he had proved traitor to him, and he -would deserve to be driven from the realm, and that all this was caused -by the urging of his wife Ingibjörg, and that it had been most unwise to -marry such a woman for love: he spoke a long time and severely, and -again turned his reproach against Olaf the Stout and sat down, and there -was silence for some time. Then rose Thorgnýr, and when he stood up all -the bœndr, who before had been sitting, rose, and all the rest pressed -forward, wanting to listen to what he said. At first there was great -tumult and clashing of weapons in the crowd, but when a hearing was got, -Thorgnýr said: ‘The temper of the King of Sweden is not what it has -been. Thorgnýr, my grandfather, remembered Eirik Emund’s son, -Uppsala-king, and said of him, that while he was at his most active age -he had a levy every summer and went to various lands, and subjected -Finnland and Kirjálaland, Eistland and Kúrland, and a great part of the -eastern lands, where still may be seen the earth-forts and other great -works that he made; yet he was not so proud that he would not listen to -men if they wished to speak to him. My father, Thorgnýr, was with King -Björn a long time, and knew his habits. During his time his realm stood -with great strength and with no abatement; and he was easy to deal with -by his friends. I can remember King Eirik the Victorious, and was with -him on many war-journeys; he increased the Swedish realm, and defended -it manfully, and it was easy for us to give him advice. But this king -now allows no man to be so bold as to talk to him except only what he -wants, and uses he thereto all his power, and permits his tributaries to -fall away from him from lack of strength and courage. He would hold -Norway’s realm subject to himself, though no King of Sweden has before -desired this, and thereby causes trouble to many a man. Now this is the -will of us bœndr, that thou, King Olaf, should make reconciliation with -Olaf the Stout, and marry thy daughter Ingigerd to him. If thou wilt win -back to thyself those realms in the east which thy kinsmen and -forefathers once owned, we will all follow thee thither. But if thou -wilt not do what we tell thee, we will attack and slay thee, and not -endure from thee trouble and lawlessness: our forefathers have done the -same, they threw five kings down into a well, at the Múla-Thing, who -before had been as full of overbearing as thou hast been with us. Tell -us now quickly which choice thou wilt make.’ Then the multitude clashed -their weapons. The king arose, and said that he wanted everything to be -as the bœndr wished, for thus had all Kings of Sweden acted. At this the -grumblings of the bœndr ceased. The chiefs, the king, the jarl and -Thorgnýr talked together, and then made peace and reconciliation on -behalf of the King of Sweden, according to the proposal of Norway’s -king. It was resolved at that Thing that Olaf’s daughter Ingigerd should -be married to Olaf Haraldsson, and the king delivered into the jarl’s -hands the power to betroth her, and gave to him the charge of the -marriage”[541] (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 79–81). - - - - - CHAPTER XL. - INDEMNITY, WEREGILD. - - The freeman’s right to peace—Inviolability of body and - honour—Indemnity for murder—Inequality of freemen’s personal - rights—Computation of indemnity—Lists of the amount paid or - received—The rights of Icelanders trading in Norway—Indemnity for - wounds—Laws relating to indemnity—Slander—Indemnity in kind. - - -Every freeman was _fridheilag_ (peace-holy), unless he had forfeited his -right to peace. This sacredness of person meant both inviolability of -body and honour: for every breach of this, in deed or word, he could -claim a redress consisting of a certain amount of money, which was his -_rétt_. - - -“It is first in our _mannhelgi_ (man-holiness) that every man in the -country shall be peace-holy in and out of the country” (Frostath., iv. -1). - - -Blood feuds and revenge were of such common occurrence in these days, -that throughout the Sagas there is a great mass of literature which -deals with the customs and laws regulating the indemnity for murder. - -As every individual, so every family had its rétt. This was the -so-called _manngjöld_, or indemnity due to the family as a redress for -the slaying of one of its members. This view of the family, which is -very old, namely, that it was its right and duty to avenge the slaying -of one of its members on the slayer or his family, was the law of the -land, and the _weregild_ (indemnity) was equivalent to buying off the -family revenge. It was really the price of the dead man, which varied -according to his rétt when living. - -If the slayer died before paying the weregild, his heir had to pay it. - -From the laws we find that the rétt, or personal rights of every -freeman, were not equal. People were divided into classes, as we have -seen, and it was according to his rank that a man had to pay or receive -weregild. - -The entire family weregild was computed in gold, one[542] _mark_ of gold -being reckoned as eight _marks_ of silver in weight. _Six_ marks of gold -seem to have been the family weregild for a _haulld_, and that of the -other classes was fixed in proportion. - -A general rule seems to have prevailed for the computation of the _rétt_ -in all upper classes, which was reckoned in silver, or 12 ells of -_vadmal_ for every eyrir. In the lower classes it was reckoned in the -so-called _lögeyrir_ (legal eyrir), i.e. about 12 feet of _vadmal_ for -every eyrir. - -Some rétts were hereditary, and a wife enjoyed the same rétt as her -husband received, and retained it even during widowhood. - - -“This is about the rights of women. Every man has full rétt on behalf of -his wife. Three marks are due to a haulld if his wife is struck. - -“A widow shall have her rétt herself, as high a rétt as that of her late -husband, and whoever she wishes shall claim it” (Frostath., x. 37). - - -In Gulathing’s Law the haulld is the centre of the division; his rétt is -three marks. - - -“A haulld shall get as his full rétt three marks. The rétt of every man -upward (of higher rank) from the haulld shall increase by a third and -decrease downwards” (Frostath., x. 34). - - -The amount to be paid or received by each degree of a family was -entirely independent of the number of members of such degree. In the -computation the following rules were chiefly followed:—The weregild on -both sides embraced the family within the same degrees of the slain and -the slayer, each individual degree on the side of the slayer paying -weregild to the corresponding one in the family of the slain; the first -receiver of weregild was the son of the slain, or, if he was not alive, -the father. - - -“The first indemnity (_baug_)[543] is called head-indemnity. That is ten -marks. That is (as much as) thirty-two cows if the slain man is -odal-born. The weregild increases and decreases like other rétts of men. -The father shall get it if the son is not alive; if both live, the -father owns three marks. If he is not able to fight, he gets twelve -aurar from the slayer. If the slayer is outlawed he loses that -indemnity. When the slayer dies his heir _receives the axe_ (has to pay -the weregild)” (Gulath., 218). - - -“The second indemnity is called brother’s indemnity. That is five marks, -or sixteen cows. The third is the indemnity of the brœdrung (first -cousin). That is four marks, or half an eyrir less than thirteen cows” -(Gulath., 219). - - -The sum paid was the same whether the receiver was one or more. The -amount paid by each degree became smaller in proportion as the kinship -became more distant. The degrees of kinship embraced in the weregild -were always considered as existing on both sides. If they in reality did -not exist, the slayer had to pay, and the next of kin on the other side -to receive, for the missing degree. - - -“The slayer shall pay the head-indemnity to the son of the dead. The -brother of the slayer shall pay indemnity to the brother of the dead if -he is found; otherwise the slayer shall pay it. The brœdrung of the -slayer shall pay to the brœdrung of the dead brœdrung-indemnity if he is -found; otherwise the slayer shall pay it” (Gulath., 222). - - -The _saktal_ was a list of the amount to be paid or received by every -degree in the weregild. Two or three of these lists are found in the -Gulathing’s Law, and one in the Frostathing’s Law. - -The nearest kinswomen on both sides, mother, daughter, sister and wife, -paid and received a certain gift called _Kvenngjöf_. Otherwise a woman -was never reckoned as payer or payee, unless she were sole heir. But the -moment she was married her rights in this respect passed over to her -nearest male relative. - - -“A mark is a woman’s kvenngjöf. Four women shall receive it if they are -found; the mother of the slain man, his daughter, his sister, and his -wife. Each of them receives two aurar if they all exist. Wherever they -are not found the son of the slain man shall receive it. If all the -women are missing, the slayer shall take this mark and pay it to the son -of the slain. If one of the women is missing, the son of the slain shall -receive two aurar, and if two are missing, half a mark, and if all are -missing, one mark” (Gulath., 221). - - -The Gulathing’s Law differs from the Frostathing’s Law only in one -point, viz., the last divides the bondi into two classes, the -_árborinn-man_ and the _reksthegn_.[544] The law seems to mean in the -case of the latter a man who was not odal-born, yet could point to four -generations of freemen on his father’s side; but the difference between -the two is not told. - -The Icelanders when trading or staying in Norway took the rétt of a -haulld; but if they remained more than three years, or settled there, -they were to have the rétt which they had in their own country, and -which had to be proved by witnesses. - -All other foreigners had the rétt of a bondi unless they could prove by -witness a higher one. - - -“A freedman (_leysingi_) owns six aurar as single rétt, and his son a -mark as single rétt. A _bondi_ owns 12 aurar as single rétt, a _haulld_ -three marks, a _lendrman_ and a _stallari_ (marshal) six marks, the jarl -and the bishop 12 marks. The son of a _lendrman_ shall get the rétt of a -haulld if he gets no land.... Icelanders have the rétt of a haulld while -they are on trading journeys, until they have been here three winters -and lived here. Then they have the rétt which witnesses prove. All other -foreigners who come to this country have the rétt of a bondi unless they -prove by witnesses that they have a higher rétt” (Gulath., 200). - - -The inhabitants of towns all enjoyed the same rétt, which was three -_marks_. - - -“It is the law that all men have an equal rétt in the town (namely) the -rétt of a haulld, 3 marks, the lendrman as well as the freedman who has -made his freedom-ale” (Bjarkeyjar Law, 97). - - -The _lendir-menn_ were regarded as a higher division of the haulld; and -although the son of the lendr-man, as such, had most hopes of receiving -such a dignity, and until his fortieth year enjoyed the same rétt as his -father, yet, in case he had not before that time really received his -appointment as lendrman, he belonged thenceforth only to the class of -the haulld, and enjoyed only the rétt of the latter. - -The king’s _ármenn_ enjoyed half a haulld’s rétt, or the same as a -bondi. - -With the introduction of Christianity we find that the rétt of a bishop -was equal to that of a jarl. The jarl and bishop had the double rétt of -a lendr-man, 12 marks each; the _stallari_ (marshal of the king) had the -rétt of a lendr-man. The priest, the _skutilsvein_ (page), the goldsmith -of the king, and those who steered his trade-ships, had that of a -haulld. In all these cases the children only inherited the rétt which -belonged to their father at their birth. - -Indemnity paid for wounds varied according to the rétt of the man who -gave the wound. - -For wounds in the face, or on places where hair or clothes did not hide -the cicatrice, an additional indemnity was paid called _áljótseyrir_ -(indemnity for looking more ugly); for cutting and burning, an -additional indemnity which was called _granbragds-eyrir_ (grön = lip), -which meant that the pain was so great that the lips of the man trembled -under the operation.[545] - -If the giver of the wound was outlawed on that account, and wanted to be -released from the outlawry, he had to buy himself out for fifteen marks, -to be paid to the king; and to the wounded man a sum according to his -rétt. - - -“If a freedman wounds a man he shall pay 12 aurar as fine, and his son -double, and a bondi triple; an odal-born man double the bondi, a -lendr-man and a stallari double again, and a jarl double the amount they -pay, the king double the jarl. When a man wounds another he shall pay -wound-indemnities to the one whom he wounded, one eyrir for the wound, -one eyrir where a muscle is cut, one eyrir when edge and leg meet, one -eyrir for every bone that falls down if it makes a sound when thrown -into the scales, one eyrir for every singeing, one eyrir for each cut in -the clothes, one eyrir for every cut if it bleeds, half a mark for -wounds in the vital parts, half a mark for marrow-wounds (piercing to -the marrow). The wounder shall pay healing-fee and give to them both -(physician and wounded) food for a month. If a muscle is cut off and -falls on the ground the indemnity is six aurar, and as much if a scar is -left in a man’s head (a scar which causes pain when the head is combed). -All breast-wounds shall be valued, but back-wounds receive double -indemnity. If a man is present at a quarrel and does not part nor help -either he shall pay a _slanbaug_ (ring or indemnity of laziness) to the -king 12 aurar” (Gulath., 185). - - -“There are bone-indemnities (bein-gjöld) wherever a bone is loosened -from the wound of a man.... Then there is one eyrir to be paid and one -eyrir for each little bone until they are six. But if so large a bone is -loosened that six holes may be made in it six aurar shall be paid, but a -bone-indemnity is never higher than six aurar” (Frostath., iv. 49). - - -“If a haulld wounds a man he is liable to pay six _baugar_ (rings) to -the king, and twelve aurar are in each ring. If an árborinn-madr wounds -a man he has to pay three rings; and a leysingi (freedman) two, a -lendr-man twelve, a jarl twenty-four, a king forty-eight, twelve aurar -being in every ring, and the sum is to be paid to all to whom it is due -by law. All this is valued in silver” (Frostath., iv. 53). - - -“If an árman (steward) is struck or slain at a church or at a feast or -at a Thing the slayer is outlawed, as for the slaying of any man; but if -anywhere else he shall pay fifteen marks, and the árman has half the -rétt of a haulld” (Frostath., iv. 57). - - -“The king’s _skutilsveins_ (pages) shall have the rétt of a haulld in -all greater and lesser things. But with regard to other servants of the -king they shall have the rett of a haulld if they wear _ale-cloths_ -(aprons) on their necks, and also the one who steers his trading-ship -between lands, and also his goldsmiths. _Stallaris_ (marshals) shall -have the rett of a lendr-man in smaller and larger things” (Frostath., -iv. 60). - - -If a man bit another man, his fore teeth were broken at the Thing by the -king’s tax-gatherer (_sýslu-man_), but no indemnity was paid. Wounds -with knives were also punished at the Thing.[546] - - -“It is unfitting that men should bite each other like horses or dogs. -When a man bites another the _syslumadr_ (steward) shall have him taken -and brought to the Thing and his teeth broken out of his mouth” (King -Magnus’ Laws). - - -To the wounded man himself, indemnity for wounds and fees for physicians -were paid; the former varying according to the nature of the wounds, but -otherwise equal for all without distinction of rétt. The fee paid to a -physician was fixed according to the time taken in healing the wound. - - -“One eyrir shall be paid as healing-fee every month and two monthly -allowances of meal and two of butter. Thus it shall be every month -till.... It shall be offered at the first Thing, and his farm and his -loose property is taken until he has paid lawful fine to the king and -wound-indemnities and healing-fee to the wounded. If he does not offer -it at the first Thing he is outlawed and his property, except what he -takes into the wood with him (is confiscated)” (Frostath., iv. 12). - - -“All have equal wound-indemnities (sárbœtr), thegn and thrall. If a man -wounds a man’s thrall he shall feed him while he lies wounded and pay -his work to his master and his healing-fee” (Gulath., 215). - - -If any one killed his own thrall he was not punished, but had to declare -it; and if he failed to do so, he was _mordingi_ (murderer). If a man -slew the thrall of another man, he had to pay the value of the naked -thrall to the master, but nothing to the king.[547] - -Atli, a freeman working for Njal, was slain by a kinsman of Halgerd, the -wife of Gunnar; when Gunnar, who was at the Althing, knew it, he went to -Njal and wished him to arbitrate. - - -“Njal said: ‘It was our intention not to disagree on this, and I will -not make him a thrall.’ Gunnar said he assented, and stretched forward -his hand. Njal named witnesses, and they agreed on this. Skarphedin -said: ‘Halgerd does not allow our húskarls to die from old age.’ Gunnar -answered: ‘It is thy mother’s intention that the blows should be mutual -in each other’s farm.’ Njal said: ‘There will soon be too much of this.’ -He arbitrated that one hundred in silver should be paid, and Gunnar paid -it at once” (Njala, c. 38). - - -In ch. 39 we are told that the man who slew Atli is slain by one of -Bergthóra’s men, and Gunnar pays back the weregild to Njal. - - -Offence in word consisted in abuse or disgraceful similes, or in -bringing an accusation of some disgraceful deeds. - -In the first case the offended had to get witnesses to the offence, and -must not return the abuse; if he did so, he was held to have avenged -himself, when the two offences were balanced one against the other, and -there was no indemnity. In the second case the offender could free -himself by proving the truth of his accusation, or getting ten witnesses -that the accusation was grounded on a report from the house of the -offended. The offended person then had to deny this on oath, or in some -cases by undergoing the burning iron ordeal; according to the result the -offender had or had not to pay indemnity. - -If a man was slandered behind his back to the king or a chief, the -offender was liable to the punishment which the slandered would have had -had he been guilty. - - -“No one of us shall slander another to the king, or to a more powerful -man than himself. If he slanders away a man’s life or property, he has -slandered away his own property or life, if it is proved. If he denies -it he shall do it with a _séttareid_ (an oath). He shall have the same -punishment which he meant for the man” (Gulath., 137).[548] - -“No man can take his rétt oftener than three times,[549] neither man nor -woman, if he does not take revenge in the meantime” (Gulath., 186). - - -The weregild was not always paid in cash, but was sometimes given in -kind. - - -“Now the payment must be regulated. A cow shall be worth two aurar and a -half. When a cow is paid it must not be older than eight winters, unless -the receiver cares to take it. All paid cows must have good horns and -tails, eyes and teats, and in every respect be good. Corn and oxen and -all calf-bearing cows may be paid as indemnities (baug). Gold or burnt -(cleansed) silver may be paid if found. Horses, but not mares. A -stallion, but not a gelding. It must not have faults. Sheep may be paid, -but not goats. Odal-land, but not kaup-land. A ship, unless it is -repaired or so old that the first oar-loops of it have been rown off, -its stems are broken off, or it is repaired with planks which have not -been put on while the ship stood on its stocks. Nothing worth less than -one eyrir shall be paid unless the indemnity is less.... Weapons which -are unimpaired, hard and unbroken. Those with which the man was slain -shall not be offered. A sword shall not be paid as indemnity unless it -is ornamented with gold or silver. Vadmal and all new linen and all new -and uncut cloth, unless the receiver wants to take new and cut cloth. -Men’s clothes and not women’s may be paid, new and not old. New stuff -not cut into a cloak. Blue cloaks and skrùd (a kind of stuff) new and -uncut. All boys brought up at home when not older than fifteen winters, -unless the receiver assents, may be paid. Bondmaids shall not be paid as -weregild” (Gulath., 223). - - - - - CHAPTER XLI. - THE OATH AND ORDEAL. - - Sanctity of the oath—Manner of taking the oath—Oath upon the - Bible adopted with Christianity—Oaths sworn by objects—The - oath of truce—Oath by witnesses—Purifying oath—Its various - forms—Perjury—Different forms of ordeal—Passing under - sods—Ordeal of boiling water—Walking on red-hot irons. - - -The law of the people was much influenced by their religion. Great -stress was laid upon the sanctity of the oath, which, like a vow, was -considered most binding. No other literature points out so clearly and -so often the sacredness of an oath and the loathing in which -oath-breakers were held. Let the youth of every land learn this noble -trait of the character of the Norsemen. No one could absolve a man for -breaking his oath, no matter how great might have been the splendour of -his achievements. The higher born the man was, the more did he consider -himself bound to keep his oath. - -History teaches us that the avenging fates have never been slow to smite -low to the dust oath-breakers, as well as nations which, in a moment of -hallucination showing the moral disease of the mind of their people, -have absolved the men who had committed this crime. - -The proofs used to clear a man were “_witnesses_,” “_oath_,” and -“_ordeal_.” The taking of an oath was looked upon as a very sacred and -holy ceremony. He who violated it sooner or later incurred the enmity of -the gods. Many examples were remembered by the people showing how an -oath was kept, in spite of the greatest provocation or temptation. What -any one had sworn was considered sacred, and could not be broken with -impunity. - -The oath was taken at the Thing, or Temple, by placing the hand on a -ring which had been consecrated by having been dipped in the blood of -the sacrificial ox. This ring, which was of silver, lay on the altar of -each head temple, and was therefore called altar-ring, or -“_stalla-hring_.” The godi was required to have it on his arm at every -Thing, so that it was always at hand if needed. The man who took the -oath held his hand upon the ring,[550] and in the presence of witnesses -called upon the Asar and begged their help. Three Asar, Frey, Njörd, and -Odin, were always called upon. - -The oath upon the Bible, a practice found to exist to this day among -people chiefly descended from the North, is but a form of the ancient -laws, and, like many others, was adopted with Christianity. - - -“A ring, weighing two _aurar_ or more, was to lie in every head temple -on the altar, and every godi was to wear it on his arm at all Law-things -which he should hold himself, and to redden it in the blood of the -cattle which he himself sacrificed there. Every man who had to perform -legal duties there had first to take an oath on this ring and name two -or more witnesses, and say: ‘I call to witness that I take oath on the -ring, a lawful oath, so help me Frey and Njörd, and the Almighty As -(Odin), to defend or prosecute this case, or give the evidence, verdict, -or judgment which I know to be most true and right and lawful, and to -perform everything as prescribed by law which I may have to perform -while I am at this Thing’” (Landnáma, iv. c. 7).[551] - - -In a fight against Glum, Thorvald Krok was slain; the people were in -doubt if the slaying had been done by Glum or one of his men. At the -Althing it was decided that Glum should take an oath the following -autumn that he had not slain Thorvald, and he was to take the oath in -three temples in Eyjafjord. - - -“The man who was to take a temple oath held in his hand a silver ring -which had been reddened in the blood of the bull which had been -sacrificed, and it must weigh not less than three aurar. Then Glum said -these words: ‘I call Ásgrim and Gizor as witnesses that I take a temple -oath on the ring, and I tell the Asar that I was not there, and I fought -not there, and I did not redden point and edge where Thorvald Krok was -slain; now let those who are wise and are present here look to my oath.’ -The others could not find fault, and said they had not heard this -wording before. The same oath was taken by him at Gnupafell and at -Thverá” (Viga Glum’s Saga, c. 25). - - -Oaths were sometimes sworn by objects. Völund says to Nidud, his -father-in-law:— - - First thou shalt to me - Swear all oaths - At the ship’s side - And at the shield’s edge, - At the horse’s foot - And at the sword’s edge - That thou killest not - The wife of Völund - Nor puttest to death - My bride. - - (Völundarkvida, 33.) - -Gudrun thus curses Atli, for having broken his solemn oath to her -brothers, before she slays him in his bed and burns him and his men in -his own hall:— - - Go it thus with thee, Atli, - As thou to Gunnar - Often didst swear oaths - And name them of yore. - By the south-slanting sun, - By the rock of Sigty, - By the horse of the bed of rest,[552] - By the ring of Ull.[553] - - (Atlakvida, 30.)[554] - -The oath of truce or peace was sealed by hand-shaking, and had to be -repeated with a great deal of care. - -Snorri Godi, the famous Icelandic chief, when on his way from a feast -with Thorgils Arason, stopped overnight at a farm called Breidabólstad. -After they had entered and sat down, Snorri said:— - - -“‘I have been told, Thorgils, that no man can cite the oath of truce so -well as thee’” (Heidarviga, c. 33). - - -The following saga shows how an oath of peace was sometimes kept under -the greatest temptations to break it. Gretti was an outlaw, and had come -in disguise under the name of Gest to see some games of idróttir in -which he was invited to take part; but knowing that if he was recognised -his life would not be safe, he insisted that those present should take -the oath of peace towards him. - - -“‘Here I establish peace among all men, especially with regard to this -man, named Gest, who sits here; and I include all _godords menn_ -(district chiefs) and good bœndr, and the whole mass of young men able -to fight, and all other heradsmen of the Hegranesthing district, or -wherefrom any may have come with or without name; we give by -hand-shaking safety and full peace to the unknown stranger who is called -Gest, for games, wrestling, and all kind of merriment, for remaining -here or returning home, whether he need go by sea or land or by other -conveyance; he shall have peace in every named or unnamed place as long -as he needs for a safe return, with observance of the plighted faith. I -establish this peace for us, our kinsmen, friends and kindred, men as -well as women, thralls and bondwomen, boys and independent men. He who -violates the peace or breaks the plighted faith shall be a -_peace-nithing_, and shall be outcast and driven from God and good men -in heaven, and from all saints; and shall be received nowhere among men, -but be driven away by every man as far as wolves are driven, or wherever -Christians go to church, heathens sacrifice in temples, fire burns, -earth produces, a speaking child calls its mother, mother bears son, -people kindle fires, ships glide, shields glitter, sun shines, snow -falls, a Finn runs on snow-shoes, fir grows, a hawk flies all the long -spring day with a straight fair wind blowing under both wings, heaven -encircles, world is settled and wind blows water towards sea, men sow -corn; he shall shun churches and Christians, heathen bœndr, houses and -caves, every home except hell. Now let us agree and be at peace one with -the other in goodwill, whether we meet on mountain or beach, on ship or -snow-shoes, on earth or jökul (glacier), on the high sea or on -horseback, as if one find his friend on water or his brother on the way; -agreeing as well one with another as son with father, or father with -son, in all dealings. Now we join our hands together all of us, and keep -this truce, and all words spoken in this plight of faith witnessed by -God and good men, and all who hear my words or are here present.’ Many -said that much was in this, and Gest said: ‘Well hast thou declared the -truce, if thou and thy people do not break it afterwards, and I shall no -longer delay showing myself.’ He then threw off his hooded cloak and -outer garments. Each looked at the other, very startled at recognizing -Grettir Asmundsson, whom they knew by his size and strong frame, which -were uncommon. They became silent, and Hafr perceived that his speech -had been unwise. As the men from the herad walked two by two, each -blamed the other, but most him who had pronounced the oath of peace. -Then said Grettir: ‘Make it plain to me what you have in your mind, for -I do not wish to sit long without clothing (they removed their outer -garments when they wrestled); you have much more at stake than I in the -keeping of the truce.’ They made little answer, and sat down. The sons -of Thord and Halldor, their brother-in-law, began to talk together. Some -were in favour of keeping the truce, and others not, and they nodded -their heads one to another. Tungustein said: ‘Is that your thought, -Grettir, but what will the chiefs do? Thou art in truth a great and -brave man, but seest thou not how they put their noses together in -deliberation what to do.’” - - -After a taunting song from Grettir, in which he ridiculed their -indecision, Hjalti Thordarson said:— - - -“‘It shall not be so; let us keep our oath of peace, though we have been -outwitted; let us not ourselves set the example of violating the truce -we have declared and given. Grettir shall go free wherever he likes, and -the truce shall last until he has returned. Then this plighted faith -will be no longer in force, whatever may happen between us.’ All thanked -him, and thought his opinion chief-like, considering the guilt of the -person interested. Thorbjörn Öngul, Hjalti’s brother at this became -silent” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 73, 74). - - -_Oaths by witnesses._—If there were witnesses, including at least two -freemen who were of age, to testify under oath for or against, then the -one who had the most witnesses won his case. - -If a witness’s appearance was hindered, then two men could take his -evidence and give it under oath on his behalf. - -If people heard a bad report about a man, evidence was given by ten men, -two of whom had to swear to it, and the others verified their words that -they had heard such report without knowing if it was true or not. Such -evidence forced the accused to free himself from the accusation either -by oath or ordeal. - -The purifying oath, _skirsl_[555] or _dulareid_,[556] varied according -to the accusation. It was taken either by the defendant alone, or by him -and a certain number of co-swearers, the number of whom varied according -to the nature of the cases. The greatest number was twelve, and the -oath, which was considered the most solemn and important, was in such a -case called _tylftareid_ (twelve-men oath). - -Geirrid was accused at the Thing of being a _kveldrida_,[557] by which -she had caused some wounds on Gunnlaug. - - -“At the Thing a godi named Arnkel, Thorarin, and ten others took oath -upon the altar-ring that she had not been the cause of Gunnlaug’s -injury” (Eyrbyggja). - - -The _tylftareid_ was divided into two kinds, namely, a milder oath with -the so-called _fangavitni_,[558] and a stronger one called -_nefndarvitni_,[559] when each side chose six men from the _haullds_ in -the herad, neither related to nor enemies of either party. Of these -twelve men defendant had to take two, and to add to them two of his -nearest kinsmen, making with himself five, and the other seven were -_fangavitni_ chosen freely among the free men, the rest having nothing -to do with the case. If one of the twelve men did not take the oath, -then what is called _eidfall_ (the one who fails in an oath) took place, -and the whole affair was considered to be at an end, and the defendant -lost the case. - - -“Wherever a _tylftareid_ shall be and witnesses are named, then the -plaintiff names one half of the witnesses, and the defendant the other; -and each shall name as their witnesses when the oath is taken twelve of -the best _haullds_ in the fylki, or the best bœndr if _haullds_ are not -there. Neither foes nor friends shall be named. He shall take two of the -twelve as witnesses, then two of his nearest kinsmen; then they are five -with himself, and the other seven shall be free men and full-grown, who -will be responsible for his words and oaths” (Frostath., iv. 8). - - -“Tylftareid (oath of twelve men) has to take place in order to free one -from the accusation of murder” (Landnáma, 89). - - -Next came the oath given by six men, which was called _séitareid_,[560] -which was taken when the five co-swearers were _fangavitni_. If the oath -was given with _nefndarvitni_ the proceedings were the same as in the -case of the strong _tylftareid_. Each side chose three haullds; of these -six the defendant chose one, to whom he added one of his nearest -kinsmen, then they were three with himself, and the remaining three were -_fangavitni_. - -A still stronger _séttareid_ is mentioned in Gulathing’s Law under the -name of _grimueid_.[561] In this six men of equal _rétt_ with the -defendant were chosen, and were co-swearers with him. - - -“Then there is _grimueid_. Three men shall be named on each side of -equal _rétt_ as him who is to be the seventh” (Gulath., 134). - - -In the _lýritareid_ (a kind of oath of justification given by three -men), the defendant himself was one of the swearers; the man of equal -_rétt_ not related to him was his co-swearer, and the third was any -chosen freeman. - - -“The _lýritareid_ shall be taken thus. He (plaintiff) shall take it -himself, and another man of equal _rétt_ who must neither be a kinsman -on male or female side, nor a near relative. The third shall be a free -and full-grown man who will be responsible for his word and oath” -(Gulath., 135). - - -In the oath by two men, “_tveggja manna eid_,” the defendant seems to -have himself chosen his co-swearers without restriction. Like the oath -of twelve, if one refused to swear to the case the procedure was not -valid. - -Perjury was punished by fine, and inability thereafter to give evidence, -and loss of _rétt_. - - -“The men who become false witnesses are liable to pay three marks to the -king, and are never able to give evidence after, or use any evidence (on -their own behalf), and lose their _rétt_” (Frostath., xiii. 25). - - -_The Ordeal._—The ordeal was a ceremony performed under different forms -in order to prove the innocence or the truth of an accusation, and was -preceded by an oath. Among the various kinds of ordeal was that of going -under an arch or hoop of sods, a ceremony sometimes connected with an -oath.[562] - -If the plaintiff succeeded in passing under these sods without breaking -them, or without their falling down, he was considered to have proved -his case. The strips of sod seem to have generally been three. - - -“Ordeal then consisted in a man going under a strip of sod which was cut -from the field; the ends of it were to be fast in the ground, and the -man who was to perform the ordeal must go under it. He who went under -the sod was considered not guilty if it did not fall down upon him. -Thorkel made an agreement with two men that they should dispute about -something, and be present when the ordeal was taking place and touch the -turf, so that all should see that they threw it down. After this the -ordeal was to be performed, and as soon as the man had come beneath the -sod the men who were to rush against one another with weapons did so, -and met close to the turf-loop and fell there; it fell down, as was -likely, then men rushed between them and separated them, which was easy, -for they fought with no anger. Thorkel Trefil asked for judgment on the -ordeal. All his men said that it would have been satisfactory if nobody -had spoiled it. Then Thorkel took all the movable property, while the -lands were given to _Hrappsstadir_” (Laxdæla, c. 18). - - -Berg summoned Jökul to the _Hunavatns_ Thing on account of a blow -received from him during a wedding feast, and prepared the case. - - -“At the Thing they tried to reconcile them, but Berg said he would take -no fine and not be reconciled unless Jökul went under three sod-slices, -as was there the custom after great offences, and thus show his -humility. Jökul said that sooner should the Troll take him than he would -lower himself thus. Thorstein said: ‘This is a matter for consideration, -and I will go under the sod-slice.’ Berg said that would do. The first -sod-slice reached to the shoulder, the second to the waistbelt, the -third to the middle of the thigh. When Thorstein went under the first, -Berg said: ‘Now I will make the foremost of the Vatnsdal-men stoop like -a pig.’ Thorstein answered: ‘There was no need for thee to say this, but -the first result of these words will be that I will not go under any -more sod-slices’” (Vatnsdæla, c. 33). - - -The ordeal of boiling water was sometimes resorted to. - - -A bondwoman, Herkja, told Atli that she had seen King Thjodrek and -Atli’s wife, Gudrun, together. Gudrun asked Atli why he was no longer -merry. He told her the cause of his jealousy, and that she was -unfaithful to him. She answers:— - - “‘I will take oaths - Before thee about all this - Upon the white[563] - Holy stone, - That I acted not - With Thjodrek - As husband and wife - Might do. - - * * * * * - - ‘Send to Saxi, - The king of the southern men, - He can consecrate - The boiling cauldron.’ - Seven hundred men[564] - Went into the hall - Before the king’s wife - Touched the cauldron. - - ‘Now Gunnar will not come, - I call not on Högni,[565] - I will never see - My kind brothers; - Högni would have avenged - Such a charge with the sword; - Now I must myself - Clear me of this.’ - - She dipped to the bottom[566] - Her white hand, - And took up - The costly stones; - ‘Look now, men, - I am guiltless - According to holy custom; - See how the cauldron boils.’ - - Merry was the heart - In the breast of Atli - When he saw the hand - Of Gudrun unharmed. - Now shall Herkja - Go to the cauldron, - She who to Gudrun - Attributed treachery. - - The man saw not a pitiful sight - Who beheld not - How the hands of Herkja - Were scalded there; - They led the maid - Into a foul mire;[567] - Thus were the wrongs - Of Gudrun redressed.” - - (3rd Song of Gudrun.) - -The severest ordeal resorted to seems to have been that of walking on -red-hot irons. - - -“Hallkel Huk, a lend-man in Norway, went westward to the Hebrides; there -Gilli-Krist came to him from Ireland, and said that he was the son of -King Magnus Berfœtti (bare-foot). His mother was with him, and said that -he was also called Harald. Hallkel received them, took them with him to -Norway, and at once went to King Sigurd with Harald and his mother. They -told the king their errand. Sigurd talked of this matter with the -chiefs, and said that every one might advise what he liked, but all -asked him to have his own way. Then Sigurd let Harald be called, and -told him that he would allow him to undergo the ordeal to prove who was -his father. Sigurd said that Harald should walk on iron bars to prove -his fathership; but that ordeal was thought to be rather hard, for he -had to suffer it for the sake of his fathership and not for his -kingship, which he had before renounced by oath. Harald assented to -this. He fasted before he walked on the irons and suffered the ordeal, -the severest in Norway, that nine ‘red-hot’ ploughshares were to be laid -down, and Harald to walk over them with bare feet, and two bishops to -lead him. Three days afterwards the ordeal was tried, and the result was -that his feet were not burnt. Thereafter Sigurd acknowledged the -kinsmanship of Harald; but his son Magnus disliked him much, as did many -chiefs. Sigurd trusted so much to his popularity with the people that he -asked all to swear that Magnus, the son of Sigurd, should be king after -him, and he got that oath from all the people of the land” (Sigurd -Jórsalafari’s Saga, c. 34). - - - - - CHAPTER XLII. - DUELLING. - - Two forms of duelling—The challenge—The places of combat—Rules of - duelling—Plan of duelling-ground—Length of sword used—Offer of - sacrifice before a duel—A peculiar duel—Women a constant cause of - duels—Famous duels—The abolition of duelling. - - -The custom of duelling, which was frequently resorted to as a form of -ordeal, prevailed very extensively. - -There were two kinds of duels, the _einvigi_ and the _holmganga_. When -used as a form of ordeal, or means of proof, if the challenger was -victorious, then the object demanded was his, for his victory was -thought to be the judgment of the gods. - - -“It was the law of _holmganga_ in those times, that if he who challenged -another man in order to get something gained the victory, he should have -the prize for which he had challenged; but if he was defeated, he should -release himself with as much property as had been agreed upon; but if he -fell in the _holmganga_ he should forfeit all his property, and he who -killed him was to take all the inheritance” (Egil’s Saga, c. 67). - - -In the _einvigi_[568] there were no settled rules, and each party could -use such weapons as he wished, and proceed in such manner as he thought -most advantageous to himself. It was the simpler mode of duelling. One -of its peculiarities was that the place for the fight was marked out. -The combatants were allowed to use other weapons besides swords, and -themselves carried the shield, while in the _holmganga_ it was carried -for them. - -The _holmganga_, which took place after a formal challenge at which the -time and place were fixed, was the form of duelling that chiefly -prevailed. Its rules were most strict and binding, and were regulated by -a code of law called the “_holmganga laws_.” - -It derived its name from the fact that the combatants originally fought -upon a small islet (_holm_), partly in order that they might not be -disturbed and parted against their will, and partly that the fighting -place might have a natural border, over which they could not retire. - -In later times, instead of an island, places were marked out for duels; -and though they were sometimes marked by stones in a ring, like a -_dom-ring_, they were nevertheless called “_holm_,” because the laws of -_holmganga_ prevented any one from passing the boundary. - -The laws of duelling seem to have been recited before the combat. Björn -Hitdœlakappi said:— - - -“‘I left my country because I wanted to seek fame; there are now two -choices before me: the one to bravely get victory, though that is -unlikely, in fighting against this man; the other is to fall with valour -like a man, and that is better than to live in shame and not dare to win -honour for the king. I will fight against Kaldimar.’ The king thanked -him, and the laws of the _holmganga_ were read. The champion had an -excellent sword called _Mœring_. They fought hard and eagerly; at last -the champion fell, but Björn received a severe wound; on this account he -got great fame and honour from the king” (Björn Hitdœlakappi’s Saga). - - -The combatants had sometimes to fight on a cloak, and were allowed to -use three shields, in case of these being cut asunder, one after the -other. They usually did not themselves carry the shield, each combatant -having a friend to hold it, who was called _skjaldsvein_ (shield man). -Swords of a certain length only were allowed, and it seems that they -were used for striking, not thrusting. - - -“A cloak was spread under their feet. Bersi said, ‘Thou, Kormak, didst -challenge me to holmganga, but instead of it I offer thee _einvigi_ -(single-fight). Thou art young and little experienced, and at -_holmganga_ there are difficult rules, but none whatever at _einvigi_.’ -Kormak answered, ‘I shall not fight better in _einvigi_, and I will risk -this, and in all be on equal footing with thee.’ ‘Thou shalt now have -thy way,’ said Bersi. - -“This was the holmganga law: that the cloak should be 10 feet from one -end to the other, with loops in the corners, and in these should be put -down pegs, having a head at the upper end; these were called _tjösnur_. -The one who made the preparations must go toward the pegs, hold his -ear-lobes, and stand with his feet apart, seeing the sky between them, -using the formulary which was afterwards used at the sacrifice called -_Tjösnublót_ (peg sacrifice). Three squares, each one foot wide, must be -marked around the cloak. Outside the squares must be placed four poles, -called _höslur_ (hazel poles): it was called a _hazelled field_ when it -was prepared thus. - -“Each man must have three shields, and when these were made useless he -must stand upon the cloak, even if he had walked out of it before, and -thereafter defend himself with his weapons. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 780.—Plan of Holmganga Ground. -] - -“He who had been challenged was to strike first. If one was wounded so -that blood came upon the cloak he was not obliged to fight any longer. -If either stepped with one of his feet outside the hazel poles, it was -held he had retreated; and if he stepped outside with both, he was held -to have fled. One man was to hold the shield before each of the -combatants. The one who had received most wounds was to pay as -_hólmlausn_ (_i.e._, indemnity for being released from the fight) three -marks of silver. - -“Thorgils held the shield of his brother, and Thord Arndisarson that of -Bersi, who struck the first blow and cleft Kormak’s shield. Kormak -struck at Bersi in the same way. Each of them spoiled three shields for -the other. Then Kormak had to strike; he struck, and Bersi parried with -_Hviting_. _Sköfnung_ cut off its point in front of the ridge, and the -sword-point fell on Kormak’s hand, and he was wounded in the thumb, -whose joint was rent, and blood came on the cloak. Thereupon men -intervened, and did not want them to go on fighting. Kormak said, ‘It is -little victory which Bersi has got from my accident, though we part -now’” (Kormak’s Saga, c. 10). - - -“‘But I think that thou tellest the difficulties in fighting me,’ said -Viking, ‘and that thou despairest when thou seest me.’ Harek said: ‘It -is not so, and I must save thy life, as thou wantest thyself to go into -the open mouth of death (hel); and give thou the first blow, as is -_holmganga law_, for I have challenged thee; but I will stand still for -thee meanwhile, for I am not frightened that it will harm me’” -(Thorstein Vikingson’s Saga, c. 4). - - -After getting ready, they went to the island. - - -“There was a fine field not far from the sea, where the _holmganga_ was -to be. There the place of the _holmganga_ was marked by stones placed in -a ring around it. Ljót came thither with his men, prepared for the -_holmganga_ with shield and sword. He was very large and strong, and -when he arrived on the field at the holmgang-place the Berserk frenzy -came upon him, and he howled fiercely and bit his shield. - -“Egil made ready for the _holmganga_, having his old shield, and girt -with the sword _Nadr_, with _Dragvandil_ in his hand. He went inside the -marks of the _duelling-place_ (_i.e._, the squares marked out round the -cloak), but Ljót was not ready. Egil raised his sword and sang. - -“After the song Ljót came forward and pronounced the law of the -_holmganga_, that he who stepped beyond the mark-stones which are set -around the place of _holmganga_ should ever afterwards be called -_nithing_ (coward). - -“Then they rushed at each other, and Egil struck at Ljót, who covered -himself with the shield, while Egil dealt blow after blow so that Ljót -could not strike him. He drew back to get room to wield his sword, but -Egil went equally fast after him and smote most violently. Ljót went out -beyond the mark-stones and to and fro on the field. Thus went the first -attack. Then Ljót asked to be allowed to rest, which Egil -granted....[569] - -“Egil bid Ljót to make himself ready. ‘I want this fought out.’ Ljót -started to his feet, and Egil ran forward and at once struck at him. He -went so close to him that he stepped back, and his shield did not cover -him. Then Egil smote him above the knee, and cut off his leg. Ljót fell, -and at once died” (Egil’s Saga, c. 67). - - -The swords had to be of a certain length. - - -“Bersi had a shield, and a long keen sword. Thorkel said, ‘The sword -which thou wearest, Bersi, is longer than the laws allow.’ ‘It shall not -be so,’ said Bersi, and brandishing _Hviting_ with both hands he struck -Thorkel his death blow” (Kormak’s Saga, c. 14). - - -Egil Skallagrimsson had summoned Atli before the _Gulathing_ to get some -property belonging to his wife, which he claimed that Atli had. The -latter offered to prove by the oath of himself and twelve other men that -he had no property belonging to Egil. But Egil said he did not want to -take the oath for his property, and added: - - -“I will offer thee another law to settle the case with, namely, that we -fight in a _holmganga_ here at the _Thing_, and he who gets the victory -shall have this property. What Egil said was law and an ancient custom, -that every one, whether he was defendant or plaintiff, had the right to -challenge the other party to _holmganga_. Then Atli and Egil shook -hands, and settled it between themselves that they should fight a -_holmganga_, and he who got the victory should possess those estates -about which they contended. It was the custom of duellers not to draw -their sword on the place of _holmganga_, but let the sword hang on the -arm, so that it was ready at once whenever they wanted it” (Egil’s Saga, -c. 57). - - -It seems to have been customary, after both kinds of duel, to offer -sacrifice of one or two oxen, which the victor slaughtered. - - -“A large and old bull was led forward; it was called sacrifice-bull; he -who got the victory was to kill it. Sometimes one bull was sacrificed; -sometimes each of the combatants brought one” (Egil’s Saga, c. 68). - - -There seems to have been a peculiar kind of holmganga called _Kerganga_, -but the regulations concerning this mode of fighting are not explained. - -Thorgils, an Icelander, dwelt at Hakon jarl’s, in Norway. - - -“He went on a trading journey to Upplönd and Sweden and dwelt in the -winter at the house of a bondi called Thrand, a wealthy man, who had a -daughter, Sigrid. A man called Randvid wished to marry her; he was a -wicked man, and a great champion. Thrand refused his consent to the -marriage; then Randvid offered to Thrand a kind of holmganga, which is -called _Kerganga_ (tub-going). The fight takes place in a tub, which is -closed above, and Thrand preferred to fight with a wooden club rather -than marry his daughter to so wicked a man. Then Thorgils said to -Thrand: ‘Thou hast entertained me well, and I will reward it with good, -and fight against Randvid on thy behalf.’ Thrand said he would accept -the offer. Thorgils used the sword from the earth-house (underground -house). Randvid had a stick two feet long, and very stout. The tub was -closed. Randvid asked Thorgils to deal the first blow, because he had -been challenged; he did so, and hit the stick, and it split, and the -sword entered the belly of Randvid. He said then: ‘Now give me the -sword, but take the stick, and I will smite thee with the sword.’ ‘It -seems to me,’ replied Thorgils, ‘that this is a chip, not a stick.’ Soon -after Randvid died; he had trusted in his witchcraft, for he had killed -many a man by this kind of holmgang. Thorgils killed two other vikings, -Snœkoll and Snœlejon. Thrand rewarded him well, and he became very -famous for this deed. He made ready for Iceland the next summer” -(Flóamanna Saga). - - -A man was often forced to give up his wife when another man challenged -him to _holmganga_, and make the wife the prize of the victor. Many a -man not feeling himself able to cope with the challenger, surrendered -his wife and daughters or sisters to the latter. This acquisition by -_holmganga_ was undoubtedly considered quite legal, and could not be -disputed except by a fresh _holmganga_. - -Unn, the wife of Rút, had separated from her husband, but left her -property with him, and got her kinsman, Gunnar of Hlidarendi, to -prosecute her case. Rút named his witnesses, and said the case was -quashed. Gunnar asked: - - -“‘Are you so near to me you brothers, Höskuld and Rút, that you can hear -my words?’ Rút answered: ‘We can hear, but what dost thou want?’ Gunnar -said: ‘The men here present shall be witnesses that I challenge thee, -Rút, to _holmganga_, and we will fight to-day on the islet here in Oxará -(Axe river); or, if thou wilt not fight, thou must give up all the -property.’ Then Gunnar sang a song.... Gunnar left the court with all -his men, Höskuld and Rút also went home. The case was neither prosecuted -nor defended thereafter. Rút said when he entered the booth: ‘It has -never happened to me before, that a man has challenged me to _holmganga_ -and I have declined it.’ Höskuld said: ‘Thou intendest to fight, but -thou shalt not if I have my will, for there is as much difference -between thee and Gunnar as between Mörd and thee; let us rather both -together pay the property to Gunnar.’ The brothers asked the bœndr how -much they would contribute to it; they all answered as much as Rút -wanted. Höskuld added: ‘Then let us go to the booth of Gunnar and give -up the property.’ They went to the booth and called Gunnar, who went out -to the door of the booth. Höskuld said: ‘Now receive the property.’ -Gunnar replied: ‘Then give it up, for I am ready to receive it.’ They -made over all the property completely”[570] (Njala, c. 24). - - -“When they had fought a while Thorgils cut off the end of Svart’s shield -and his foot; but then it was law that men got the inheritance of the -man who fell in a _holmganga_. Thereupon Thorgils cut off Svart’s head -and took all his ships and property” (Flóamanna Saga, c. 16). - - -One cause of constant duelling was a challenge given on account of -women; and some men, especially Berserks, went about from place to place -making duelling a profession. It was quite common for a maid who had -several suitors to say that she would accept the one who should be -victorious in a duel. This often resulted in the death of one or more of -the combatants; and it appears that even fathers were sometimes -challenged by the suitors. - - -“One winter there came to Vors (Voss) Thorstein, a kinsman of the -brothers Ivar and Hreidar (with whom the Icelander Eyúlf was stopping), -who owned a farm in Upplönd. He told his trouble, which was that a -Berserk, Asgaut by name, had challenged him to _holmganga_ because he -refused to give his sister to him; he asked them to follow him with many -men to the _holmganga_. They did not like to refuse, and went with -thirty men to Upplönd and to the place where the meeting was to be. They -asked their men if any one wanted to win a wife by _holmganga_ against -Asgaut; but, although they thought the woman fair, no one was ready to -do this. The brothers asked Eyúlf to hold the shield before Thorstein. -Eyúlf said he had done that for no one, not even for himself. ‘I shall -not be happy if he is slain on my hands’ (_i.e._ while I hold the shield -before him); ‘there seems to me no fame in this. If the man is killed, -shall we then go home, leaving matters thus, or get a second and a third -champion? Our disgrace will increase the more, the more men of ours -fall; and little honour will there be on our journey if we go back with -Thorstein unavenged, if he falls. Rather ask of me to go into -_holmganga_ against the Berserk; that is helping one’s friend, but the -other I will not assist in.’ They thanked him, but, nevertheless, -thought he risked too much. He added: ‘It seems to me as if none of us -would go back if he is not avenged, and that it would be worse to fight -against the Berserk if your kinsman is first slain.’ Thereupon he -advanced, and Ivar offered to hold the shield before him. Eyúlf said: -‘That is a generous offer; but I can best take care of it, and the old -saying true is, “One’s own hand is most faithful;”’ then he went to the -place of the _holmganga_. The Berserk said: ‘Will this fool fight -against me?’ Eyúlf replied: ‘Is it not that thou art afraid to fight -against me? It may be that thou art of such a cowardly disposition as to -fear a large man, and braggest before a small one.’ He answered, ‘That -is not true; but I will pronounce for the laws of _holmganga_. Six marks -will absolve me from the _holm_ if I get wounded.’ Eyúlf added: ‘I do -not think it due to observe the laws towards thee when thou puttest a -value on thyself, for in our land (Eyúlf was an Icelander) such a value -as thou settest on thyself would be thought a thrall’s value.’ Eyúlf had -to strike the first blow, and the sword struck the lower part of the -shield and cut off it and the foot of the Berserk. Eyúlf got great fame -from this deed, and thereupon went home with the brothers. Much property -was offered to him, but he said he had not done this for the sake of -property nor for the woman, but rather from friendship towards the -brothers” (Vigaglum’s Saga, c. 4).[571] - -“It happened on Yule-evening that the men were to make vows there over -the horn of Bragi. Then the sons of Arngrim made theirs. Hjorvard vowed -that he would marry Ingibjörg, the daughter of Yngvi,[572] king of the -Swedes, at Uppsalir, who was famous through all countries for her beauty -and accomplishments, or else he would never marry. That same spring the -brothers (Hjorvard and Angantyr) made the journey to Uppsalir, and went -before the table of the king; his daughter sat at his side. Hjorvard -told the king of his vow and his errand while all listened. Hjorvard -asked him to say at once what answer he should receive. The king thought -this matter over, knowing how valiant and high-born they were. At that -moment Hjalmar Hugumstori (high-minded) stepped forward and said to the -king: ‘Recollect, lord, how much I have increased your honour since I -came into this land; I have increased your realm so that it is twice as -large; have defended it, brought into your possession the most costly -things, and also placed my services at your free disposal; now, I beg of -you to grant me honour and give me your daughter, on whom my mind has -always been bent. I deserve this better than the Berserk, who has only -done evil in your realm and those of other kings.’ The king thought it -over with double care, and it seemed to him a perplexing matter that -these two chiefs should strive so hard for his daughter. He answered -that either of them was so great and high-born that he would refuse her -to neither; he asked her to choose which of them she liked to marry. She -said that if her father wanted her to marry she would marry the man of -whom she knew good, and not the one of whom she knew only evil, as she -had heard of the sons of Arngrim. When Hjorvard heard her words he -challenged Hjalmar to single fight south in Samsey; he said he should be -called _nithing_ (coward) by every man if he married the maiden without -accepting the challenge. Hjalmar said he was quite ready, and the time -of the fight was at once appointed. The sons of Arngrim went home, and -told their father the result of their errand, and of the challenge to -the fight. Arngrim answered: ‘Never have I been anxious about your -journey before now, but nowhere know I of any match for Hjalmar in -bravery and daring, or for the champion that follows him (Orvar Odd), -who is only second to him in strength and valour.’ They talked no more -about it. Bjartmar, a jarl, ruled Aldeigjuburgh, a very powerful and -famous warrior; he was a great friend of the sons of Arngrim, and they -always had peace-land there. The brothers went to Bjartmar jarl, who at -once made a great feast for them; at this Angantyr asked in marriage the -jarl’s daughter Svafa, and readily won her. The feast was made a wedding -feast, which lasted half a month. - -“When the feast was over the sons of Arngrim prepared for their journey -to Samsey. The last night before they left, Angantyr had a dream, which -he told to the jarl: ‘It seemed to me we brothers were in Samsey, and -found many birds there, and killed them all. Then we went to the other -side of the island, and two eagles flew against us. I had a hard fight -against one of them, and at last we both sat down. The other eagle -fought against my brothers, and overcame them all.’ The jarl answered: -‘Such a dream needs no unravelling. The fall of some men is shown to you -by this, and I think it concerns you.’ They said they would not fear -that. The jarl added: ‘All men go when death calls upon them.’ They -spoke no more. When the feast was over the brothers went home, and Svafa -remained with the jarl. They made themselves ready for the fight, and -their father followed them to their ship, and gave good armour to them -all. ‘I think,’ said he, ‘there is need of good weapons now, for you -fight against the most valiant champions.’ Then they parted, and he bade -them farewell. They sailed to Samsey, and went to Munarvog (a bay). - -“When they came upon the island Berserk-fury came over them; they -wrestled with the trees as they were wont. - -“It is told of Hjalmar that he landed with ships on the other side of -Samsey, in the harbour Unavog. He had two ships, and both were called -_ask_; one hundred very valiant men were on each of them. The brothers -saw the ships, and knew that Hjalmar and Odd (the far-travelling, called -Orvar-Odd) owned them. The sons of Arngrim drew their swords and bit the -edges of their shields. They went to the ships, and six of them went on -board each _ask_; so brave were the men on them that everyone took his -weapons, and no one fled from his place or spoke a word of fear. The -Berserks went along the one side forwards and the other backwards, and -slew every man. Then they went ashore howling. Hjorvard said: ‘Our -father Arngrim has become a fool from old age, as he told us that -Hjalmar and Odd were the bravest champions, and now I saw no man fight -better than the others.’ Angantyr said: ‘Let us not complain that we did -not find our equals; it may be that Odd and Hjalmar are not yet dead.’ -Hjalmar and Odd had walked up on the island to see if the Berserks had -come; when they came out of the forest the sons of Arngrim went on land -from their ships with bloody weapons and drawn swords; the Berserk-fury -was over, and they were less strong after it, as it were after an -illness. Odd sang: - - “‘Then was (cause of) fear, - Once upon a time, - When they howling - Stepped from the _asks_, - And groaning - On the island stepped, - The inglorious ones, - Twelve together.’ - -“Hjalmar said: ‘Thou seest that our men are slain, and it seems to me -most likely that we shall all lodge with Odin in Valhöll to-night.’ This -was the only word of fear that Hjalmar ever spoke. Odd answered: ‘I -never saw such fiends, and it is my advice that we escape into the -forest; we two shall not be able to fight the twelve, who have slain -twelve of the bravest men in Svia realm.’ Hjalmar said: ‘Let us never -flee from our foes, let us rather go under their weapons; I will go and -fight the Berserks.’ Odd said: ‘I will not lodge with Odin to-night, and -all these men will be dead ere evening comes, and we two shall live.’ -Hjalmar sang: - - “‘Valiant men - Go from the warships, - Twelve together, - Inglorious men; - To-night will we, - The two champions, - Lodge with Odin, - And the twelve will live.’ - -“Odd answered: - - “‘To these words - I will answer give; - The twelve Berserks - Will to-night - Lodge with Odin, - But we two live.’ - -“They saw that Angantyr had _Tyrfing_ in his hand, for it glittered like -a sunbeam. Hjalmar asked: ‘Which wilt thou fight against, Angantyr alone -or his eleven brothers?’ Odd answered: ‘I will fight Angantyr; he will -give hard blows with _Tyrfing_, and I trust my shirt better than my -brynja for shelter.’ Hjalmar said: ‘Have we been in any battle where -thou wert in front of me; thou wishest to fight Angantyr because it -seems to thee a greater feat; now, I am the principal in this duel, and -also heir of the kingdom. Therefore I must have my will; it would be far -from my promise to the king’s daughter in Sweden, to let thee or another -go to this single fight instead of me, and I will fight Angantyr. Odd -said he chose the worse alternative, but Hjalmar had his will. He drew -his sword and walked towards Angantyr; one pointed to the other, the way -to Valhöll. Angantyr said: ‘If any one of us escapes hence no one shall -take another’s weapons; I want to have _Tyrfing_ in my mound if I die; -Odd shall have his shirt and Hjalmar his weapons; those who live shall -make mounds over the other.’ Then Hjalmar and Angantyr went against each -other, and fought with the greatest violence; there was no need to urge -on to attack or defence. They struck hard and often, and sank into the -ground up to their knees. It was like a burning flame when the steels -met; neither heeded anything except to strike as often as possible, and -the ground shook on account of their fight as if it were trembling. They -fought till their armour began to be cut through; then each gave the -other many and large wounds. Their breath came forth from their nostrils -and mouths so that they were like burning stoves. Odd said afterwards a -more warrior-like fight or finer weapons than in that single fight would -never be seen; it is also told in tales far and wide that few more -famous or brave men have been found. - -“When Odd and the others had looked on for a long time, they went to -another place and made ready for fight. Odd said to the Berserks: ‘I -suppose you want to follow the custom of warriors, and not that of -thralls; one of you, and no more, shall fight me at a time, if your -courage fails not.’ They consented. Then Hjorvard came forward. Odd went -against him. Odd’s sword was so good that it cut steel as if it were -cloth. They began their fight with great blows, and before long Hjorvard -sank dead to the ground. When the others saw this they scowled horribly -and gnawed the edges of their shields, and froth gushed out of their -mouths. Hervard rose and attacked Odd; the same happened to him, he fell -dead. At this the sorrow of the Berserks turned into rage; they -stretched out their tongues and ground their teeth, roaring like mad -bulls, so that the rocks resounded. Then Seming rushed forth; he was, -next to Angantyr, the best of the eleven. He attacked Odd so fiercely -that he could do no more than defend himself. They fought long, so that -it could not be seen which would get the victory; all their armour was -cut off, but Odd’s shirt protected him so that he was not hurt. Seming -received wounds, but nevertheless did not yield till nearly all his -flesh was cut off his bones. Odd saw no spot on him which was not -bloody. When all his blood had run out of his veins he fell down with -great valour, and at once died. One rose after the other, but Odd at -last slew them all; then he was excessively tired, but not wounded. He -went to where Angantyr and Hjalmar had fought. Angantyr had fallen, and -Hjalmar sat by a hillock, and was as pale as a corpse. Odd went to him -and sang: - - “‘What ails thee, Hjalmar, - Thou hast changed colour? - I see that deep wounds - Weaken thee; - Thy helmet is cut, - And the mail-coat on thy side; - Now I think - Thy life is done.’ - -“Hjalmar sang: - - “‘I have sixteen wounds, - And a torn coat-of-mail; - It is dark before my eyes; - I cannot see to walk; - The sword of Angantyr - Touched my heart. - The sharp sword-point - Hardened in poison. - - ‘I owned fully - Five bœrs together, - But I never - Enjoyed that occupation; - Now I must lie - Deprived of life, - Sundered with sword, - In Samsey. - - ‘Very high-born men, - The Huskarls, drink - Mead in the hall, - At my father’s; - The ale weakens - Many men - While the cutting of swords - Pains me on the island. - - ‘The tale will prove true - Which she[573] told me, - That I would not - Come back. - - ‘Draw from my hand - The red ring, - And take it to the young - Ingibjörg. - It will be to her - A lasting sorrow - That I do not - Come back to Uppsalir. - - ‘I left the fair - Song of women, - Though ready for pleasure; - I went east with Sóti; - I hurried my journey - And went into a host - The first time, - Away from my good friends. - - ‘The women on land - Will not hear - That I sheltered - Myself from blows; - The wise maiden - In Sigtunir - Will not laugh - Because I gave way. - - * * * * * - - ‘I left the young - Ingibjörg; - We left her in haste - On that fated day; - It will be to the maiden - A deep sorrow - That she after this - Will never see me. - - ‘A raven flies from the east - From the high tree, - And after it - An eagle follows; - That is the last eagle - To which I give prey. - It will taste - My blood. - - ‘Carry thou, to show - That is my will, - My helmet and mail-coat - Into the King’s hall; - The mind of the King’s daughter - Will be moved - When she sees the mail-coat - Cut on the breast. - - ‘I see where they sit - In Sigtunir, - The maidens who held me - From leaving thence; - Ale or warriors - Ever more - Hjalmar will not cheer - In the King’s hall.’” - - (Hervarar Saga, c. 4 and 5.) - - -After the burial of the Berserks Odd leaves for Sweden. - - -“Thereafter Odd laid Hjalmar on the ship and sailed away. Then he used -the _idrott_ (skill, art) which had been given him, and hoisted sail in -calm weather and sailed home to Sweden with the dead Hjalmar. He landed -where he wished to land, and drew up his ship; he placed Hjalmar on his -back, walked home to Uppsalir (Upsala) with him, and laid him down at -the door of the hall. He went in with the mail-coat of Hjalmar, and also -his helmet, and put them down on the floor in front of the king, and -told him the tidings which had occurred. Then he went to where Ingibjörg -sat in a chair, sewing a shirt for Hjalmar. Odd said: ‘Here is a ring -which Hjalmar sent thee on his death-day, and therewith his greeting.’ -She took the ring, looked at it, but answered nothing; she sank back -between the chair-posts and died at once. Odd burst into loud laughter, -and said, ‘Nothing better has occurred for a long time, and I welcome -it; now they will enjoy each other dead, which they could not alive.’ -Odd took her and carried her with his hands, and laid her in the arms of -Hjalmar at the door of the hall, and sent in for the king and told him -to look how he had arranged her. Thereafter the king welcomed Odd, and -seated him in the high seat at his side. When Odd had rested himself the -king said he wanted to make an _arvel_[574] after Hjalmar and Ingibjörg, -and raise a mound over them. The king let everything be done as Odd -ordered. The helmet and mail-coat of Hjalmar were brought forward, and -the men praised his deeds highly, and told how hard it had been to slay -him; they were both placed in one mound, and all went to see this great -mound, for Odd had it made with much honour. He remained quiet that -winter with King Hlodver, who in the autumn gave him men and ten ships, -and he went in the summer to seek Ögmund Eythjofsbani again, but found -him not” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 14). - - -In the time of King Knut duelling was abolished in Norway, and robbers -and Berserks were outlawed. - - -“The last summer before the one when Eirik jarl, Hakonsson, made ready -to go west to England to visit King Knut the Great, his brother-in-law, -he placed his son Hakon as ruler over Norway, and gave him into the -hands of his own brother Svein jarl to look after and govern for him, -because Hakon was a child in age. Before Eirik jarl left, he summoned to -him the chiefs and powerful bœndr; they talked much about the laws and -customs of the land, for Eirik jarl was a wise ruler. The men thought it -a great barbarity in the land, that rioters or Berserks challenged -high-born men for the sake of their property or women, and that the one -who fell should have no indemnity paid for his slaying; many suffered -disgrace and loss of property, and some lost their life; therefore Eirik -jarl abolished all _holmgangas_ in Norway, and outlawed all robbers and -Berserks who went about plundering” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 19). - - -“In the summer a throng of men rode to the Thing—Illugi the Black and -his sons Gunnlaug and Hermund, Thorstein Egilsson and his son Kollsvein, -Önund from Mosfell with all his sons, and Sverting Hafr-Bjarnarson. One -day when a crowd went to the _lögberg_ (law-hill) and the law cases were -ended, Gunnlaug asked for a hearing, and said, ‘Is Hrafn Önundsson -here?’ He said he was. Gunnlaug Ormstúnga then added: ‘Thou knowest that -thou hast got my betrothed, and that thou hast shown enmity towards me; -on that account I will summon thee to _holmganga_ after three days’ time -on Öxarár-holm’ (an islet in the Axe-river (Öxará)). Hrafn replied: -‘This is well offered, as was to be expected from thee, and I am ready -when thou wishest.’ This the kinsmen of both thought lamentable, but it -nevertheless was the law in that time to bid to _holmganga_ the person -by whom a man thought himself wronged. After three nights they made -ready for the _holmganga_, and Illugi the Black followed his son to the -place with very many men, but Skapti (lawman) followed Hrafn and his -father and other kinsmen.... Hermund held the shield before his brother -Gunnlaug, and Sverting Hafr-Bjarnarson that before Hrafn. The one who -first got wounded had to redeem himself from the holmganga with three -marks of silver. Hrafn had the first blow, for he was the challenged -one, and he cut into the top of Gunnlaug’s shield, and his sword broke -at the guards, as the blow was given with great force. The sword-point -rebounded from the shield, and struck Gunnlaug on the cheek, and he was -a little hurt. Both their fathers and many others stepped between them. -Gunnlaug said, ‘I claim that Hrafn is defeated, for he is weaponless.’ -Hrafn replied, ‘And I claim that thou art beaten, for thou art wounded.’ -Gunnlaug at this grew very angry, and cried that this was not fought -out. His father Illugi would allow them to fight no more at that time. -Gunnlaug added that next time when he and Hrafn were to meet he hoped -his father would be too far away to part them. After this they -separated, and the men went back to their booths. On the following day a -law was enacted at the law-court (of the Thing) that thenceforth all -holmgangas should be abolished; this was done at the advice of the -wisest men in the land who were there present” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga). - - - - - CHAPTER XLIII. - OUTLAWRY. - - Irredeemable crimes—Outlaws regarded as enemies of society—Custom of - pleading for an outlaw—Liabilities of a murderess—Substitution of - corporal punishment and fines for outlawry—Purchase of an outlaw’s - peace. - - -The laws did not aspire to improve the moral condition of the criminal -and try to make him a better man, except through fear of punishment; -their object in early days was to prevent private revenge, and stop -people taking matters into their own hands. Crimes against personal -rights or those of property were punished by fines as indemnity to the -injured. By paying an indemnity the criminal released himself from the -revenge of the injured and of his family, or from the outlawry which his -conduct or crime had brought upon him. - -If any man had wronged another he was placed outside the pale of the law -until the weregild was paid; and if he or his family could not pay he -was outlawed, and the outlawry was declared at all the Things in the -country.[575] - -There were crimes called _Ubota-mal_ (irredeemable crimes), that is, for -which no weregild could be paid; they were punished by outlawry and loss -of all property, including the odal, which was the greatest punishment -that could be inflicted. Such crimes were the violation of the sanctity -of the temple or of the Thing-place, and secret or unprovoked murder. -From the old laws of Norway we find that a man was called _Ubota-man_ -who could not redeem himself. - - -1. “If a man attacks another in his house and breaks the house and slays -him, that is called _nithing-slaying_. 2. It is a _nithing-slaying_ if a -man slays the one to whom he has given his plighted faith. 3. It is also -a _nithing-slaying_ if a man slays another during a truce. 4. If a man -strikes another against a stone, or a timber, or a stump. 5. To burn a -man in his house. 6. To plunder the slain, or take away a man’s clothes -and weapons. 7. To murder a man. 8. To avenge thieves. These things must -be denied with _séttareid_. Wherever a man commits a _nithing-slaying_, -he is an unholy outlaw and forfeits every penny of his property, both -land and movable property: he shall never come to the country, or the -king, or the jarl, unless he brings true war-news (of a hostile host -coming)”[576] (Gulath., 178). - - -Men could be slain with impunity, and were irredeemable if they were -found guilty with the following women:— - - -“These women are seven (kinds). One’s wife, then sister, thirdly -daughter, fourthly mother, fifthly stepmother, sixthly brother’s wife, -seventhly son’s wife. If a man finds a man with one of these, he may -slay him if he likes; but he must tell the man whom he meets first of -it, and why he did it” (Gulathing’s Law, 160). - - -The following wording seems to imply that to slay a lawman under any -circumstances, or run away with another man’s wife were ubota crimes:— - - -“It is also a _nithing_-slaying if any one slays a lawman who is -ordained to tell people the law. That man strikes down the rights of all -men, for the lawman has duties to all, poor and rich, where he rules.... -Men who are found to be so deceitful as to run away with other men’s -wives are _ubota-menn_.” - - -Such an outlaw was regarded as an enemy of society, and lost his -personal security with regard to every one of its members; from the -earliest times he was called _varg i véum_ (wolf in the sanctuary), or -_skógar-man_ (forestman), so called probably because he was deprived of -intercourse with mankind and left with the wild beasts of the forest, -and could be killed by any one who saw him. - -Grettir while in Norway had accidentally set fire to a house in which -there were some Icelanders who had been drinking, and therefore probably -could not get out, and so were burned. - - -“That same summer there came a ship to Gasar, before the opening of the -Althing. News was brought of the journeys of Grettir, and the burning of -the house. Thorir of Gard became exceedingly angry at this, and thought -that he ought to avenge his sons. He went to the Althing with many men, -and there presented the case of the burning; but they were unwilling to -do anything, because nobody was there to answer. Thorir said he would -accept nothing but Grettir’s outlawry from Iceland for such an evil -deed. Skapti the lawman answered: ‘It is certainly a wicked deed, if the -news is true; but a tale is always half told if only one man tells it, -for most men are willing to take the worst side of a question if there -are two, therefore as matters stand I will not decide that Grettir shall -be outlawed for this.’ Thorir had great power in his Herad and was a -great chief, and friendly with many great men; he pressed the case hard, -and no one appeared in Grettir’s defence. Thorir then had Grettir -outlawed from the land, and was afterwards the most dangerous of all his -foes, as was often seen. He at once put a price on his head, as was done -with other outlaws, and rode home. Many said that this had been effected -more by power than according to law, but the case stood as it had just -been settled” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 46).[577] - - -This seems to indicate that it was customary for some one to plead on an -outlaw’s behalf, for it is said in the Saga that “Skapti died, when -Grettir had been outlawed nineteen years, so that then there was no one -to plead his cause.” His friends, however, brought his case before the -Althing, and the judge decided that a man could not be an outlaw for -more than twenty winters, even if during that time he committed some new -crime; but that before that time expired the sentence could not be -revoked. - - -“That summer the kinsmen of Grettir spoke much of his outlawry at the -Althing, and some thought that he had served his time, as he had been -outlawed now a part of the twentieth year; but those who had charges to -bring against him did not like this, and said he had committed many -deeds since for which he ought to be outlawed, and therefore his -outlawry ought to last longer. At this time Stein Thorgestson was chosen -lawman. He was a wise man, he was asked to give his decision. He -enquired if the time of the summer thus far passed belonged to the last -twelve months of the twenty years since he had been outlawed. As it was, -Thorir from Gard tried to raise all the objections he could, and found -that Grettir came to Iceland when a part of the summer had passed, and -had not been an outlaw during that time. Nineteen twelvemonths, less the -three months that passed from that Althing until Grettir came to Iceland -in the autumn, had his outlawry lasted. Then the lawman said that no man -should be an outlaw longer than twenty winters, even though during that -time he committed deeds for which he ought to be outlawed; but that -before twenty winters passed he would not declare any one free from his -outlawry” (Gretti’s Saga, c. 79). - - -The liabilities of a woman who committed murder were different according -to the Gulathing or the Frostathing Law. - - -“If a woman slays a man, the kinsmen of the dead, if they wish, may slay -her, if she does not go away in five days during summer, and in half a -month during winter” (Frostath., iv. 33). - - -“If a man slays a woman he is outlawed, just as if he had slain a man. -But if a woman slays a man she is outlawed, and her kinsmen shall send -her out of the country; and also if a pauper[578] slays a man he shall -be sent out of the country within five days, and he may stay with his -kinsmen five nights if no necessity delays him longer. If he stays -longer he shall pay forty marks, or deny it with _lyritareid_” (Gulath., -159). - - -Sigmund and Eylif, sons of Önund, wanted to get rid of a man called Örn, -their kinsman. Mörd Gigja advised them to get him outlawed, and in that -way get him from the Herad. - - -“They raised against Örn a suit about the right of grazing and it was -agreed that Örn should be slain as unholy, and have no weregild -anywhere, except at Valugerdi (his farm) and within an arrow-shot from -his land. They continually tried to get at him, but he kept well on his -guard. One day when he was driving oxen from his land they came upon him -and slew him, and it was thought that his death was unholy. Hamund -Gunnarsson and Thorleif led the prosecution in Örn’s case, while Mörd -supported the brothers; they paid no fine, but were outlawed from the -Herad” (Landnáma, v., c. 4). - - -Another kind of outlawry (_Utlegdarmal_) was less severe, and did not -imply the confiscation of property, for the outlaw could redeem himself -by paying weregild. To this second class belonged a great many crimes, -the principal of which were: simple slaying,[579] severe wounds, crimes -against honour, bodily ill-treatment, crimes against personal liberty, -robbery, etc. - -In some cases corporal punishment, and occasionally fines, were -substituted for outlawry.[580] - -If a man killed another and failed to cover the body with earth he was -outlawed. - -Helgi Droplaugarson slew Björn, because he visited Thórdis, a kinswoman -of Helgi’s, too often. - - -“The following night Helgi Sveinung and the two others went to a skerry -(rock) lying off the shore and removed Björn thither and covered his -corpse. The widow of Björn thought there would be a prosecution by Helgi -Ásbjarnarson and sent men to him at Mjófanes (her place). In this spring -after Björn’s death, this chief sent to Borgarfjord to prepare the case, -and did not find the corpse of Björn. - -“Then Helgi Ásbjarnarson (a godi) summoned Helgi Droplaugarson because -he had murdered a man, thrown him into the sea, and not covered him with -mould. Helgi summoned him at the Thing for greater outlawry. He had -prepared the case of seduction for the Althing. Both cases came to the -Thing. Helgi Droplaugarson went to the court, with many men; he called -witnesses to prove that Helgi Ásbjarnarson had no case, and said that -three men had seen Björn covered with mould; then Sveinung and two -others took oath at the altar ring that they saw Björn covered with -mould. Now the case of Helgi Ásbjarnarson was made void. Then Helgi -Droplaugarson wanted to make Björn unholy, but Helgi Ásbjarnarson -offered property and then Helgi Droplaugarson arbitrated, and he decided -that 100 aurar should be paid” (Droplaugarsona Saga, p. 15, 16). - - -If a man was outlawed he had to buy his peace, “_fridkaup_,” from the -king, who determined what the amount should be. - - -“Now it may happen that the king permits the outlaw to stay in the land -at the entreaties of chiefs, or in some other way. Then he (the outlaw) -must buy peace with the king according to his mercy (the price paid by -the outlaw to stay in peace in the country is determined by the king), -and pay that half of his fine which is unpaid with sale-meetings -(auctions), of the kind that men of good sense see that he is well able -to hold. If he is not willing to pay, the kinsmen of the dead may take -revenge on him, even though he be reconciled (in peace) with the king, -and they will not be outlawed though they slay him. But those who took -care of his property while he was an outlaw must pay him back as much as -they received in lands and movables, and the rent of the land besides” -(Frostathing’s Law, Introd. 5). - - - - - CHAPTER XLIV. - REVENGE. - - The duty of the nearest relative—Procedure—Blood-nights—Secret - slaying—Incitement to revenge by women—Intentional - wounding—Arbitration—Manslaughter—Murder by - lunatics—Insults—Punishment of derision. - - -Revenge played a conspicuous part in the daily life of the Norsemen, and -it was the duty of the nearest relative to avenge the death of a -kinsman. This duty first belonged to the brother of the deceased, and, -if he had no brother, to his next of kin. Relatives as far as the fourth -degree were obliged, if there was no one nearer, to undertake the duty. -If the relative could not find the murderer, his revenge fell upon the -innocent kinsman of the murderer, or upon the servants of the latter. - -Procedure depended on the nature of the case. If a man was slain in his -own Herad, his wife or heir, or the nearest of kin present in the Herad, -the same day that the death became known sent out an arrow from farm to -farm through the Herad to summon the bœndr. The summons ordered them to -meet the same day, or, if it was already late, the next day, at the -place of murder, to attend the Arrow-thing. At the Arrow-thing those -more especially had to appear to whom the murderer had announced the -slaying, with his name and residence; those assembled examined the -circumstances of the slaying, and what was practically a coroner’s -inquest took place. - - -“Thither came nine bœndr who lived next to the slaying-place. Mörd (who -caused the slaying and declared it) had ten men with him. He showed to -the bœndr the wounds of Höskuld, and named witnesses to the wounds, and -one to every wound except one. He feigned not to know who had given it, -for he had given it himself. He declared that Skarphedin had slain him, -and that his brothers and Kari had given the wounds. Then he summoned -the nine neighbours of the slaying-place to come to the Althing, then he -rode home” (Njala, 112). - - -The days and nights immediately following a murder were called -_blood-nights_. - -Hrolleif, the son of a witchcraft-knowing woman, slew the chief -Ingimund. When he came home and told his mother what he had done, she -said: - - -“‘It is my advice that thou goest away, for the blood-nights are the -quickest for revenge’”[581] (Vatnsdæla, c. 24). - - -“Glum went out one day to slay Sigmund; he put on the blue cloak, and -had a spear in his hand, ornamented with gold. When he had killed him he -rode off to his brother Thorstein, who, seeing blood on the inlaid -ornaments of the weapon, asked if he had struck anyone with it just -before. Glum said: ‘It is true, I forgot to tell thee that I have slain -Sigmund Thorkelsson to-day.’ Thorstein answered: ‘That will be bad -tidings to Thorkel (Sigmund’s father) and the Esphol men, his -sons-in-law.’ Glum added: ‘It is an old saying, that during the -blood-nights every one is most passionate; but they will think little of -it as time passes’” (Viga Glum’s Saga, c. 8). - - -If at least twenty-seven bœndr had come to the Thing, and the nearest -kinsman of the murdered man was present, and the slayer himself, after -having received truce (_grid_), appeared, or it was stated that although -the arrow had reached him he did not desire to appear, the Arrow-thing -possessed the right to at once render judgment in the case. - -The fifth day the prosecution took place at the _Fimtarthing_, which was -an extraordinary _Heradsthing_. - -To this Thing the slayer, or the person accused of the murder, was -summoned, and here the case was carried to completion, and judgment -given by the Thingsmen. - -If the slaying was murder, and there was no certainty as to the -murderer, then the next of kin could require three persons, on whom his -suspicions had fallen, to free themselves one after the other, by -_tylftareid_ (an oath of suspicion). - - -“If the king accuses a man of land-treason (high-treason), he must repel -the charge by a tylftareid. Charge of murder and of breach of faith must -also be repelled in this way. Six men, equal to him (the accused) in -rétt, shall be summoned on both sides of him, two of them selected, then -two of his nearest kinsmen, himself as the fifth, and seven fangavattar -(witnesses summoned at random)” (Gulathing’s Law, 132). - - -“Further, if thou findest a man slain out on the field, thou shalt hide -the body and tell the first man whom thou meetest, and then go to his -heir if he is in the Fylki; else thou shalt cut a Thing-summons and call -a Thing. The man that does not come to the Thing is fined six aurar, -called the large Thing-fine, and proves himself to be the slayer if the -heir wants to accuse him of it” (Gulath., 161). - - -If a reconciliation took place between the slayer and family of the -slain, the nearest of kin to the slain at once assured the slayer of -intermediate truce (_grid_), and later, when the indemnity was paid, -which generally took place in several instalments, assured him of -security (_tryggdir_), whereby the matter was regarded as completely -settled.[582] - -If the slayer left the weapon in the wound of his foe his act was not -considered murder, but only a lesser crime, termed “secret slaying.” - - -“One morning, just before day-light, while Véstein was still in bed, -some one entered the room, thrust a spear through his breast, and went -out again. When Vestein tried to rise he fell dead. His sister Aud -called upon a thrall of hers, Thord the faint-hearted, and bade him take -the weapon from the wound. It was the custom for the man who pulled the -weapon from a wound to be obliged to avenge the slain; but it was called -secret slaying, and not murder, if the slayer left the weapon remaining -in the wound” (Gisli Sursson’s Saga). - - -To slay a man for revenge at night, or to put any one to death at night, -was considered murder. - - -“King Olaf sat down in his seat when the room had been prepared, and was -very angry. He asked where the slayer was. He was told that he was -guarded out on the balcony. The king said: ‘Why is he not slain?’ -Thorarin Nefjulfsson answered: ‘My lord, do you not call it a murder to -slay men at night?’ Then the king said: ‘Put him into fetters, and slay -him to-morrow’” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 126). - - -“Then Arinbjörn said: ‘The king will not let himself be incited to all -thy nithing-deeds. He will not let Egil be killed this night, because -night-killings are murders.’ The king replied: ‘It shall be as thou -askest, Arinbjörn, that Egil shall live this night’” (Egil’s Saga, c. -62). - - -Incitement to revenge was often given by women. Thorbjörg, the wife of -Indridi, heard that her brother Hörd had been treacherously slain by -Thorstein Gullknapp. - - -“When she and her husband came into their bed in the evening, Thorbjörg -drew a sax and thrust it at Indridi; but he parried the blow with his -hand and got much wounded. He said: ‘Thorbjörg, it is difficult to know -what to do, and thou art very hard upon me. What shall I do that we may -become friends again?’ ‘Thou canst do nothing but fetch the head of -Thorstein Gullknapp for me’” (Hörd’s Saga, c. 37). - - -To him who performed _nabjargir_ (ceremony attending the dead) belonged -the duty of avenging the dead. - -Höskuld, a son of Njal by his concubine Hródný, was found wounded with -sixteen wounds. Hródný laid him against the wall in Njal’s sheephouse -and went in to Njal’s bed, as it was night. - - -“She asked if Njal was awake. He answered: ‘I have slept, but now I am -awake. Why art thou here so early?’ Hródný replied: ‘Rise from the bed -of my rival and go out with me, and also thy wife and thy sons.’ They -rose and went out. Skarphedin said: ‘Let us take our weapons with us.’ -Njal did not speak, and they ran in and fetched their weapons. Hródný -walked on in front, and when they came to the sheephouse she went in and -asked them to follow. She took up a lantern and said: ‘Here, Njal, is -thy son Höskuld with many wounds on him, and he needs to be healed.’ -Njal answered: ‘I see death-marks on him, and no life-marks; why hast -thou not given him nabjargir, as his nostrils are open?’ ‘I intended -Skarphedin to do that,’ she answered. Skarphedin walked up to Höskuld’s -body and closed the nostrils, eyes, and mouth. Then he asked his father, -‘Who, sayest thou, is the slayer?’ Njal answered: ‘Lýting of Samstadir -and his brothers have probably slain him.’ Hródný said: ‘I give it into -thy hands, Skarphedin, to revenge thy brother; and I expect thee to -behave well and perform the greatest part (in the revenge), though he -was not legitimate.’ Bergthóra (Njal’s wife) said: ‘It is strange that -you slay men for slight reasons, while you ponder over and digest this -matter until nothing comes of it; Höskuld Hvitanesgodi will soon be here -and ask you to come to terms, and you will grant him them; if you intend -to do anything, do it now.’ Skarphedin said: ‘Now our mother incites us -with lawful provocation’” (Njala, c. 98). - - -Then follows in the Saga a long account of how the two brothers of -Lýting were killed, and how he himself was wounded and escaped. Lýting -went to a man called Höskuld, who was a godi, and asked him to reconcile -him with Njal and his sons. Höskuld consented, and went with him to -Njal’s home. - -If a man intentionally wounded an innocent man, or offended him in such -a way that full rétt was due to him, the offended could slay him if he -had not offered surety. - -It was not uncommon to resort to arbitration when cases of revenge -occurred for which weregild would have to be paid. - -Gunnar of Hlidarendi, the famous champion, with his brother Kolskegg had -slain eight men. After the prosecution of the case had begun at the -Althing, some proposed that good men should arbitrate. - - -“It was determined, according to the advice of the wisest men, that all -the suits which followed should be submitted to arbitration; six men to -arbitrate, and it was done at once at the Althing. It was decided that -the death of Skamkel should not be paid for, the wound of the spur -making up for the wergild; for the other a befitting payment was made. -The kinsmen of Gunnar gave property, so that all the weregilds were at -once paid at the Althing” (Njala, c. 56). - - -Manslaughter was murder if it was not acknowledged by the slayer; if -there was no witness to the deed, he had to acknowledge it at the farm -nearest to the place of slaughter, and tell his name and home. If -kinsmen of the slain were present, he might pass the place; but in no -case could he go further than the third farm without declaring it. - - -“Further, if men meet at the crossing of roads, and the one slays the -other, and the man is alive when people come to him, then he is the -slayer whom the man declares to be, unless the _great evidence_ help -him. If another man declares himself to be the slayer, then they are -both slayers, though there is only one wound on the dead man. When a man -declares the slaying lawfully, he goes from the place in whatever -direction he likes, and declares it at the next house, unless kinsmen on -male or female side or near relatives of the dead are there; in this -case he shall pass on to the next house, unless they (kinsmen) are also -there; then he shall go to the third house and declare it, whoever are -in it. He is neither called Ulf (wolf), nor Björn (bear), unless it be -his name. He shall tell the _jartegn_ (by which he is known), and tell -where he slept last night. At the Arrow-thing evidence of the -declaration of the slaying shall be given” (Gulathing’s Law, 61).[583] - - -If a man acknowledged a slaughter lawfully, and also in the presence of -witnesses gave surety that he would pay weregild and _thegngildi_ -(weregild for a thegn), he thereby made himself holy and sacred, so that -he could not be slain. - - -“If a man wounds an innocent man, or injures him publicly by deeds -liable to full rétt, and revenge is taken by the man or his kinsmen -before a lawful offer with full surety has been made, then the one who -first broke the peace is outlawed, whether he has been slain or outraged -in other ways, unless the king and other men of good sense think -otherwise. But if he offers full surety he is peace-holy, and the one -who slays him is outlawed” (Frostath., Introd. 6). - - -An insane man who committed murder, though not accounted responsible for -his actions, was expelled the country. - - -“If a man becomes mad so that he breaks his chains and kills a man, he -shall leave the land, and have all his property in half a month’s truce -during summer, and one month during winter” (Frostath.). - - -“If a father becomes so mad that he slays his son, or a son slays his -father, or a brother his brother, he shall be outlawed, and leave the -land, and never come back again” (Frostath., iv. 31). - - -Among the insults which were most resented were those caused by “_nid_,” -or derision. Derision was of two kinds: the first called “_tungunid_,” -tongue derision; that is, derisive or mocking words, which were chiefly -in songs and lampoons (nidvisur), which sometimes were also thought to -possess magical power, thus scaring away the guardian spirits, and -bringing misfortune on the person in question. The second were _trenid_ -(wooden derision), that is, derisive images carved or traced on wood. -These were placed at spots where they would draw attention, generally on -the grounds of the enemy; and some of them must have corresponded to the -caricatures of our own times. - -These derisive songs were so much resented that Harald Gormsson, King of -Denmark, intended to go to Iceland to take revenge upon the people for a -derisive song which had been made upon him by an Icelander. - - -“Harald Gormsson King of Denmark heard that Hakon jarl had cast away -Christianity, and made warfare in many places in his lands. Then he -levied a host and went to Norway, and when he came into the realm of -Hakon he plundered there, and devastated the country, and went with his -host to the islands called Solundir. Only five farms were left in -Laradal, and all the people fled to the mountains and forests with all -the loose property they could take with them. Then he wanted to -sail[584] to Iceland, to take revenge for the derision (nid) which all -the Icelanders had made on him. The Icelanders had enacted a law that as -many nid-songs (derisive songs) should be made about the King of Denmark -as there were noses (heads, men) in the country. The reason for this was -that a ship owned by Icelanders had been wrecked in Denmark, and all the -property on board taken by the Danes, who called it wreckage; this was -done by the king’s steward Birgir, and the derision was on both of -them”[585] (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, c. 36). - - -Derision was forbidden by law, and punished by outlawry. - - -“No man shall make tongue-nid (derision) on another, nor wood-nid (nid -carved on wood). If it be known and proved that he has done this, he is -liable to outlawry; he shall redeem the offence with an oath of -reconciliation; he falls as an outlaw if he is slain. No man shall make -exaggeration or slander about another: that is exaggeration if a man -says about another what cannot take place, or will not, or has not, -saying he is a woman every ninth night, and has borne a child, and calls -him _gylvin_ (she-wolf). He is an outlaw, if it is proved; he shall -redeem the offence with an oath of reconciliation; he falls as an outlaw -if he is slain” (Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 138). - - - END OF VOL. 1. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - A kind of baptism. - -Footnote 2: - - The assembly of the people. - -Footnote 3: - - The hall and abode of the slain. - -Footnote 4: - - “Sueonum hinc civitates, ipso in oceano, præter viros armaque - classibus valent. Forma navium eo differt quod utrinque prora paratam - semper appulsui frontem agit. Nec velis ministrantur, nec remos in - ordinem lateribus adjungunt: solutum, ut in quibusdam fluminum, et - mutabile, ut res poscit, hinc et illinc remigium” (Germ. xliv.). - -Footnote 5: - - “Hujus est civitatis longe amplissima auctoritas omnis oræ maritimæ - regionum earum, quod et naves habent Veneti plurimas, quibus in - Britanniam navigare consuerunt, et scientia atque usu nauticarum rerum - reliquos antecedunt, et in magno impetu maris atque aperto, paucis - portibus interjectis, quos tenent ipsi, omnes fere qui eo mari uti - consuerunt, habent vectigales” (Gallic War, iii. c. 8). - - “Namque ipsorum naves ad hunc modum factæ armatæque erant; carinæ - aliquanto planiores, quam nostrarum navium, quo facilius vada ac - decessum æstus excipere possent; proræ admodum erectæ, atque item - puppes ad magnitudinem fluctuum tempestatumque accommodatæ; naves totæ - factæ ex robore ad quamvis vim et contumeliam perferendam; transtra - pedalibus in latitudinem trabibus confixa clavis ferreis digiti - pollicis crassitudine; ancoræ pro funibus ferreis catenis revinctæ; - pelles pro velis alutæque tenuiter confectæ, hæ sive propter lini - inopiam atque ejus usus inscientiam, sive eo, quod est magis - verisimile, quod tantas tempestates Oceani tantosque impetus ventorum - sustineri, ac tanta onera navium regi velis non satis commode posse - arbitrabantur. Cum his navibus nostræ classi ejusmodi congressus erat, - ut una celeritate et pulsu remorum præstaret; reliqua, pro loci - natura, pro vi tempestatum, illis essent aptiora et accommodatiora. - Neque enim his nostræ rostro nocere poterant (tanta in his erat - firmitudo), neque propter altitudinem facile telum adjiciebatur, et - eadem de causa minus commode copulis continebantur. Accedebat, ut, cum - sævire ventus cœpisset et se vento dedissent, et tempestatem ferrent - facilius, et in vadis consisterent tutius, et ab æstu relictæ nihil - saxa et cautes timerent; quarum rerum omnium nostris navibus casus - erat extimescendus” (c. 13). - -Footnote 6: - - Ἐπὶ τὸν αὐχένα τῆς Κιμβρικῆς χερσονήσου Σάξονες (Geog. lib. ii. c. 2). - -Footnote 7: - - Βαστάρνας δε, Σκύθικον ἔθνος, ὑποπεσόντας αὐτῷ προσέμενος κατῴκισε - Θρᾳκίοις χωρίοις· καὶ διετέλεσαν τοῖς Ῥωμαίων βιοτεύοντες νόμοις. καὶ - Φράγκων τῷ βασιλεῖ προσελθόντων καὶ τυχόντων οἰκήσεως μοῖρά τις - ἀποστᾶσα, πλοίων εὐπορήσασα, τὴν Ἑλλάδα συνετάραξεν ἅπασαν καὶ Σικελίᾳ - προσσχοῦσα καὶ τῇ Συρακουσίων προσμίξασα πολὺν κατὰ ταύτην εἰργάσατο - φόνον. ἤδη δε καὶ Λιβύῃ προσορμισθεῖσα, καὶ ἀποκρουσθεῖσα δυνάμεως ἐκ - Καρχηδόνος ἐπενεχθείσης, οἵα τε γέγονεν ἀπαθὴς ἐπανελθεῖν οἴκαδε. - (Zosimus. de Probo, i. 71). - -Footnote 8: - - “Quid loquar rursus intimas Franciæ nationes jam non ab iis locis quæ - olim Romani invaserant, sed a propriis ex origine sui sedibus, atque - ab ultimis barbariæ littoribus avulsas, ut, in desertis Galliæ - regionibus collocatæ et pacem Romani imperii cultu juvarent et arma - delectu?” (Eumenius. Constantin. Aug. c. vi.) - -Footnote 9: - - “Recursabat quippe in animos illa sub Divo Probo et paucorum ex - Francis captivorum incredibilis audacia et indigna felicitas, qui a - Ponto usque correptis navibus Græciam Asiamque populati nec impune - plerisque Libyæ littoribus appulsi ipsas postremo, navalibus quondam - victoriis nobiles ceperant Syracusas, et immenso itinere pervecti - Oceanum, qua terras irrupit intraverant atque ita eventu temeritatis - ostenderant nihil esse clausum piraticæ desperationi quo navigiis - pateret accessus” (Eumenius Panegyr. Const. Cæs. xviii. circ. A.D. - 300) - -Footnote 10: - - “Per hæc tempora (i.e. 287) etiam Carausius, qui vilissime natus in - strenuæ militiæ ordine famam egregiam fuerat consecutus, cum apud - Bononiam per tractum Belgicæ et Armoricæ pacandum mare accepisset, - quod Franci et Saxones infestabant, multis barbaris sæpe captis, nec - præda integra aut provincialibus reddita aut imperatoribus missa - consulto ab eo admitti barbaros ut transeuntes cum præda exciperet - atque hac se occasione ditaret; a Maximiano jussus occidi purpuram - sumpsit et Britannias occupavit” (Eutropius, Breviarium Historiæ, ix. - ch. 21). - -Footnote 11: - - Orat. 1. Φράγκοι καὶ Σάξονες τῶν ὑπὲρ τὸν Ῥῆνον καὶ τὴν ἑσπερίαν - θάλατταν ἐθνῶν τὰ μαχιμώτατα. - -Footnote 12: - - “Hoc tempore velut per universum orbem Romanum bellicum canentibus - buccinis, excitæ gentes sævissimæ limites sibi proximos persultabant. - Gallias Rhætiasque simul Alamanni populabantur; Sarmatæ, Pannonias et - Quadi; Picti, Saxonesque, et Scoti, et Attacotti Britannos ærumnis - vexavere continuis” (Rerum Gestarum, lib. xxvi. s. 4). - -Footnote 13: - - “Gallicanos vero tractus _Franci_, et _Saxones_ iisdem confines, quo - quisque erumpere potuit terra vel mari, prædis acerbis incendiisque et - captivorum funeribus hominum violabant” (Ammianus Marcellinus, d. - circ. 400, lib. xxvii. c. 8, § 5). - -Footnote 14: - - “Maduerunt Saxone fuso - Orcades; incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule; - Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis Ierne.” - - (De Cons. Hon. iv. 31.) - -Footnote 15: - - “Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit. - Ab parvulis labori ac duritiæ student ... in fluminibus promiscue - perluuntur et pellibus aut parvis rhenonum tegimentis utuntur magna - corporis parte nuda” (Cæsar De Bello Gallico, vi. 21). - -Footnote 16: - - “Nec enim immensa barbarorum scuta, enormes hastas, inter truncos - arborum et enata humo virgulta perinde haberi quam pila et gladios et - hærentia corpori tegmina ... non loricam Germano, non galeam, ne scuta - quidem ferro nervo ve firmata, sed viminum textus vel tenues fucatas - colore tabulas, primatu utcunque aciem hastatam, cæteris præusta aut - brevia tela” (Tacitus Annals, ii. 14). - -Footnote 17: - - “Nam super hac re varia opinio est, aliis arbitrantibus de Danis - Northmannisque originem duxisse Saxones, aliis autem aestimantibus, ut - ipse adolescentulus audivi quendam praedicantem de Graecis, quia ipsi - dicerent, Saxone reliquias fuisse Macedonici exercitus qui secutus - magnum Alexandrum inmatura morte ipsius per totum orbem sit dispersus” - (Ann. lib. 1). - -Footnote 18: - - “Dani et Sueones, quos Northmannos vocamus, et Septentrionale litus et - omnes in eo insulas tenent” (Vita Caroli Magni, c. 12; Eginhard, - historian and friend of Charlemagne). - -Footnote 19: - - “Dani more quoque Francisco dicuntur nomine Manni.” - -Footnote 20: - - Völuspa is derived from _völva_, _sybil_ and _spá_, foretelling. The - name _völva_ seems to be derived from _völr_ (staff, stick), as we see - that the sibyls or prophetesses used to walk from place to place with - a stick. - -Footnote 21: - - Vafthrudnir. _Vaf_ = weave, or entangle: _thrudnir_ = strong, or - mighty; hence Vafthrudnir = mighty in riddles which cannot be - disentangled. - -Footnote 22: - - The awful = Odin. - -Footnote 23: - - The one who gives useful advice. - -Footnote 24: - - When the heart, which is near the ribs, is cold, the ribs are also - cold; therefore this means _cold-hearted_. - -Footnote 25: - - Fœda means both to give birth to, to raise, and to feed. - -Footnote 26: - - _Ividi_, a very obscure word (only found here in the whole Northern - literature), which has been translated differently without any - particle of authority in any case, and in each case only as a mere - guess. The word vid means tree, perhaps the world-tree, _Yggdrasil_, - which extended its roots under the world. - -Footnote 27: - - It is well known that the later Edda bears strong marks of the - influence of Christianity, and we quote it with caution and only when - it essentially agrees with Voluspa and other parts of the earlier - Edda. - -Footnote 28: - - _Vili_, will; _Ve_, sanctuary, holy place. Cf. also ‘Lokasenna,’ 26; - ‘Ynglinga,’ c. 3. - -Footnote 29: - - Gjöll (the sounding one). - -Footnote 30: - - Gjallar bridge (the bridge of Gjöll). - -Footnote 31: - - Modgud (the valkyrja of anger). - -Footnote 32: - - Nanna is told of in Baldr’s burning, as she, his wife, was burnt with - him. - -Footnote 33: - - In Sigurdrifumal it is said the runes were in the holy mead, sent to - Asar, Alfar, and Vanir. - -Footnote 34: - - Elivagar, the streams flowing from the well Hvergelmir in Niflheim - froze into a Jötun. - -Footnote 35: - - _i.e._, a Jötun woman. - -Footnote 36: - - A kind of trough used for flour; so the boat is called in which he - saved his life as is seen by what follows. In the lay of Hyndla we - read:— - - “All Jötnar came from Ymir.” - -Footnote 37: - - Mundilfori, from _mondul_ = a handle, and _fara_ = to go; the one - veering or turning round. - -Footnote 38: - - A Jötun. - -Footnote 39: - - Sun, in the north, is of feminine gender, and the moon masculine. - -Footnote 40: - - The rim of heaven = the line of the sky from the horizon. - -Footnote 41: - - The sun. - -Footnote 42: - - The moon. - -Footnote 43: - - Rökstól—_stol_, seat or stool; _rök_, judgment. - -Footnote 44: - - Wind-chilly. - -Footnote 45: - - Sweet mood. - -Footnote 46: - - Bloody surf means poetically the sea, and the expression, the bones of - Blain, a name nowhere else mentioned in the earlier Edda, seems to - refer to a fight, the record of which is lost to us. - -Footnote 47: - - Modsognir and Durin, only mentioned here, refer to some lost myth. - There seem to have been three kinds of tribes of Dvergar, having for - chiefs, respectively, Modsognir, Durin, Dvalin. “Many _man-likenesses_ - in the earth,” namely Dvergar, who are often described as living under - the earth. - -Footnote 48: - - The five stanzas (Nos. 11, 12, 13, 15, 16) omitted give a long list of - names of Dvergar, among them those of Nyi, the growing moon; Nidi, the - waning moon; Nordri, the north, &c.; Althjof, all-thief; Dvalin, the - delayer, &c., &c. - -Footnote 49: - - The Dvergar clan of Dvalin, who is not mentioned before, seems to have - been the highest among all the Dvergar. - - From Alvismal we may infer that the Dvergar were related to the - Thursar. - -Footnote 50: - - There seems to be something missing between the stanzas 16 and 17, - unless the poet means the host of the Dvergar, who were under the - three above-named chiefs. - -Footnote 51: - - It seems that the house in which Ask and Embla were to live was in - existence already. _Ask_ means ash-tree, like _Yggdrasil_; _Embla_ - only occurs here in the Völuspa, and it is most difficult consequently - to give a meaning to it; the elm-tree is called _alm_, and perhaps is - here meant to be in contrast to the ash. - -Footnote 52: - - Odin, Hœnir, and Lodur gave them life. Hœnir is mentioned in the later - Edda. Lodur is only mentioned in the beginning of Heimskringla. - -Footnote 53: - - Jarnvid, or iron forest; the word is only found here and in the Later - Edda. The old one means a Jötun woman, Angrboda, by whom Loki begat - the Fenrir wolf (‘Later Edda,’ c. 34). - -Footnote 54: - - The son of Fenrir. According to the prose Edda _Mánagarm_ is the name - of the son of the Fenrir wolf who swallowed the moon. See - Gylfaginning, c. 12. - -Footnote 55: - - A third bird not named lives in the halls of Hel. They represent the - Jötnar, the Asar, and the third Hel (the home of the dead), and seem - to be the wakers of these three different realms. - -Footnote 56: - - The Asar, after taking Loki, bound him to a rock with fetters made of - the entrails of his son, Vali (who must not be confused with his - namesake, Baldr’s brother). - - “Now Loki was without any truce taken to a cave. They took three - slabs, set them on edge, and made a hole in each. They took the sons - of Loki, Vali and Nari or Narfi, and changed Vali into a wolf which - tore Narfi asunder. Then they took his entrails and with them tied - Loki over the three slabs; one was under his shoulders, another under - his loins, the third under his knees, and these bands changed into - iron. Then Skadi (a goddess) took a poisonous serpent and fastened it - above him, so that the poison should drip into his face; but his wife - Sigyn stands at his side, and holds a vessel under the poison-drops. - When it is full she goes out to pour it down, but in the meanwhile the - poison drips into his face; then he shudders so hard that the whole - earth trembles; that you call earthquake. There he lies in bands till - the doom of the gods” (Gylfaginning, c. 50). - - “Loki begat the wolf - With Angrboda, - And Sleipnir - With Svadilföri; - One monster was thought - Most terrible of all; - It was sprung from - The brother of Býleist (= Loki).” - - [Hyndluljód, 40] - - The Asar were afraid of Fenrir wolf, Loki’s son, and twice tried to - chain it, but could not. - - “Thereupon they were afraid that they could not chain the wolf; then - Allfödr (Odin) sent the servant Skírnir, the messenger of _Frey_, down - to Svartálfaheim (world of the black Álfar) to some Dvergar, and had a - chain made, called Gleipnir. It was made of six things: Of the noise - of the cat, of the beard of women, of the roots of the mountain, of - the sinews of the bear, of the breath of the fish, of the spittle of - the bird.” - - At last they succeeded in chaining it with the chain, but Týr lost his - right hand, which he was obliged to put into the mouth of the wolf as - a pledge. - - “When the Asar saw that the wolf was fully tied they took the band - which hung on the chain and was called Gelgja, and drew it through a - large slab, called Gjöll, and fastened the slab deep down in the - ground. They took a large stone and put it still deeper into the - ground; it was called Thviti, and they used it as a fastening pin. The - wolf gaped terribly and shook itself violently, and wanted to bite - them. They put into its mouth a sword; the guards touch the lower - palate and the point the upper palate; that is its gag. It groans - fiercely and saliva flows from its mouth and makes the river Von; - there it lies till the last fight of the gods” (Later Edda, c. 34). - -Footnote 57: - - Dvergar. - -Footnote 58: - - Hrym. This name occurs nowhere else. - -Footnote 59: - - Jörmungand is the world serpent, Midgard’s serpent, the son of Loki. - - “Angrboda was a Jötun woman in Jötunheimar. Loki begat three children - by her: Fenrir wolf, Jörmungand, or Midgardsorm, the serpent, and Hel. - When the gods knew that these three children were brought up in - Jötunheimar, they had foretellings that great misfortune and loss - would be caused by them, and all thought much evil must be expected - from them, first on account of their mother, and still more of their - father. Allfödr (Odin) sent the gods to take and bring them to him. - When they came to him he threw the serpent (Midgardsorm) into the deep - sea that lies round all lands, and it grew so much that it lies in the - middle of the sea round all lands and bites its tail” (Later Edda, c. - 34). - -Footnote 60: - - “Naglfar.” The ship, said in the Later Edda, Gylfaginning 51, to be - made of nails of dead men; when it is finished the end of the world - comes. - -Footnote 61: - - Loki being the chief enemy of the gods. - -Footnote 62: - - The first sorrow is not mentioned. Hlin, a maid of Frigg (see - Gylfaginning, 35). Her second sorrow is the death of Odin. - -Footnote 63: - - Slayer of Beli = Frey. - -Footnote 64: - - The wolf Fenrir. - -Footnote 65: - - Loki is the father of Fenrir-wolf, who is called the Jötun’s son, as - Loki was a Jötun. - -Footnote 66: - - Odin’s son, Vidar, avenges his father by slaying the Fenrir-wolf. - -Footnote 67: - - Here the Völva again sees how everything is destroyed. Ragnarök, “the - doom of the powers and the end of the world,” is mentioned in - Lokasenna where Loki is taunting the gods; when he comes to Tyr, the - latter answers him— - - I have no hand - And thou hast no praise; - We are both badly off; - Nor is the wolf well - That in bands shall - Wait for Ragnarök. - - In Atlamal Ragnarök is also mentioned in the dreams of Glaumvor (see - p. 462). In the later Edda the word is corrupted by having an “r” - added, which gives the meaning of _twilight_ instead of _doom_ of the - gods, as it really meant. - -Footnote 68: - - The Völva seems never to tire reminding her hearers that the dog Garm - barks loud, &c. - -Footnote 69: - - The Völva. - -Footnote 70: - - Midgard—_midr_, middle; _gardr_, yard, enclosed space; also, courtyard - and premises; a house in a village or town; a stronghold; a fence or - wall; a collection of houses, a farm. - -Footnote 71: - - Asgard in olden times meant a place surrounded by walls, and also a - collection of houses enclosed by a fence, hence the modern name in - Scandinavia of gård for farm. The residence of the gods is also called - by this name in the Edda. - -Footnote 72: - - _Mannheimar_ (always in plural _mannheimar_, the singular is - _mannheim_) means homes of men. - -Footnote 73: - - The word _Gullveig_ is only found as a compound word this once in the - literature of the North. _Gull_ = gold; _veig_ = draught, also - strength. It may be a metaphor for the thirst of gold being the root - of evil, and the cause of the first fight and manslaying in the world, - as the thirst is never dying. - -Footnote 74: - - Hár = Odin. - -Footnote 75: - - Here evidently the reference is to the war between the Vanir and the - Asar. This shows that they had been defeated. Feast means sacrifice, - which was always followed by the feast; this would imply that they - wanted to make a sacrifice for peace or victory. - -Footnote 76: - - A stockade made like Danavirki or other strongholds in the north. - -Footnote 77: - - Wergild, indemnity. - -Footnote 78: - - Alfheimar. In one text, Jötunheimar. In later times Risar, Troll, and - Dvergar became synonymous with giants, dwarfs, and wizards. - -Footnote 79: - - Kvisl—a forked river, one of the forks where they unite—it also means - a branch of a tree. - - Vana-kvisl means the river of the Vanir; it is supposed now that it - was the river Don which flows into the Sea of Azow, but it is - doubtful. - -Footnote 80: - - This was probably the river Don, which is near the Ural Mountains. - -Footnote 81: - - Svíthjód the Great seems to be Russia—Norway, Sweden, perhaps Denmark - and the shores of the Baltic. - -Footnote 82: - - Gefjon was one of the Asynjur. - -Footnote 83: - - Svithjód = Sweden, but it can hardly be taken in these early Sagas as - exactly corresponding to modern Sweden. - -Footnote 84: - - People were buried with their wealth. - -Footnote 85: - - The one who owned the burning in the text. Heaven means space, not a - blessed abode. - -Footnote 86: - - This word is not found elsewhere in Scandinavian literature. - -Footnote 87: - - See priest. - -Footnote 88: - - Idróttir, a name for all kinds of athletic and intellectual games. - -Footnote 89: - - We must here remark that nowhere is Thor called the God of Thunder. - -Footnote 90: - - See Havamal, the lord of the gallows; see Havamal where he is said to - have hung on a tree. - -Footnote 91: - - Grimnismál, 19–20, also mentions these ravens. - - - 19. - - The battle-tamer (Odin) feeds - Geri and Freki, - The famous father of hosts (Herjafödr) - And by wine alone - The weapon-famous - Odin always lives. - - - 20. - - Hugin and Munin - Fly every day - Over the wide earth; - I am afraid Hugin - Will not come back, - But still more of Munin. - - Poetical names were given to these ravens by Eyvind Skalda-spillir; - they are called the Swans of Farmatýr (the god of cargoes), _i.e._, - the Swans of Odin. - -Footnote 92: - - Because he was always fighting against the Jötnar. - -Footnote 93: - - The fires were always in the centre, lengthwise. - -Footnote 94: - - This man was Odin, who is always represented as having only one eye. - -Footnote 95: - - Cfr. also Volsunga Saga, c. 11. - -Footnote 96: - - The story of Odin’s ship reminds one of the tent mentioned in the - ‘Arabian Nights,’ which could cover an army, and yet could be folded - and carried in a small pocket. - -Footnote 97: - - Odin himself hung in Yggdrasil to learn wisdom, and this is a like - custom (Havamal, 139); it seems that Odin learned wisdom from the one - hanging in the gallows by sitting under it. - -Footnote 98: - - A high seat from which Odin could see over all worlds. (Gylfaginning, - 17.) In the older Edda there is a long poem, Skirnismál or Skirnisför, - on the story of Njörd falling in love with Gerd. - -Footnote 99: - - The peace of Frodi, so called from the chief who ruled Denmark at the - time, and who must have become very celebrated. - -Footnote 100: - - Gymir, a jotun of whom nothing is known. - -Footnote 101: - - A lady is still called _fru_ all over Scandinavia. - -Footnote 102: - - In Icelandic Sagas housewife is _hús-freyja_; but in modern Icelandic, - _hús-frú_. - -Footnote 103: - - _i.e._, mixed with water. - -Footnote 104: - - This would imply that Sweden was east of Vanaheim. - -Footnote 105: - - Cf. also Herraud and Bosi’s Saga, c. 1. - -Footnote 106: - - Cf. also Ynglinga Saga, and _Prologue to Heimskringla_. - -Footnote 107: - - The _Ynglingatal_ is not given, as it is tedious, and would be - uninteresting to the general reader. - -Footnote 108: - - Fródi had two sons, Ingjald and Hálfdán. From the first was descended - the great Harald Hilditönn, who was defeated by his kinsman Sigurd - Hring at the Bravalla-battle, see p. 368. From the second was - descended Harald Fairhair, the ancestor of the Dukes of Normandy, and - so indirectly of Queen Victoria. - -Footnote 109: - - This was written after all the petty kingdoms of Denmark had been - consolidated into one; the term Danish tongue at earlier periods did - not exist, but _Norrœna_, or Northern tongue, was used instead. - -Footnote 110: - - Antiquities of the stone age have been found in bogs at Hœbelstrup; - Sandbjerg, near Hörsholm; Lœsten, near Randers; Kjœr, Ringkjöbing Amt, - Jutland; Samsö, &c.; and in mounds. Among them are numerous amber - beads; flint tools from 4½ to 10 ins. long, many having teeth like a - saw; axe-blades, chisels, spear-points, and ornaments. - -Footnote 111: - - The following contents of a _Dolmen_ at Luthra, Vestergotland, are - typical:—5 spear-heads, 1 arrow-head, 19 rough flint axes, 4 bone - pins, 18 bone beads, 4 amber beads, 11 pierced teeth of bears, dogs, - and pigs, several bones of cows, and a great number of skeletons. - -Footnote 112: - - Of the 140 passage graves at present known in Sweden, more than 110 - have been found in Skaraborglan, and most of these near Falköping. - -Footnote 113: - - Some of the forms of these antiquities are met with in parts of - Germany, Hungary, England, and elsewhere in Europe, whilst others, by - far the most numerous, are peculiarly Northern. - -Footnote 114: - - In one of the slabs (Fig. 28) there seems to be a representation of a - kind of sacrificing altar, with figures of persons coming towards it, - as if they were coming there for some object. There seem to be men - blowing horns. In Fig. 29 are a ship and a large cone, on each side of - which are an axe and another object or sign the significance of which - is unknown. - - Fig. 30 has only a ship. - - Fig. 31 has four-footed animals, the lower ones coming in opposite - directions, and the others going the same way; but the two subjects - are separated by peculiar marks. - -Footnote 115: - - The Svastika, or Suvastika, is in its essential form a cross with bent - arms [Illustration: Svastikas], but with many modifications. As a - symbol, it is found widespread over a large part of the Old World. It - is certainly of ancient origin, but authorities are disagreed as to - its symbolical significance. Other symbols equally difficult to - interpret, found in Norse remains, are the three dots, circle of dots, - triangles, the triskele [Illustration: ], &c. - -Footnote 116: - - In a bog by Taarup several pieces of bronze, such as arm rings, - spear-points, chisels, &c., were found. - - Near Aarup, Jutland, two bronze earrings of a similar pattern, two - bracelets made of convex bronze bands with engraved ornaments, a solid - gold ring for the hair, three spiral-shaped loops of gold with - bowl-shaped buttons at the ends. The engraved ornaments seem to point - to the fact that the engraving needle was known in the bronze age. - - Somewhat similar objects have been found in other bogs. - -Footnote 117: - - See ‘Land of the Midnight Sun’ for other ornaments of bronze. - -Footnote 118: - - During the stone and bronze ages the population of Norway was not as - great as that of Sweden, Denmark, and the islands of the Baltic. It is - only during the iron age that that country becomes more thickly - settled, and approximates somewhat in its population to the - neighbouring countries; bronze finds have occurred in Norway as far - north as 66° 10´ N. latitude. - -Footnote 119: - - Mixed finds precede the advent of each age. Stone implements or - weapons are found together with those of bronze, and later bronze - implements, which are the forerunners of the approaching iron age, are - found with those of iron. Examples of such are—a grave at Stonholt, - Viborg Amt, containing pearl of glass mosaic, with bronze poniard; - grave at Alstrup, Aalborg Amt, containing iron weapons alongside an - urn in which were a knife and ring of bronze; grave at Assens on Fyen, - containing early iron age fibula, with bronze knife, saw, and needle; - at Helsinge Zealand, grave with iron pin and bronze objects; at - Brandtbjerg, near Sorö, Zealand, fragments of iron fibula and objects - from bronze age, &c. - -Footnote 120: - - Broholm, situated on the S.E. coast of Fyen, forms the centre of the - area of a magnificent archæological field, which extends about four - kilometres all around it. In order to give an adequate idea of the - richness of the place, I cannot do better than use the language of the - late Herr F. Sehested, who in three summers discovered more than - 10,000 different pieces belonging to the three ages above mentioned. - -Footnote 121: - - In an urn in a mound near Veile, Jutland, was found a bent bronze - poniard; and in another mound at Mors, Jutland, an urn containing - burnt bones and a bent bronze poniard. - - Sehested mentions (1) a bronze sword broken in four pieces, total - length about 2 feet 8 inches with point missing; (2) fragments of a - bronze sword with hollow handle broken at the top of the handle: (3) - handle of sword with fragments of broken blade; (4) fragments of a - spear-head broken near its socket. These objects had been - intentionally rendered useless. - -Footnote 122: - - I can give an example that has lately come to my knowledge to prove - this assertion. Professor Lorange found runes on parts of burnt bones - found in a grave which he with Professor Stephens places, judging from - the antiquities which belonged to it, as belonging to the sixth - century. - - “RUNE-INSCRIBED BURNT BONE. - - “In a letter dated Feb. 27th, 1886, I received from my friend the - gifted Norwegian old-lorist A. Lorange, Keeper of the Bergen - Forn-hall, a facsimile drawing of a piece of burnt bone, shortly - before found in a grave-urn from the early iron age at Jæderen. - Afterwards he kindly sent the original to the Danish Museum, that I - might give a faultless engraving. While there, the frail treasure was - scientifically treated by Hr. Steffensen, the Conservator, and it is - now quite hard and in excellent order. But even when it was taken from - the urn, the runes were sharp and quite readable. These Old-Northern - letters were elegantly cut, most of them in decorative writing, that - is, with two or three strokes instead of one, very much in the style - of the (? 7th century) Old-Danish Bone Amulet found at Lindholm in - Scane, Sweden (‘Old Northern Run. Mon.,’ vol. i., p. 219; iii., p. 33; - 4to Handbook, p. 24); and of the ashen Lance-shaft from the Danish - Kragehul Moss, not later than the year 400 (‘O. N. Run. Mon.,’ vol. - iii, p. 133; 4to Handbook, p. 90). - - “This burnt bone is nearly 4 inches long; average width, ½ inch. It - bears over forty rune-staves, cut in two lines, in the _Boustrophedon_ - order. - - “From the rune-types and language I judged this piece to date from the - 6th century. But as Hr. Lorange was familiar with the build and - grave-gear of the tumuli of a similar class, I begged him to say - whether—exclusively from his standpoint as archæologist—he agreed with - me. He replied, _that he did_. - - “If I have read the runes aright, this object also has been a heathen - amulet. It is the first burnt bone yet found _risted with runes_. - Other such we may have lost, for want of lynx-eyed examination. - - “George Stephens, - Cheapinghaven, Denmark. - - _November 6, 1886_.” - -Footnote 123: - - Similar runes also occurred on a scabbard found at Varpelev, and on a - gold horn. - -Footnote 124: - - Danish coins with runic characters have been obtained from as early a - period as that of Svein Úlfsson, or the 12th century. A runic _kefli_, - according to its contents, carved soon after 1200, is preserved in the - Danish museum. It was found in Vinje church, Upper Telemarken, of - Norway. The inscription thereon signifies: _Sigurd Jarlson traced - these Runes the Saturday after Botolf’s mass, when he journeyed hither - and would not be reconciled to Sverre, the slayer of his father and - brother_. Sigurd was the son of the well-known Erling Skakke; he lost - a battle against Sverre in 1200. As the latter died in 1202, it was - between these two dates that the unsuccessful attempt at - reconciliation occurred. (Stephens, p. 515.) - -Footnote 125: - - Dennis, p. 306. See Signor Gamurrini, who has described and - illustrated them (see Ann. Inst. 1871, pp. 156–166). Franzius, in his - ‘Elementa Epigraphices Græcæ,’ p. 22, 4to, Berolini, 1840, gives three - Greek alphabets found inscribed in the same manner on various objects. - No. 1, of twenty-four letters, is on the Agyllic vase first engraved - by Lepsius (‘Annal. Hist. Archæol. Rom.,’ vol. viii., p. 186). The - second is a fragment, only sixteen letters, found on the wall of an - Etruscan sepulchre (‘Lanzi Saggio di ling. Etr.,’ ii., p. 436). The - third is incomplete, having only the beginning, or the first fourteen - letters. - -Footnote 126: - - Tacitus (Germ. c. 19) says: “_Litterarum secreta viri pariter ac - feminæ ignorant_” (Men and women are equally ignorant of the secrets - of letter writing). The earliest Latin inscriptions found in the North - have characters unlike the runes. - -Footnote 127: - - In the Royal Library at Copenhagen there exist three most remarkable - manuscripts in runic characters, showing the late period at which - these still were in use. The first of these manuscripts, bearing the - date of 1543, was written as a journal by Mogens Gyldenstjerne (a - Danish noble) of Stjernholm, during a voyage into the North Sea - undertaken by him in that year. The second bears the date of 1547, and - is written as a note on a rough draft of a power of attorney by Bille - of Bregentved, another Danish noble. The third is a notice about the - last-mentioned estate, also containing a line in runic characters. - - The Runic codex containing the Scanian law also contains, in a - different hand, a list of Danish kings, and among these one Ambruthe - as having been king in Jutland. The time of this codex can be - approximately fixed at about the year 1300. - -Footnote 128: - - The sacred or mystical number. - -Footnote 129: - - We see that Odin had to go through a terrible ordeal to learn the - runes. - -Footnote 130: - - Bölthorn and Bestla are nowhere else mentioned in the earlier Edda. - -Footnote 131: - - Song-rouser, one of the vessels holding the sacred mead. - -Footnote 132: - - From this stanza we learn which tribes or people knew the art of - writing runes. - -Footnote 133: - - Thund = Odin. - -Footnote 134: - - Three last lines of stanza are missing. - -Footnote 135: - - The edges of weapons. Some persons were supposed to have the power to - deaden weapons’ edges. - -Footnote 136: - - Spells on the roots of a young tree or sticks. - -Footnote 137: - - Witches and ghosts were believed to ride on hedges and tops of houses - at night. - -Footnote 138: - - Hanged corpse. - -Footnote 139: - - Man. - -Footnote 140: - - Here the Alfar are reckoned among the gods. - -Footnote 141: - - The mighty rearer. - -Footnote 142: - - Delling is the father of Day (Vafthrúdnismál, 25; Later Edda). - -Footnote 143: - - Odin. - -Footnote 144: - - Loddfafnir is some one whom Odin is teaching. - -Footnote 145: - - One must not tell his secret to any one. - -Footnote 146: - - We see by this and many other passages that the Jötnar were the - enemies of the Asar. - -Footnote 147: - - Property here means gold. - -Footnote 148: - - Of witches = shape-stolen. - -Footnote 149: - - Undecipherable. - -Footnote 150: - - Take care of his clothes, &c. - -Footnote 151: - - Cf. also Gretti’s Saga. c. 62. - -Footnote 152: - - Kvædi, a poem or song. The poem consists of seventy-one stanzas with - eight verses each, and the manuscripts are late and corrupted. It is - evidently made up from the lives of several warriors, and often - exaggerated, e.g., that he lived 300 years, and that his height was 16 - or 24 feet. - -Footnote 153: - - Speldi = tablet, flat piece of wood. - -Footnote 154: - - A form of duelling. - -Footnote 155: - - Professor Stephens in ‘Handbook of Old Northern Runic Monuments,’ - says: “The only Northern stone known to me which bears two words, cut - far apart and running in different directions. I would therefore - suggest that the one name is carved later than the other. Perhaps the - husband or wife died first, and shortly after the partner was called - away: thus they most likely lay in the same grave, and were remembered - on the same block.” - -Footnote 156: - - Bugge, by comparing the runic inscription on the Piræus marble lion - now at Venice, comes to the conclusion that, while the damaged state - of the inscription makes it impossible to decipher it as a whole, - enough can, however, be read to show its approximate date, and also - the home of the tracer. The snake-slings and runes on this lion in all - probability are traced by a man from Sweden, who has been among the - Værings or Varangians. - -Footnote 157: - - Bog finds belonging to the bronze age, as well as to the iron age, - have been discovered in many places in the North. Those of the bronze - age consist chiefly of swords, lance-heads, axes, sickles, &c. Objects - of the bronze age are also found deposited under stones or in fields. - -Footnote 158: - - Thorsbjerg is situated south of Flensborg, in Southern Jutland. Among - the objects found were fragments of swords, all double-edged, the - hilts of all, with one exception, of wood, inlaid with bronze and - silver, with scabbards of wood with metal mountings (on the metal - bottom-piece of one scabbard is a very clear runic inscription); a - sword-belt of thick leather, 41½ inches long and 3½ inches wide; - buckles for sword-belts, all of bronze, with broken pieces of iron - buckles; bows and arrows in a more or less complete state, the most - perfect bow being about 60 inches long, but both ends are somewhat - damaged, and the original length seems to have been a couple of inches - more; a great number of arrow-shafts, all of similar shape, between - 26–35 inches long and ½ inch thick, but the arrow-points are all - destroyed, the iron having rusted; remnants of shields, flat and - circular, composed of several smoothly-planed and pretty thin wooden - boards, which are not equally broad all over, but become narrower - towards the border:—the largest cross-measure is 42½ inches, the - smallest 21 inches, the thickness of the middle boards, which as a - rule are somewhat heavier than the rest, is about ½ to ¼ inch (the - shield-buckles are of bronze, but broken pieces of iron ones have been - found also; their cross-measure is between 6–7 inches); axes, whose - blades are much decomposed by rust, with thirty good handles of ash - and beechwood, which measured between 23 and 33½ inches in length; a - few well-preserved spear-points, and others more or less destroyed by - rust; four spear-handles, 32, 98½, 107½, and 116 inches in length; - several riding and driving accoutrements; more than sixty fibulæ of - many different styles; many broken pieces of gold rings, only two of - which have been fitted together so as to form one complete ring; two - spiral rings of bronze; a round pendant of gold; a hollow ornament of - silver-mixed gold; a mass of beads; a piece of unworked amber; - pincers; dice of amber; a variety of utensils and tools for domestic - use, such as bowls of wood and clay, spoons, jugs, knives, &c.; two - pairs of coarse woollen trousers, &c.; and several objects, the use of - which is unknown. - -Footnote 159: - - Thirty-seven _Roman coins_ were found altogether. The earliest is of - the year 60 A.D.; the latest, 194 A.D.—1 of _Nero_, 1 of _Vitellius_, - 4 of _Vespasianus_, 1 of _Domitianus_, 7 of _Trajanus_, 6 of - _Hadrianus_, 1 of _Aelius_, 6 of _Antoninus Pius_, 1 of _Faustina the - elder_, 3 of _Marcus Aurelius_, 2 of _Faustina the younger_, 3 of - _Commodus_, and 1 of _Septimius Severus_, the last-named being struck - in the year 194 of our era. - -Footnote 160: - - On a superb silver vase at the Hermitage, St. Petersburg, found in - Southern Russia, is a representation of a man wearing similar - trousers. - -Footnote 161: - - The principal objects in this find included a very great number of - arrow shafts (most of them thoroughly decayed), with arrow-points of - bone or iron; a remnant of a quiver of wood about 25 inches long; a - mass of wooden scabbards, mostly for edged swords; 390 pieces of metal - and bone mountings for the scabbards, some of silver, and one of - bronze covered with silver and thin gold plates, with runes lightly - traced; shield-boards, handles and buckles (180 of the latter of - iron); about 150 knives, all of iron and different shapes; several - remnants of belts, as well as about 40 buttons of bronze, some covered - with gold, and about 60 double buttons of bronze; about 250 different - pieces of buckles and other mountings of iron and bronze; about 150 - different pieces of riding harness; a few horses’ bones; bronze bowls, - needles, keys; scissors; scythe-blades; 1 millstone; 1 small anvil; 6 - hammers; 25 iron chisels; 3 iron files; 2 iron pincers; 57 bone combs, - some with _svastica_, and one with runes on; 4 square, 2 oblong dice; - amber, glass, and mosaic beads; fibulæ of bronze, iron, silver, &c., - &c. - -Footnote 162: - - This Greek writer, who lived at the beginning of the 3rd century, was - called to the Roman Court by Faustina, wife of Septimius Severus, - whose numerous coins are found, and if this art was known by the - Romans he would certainly have described it. - - “Around this youth is a group of young men of fine appearance, and - engaged in fine pursuits, as beseems men of noble birth. One of them - seems to bear on his countenance traces of the palæstra, another gives - evidence of gentleness, a third of geniality: here is one who you - would say had just looked up from his book; and of the horses on which - they ride no two are alike, one is white, another chestnut, another - black, another bay, and they have silver bridles, and their trappings - are adorned with golden and decorated bosses (φάλαρα). And it is said - that the barbarians by the ocean pour these colours on red-hot copper, - and that the designs become hard, like stone, and are - durable.”—Philostratus, Imagines. Chapter on Boar-hunting. - -Footnote 163: - - The articles found include glass, mosaic, and porcelain beads; - fragments of four bone combs; four tweezers of bronze, of which two - hang on bronze rings; remains of wooden shields with metal mountings; - bronze mountings; 10 iron swords, damascened in several patterns, the - length of the blades being from 31 to 35 inches, their width 1¾ to 2 - inches; and fragments of several others; fragments of wooden - scabbards, of which one has remains of leather on it; several metal - mountings for scabbards; a buckle of bronze; about 80 points of iron - spears, all of different shapes; 30 spear-handles, ornamented with - engraved lines, some straight, and others with snake lines; remains of - a wooden bow, length 47½ inches, and fragments of another; arrows; - four whole iron knives, between 7 and 10 inches long, and several - handles and fragments; four oval-shaped whetstones and fragments of a - square one; five small balance-weights; fragments of a heavy wooden - post and of a small twig; some mountings of silver which probably - belonged to riding harness; bones of three animals; &c., &c. - -Footnote 164: - - Among the objects found in the bog were 106 iron swords, all - double-edged, with handles of wood sometimes covered with silver, or - of bone or massive bronze; 93 damascened in different patterns, two - wrought from two different pieces, and only eleven simply wrought. On - several there are Latin inscriptions, and on one blade runes inlaid in - gold. The condition in which the swords were when buried is peculiar. - Generally they were without hilts and bent, on many were found deep - cuts on both edges, one having 23 cuts on one, and 11 cuts on the - other edge. Wooden scabbards, with mountings of bronze; mountings to - sword-belts; buckles of iron and bronze; rings with loose - end-mountings; 70 iron shield buckles; iron axes; iron bridles, three - of which were still in the mouths of (skeleton) horses; 552 iron - spear-points, several ornamented with gold; several hundred - spear-handles; numerous household utensils of wood; several hundred - arrow-shafts with traces of marks of ownership on them, and some with - runes, &c. - -Footnote 165: - - Thirty-four Roman coins, struck between the years 69 and 217 A.D., are - so-called denarii of silver, and date from the time of _Vitellius_ - (1), _Hadrian_ (1), _Antoninus Pius_ (10), two of which have the mark - of DIVVS; _Faustina the elder_ (4), _Marcus Aurelius_ (7) (partly as - Cæsar, between the years 140–143, and partly as Imperator), _Faustina - the younger_ (1), _Lucius Verus_ (2), _Lucilla_ (2), _Commodus_ (5), - and _Macrinus_ (1), the latter a very rare coin, struck in 217 A.D. - -Footnote 166: - - See p. 385. - -Footnote 167: - - In the coffin itself, on the right side of the skeleton, were found, - among other objects, forty-six checker pieces of glass, sixteen dark - red, the others of whitish colour, ¾ to 1½ inch; three finger-rings of - gold, and a spiral bracelet, similar to the one from Oland (vol. ii. - p. 311); two fibulæ of silver, one gilt. On the left, sixty checker - pieces, thirty-one of which were black, the others whitish; with these - was a small amethyst stone with rough, unworked surface. At the feet, - bronze vessels, one placed on the other, two small bosses of silver of - unknown use. - -Footnote 168: - - See also pages 280, 282, 284. - -Footnote 169: - - The earliest coins (Gotland) are those of Augustus (29 B.C.–A.D. 14). - Then follow those of Nero, and coins of all the different emperors to - Alexander Severus (222–235); the greatest numbers are those of Trajan - (98–117); Hadrian (117–138); Antoninus Pius (138–161); Faustina, wife - of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius (161–180); Faustina junior, wife of - Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus (180–192). At Hagestaborg the most - numerous were those of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Faustina the - younger, and Commodus. The earliest are of the time of Nero (54–68), - the latest of that of Septimius Severus (193–211). In Öland the - earliest are those of Trajan, the latest those of Alexander Severus. - In Zeeland the earliest are of Vespasian, the latest of Macrinus (217, - 218). In Fyen the earliest are of Tiberius (14–37), the latest of Geta - (211, 212). In Bornholm the earliest are of Nero, the latest of - Septimius Severus. In Jutland the earliest are also of Nero, the - latest of Macrinus (217, 218). In southern Sweden the earliest are of - Claudius (41–54), the latest of Alexander Severus, but only one or two - of the latter have been found; after the time of Commodus the silver - denarii became rarer and rarer. On the island of Fyen a complete - series of gold coins from Decius (249–251) to Licinius the elder - (307–323) have been found. The Byzantine coins are of gold, and - chiefly used as ornaments, date from Constantinus Magnus (306–337) to - Anastasius (491–518); one also of Justinius I. (518–527) has been - found. In Norway the gold coins of the above period are exceedingly - rare, only one of Valens (364–378) and one of Gratuanus (367–375) - having been discovered; also one of Tiberius Constantius (578–582), - one of Mauricius Tiberius (582–602), one of Constantius V. Copronymus - (741–775), one of Michæl III. (842–867) all of gold. Some of the - earlier Arabic coins had already made their appearance in Scandinavia. - The Roman coins from the Bangstrup find date from between A.D. 249 and - 361. See also Appendix. - -Footnote 170: - - I have myself seen an illustration of this on the African coast, where - natives could not understand that coins represent the value of goods, - though traders had come to their country for a long time, and in some - places they were loth to take money as payment, while a few miles - inland it was refused. - -Footnote 171: - - See “Land of the Midnight Sun.” The islands of Zeeland and Fyen are - especially rich in Roman objects and show the existence of great - intercourse with the Roman provinces; while Gotland is particularly - rich in coins. In the hamlet of Ryk (Tanum parish), Bohuslän, a Roman - coin struck A.D. 179 for the Emperor Marcus Aurelius was found in the - ground. From the inscription on the coin the date can be accurately - fixed, for it was said that it was coined in the year when Marcus - Aurelius was Tribune for the thirty-third time, Imperator for the - tenth time, and Consul for the third time. - - A gold coin of Tiberius (14–37) was found in a stone-set coffin at - Rorbœk; a silver denarius of Nerva (96–98) in the find of Fraugdegard, - Fyen; and a silver denarius of Antoninus Pius (138–161), with a - skeleton, in a natural hill at Bennebo, near Holbœk; a silver denarius - of Lucius Verus (161–169), with a skeleton, in a hill at Gunnerugs, - near Prestö; a barbaric imitation in gold of a Roman imperial coin, - with a loop soldered to it, found with a skeleton at Aareslen in - Odense amt, Fyen. One limit of time obtained by means of the coins is - certain enough, for the graves cannot have been closed before the year - of their coinage. - - Pyteas mentions Guttanæ. The Gotlanders in the Sagas are called Gutar; - they may have met him on some of their trading journeys. The two names - seem to be sufficiently similar to make this a probable supposition. - In the island of Gotland a Greek coin of copper was found, but it - seems to have been struck at Panormus in Sicily. On the obverse is a - female head looking to the right, on the reverse a horse galloping to - the left; it has no Punic letters. (In the collection of Capt. C. T. - von Braun, of Ystad.) Two Macedonian coins of silver were also found; - one of them is a diabole of Philip II., similar to the coins described - in Müller, “Der Macedoniske Konge Philipp II.’s Mynter,” p. 3, Nos. - 14–16, and engraved Plate 1. (Both were in the collection of Capt. v. - Braun, of Ystad; now only one remains there.) - - Also Roman coins anterior to Augustus, found together about 100 years - ago. A silver coin of the family of Lucretia; a silver coin of the - family of Nævia; a coin of the family of Sulpicia. They are all - unusually well preserved, but shorn on the border. (In the collection - of Capt. von Braun Ystad.) A silver coin of the family Funa; a silver - coin of the family Poblicia; one subærate coin of the family Postumia; - one silver coin of the family Procilia; a silver coin of the family - Tituria; a silver coin of the family Veturia. (In the collection of - Capt. von Braun.) A silver coin of the family Nævia, given by Capt. - Braun to the Museum at Uddevala; and a silver coin of the family - Sicinia, both well preserved. (In the Wisby Museum; formerly in the - collection of Mr. P. A. Save.) - -Footnote 172: - - Three hundred and forty-four silver denarii, coined by the emperors - between Nero and Marcus Aurelius, among them many of Trajan, Hadrian, - and Antoninus Pius, have been found at the mouth of the Elbe. - - Under a large stone on a bank at Sengerich, in Hanover, 1,100 silver - denarii were dug up, coined between the years 96 and 211. - - In Mecklenburg the finds of imperial coins embrace the period from - Augustus to Valentinian. - - Finds of Roman coins from the first two centuries after Christ have - also been made at the mouth of the Vistula and in its lower course, - near the Oder. - - An especially interesting discovery was that of a Greek denarius - coined in Lycia by Trajan; the only Greek coin discovered in Hanover. - -Footnote 173: - - Apollo Grannus, to whose temple the vase once belonged, was worshipped - by the tribes of Gaul and Belgium. The Roman historian Dio Cassius - relates that he was one of the gods worshipped by the Emperor - Caracalla, who was murdered in A.D. 217. The name has also been - discovered in Transylvania on a stone which Quintus Axius Ælianus, - Governor of Dacia at the beginning of the second century, had cut. It, - however, happens that this Ælianus had before this resided in Belgium, - whither he had probably brought with him the worship of the god. - -Footnote 174: - - More than forty different statuettes have been found. - -Footnote 175: - - Among the bones outside the urn were found various fragments of - bronze, six clinch-nails of iron, remains of glass, a burnt oblong - loaf of bread, two pieces of a head ornament of bronze with rivets of - iron, a ring of bronze, twelve beads of glass of different size and - appearance, a damaged hanging ornament of bronze, a square plate of - bronze with iron rivets, a denarius of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius - coined in A.D. 162. - -Footnote 176: - - The word amber occurs in three earlier poems. Magical runes were - written on gler.—Sigrdrifumal. Pliny in his ‘Natural History,’ Book - xxxv. 3, 42, speaks of amber as being “formed in the islands of the - Northern Ocean.” - -Footnote 177: - - For other objects in Bavenhöi find, see p. 252–254. - -Footnote 178: - - For other objects found at Varpelev, see p. 256–258. - -Footnote 179: - - Cf. also Flateyjarbók, i. 401; Hrólf Kraki, c. 44; Heidarviga Saga, c. - 20; Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 13. - -Footnote 180: - - Cf. also Finnboga Saga, c. 23; Gunnlaug Ormstunga’s Saga, c. 5. - -Footnote 181: - - Grimhild had asked her sons Gunnar and Högni to pay _weregild_ to - Gudrún because they had slain her husband, Sigurd Fafnisbani. - -Footnote 182: - - This shows that bows of yew as well as of elm were used. - -Footnote 183: - - Another stone in relief has been found by Prof. Save, nearly 12 feet - high, at Larbrö, in the northern part of the island of Gotland; of the - same horse-shoe shape as shown here and on p. 58, with representations - of ships, horses, and the eight-footed horse Sleipnir. - -Footnote 184: - - In Tanum parish, Bohuslän, alone there are more than 2,000 mounds, the - largest being about 300 feet in circumference; near Upsala nearly 600; - at Ultuna, 700. - - The greatest number of mounds found in any one spot is east of the - ancient Birka Bjorko, where there are over 1,000 of them; while seven - graves, as will be seen in the course of the narrative, are found - close together. - -Footnote 185: - - Poets, see vol. ii. p. 389. - -Footnote 186: - - I was sorry to see the place being gradually destroyed, the gravel - taken away, and the embankments, made by the digging, falling down - with the grave. - -Footnote 187: - - Gudlaug, Hakon’s ancestor. - -Footnote 188: - - At Eds, Upland, there is a very fine ship-form grave of twenty-eight - stones, 182 feet long and 50 feet wide. The largest stone at one end - is 9 feet in height, and is evidently a bautastone; the rest, although - large, each measuring several feet in circumference, are common - boulders. At the centre of the ship there lies a similar stone, where, - as well as at the ends, there is a small mound-like elevation. - - In the woods at Braidfloar, between Levide and Sproge in Götland, - there is a ship-form grave 144 feet long, but only 16 feet at its - widest part; the stones, however, are small, none being higher than 3 - feet. - - At Lungersas, Götland, Nerike, there is a ship-form grave in which - stands a stone with an inscription in later runes. - - There is also a bautastone with runes, in one end of a ship-form at - Lilla Lundley in Lids, Södermanland, upon which are the words “_Spjute - and Halfdan_ raised this stone after _Skarde_ their brother. He went - eastward with Roar. In Serkland lies the son.” (See p. 356 Yellow - Book, Den yngre jernalder.) - - A ship-form grave between the post-stations of Ljungby and Hamneda - province of Kronobergs is 92 feet long and 32 feet broad; the - neighbourhood is full of grave-mounds and bautastones. - - Another near the shore of the Baltic, in Eista parish, Götland, is 50 - feet by 16 feet. A third, on the island of Faró, near Götland, is 50 - feet by 8 feet. - - We see by this that their breadth does not always bear the same - proportion to their length. - - In two ship forms at Hjortehammar, in Blekinge, there were found - burned bones, ashes, two of the bowl-shaped fibulæ of bronze so common - during the later iron age, a round fibula of silver, some glass beads, - &c. - - In one at Raftötangen, in Tanum parish, was an urn filled with ashes, - on the top of which lay a finely ornamented damascened sword of the - later iron age. - -Footnote 189: - - Such expressions occur as “i haug lagdr,” mound laid; “heygdr,” - mounded. - -Footnote 190: - - There seem to have been special places built for the burning of the - dead. On the island of Fyen, not far from Broholm, and about 1,200 - yards from the numerous graves, are two sites of pyres, round in - shape, about 120 yards distant from each other. The pavement, about 7 - inches in thickness, is made of cobble stones of the size of a man’s - fist set very close together, and broken into sharp angles. The - stones, especially those in the middle, have been exposed to the - action of fire, but have been preserved by being covered with earth - that had gathered over them brought by wind and rain in the course of - centuries. - -Footnote 191: - - Nabjargir. - -Footnote 192: - - In Sigrdrifumál the texts have in stanza 34 _laug_ = bath, and _haug_ - = mound. The letters _h_ and _l_ being very like in the manuscripts, - we can choose whichever we like best of the two. - -Footnote 193: - - Cf. also Egil’s Saga, c. 61. - -Footnote 194: - - In Brynhild’s ride to Hel we have a different account:— - - “After the death of Brynhild two pyres were made, one for Sigurd, - which was first set on fire, but Brynhild was burned on the other and - was in a carriage tented with _god-web_ (a kind of fine cloth). It is - told that Brynhild drove in the carriage on the road of Hel, and went - through the tun where the jötun-woman dwelt” (Hel-reid Brynhildar). - -Footnote 195: - - Sigurd. - -Footnote 196: - - See Volsunga, ch. 20 and 31. - -Footnote 197: - - Probably on account of the ring on the door, as fine doors were - ornamented with them. - -Footnote 198: - - We will follow on his heels, so that the door will not be shut after - he enters, but be open while we enter. - -Footnote 199: - - The inheritance—wealth, treasure, dowry, &c., &c. - -Footnote 200: - - In the preceding stanzas she has foretold the fate of Gudrun, Gunnar - and Högni, as is told in Volsunga. - -Footnote 201: - - For battle, see Vol. ii., p. 436. - -Footnote 202: - - A division of land. - -Footnote 203: - - Cf. also Göngu Hrolf’s Saga, c. 3. - -Footnote 204: - - Breast. - -Footnote 205: - - Tyrfing. - -Footnote 206: - - Tyrfing. - -Footnote 207: - - I would wish thee to believe it. - -Footnote 208: - - Ships. - -Footnote 209: - - That Tyrfing was dangerous. - -Footnote 210: - - I visited the island of Samsö in order to see if I could discover any - indication of the mound of Angantyr. This island stands in the middle - of the great belt; it is only in clear weather that part of the coast - of the peninsula of Jutland can be seen; its shores are in many parts - lined with huge boulders. In some parts mounds, passage graves, - dolmens, &c., are to be seen; everything tends to show that in olden - times it was a great burial place. Many of the mounds are either - hidden by woods, or stand solitary amidst cultivated fields. The scene - described in Hervara came forcibly upon my mind, and I wondered not - that Hervör knew not where the mound of her father was. This island - was well chosen for the resting-place of these men of the sea. - -Footnote 211: - - The gyg (ogress, witch) seem to have been women of Jötun race, - possessing supernatural strength. - -Footnote 212: - - Volsunga Saga. ch. 38; instead of a ship he is buried in a stone - coffin, but the poetry must be more trusted. - -Footnote 213: - - Smear well with wax the sheets. - -Footnote 214: - - Cf. Landnama, ii. An Bogsveigi’s Saga, c. 6. Atlamál. Gisli Súrsson. - Laxdæla Saga, ch. 7. - -Footnote 215: - - Other ship-graves, such as that of Tune, Borre, &c., have been found - with skeletons of horses. - - Among other ships found is the Gunnarshaug ship, discovered in Bergen - Stift in 1887. The large mound in which it was found had a diameter of - over 125 feet, and stood about 500 feet from the shore. - - The ship was only partly preserved owing to the action of the soil. - Its planks were of oak, thicker and less broad than those of the - Gökstad ship, fastened by clinch-nails. In the uppermost planks, - considerably thinner than the rest, there are holes at distances of a - little over 3 feet. Its keel is about the same length as that of the - Gökstad ship. - - It stood _north to south_, and has been supported by six stones, each - about 6 feet high. Its inside has been clothed with a layer of moss, - evidently to hinder decay by the soil, and on one side of it was a - heap of shavings, chips and bark, left by the carpenters. There are - reasons for thinking that a wooden roof had been erected over the - ship, and afterwards broken down. - - Of the Viking’s body no trace is left, but the remains found indicate - his place in the middle of the ship; these are two swords, - forging-tools, five long whetting-stones, a tinder-box and pieces of a - wooden box. Farther north: several large beads of mosaic glass and - fine chesspieces of amber and coloured glass, part of a waxen tablet, - a bracelet of gold, &c. - - Near the weapons lay an iron kettle and both the stones of a - hand-mill, which shows that the Vikings ground their grain at sea. The - stem was filled with rust. - - Oars and carved tools were also found, and planks of an exceedingly - well-built boat of oak, over which there lay a fir plank, several feet - long, with steps cut in it, evidently a landing-board (cf. Gökstad - ship). - - This is the first burial-place found in Bergen Stift where the body - was unburnt, but they are common further south. - -Footnote 216: - - In a large mound at Vold, Borre parish, Norway, was a small vessel - about 54 feet long, but in such an imperfect state of preservation - that only the clinch-nails with pieces of the planks were left. On the - right side lay a horse’s skeleton, near which were found remains of a - fine bridle and saddle of leather and wood, the mountings of bronze - and silver; also fragments of a glass bowl similar to the one found in - a mound at Taplow (see p. 319). On the left side lay the skeletons of - another horse and of a dog. Above the ship, over the entire mound, was - spread a layer of charcoal. Among the objects found were a - wrought-iron chain, an iron axe, fragments, and an iron kettle - containing ashes, &c. This grave was made in a group of large mounds. - - In Tune, Norway, about five miles from the river Glommen, were found - in 1867, in a mound, the remains of a viking ship, now in Christiana. - This mound lay on a hill not far from the Visterflö, one of the - branches of the river Glommen. It was about 24 feet in height, and 500 - feet in circumference. Behind the mast lay the unburned corpse of a - man, with part of the skeleton of a horse at his side. At the stern - were the remains of ring armour. - - At Lackalänga, near Lund, there are several earth-mounds. In one of - these were found—fragments of a ship, the wood being incrusted with - iron rust; an urn of clay, with burned bones and coal; fragments of - weapons, &c.; at least 100 clinch-nails of iron, and some other pieces - of the same metal, probably originally belonging to a vessel buried in - the mound; two larger buckles of iron, like those used on saddles; two - stirrups, bits for a bridle, &c. - -Footnote 217: - - According to Herodotus, i. 212, Tomyres, queen of the Massagetæ, whose - son had been taken prisoner by Cyrus, sends to him the following - message:—“Restore my son; depart out of the country, unpunished.... - But if you do not do this, _I swear by the sun, the Lord of the - Massagetæ_, that insatiable as you are, I will glut you with blood.” - -Footnote 218: - - “East of Tanakvisl (Tanais, Don) in Asia was Asaland, or Asaheim, and - the head-burgh (chief town) in the land was called Asgard. In the - burgh was a chief called Odin; it was a great sacrificing-place - (blótstad). It was customary there that twelve temple-priests - (hofgodar) were the foremost, and had charge of the sacrifices and - judged between men. They were called _diar_ or _drottnar_; all the - people were bound to give them service and reverence” (Ynglinga Saga, - c. 2). - -Footnote 219: - - _Vetrarblót_ = winter-sacrifice; from _vetr_ = winter, and _blót_ = - sacrifice. The milky way is called _vetrarbraut_ = winter way, because - people thought that the appearance of the milky way predicted the - course of the winter. - -Footnote 220: - - The people counted by nights instead of days. - -Footnote 221: - - This was also sometimes called Thor’s sacrifice. - -Footnote 222: - - It seems that at this season other sacrifices than those to Frey were - sometimes offered. Cf. Hálfdán the Old. Skaldskaparmal, c. 13. - -Footnote 223: - - Cf. Ynglinga Saga, 8; St. Olaf, 115. - -Footnote 224: - - Cf. also Hörd’s Saga and Hervarar Saga, c. 14. The boar was - consecrated to Frey. - -Footnote 225: - - Cf. also Hakon Adalsteinsfostri’s Saga, c. 15; Olaf Tryggvason (Hkr.), - c. 28. - -Footnote 226: - - Cf. Hakon Adalsteinsfostri’s Saga, c. 15. Snorri’s Olaf Tryggvason, c. - 28. - -Footnote 227: - - See chapter on Godis, p. 525. - -Footnote 228: - - Olaf Tryggvason in Fms. ii. 173. - -Footnote 229: - - See p. 496, a landowner. - -Footnote 230: - - St. Olaf 115, Heimskringla. - -Footnote 231: - - Ynglinga, 47. Snorri’s Olaf Tryggvason, 16. - -Footnote 232: - - Sometimes the expenses devolved on the king, at others the feasts were - provided for by the food and ale brought by those in attendance (Hakon - Adalsteinsfostri, 16, 18). How far people went for sacrifices is seen - in Landnáma v., 8. - -Footnote 233: - - Eyrbyggja, 4, 10. - -Footnote 234: - - In Herraud’s Saga, ch. 12, the toasts are given in different order. - The first toast is dedicated to Thor; then one to all the Asar; then - one to Odin; and lastly, one to Frey. - -Footnote 235: - - Hallfredar Saga. - -Footnote 236: - - In the earliest times Thor was the great enemy of the Jötnar. He was - called upon by wrestlers also (Gunnlaug Ormstunga, 10), and showed his - anger by causing loss of property (Flóamanna Saga, c. 20) - -Footnote 237: - - Thrymskvida. The bridegroom and bride were to be marked with the holy - sign. (Vol. II., p 12.) - -Footnote 238: - - St. Olaf’s Saga, 44. “He was marked after Thor and hammer in the - hand.” - -Footnote 239: - - In the account of Fornmanna Sögur about the battle of Svold, Eirik - jarl is said to have had Thor in the prow of his ship. “He took it - away and put the cross instead, which he did on the advice of Olaf - Tryggvason,” otherwise he would not get the victory. - -Footnote 240: - - In Vafthrudnismál, Njörd is said to have ruled over many temples by - the old Asgard. - -Footnote 241: - - Cf. Egil’s Saga, c. 58. - -Footnote 242: - - From Vafthrúdnir’s answer to Odin about Njörd’s origin we find that he - ruled over temples and hörg. (Vafthrúdnismál, 38.) - -Footnote 243: - - Shining like glass. Amber is called gler; and in Sigrdrifumál, st. 17, - we find that runes were written on gler or amber. - - The hörg is also mentioned in Völuspa, 7; Helgakvida Hjorvardssonar, - 4; Landnáma ii. 16; Elder Gulathing’s Law, ch. 29; Orvar Odd, p. 29; - Hervarar Saga, 1. - -Footnote 244: - - See Landnama v., 2; Hrafnkel Freysgodis Saga, pp. 4–6. - -Footnote 245: - - Olaf Tryggvason Heimskringla, ch. 65, 66. - -Footnote 246: - - Kjalnesinga, 2; Droplaugarsona, Saga about Bessi temple, Landnáma v. - 12. - -Footnote 247: - - Landowner (see p. 496). - -Footnote 248: - - Adam of Bremen about 1070 writes that not far from _Sictona_ (Sigtuna) - is the temple _Ubsola_, where were the three gods, _Thor_, _Wodan_ and - _Fricco_ (Frey). What he says about this temple makes it evident that - not only its roof but also the whole inside of the structure was - covered with gold plates. Further he says that close to it there was a - large tree, which no one knew, and which stretched its branches far - out, and was always green, as well as a spring, near which the heathen - made their sacrifices, and wherein a live man was thrown; the people - believed that his wishes would be fulfilled, in case he sank; also a - golden chain went around the temple, and hung from the roof. - -Footnote 249: - - Saxo writes that the Danish king Halfdan journeyed to Upsala in order - to find out the cause of his daughter’s sterility, and was answered - that he must first satisfy the spirit of his brother, whom he had - unwittingly slain; this he did, and then she, in accordance with the - promise of the oracle, bore Harald Hilditönn. - - At the present old Upsala church there were discovered the foundations - of an old building, a mass of coals, molten copper and silver pieces, - with small traces of pure gold, as well as a rusty nail with a little - gold on it, and finally skulls of pigs and hawks, and cheekbones and - teeth of horses, all of which tend to show that the old heathen temple - of Upsala, so famous during pagan times, stood there. (Verelius Notæ - in epist. def. Shefferi, p. 16.) - -Footnote 250: - - This implies that in the sacred precincts there were several - buildings. - -Footnote 251: - - Gridastad means place of truce. - -Footnote 252: - - The writer or copyist seems to have been a Christian. - -Footnote 253: - - Fridthjóf means the thief of peace, the one who steals or destroys - peace. - -Footnote 254: - - Cf. also Landnama, iv. 5; Kormak’s Saga, 11. - -Footnote 255: - - Cf. Landnama, iii., c. 2, 7. - -Footnote 256: - - Cf. also Vatnsdæla, 12. Landnama, i., c. 10. Ondvegissula = high-seat - pillar. - -Footnote 257: - - Disar = genii. - -Footnote 258: - - Olaf, son of Ingjald Illrádi ... fled to a forest district of - Vermaland, where he cleared the land of its woods; therefore he was - called Tretelgja (tree-cutter). - -Footnote 259: - - “The scene of most interest, and at the same time of most horrors, - taken from the mythical or poetical history of Greece is one which - represents the sacrifice of Trojan captives to the _manes_ of - Patroclus. Achilles himself is the priest or butcher, for he occupies - the centre of the scene, clad in brazen cuirass and greaves, his long - yellow locks uncovered by a helmet, and seizing by the hair the - wretched Trojan captive who is seated naked at his feet imploring - mercy, he thrusts his sword into his neck, just as the ‘swift-footed - son of Peleus’ is represented to have treated Lycaon, the first victim - he sacrificed to his friend Patroclus. Above the Trojan stands Charon, - in red jacket and blue chiton, wearing a cap or helmet, and bearing - his mallet on his shoulder ready to strike. The right half of the - scene is occupied by the two Ajaces, each bringing forward a victim, - naked and wounded, whose hands are bound behind their backs. Ajax - Telamonius, the more prominent of the two, is fully armed; and Ajax - Oïleus is similarly armed, but without a helmet. The funeral pyre on - which the corpse of Patroclus was already laid before the sacrifices - of captives, horses, and dogs were made to his manes is not shown. - This episode forms the subject of the first wall paintings found in - Etruria which were illustrative of Hellenic myths, but since their - discovery that of the Grotta del Orco at Corneto has afforded us - additional proof that the Etruscans did not always confine the - pictorial adornments of their sepulchres to the illustration of the - peculiar customs, funeral observances, or religious creed of their - native land” (Dennis’s ‘Etruria’). - -Footnote 260: - - From this passage we see that it was the custom of Hakon Jarl to make - sacrifices, but unfortunately the manner in which he made them is not - told. - -Footnote 261: - - See p. 478. - -Footnote 262: - - Tíundaland = land of the tenth. - -Footnote 263: - - Hervarar Saga, 9, 10, 11, 12. - -Footnote 264: - - Kristnisaga, Fornmanna Sögur ii., 228. - -Footnote 265: - - I.e. Tun or open space. - -Footnote 266: - - Meaning, broke the backs of. - -Footnote 267: - - Not far from nearly every one of the (twenty) dom-rings of Nerike - there is a spring tending to confirm the Icelandic tradition of their - use. - -Footnote 268: - - King Olaf was on an expedition into France. - -Footnote 269: - - Odd evidently, like some other of his countrymen, as seen in this - narrative, was not orthodox in the religion of his fathers, for he - robbed the graves. - -Footnote 270: - - Cf. also Ragnar Lodbrók, 18; Norna Gest, 6; Olaf Tryggvason, 179; - Sigurdar Kvida Fafnisbana ii., 26; Orkneyinga Saga, ch. 8. - -Footnote 271: - - Ynglinga Saga, 10. - -Footnote 272: - - Gisla Sursson mentions the same. - -Footnote 273: - - Olaf Tryggvason, Hkr., c. 76; Halfredar Saga, 6; Vatnsdæla, c. 10, 16. - -Footnote 274: - - See p. 411, sacrifice to the Disir. - -Footnote 275: - - I.e., draw the string so hard that the point of the arrow is inside - the curve. - -Footnote 276: - - Cf. also Sigrdrifumál, 17; Helgi Hundingsbani; Norna Gest; - Flateyjarbók; Fornaldar Sögur, i. Later Edda; Orkneyinga; Egil’s Saga; - Hávamál; Atlakvida. - -Footnote 277: - - Helgakvida Hundingsbana. - -Footnote 278: - - These three maidens came from Jötunheim, the home of the Jötnar; here - they are no doubt meant to designate the three Nornir, who came and - disturbed the peace of the golden age by establishing past, present, - and future, _i.e._, change, fluctuation, development, and growth. - -Footnote 279: - - Idavöll, _ida_, movement; _voll_, plain. This stanza tells of the - golden age when the Asars were happy and lacked nothing. - -Footnote 280: - - Grimnismál, gives a somewhat similar account. - -Footnote 281: - - Burn a spot on the skin as a cure. - -Footnote 282: - - Thjód nation, nation of the Goths. - -Footnote 283: - - Odin. - -Footnote 284: - - Warriors. - -Footnote 285: - - See pp. 31, 32. - -Footnote 286: - - Wealth. - -Footnote 287: - - Sun plains. - -Footnote 288: - - Fire-mountain. Here the text is corrupted, but I follow Bugge in the - suggestion that this is a place-name, the battle taking place on the - plain beneath the Logafjöll, from which the Valkyrias come down to - take the slain. - -Footnote 289: - - The Valkyrias. - -Footnote 290: - - Valkyrias are here called disir, guardian spirits, and seem to come - from the South, the ancient home of the Asar. - -Footnote 291: - - Chiefs. Helgi invited them to come home with him and his chiefs that - night, and they would not. - -Footnote 292: - - We find that kings sometimes had meetings among themselves. - -Footnote 293: - - Probably she was betrothed by her father, not being present herself. - -Footnote 294: - - From this we see that this beautiful story is derived from the lost - Völsunga-kvida (a great loss), and from which Völsunga itself is - probably mostly taken. - -Footnote 295: - - Glad because of victory. - -Footnote 296: - - The marriage which her father had set his mind upon. - -Footnote 297: - - Sigrun speaks to the dying Hödbrod on the battle-field. - -Footnote 298: - - Wolves. - -Footnote 299: - - Meaning: “Everything is not in thy power, as the Nornir have great - power also over the fates of men.” The death of Helgi was against - Sigrun’s will. - -Footnote 300: - - King. - -Footnote 301: - - A custom found in the Old Testament (Joshua), of putting the foot on - the subdued king’s neck. - -Footnote 302: - - Dag broke his oath, as we have seen before; and Sigrun cursed him for - having done so. - -Footnote 303: - - Leiptr = flash of lightning. Probably this was a swift river, or - waterfall. - -Footnote 304: - - Here we see the custom of wergild, so often described in the Sagas. - -Footnote 305: - - The temple of Vandil. - -Footnote 306: - - Valleys of fight. - -Footnote 307: - - Cf. also Helga Kvida Hjörvardsonar. - -Footnote 308: - - The song of Kara is lost. Svafa in the first song, Sigrun in the - second, is Svafa reborn; and Kara in the third and lost song is Sigrun - reborn. - -Footnote 309: - - In Orvar Odd we see that the Volvas performed the foretelling ceremony - with fifteen boys and fifteen girls. It seems that night was the - chosen time. The boys and girls doubtless stood in a ring round the - platform, and sang incantations. They had a stick, with which they - struck the cheek of a man, and brought oblivion on him, and then, by - striking him on the other cheek, gave him back his memory. - -Footnote 310: - - Eirik the red, 5. - -Footnote 311: - - Boiling “seid,” or the witches’ broth, was the chief art in - witchcraft. - -Footnote 312: - - Only found in Thorfin Karlsefni. - -Footnote 313: - - Vatnsdæla, 3, 10; Thorfin Karlsefni, 3; Orvar Odd, ch. 2, 3. - -Footnote 314: - - Helgi and Hróar had taken the names of Ham and Hrani. - -Footnote 315: - - This song is lost. - -Footnote 316: - - Cf. also Norna Gest’s Thatt. c. 3. - -Footnote 317: - - Laxdæla, 33; Njala, 127. - -Footnote 318: - - Orkneyinga, 100, 102; Ljosvetninga, 21; Vatnsdæla, 12; Orvar Odd, 2. - -Footnote 319: - - The name of Ægir is found in Helgi Hundingsbani i., st. 30: in - Lokasenna; in Hymiskvida; that of Ran, in Helgi Hjorvardsson, 18; - Helgi Hundingsbani, i. 3; Egil’s Saga, &c. - -Footnote 320: - - In poetry gold is often called Ægir’s fire, or Ran’s light, showing - that belief in the old myth still existed. - -Footnote 321: - - Inheritance feast; see Vol. ii., p. 47. - -Footnote 322: - - He calls his son Bödvar a string of his family, made or twisted by - himself. - -Footnote 323: - - The son’s death. - -Footnote 324: - - Ægir, who brewed ale for the Asar. - -Footnote 325: - - This passage means—“If I could get my son avenged, Ægir would fare - badly.” - -Footnote 326: - - The upheaver of the waves was the wind = Kari; his brother was Ægir. - -Footnote 327: - - Plank-bane = ship-destroyer; _i.e._, Ægir. - -Footnote 328: - - Egil being old, Bödvar is called the family shield or protector. - -Footnote 329: - - Dwellings of joy (Valhalla). - -Footnote 330: - - Alfheim was given to Frey as a tooth-fee. - -Footnote 331: - - Here we see that Svartálfar are Dvergar. - -Footnote 332: - - From this it is supposed that Loki had come in the shape of a fly to - make them lose the wager. - -Footnote 333: - - Other texts—Raum and his kinsmen were tall and ugly. - -Footnote 334: - - Cf. Gisli Sursson, 22, 24, 30, 33; Half’s Saga, 15; Grimnismal, 53; - Atlamal, 23. Fylgjas appeared to people in dreams: Ljósvetninga, 21; - Atlamal, 19; Njal, 12. - -Footnote 335: - - See Vol. ii., p. 423. - -Footnote 336: - - A kind of duel. See p. 563. - -Footnote 337: - - The worship of the Lares and Penates, the household deities who - watched over the personal and pecuniary interests of individuals and - families, was the most prominent feature of the Etruscan mythology, - whence it was borrowed by the Romans. Thence it was also, in all - probability, that the Romans obtained their doctrine of an attendant - genius watching over every individual from his birth. (See Dennis’s - ‘Etruria,’ vol. i., p. 59.) - -Footnote 338: - - (1) Viga Glum, 9; (2) Laxdæla, 26; Snorri, St. Olaf, 68. - -Footnote 339: - - The eagles dreamt of by Angantyr were thought to be the fylgjas of - champions (Hervarar Saga, c. 5). - - Thorstein Vikingsson saw in the many bears which attacked him a - foreboding of a king or a king’s son (Gautrek and Hrolf’s Saga; - Thorstein Vikingsson, c. 12). - - Thus also Geitir guessed the birth of Thorstein Uxafot from the white - bear cub, which he had observed walking ahead of the latter. - -Footnote 340: - - Njala, 12; Finnbogi Rammi’s Saga; Fornmanna Sögur, iii. They are seen - in a walking state. Viga Glum’s Saga; Halfred’s Saga, 22, 24; - Vatnsdæla, p. 36; Atlamal, 19; Egil’s Saga, 50, 60; Sögubrot, 2. - -Footnote 341: - - The nine women in black had been the Disir of the family, which was - going to forsake the old belief; the Disir wanted to take with them - the best member of the family before they left. Therefore they slew - Thidrandi, whom the nine white Disir try in vain to defend. The nine - white Disir were to be the guardian spirit of the family after it had - adopted the new belief. From this we can see that the new religion - could not entirely overthrow the old superstition and belief. - -Footnote 342: - - Persuaded by Ivar Vidfadmi, Hrœrek slew his brother Helgi, thinking he - was too good friends with his wife. Afterwards Ivar slew Hrœrek in a - fight. In the dream Hrœrek is the stag, Helgi is the wild beast, Ivar - is the dragon, and the she-bear with the cub is Aud with her son. - -Footnote 343: - - See Exposure of Children, Vol. II., p. 39. - -Footnote 344: - - Cf. also Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 4. - -Footnote 345: - - This dream seems to have had the power to make the first man who heard - it death-fated. - -Footnote 346: - - Cf. Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, p. 37. - -Footnote 347: - - Gladsheim = Home of the glad. - -Footnote 348: - - Men slain by weapons. - -Footnote 349: - - Coats of mail or chain armour. - -Footnote 350: - - The word in the text means “hangs,” and it is impossible to tell if - the wolf is living or dead; it may mean that the wolf is ready to - pounce. - -Footnote 351: - - Odin’s warriors. In Ragnarök these Einherjar fight with Odin against - the Fenri wolf. - -Footnote 352: - - Voluspa, 24; Hervarar Saga, 5; Eyrbyggja, 44; Fornmanna Sögur, v. 250. - Harald Hilditönn was given to Odin at his birth (cf. Saxo). He was - victorious all his life till his last battle. - -Footnote 353: - - Cf. also Gautrek’s Saga, c. 7. - -Footnote 354: - - One of the goddesses is also called Snotra. - -Footnote 355: - - From this we learn that a serf must be in company with some one - freeborn in order to go to Odin. - -Footnote 356: - - Fagrskinna. - -Footnote 357: - - Two Valkyrjas. - -Footnote 358: - - Gautatýr = the god of the Gautar = Odin. - -Footnote 359: - - Yngvi’s kin = the Ynglings descended from Odin. - -Footnote 360: - - The brother of Björn, who was one of Harald Fairhair’s sons, is Hakon. - -Footnote 361: - - Battle-oars = sword-blades; a fine simile. - -Footnote 362: - - Hakon. - -Footnote 363: - - We see from the last line of stanza 4 that Hakon wore a gold helmet. - It is also said in the prose that he was conspicuous by it in the - battle. - -Footnote 364: - - Battle is often called play or game; cf. the synonyms for battle. - -Footnote 365: - - Gram. - -Footnote 366: - - Váfad = Odin; Odin’s cloth = armour. - -Footnote 367: - - The hard feet of the hilt = sword-blades. - -Footnote 368: - - Weapons. - -Footnote 369: - - Wound-drop = blood. - -Footnote 370: - - Cape of swords = armour. - -Footnote 371: - - Tempest of Odin = battle, which can also be called the storm of any - Valkyrja, and has many other names. - -Footnote 372: - - Hropt or Hroptatýr = the shouting god = Odin. - -Footnote 373: - - Hakon. - -Footnote 374: - - Eight brothers, that is half-brothers, Harald Fairhair being the - father of them all. - -Footnote 375: - - By this is meant end of the world. - -Footnote 376: - - Einherjar is plural, and is a compound. Ein = only, single; and - herjar, from the verb herja = make warfare. Thus it means the only - fighters, the only champions, being the warriors chosen by Odin to - dwell in Valhalla with him, while Freyja lodged one-half of the slain. - -Footnote 377: - - Chief meal, corresponding in time to breakfast. - -Footnote 378: - - Cf. also Vafthrudnismal, 41. - -Footnote 379: - - Cf. also Grimnismál, 19:— - - “Geri and Freki - Does the battle-tamer feed, - The famous Herjafödr (father of hosts of Odin); - But by wine only - The weapon-famous - Odin always lives.” - -Footnote 380: - - Some under-king, or host-kings, probably from Norway. - -Footnote 381: - - The belief in men having the power to change their shape is common in - Africa to this day. See Ashangoland. - -Footnote 382: - - See hereditary dignity, p. 491. - -Footnote 383: - - See a house or room. Vol II., p. 259. - -Footnote 384: - - Meaning that the skin was torn. - -Footnote 385: - - Meaning that the skin could be touched with it. - -Footnote 386: - - There were two kinds of poison used. Cf. also Volsunga, c. 5. - -Footnote 387: - - The woman’s name means she-bear. - -Footnote 388: - - In ch. 27 we are told that Bera ate one bit and a little of another - bit of the bear’s flesh, and bore three sons. - -Footnote 389: - - See p. 558. - -Footnote 390: - - From some stone tracings and many jewels we see the proof of this. - Numerous instances are given in the Earlier Edda of birds speaking to - persons. - -Footnote 391: - - Cf. also Volsunga, 19. - -Footnote 392: - - Same expression as of a ship. - -Footnote 393: - - Cf. also about Hrolf’s Champions, c. 31. (Ynglinga, c. 38.) - -Footnote 394: - - By magical drink, poisonous drink is often meant (Heimskr Harald - Fairhair, 41). See Gudrúnarkvida ii., stanzas 21, 22, 23, 24. - -Footnote 395: - - Egil’s Saga, 44. - -Footnote 396: - - Egil’s Saga, 75. See p. 165. - -Footnote 397: - - Cf. Ynglinga, c. 7. - -Footnote 398: - - Cfr. Laxdæla, 57, 58, Njala, 30. - -Footnote 399: - - Cf. Landnama, pt. iii. - -Footnote 400: - - Cf. also Eyrbyggja, c. 20; and Fœreyinga, c. 40. - -Footnote 401: - - Ragnarök. - -Footnote 402: - - Chiefs. - -Footnote 403: - - From Odin. - -Footnote 404: - - Helgi. - -Footnote 405: - - Helgi. - -Footnote 406: - - Hawks as birds of prey. - -Footnote 407: - - Helgi. - -Footnote 408: - - We see it is so late that the eagles sit on the boughs for the night, - &c. So they despair of Helgi’s coming. - -Footnote 409: - - One of the finest similes for sleep. - -Footnote 410: - - Here _dis_ may be sister or guardian-spirit. Skjöldungs = kings. - -Footnote 411: - - The bondmaid calls Helgi and his men ghosts and fiends. - -Footnote 412: - - See description in Eyrbyggia. Each ghost was called by its name, and - had to leave by the opposite door. - -Footnote 413: - - Cf. also Laxdæla, 24; Gretti, 34–37. - -Footnote 414: - - Snorri Harald Fairhair’s Saga, ch. 36. - -Footnote 415: - - Viga Styr, 102. - -Footnote 416: - - Njala, 72, 79. - -Footnote 417: - - Gandreid = wolf ride, wizard or witches’ ride. - -Footnote 418: - - Eyrbyggja, 52, where the moon moves all round along the wall. - -Footnote 419: - - Egil, 24. - -Footnote 420: - - A warrior. - -Footnote 421: - - Sister of the moon = sun. - -Footnote 422: - - The famous war custom. - -Footnote 423: - - I.e., raven. - -Footnote 424: - - Wound-thorn, sword; sweat of the sword, blood. - -Footnote 425: - - The raven was looked upon as very wise and prophetic. - -Footnote 426: - - I.e., a Valkyrja. - -Footnote 427: - - The birds of Odin were the birds of prey, or perhaps his ravens Hugin - and Munin coming to tell him the news. - -Footnote 428: - - The hail-sprinkled gull, sprinkled with blood; hail—poetical - expression used for arrows. The wave of the heap of slain—the blood of - the slain making waves by its quantity. A gull is often used as - meaning a bird of prey. - -Footnote 429: - - The mead of kings (blood of warriors slain by the host of kings). - -Footnote 430: - - Shield is called here the plain of the ring. The tree of the shield is - the warrior. - -Footnote 431: - - I make ready for the sound of Ilm—take my weapon for battle, as the - sound of Ilm is = noise made by weapons. - -Footnote 432: - - A Valkyrja. - -Footnote 433: - - Hedin’s cloth = armour. The dyed wand is the sword dripping with - blood. - -Footnote 434: - - In Helgakvida Hundingsbana, sleep is called _draum-thing_ - (dream-meeting). - -Footnote 435: - - Halfdan dreamt of the greatness of his family, Halfdan the Black, c. - 7. Sometimes there were different explanations of the same dream - (Vatnsdæla, 42). - -Footnote 436: - - Laxdæla, 33; Atlamál, 14–25. - -Footnote 437: - - See Vol. II., p. 142. - -Footnote 438: - - See Vol. II., Frontispiece. - -Footnote 439: - - There was no little hard pushing—meaning that there was a fight - between the men and the bears jostling against each other. - -Footnote 440: - - One of Atli’s shapes, which he could change himself into. - -Footnote 441: - - Her husband. - -Footnote 442: - - Summon to join the dead. - -Footnote 443: - - Guardian spirits; _Disir_, the shapes of dead women. Cf. Gisli - Súrsson. - -Footnote 444: - - Dreamstolen, meaning, that the ability of dreaming had been taken away - from him. - -Footnote 445: - - Cf. also Sigrdrifumal. - -Footnote 446: - - Sacrifice to. - -Footnote 447: - - This passage seems to imply that those who believed in their own - strength only made the sign of Thor. - -Footnote 448: - - Athletic and mental exercises. See vol. ii., p. 369. - -Footnote 449: - - Cf. also Gulathing’s Law, c. 29. - -Footnote 450: - - This refers to stealing the mead. - -Footnote 451: - - Frey and Freyja. - -Footnote 452: - - Olaf Tryggvason. - -Footnote 453: - - _Buandi_, plural _buendr_; _bondi_, plural _bendr_; _bóandi_, plural - _bóendr_. These are different forms of the same name; the transition - from _buandi_ to _bóandi_ and then to _bondi_ is easily traced. The - form to-day is _bonde_. The original meaning is a dweller; the verb to - dwell is _búa—bjó—búid_. - -Footnote 454: - - Indemnity, see p. 544. - -Footnote 455: - - The Frostathing’s Law says nothing about the deduction of one-fifth - from the appraised value. - - A new law enacted that the _odalsman_, in order to keep his right - open, should make the usual announcement every tenth year; and the - king was subject to the same regulations as other people. - -Footnote 456: - - Cf. also earlier Gulathing’s Law, 267; earlier Frostathing’s Law, vi. - 4. - -Footnote 457: - - Baugryg means a woman who, being a single daughter, could pay and - receive wergild. - -Footnote 458: - - A chalet. - -Footnote 459: - - All that was thrown up by the sea, whales, wreck, &c., belonged to the - king (Gulath., 145). - -Footnote 460: - - Some great fishing-place in Hálogaland. - -Footnote 461: - - Cfr. also Heimskringla, 51, 52. - -Footnote 462: - - See p. 491. - -Footnote 463: - - So named probably because accustomed to walk much. - -Footnote 464: - - Bond-woman. - -Footnote 465: - - In later times we see that the fire-place was in the middle of the - floor. - -Footnote 466: - - Kind of head-dress. - -Footnote 467: - - Grandfather and grandmother. - -Footnote 468: - - Probably for fastening the door. - -Footnote 469: - - This peculiar head-dress is still found in Iceland and Normandy. - -Footnote 470: - - A kirtle trailing, long trailing dress. - -Footnote 471: - - In Volsunga Saga the same expression occurs. - -Footnote 472: - - The shield of linden tree. - -Footnote 473: - - Rings were of gold, and were used as money. - -Footnote 474: - - Perhaps this means the sea. - -Footnote 475: - - We are not told about the Hersir. - -Footnote 476: - - Kund—a son, a kinsman. - -Footnote 477: - - Kon-ung = Konung = Kung = King. - -Footnote 478: - - Everlasting runes, probably more powerful runes than ordinary—runes - that may have been only known to few. - -Footnote 479: - - To calm the sea by spell. - -Footnote 480: - - Some people were supposed to understand the language of birds. - -Footnote 481: - - From this we see that the business of a young king was war. - -Footnote 482: - - See p. 525. - -Footnote 483: - - Greyiom: this is the dative form which is grey in nominative; the form - grey hund also occurs (Fornmanna Sögur xi. 10.) - -Footnote 484: - - The male line of Hákon Jarl the Great became extinct in his grandson, - Hákon Eiríksson, in 1029. - -Footnote 485: - - _Háleygjatal_, in which Eyvind traces the family of Hákon. Cf. also - the jarls of Mœri (Rögnvald, Mœra-jarl, who was the forefather of the - jarls of Orkneys and Rouen in Normandy). - -Footnote 486: - - Herra = a lord, or master, was only used as a title after the year - 1277, when knights and barons were first introduced into Norway. The - word is derived from Her (host), thus meaning the lord, or perhaps at - first the leader of a host. - -Footnote 487: - - Pl. Konir. - -Footnote 488: - - Rig seems to be a son of Rig Jarl, the hero of Rigsmál, whose name was - otherwise Kon. - -Footnote 489: - - This custom of becoming an _under-man_ is illustrated in several - Sagas. - -Footnote 490: - - The word _Viking_ has, of course, nothing to do with king. - -Footnote 491: - - Nafnbót = addition to the name, improvement of the name. - -Footnote 492: - - In the Danish laws the stipulation to be given by the king at his - elevation was called Haand-fæstning (hand-fastening). - -Footnote 493: - - Cf. also Magnús the Good, c. 22 (Heimskringla). - -Footnote 494: - - Thrall was a male slave; ambátt, a female slave. - -Footnote 495: - - Here chief is = king. This meeting of kings seems like the meetings in - our times of monarchs for alliance or treaties. - -Footnote 496: - - Cf. also Heimskringla, c. 58. - -Footnote 497: - - Claim, rights, law, atonement for injury, see p. 544. - -Footnote 498: - - Cf. Gisli Súrsson. - -Footnote 499: - - Gulath., 66, 106, 296. - -Footnote 500: - - The redemption-sum of a leysingi. - -Footnote 501: - - Hereditary freeman. - -Footnote 502: - - This means, to take the slavery off. - -Footnote 503: - - Cf. also p. 7. - -Footnote 504: - - Cf. also Njala, c. 36. - -Footnote 505: - - A man convicted of the lesser outlawry by paying a fine of one mark - within a fixed period was safe within a certain space. If he neglected - such payment he became a full outlaw. - -Footnote 506: - - Father’s and mother’s side. - -Footnote 507: - - Cf. also Laxdæla Saga, 12, 13. - -Footnote 508: - - Gulathing’s Law, 57. - -Footnote 509: - - Ostgöta Law, 6, § 2; Vestgöta Law, i. 22; Gotland Law, i. 28, § 6. - -Footnote 510: - - In the side. - -Footnote 511: - - See chapter on Exposure of Children. Vol. ii. p. 42. - -Footnote 512: - - Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 131. - -Footnote 513: - - After the introduction of Christianity, near a church. - -Footnote 514: - - Cfr. also Frostathing’s Law, i. 2. - -Footnote 515: - - Laws by King Magnus, A.D. 1263–1280. - -Footnote 516: - - Grágás, 56. - -Footnote 517: - - Islendingabók, c. 5. - -Footnote 518: - - Eyrbyggja, c. 10; Landnáma, ii. c. 12. - -Footnote 519: - - A Thing held on the plain. - -Footnote 520: - - The Saga was about Thorgeir Hávarsson, _Thormod’s foster-brother_, and - his last fight, in which Thorgrim had fought against him. Thormod - cleft Thorgrim’s head with his axe as he sat on the chair, and - escaped. - -Footnote 521: - - Pitched a tent over the walls which remained standing. - -Footnote 522: - - The term “hundreds” means some value, perhaps of vadmal or of silver. - -Footnote 523: - - Twenty feet of vadmal were paid yearly by each bondi who did not go to - the Thing to those who went to the Althing (Grágás, 77, 107). - -Footnote 524: - - Grágás, 23, 49, 51, 62, 67. - -Footnote 525: - - Every bondi had to belong to some Thing. - -Footnote 526: - - The country was parcelled out into Thing-districts, each being - presided over by three godis, hence the word _Thridjung-district_. - -Footnote 527: - - Einmanud, last month of winter. - -Footnote 528: - - It is probable that this sign was the svastica, used in Iceland - instead of the arrow used in Norway. (See p. 520.) - -Footnote 529: - - Thingmen of his district. - -Footnote 530: - - The high court of justice composed of 48 Godars, also held in the - sacred precincts inside of the _vebönd_. See p. 534–538. - -Footnote 531: - - Each district has its name, e.g., Kjalnesinga district. - -Footnote 532: - - Landnáma, 1, c. 9; Islendinga Sögur, i. 336. - -Footnote 533: - - Grágás, 23, 43. - -Footnote 534: - - Grágás, 59. - -Footnote 535: - - Grágás, 23. - -Footnote 536: - - The old laws of Sweden were published during the years 1827–77 (the - life-work of Schlyter), in Lund, in thirteen volumes; the thirteenth - volume is a dictionary to the twelve volumes preceding it. - -Footnote 537: - - The Danish ell is a trifle more than two English feet. - -Footnote 538: - - _Gulathing_, so called from Gula or Guley (an island), where the Thing - took place. _Frostathing_, from some local name. Our knowledge of the - earlier laws of the Northmen is derived from the earlier _Gulathing’s - Law_, almost completely preserved in writing from the latter half of - the 12th century. The earlier _Frostathing’s Law_ is almost completely - preserved in a writing from the earlier part of the 13th century. Of - the earlier _Eidsifjathing’s Law_, the earlier _Borgarthing’s Law_, - and the earlier _Bjarkeyjar Law_, or town-law, there are only - fragments left. Most of the Icelandic laws are comprised in the - _Grágás_, which is completely preserved in writing not later than the - year 1200. - - The historical Sagas often show the effect of the laws in real life - and how the latter were interpreted by the people. - -Footnote 539: - - _Nefnd_ also = a body of men or arbitrators to give judgment in a - case. In the old Swedish law it was composed of twelve members (see - Schlyter). It is not found in the Icelandic laws, but the Görd is its - equivalent. - -Footnote 540: - - Grágás, 211–217. - -Footnote 541: - - In the same Saga, c. 96, there is another account of the powers of the - lawman. - - In ch. 81, the king (of Sweden), the jarl of Vestr Gautland, and the - lawman Thorgnýr are all three called _höfdingjar_ = _chiefs_. - -Footnote 542: - - Eight aurar made a mark. - -Footnote 543: - - Indemnity to be paid in metal rings of silver or gold. - -Footnote 544: - - The reksthegn was a freeman descended from thrall kin, although his - family might have been free for several generations. The rétt of the - árborinn-madr was 12 aurar, that of the reksthegn one mark. The - classes in the two other law districts were probably similar to those - above, but it seems that the haulld and bondi were classified as one. - -Footnote 545: - - The laws on wounds are so minute and numerous that it is not possible - to give them in full. Cf. also Gulath., 179–215; Frostath., iv. 42–53. - -Footnote 546: - - N. G. L., ii. 60. - -Footnote 547: - - Frostath., v. 20. - -Footnote 548: - - See oath, p. 558. - -Footnote 549: - - It was thought unmanly to be disgraced three times and take no - revenge. Cf. also Gulath., 196; Addition to Frostath. Law, 36. - -Footnote 550: - - _Baug-eid_, or “ring-oath,” is mentioned in Havamál, stanza 110. - -Footnote 551: - - Cf. also Eyrbyggja, c. 4, 16, 44. - -Footnote 552: - - The sleeping room. - -Footnote 553: - - The stepson of Thor. - -Footnote 554: - - See also Kjalnesinga, 2. - -Footnote 555: - - _Skirsl_, to pass under jardarmen. See page 559. - -Footnote 556: - - _Dulareid_, an oath of denial. - -Footnote 557: - - Evening rider, night hag, witch, riding on wolves in the twilight. - -Footnote 558: - - Witnesses fetched at random when defendant could choose his - co-swearers. - -Footnote 559: - - Witnesses called by a body of named men. - -Footnote 560: - - _Séttareid_, an oath of six; i.e., six compurgators. - -Footnote 561: - - _Grima_, a hood covering the face; _grimueid_, a kind of oath taken by - six compurgators. The origin of the word is obscure; perhaps the - compurgators had to appear in court with cowls or hoods on. - -Footnote 562: - - See chapter on Foster-brotherhood. Vol. ii. p. 61. - -Footnote 563: - - In the second song of Helgi, stanza 31, an oath upon a stone is - mentioned; these holy stones may have meant _hörgs_. - -Footnote 564: - - This shows the large size of some of the halls. - -Footnote 565: - - Her brothers. - -Footnote 566: - - From stanza 2 we see that the kettle was consecrated. Stanza 5 shows - the accuser had to go through the ordeal also. - -Footnote 567: - - They drowned her in a mire. - -Footnote 568: - - Einvigi Kormak, c. 10. - -Footnote 569: - - On Holmganga, Egil, 67. - -Footnote 570: - - Cf. also Gisli Sursson’s Saga. - -Footnote 571: - - Cf. Svarfdæla Saga. - -Footnote 572: - - Ingjald (another text). - -Footnote 573: - - Ingibjörg. - -Footnote 574: - - Inheritance feast. See Vol. II., p. 47. - -Footnote 575: - - Cf. Sigurd Jórsalafari, Heimskringla, c. 20–21. - -Footnote 576: - - From the last paragraph we see that announcing a hostile invasion of - one’s country was a redeemable case. - -Footnote 577: - - Cf. also Gretti’s Saga, c. 16. - -Footnote 578: - - Or any one under fifteen years of age. - -Footnote 579: - - I.e. Slaying which was not done in secret or against plighted faith or - skill. - -Footnote 580: - - N. G. L., i. 122, 265. - -Footnote 581: - - Gulath., 132. - -Footnote 582: - - Cf. Fœreyinga Saga, c. 4, 5; Njala, 38, 122; Heidarviga Saga, c. 22; - Björn Hitdœlakappi; St. Olaf’s Saga, 126, 132; Egil’s Saga, c. 24, 59, - 60; Viga Styr, 4. N. G. L., i. 56, 60, 159, 167, 178. - -Footnote 583: - - Cf. also Kormak’s Saga, c. 16. - -Footnote 584: - - The text of Fornmannasögur says that he had 1200 ships. - -Footnote 585: - - In the song, which is very coarse, it is said that the king and Birgir - were like stallion and mare. Cf. Vatnsdæla Saga, c. 33. Björn - Hitdœlakappi’s Saga. - - - - - _BY THE SAME AUTHOR._ - - - THE LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT SUN. - - ASHANGO LAND. - - EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA. - - * * * * * - - STORIES OF THE GORILLA COUNTRY. - - WILD LIFE UNDER THE EQUATOR. - - LOST IN THE JUNGLE. - - MY APINGI KINGDOM. - - THE COUNTRY OF THE DWARFS. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Moved the list of the author’s books from the beginning to the end. - 2. Changed “Lanfey” to “Laufey” and “Lanfeyjarson” to “Laufeyjarson” - everywhere. “It is guessed that this was Loki Laufeyjarson” on p. - 35 was already correct. - 3. Changed “ἐπενεχθείσῃς” to “ἐπενεχθείσης” on p. 10. - 4. Added missing footnote anchor after “slain Saxon” for fourth - footnote on p. 12. - 5. Added footnote reference numbers to footnotes on pp. 60, 326, 333, - 430, and 430. - 6. Changed “see p. .” to “see p. 368.” on p. 68. - 7. Corrected the footnote reference number for the 2nd footnote on p. - 68. - 8. Changed “Fig. 26.” to “Fig. 126.” on p. 114. - 9. Changed “225.” to “Fig. 225.” on p. 142. -10. Changed “237.” to “Fig. 237.” on p. 145. -11. Added missing footnote anchor after “A halter-corpse” for second - footnote on p. 162. -12. Changed “^2 real size” to “⅔ real size” on p. 281. -13. Silently corrected typographical errors. -14. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. -15. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Viking Age. Volume 1 (of 2), by -Paul B. Du Chaillu - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIKING AGE. VOLUME 1 (OF 2) *** - -***** This file should be named 56167-0.txt or 56167-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/1/6/56167/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |