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Vol -7 (of 7), by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Gallery of Portraits: with Memoirs. Vol 7 (of 7) - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: December 1, 2017 [EBook #56096] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GALLERY OF PORTRAITS, VOL 7 *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><em>UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.</em></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'><span class='small'>THE</span><br /> GALLERY OF PORTRAITS:<br /> <span class='xsmall'>WITH</span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>MEMOIRS.</span><br /> <br /> <span class='large'>VOLUME VII.</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div>CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET.</div> - <div class='c003'>1837.</div> - <div class='c003'><span class='xsmall'>[PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.]</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div class='c003'>PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,</div> - <div class='c003'>Duke-Street, Lambeth.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES<br /> <span class='large'>CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.</span></h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.'> -<colgroup> -<col width='10%' /> -<col width='72%' /> -<col width='17%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <th class='c006'></th> - <th class='c007'> </th> - <th class='c008'>Page.</th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>1.</td> - <td class='c007'>Gustavus Adolphus</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>2.</td> - <td class='c007'>Marc Antonio Raimondi</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>3.</td> - <td class='c007'>Coke</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>4.</td> - <td class='c007'>Gibbon</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>5.</td> - <td class='c007'>Scaliger</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>6.</td> - <td class='c007'>Penn</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>7.</td> - <td class='c007'>De Thou</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>8.</td> - <td class='c007'>Chatham</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>9.</td> - <td class='c007'>Mozart</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>10.</td> - <td class='c007'>Loyola</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>11.</td> - <td class='c007'>Brindley</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>12.</td> - <td class='c007'>Schiller</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>13.</td> - <td class='c007'>Bentham</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>14.</td> - <td class='c007'>Catherine II.</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>15.</td> - <td class='c007'>Defoe</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>16.</td> - <td class='c007'>Hume</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>17.</td> - <td class='c007'>De Witt</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>18.</td> - <td class='c007'>Hampden</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>19.</td> - <td class='c007'>Dr. Johnson</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>20.</td> - <td class='c007'>Jefferson</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>21.</td> - <td class='c007'>Wilberforce</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>22.</td> - <td class='c007'>Dr. Black</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>23.</td> - <td class='c007'>Bacon</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>24.</td> - <td class='c007'>Sir Walter Scott</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_001fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Paul Pontius, after a Picture by Van Dyck.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> -<img src='images/i_001.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>GUST. ADOLPHUS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>During the fourteenth, and the beginning of the fifteenth century, -Sweden, lying under vassalage to the crown of Denmark, suffered the -evils which commonly belong to that condition. Gustavus Vasa, -after a series of romantic adventures, established the independence of -his country, and was deservedly elected by the Swedish Diet, in 1523, -to wear its crown. The same kingdom to which he gave a place -among free states, his grandson, Gustavus Adolphus, raised from the -obscurity of a petty northern power, to rule in Germany, and to be the -terror of the Church of Rome.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The establishment of the Reformation was coeval with the independence -of Sweden; and a fundamental law forbade any future sovereign -to alter the national religion, or to admit Roman Catholics to offices -of power and trust. For infringing this principle, Sigismond, by -election King of Poland, the lineal successor of Gustavus Vasa, was -set aside by the Diet, and the crown was given to his father’s younger -brother, Charles, Duke of Sudermania. Charles died, and was succeeded -by his son Gustavus Adolphus, December 31, 1611; the -high promise of whose youth induced the States to abridge the period -of minority, and admit him at once to the exercise of regal power, -though he had but just attained the age of seventeen, being born -December 9, 1594.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He had been trained up in the knowledge likely to be serviceable -to a king and a soldier. He spoke the Latin language, then a universal -medium of communication, with uncommon energy and precision; -he conversed fluently in French, Italian, and German; he had -studied history, political science, mathematics, and military tactics; -and commencing with the part of a musketeer, he had been made -master, by practice, of all the details of a soldier’s life. He was -capable of very severe application to abstruse study, and is said to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>have passed whole nights in reading the military history of the -ancients. He was of uncommon stature and strength, and his constitution -was early inured to labour and endurance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gustavus’s situation, at his accession, was critical. The King of -Poland laid claim to his dominions, and Denmark and Muscovy were -in arms against him. The danger was most pressing on the side of -Denmark; and thither Gustavus’s first efforts were directed. But in -Christian IV. he had to contend with an able enemy, from whom he -gained no advantage; and after one unsuccessful campaign he accommodated -the quarrel at the expense of some concessions. In -the war with Muscovy he was more fortunate; and he reduced -the Czar to purchase peace in 1617, by the sacrifice of the provinces -which border the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic sea. During -these years of warfare, Gustavus found leisure to bestow attention -upon internal improvements. He devoted much thought and care -upon strengthening the Swedish navy, esteeming that to be his surest -defence against invasion; he sought to encourage commerce; he -purified the administration of justice, by rendering judges less dependant -upon the crown, and by abridging the tediousness and expense -of lawsuits; and he laboured to devise means for increasing the revenue -by judicious arrangement, without adding to the burdens of -the people. Both in peace and war he received the most valuable -assistance from his zealous, faithful, and sagacious minister, the celebrated -Oxenstiern.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1620 Gustavus travelled incognito through the chief towns of -Germany. At Berlin he formed acquaintance with Maria Eleonora, -sister to the Elector of Brandenburg, whom he espoused at Stockholm -in November of the same year. One daughter, the famous Christina, -his successor, was the offspring of this marriage.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The King of Poland’s enmity was not seconded by his ability. He -endeavoured in vain to shake the fidelity of Gustavus’s subjects, and -he tried the fortune of war with no better success. In the contests -between the cousins, which occurred in the first ten years of Gustavus’s -reign, the advantage was always on the side of Sweden. Gustavus -was desirous of peace, and forbore to press his superiority. But Sigismond’s -hostility was nourished and stimulated by the leading Catholic -powers, Spain and Austria; and he made so bad a return for this -moderation, that in 1621 the war was renewed in a more determined -manner, and in the course of eight years Livonia, Courland, and -Polish Prussia, were gradually subjected to Sweden. During this -time Gustavus was no careless spectator of the Thirty Years’ War, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>which was raging in Germany. However well inclined he might be -to step forward as the defender of the Protestant cause, he could not -do so with effect while his exertions were demanded in Poland; and -though he made an offer of assistance to the Protestants in 1626, it -was clogged with conditions which induced them to decline his proposals. -But in 1629, under the mediation of France, he concluded a -truce for six years with Sigismond, retaining possession of the conquered -provinces; and being thus relieved from all fear of Poland, -and guaranteed against injury from Denmark by the interest of that -country in checking the progress of the Imperial arms, he found -himself qualified to take the decisive part which he had long desired -in the affairs of Germany. How far his determination was influenced -by personal and ambitious motives, how far it was due to patriotism -and religious zeal, it must be left to each inquirer to decide for himself. -The crisis was one of extreme importance: for the temporal -rights of the whole German empire were endangered by the inordinate -and seemingly prosperous ambition of the House of Austria; and -the Protestant states in particular had reason to apprehend the speedy -destruction of their own, and the re-establishment of the Roman -Catholic church. And if the influence of the Emperor, Ferdinand II., -supported by the papal hierarchy re-established in its great power -and rich benefices through the north of Germany, were suffered unchecked -to extend itself to the Baltic sea, the liberties of Sweden -and Denmark, and the very existence of the Reformation on the -Continent, seemed to be involved in no remote danger. To pull -down the power of Ferdinand and the Catholic League thus became -of vital moment to the King of Sweden. But though the Protestant -princes were ready to invoke his assistance in secret complaints, none -of them dared to conclude an open treaty with a distant prince, and -a kingdom hitherto obscure, and thus to incur the resentment of the -Emperor, whose formidable armies, anxious above all things for the -renewal of war and rapine, were at hand. Moreover, the jealousy -and selfishness of the chiefs of the Protestant union formed a greater -obstacle to the King of Sweden’s views, than even the weakness of -their individual states. Unable, therefore, to obtain the cordial and -willing co-operation of those who were linked to him by the bond of -a common interest, Gustavus had only the alternative to abandon -them to their fate and share the dangers which he sought to obviate, -or to take the equivocal and rarely defensible step of occupying their -territories and compelling their assistance, an unsolicited, though an -honourable and friendly, ally. He chose the latter.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>The shortest apology for this determination, which as a matter of -policy was opposed by Oxenstiern, may be found in the substance of -the king’s answer to that minister’s objections, as it is abridged by -Schiller in his History of the Thirty Years’ War. “If we wait for -the enemy in Sweden, in losing a battle, all is lost: all, on the contrary, -is gained if we obtain the first success in Germany. The sea is -large, and we have extensive coasts to watch. Should the enemy’s -fleet escape us, or our own be beaten, it is not possible for us to prevent -a landing. We must therefore use all our efforts for the preservation -of Stralsund. So long as this harbour shall be in our power -Ave shall maintain the honour of our flag in the Baltic, and shall be -able to keep up a free intercourse with Germany. But in order to -defend Stralsund we must not shut ourselves up in Sweden; but must -pass over with an army into Pomerania. Speak to me then no more -of a defensive war, by which we shall lose our most precious advantages. -Sweden herself must not behold the standards of the enemy; -and, if we are vanquished in Germany, it will still be time enough to -have recourse to your plan.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The army which Gustavus carried into Germany consisted only of -15,000 men; but it was formidable from its bravery, its high discipline, -and the reliance which the general and the troops felt upon -each other. “All excesses,” we quote from Schiller, “were punished -in a severe manner; but blasphemy, theft, gaming, and duelling, met -with a more severe chastisement. The Swedish articles of war prescribed -moderation; there was not to be seen in the Swedish camp, -even in the tent of the king, either gold or silver. The general’s -eye watched carefully over the manners of the soldiers, while it en-flamed -their courage in battle. Every regiment must each morning -and evening form itself in a circle round its chaplain, and, in the open -air, address prayers to the Almighty. In all this the legislator himself -served as a model. An unaffected and pure piety animated the -courage of his great mind. Equally free from that gross incredulity -which leaves without restraint the ferocious movements of the barbarian, -and the grovelling bigotry of a Ferdinand, who abased himself -in the dust before the Divinity, and yet disdainfully trampled on the -necks of mankind, in the height of his good fortune, Gustavus was -always a man and a Christian; amid all his devotion, the hero and -the king. He supported all the hardships of war like the lowest soldier -in his army; his mind was serene in the midst of the most furious -battle; his genius pointed out the results to him beforehand; everywhere -present, he forgot death which surrounded him, and he was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>always found where there was the greatest danger. His natural valour -made him too often lose sight of what was due to the general, and this -great king terminated his life as a common soldier. But the coward -as well as the brave followed such a leader to victory, and not any of -the heroical actions which his example had created ever escaped his -penetrating eye. The glory of their sovereign inflamed the entire -Swedish nation with a noble confidence; proud of his king, the peasant -of Finland and Gothland joyfully gave up what his poverty could -afford; the soldier willingly shed his blood; and that elevated sentiment -which the genius of this single man gave to the nation survived -him a considerable time.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gustavus took a solemn farewell of the States of the kingdom, May -20, 1630, presenting to them his daughter Christina, as his heir and -successor. Adverse winds delayed his departure, and it was not till -the 24th of June that he reached the coast of Pomerania. He disembarked -his army on the islands of Wollin and Usedom, at the mouth -of the Oder, and having taken possession of the strong town of Stettin -on the same river, established a sure footing on the continent, and secured -his means of retreat and communication with Sweden. To this -proceeding he gained a reluctant consent from the Duke of Pomerania, -who, though wearied and disgusted with the ravages of the Imperial -troops, was unwilling to commit himself in defence of that which still -appeared the weaker cause. But having no force to prevent the hostile, -if he refused to warrant the friendly, occupation of his country, he -made a virtue of necessity, and allied himself closely with the Swede.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gustavus’s progress at first produced no uneasiness at Vienna: the -courtiers called him the snow-king, and said in derision that he would -melt in his progress southward. But in the first campaign he nearly -cleared Pomerania of the Imperialists; and he was strengthened by -the accession of the Duke of Mecklenburg, who, having been despoiled -of his territories in favour of Wallenstein, now openly raised -troops in support of the King of Sweden. As winter approached, the -Imperialists negotiated for a suspension of arms; but Gustavus replied, -“The Swedes are soldiers in winter as well as summer, and are not -disposed to make the peaceable inhabitants of the country support -any longer than necessary the evils of war. The Imperialists may do -as they choose, but the Swedes do not intend to remain inactive.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile he met with cold support from the Protestant princes, in -whose cause he had taken arms. The chief of these was the Elector -of Saxony, who felt a jealousy, not unnatural, of the power and the ultimate -views of the King of Sweden, and was himself ambitious to play -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>the first part among the Protestants of Germany. Seeking to act independently, -and to hold the balance between Sweden and Austria, he -invited the Protestant States to a conference at Leipsic, February 6, -1613, at which it was determined to demand from the Emperor the redress -of grievances, and to levy an army of 40,000 men, to give weight -to their remonstrances. On the 13th of January, Gustavus had concluded -an alliance with France, by the terms of which he was to maintain -in Germany 30,000 men, France furnishing a subsidy of 400,000 -dollars yearly, to use his best endeavours to reinstate those princes who -had been expelled from their dominions by the Emperor, or the -Catholic League, and to restore the empire to the condition in which -it existed at the commencement of the war. Richelieu tried to bring -the princes who had joined in the convention of Leipsic to accede to -this alliance, but with very partial success. A few promised to support -the Swedes, when opportunity should favour; but the Electors -of Saxony and Brandenburg kept aloof. During these negotiations -Gustavus made progress in Brandenburg. The memorable siege and -destruction of Magdeburg, May 10, by Tilly, for a time cast a gloom -over the Protestant cause. Gustavus has been censured, both as a -man and a soldier, for suffering that well-deserving and important -place to fall without risking a battle in its behalf. His defence rests -upon the interposed delays, and the insincerity of the Electors, which -involved him in the risk of total destruction if he advanced thus far -without having his retreat secured. But even this signal misfortune -proved finally serviceable to the Protestant cause. It induced Gustavus -to adopt a different tone with his brother-in-law of Brandenburg, -who, finding no alternative but a real union or an open rupture with -Sweden, wisely chose the former. The pride of success led the Imperial -generals into acts of insolence, which induced the Landgrave -of Hesse Cassel, first of the German princes, to conclude a close and -hearty alliance with Sweden, and left the Elector of Saxony no choice -between entire dependence on the already exasperated Emperor, and -an effective support of the only power that could protect him. Accordingly -he formed a junction with the Swedes, and the united forces -joined battle with Tilly not far from Leipsic, September 7, 1631. -The opposing armies were nearly equal in strength. The stress of -the conflict fell on the right wing of the Swedes, where the King -commanded in person. The fiery Pappenheim led seven impetuous -charges of the whole Austrian cavalry against the Swedish battalions -without success, and, seven times repulsed, abandoned the field with -great loss. The Saxons on the left wing were broken by Tilly. But -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>the day was restored by a decisive movement of the Swedish right -wing upon Tilly’s flank, and the Imperialists dispersed in utter -confusion. Leipsic, Merseburg, and Halle speedily fell into the -victor’s hands; and no obstacle existed to check his advance even -to the heart of the Emperor’s hereditary dominions. This was a -tempting prospect to an ambitious man: but it would have abandoned -Germany to Tilly, who was already occupied in raising a fresh army; -and the King of Sweden determined to march towards Franconia and -the Rhine, to encourage by his presence the Protestants who wavered, -and to cut the sinews of the Catholic League, by occupying the -territories, and diverting the revenues of its princes. Bohemia lay -open to the Elector of Saxony, and he left it to that prince to divert -the Emperor’s attention, by carrying the war into that country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From Leipsic, Gustavus pursued his triumphant way to the southward. -The rich bishopric of Wurtzburg fell into his hands, almost -without resistance. Nuremburg placed itself under his protection. -The nobility and citizens of Franconia declared in his favour as soon -as they were relieved from the presence of the Imperial troops, and -when his drum beat for recruits, crowds flocked to the Swedish -standards. He pursued his course along the Maine to Frankfort, -which opened its gates, and received a Swedish garrison; and being -strengthened by the junction of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, with -10,000 men, he crossed the Rhine, and, after a short siege, became -master of Mentz by capitulation, December 13, 1631. There he gave -his troops a few weeks’ repose, being himself busily engaged in diplomatic -labours. Early in the following year he completed the conquest -of the Palatinate, and threatened to carry the war into Alsace and -Lorraine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The advance of Tilly recalled the King of Sweden into Franconia, -at the head of 40,000 men. Tilly then retreated into Bavaria, closely -followed by the enemy, who passed the Danube at Donawerth, forced -the passage of the Lech, and carried the war into the yet uninjured -plains of Bavaria. The passage of this river in the face of the enemy, -April 5, is regarded as one of the King of Sweden’s most remarkable -exploits. His old antagonist Tilly received a mortal wound on this -day. Munich, the capital, and the greater part of the Electorate, -yielded without resistance. The Emperor was now reduced to the -greatest difficulties. Bohemia was overrun by the Saxons, the Austrian -dominions lay open to invasion from Bavaria, Tilly was dead, -the Duke of Bavaria discouraged by his reverses, and inclined to purchase -peace by consenting to a neutrality. There was but one man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>capable by the charm of his name and the power of his talents to compete -with Gustavus, and he was Wallenstein. In his retirement that -wildly ambitious man had long been scheming to bring his master to -such a degree of abasement as should enable him to dictate his own -terms of reconciliation and assistance; and the time was come when -the Emperor saw himself obliged to consent to demands which almost -superseded his own authority, and invested his dangerous subject with -more than Imperial power. For this event Wallenstein’s plans had -long been maturing: a powerful army started up at once at his command, -and when it suited his secret purposes to act, Bohemia was -cleared of the Saxons more quickly than it had been conquered by -them. He then formed a junction with the Duke of Bavaria, and at -the head of 60,000 men advanced against Gustavus, who, not having -above 18,000 or 20,000 men with him, entrenched himself strongly -under the walls of Nuremburg. Wallenstein took up a strong position -against him, and the two generals, each hoping to exhaust the other -by scarcity of provisions, remained inactive till August 21, when Gustavus, -having drawn together his scattered forces, made a desperate -and fruitless attempt to carry the Imperial lines. Frustrated in this, -he returned to his encampment, which he quitted finally, September -8, and marched into Bavaria.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wallenstein followed his example on the 12th, and retired without -any hostile attempt on Nuremburg. He had determined to fix his -winter quarters in Saxony, hoping by the terror of his arms to detach -the Elector from the Swedish alliance; and had already advanced beyond -Leipsic, on his march against Dresden, when he was recalled -by the rapid approach of the King of Sweden. Gustavus arrived at -Nuremburg November 1, and entrenched himself there to wait for reinforcements -which he expected. Wallenstein, in the belief that his -adversary would be in no hurry to quit his strong position, proceeded -to canton his troops near Merseburg, in such a manner that they might -easily be called into action at the shortest notice, and detached Pappenheim -with a large division of the army upon distant service. As soon -as Gustavus heard of the latter movement, he marched in haste to -attack the diminished enemy, and Wallenstein, though with inferior -troops, was not slow to meet him. The King of Sweden’s last victory -was gained November 6, 1632, in the plain of Lutzen. Suffering -from a recent wound, he did not wear armour, and early in the day, -as he mingled in the front of the battle with his usual ardour, his left -arm was broken by a musket-ball. As he retreated from the press he -received another bullet in the back, and fell. His body was stripped -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>by the Imperialists, a furious contest took place for the possession of -it, and it was soon buried under a heap of slain. The Duke of -Weimar took the chief command, and completed the victory.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was probably fortunate for Gustavus’s honour that his brilliant -career was here cut short. He died when no more successes could -have enhanced the fame as a soldier which he had already acquired; -at a period, says Schiller, when he had ceased to be the benefactor of -Germany, and when the greatest service that he could render to German -liberty was to die. However pure his views had been at the -commencement of the war, success had taught him ambition. This -was shown by the homage to Sweden which he exacted from Augsburg -and other free cities of the empire, by his design of converting -the archbishopric of Mentz into an appanage of Sweden, and by his -reluctance to reinstate the Elector Palatine in the conquered Palatinate, -and the conditions which he finally exacted for so doing. And -whether or not he aimed at the Imperial throne, it is probable that his -life and prosperity would have proved no less dangerous to the constitution -of Germany, and the welfare of the Catholic states, than to the -Protestant, the ambition of Ferdinand II., and the Catholic League. -But dying thus early, he has preserved the reputation of sincere piety, -humanity in the field, heroic courage, consummate policy, and skill -united to success in the art of war, unequalled by any general since -the downfall of Rome. Of the improvements which he effected in -military tactics we have no room to speak: a full account of them, and -of his whole system, will be found in the Essay prefixed to Harte’s -‘History of Gustavus Adolphus.’ A more concise and spirited account -of the King of Sweden’s exploits in Germany, than is contained in that -laborious book, will be found in Schiller’s ‘History of the Thirty -Years’ War,’ which is translated both into French and English.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_009.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[From the original in the British Museum.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span> -<img src='images/i_010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>M. A. RAIMONDI.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The invention of the art of taking impressions on paper from an engraved -plate is, on the authority of Vasari, usually ascribed to Tommaso -Finiguerra, a celebrated enameller and chaser, of Florence, who, -having occasion to make a sulphur cast from a piece of plate in 1460, -observed that the charcoal dust and dirt which had collected in the -engraved lines of the metal were brought off upon the sulphur, so -as to present a counterpart of his work. Struck by the appearance, -he tried to produce a similar effect by passing moistened paper over -the plate, under pressure from a roller; and the experiment succeeded. -This is a natural and a probable account; from the earliest antiquity -the graver has been employed in embellishing armour, vessels of the -precious metals, and other valuable articles of use and ornament; and -it is certain that the earliest Italian engravers were, by profession, -workers in gold and silver. It is strange indeed that so obvious an -extension of the uses of engraving should not have been observed -sooner; but all experience teaches us that a very important discovery -may long lie very near the surface, before it meets with an observer -sufficiently clear-sighted or fortunate to bring it to light. The Germans, -however, contest priority of invention in this art with the Italians. -The matter is of no great importance, even to the national -fame of the two lands. Those prints which date before Albert Durer -in the one, and before Marc Antonio in the other, possess little value -either for their design or their execution, however precious they may -be to collectors for their rarity, or to antiquaries and artists as historical -records of the art.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_010fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />MARC ANTONIO RAIMONDI.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Rosaspina, after a Picture by Raphael.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Marc Antonio Raimondi was born at Bologna, about the year 1488: -the dates of his birth and death are not mentioned by Vasari, who is -the sole original authority for the private history of this artist. He -learnt the art of design from Francesco Francia, or Raibolini, after -whom he has sometimes been denominated Marc Antonio di Francia: -his first instructor in the use of the graver is said to have been a goldsmith. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>And as Hogarth set out on his career of art by ornamenting -tankards and shop-bills, so Marc Antonio at first gained his livelihood -as a jeweller’s workman. The first of his copper-plates which bears -a date represents the story of Pyramus and Thisbe, and was engraved -in 1505<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c011'><sup>[1]</sup></a>; but he is said to have executed others before it, among -which we find one only, the Four Horsemen, mentioned by name.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>Heinekin says 1502, by mistake. The print of Apollo and Hyacinth bears also -the date of 1505.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Induced by the desire of improvement in his art, he took a journey -to Venice. Here, for the first time, he saw Albert Durer’s engravings -on wood; which he admired so highly, both for correctness of outline -and accuracy of workmanship, that he bought the series of thirty-six -pieces, representing the passion of our Saviour, at a price which very -nearly exhausted his slender purse. These wood-cuts he copied upon -copper, with so much success that they were mistaken for the originals; -and Vasari says that Albert Durer complained in great anger to the -Venetian senate of the injury thus done to him, and obtained no other -redress than an order that Antonio should abstain from imitating his -signature. The Baron Heineken, on the contrary, asserts that the -existing copies of these prints do not bear the German artist’s mark, -and that no one has seen copies which do bear it; and he believes the -story, if founded on fact, to refer to a series of prints representing the -life of the Virgin Mary, in seventeen prints, which are exactly copied -from Durer, even to his cipher.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From Venice Marc Antonio went to Rome, where, to his inestimable -benefit, he became acquainted with Raphael, who perceived and -assisted his talents, certainly by advice, and, some say, even by manual -help. The outlines of Antonio’s plates after Raphael have been said -to be executed by the painter himself: but this is solely conjecture; -and it appears improbable that, in an art depending so much upon -manual dexterity, the more unpractised hand should be the superior -in precision and delicacy. But that Raphael was very much pleased -with the justice which Antonio rendered to his designs is certain. -He sent to Albert Durer copies of the Bolognese engraver’s works; -and Durer, however jealous he might be, and however justly displeased -at past occurrences, could not deny his rival’s merit, and acknowledged -the courtesy by sending impressions of his own works in -return. The honour of Raphael’s patronage, the admirable choice of -subjects afforded by his pictures, and the real benefit which any lover -and cultivator of art must have derived from his society, all combined -to raise Antonio’s fame; and many pupils came to study under him, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>among whom Marco di Ravenna, Agostino di Musis, and Giulio -Bonasoni, whose plates are highly valued by collectors, may be named -as most eminent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the death of Raphael, Antonio was largely employed by -Raphael’s distinguished pupil, Giulio Romano, and executed, among -other things, the designs which accompanied Aretin’s notorious sonnets. -These engravings attracted the just indignation of Pope -Clement VII., who cast the artist into prison. His release was procured -by the interference and interest of Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici -and Baccio Bandinelli; and, as a testimony of gratitude to the latter, -Antonio executed the engraving from his picture of the Martyrdom of -St. Lawrence. This print is twenty-one inches by sixteen in dimensions, -and is the largest and one of the finest of the artist’s works. -It procured for him the entire forgiveness and favour of the offended -pontiff. The plates to Aretin were so carefully suppressed, that -not a single specimen of them is now certainly known to exist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Rome was plundered by the Spaniards, in 1520, Marc -Antonio lost all his property. He returned to Bologna after this -misfortune, and was still leading a retired life there in 1539: the -battle of Centaurs and Lapithæ bears date in that year, and is the -last certain memorial of him. The combat of Hector and Achilles, -dated in 1546, though attributed to Marc Antonio, is considered by -the Baron Heineken to be at least doubtful. Malvasia relates that a -Roman nobleman, for whom Antonio had engraved a print of the -Massacre of Innocents, with an undertaking never to repeat the subject, -caused the artist to be assassinated for re-engraving it. But it -casts a doubt on the truth of this story, that it is not even alluded to by -Vasari.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Marc Antonio’s plates passed through the hands of Tommaso Barlacchi, -Antonio Salamanca, Antonio Lafreri, Nicholas Van Aelst, -and Rossi, or De Rubeis, of Rome. Of these publishers, the impressions -which bear Salamanca’s name, are most esteemed: but the best -are those which have no publisher’s name at all. The Baron Heineken, -in his elaborate ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous avons des -Estampes</span>,’ (from which this memoir is little more than a free translation,) -has given a minute catalogue of the works attributable to -Marc Antonio. He divides them into four classes:—prints really -engraved by the master, and bearing his marks, in number, 120; -prints engraved by him, but without mark, 126; prints doubtful, -66; and prints which belong to his era, and to his school, but are -by unknown hands. In this reckoning, series like the Passion of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>Christ, which consist of many plates, are counted only as single -works. Strutt, in his Dictionary of Engravers, and Bryan, in his -Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, give lists of the more remarkable -of Antonio’s productions; Bryan is the fuller, but neither of them -pretend to compete in extent and detail with the catalogue of Heineken; -whom Strutt has closely followed in his biographical notice of -this artist. He has given fac-similes of this engraver’s marks, seven -in number, in plate 9, vol. ii. We quote the following passages in -illustration of Marc Antonio’s merits and peculiar characteristics, from -the Essay on the History of Engraving, which is prefixed to Strutt’s -work.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“His engravings are often defective in point of harmony, and the -skilful management of the light and shadow, which gives them an unfinished -and sometimes disgustful appearance to the common eye. On -the other hand, a graceful flow of outline, joined with purity and correctness -of drawing in its greatest latitude, are found in the best works -of this master; but these beauties rarely attract the general notice -without the assistance of neatness, or what is more properly called -high finishing, especially in the present day (1786). The eye, long -accustomed to neatness and delicacy of finishing, especially where the -judgment is not capable of distinguishing the greater essentials of the -art, will necessarily consider that neatness to be the criterion of excellency. -Hence it is that the works of the old masters are fallen into -such general disrepute: their beauties are overlooked, and their faults -are viewed through a magnifying medium. And it is perhaps because -Marc Antonio stands the first among the old masters, that he has -received a greater share of censure than the rest.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The excellency of this master consists in the correctness of his -drawing, the character of his heads, and the pure idea his works convey -of the simplicity and elegance of the originals they are taken -from: and they may be considered as admirable drawings, not highly -finished indeed, but sufficiently so to preserve the design and spirit of -the masters from whom he worked.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“That persons possessed of little judgment in the arts should not discover -the merits of this engraver, cannot surprise us; but that artists -themselves, and experienced collectors, should join in the common -censure, is much more extraordinary. In these instances, we may -conclude, he has been too hastily, as he has certainly been unjustly, -condemned, without a proper examination of his works in their native -state. Such as generally appear at sales, and too many of those in -the hands of collectors, are either worn-out impressions, or what is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>still worse, retouched ones. In these the primitive beauty is entirely -lost. Let any one, for instance, examine the common impressions of -that admirable engraving of this master, representing the Martyrdom -of St. Lawrence, from Baccio Bandinelli, which is the largest of all -his prints, and he will find the outlines darkened with black strokes -upon the lights, and the demitints upon the flesh increased, so as -nearly to equal the deep shadows; by which means all the breadths -of light are destroyed, and cut into a variety of disagreeable divisions, -which produce a disgustful and inharmonious effect. But in a fine -impression of the same plate, there are none of these disagreeable -crudities to be found; the shadows are judiciously softened and -blended into the lights, and harmonized with each other; the outlines -are neat and correct; and the characters of the heads admirably well -expressed. In short, he would scarcely believe it possible that the -same plate should furnish impressions, so beautiful in one state, and -so truly execrable in the other. But the wonder ceases, if he be told -that the plate, passing through a variety of hands, has been frequently -retouched, and that by careless and unskilful men. We may further -add, that as the name of Marc Antonio stands high among the -curious collectors, the ignorant are too frequently imposed upon by -bad copies, or spurious productions.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>A very excellent and extensive collection of the engravings of Marc -Antonio, and of his pupils, exists in the British Museum, which, with -the exception of a few of the extremely rare prints, presents a better -assemblage than most public or private cabinets can boast of, whether -as to number, beauty of impression, or condition.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_014.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Poesy, from a print by Marc Antonio.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_015fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />COKE.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Hall of Sergeant’s Inn, Chancery Lane.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span> -<img src='images/i_015.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>COKE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Edward Coke, the only son of Robert Coke, of Mileham, in the -county of Norfolk, and Winifred, daughter and one of the heirs of -William Knightley, of Morgrave-Knightley, in the same county, was -born at Mileham, February 1, 1551. He was descended, both by -his father’s and his mother’s side, from ancient and opulent families. -His father, who was a bencher of Lincoln’s Inn, died in the year -1561, when Edward Coke was ten years old. Before that event he -had been sent to the Free Grammar School at Norwich, whence, in -September, 1567, he removed to Cambridge, and was admitted as a -fellow commoner at Trinity College. After having spent three years -at the University he returned into Norfolk for a few months, and then -went to London to commence his legal education. According to the -practice of that time, he took the first step of his legal course by becoming -a member of Clifford’s Inn, a house of Chancery, or inferior -inn, dependent upon the Inner Temple, and was admitted into the -latter society, April 24, 1572. He was called to the bar in Easter -Term, 1578. During the continuance of his studies in the Inner -Temple, he is said to have greatly distinguished himself in the exercises -called mootings and readings, which constituted a necessary -part of the education of an advocate in former times, and which were -carried on with a degree of interest and excitement almost incredible -to those who at the present day peruse the details of these grotesque -and antiquated proceedings.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the course of the year after his call to the bar, the society of the -Inner Temple appointed him reader at Lyon’s Inn; and the learning -displayed by him, in the conduct of the exercises at which he presided -in this capacity, raised for him a high reputation as a lawyer, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>opened the way to that extensive practice at the bar, which he acquired -with a degree of rapidity almost without a parallel in the history -of the profession. In the first term after he was called to the -bar he conducted an argument of much nicety and importance, which -is reported by the name of Lord Cromwell’s Case; “And this,” he -says, in his own report of it (4 Rep. 146), “was the first cause that -the author of this book moved in the King’s Bench.” Less than -three years afterwards he was associated with Popham, the Solicitor -General, in arguing before the Chancellor and the twelve judges the -important case in which was laid down the celebrated doctrine in the -law of real property, well known as the ‘Rule in Shelley’s Case.’ -From that period until he became Solicitor General in 1592, his practice -was enormous: it appears from the Reports of that time that there -was scarcely a single motion or argument before the court of King’s -Bench in which he was not engaged. Professional honours were the -legitimate consequence of this large business in the courts; in 1586 -he was chosen Recorder of Norwich, and four years afterwards was -made a bencher of the Inner Temple. In January, 1592, on the -resignation of Serjeant Fleetwood, he was elected Recorder of London; -but, in the following June, on being appointed Solicitor General, he -resigned that office. In the same summer he became Reader of the -Inner Temple, and selected the Statute of Uses for the subject of his -readings. He says that he had composed seven readings for this -occasion, and had delivered five of them to a large audience, consisting -of not less than 160 members of the society, when the appearance of -the plague in the Middle Temple, which raged with great violence in -the autumn of that year, compelled him to discontinue them, and to -leave London abruptly for his house at Huntingfield in Suffolk. Such -was the honour and respect in which he was held by the profession, -that on this occasion he was accompanied on his journey, as far as -Romford, by a procession composed of nine benchers and forty other -members of the Inner Temple. In March, 1594, he was appointed -Attorney General, and, as the office of Solicitor continued vacant until -the close of the following year, the duties and labours of both offices -during that interval devolved upon him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this period originated the animosity between Coke and Bacon, -which prevailed with little intermission during the life of the latter. -As soon as the office of Attorney General became vacant, in consequence -of the removal of Sir Thomas Egerton, the Earl of Essex -used his most strenuous efforts to induce the Queen to bestow that -place upon Bacon, instead of promoting Sir Edward Coke from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>inferior office of Solicitor General. The letters of Bacon, written to -Essex and others, with relation to this intrigue, abound with sarcastic -and contemptuous expressions respecting Coke, whose high reputation -and great experience certainly marked him out as fitter for the -office than his rival, whose practice at the bar was never extensive, -and who was then scarcely known in the courts. After Coke had -obtained the appointment of Attorney General, Bacon and his friends -charged him first with intriguing to keep the emoluments of both -offices in his own hands, and afterwards with recommending Serjeant -Fleming for the vacant solicitorship and encouraging the antipathies -and prejudices of the Queen against Bacon. There is, however, no -evidence to show that these imputations were true; and if Coke -really urged the appointment of Fleming, it might well be with the -view of obtaining a more experienced and efficient coadjutor than -Bacon.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In truth, the state services imposed upon the Attorney General -at this time were extremely laborious. The severity of the laws -recently introduced against Roman Catholics had occasioned a succession -of plots by foreign adventurers against the person of the -Queen, more or less dangerous, the investigation of which was necessarily -committed to the Attorney General. The treasons of Lopez, -the Queen’s physician, of Patrick Cullen, and of Williams and Yorke, -all occurred about this period; and the business of constant examination -at the Tower, in addition to his Star Chamber duties and his undiminished -practice in the common-law courts, must have imposed a -weight of labour and responsibility upon Coke, which no mind of -ordinary activity and energy could have sustained. Whole volumes -of examinations in these cases of treason, taken by himself and written -with his own hand, are still preserved at the State Paper Office, and -sufficiently attest his zeal and assiduity in the service.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In February, 1593, Coke, being at that time Solicitor General, was -elected a member of parliament for his native county of Norfolk. In -his own memorandum of this circumstance he says, that the election -was “unanimous, free, and spontaneous, without any canvassing or -solicitation on his part.” At the meeting of parliament he was chosen -Speaker of the House of Commons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1582, Coke married the daughter and heiress of John -Paston, Esq., of Huntingfield, in Suffolk, through whom he became -connected with several families of great opulence and importance, and -with whom he received a fortune of 30,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>—a very large dowry in -those days. By this lady he had ten children. She died in June 1598; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>and in his private register of this event in the Notes, which have been -often before referred to, he calls her “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">dilectissima et præclarissima -uxor</span>,” and concludes his brief notice of her decease thus:—“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bene et -beaté vixit, et tanquam vera ancilla Domini obdormivit in Domino, et -nunc vivit et regnat in cœlo.</span>” In the month of November in the same -year, Coke contracted a second marriage with the widow of Sir -William Hatton, daughter of Thomas Lord Burleigh, and grand-daughter -of the Lord High Treasurer, which, though it was an advantageous -alliance in point of connection and brought him a considerable -accession of property, was by no means a source of domestic -happiness. The marriage itself involved all the parties concerned in -considerable embarrassment: for having taken place without license -or banns, Coke and his lady, together with the clergyman, Lord -Burleigh, and all who were present at the ceremony, were cited to -appear in the Archbishop’s Court; and it was only in consequence -of their making full submission, and pleading their ignorance of the -law, (a singular excuse in Coke’s mouth,) that they escaped the sentence -and penalties of excommunication.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sir Edward Coke held the office of Attorney General until the -death of Queen Elizabeth, and with the exception of the Earl of -Essex, who always disliked him, enjoyed the fullest confidence of her -ministers, and in particular of Sir Robert Cecil. He had always been -favourable to the title of James I., and upon the death of Elizabeth, -is said to have co-operated cordially with Cecil and the other members -of the late Queen’s council in making the necessary arrangements -for the peaceable accession of the king of Scotland to the -crown. James, upon his arrival in London, continued him in his -office of Attorney General, and conferred upon his eldest son the -honour of knighthood.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Coke’s sound judgment and extensive legal knowledge, united with -his fervent attachment to Protestantism, rendered him an invaluable -officer of the crown in the various proceedings against the Roman -Catholics at the close of Elizabeth’s reign, and the beginning of that -of James I. In the examinations respecting the several assassination-treasons, -which have been already mentioned, as well as that of -Squire in 1598, of the Raleigh conspiracy in 1603, of the Gunpowder -Plot in 1605, and of numerous other treasonable and seditious -movements imputed to the Catholics during the period that he filled -the office of Attorney General, he engaged with a zeal and ardour -far beyond mere professional excitement: and the temper displayed -in his speeches and general conduct on the several trials is much more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>that of a religious partisan than of a legal advocate. It is common -with Catholic writers to attribute to him the utmost barbarity in the -use of the rack and the general treatment of prisoners under examination. -That he, who in his writings inveighs most strenuously against -the use of torture, was nevertheless in his official character the constant -instrument of the Privy Council for applying this odious process, -is beyond all question: but it must be remembered that what -he wrote on this subject was written long after the period of which we -are now speaking, and in the dawn of a better order of things; and also -that the use of the rack for discovering State secrets was common -throughout Europe in his time, and had been the daily practice of the -Privy Council in England for centuries before he was born. There -is no satisfactory proof that he was coarse and cruel in his conduct -towards prisoners under examination; and on the contrary, Father -Cornelius, the Jesuit, who had been examined by him respecting the -Popish Plots in Queen Elizabeth’s time, told Garnet that he had -found him “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">omnium hominum humanissimus</span>;” and Garnet himself, -in his intercepted correspondence, admits, as he also did on his trial, -that he was constantly treated by him with the utmost courtesy and -kindness.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the advocate of the crown on trials for State offences, he displayed -a degree of intemperance and asperity shocking to the feelings -of readers, who are familiar only with the more civilized character -of criminal proceedings at the present day. His vulgar vituperation -of Raleigh, and his more measured sarcasm towards Essex, were -extremely offensive even to his contemporaries, and were remembered -against him with malicious eagerness on his own reverse of fortune. -“In your pleadings,” says Bacon to him on the eve of his discharge -from the office of Lord Chief Justice, “you were wont to insult over -misery, and to inveigh bitterly at the persons; which bred you many -enemies, whose poison yet swelleth, and the effects now appear.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the trials of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot in 1606, -the career of Sir Edward Coke as an advocate closed. In the month -of June in that year he received his appointment as Chief Justice of -the Common Pleas. He retained this situation upwards of seven -years; and, in the discharge of the common judicial duties at this -period, his profound learning and unwearied industry procured him -the highest reputation. At this time too, though he has sometimes -been reproached for a haughty and unconciliating deportment on the -bench, the bitterness of temper which he had displayed at the bar -appears to have been suppressed or softened; and in several constitutional -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>questions of the highest importance which occurred while he -was Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, and in which he resolutely -opposed the views of the king, especially in the conflicts between the -ecclesiastical jurisdictions and the courts of common law, and in his -resistance to the encroachment of prerogative on the subject of royal -proclamations, he displayed great integrity and independence. With -a view to corrupt his uncompromising disposition, his crafty and ambitious -rival, Sir Francis Bacon, who was then Solicitor General, -suggested his promotion to the Chief Justiceship of the King’s Bench; -and accordingly he received his patent for that office in October, 1613, -and a few days afterwards took his seat at the board as a Privy Councillor. -In the following year he was elected High Steward of the -University of Cambridge.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The project of making the Chief Justice “turn obsequious” by -his advancement, which was no doubt entertained by the court, and -was expressly avowed by Bacon, altogether failed. In the case of -Peacham, who was prosecuted for treason in the year 1615, for having -in his possession a sermon supposed to contain sedition, written by -him, but never preached or published, Lord Coke expressed an -opinion, in direct opposition to the wishes of the court, that the offence -was not treason. His deportment at the trial of Somerset and the -murderers of Sir Thomas Overbury, in the same year, though praised -by Bacon in conducting the case as Attorney General, gave much -displeasure to the king; and his independent conduct in the case of -Commendams, which occurred in 1616, finally determined the court -to remove him from his office. The transaction was this. A -serjeant-at-law, in the discharge of his duty as an advocate in the -Court of Common Pleas, was supposed to have used matter in his -argument which tended to abridge, or at least to question, the royal -prerogative; upon this the king required the judges to proceed no -further in the case without his warrant. The twelve judges conferred -upon this message, and resolved that in a common dispute between -party and party, it was their duty to proceed notwithstanding the -king’s mandate. Upon this they were summoned to the council table, -and personally reprimanded by the king; and all of them, excepting -the Lord Chief Justice, acknowledged their error, and craved pardon -for their offence upon their knees. Sir Edward Coke, on the contrary, -boldly justified his opinion, contending that the king’s command -for staying the proceedings was a delay of justice, and consequently -against the law, and contrary to the judges’ oath. After much discussion, -the Lords of the council proposed the following question to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>the judges:—“Whether in a case where the king believed his prerogative -or interest concerned, and required the judges to attend him for -advice, they ought not to stay proceedings till his Majesty had consulted -them?” All the judges at once answered in the affirmative, -except Coke, who only said “that, when the case happened, he -would do his duty.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The court now despaired of bending the stubborn integrity of the -Chief Justice, and determined at all events to displace him. Accordingly, -as a preliminary to his removal, he was summoned before -the Council and charged with several frivolous accusations, some of -them founded upon alleged malversations while he was Attorney -General, to all of which he returned distinct answers. Soon afterwards, -being again summoned to appear before the Council, he was -reprimanded, sequestered from the Council-table during the King’s -pleasure, enjoined not to ride the summer circuit as Judge of Assize, -and ordered to employ his leisure in revising certain “extravagant -and exorbitant opinions” set down, as was pretended, in his Book -of Reports. He received his writ of discharge from the office of Chief -Justice, in November, 1616; and was succeeded by Sir Henry Montague, -who was expressly warned by the Lord Chancellor Egerton -“to avoid the faults of his predecessor, who had been removed for his -excessive popularity.” The discharge of a judge of unrivalled learning -and incorruptible integrity for the exercise of the very qualities -which rendered him an honour and an ornament to his station, forms -a part of the long catalogue of weak and wicked actions which disgraced -the reign of James I., and directed the course of events to -that catastrophe by which the fate of the Stuart family was decided.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From causes, not very distinctly explained in the letters and histories -of the day, but which are supposed to have been connected with an intrigue -for the marriage of his daughter to Sir John Villiers, afterwards -Viscount Purbeck, and brother to the celebrated Duke of Buckingham, -Sir Edward Coke, though he never afterwards filled any judicial -situation, was, at no long interval, restored to a certain degree of royal -favour; and in September, 1617, he was reinstated as a member of the -Privy Council. In the course of the next three years he was employed -in several commissions of a public nature; and in the Parliament which -assembled in 1620 he was returned as a Member for the Borough of -Liskeard in Cornwall. In this Parliament he distinguished himself -as one of the most able and zealous advocates of the liberal measures -which were proposed; he declared himself a strenuous opponent of -the pernicious monopolies by which at that period the freedom of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>trade was fettered, and took an animated part in that struggle between -the prerogative pretensions of James and the freedom of debate, -which ended in the celebrated resolution of the Commons, “That the -liberties, franchises, privileges, and jurisdictions of Parliament are -the ancient and undoubted birth-right and inheritance of the subjects -of England.” The consequence was, that he was arrested on one of -those vague and senseless charges which prevailed in those evil days, -and committed to the Tower, in December, 1621, where he remained -a close prisoner until the month of August in the ensuing year. On -this occasion, he was a second time formally dismissed from the Council-table, -and was never afterwards restored to favour at Court.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the first Parliament of Charles I., called in April, 1625, Sir E. -Coke was again returned as one of the knights of the shire for the -county of Norfolk, as he says in his note, without any canvassing -or solicitation on his part. At the commencement of this Parliament -he adopted a moderate tone. He dissuaded the House -from insisting upon grievances, and urged conciliatory measures; -saying, that “as it was the very beginning of the new king’s reign, -there could be no grievances as yet.” But this disposition to peace -was overcome by the determined tendency of the crown to arbitrary -measures; and the king being unable to obtain any other answer -to his demand of a subsidy, than repeated remonstrances against -grievances, abruptly dissolved the Parliament. He was compelled, -however, by his pecuniary wants, to assemble a new one in the -course of the same year, having previously appointed Sir Edward -Coke and three other popular leaders sheriffs of counties, in order to -prevent their serving as members. Coke was again returned as -knight of the shire for Norfolk; and though he did not take his seat, -and consequently took no part in the proceedings of that Parliament, -it was considered that he was still <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">de facto</span></i> a member of the House, -and for that reason no new writ was issued to supply his place. On -occasion of the third Parliament summoned by Charles I. in March, -1628, Sir Edward Coke was returned for two counties, Buckingham -and Suffolk. He elected to serve for the former. In this Parliament, -though now in his 79th year, this extraordinary man asserted -and defended the constitutional rights of the people of England with -all the energy of youth, and the sagacity of age. By his advice, -and with his active co-operation and assistance, which his extensive -and varied experience rendered particularly valuable, the celebrated -Petition of Right was framed; and by his perseverance and reasoning -the Lords were, after many conferences, induced to concur in that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>measure, which was, at last, and after many ineffectual attempts at -evasion, reluctantly assented to by the king. One of the last acts of -his public life was his spirited denunciation of the Duke of Buckingham -as the cause of all the misfortunes of the country. As a proof of -the earnest feelings by which he was impressed, Rushworth records -that, on this occasion, “Sir Edward Coke, overcome with passion, -seeing the desolation likely to ensue, was forced to sit down when he -began to speak, through the abundance of tears.” At the close of -the Session of Parliament, in March, 1629, the growing infirmities -of age induced him to withdraw from public life, and he passed -the remainder of his days in retirement on his estate at Stoke -Pogis, in Buckinghamshire. Still it appears that his vigorous and -active mind was not without employment; and the last years of his -life are said to have been occupied by the revision of the numerous -unpublished works which he left behind him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last entry in his note-book, written with almost as firm a hand -as he wrote at the age of 40, records the following incident, which -may possibly have been the cause of his death:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Memorandum. <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Die Jovis</span>, the iii<sup>rd</sup> of May, 1632, riding in the -morning in Stoke, between eight and nine of the clocke to take the -ayre, my horse under me had a strange stumble backward, and fell -upon me (being above 80 years old), where my head lighted nere to -sharpe stubbes, and the heavy horse upon me. And yet, by the providence -of Almighty God, though I was in the greatest danger, yet -I had not the least hurt,—nay, no hurt at all. For Almighty God -saith by his prophet David, ‘The angel of the Lord tarieth round -about them that feare him, and delivereth them.’ <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Et nomen Domini -benedictum</span>, for it was his work!”</p> - -<p class='c000'>He died on the 3rd of September, in the following year, repeating -with his last breath the words, “Thy kingdom come, thy will be -done.” He was interred in the burying-place of the Coke family in -the church of Titeshall, in Norfolk.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lloyd, in his “State Worthies,” gives the following account of Sir -Edward Coke:—“His parts were admirable; he had a deep judgment, -faithful memory, active fancy. And the jewel of his mind was put -into a fair case,—a beautiful body with a comely countenance;—a -case, which he did wipe and keep clean, delighting in good clothes, -well worn, and being wont to say ‘that the outward neatness of our -bodies might be a monitor of purity to our souls.’”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The most celebrated of Sir Edward Coke’s works is the treatise -commonly known by the name of Coke upon Littleton, or the First -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>Institute. It consists of a minute and laborious Commentary upon -the text of Littleton’s Tenures, in the course of which almost the -whole learning of the common law, as it existed in his time, is embodied -and explained. Ever since the time of Sir Edward Coke to -the present day, this book has been considered as a work of the -highest authority in the municipal law of England. The Second -Institute contains Commentaries on several ancient statutes; the -Third Institute is a Treatise on Criminal Law; and the Fourth -Institute relates to the Jurisdiction of different Courts. Besides -these works, Sir Edward Coke was the author of a Treatise on Copyholds, -entitled “The Complete Copyholder,” and of a “Reading on -Fines.” He also published a collection of Reports, which are still of -great value to the profession; and at the time of their appearance -formed an epoch in the history of the law. Sir Francis Bacon speaks -of this produce of the industry and learning of his great rival in -terms of high and deserved commendation; and justly ascribes to the -Reports the praise of having preserved the vessel of the common law -in a steady and consistent course; “For the law,” says he, “by -this time had been like a ship without ballast, for that the cases of -modern experience are fled from those that are adjudged and ruled -in former time.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_024.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Westminster Hall.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_025fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />GIBBON.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Ja<sup>s</sup>. Hall, after a Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span> -<img src='images/i_025.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>GIBBON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was -born at Putney in Surrey, in May, 1737. He was the eldest son of -Edward Gibbon, a gentleman of some fortune, and a strong attachment -to Tory principles. His mother’s name was Porten. But in -his Memoirs, written at the close of his life, he betrays no strong sense -of gratitude or affection towards either of his parents; while he -acknowledges with abundant warmth the most important obligations -to his aunt, Catharine Porten. To her lessons he ascribes his “invincible -love for reading;” to her care he attributes the very preservation -of his precarious life; and he designates her, in the calmness -of distant reflection, as the true mother both of his body and his -mind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From a private school he was removed to Westminster; from -Westminster to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was admitted -as a gentleman-commoner, April 3, 1752. About this time his -constitution, hitherto extremely feeble, acquired a sudden vigour, -which never deserted him during the rest of his life. At Oxford he -made absolutely no proficiency in any branch of knowledge, or any -useful accomplishment. “To the University of Oxford (he says) I -acknowledge no obligation; and she will as cheerfully renounce me -for a son, as I am willing to disclaim her for a mother.” Accordingly -he exhausts the severity of his sarcasm, both upon the system which -was there established, and upon the men who administered it, without -honestly inquiring whether he had laboured to extract, even -from an imperfect system, the modicum of advantage which it was -capable of yielding. But his recollections of Oxford were embittered -by his subsequent contest with some of the clergy, and the hostile -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>treatment which he sustained at their hands; and the principles which -he embraced in after life would have rendered him equally intolerant -of any institution, standing on a religious foundation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During his residence at Oxford, and at the usually unreflecting age -of sixteen, he was converted to the Roman Catholic faith. He was -first stirred to thought by the “bold criticism” of Middleton. He -then “swallowed” the miracles of the Basils, the Chrysostoms, and -other Fathers of the Church; and Bossuet achieved the conquest by -the ‘Exposition of the Catholic Doctrine,’ and the ‘History of the -Variations.’ And then he made his formal recantation before a Jesuit, -named Baker, one of the Chaplains of the Sardinian Ambassador. -In his retrospect upon this the most singular incident in the history -of his mind, Gibbon might indeed profess to be proud of his change -of opinion, as a sacrifice of interest to principle; but he probably -conveys his habitual reflections more faithfully when he says, with -his usual strength: “To my present feelings it seems incredible that -I should ever believe that I believed in transubstantiation.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was immediately removed from Oxford, and placed under the -care of a tutor at Lausanne. To a Swiss pastor, named Pavillard, -was entrusted the delicate office of disentangling the mind of Gibbon -from the intricacies of popery, and leading it back again into the pale -of the Protestant Church. He succeeded: by seasonable arguments, -and judicious admonitions, aided perhaps by the influence of a mild -and benevolent character, he prevailed over the hasty caprice of a -powerful intellect; and on Christmas-day, in 1754, Gibbon publicly -renounced his adopted creed, and received the sacrament in the church -of Lausanne. There is no reason to suspect the sincerity of this -recantation, or to believe that he had yet fallen either into scepticism, -or indifference.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He remained, in the whole, five years at Lausanne, and by his -“serious character, and soft and quiet manners” he won the respect -and affection of his tutor. During this time he laid the foundation of -those studious habits, which formed the pride and happiness of his -later life. Besides a passionate devotion to French literature and -great diligence in forming a correct style in that language, he read, -according to a regular system, the whole of the Latin Classics; he -acquired the rudiments of Greek; and gained some insight into the -principles of mathematics. But this last pursuit he never afterwards -renewed; though he would lead us to believe that a readiness in calculation -was the talent of his childhood, and that nature had qualified -him to succeed in that branch of application.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>He was presented to Voltaire, at that time resident at Geneva, without -being distinguished by any particular mark of his attention. Yet -he was a constant spectator at the poet’s little theatre, when he recited -his own verses, and represented his own characters. It was likewise -during this period that he formed an attachment for Madlle. Curchod, -the daughter of a Swiss pastor, and afterwards the wife of Necker. -The attachment appears to have been mutual; but his father prevented -the marriage, and he remained faithful during the rest of his life to -the memory of his youthful passion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He returned to England in May, 1758, and remained there, with a -short interval, for the twenty-five following years. His father’s -residence was Buriton, near Petersfield; and, as he passed some time -there, he became in 1760 a captain in the South Hampshire militia: -an incident which might well pass unnoticed in the life of an ordinary -person, but which in this case is dignified by the value which Gibbon -himself has set upon it, and the conviction long afterwards expressed -by him—“that the captain of the Hampshire Grenadiers was not -useless to the historian of the Roman Empire.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the disbanding of the militia, in the beginning of 1763, he spent -two or three months at Paris, from which he proceeded on his second -visit to Lausanne. Here he remained for a year, occupied in various -studies, especially that of geography; and then passed, in the spring -of 1764, into Italy. An ardent curiosity, nourished by reading and -meditation, carried him directly to Rome; and the emotions with -which he approached and entered the Eternal City were, after an -interval of twenty-five years, still fresh in his memory. “After a -sleepless night I trod, with a lofty step, the ruins of the Forum; each -memorable spot where Romulus stood, or Tully spoke, or Cæsar fell, -was at once present to my eye; and several days of intoxication were -lost or enjoyed, before I could descend to a cool or minute investigation.” -His enthusiasm gradually gave way to deep and philosophical -reflection, not uninfluenced either by the scenes which surrounded -him, or by the recollection of the past. He became curious to trace -the links which connected what he had read with what he saw; and -it was when he was musing in the ruins of the Capitol, <em>while the barefooted -friars were singing vespers in the Temple of Jupiter</em>, that the -idea of writing the Decline and Fall of the City first started to his -mind. This idea, once suggested, was never abandoned; and -though other avocations prevented him from immediately pursuing it, -it remained immovably fixed in his mind, and was the object of his -perpetual meditation.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>Without claiming any precocity of genius, Gibbon describes his -mind as having opened considerably in his twelfth year. He had an -early and indiscriminate appetite for books, and had indulged it in -much desultory reading even before his admission at Oxford. A preference -for historical works already displayed itself. His attention -was fixed by the accounts of Mahomet and the Saracens; and the -‘Continuation of Echard’s Roman History’ first introduced him to the -successors of Constantine. But, as his studies had been directed only -by his own curiosity, his information was partial and ill-digested, and -more useful as the result of literary habits, than as a fund for the use -of his maturer years. Yet even thus early he made an essay at historical -composition; and the subject showed that his mind had been -chiefly attracted by the records of the Eastern World. The ‘Age -of Sesostris,’ suggested perhaps by the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Siècle de Louis XIV.</span>,’ then -new and popular, was the first production of the pen of Gibbon. -But this attempt was presently abandoned; though the unfinished -manuscript remained for twenty years at the bottom of a drawer, and -was not finally destroyed till 1772. His first publication was an -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai sur l’Etude de la Littérature</span>.’ It appeared in the spring of -1761, and was written in French, through a secret ambition in the -author to acquire a peculiar celebrity, as a successful writer in a -foreign language. This dream, however, was not realised. The -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai</span>’ was received with little enthusiasm abroad, with absolute -indifference at home. Nor, indeed, were its intrinsic merits, clouded -as they were by an obscure and abrupt style, sufficient to establish -the author’s claims to the reputation which he sought.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gibbon then turned his thoughts to some historical subject; and -among many that attracted him were The Life of Raleigh; The -History of the Liberty of the Swiss; and that of the Republic of -Florence under the House of Medici. But he appears not to have -engaged seriously in any one of these, at the time of his second departure -for the Continent. To the second of those subjects however -he afterwards returned, again discarding his native tongue, for the -use of what he deemed a more general language. He wrote his -‘History of Switzerland’ in Latin. But having caused a specimen -of it to be recited in a society of literary foreigners in London, at -which he was himself present, though not known as the author, he -had the affliction of hearing its condemnation. He submitted to the -sentence, and delivered the imperfect sheets to the flames. And it -was in the same year (October 24, 1767) that Hume addressed to -him a very sensible exhortation to confine his compositions to his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>own language, as that which was destined, through conquest and -colonization, to the most general prevalence in after-ages. It was -worthy of the riper wisdom and genius of Hume, to direct the rising -candidate for historical fame into the path wherein alone it was possible -to find it; and to enlarge his views, to teach him to look beyond -the actual and transient condition of the world, and fix his eyes upon -the generations that were to come.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gibbon mentions three works as having more than any others contributed -to the formation of his mind: ‘Pascal’s Provincial Letters;’ -‘The Life of Julian, by the Abbé Bletterie;’ and ‘Giannone’s History -of Naples.’ Not one of them was English; he acknowledges no -early obligations to the literature of his own country; in fact, those -five years which usually decide the character of the rest of life were -entirely passed abroad, in the study and perpetual use of foreign -languages, and the imitation of foreign literature. It was not then -wonderful that he should continue for some time longer to follow the -first impulse. But repeated failures would doubtless have shown him -the false position in which he stood, even without the seasonable admonition -administered by the authority of Hume.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Gibbon returned immediately from Italy to England, and retired to -the peaceful retreat of his family and his books. Yet the five years -which followed were those on which he reflected with least satisfaction. -He was dependent on his father’s generosity, he had no professional -occupation for an active and ambitious mind, his very reading -was somewhat desultory, and his whole energies were not yet devoted -to one great object. He felt the absence of this; and it was ill supplied -by his ‘Critical Observations on the 6th Book of the Æneid,’ -or his attempt at the History of Switzerland. The death of his -father, in 1770, placed him in possession of a moderate fortune and -of entire independence; and then it was that he entered in good -earnest on the ‘History of the Decline and Fall.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1772 he settled in London, and obtained a seat in parliament -for Liskeard. He adhered to the Government of Lord North, and by -“many a sincere and silent vote” on the American question, supported -the rights (as he says), though not perhaps the interests, of the mother -country. As a senator, he acquired no distinction. A mixture of -timidity and pride, a want of physical energy and of that ready vigour -of mind, which fits men for public life, better than habits of the sagest -meditation, disqualified him for political polemics: and even his -general opinions seem at that time to have been so little fixed, that -when at last he accepted a place at the Board of Trade under Lord -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>North, he gave surprise and offence to the opposition, who considered -him as on their side. He fell with his patron; and his natural distaste -for politics being probably increased by this and a subsequent -disappointment, he retired for ever from the disquietudes of public life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During his residence in London, he published the first three -volumes of his History. On the composition of the first he had -bestowed peculiar care, and its reception repaid his labours. A very -laudatory letter, which he received from Hume, foretold the attacks to -which the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters would subject him; for -which he was entirely unprepared. And in his subsequent reflections -on this subject, he admits that, had he foreseen the offence they were -calculated to give, he “might perhaps have softened the two invidious -chapters, which would create many enemies, and conciliate few -friends.” Among his ecclesiastical opponents, by far the most eloquent -and powerful was Bishop Watson, whose high-minded hostility -deserved the respect bestowed on it by the historian himself, in his -celebrated Vindication.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The second and third volumes were not so favourably received as -the first; the author himself admits that they are possibly too minute -and prolix: and the work made as yet no progress on the continent. -But he persevered with increasing zeal in the labour which was now -become necessary to his happiness; and that he might the more exclusively -devote himself to it, he returned to establish himself at Lausanne, -in 1783, nearly twenty years after his second visit to that -place. He made it his residence until 1793, and there composed the -last three volumes of his history: and he has carefully recorded, that -it was on the 27th of June, 1787, between eleven and twelve at night, -in a summer-house in his garden, that he wrote the last sentence. -His fourth volume cost him rather more than two years, his fifth -rather less, and the sixth little more than one. It had been his -habit, till quite at last, to close his studies with the day, and commonly -begin them with the morning, and the result of this late change -is observed in the increased rapidity with which the latter portion of -the work was written. He visited England to superintend the printing -of these three volumes, and published them together on his fifty-first -birthday.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He lived only five years and seven months longer: and his premature -death (for he died during the full vigour of all his faculties and -talents) may be ascribed to his own singular improvidence. He had -been afflicted above thirty years by a disease requiring surgical assistance, -which he altogether neglected till it became incurable. He died -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>January 16, 1794, at the house of his friend Lord Sheffield, and was -buried in his lordship’s family vault at Fletching in Sussex.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of his miscellaneous works, the following are some of the most remarkable:—</p> - -<p class='c000'><em>Historical.</em> ‘Outlines of the History of the World (written between -1755 and 1763); ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire sur la Monarchie des Mèdes</span>’ (do.); -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Introduction à l’Histoire Générale de la République des Suisses</span>’ -(1767); ‘Antiquities of the House of Brunswick’ (1790).</p> - -<p class='c000'><em>Classical and critical.</em> ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai sur l’Etude de la Littérature</span>’; ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomina -Gentesque Antiquæ Italiæ</span>’ (1763 and 1764); ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Remarques sur -les Ouvrages et sur le Caractère de Salluste, Jules César, Cornèle -Nepos, Tite Live, &c.</span>’; ‘Critical Observations on the Design of the -6th Book of the Æneid’ (1770); ‘Vindication of the History of the -Decline and Fall.’</p> - -<p class='c000'><em>Miscellaneous.</em> ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire Justicatif</span>;’ ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Principes des Poids, des -Monnoies, et des Mesures des Anciens</span>’ (1759); and ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dissertation sur -les anciennes Mesures du Bas Empire</span>’; ‘Selections from the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Extraits -raisonnés de mes Lectures</span>, and from the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recueil de mes Observations</span>’ -(from 1754 to 1764); ‘Remarks on Blackstone’s Commentaries’ -(1770). These, and many more than these, were the subjects to -which he applied his extensive erudition—with more or less success, -but never without throwing some light on whatever he undertook to -treat.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span> -<img src='images/i_032.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SCALIGER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>In the sixteenth and the latter part of the fifteenth century, a man of -learning filled a very prominent and distinguished place in the world’s -esteem. Public attention was not then distracted by the multitude of -claimants; for scarcely any country but Italy possessed a national -literature; and few branches of knowledge were much prized, except -the faculties of divinity, law, and physic, and the newly-opened stores -of Greek and Roman antiquity. As Latin was still the universal language -of Europe, that which was done in one country soon and readily -became known to the learned men of all; and if the general standard -of information was low, those who possessed it abundantly towered the -higher above their fellows. Though there were then fewer helps to -learning, it was a time of great discoveries and much excitement. A -modern scholar of far inferior calibre may have a more accurate knowledge -of antiquity, and a deeper insight into the minutiæ of the ancient -languages, than the greatest men of the age of which we speak; -but as far as regards the mass of information gained by their individual -labour, few indeed could venture to compete with such men as -Casaubon, Lipsius, Grævius, the Scaligers, and others. And the -honour paid them was proportionate to their merits. Princes and -States courted them, Universities competed for their residence, Europe -at large took an interest in their quarrels and controversies; and as -humility and charity were not the graces in which they most abounded, -the interest in these subjects was in no danger of perishing for want -of agitation. Of this remarkable class of men, none were more admired -by their contemporaries than the two Scaligers.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_032fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff.</em><br /><br />JOSEPH SCALIGER.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved by Edelinch.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>Julius Cæsar Scaliger, the elder, was as singular a mixture of -great talent, learning, vanity, and presumption, as the world has -often seen. He was born, probably at Verona, in 1484, being the -son, according to the best authorities, of a miniature painter, named -Benedict Bordoni, was baptized by the name of Julius, studied at the -University of Padua, adopted the medical profession, and having attracted -the favourable notice of Antoine de la Rovere, Bishop of Agen -in Gascony, accompanied him thither, in 1525, in the quality of domestic -physician. We are not informed of the exact time at which he -thought fit to make addition to his real name, but in 1528 he obtained -letters of naturalization under the sounding appellation of Julius -Cæsar de Lescalle de Bordoms, or Bordonis; and in 1529 he married -a girl of sixteen, by whom he had a very numerous family. This is -his real history, as far as it is known; but the truth was far too commonplace -to satisfy his passion for notoriety, and he invented a new -version of his history, to the following effect:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>He called himself the son of Benedict de la Scala, one of the bravest -captains of the fifteenth century (of whom it is observed that his name -unfortunately occurs in no contemporary historian), and through him -descended from the ancient family of Princes of Verona. He was born -near the Lago di Guarda; and having narrowly escaped, in infancy, -the jealous search of the Venetians, who were anxious to cut off every -scion of his house, was brought up as a page in the service of the -Emperor Maximilian. He served with distinction in the Italian wars. -But the desire of recovering Verona, the inheritance of his family, -from Venice, ever haunted him; and seeing no chance any other way, -he became a monk, in hope of rising to the Holy Chair, and rendering -the resources of the papacy subservient to the gratification of this -ruling passion. The frivolous and wearisome observances of the -cloister soon disgusted him, and he (broke his vows, we presume, -and) returned to his old trade as a soldier, and again distinguished -himself in the wars of Piedmont, while at the same time he studied -the ancient languages, philosophy, and medicine. At the solicitation -of the Bishop of Agen he closed his adventurous course, as is above -related. This extravagant story, entirely without foundation in any -of its parts, and garnished with abundance of gasconade, was stoutly -upheld by the elder Scaliger, and generally believed by his contemporaries: -the younger Scaliger wrote a book to maintain it, with -equal stoutness, but without equal success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After Scaliger took up his abode at Agen, his chief employment -was the cultivation of learning; his chief passion, the acquisition of -fame. In this he succeeded to the extent of his wishes; and we need -seek no stronger proof of the ascendancy which he gained over his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>contemporaries, than the general acceptation of the wonderful story -which we have just told. De Thou said of him, that the age did not -furnish his equal, nor antiquity his superior; and Lipsius classed him -with Homer, Hippocrates, and Aristotle, and named him ‘the miracle -and glory of his age.’ Unquestionably he possessed a vast fund of -knowledge, was an excellent Latin scholar, and wrote extremely well -in Latin prose. Of Greek his knowledge probably was much less; -he did little for Greek literature, and appears not to have taught his -son Joseph so much as the rudiments of the language. His many -fine qualities were sadly obscured by a temper arrogant and overbearing -in the last degree: on this subject it is enough to refer to the -abuse which he lavishes on a better man than himself, the excellent -Erasmus, in their controversy concerning <em>Ciceronianism</em>. Unfortunately, -he bequeathed the same overweening vanity and propensity to -scurrilous language to his still more distinguished son, the original of -our portrait.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Joseph Justus Scaliger, the tenth child of this singular man, was -born at Agen, August 4, 1540. At the age of eleven he was sent -with two of his brothers to study at the University of Bourdeaux; but -at the end of three years the plague broke out, and he returned in -consequence to his paternal home. The elder Scaliger from that time -forward took charge of Joseph’s education: concerning his method of -teaching we know little more than that he obliged his pupil to compose -an essay every day upon some historical subject. He died in -1558; and in the following year Joseph Scaliger went to Paris, and -devoted himself to the study of Greek under the celebrated Turnebus. -At that time his acquaintance, if he had any, with the language was -very slight. Before two months elapsed he found the progress of his -master too slow to please him; and resolving to take the matter into -his own hands, he made himself cursorily acquainted with the conjugations, -and set to work at once upon Homer, whom he read through -in twenty-one days, constructing a grammar for himself as he went -along. The other Greek poets he perused in the same manner in -four months. The orators and historians he took next in order; but -these extraordinary exertions rest upon his own testimony, which in -things connected with the gratification of his vanity cannot be considered -unimpeachable. After two years’ study of Greek he undertook -Hebrew and other Oriental languages, which he learned without -assistance in the same manner. He certainly possessed an uncommon -talent for the study of languages: it is stated by Du Bartas that he -knew thirteen,—Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, German, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>French, English, Ethiopian, Arabic, Syriac, Chaldaic, and Persian. -His habits throughout life were very laborious; he slept little, and -sometimes passed days almost without taking food. Heinsius, in his -first oration, reports that he had often heard Scaliger speak of having -been in Paris during the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and engaged -so deeply in his Hebrew studies as for a long time not to be aware of -the tumult without. On the contrary, the Vassans, collectors of the -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scaligera secunda</span>,’ state, also on the authority of Scaliger’s private -conversation, that he was at Lausanne when the massacre took place. -The matter is of little moment, excepting in so far as it may serve to -illustrate the speaker’s boastful disregard for veracity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Joseph Scaliger embraced the Reformed religion in 1562, and in -the following year became domestic tutor in a noble family named -Roche-Pozay. In this connexion he was very fortunate: his patron -was a generous and discerning man, by whose liberality he was enabled -to visit the principal Universities of France and Germany. He -studied theology at Geneva under Beza, and shortly after the massacre -of St. Bartholomew, in 1572, was invited to accept the chair -of philosophy in the University of that city: this he declined, but it -appears that he did give lectures there in 1578. In 1573 he ventured -to return to his patron’s estate near Tours, and there composed the -greater portion of his works. He visited Italy, whence he brought -home a number of inscriptions, which he communicated to Gruter, -with leave to publish them in his ‘Thesaurus;’ and he even extended -his travels to our northern, and then uninviting, realm of Scotland.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The multiplicity of Scaliger’s labours did not enrich him. “Poverty,” -he says in one of his letters, “has been my faithful companion -through life, and I never thought to lose her company.” But -his spirit was lofty and independent, and he refused on more than one -occasion large sums of money, which those who esteemed his merits -would have forced upon him. In 1593 he was invited by the States -of Holland to accept the professorship of belles-lettres at Leyden, -with a liberal salary. This he accepted, so that the close of his life -was spent in independence. Unfortunately for his tranquillity, his -evil genius of vanity led him in 1594 to publish his testimony to the -truth of his own illustrious descent, in his ‘Letter concerning the -Antiquity of the Family Della Scala’ (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistola de vetustate et splendore -gentis Scaligeræ, et vita Jul. C. Scaligeri, &c.</span>). It is here, -says Niceron, that the vanity and presumption of Scaliger appear -to the greatest advantage; and Scioppius, a brother critic and scholar, -who expressed the highest regard and admiration for the Leyden professor, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>so long as they were on terms of mutual admiration, no sooner -felt a touch of Scaliger’s power of sarcasm, than he attacked him in -this weak point, in the ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scaliger hypobolimæus; hoc est, Elenchus -Epistolæ Joan. Burdonis, pseudo-Scaligeri, de vetustate et splendore -gentis Scaligeræ: 1607</span>.’ Scaliger replied in ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Confutatio stultissimæ -Burdonum fabulæ: 1608</span>,’ in which, though the letter of his adversary -was short enough, he professed to have detected 499 falsities. -Scaliger retorted on Scioppius, whose life and conversation were open -enough to attack, in his ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Confutatio stultissimæ Burdonum fabulæ: -1608</span>,’ published under the name of Rutgersius, one of his pupils. -It has been said that the veteran controversialist died of chagrin in -consequence of Scioppius’s book. This, however, is not much in accordance -with his character; at all events, his annoyance was long in -killing him, for he did not die till 1609, and his disease was a dropsy. -High honours were paid by the University to his memory; a funeral -oration was pronounced in his praise by the eminent scholar Heinsius, -and a monument was erected to him at the public expense.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For the fullest account of Scaliger’s very numerous works, we -refer to Niceron, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des Hommes Illustres</span>,’ -vol. 23. The earliest of them, ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conjectanea in Varronem</span>,’ -was composed when the author was only twenty years old. Another -of his earlier productions was an edition of ‘Lycophron,’ with a -version into Latin iambics, for which he has obtained the sarcastic -commendation of having by a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tour de force</span></i> of which no other person -was capable, made the translation quite as unintelligible as the original. -He translated the ‘Ajax’ of Sophocles, in the same metre. He has -commented upon Cæsar, Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, Persius, -Ausonius, Manilius, the tragedies of Seneca, Theocritus, Bion and -Moschus, &c. His original works contain treatises on astronomy, -mathematics, numismatics, and chronology, and various departments -of philological and antiquarian research. He flattered himself that -he had discovered and propounded in his ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyclometrica Elementa -duo; nec non Mesolabium</span>;’ a method for the quadrature of the -circle: but the fallacy which deceived him was soon exposed by -Vieta and others. Scaliger’s most important and most original work -is that ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Emendatione Temporum, 1583</span>,’ which merits especial -praise, as being the first attempt to produce a system of chronology. -It contains a vast quantity of learning, in the collection of which the -author was greatly assisted by his knowledge of the Oriental languages, -as well as of Greek and Latin. That he is often in error is, -in this instance, hardly a blemish upon his merited fame: in so vast -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>an untrodden field it was impossible to avoid mistakes. And doubtless -this would have been willingly conceded, but for his presumptuous, -uncharitable, and abusive manner of treating the mistakes of -others: those who had suffered from his venomous tongue, of course -were ready and eager to revenge themselves at the first opportunity. -In the second and third editions he made considerable alteration. -Petavius, another eminent chronologer of the same age, who had the -advantage, it is to be recollected, of all that Scaliger had done before -him, finds great fault with the ‘De Emendatione;’ but he allows -that “the learning diffused through it, the immense variety of topics -which it embraces, the novelty of the subject, and the decided tone of -the author, procured for him a very high reputation.” It was in this -that Scaliger propounded the Julian period, as a sort of common measure -for the various eras; but it never became general, and has fallen -into complete disuse. The same Petavius, in speaking of Scaliger’s -letters, which are full of curious matter, easy and familiar, and brilliant -without affectation (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistolæ Omnes, 1627</span>, published by Heinsius), -declared, that if he had then seen these “divine letters,” he would -never have attacked the author of them. Scaliger’s poems (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poemata -Omnia</span>, collected and published in 1615) have not done much for his -fame, though he boasted of his critical skill in poetry. “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je me -connais en trois choses—in vino, poesi, et juger des personnes. Si -bis hominem alloquar, statim scio qualis sit.</span>” (Scaligerana secunda.) -From his translation of select epigrams of Martial into Greek (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Florilegium -Martialis Epigrammatum, cum versione Græca metrica, 1607</span>) -a list of sixty-four faults, false quantities and barbarisms, has been -drawn up and preserved in the ‘Menagiana,’ vol. i. p. 325; many of -them, however, are very trifling.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Concerning Scaliger’s character as a critic, we may quote the -opinion of Bayle—‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelles de la République des Lettres</span>,’ for June -1684—“I know not whether it might not be said that Scaliger had -too much wit and learning to write a good commentary; for his wit -enabled him to find in the authors on whom he commented more -refinement and genius than in fact they possessed; and his deep -knowledge of literature was the cause of his fancying a thousand -points of connexion between the thoughts of a writer and some rare -matter of antiquity. And having made up his mind as to the reference -contained in the passage, he proceeded forthwith to correct it -accordingly. Unless it should rather be thought that the desire of -throwing light upon some mystery of learning, unobserved by previous -critics, led him to fancy hidden meanings where they did not really -exist. Be this as it may, his notes are full of conjectures, bold, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>ingenious, and learned; but it is not clear that the authors always -meant to say all that he has made them. It is possible to go as far -wide of the real meaning, by having too much wit, as by having too -little; and it will not do to believe that the lines of Horace and -Catullus contain all the erudition which it pleases Messieurs the notemakers -to bestow upon them.” This passage will sufficiently explain -the grounds of the bitter saying, that Scaliger was born to corrupt, -rather than to correct, the classics.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The praises bestowed on him by his contemporaries, however, were -most extravagant. Heinsius says, in his Funeral Oration, “Men -call him differently, an abyss of erudition, a sea of sciences, the sun -of doctors, the divine progeny of a divine father, of the race of gods, -the greatest work and miracle, the extreme reach of Nature.” His -great contemporaries, Casaubon, Lipsius, and De Thou, adopt a somewhat -similar style of exaggerated commendation. Such expressions -of course are to be taken with allowance; rather as specimens of the -taste of the age than as the deliberate testimony of those who use -them. That Scaliger was profoundly learned and of immense acquirement, -will not be denied; that it is impossible to push things -farther than he has, will not now be asserted, “because,” says -Niceron, “it has been done by many.” Unfortunately, this extravagant -admiration contributed, no doubt, by feeding his vanity, to -exacerbate that intolerably scurrilous and malignant humour, the -worst part of his character, which he inherited, with his great talents, -from his remarkable father.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Table-Talk, as we may call it, of Scaliger has been collected -in two series, entitled ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scaligerana, Prima et Secunda</span>.’ For the -history of these see Niceron, or the preface to Des Maizeaux’s edition. -They bear the same unfavourable impress of character as the rest of -his writings: “the pride, arrogance, and venom of an angry pedant -reign from the first leaf to the last; and they are sometimes defective -in point of learning.” So says Vigneul Marville, and his judgment -is fully confirmed by others. “The Scaligerana,” says D’Israeli, -“will convince us that he was incapable of thinking or speaking -favourably of any person.” We have already quoted one passage -which gives a specimen of the strange way in which French and -Latin are mixed up in the second series, and we conclude with -another, which contains an amusing instance of his vanity, both for -himself and his father:—“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auratus dicebat Jul. Cæs. Scaligerum Regi -alicui facie similem.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Oui, à un Empereur! Il n’y a Roi qui eût si -belle façon que lui. Regardez moi! je lui ressemble en tout, et partout, -le nez aquilin.</span>”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_039fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />WILLIAM PENN.<br /><br /><em>From the Print by J. Hall, after the Picture by West.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span> -<img src='images/i_039.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PENN.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>William Penn was born in London, October 14, 1644. He was -the son of a naval officer of the same name, who served with distinction -both in the Protectorate and after the Restoration, and who was -much esteemed by Charles II. and the Duke of York. At the age of -fifteen, he was entered as a gentleman-commoner at Christchurch, -Oxford. He had not been long in residence, when he received, from -the preaching of Thomas Loe, his first bias towards the doctrines of -the Quakers; and in conjunction with some fellow-students, he began -to withdraw from attendance on the Established Church, and to hold -private prayer-meetings. For this conduct Penn and his friends were -fined by the college for non-conformity; and the former was soon -involved in more serious censure by his ill-governed zeal, in consequence -of an order from the king, that the ancient custom of wearing -surplices should be revived. This seemed to Penn an infringement -of the simplicity of Christian worship: whereupon he with some -friends tore the surplices from the backs of those students who -appeared in them. For this act of violence, totally inconsistent, it is -to be observed, with the principles of toleration which regulated his -conduct in after life, he and they were very justly expelled.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Admiral Penn, who like most sailors possessed a quick temper and -high notions of discipline and obedience, was little pleased with this -event, and still less satisfied with his son’s grave demeanour, and -avoidance of the manners and ceremonies of polite life. Arguments -failing, he had recourse to blows, and as a last resource, he turned -his son out of doors; but soon relented so far as to equip him, in 1662, -for a journey to France, in hope that the gaiety of that country -would expel his new-fashioned and, as he regarded them, fanatical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>notions. Paris, however, soon became wearisome to William Penn, -and he spent a considerable time at Saumur, for the sake of the instruction -and company of Moses Amyrault, an eminent Protestant -divine. Here he confirmed and improved his religious impressions, -and at the same time acquired, from the insensible influence of those -who surrounded him, an increased polish and courtliness of demeanour, -which greatly gratified the Admiral on his return home in 1664.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Admiral Penn went to sea in 1664, and remained two years on -service. During this time the external effects of his son’s residence -in France had worn away, and he had returned to those grave habits, -and that rule of associating only with religious people, which had -before given his father so much displeasure. To try the effect of -absence and change of associates, Admiral Penn sent William to -manage his estates in Ireland, a duty which the latter performed with -satisfaction both to himself and his employer. But it chanced that, on -a visit to Cork, he again attended the preaching of Thomas Loe, -by whose exhortations he was deeply impressed. From this time he -began to frequent the Quakers’ meetings; and in September, 1667, -he was imprisoned, with others, under the persecuting laws which -then disgraced our statute-book. Upon application to the higher -authorities, he was soon released.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon receiving tidings that William had connected himself with -the Quakers, the Admiral immediately summoned him to England; -and he soon became certified of the fact, among other peculiarities, by -his son’s pertinacious adherence to the Quakers’ notions concerning -what they called Hat Worship. This led him to a violent remonstrance. -William Penn behaved with due respect: but in the main -point, that of forsaking his associates and rule of conduct, he yielded -nothing. The father confined his demands at last to the simple point, -that his son should sit uncovered in the presence of himself, the King, -and the Duke of York. Still William Penn felt bound to make -not even this concession; and on this refusal, the Admiral again -turned him out of doors.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Soon after, in 1668, he began to preach, and in the same year he -published his first work, ‘Truth Exalted, &c.’ We cannot here -notice his very numerous works, of which the titles run, for the most -part, to an extraordinary length: but ‘The Sandy Foundation -Shaken,’ published in the same year, claims notice, as having led -to his first public persecution. In it he was induced, not to deny the -doctrine of the Trinity, which in a certain sense he admitted, but to -object to the language in which it is expounded by the English -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>Church; and for this offence he was imprisoned for some time in the -Tower. During this confinement, he composed ‘No Cross, No -Crown,’ one of his principal and most popular works, of which the -leading doctrine, admirably exemplified in his own life, was, that the -way to future happiness and glory lies, in this world, not through a -course of misery and needless mortification, but still through labour, -watchfulness, and self-denial, and continual striving against corrupt -passions and inordinate indulgences. This is enforced by copious -examples from profane as well as sacred history; and the work gives -evidence of an extent of learning very creditable to its author, considering -his youth, and the circumstances under which it was composed. -He was detained in prison for seven months, and treated with -much severity. In 1669 he had the satisfaction of being reconciled -to his father.</p> - -<p class='c000'>William Penn was one of the first sufferers by the passing of the -Conventicle Act, in 1670. He was imprisoned in Newgate, and -tried for preaching to a seditious and riotous assembly in Gracechurchstreet; -and this trial is remarkable and celebrated in our criminal -jurisprudence, for the firmness with which he defended himself, and -still more for the admirable courage and constancy with which the -jury maintained the verdict of acquittal which they pronounced. He -showed on this, and on all other occasions, that he well understood -and appreciated the free principles of our constitution, and that he -was resolved not to surrender one iota of that liberty of conscience -which he claimed for others, as well as for himself. “I am far from -thinking it fit,” he said, in addressing the House of Commons, -“because I exclaim against the injustice of whipping Quakers for -Papists, that Papists should be whipped for their consciences. No, -for though the hand pretended to be lifted up against them hath -lighted heavily upon us, and we complain, yet we do not mean that -any should take a fresh aim at them, or that they should come in -our room, for we must give the liberty we ask, and would have none -suffer for a truly sober and conscientious dissent on any hand.” His -views of religious toleration and civil liberty he has well and clearly -explained in the treatise entitled ‘England’s present Interest, &c.,’ -published in 1674, in which it formed part of his argument that -the liberties of Englishmen were anterior to the settlement of the -English church, and could not be affected by discrepancies in their -religious belief. He maintained that “to live honestly, to do no -injury to another, and to give every man his due, was enough to -entitle every native to English privileges. It was this, and not his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>religion, which gave him the great claim to the protection of the -government under which he lived. Near three hundred years before -Austin set his foot on English ground the inhabitants had a good -constitution. This came not in with him. Neither did it come in -with Luther; nor was it to go out with Calvin. We were a free -people by the creation of God, by the redemption of Christ, and by the -careful provision of our never-to-be-forgotten, honourable ancestors: -so that our claim to these English privileges, rising higher than -Protestantism, could never justly be invalidated on account of non-conformity -to any tenet or fashion it might prescribe.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the same year died Sir William Penn, in perfect harmony with -his son, towards whom he now felt the most cordial regard and -esteem, and to whom he bequeathed an estate computed at 1500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> -a-year, a large sum in that age. Towards the end of the year he -was again imprisoned in Newgate for six months, the statutable -penalty for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, which was maliciously -tendered to him by a magistrate. This appears to have been -the last absolute persecution for religion’s sake which he endured. -Religion in England has generally met with more toleration in proportion -as it has been backed by the worldly importance of its professors: -and though his poor brethren continued to suffer imprisonment -in the stocks, fines, and whipping, as the penalty of their peaceable -meetings for Divine worship, the wealthy proprietor, though he -travelled largely, both in England and abroad, and laboured both in -writing and in preaching, as the missionary of his sect, both escaped -injury, and acquired reputation and esteem by his self-devotion. To -the favour of the King and the Duke of York he had a hereditary -claim, which appears always to have been cheerfully acknowledged; -and an instance of the rising consideration in which he was -held, appears in his being admitted to plead, before a Committee -of the House of Commons, the request of the Quakers that their -solemn affirmation should be admitted in the place of an oath. An -enactment to this effect passed the Commons in 1678, but was lost, -in consequence of a prorogation, before it had passed the Lords. It -was on this occasion that he made that appeal in behalf of general -toleration, of which a part is quoted in the preceding page.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Penn married in 1672, and took up his abode at Rickmansworth -in Hertfordshire. In 1677 we find him removed to Worminghurst in -Sussex, which long continued to be his place of residence. His first -engagement in the plantation of America was in 1676, in consequence -of being chosen arbitrator in a dispute between two Quakers, who had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>become jointly concerned in the colony of New Jersey. Though -nowise concerned, by interest or proprietorship, (until 1681, when he -purchased a share in the eastern district of New Jersey,) he took -great pains in this business; he arranged terms, upon which colonists -were invited to settle; and he drew up the outline of a simple constitution, -reserving to them the right of making all laws by their representatives, -of security from imprisonment or fine except by the consent -of twelve men of the neighbourhood, and perfect freedom in the -exercise of their religion: “regulations,” he said, “by an adherence -to which they could never be brought into bondage but by their -own consent.” In these transactions he had the opportunity of contemplating -the glorious results which might be hoped from a colony -founded with no interested views, but on the principles of universal -peace, toleration, and liberty: and he felt an earnest desire to be the -instrument in so great a work, more especially as it held out a prospect -of deliverance to his persecuted Quaker brethren in England, by giving -them a free and happy asylum in a foreign land. Circumstances -favoured his wish. The Crown was indebted to him 16,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> for -money advanced by the late Admiral for the naval service. It was -not unusual to grant not only the property, but the right of government, -in large districts in the uncleared part of America, as in the -case of New York and New Jersey respectively to the Duke of -York and Lord Baltimore: and though it was hopeless to extract -money from Charles, yet he was ready enough, in acquittal of this -debt, to bestow on Penn, whom he loved, a tract of land from which -he himself could never expect any pecuniary return. Accordingly, -Penn received, in 1681, a grant by charter of that extensive province, -named Pennsylvania by Charles himself, in honour of the Admiral: -by which charter he was invested with the property in the soil, with -the power of ruling and governing the same; of enacting laws, with -the advice and approbation of the freemen of the territory assembled -for the raising of money for public uses; of appointing judges, and -administering justice. He immediately drew up and published ‘Some -Account of Pennsylvania, &c.;’ and then ‘Certain Conditions or -Concessions, &c.’ to be agreed on between himself and those who -wished to purchase land in the province. These having been accepted -by many persons, he proceeded to frame the rough sketch of a constitution, -on which he proposed to base the charter of the province. -The price fixed on land was forty shillings, with the annual quit-rent -of one shilling, for one hundred acres: and it was provided that no -one should, in word or deed, affront or wrong any Indian without -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>incurring the same penalty as if the offence had been committed -against a fellow-planter; that strict precautions should be taken -against fraud in the quality of goods sold to them, and that all differences -between the two nations should be adjudged by twelve men, six -of each. And he declares his intention “to leave myself and my -successors no power of doing mischief; that the will of one man may -not hinder the good of a whole country.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>This constitution, as originally organized by Penn, consisted, says Mr. -Clarkson, “of a Governor, a Council, and an Assembly; the two last -of which were to be chosen by, and therefore to be the Representatives -of, the people. The Governor was to be perpetual President, but he was -to have but a treble vote. It was the office of the Council to prepare -and propose bills, to see that the laws were executed, to take care of -the peace and safety of the province, to settle the situation of ports, -cities, market-towns, roads and other public places, to inspect the -public treasury, to erect courts of justice, to institute schools for the -virtuous education of youth, and to reward the authors of useful discovery. -Not less than two-thirds of these were necessary to make a -quorum, and the consent of not less than two-thirds of such quorum -in all matters of moment. The Assembly were to have no deliberative -power, but when bills were brought to them from the Governor -and Council, were to pass or reject them by a plain Yes or No. They -were to present Sheriffs and Justices of the Peace to the Governor; -a double number, for his choice of half. They were to be chosen -annually, and to be chosen by secret ballot.” This ground-work was -modified by Penn himself at later periods, and especially by removing -that restriction which forbade the Assembly to debate, or to originate -bills: and it was this, substantially, which Burke, in his ‘Account -of the European Settlements in America’ describes as “that noble -charter of privileges, by which he made them as free as any people -in the world, and which has since drawn such vast numbers of so many -different persuasions and such various countries to put themselves -under the protection of his laws. He made the most perfect freedom, -both religious and civil, the basis of his establishment; and this has -done more towards the settling of the province, and towards the settling -of it in a strong and permanent manner, than the wisest regulations -could have done on any other plan.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1682 a number of settlers, principally Quakers, having been -already sent out, Penn himself embarked for Pennsylvania, leaving -his wife and children in England. On occasion of this parting, -he addressed to them a long and affectionate letter, which presents a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>very beautiful picture of his domestic character, and affords a curious -insight into the minute regularity of his daily habits. He landed on -the banks of the Delaware in October, and forthwith summoned an -assembly of the freemen of the province, by whom the frame of government, -as it had been promulgated in England, was accepted. Penn’s -principles did not suffer him to consider his title to the land as valid, -without the consent of the natural owners of the soil. He had instructed -persons to negotiate a treaty of sale with the Indian nations before his -own departure from England; and one of his first acts was to hold that -memorable Assembly, to which the history of the world offers none -alike, at which this bargain was ratified, and a strict league of amity -established. We do not find specified the exact date of this meeting, -which took place under an enormous elm-tree, near the site of -Philadelphia, and of which a few particulars only have been preserved -by the uncertain record of tradition. Well and faithfully was -that treaty of friendship kept by the wild denizens of the woods: ‘a -friendship,’ says Proud, the historian of Pennsylvania, ‘which for the -space of more than seventy years was never interrupted, or so long as -the Quakers retained power in the government.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>Penn remained in America until the middle of 1684. During -this time much was done towards bringing the colony into -prosperity and order. Twenty townships were established, containing -upwards of 7000 Europeans; magistrates were appointed; -representatives, as prescribed by the constitution, were chosen, and -the necessary public business transacted. In 1683 Penn undertook -a journey of discovery into the interior; and he has given an interesting -account of the country in its wild state, in a letter written -home to the Society of Free Traders to Pennsylvania. He held -frequent conferences with the Indians, and contracted treaties of -friendship with nineteen distinct tribes. His reasons for returning -to England appear to have been twofold; partly the desire to settle a -dispute between himself and Lord Baltimore, concerning the boundary -of their provinces, but chiefly the hope of being able, by his personal -influence, to lighten the sufferings and ameliorate the treatment of the -Quakers in England. He reached England in October, 1684. Charles -II. died in February, 1685. But this was rather favourable to Penn’s -credit at court; for besides that James appears to have felt a sincere -regard for him, he required for his own church that toleration which -Penn wished to see extended to all alike. This credit at court led to -the renewal of an old and assuredly most groundless report, that Penn -was at heart a Papist—nay, that he was in priest’s orders, and a -Jesuit: a report which gave him much uneasiness, and which he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>took much pains in public and in private to contradict. The same -credit, and the natural and laudable affection and gratitude towards -the Stuart family which he never dissembled, caused much trouble to -him after the Revolution. He was continually suspected of plotting -to restore the exiled dynasty; was four times arrested, and as often -discharged in the total absence of all evidence against him. During -the years 1691, 1692, and part of 1693, he remained in London, -living, to avoid offence, in great seclusion: in the latter year he was -heard in his own defence before the king and council, and informed -that he need apprehend no molestation or injury.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The affairs of Pennsylvania fell into some confusion during Penn’s -long absence. Even in the peaceable sect of Quakers there were -ambitious, bustling and selfish men: and Penn was not satisfied with -the conduct either of the representative Assembly, or of those to -whom he had delegated his own powers. He changed the latter two -or three times, without effecting the restoration of harmony: and -these troubles gave a pretext for depriving him of his powers as -Governor, in 1693. The real cause was probably the suspicion -entertained of his treasonable correspondence with James II. But -he was reinstated in August, 1694, by a royal order, in which it was -complimentarily expressed that the disorders complained of were -produced entirely by his absence. Anxious as he was to return, he -did not find an opportunity till 1699: the interval was chiefly employed -in religious travel through England and Ireland, and in the -labour of controversial writing, from which he seldom had a long -respite. His course as a philanthropist on his return to America is -honourably marked by an endeavour to ameliorate the condition of -Negro slaves. The society of Quakers in Pennsylvania had already -come to a resolution, that the buying, selling, and holding men in -slavery was inconsistent with the tenets of the Christian religion: -and following up this honourable declaration, Penn had no difficulty -in obtaining for them free admission into the regular meetings for -religious worship, and in procuring that other meetings should be -holden for their particular benefit. The Quakers therefore merit our -respect as the earliest, as well as some of the most zealous emancipators. -Mr. Clarkson says, “When Penn procured the insertion of -this resolution in the Monthly Meeting book of Philadelphia, he sealed -as assuredly and effectually the Abolition of the Slave Trade, and the -Emancipation of the Negroes within his own province, as, when he -procured the insertion of the minute relating to the Indians in the -same book, he sealed the civilization of the latter; for, from the time -the subject became incorporated into the discipline of the Quakers, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>they never lost sight of it. Several of them began to refuse to purchase -Negroes at all; and others to emancipate those which they had -in their possession, and this of their own accord, and purely from the -motives of religion; till at length it became a law of the society that -no member could be concerned, directly or indirectly, either in -buying and selling, or in holding them in bondage; and this law -was carried so completely into effect, that in the year 1780, dispersed -as the society was over a vast tract of country, there was not a single -Negro as a slave in the possession of an acknowledged Quaker. This -example, soon after it had begun, was followed by others of other -religious denominations.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In labouring to secure kind treatment, to raise the character, and to -promote the welfare of the Indians, Penn was active and constant, -during this visit to America, as before. The legislative measures -which took place while he remained, and the bickerings between the -Assembly and himself, we pass over, as belonging rather to a history -of Pennsylvania, than to the biography of its founder. For the same -reason we omit the charges preferred against him by Dr. Franklin. -The union in one person of the rights belonging both to a governor and -a proprietor, no doubt is open to objection; but this cannot be urged -as a fault upon Penn: and we believe that it would be difficult to -name any person who has used power and privilege with more disinterested -views. That he was indifferent to his powers, or his -emoluments, is not to be supposed, and ought not to have been -expected. He spent large sums, he bestowed much pains upon the -colony: and he felt and stated it to be a great grievance, that, -whereas a provision was voted to the royal governor during the -period of his own suspension, not so much as a table was kept for himself, -and that instead of contributing towards his expenses, even the -trivial quit-rents which he had reserved remained unpaid: nay, it was -sought by the Assembly, against all justice, to divert them from him, -towards the support of the government. It is to be recollected that -Franklin wrote for a political object, to overthrow the privileges -which Penn’s heirs enjoyed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Governor returned to England in 1701, to oppose a scheme -agitated in Parliament for abolishing the proprietary governments, -and placing the colonies immediately under royal control: the bill, -however, was dropped before he arrived. He enjoyed Anne’s favour, -as he had that of her father and uncle, and resided much in the -neighbourhood of the court, at Kensington and Knightsbridge. In -his religious labours he continued constant, as heretofore. He was -much harassed by a law-suit, the result of too much confidence in a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>dishonest steward: which being decided against him, he was obliged -for a time to reside within the Rules of the Fleet Prison. This, and -the expenses in which he had been involved by Pennsylvania, reduced -him to distress, and in 1709, he mortgaged the province for £6,600. -In 1712 he agreed to sell his rights to the government for £12,000, -but was rendered unable to complete the transaction by three apoplectic -fits, which followed each other in quick succession. He survived -however in a tranquil and happy state, though with his bodily -and mental vigour much broken, until July 30, 1718, on which day -he died at his seat at Rushcomb, in Berkshire, where he had resided -for some years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His first wife died in 1693. He married a second time in 1696; -and left a family of children by both wives, to whom he bequeathed -his landed property in Europe and America. His rights of government -he left in trust to the Earls of Oxford and Powlett, to be -disposed of; but no sale being ever made, the government, with the -title of Proprietaries, devolved on the surviving sons of the second -family.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Penn’s numerous works were collected, and a life prefixed to them, -in 1726. Select editions of them have been since published. Mr. -Clarkson’s ‘Life,’ Proud’s ‘History of Pennsylvania,’ and Franklin’s -‘Historical Review, &c. of Pennsylvania,’ for a view of the exceptions -which have been taken to Penn’s character as a statesman, may be -advantageously consulted.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_048.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[From West’s picture of the Treaty between Penn and the Indians.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_049fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />DE THOU.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Ferdinand, in the Royal Library, Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> -<img src='images/i_049.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>DE THOU.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Jacques Auguste de Thou, whom it is no exaggerated praise to -call the greatest writer of contemporary history that has appeared since -the extinction of Roman literature, was descended of a noble family -of the Orleanois; and his immediate ancestors for three generations -had filled with honour the higher legal offices of the realm. He was -born in Paris, October 9, 1553. His temper was naturally studious; -but the extreme weakness of his childhood interfered greatly with -the early cultivation of his mind, and almost incapacitated him for -severe application. He received, however, the best instruction which -Paris could afford, until 1570<a id='t49'></a>, when he went to the University of -Orleans to study law. Thence he removed to Valence in Dauphiny, -to attend the lectures of the celebrated civilian Cujas.</p> - -<p class='c000'>De Thou returned to Paris in 1572, and meaning to take orders, -applied himself principally to the study of Greek and of the canon -law. In the next year he visited Italy in the train of Paul de Foix, -ambassador of France to the Pope and other Italian sovereigns, and -employed himself diligently and profitably in cultivating the acquaintance -of learned men, and in collecting materials for his history, -the design of which he had already conceived. He returned to Paris -in 1575, and during four years applied himself chiefly to study, -taking various occasions to extend his travels into Flanders and Germany. -In 1578 he was appointed Conseiller-clerc to the parliament -of Paris, and in 1581, one of a commission sent into Guienne, to -provide for the better administration of justice, which had been -greatly impeded by religious dissension. Returning to Paris in -November, 1582, immediately after the decease of his father, and -having become the head of his family by the death of two elder -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>brothers, he determined to abandon the ecclesiastical profession, and -exchanged his place of Conseiller-clerc, for the lay appointment of -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Maître des Requêtes</span>. In 1586 he obtained the reversion of the -office of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Président à Mortier</span>, held by his uncle Augustin de Thou; -and having obtained a dispensation from the ecclesiastical engagements -which he had contracted, he married, in 1587, Marie de Barbanson.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the Parisians embraced the party of the League, in 1588, -and Henry III. was obliged to quit the capital, De Thou followed the -person and fortunes of the monarch, and received a commission to -travel through Normandy and Picardy, to sound the intentions, and, if -possible, to secure the adherence of the authorities, civil and military, -of those provinces. His services were rewarded by the dignity of -<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Conseiller d’État</span>. In the autumn he was present at the convention -of the States at Blois; but he returned to Paris before the murder of -the Duke of Guise. He was not informed of the intention to commit -that crime; and he believed, from certain peculiarities of behaviour, -that the king had sent for him expressly to communicate that intention, -but had changed his mind during the course of the interview. -In the tumults which took place on the arrival of the news at Paris, -De Thou’s life was in considerable danger, until he effected his escape -under the disguise of a soldier, and returned to Blois.</p> - -<p class='c000'>De Thou laboured to induce Henry III. to reconcile himself sincerely -to the King of Navarre; and being engaged in a journey to -raise supplies of men and money in Germany and Italy when the -former was assassinated, he returned with all haste to tender his allegiance -to the new monarch, Henry IV., by whom he was favourably -received, and employed in the most important and confidential negotiations. -Of this period of his life, and of its ill requital, he has spoken -with considerable bitterness in a letter dated March 31, 1611, to his -friend the President Jeannin, and written, it is to be observed, in a -moment of considerable mortification, because his claims to the office -of First President had been passed over in favour of M. de Verdun. -“I remained,” he says, “after returning from Italy, in Henry IV.’s -camp for five years, except when commissioned to repair to Tours, -where the Parliament was then held, or to visit other parts of the -kingdom upon business. At last, after the king was crowned at -Chartres, and the surrender of Paris, being restored to my library and -my home, I thought myself sufficiently repaid for my labours, in enjoying, -with a sound conscience and unstained fidelity to my sovereign, -the benefits of the peace, expecting that the king would do -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>something for me, in remembrance of those five years of service -in the camp, during which I hardly quitted his side. Throughout -that time I was in the greatest need of all things, being deprived -of all my means by the war, and having served the whole time at my -own cost, without pay or fee. And the king himself used to say that -I was very different from other men, inasmuch as I, though a constant -loser, made no complaints, while others, who were every day profiting -by the public misfortunes, used diligently to complain of their -own losses. Which in truth was complimentary enough; but this -praise was my only payment for past labours: for the king’s temper -changed with his fortune, and I learnt, at my own expense, how fleeting -is the favour of princes, and how ready they are in prosperity to -forget past sufferings, and to take the mention of them by their -fellow-sufferers as a reproach.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“For two years,” he continues, “nothing was said of me, until the -Protestants again made inconvenient demands, and I was selected by -the king with full powers to hear their complaints.” These were the -disputes which were terminated in 1598, by the publication of the celebrated -Edict of Nantes. De Thou was very reluctant to undertake -this office, foreseeing that it would involve him in great odium. Nor -was he mistaken in this respect. He was a zealous advocate of toleration: -and his liberality of spirit, manifested upon this and on other -occasions, but most of all in the unsparing impartiality of his History, -placed him, though a Catholic, in bad odour at the court of Rome, by -whose influence with the Queen Regent, after the death of Henry -IV., he was frustrated in the chief object of his ambition, that of succeeding -to the office of First President of the Parliament of Paris, -which became vacant in 1611. To that of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Président à Mortier</span> he had -succeeded in 1595, by his uncle’s death. He was deeply mortified at -this slight, and meditated the resignation of all his offices: and he has -strongly expressed his sense of the weight of his claims, and of the -injury done to him by thus overlooking them, in the letter to the President -Jeannin, part of which we have just quoted. The first suggestion -of pique, however, was overruled by his friends. He was appointed -one of the directors-general of finance, after the death of -Henry IV., and consequent resignation of Sully, in 1610, and was -consulted by the Regent in almost all matters of delicacy and importance. -His leisure moments during these last years were devoted -to his History, which he did not live to bring down to its intended -point of conclusion, the death of Henry IV. He died May 7, 1617, -leaving three sons and three daughters by a second marriage: his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>first wife, childless, died in 1601. The eldest of these, François -Auguste de Thou, is known in history by having suffered death -with Cinq-Mars, in the reign of Louis XIII., for an alleged conspiracy -against the state, the real object of which was the overthrow -of Cardinal Richelieu.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1593 De Thou was appointed principal librarian to Henry IV.; -and by his advice the valuable library of Catherine de’ Medici was -purchased, and the foundation was laid of that splendour and importance -which the Bibliothèque du Roi has since attained. He had -himself brought together a very excellent library, a large part of -which has since passed into the royal collection. He was a steady -friend and favourer of learning and learned men; a zealous, faithful, -and disinterested subject; an able statesman; an upright and enlightened -magistrate: and his life, both in public and private, displayed -the same undeviating integrity and love of truth, which -especially distinguish him as an historian.</p> - -<p class='c000'>De Thou began to write his great work, the History of his own -Times, in 1591: but, as has been already stated, he had been engaged -from early youth in collecting materials for it, and his own description -of the pains which he bestowed on the task, will convey the best idea -of his zeal and industry. We quote again from the letter to the -President Jeannin. “Having always received great pleasure from -the perusal of history, and being of opinion that men are to be formed -for happiness by examples, as well as precepts, I came to the conclusion, -that by undertaking a history of my own time, beginning where -Paulus Jovius left off, I should do what would be useful to my -country, and honourable to myself. Resolute in this purpose even -from boyhood, I laboured afterwards, in my travels, at the bar, in -embassies, in the employments of war and peace, for this one object, -that when leisure came for the execution of it, I might have all -things necessary to my purpose provided. All printed histories I -purchased, unprinted ones I procured to be copied, I consulted the -notes of military commanders, the records of embassies, the papers of -secretaries to kings. I also acquired a great deal of knowledge from -the confidential conversations of illustrious men who were my seniors, -and weighed, by their judgment and candour, the contradictory reports -of party spirit. Thus prepared, I began to compose my History, while -the civil war still raged; and I call on God, who gave me strength -and understanding to complete a work of such magnitude, amidst -such troubles and employments, to witness my entire and uncorrupted -honesty, unswayed either by fear or favour, and that I had no other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>end in view but the glory of God, and the benefit of the public. In -style, eloquence, perspicuity, depth of thought, I confess myself inferior -to many: in good faith and diligence I yield to none who have -preceded me in this kind of composition; and I refer this point to -the judgment of posterity.” He proceeds to speak of his full knowledge -that the tenor of the book would involve him in broils and -danger, and expresses a wish that he could have published it anonymously. -But he was prepared, he adds, to sacrifice court favour, -fortune, and his good name with the public, rather than, by an excess -of prudence, throw a shade of discredit upon a work which he had -composed with such lofty ends, and with so great labour. He was -not wrong in his anticipations. It was impossible honestly to write -the history of the stormy and profligate times in which he lived, -without saying much that would shock religious zeal, offend party -spirit, and raise up bitter enemies in those whose misdeeds were -openly and unsparingly brought to light and condemned. De Thou, -himself a Catholic, recognised the existence of virtue and talent -among the Reformers, and exposed the selfish schemes and atrocious -cruelties, which had been formed and exercised under the cloak of -maintaining true religion. This was enough to bring on him the -hatred of those who still clung to the principles of the League, and -the enmity of the court of Rome, which in 1609 placed his History -in the list of forbidden books, and, as has been said, exerted its influence -with success in 1611, to prevent his promotion. In a Latin -epitaph, which he composed for his own tomb, after a solemn declaration -of his orthodoxy, he demands, as the only favour which he has -to ask of men, to be more kindly treated by them after his death than -he had been before it. Posterity at least has responded to the appeal, -and by its admiration of the very qualities which involved him in his -mortifications, has done him ample justice for the jealousy of Rome, -and for the lukewarmness of the master whom he had well served -through bad and good fortune.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The History is written in Latin: the style is good, but it is disfigured -by the affectation not only of Latinizing names, but of expressing -modern offices by classical phrases, which of necessity bear -a very forced, or no analogy to the things which they are tortured to -denote. For instance, it would be difficult to recognise the Constable -of France under the title <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magister Equitum</span>. This makes the assistance -of an explanatory dictionary very requisite, and such a one -was published by Jacques Dupuy, in 1634, under the title, Index -Thuani. The History is comprised in 138, or, as divided in some -editions, into 143 books; and, in the London edition of 1733, fills six -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>ponderous folios. In the relation of foreign affairs, De Thou’s -authority is less valuable, for it is stated that he received with little -examination the accounts which were transmitted to him from abroad: -but for the history of France during the sixteenth century, his work -is the standard authority on which later writers have relied. The -best and wisest men of all parties have joined, since his death, in -according to him the praise of strict integrity and impartiality, a -generosity of temper which scorned to suppress or pervert the truth, -and great diligence, as well as unusual opportunities, in ascertaining -the real course of events. It is not meant to claim for him an entire -exemption from the errors of limited information, or the faults of -temper and prejudice: defects such as these are incident to all human -productions. It is to be observed that the heaviest charges against him -on this head have been made by those who were of his own religion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first portion of this work was published in 1604, comprising -the first eighteen books, with the letter to Henry IV., which serves -as a preface. This, which was translated into French, and published -separately, has obtained great admiration, as one of the finest specimens -extant of this branch of composition. De Thou published -the remainder at different times, and superintended several editions. -Prudential considerations induced him to make some changes and -suppressions, but upon his death-bed he entrusted a perfect manuscript -copy to his friends Peter Dupuy and Rigault, with injunctions to publish -it. The passages expunged by De Thou himself were subsequently -collected and published in Holland, under the title, Thuanus Restitutus. -But the most complete edition is that of London, 1733, -from the collections and papers of Carte the historian, which were -purchased for that purpose by Dr. Mead. This consists of six -splendid folio volumes, with a seventh, containing De Thou’s autobiography, -and a variety of supplementary pieces. The Eloges of -learned men, to the number of 400 and upwards, contained in the -History, were extracted and published in a body by Antoine Teissier. -The whole has been translated into French.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A doubt has been expressed whether the Latin memoirs which -profess to be written by De Thou, proceed from his own pen, or from -that of Rigault. They are translated into French, and printed by -themselves. They are interspersed with many pieces in Latin verse, -which De Thou took pleasure in composing, and wrote with elegance. -He composed a poem on Hawking, entitled “Hieracosophion”, and -translated the Book of Job, and several portions of the Prophecies. -The gleanings of his conversation, extant under the title Thuana, -are scarcely worthy of his high reputation.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_055fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />LORD CHATHAM.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by E. Fisher, after a Picture by R. Brompton</em>.<br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span> -<img src='images/i_055.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CHATHAM.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>William Pitt, the first Earl of Chatham, was born in Westminster, -November 15, 1708. He was sent to Eton at an early age, and -admitted a gentleman-commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, in -January, 1726. His father, Robert Pitt, Esq., of Boconnock, in Cornwall, -died in the following year, and left to him the scanty inheritance -of a younger son. He quitted Oxford without taking a degree; -spent some time in travelling on the Continent; and entered the army -shortly after his return. He obtained a seat in Parliament for Old -Sarum in 1735, and attached himself to the party in opposition, then -headed in the lower house by the Pulteneys, and favoured in the upper -by the Prince of Wales. His known talents, and his determined -hostility, soon drew upon him the anger of Sir Robert Walpole, who -is reported to have said, “We must at all events muzzle that terrible -cornet of horse.” Failing in this, he had recourse to a method of -revenge which would not have been tolerated in later times, and took -away Pitt’s commission. For this injury, however, the sufferer received -an ample recompense in the increased estimation of the public.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pitt spoke with great ability and energy, in 1739, against the proposed -convention with Spain, and in 1740, against a bill introduced -to facilitate the impressment of seamen, containing very arbitrary and -oppressive provisions. Many of his speeches have been preserved, to -a certain extent, in the periodical works of the day; though it is probable, -from the very imperfect mode of reporting which then prevailed, -that little remains of their original garb of words. Walpole was -compelled to resign in 1742; but, with his usual dexterity, he contrived, -by disuniting the opposition, to secure himself from the consequences -of an inquiry into his conduct. Pitt spoke with much heat -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>and eloquence in favour of the inquiry; and two of his speeches on this -subject are reported at considerable length. He obtained no share -in the ministry upon Walpole’s fall, and continued to be a leader in -opposition during the years 1742–3–4. More especially he was -earnest in reprobation of the Hanoverian policy, which was supposed -at that time to have an undue preponderance in our councils: and his -pertinacity on this point engendered in the breast of George II. a -strong personal dislike, which is said to have prevented his admission -into that which was whimsically termed the “broad-bottomed administration,” -formed at the close of 1744. In that autumn he received -a bequest of £10,000 from the celebrated Duchess of Marlborough, -“upon account of his merit, in the noble defence he has made for -the support of the laws of England, and to prevent the ruin of his -country.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pitt was assured by the Pelhams, that as soon as the King’s antipathy -could be removed, his services would be secured to the government: -and he accordingly received the appointment, of Vice-treasurer -of Ireland, February 22, 1746, and, May 6, was promoted to the -office of Paymaster-general. In the latter capacity he showed his -superiority to pecuniary corruption, by foregoing the profit which it -had been usual to derive from the large balances retained in that -officer’s hands, and by rejecting other lucrative perquisites of office. -But he has incurred the charge of political dishonesty, by supporting -measures, as a minister, analogous in character to those which, -under former governments, he had so strongly condemned. On this -subject we may quote the words of a recent writer on the history of -parties in England. “By the absorption into the government of -almost all its leaders and chief orators, the opposition was for some -time reduced in Parliament to extreme insignificance. Mr. Pitt was -now one of the most determined supporters of the very measures which -the first ten years of his parliamentary life had been spent in condemning -and opposing. Nor did he scruple to avow his change of -opinion. In reference, for instance, to the claim of exemption from -search for British ships when found near the coast of Spanish America, -which, urged by the opposition in the time of Sir Robert Walpole, had -involved the country in a war with Spain, and was afterwards abandoned -at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle by the government of which -Pitt was a member, he said in the House of Commons that he had -indeed once been an advocate for that claim; but it was when he was -a young man; he was now ten years older, and having considered -public affairs more coolly, was convinced it could not be maintained. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>In the same manner very much of his old jealousy of military power -and of the prerogative appears to have evaporated in the cooler consideration -which he had now been enabled to give to such matters. We -do not profess to doubt the perfect honesty of Mr. Pitt in this change -of sentiment; and we may also think that his more matured opinions -were, upon the whole, more rational than those of his fervid and impetuous -nonage as a politician; but the facts (which only furnish an -instance of what has often happened) are worth recording as a lesson -for such as are capable of understanding it.” It is to be recollected, -that the remarkable events of 1745–6 may very well have modified -Mr. Pitt’s opinions with respect to the maintenance of a standing -army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the death of Henry Pelham, March 6, 1754, his brother, the -Duke of Newcastle, became First Lord of the Treasury. Pitt’s wishes -certainly pointed to the office of Secretary of State, vacated by the -Duke, but he received no promotion. This was excused on the ground -of the King’s personal dislike; but Pitt felt himself aggrieved; and -having neither regard nor respect for the prime minister, he gradually -placed himself in decided opposition to the government. Still he -retained his place as Paymaster, until November 20, 1755, on -which day, with his friends Legge and George Grenville, he was -dismissed. In opposition, he resumed his former activity; and he -had abundant ground for invective against the incapacity which led -to those reverses in the Mediterranean, in America, and in India, -which raised a general cry of indignation through the country. The -Duke tried in vain to strengthen himself, by making overtures of -reconciliation to Mr. Pitt, and at last resigned, November 11, 1756. -The Duke of Devonshire went to the Treasury, Pitt was made Secretary -of State, and Legge and Grenville both were taken into office. -This arrangement was short-lived. The King was ill-pleased at the -way in which the present ministry had been forced upon him; and -he had a personal dislike to some of them, especially to Pitt, and to -the first Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Temple, who was dismissed in -April, 1757. Upon this Pitt resigned. During the short period -of this administration, he had displayed his vigour and decision in -originating measures to repair the loss which we had sustained in -America; and had endeavoured, but in vain, to save the unfortunate -Admiral Byng.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A sort of ministerial interregnum succeeded, and lasted until the -beginning of June. The King tried in vain to construct an administration. -Meanwhile Pitt was at the height of popularity; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>addresses of approbation were showered on him from all parts of the -kingdom. At last the King was compelled to recall him; and, after -considerable negotiation, he consented to form a government in union -with the Duke of Newcastle, whose parliamentary influence conferred -on him a degree of importance quite disproportioned to the weakness of -his character. Pitt, with the power of Premier, returned to his post as -Secretary, and the Duke took the office of First Lord of the Treasury.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pitt found the country engaged in an unsuccessful war, and hampered -with a system of continental alliances, against which he had -often directed the full vigour of his eloquence. By pursuing that -system he endangered his popularity, and incurred the charge of -having sacrificed his principles to his ambition. There is no doubt (and -this ought to teach us moderation in our censures), that even honest -men, in administration and in opposition, may view the same measures -under very different aspects. Objectionable as he had thought and -called that policy, he probably persuaded himself that, under existing -circumstances, it was inexpedient to change it; and he followed it up -with an energy and decision, which at least led to results very different -to those which had disgraced the administration of his predecessors. -He is reported to have said to the Duke of Devonshire, -“My Lord, I am sure I can save this country, and nobody else can;” -and the success which attended him made good one half at least of -the boast. France was alarmed by frequent, and, on the whole, successful -descents upon her shores; our connexion with Frederic of -Prussia was strengthened and improved; the plans for the expulsion -of the French from North America, which Pitt had formerly conceived, -were now carried into effect; and the result of his judgment -in selecting officers for foreign service, and of his indefatigable care -that no preliminary steps were neglected at home, was seen in those -various successes which were crowned by the glorious capture of -Quebec, and the ultimate cession of Canada by the French. In three -years he raised England from depression and despondency into a situation -to give laws to Europe; and during that time he converted into -confidence and favour that obstinate dislike with which George II. had -so long regarded him. But with the accession of George III., October -25, 1760, a new favourite, Lord Bute, rose into power. Pitt continued -at the head of administration for a time, but he found that his -counsels had ceased to be the mainspring of government; and having -been outvoted in the cabinet when he urged the necessity of immediately -declaring war against Spain, he resigned, October 5, 1761, to -use his own words, “in order not to remain responsible for measures -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>which he was no longer allowed to guide.” The King bestowed on -him a pension of 3000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, and raised his wife to the rank of Baroness -Chatham.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Not many months elapsed before the new ministers found it absolutely -necessary to declare war against Spain, the very point upon -which Pitt had resigned. A general peace was effected by the treaty -of Paris, signed February 10, 1763, by which Canada and other -French possessions in North America were ceded to England. Pitt -inveighed strongly, more strongly perhaps than was quite fair and -candid, against the terms of this treaty; but he took no active part to -overthrow the existing administration. In August, 1763, the King -made overtures to induce him to return to office; and it is not very -clearly known upon what account this negotiation failed. When -Wilkes’s case brought forward the question of general warrants, Pitt -took a strong part in condemning the use of them. In January, 1765, -he received a second uncommon testimony of respect for his public -conduct from Sir William Pynsent, an aged baronet of ancient family -in Somersetshire, who, dying, bequeathed to him his property, to the -amount of nearly 3000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> a year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To the scheme for raising a revenue in America, Mr. Pitt was very -strongly opposed. Illness prevented his attendance in the House of -Commons when that scheme was first brought forward; but in his -speech on the meeting of parliament, January 14, 1766, after tidings -of the disturbances in America had been received, he declared his -opinion in the strongest terms. “It is a long time, Mr. Speaker, -since I have attended in parliament. When the resolution was taken -in the House to tax America, I was ill in bed. If I could have -endured to have been carried in my bed, so great was the agitation -of my mind for the consequences, I would have solicited some -kind friend to have laid me down on this floor, to have borne my testimony -against it.... It is my opinion that this kingdom has no -right to lay a tax upon the colonies. At the same time I assert the -authority of this kingdom over the colonies to be sovereign and supreme -in every circumstance of government and legislation whatsoever.” -He recommended that the Stamp Act should be repealed -absolutely and immediately, but that the repeal should be accompanied -with an assertion of the sovereign power of this country over the -colonies, couched in the strongest terms that could be devised, in every -point whatsoever, except that of taking their money out of their -pocket without their consent. These declarations coincided with the -policy of the Marquis of Rockingham, who had been summoned by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>the King to form an administration in July, 1765, and who, without -any fault on his side, was involved in all the difficulties and dangers -which resulted from his predecessor’s ill-judged scheme for taxing -America. Mr. Pitt had previously been applied to, but declined -taking office upon the terms proposed; and he showed a coolness -towards the Rockingham administration, which appears to have been -uncalled for by any difference in their political opinions, and which, -as far as we can conjecture from the course of events, was very prejudicial -to the country. Disliked by the King, slighted by Mr. Pitt, -whose influence in the nation was at this time at its height, harassed -by a powerful opposition which regarded it base to yield to the demands -of America, the Rockingham government rather fell to pieces -than was broken up, little more than a year after its formation; and -Mr. Pitt reached the utmost limit of ambition in being commissioned -by the King to form a ministry, without the smallest limitation as to -terms, in July, 1766.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Whatever gratification he may have felt at the moment, this high -position added neither to his glory nor his happiness. It led in the -first place to a violent quarrel with his most intimate friend and political -associate, Lord Temple, who felt himself slighted by Mr. Pitt’s -arrangements. Many of the most important persons, whose support -he desired, felt aggrieved by his past conduct, or were offended by the -haughtiness of his demeanour: Lord Rockingham, in particular, refused -even to grant him an interview. And when the government -was formed at last, it was of that ill-assorted and motley character -which led Burke, in an often-quoted passage of his great speech on -American taxation, to describe it as a “tesselated pavement without -cement.” The Duke of Grafton was placed at the Treasury, and for -himself Pitt took a peerage and the Privy Seal. The astonishment -of every body at this was extreme. Lord Chesterfield says, “Mr. -Pitt, who had a <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">carte blanche</span> given him, named every one of them -(the new ministry); but what would you think he named himself for?—Lord -Privy Seal, and (what will astonish you as it does every -mortal here) Earl of Chatham. The joke here is, that he has had a -fall up stairs, and has done himself so much hurt that he will never be -able to stand upon his legs again. Every body is puzzled how to -account for this step; though it would not be the first time that great -abilities have been duped by low cunning. But, be it what it will, -he is now certainly only Earl of Chatham, and no longer Mr. Pitt in -any respect whatever. Such an event, I believe, was never heard nor -read of. To withdraw in the fullness of his power, and in the utmost -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>gratification of his ambition, from the House of Commons (which procured -him his power, and which could alone insure it to him), and to -go into that hospital of incurables, the House of Lords, is a measure -so unaccountable, that nothing but proof positive could have made me -believe it; but true it is.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time often recurring paroxysms of gout had greatly shattered -Lord Chatham’s constitution, and incapacitated him for that comprehensive -superintendence over the affairs of government which he had -exercised during his former glorious administration. Surrounded by -a disjointed set of men, fluctuating in opinion, attached neither to each -other nor to their chief, it was more than ever necessary that the -master-hand should retain its wonted dexterity and power. But the -case was very different. During the whole session of Parliament in -1767, Lord Chatham was prevented from attending to business by -illness; and after the rising of Parliament he was compelled to inform -the King, that “such was his ill state of health, that his Majesty -must not expect from him any further advice or assistance in any -arrangements whatever.” This declaration may be considered as equivalent -to a resignation; but unfortunately he continued nominally in -office until October 15, 1768, lending the sanction of his great name -to a course of policy the reverse of that which he had advocated, especially -in regard of the renewal of the attempt to tax America. On -this subject Mr. Thackeray remarks, “A greater contrast in the -feelings of the Cabinet and of the nation upon the present resignation -of Lord Chatham, to those which were evinced upon his dismission -from office in 1757, and upon his retirement in 1761, can hardly be -imagined. His dismission in 1757 excited one common cry of enthusiastic -admiration towards himself, and of indignation against his -political opponents. The attention, not only of Great Britain, but of -the whole of Europe, was attracted by his resignation in 1761; and, -although the voices of his countrymen were not so universally united -in his favour as upon the former occasion, the event was considered -as affecting the interests of nations in the four corners of the globe. -The resignation of Lord Chatham in 1768 was in fact nothing more -than the official relinquishment of an appointment in which he had -long ceased to exercise his authority, or to exert his abilities. It was -expected by the ministry, it was little regarded by the people of Great -Britain, it was almost unknown on the Continent of Europe.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Repose soon wrought a favourable change in Lord Chatham’s -health, for in 1770 he led the opposition in the House of Lords. The -proceedings in the House of Commons against Mr. Wilkes formed the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>principal topic of his first attack: but he warned the House against -the fatal tendency of the attempts to raise a revenue in America; and -he took occasion, at an early period of the session, to express his belief -of the necessity of introducing some reform into the representation of -the people, and to proclaim his cordial reconciliation and union with -the Rockingham party. At the end of January, to the general -surprise, the Duke of Grafton resigned; and Lord North succeeding -him, formed the first durable administration which had existed -since the death of Henry Pelham. During the years 1771, 1772, -1773, and 1774, Lord Chatham very seldom appeared in Parliament. -At the beginning of 1775, he made two vain attempts to induce the -government to offer overtures of reconciliation to America: but during -the greater part of that year, and the whole of 1776, the shattered -state of his health prevented him from taking any part in public -affairs. May 30, 1777, he came down to the House swathed in flannel, -to move an address imploring the King to take the most speedy and -effectual measures for putting a stop to hostilities in America, by -removing the accumulated grievances of that country: and predicted, -with his usual energy and eloquence, the certain results of the conduct -which we were pursuing. “You may ravage, you cannot conquer; -it is impossible, you cannot conquer the Americans. You talk of -your numerous friends to annihilate the Congress, and of your powerful -forces to disperse their army. I might as well talk of driving -them before me with this crutch. What you have sent there are too -many to make peace, too few to make war. If you conquer them, -what then? You cannot make them respect you, you cannot make -them wear your cloth: you will plant an invincible hatred in their -breasts against you. Coming from the stock they do, they can never -respect you.” The events of that year, the capture of Philadelphia, -and the surrender of Burgoyne, fully justified his predictions. These -events had not been announced in England in November, when Parliament -again met; but in the debate on the Address on the 18th, -Lord Chatham again raised his warning voice to predict the certain -failure of the contest in which we were engaged. “I love and honour -the English troops: I know their virtues and their valour: I know -they can achieve anything except impossibilities; and I know that -the conquest of English America is an impossibility. You cannot, -I venture to say it, you cannot conquer America.” His speech on -this occasion fortunately is very fully reported, and the records of -our Parliament contain none more eloquent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In February, 1778, Lord North announced the resolution of government -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>to yield every point in question to the Americans, except their -nominal independence of the crown. To this, little opposition was -offered in either house; it probably was the line of conduct which -Lord Chatham at this late hour would have advised. But the Americans -had declared their independence, and were not now to be -satisfied with anything short of a formal acknowledgment of it; -and here the two great sections of opposition, the Rockingham and -Shelburne parties, were divided. The latter, with Lord Chatham at -their head, regarded such an acknowledgment as the prelude to the -total ruin and degradation of the country. The former held that it was -impossible to avoid it at last, and earnestly desired, since the colonists -could not be retained as subjects, to secure their alliance to this -country, and not to drive them into the arms of France. The Duke -of Richmond moved an address embodying these views, April 7th, a -day memorable for the most affecting scene ever witnessed within -the walls of Parliament. We relate it as nearly as possible from the -account communicated to Mr. Seward by an eyewitness, and published -in his Anecdotes of distinguished Persons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Lord Chatham came into the House of Lords leaning on two -friends, wrapped up in flannel, pale and emaciated. Within his large -wig little more was to be seen than his aquiline nose, and his penetrating -eye. He looked like a dying man; yet never was seen a -figure of more dignity; he appeared like a being of superior species.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“He rose from his seat with slowness and difficulty, leaning upon his -crutches, and supported under each arm by his two friends. He took -one hand from his crutch, and raised it, casting his eyes towards -Heaven, and said, ‘I thank God that I have been enabled to come -here this day, to perform my duty, and to speak on a subject which -has so deeply impressed my mind. I am old and infirm—have one -foot—more than one foot, in the grave. I am risen from my bed, to -stand up in the cause of my country!—perhaps never again to speak -in this House.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The reverence, the attention, the stillness of the house, was most -affecting: if any one had dropped an handkerchief, the noise would -have been heard. At first he spoke in a very low and feeble tone; -but as he grew warm his voice rose, and was as harmonious as ever; -oratorical and affecting perhaps more than at any former period; both -from his own situation and from the importance of the subject on -which he spoke. He gave the whole history of the American war; -of all the measures to which he had objected; and all the evils which -he had prophesied in consequence of them; adding, at the end of each, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>‘And so it proved.’” He concluded with an energetic appeal against -the “dismemberment of this ancient and most noble monarchy.” To -the Duke of Richmond’s reply he listened with attention and composure: -he then rose again, but his strength failed, and he fell back -in convulsions in the arms of the Peers who surrounded him. The -House immediately adjourned. On the following day the Duke of -Richmond’s motion was negatived.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lord Chatham was removed to Hayes, where he languished until -May 12, 1778, on which day he expired. He was honoured with a -public funeral, and a public monument in Westminster Abbey; a -sum of 20,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> was voted in discharge of his debts; and a pension -of 4,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> a year was annexed to the earldom of Chatham. He left -five children by his wife, Lady Hester Grenville, sister of Earl -Temple, whom he married November 6, 1754. He warmly loved -and was beloved by his family, and in domestic life enjoyed all the -happiness which unbroken confidence and harmony can bestow.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The character of this great man is thus drawn by Lord Chesterfield:—“His -constitution refused him the usual pleasures, and his -genius forbade him the idle dissipations of youth; for so early as the -age of sixteen, he was the martyr of an hereditary gout. He therefore -employed the leisure which that tedious and painful distemper -either procured or allowed him, in acquiring a great fund of premature -and useful knowledge. Thus, by the unaccountable relation -of causes and effects, what seemed the greatest misfortune of his life, -was perhaps the principal cause of its splendour. His private life was -stained by no vice, nor sullied by any meanness. All his sentiments -were liberal and elevated. His ruling passion was an unbounded -ambition, which, where supported by great abilities, and crowned with -great success, makes what the world calls a great man. He was -haughty, imperious, impatient of contradiction, and overbearing; -qualities which too often accompany, but always clog great ones. He -had manners and address, but one might discover through them too -great a consciousness of his own superior talents. He was a most -agreeable and lively companion in social life, and had such a versatility -of wit, that he would adapt it to all sorts of conversation. He -had also a happy turn for poetry, but he seldom indulged, and seldom -avowed it. He came young into Parliament, and upon that theatre -he soon equalled the oldest and the ablest actors. His eloquence -was of every kind, and he excelled in the argumentative, as well as in -the declamatory way. But his invectives were terrible, and uttered -with such energy of diction, and such dignity of action and countenance, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>that he intimidated those who were the most willing and best -able to encounter him. Their arms fell out of their hands, and they -shrunk under the ascendant which his genius gained over theirs.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Thackeray’s ‘History of the Right Hon. W. Pitt, Earl of -Chatham,’ in addition to the fullest account of his public and private -life, contains copious extracts from the reports of his speeches, and his -correspondence. The letters to his nephew, afterwards Lord Camelford, -deserve notice, as exhibiting his private character in a very -amiable light. The same may be said of the letters to his son, -William Pitt, printed by Dr. Tomline in his life of that statesman.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_065.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Death of Chatham, from the picture by J. S. Copley, R.A.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span> -<img src='images/i_066.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MOZART.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>That most of those who are now by universal consent numbered -among the benefactors of the human race reaped little benefit from -their genius, however actively exerted, is a melancholy truth not to be -disputed, and seldom more strongly exemplified than in the instance -of the great composer, who is the subject of this memoir. He to -whom all the really civilized parts of the world are so deeply indebted -for the increase, to an almost incalculable amount, of the stock of an -intellectual and innocent pleasure, scarcely ever enjoyed a moment’s -respite from ill-requited labour and corroding anxieties: few, not in -a state of actual want, ever suffered more from the evils of poverty; -and he who left so valuable a treasure to mankind had not in the -hour of death the consolation of feeling that he had been able to secure -against the miseries of dependence, an affectionate wife and her helpless -offspring.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='sc'>Johann-Chrysostomus-Wolfgang-Gottlieb Mozart</span> was -born at Salzburg, January 26, 1756. His father, Leopold, was sub-chapel master, -or organist, to the Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg, and -a skilful performer on the violin, a valuable treatise on which instrument -he published, in quarto, under the title of ‘Violinschule,’ in -1769. Whatever time the duties of his office left at his disposal, he -devoted to the education of his two children, and he began to give his -daughter, who was four years older than her brother, instructions on -the harpsichord, when the latter had scarcely completed his third -year. The boy’s strong disposition for music then immediately developed -itself: his delight was to seek out <em>thirds</em> on the instrument, -and his joy was unbounded when he succeeded in discovering one of -these harmonious concords.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_066fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />MOZART.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved by C. Kohl, 1793.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>When Wolfgang had attained his fourth year, says M. Schlichtegroll, -his father began, though hardly in earnest, to teach him a few -minuets and other short pieces of music. It took the child half an -hour to learn a minuet, and proportionately more time to master -compositions of greater length. In less than two years he had made -such progress, that he invented short pieces of music, which his father, -to encourage such promising talent, committed to writing. It is to -be regretted that not one of these curious manuscripts, if preserved, -has ever been produced. Before he began to manifest a predilection -for music, his amusements were like those of other children; and -so ardent was he in the pursuit of them, that he would willingly have -sacrificed his meals rather than be interrupted in his enjoyment. His -great sensibility was observable as soon as he could make his feelings -understood. Frequently he said to those about him, “Do you love me -well?” and when in sport he was answered in the negative, tears -immediately began to flow. He pursued everything with extraordinary -ardour. While learning the elements of arithmetic, the tables, -chairs, even the walls, bore in chalk the marks of his calculations. -And here it will not be irrelevant to state,—what we believe has -never yet appeared in print,—that his talent for the science of -numbers was only inferior to that for music: had he not been distinguished -by genius of a higher order, it is probable that his calculating -powers would have been sufficiently remarkable to bring him into -general notice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When under six years of age, Mozart surprised his father, though -well accustomed to these premature manifestations of musical genius, -by the production of a concerto for the harpsichord, written in every -respect according to rule, the only objection to which was its difficulty -of execution. This circumstance at once determined Leopold Mozart -to let the youthful prodigy be seen at some of the courts of Germany. -He therefore carried his whole family, as soon as Wolfgang had -completed his sixth year, to Munich, where they were received by -the Elector in so flattering a manner, that the party returned to -Salzburg to prepare for other visits. In 1762 they proceeded to -Vienna, and performed at court. Here Mozart, when sitting down -to play, said to the emperor Francis I.,—“Is not M. Wagenseil here? -he ought to be present; he understands such matters.” The emperor -sent for M. Wagenseil. “Sir,” said the child to the composer, “I -shall play one of your concertos,—you must turn the leaves for me.” -About the same time, a small violin was purchased for him, merely -for his amusement; but while it was supposed to be little more than -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>a toy in his hands, he made himself so far a master of the instrument, -that when Wenzl, the violinist, brought his newly composed trios to -Leopold Mozart for his opinion, Wolfgang supplicated to be allowed -to take the second violin part, and accomplished the task as much to -the satisfaction of the composer as to the wonder of all.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1763 the Mozart family commenced an extended tour, giving -concerts in the principal cities through which they passed. In Paris -they continued five months, and Wolfgang performed on the organ in -the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chapelle du roi</span></i>, in presence of the whole court. There he composed -and published his first two works, which, compared with other -productions of the day, are by no means trivial. In April, 1764, the -party arrived in London, where they remained till the middle of the -following year. Here, as in France, the boy exhibited his talents -before the royal family, and underwent more severe trials than any to -which he had before been exposed, through which he passed in a most -triumphant manner. So much interest did he excite in London, that -the Hon. Daines Barrington drew up an account of his extraordinary -performances, which was read before the Royal Society, and declared -by the council of that body to be sufficiently interesting and important -to form part of the Philosophical Transactions, in the seventieth -volume of which it is published. But some suspicions having been -entertained by many persons that the declared was not the real age of -the youthful prodigy, Mr. Barrington obtained, through Count Haslang, -then Bavarian minister at the British court, a certificate of -Wolfgang’s birth, signed by the chaplain of the Archbishop of Salzburg, -which at once dispelled all doubts on the subject.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1765, the family returned to the continent. At the Hague, -where Mozart published six sonatas, they remained some months; -then paid a second long visit to Paris, and, passing through Switzerland, -reached Salzburg in 1768. Some time after, the children -performed at Vienna before Joseph II., by whose desire Mozart -composed an entire opera, <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">La finta Sposa</span></cite>. Hasse and Metastasio -both bestowed great commendations on the work, but it never was -produced on the stage, and the probability is that its merit was only -of a relative kind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1769, Mozart (in his fourteenth year!) was appointed director -of the Archbishop of Salzburg’s concerts. Shortly after he proceeded -with his father to Italy, where he was received with enthusiasm. At -Rome he gave a proof of memory which is still the subject of conversation -in that city. He heard the famous Miserere of Allegri in the -pontifical chapel, and knowing that the pope’s singers were forbidden, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>under pain of excommunication, to furnish a copy, or allow one, under -any plea, to be taken, he gave his utmost attention to the composition -during its performance, wrote it down when he returned home, and -exultingly carried it with him to Germany. While in Italy, the pope -invested him with the order of the Golden Spur. At Bologna he -was unanimously elected a member of the Philharmonic Academy. -He reached Milan in October, 1770, and in the following December -gave his second opera, Mitridate, which had a run of twenty nights. -In 1773 he composed another serious opera, Lucio Silla; this was -performed twenty-six nights successively. He produced many other -works of various kinds between that year and 1779, when he fixed -his residence permanently in Vienna.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In his twenty-fifth year he was captivated by Madlle. Constance -Weber, an amiable, accomplished, and celebrated actress, to whom he -soon made a proposal of marriage. This was courteously declined -by her family, on the ground that his reputation was not then sufficiently -established. Upon this he composed his Idomeneo, in order -to prove what means were at his command; and, animated by the -strongest passion that ever entered his heart, produced an opera -which he always considered his highest effort: certainly it was the -first that showed his positive strength. Parts of it are in his most -original, and grandest manner; but parts show that he had not quite -emancipated himself from the thraldom of custom. Some of the airs, -though far superior to those of his contemporaries, are too much in the -opera style then prevailing, a style now become nearly obsolete; and -when, a few years ago, it was wished to bring out Idomeneo at the -King’s Theatre, it became evident that, if performed as originally -written, its success would be very doubtful. To Madlle. Weber, on -whom the composer’s affections were unalterably fixed, was assigned -the principal character in the opera, and the high reputation which -the author acquired by his work having immediately silenced the objections -of Constance’s family, her hand was shortly after the reward -of his efforts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1782 Mozart composed <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Entführung aus dem Serail</span>, -(<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Enlévement du Sérail</span>,) and here it is evident that he had entirely -broken the fetters which before he had only loosened. Here is exhibited -that style which, in an improved state, afterwards characterized -all his dramatic works. It was on the first representation of -this opera that Joseph II. remarked to the composer,—“All this may -be very fine, but there are too many notes for our ears.” To which -Mozart, with that independent spirit which always characterised him, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>replied,—“There are, Sire, just as many as there ought to be.” <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Le -Nozze di Figaro</span>—second in merit only to Don Giovanni, if to that—was -produced in 1786, by command of the Emperor, by whose -authority alone an Italian conspiracy against it was suppressed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1787 appeared, first at Prague, the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chef-d’œuvre</span></i> of Mozart, his -Don Giovanni, which was received with enthusiasm by the Bohemians, -but at that time, and indeed years after, was above the comprehension -of the Viennese public, whose taste, unlike that which -prevails in the north of Germany, still inclines them to prefer the -nerveless, meagre compositions of Italy. “This matchless work of its -immortalised author,” never found its way to our Anglo-Italian stage -till the year 1817, when it was performed in a manner that surpassed -all former representations, and has never since been equalled. The production -of Don Giovanni in London,—which put ten thousand pounds -into the manager’s pocket, and forms an era in our musical history—was -so strenuously opposed by an Italian cabal, that but for the courage and -perseverance of the director of that season, it would have been put aside, -even after all the expense of getting up and trouble of rehearsing had -been incurred. The charming comic opera, <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Cosi fan tutti</span>, was composed -in 1790; <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Zauberflöte</span> and <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">La Clemenza di Tito</span>, in 1791; -the latter for the coronation of Leopold II.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last and, taken as a whole, the most sublime work of Mozart, -his Requiem, was written on his death-bed; and having been left -in rather an unfinished state, his pupil, Süssmayer, filled up some of -the accompaniments. This circumstance led, a few years ago, to a -dispute concerning its authorship, some indiscreet friends of the latter -having claimed as his composition the best parts of the mass. The -assertions by which the claim was supported, and the arguments in -its favour, proved unavailing against the internal evidence which the -work afforded, and it is to be presumed that the controversy will -never be renewed. A story, too, that an anonymous, mysterious -stranger commissioned Mozart to compose the Requiem, raised -many idle conjectures, some of them of the most grossly superstitious -kind. The matter, however, has latterly been very satisfactorily -explained<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c011'><sup>[2]</sup></a>.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>See Harmonicon, vol. iv., page 102.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>This illustrious composer, on whom nature bestowed so much -vigour of imagination, so little physical strength, never seemed destined -to attain longevity. Slightly constructed, and feeble in constitution, -he required more mental repose than his necessities would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>allow. His mind did not yield, but his body gave way, and on the -5th of December, 1792, prematurely worn out, he expired thoroughly -exhausted, without any appearance of organic disease.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been said of Mozart, that his knowledge was bounded by -his art, and that detached from this he was little better than a -nonentity. That his thoughts were almost wholly bent on music -was not a matter of choice, but of necessity. Had not his miserably-remunerated -labours occupied nearly all his time, his means would -have been still more limited than they were. But we have reason to -think (as we have elsewhere stated) that his acquirements were far -greater than in England is generally believed; in proof of which we -have the best authority for saying, that once, at a court masquerade -given at Vienna, Mozart appeared as a physician, and wrote prescriptions -in Latin, French, Italian, and German; in which not -only an acquaintance with the several languages was shown, but -great discernment of character, and considerable wit. Assuming -this to be true, he could not have been a very ignorant man, nor -always a dull one, out of his profession. But still stronger evidence -in favour of his understanding may be extracted from his works. -That he who, in his operas, adapted his music with such felicity to -the different persons of the drama—who evinced such nicety of -discrimination—who represented the passions so accurately—who -coloured so faithfully—whose music is so expressive, that without -the aid of words it is almost sufficient to render the scene intelligible,—that -such a man should not have been endowed with a high -order of intellect is hard to be believed, but that his understanding -should have been below mediocrity is incredible.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Had Mozart lived, this country, which witnessed his early proofs -of genius, would have enjoyed it in its matured and most luxuriant -state. When Salomon, the celebrated violin player—an enterprising, -liberal, sensible man—was about establishing his subscription-concerts -in London, he went to Vienna to engage either Haydn or Mozart -to compose symphonies for him, and after several “most amicable and -pleasant meetings” (Salomon’s own words) between the parties, it was -agreed that Haydn should first proceed to the rich capital of the -British dominions, and that the following season he should be succeeded -by Mozart. The illness and death of the latter rendered -unavailing an arrangement which would at least have compensated -his labours more adequately than they had ever before been rewarded. -The father of modern orchestral music may be said to have made -his fortune—a small one, it is true, but an independence—by his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>visits to London; and the creator of an entirely new, an infinitely -superior, style of dramatic music would hardly have been less successful.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The compositions of Mozart are of every kind, and so numerous, -that we cannot pretend to give even a bare list of them. But it -may be observed, generally, that from the sonata to the symphony, -from the simplest romance to the most elaborate musical drama, he—whose -career was stopped before he had completed his thirty-sixth -year—composed in every imaginable style, and excelled in all. In -each class he furnished models of the greatest attainable excellence: -“exquisite melodies, profound harmonies, the playful, the tender, the -pathetic, and the sublime,” are to be found among his works. It is -the exclusive privilege of first rate merit to be more admired as it is -better known; and while inferior composers enjoy their day of fashion, -and are forgotten, Mozart’s fame will continue to expand in proportion -as mankind advances in taste and knowledge.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_072.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_073fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />LOYOLA.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Bolswert, after a Picture by Rubens.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span> -<img src='images/i_073.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>LOYOLA.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The family-name of the founder of the Order of Jesuits, commonly -called <span class='sc'>Ignatius Loyola</span>, is stated by Ranke, Romischen Papste, -vol. 1, on the authority of judicial records, to have been Don Inigo -Lopez de Recalde. He was born in 1491, at the Castle of Loyola, in -the province of Guipuscoa, in Spanish Biscay; and being destined to -the profession of arms, was sent, at an early age, to learn the rudiments -of war and gallantry, at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. -He made great proficiency in both. Endowed with a lively imagination, -and an ardent temperament, he became distinguished in arms, -and first applied his talents, which were destined to such different purposes, -to the composition of poetry. Thus he spent his youth; and he -had already reached his thirtieth year, when he was called to the defence -of Pampluna against the attack of the French. On this occasion he -displayed his wonted valour, and while standing in the breach of the -castle, he was struck by a cannon shot which fractured his leg. A -tedious confinement followed; in part occasioned, as some assert, by -his great anxiety to preserve the symmetry of the limb, which led him -to undergo a second operation, to remove a deformity which had -been occasioned by an ill-set bone. To relieve his weariness he -called for some books of chivalry, but in their place he was supplied -with the Lives of Saints, and other devotional works. He read -them with extraordinary eagerness. He admired the zeal of those -holy men; he sympathized in their sufferings; he envied their -glory; and he aspired at their eternal recompense. His thoughts -and wishes were thus turned into a new channel, and he entered -on the path of spiritual warfare, with his natural ardour stimulated -and inflamed by religious devotion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Accordingly, he rose from his bed of sickness, resolved to renounce -the pursuits and pleasures of this world, and to dedicate himself to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>service of God. Still it was not without a desperate struggle that -he could accomplish this resolution. He had a passion for military -fame; he had a mistress whom it was necessary to abandon; and his -earthly ties were as strong, as his temperament was violent. But -the new sprung influence of religion overcame all obstacles. March -24, 1522, he passed the night in prayer and fasting in the church -of the Holy Virgin at Montserrat; and having hung up his arms -on the altar, he consecrated himself, according to all the forms -of chivalry, to her service. At the same time he made a vow -to perform a pilgrimage barefoot to Jerusalem; and he carried his -immediate penance to such extremes of austerity, as to enervate his -frame, and to endanger his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the histories which had most deeply affected his imagination -were those of St. Francis and St. Dominic, so the service which -he vowed to the Virgin was one of privation and errantry. Accordingly -he set out privately on his pilgrimage; and after tarrying -some little time at Rome, to obtain the benediction of the -Pope, he proceeded to Venice, and from Venice to Cyprus and -the Holy Land. He reached Jerusalem, September 4, 1523, in -the guise of the poorest pilgrim; and after indulging his piety -in frequent visits to all the spots which religion and tradition -have consecrated, he offered his services to the ecclesiastical officers -resident there, for the conversion of the Infidels, or any -other holy purpose. These however were refused, and he was -dismissed, somewhat peremptorily, and commanded to return to -Europe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is curious, in reviewing the lives of some of those eminent men, -who have left lasting traces of their exertions, to observe how their -own inclinations, had Providence allowed them their course, would -sometimes have led them away from the work which they were -commissioned to accomplish. Had Wesley proved a successful missionary, -which was his earliest enterprise, the society which bears his -name might never have existed. Had Loyola been permitted to -spend his energies in attempts at converting the Jews or Turks, his -life might have been of short duration, and his name might never -have been heard beyond the limits of Palestine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When his pilgrimage was completed, and he was restored to his -native country, his passion for religious enterprise and distinction did -not in any degree abate; but he soon discovered that his literary -acquirements were wholly insufficient for his purpose. He began -therefore, at the age of thirty-three, to apply himself to the rudiments -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>of grammar; and endeavoured to regain lost time by his zeal and -industry. He commenced his labours at Barcelona, and remained -there till his pious attempts to reform a convent of abandoned -nuns brought down upon him the vengeance of their lovers. Thence -he retired to Alcala, where an university had lately been founded -by Cardinal Ximenes. Here he pursued his studies with great -ardour till the year 1527: he attempted at the same time the three -sciences of logic, physic, and theology, and was bent on accomplishing -by a single effort what results to other men from the -patient employment of much time and labour. But it was too -late in life. His mind had been already formed to more active -pursuits, and he could not bend it to the acquisition of learning. A -confused mass of knowledge, directed by no reflection, and founded -on no principles, could neither be applied nor retained; and his -endeavour to grasp so much, at so great a disadvantage, ended, -where it was sure to end, in entire ignorance. He discovered his -failure; and thenceforward directed his energies to a more attainable -end: and, though he desisted not entirely from his tardy -struggles after learning, he seems rather to have looked for success -from the influence which personal intercourse generally enabled -him to acquire over those about him. Some lectures, however, -which he delivered at Alcala, gave offence to the authorities of -that university; and after an imprisonment of forty-two days, he was -prohibited from public preaching, until he should have completed a -course of four years in theology. It seems too, that, together with -two or three companions, he had assumed a peculiar dress, which -they were ordered to lay aside.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From Alcala he removed to Salamanca; but there too he had no -sooner resumed his preaching than the Inquisitors laid hands on him; -and after a second confinement, with severer treatment, he and his -companions were again dismissed, under a sentence not widely differing -from the preceding. On these occasions it was not so much the -character of his sermons which gave the offence, as the circumstance -that they were delivered by a layman.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus discouraged in his native country, he hoped to find a wider, -or at least a safer, field for his exertions in France. Accordingly he -departed for Paris, and arrived there in the beginning of February, -1528. His means were extremely small, and even these had been -provided by the generosity of his friends. He was deprived of all -that remained to him, soon after his arrival, by the treachery of a -fellow-student, and had no other method of subsistence than mendicity. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>Thus he lived, returning, as we are informed, with his first ardour -to the rudiments of literature, and striving by his instructions and -example to extend the narrow limits of his influence. Even thus -however he was not beneath the notice of the Inquisitor, a special -emissary of Clement VII., then resident at Paris; but on this occasion -he cleared himself from any charge or suspicion of heresy, and -was absolved without any particular injunction or reproach. But his -poverty still compelled him to employ his vacations in begging, through -various countries, the means which were to maintain him during his -studies; and in one of these mendicant excursions, he visited certain -Spanish merchants resident in London. Doubtless his powers of -observation were profitably exercised during these wanderings, and -his perpetual intercourse, even in the character of a religious beggar, -with all classes of all nations, could not fail to improve a penetrating -intellect in the art of dealing with mankind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By this uncommon perseverance he was enabled to finish his course -of study of three years, and was admitted to the degree of Master of -Arts. Then again he betook himself more especially to theology; -and it was at this time (1534) that he formed the first serious design -of establishing a new Order. Such a project, in the hands of so very -humble a person as Loyola then was, might have seemed wild and -hopeless; and the prospect of its success was not improved by the -number or quality of his associates. Seven individuals, of no distinguished -rank or eminence, personal or ecclesiastical, some of whom -were very young and others very poor, met together in the church of -Montmartre, August 15, 1534, and devoted themselves to the service -of Christ. They were prepared for this solemnity by prayer -and fasting. One of them, Le Fevre, who had lately been ordained, -administered the sacrament to his brethren in a subterraneous -chapel; and all then bound themselves, by a solemn vow, -to undertake a pilgrimage to Jerusalem for the conversion of the -infidels of the East, and to renounce all their possessions, except such -as should be necessary for that pilgrimage: or else, in case they -should be unable to accomplish that design, to throw themselves at -the feet of the Pope, and offer their services as his faithful and -gratuitous instruments and missionaries, for the performance of any -ministry that he might think proper to impose on them. Another -of these devotees was Francis Xavier, a Spaniard, fifteen years -younger than Loyola; who, being from the very beginning one of his -most zealous disciples, was numbered in later life among the most distinguished -ornaments of the society.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such was the origin of the “Society of the Jesuits.” From this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>little congregation of obscure enthusiasts in the subterraneous chapel -of Montmartre arose that redoubted Company, which sprang up into -such immediate eminence; which spread so soon through the whole -body of Christendom; which took possession of the courts and the -consciences of princes, and exerted for so many years a scarcely -credible influence, in every quarter of the globe, over the course of -human affairs. Its first professed object was the conversion of the -infidels: the entire devotion to the Roman See, whence its future importance -chiefly proceeded, was not, as it would seem, the primary -motive which Ignatius inspired into his followers. Perhaps the -chivalrous feeling which animated, or rather created, the earliest -efforts of his piety, was not yet extinct within him—or it may have -been his policy to put forward, as the leading part of his design, that -which required the greatest sacrifice and offered the least reward. -But, however that may have been, he had no sooner thus bound his -associates together, than he prescribed to them rules and practices of -devotion, daily meditations and penances, spiritual conversations, the -study and imitation of the character of Jesus, constant self-examination, -and frequent communion. He appointed the Day of the Assumption, -the anniversary of their vow, for their peculiar observance; -and during an interval of preparation necessary for his disciples, he -directed his own exertions to repress the progress in France of the -doctrines of Luther and Zuinglius.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After visiting his native country, he proceeded to Venice, according -to agreement with his followers, for the accomplishment of their vow -of pilgrimage: and arrived there at the end of 1535.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Their first design however was to present themselves at Rome. -There Ignatius acquired the confidence of Peter Ortiz, a distinguished -Spaniard, employed by Charles V. to sustain at the Holy See the -validity of the marriage of Catharine of Arragon with Henry VIII. -Ortiz presented him to Paul III., who approved his doctrine and encouraged -his project. Howbeit, his departure for the Holy Land was -prevented by the Turkish war, which at that moment broke out; and -at the end of 1537 he assembled his companions, now increased to nine, -at Vicenza, and persuaded them, that, as the approach to Palestine -was closed, it only remained for them to fulfil the other part of -their vow, and offer their devoted services to the Pope. Accordingly, -Ignatius, with two others, returned to Rome for that purpose. -The rest dispersed themselves among the principal academies -of Italy, to gain proselytes. All bound themselves to the observance -of certain distinctive rules and practices; and to any interrogatories -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>which might be put to them respecting the Order to which they belonged, -Ignatius instructed them to reply, that they were members of -the Company of Jesus.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The encouragement which he received at Rome induced him to -take further measures for the establishment and enlargement of his -new Order. He presently recalled his missionaries, and collected -them about him at Rome. During their residence at Venice they -had taken the two vows of poverty and chastity; they now added -that of obedience, and decided to elect a General with absolute -power. They next determined to undertake a fourth and peculiar -obligation—one, to which they had indeed already engaged themselves -in the chapel of Montmartre, but which they had not yet proclaimed -to the world—that of doing, without aid or recompense, -any errand on which the Pope, as Vicar of Christ, might think -fit to send them. Loyola then applied to Paul III. for the confirmation -of his Order. Some obstacles arose, which were gradually -removed. A charge of heresy, founded chiefly on his early persecutions -at Alcala and Salamanca, was advanced with great clamour against -him and his companions; but a judicial inquiry, by confirming their innocence, -increased their reputation. An influential Cardinal earnestly -opposed the establishment of the new Order. But his objections -were finally overcome, and, September 27, 1540, the Pope issued his -bull to sanction the institution of Ignatius. The number of his disciples -was still confined to nine. Three of these were then absent -from Italy,—Xavier and Rodriguez on a mission to India, Le Fevre -at the Diet of Worms; so that on the day appointed for the election -of a general, six only assembled, together with Loyola. He was -chosen unanimously: but he affected great sorrow at this decision, -and only accepted the honour, after it had been pressed upon him by -a second assembly, and urged by the authoritative command of his -confessor. The ceremonies of profession were performed in the -Church of St. Paul, April 22, 1541; and while Ignatius made his -vow of especial obedience directly to the Pope, the vows of the others -professed were tendered exclusively to their General.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Pope immediately availed himself of the services thus offered -him, and sent the six disciples on various missions into different parts -of Europe. Ignatius alone remained at Rome, and employed himself -in offices of piety. He lectured publicly on religious subjects; he -discharged many duties of humanity and charity; he took measures -for the conversion of the Jews at Rome; he established a -penitentiary for women reclaimed from sin; he founded an asylum -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>for orphans; and the leisure which he could spare from these holy -works, he devoted to composing the Constitutions of his Order.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These were founded on the principle of uniting spiritual meditation -with active habits of practical piety; so that, while, on the one hand, -he enjoined mental prayer, frequent self-examination, and religious -retirement; on the other, he engaged his disciples to use every exertion -for the instruction and sanctification of the rest of mankind. He -commanded them to be perpetually exercised in preaching and missions, -in the conversion of infidels and heretics, in the inspection of -prisons and hospitals, in the direction of consciences, and the instruction -of youth. To this end, he discouraged every severity of mortification, -and all superfluity both in their public and private devotions. -He prohibited the possession of property by any of his establishments, -except colleges, which he permitted to be endowed for the advantage -of necessitous students; and he closed, as far as he was able, all the -various sources of ecclesiastical emolument. Similar professions of -disinterested devotion and perfect self-denial had laid the foundations -of the enormous wealth, power, and luxury of more ancient Orders; -and if Ignatius had been actuated by ambition, he could have devised -no better means of raising his society to affluence and importance, -than by laying the same snare for the credulity of mankind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this mere sketch of the life of Loyola, it would be absurd to attempt -any account of the internal constitution of his Order, of the -particular laws by which it was regulated, of the gradual development -of its principles, and the general evils which flowed from them. It is -enough to give some faint notion of its earliest progress. Six years -after the confirmation of the Order of Jesuits, a college was opened to -them in Spain (it was the first of these establishments), by Francis -Borgia, Duke of Gandia, and endowed with the same privileges as -those of Alcala and Salamanca. Its statutes were composed by -Loyola. In the same year, to give some pledge for the sincerity of -his vow of self-denial, and to secure his followers against one of the -commonest temptations of ambition, he prevailed upon the Pope to -exclude them and their successors, by a perpetual edict, from the possession -of bishoprics, abbeys, and every description of benefice. This -restriction not only stamped them with a peculiar character, and recommended -them to popular favour as singular instances of self-devotion, -but also left them, for the furtherance of the especial -objects of the society, the leisure, talents, and industry which -might otherwise have been employed in the pursuit of ecclesiastical -dignities, or the performance of pastoral duties. But it was not faithfully -observed, even during the lifetime of Ignatius.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>The Spiritual Exercises, the great work of the founder of the -Jesuits, is asserted to have been composed by him, aided by the inspiration -of the Holy Virgin, very soon after his return from Jerusalem. -His capacity for such a composition, at that period of his life, -has been disputed by many, and various doubts have been thrown on -its genuineness. Howbeit, the book passed for his during the infancy -of the society, and in 1548 the Archbishop of Toledo took great pains -to suppress it. Loyola turned this attempt into an advantage to himself. -He caused the merits of the work to be strongly represented to -Paul III., and obtained a bull in praise and confirmation of all contained -in it. Thus recommended by the apostolical authority to the -meditations of the faithful, it attracted more general attention on its -author, and on the institution which he had founded.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the first step had been taken, the progress of the Company of -Jesus surpassed in rapidity all that is recorded of the infancy of the -older establishments. It was scarcely planted in Spain before it -spread to Ferrara, and other parts of Italy. In 1548 it got footing -at Messina and Palermo. In 1550 it was introduced into Bavaria; -and in the same year it was still further confirmed by a bull of Julius -III., and enriched, as it had previously been, by abundant benefactions -from the apostolic treasury. Two years afterwards, it founded a -Germanic college at Rome, and by this time it could boast of similar -institutions in many of the most civilized cities of Europe. And not -in Europe only: its missionaries had already penetrated into India, -Africa, and America. In the year 1553 they presented themselves in -Cyprus, at Constantinople, and Jerusalem, and were carried by the -same impulse into Abyssinia and China. France alone avowed her -suspicion of their principles, and refused them admission: nor were -the utmost endeavours of Loyola himself able to achieve this object. -Howbeit, the perseverance of his followers, supported by their general -success, succeeded even there, and in February, 1564, they opened -their celebrated college in the Rue St. Jacques at Paris.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cheered by this sudden and most rapid prosperity, Loyola, whom -his disciples represent as the only spring of all the movements of the -Company, and the sole spirit of the mighty body which was already -spread over all the quarters of the world—whom his enemies describe -as a vain, illiterate enthusiast, without talents, without knowledge, a -mere machine in the hands of a crafty and worldly hierarchy—peaceably -expired at Rome, July 31, 1566, surrounded by his disciples, -and animated (as they relate) with the deepest feelings of -piety, and gratitude to Providence for the blessing which had been -vouchsafed upon his mission.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_081fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. T. Wedgwood.</em><br /><br />BRINDLEY.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by R. Dunkarton 1773, after a Picture by F. Parsons.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span> -<img src='images/i_081.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>BRINDLEY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Our memoir of the man who originated that system of canal navigation, -which contributed in no secondary degree to the wonderful -increase of our national wealth in the last century, is taken entirely, -and in many parts verbatim, from Dr. Kippis’s Biographia Britannica. -The article <span class='sc'>Brindley</span> in that work, communicated by Brindley’s -brother-in-law, Mr. Henshall, and his friend Mr. Bentley, -appears to be the only original account of him extant, and the source -from which all later accounts have been taken.</p> - -<p class='c000'>James Brindley was born in the parish of Wormhill in Derbyshire, -in 1716. He was the son of a small freeholder, who squandered his -property in rustic dissipation, and could scarcely afford to give him -even the rudiments of education. His boyhood, therefore, was spent -in rural labour: but at the age of seventeen he left his home, to be -apprenticed to a millwright at Macclesfield. He soon exhibited an -uncommon share of mechanical ingenuity, which enabled him to excel -his master in planning and executing orders for machinery more -complicated than usual, and caused his services to be eagerly sought -and highly prized by those who had once occasion to employ him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At a later period he went into business on his own account, and, by -many useful inventions and contrivances, established his reputation -throughout the neighbourhood as a skilful mechanic. He gradually -obtained a wider range for the exercise of his powers. In 1752 he -erected a remarkable engine to drain some coal mines at Clifton, in -Lancashire, of which the moving power was a wheel fixed thirty feet -below the surface of the earth, and driven by water drawn from the -river Irwell, by a tunnel cut for near 600 yards through the rock. In -1755 he was employed to construct portions of the works for a silk -mill at Congleton, under the superintendence of an engineer, who -proved incompetent to the task which he had in hand. Brindley does -not appear ever to have executed machinery of the sort required, and -he had not even been permitted to see the general model of the mill: -but on the incompetency of his superior being discovered, he came -forward and told the proprietors, that if they would let him know -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>what was the effect they wished to have produced, and would permit -him to perform the business in his own way, he would finish the mill -to their satisfaction. The knowledge which they had of his ability -and integrity induced them to repose confidence in this assurance; -he accomplished that very curious and complex piece of machinery, -in a manner far superior to the expectations of his employers, and -with the addition of several new and useful contrivances. He also -invented machines for making tooth and pinion wheels, which hitherto -had been cut by hand, and with great labour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Many other improvements Brindley introduced into the mechanical -arts. But about this time his thoughts were drawn towards a larger -sphere of action by the resolution of Francis Duke of Bridgewater to -cut a canal from his coal mines at Worsley to the town of Manchester, -distant about seven miles. This scheme is said to have been before -conceived by one of that nobleman’s predecessors: but that circumstance -does not detract from the honour due to the great perseverance -and resolution displayed in the execution of his plan. Divesting himself -of the splendour which usually belongs to his rank, he devoted -his large revenue almost entirely to his favourite undertaking: -resisting the temptation to borrow money, lest he should involve -himself and his successors in irremediable difficulties, in case of -the failure of an undertaking which, from its novelty, no man -living could assert to be certain of success. At the same time -having selected Brindley as his engineer, on good experience of his -skill and talent, he placed a noble confidence in him; and, without -fear or distrust, devoted his energy and fortune to work out the -magnificent design which the genius of his coadjutor had planned. -As the difficulties to be overcome were very great, so there was little -experience to guide the projectors. Navigable rivers indeed had -been improved, and those which were not navigable by nature had -been made so by pounding up their waters with locks and dams: but -of canals, properly so called, this was the first constructed in England. -That it might be perfect in its kind, it was resolved to preserve a -level, and avoid locks altogether: but to effect this obstacles were to -be overcome, such as never had been surmounted in England,—obstacles -which had always been considered insurmountable. Navigable -tunnels were to be cut, long and large mounds to be carried -across valleys, and in the line which finally was adopted, an aqueduct -bridge of three arches, nearly fifty feet in height, and including the -embankments on each side, five hundred yards in length, was to be -carried over the river Irwell. This part of the scheme being generally -considered wild and extravagant, Brindley, to justify himself to his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>employer, desired that the opinion of another engineer might be taken. -This was accordingly done: but the second, on being conducted to the -spot where it was intended that the aqueduct should be made, exclaimed, -“I have often heard of castles in the air, but never before was shown -the place where any of them were to be erected.” But the Duke of -Bridgewater’s confidence in Brindley was not to be shaken, and the -bridge was undertaken and finished within less than a year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is needless now to give the details of works which, though they -excited the wonder of contemporaries, have been far surpassed in -magnitude by more recent undertakings. One feature in the Duke -of Bridgewater’s canal, however, is too remarkable to be passed over: -it is continued on the same level more than three quarters of a mile -into the heart of the hill in which the collieries are situated, so that -after a short transit in low waggons along the galleries of the mine, -the coal is deposited at once in the barges which convey it to Manchester. -For a fuller account, we may refer to Phillips’s History of -Inland Navigation. In 1762, the Duke of Bridgewater obtained an -Act of Parliament, enabling him to continue his canal from Worsley -in an opposite direction to Runcorn, in the tideway of the Mersey, so -as to establish a perfect water-way between Liverpool and Manchester, -unembarrassed by the constant current, and inequalities of -flood and drought, which impeded the navigation of the Irwell. In -this part of the line several deep valleys, especially those of the rivers -Mersey and Bollin, were to be crossed, and this was done without -the assistance of a single lock. Brindley’s method of constructing -the long embankments, which occurred in some places, was remarkable: -he built caissons along the line of its intended course, into -which boats laden with excavated soil were conducted by the canal -itself, and discharged their contents upon the very spot where the -ground was to be raised. Thus the canal, as it were, pushed itself -forward; and the labour and expense of transporting these immense -masses of earth was greatly diminished. To guard against the total -loss of water, and ruin to the surrounding country, which might -occur from a breach of these embankments, Brindley contrived stops, -which were gates so hung as to lie horizontally near the bottom when -the water was at rest, but to rise and close when any current should -be produced by the banks giving way, and thus prevent the escape -of any water, except that portion near the breach which should be -comprised between them. It is hardly necessary to add that the -result of this, the greatest undertaking perhaps ever performed by -any private person out of his own fortune, has been the realization -of an enormous income to the peer who undertook it, and to his heirs.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>This success encouraged others to proceed in the same course; and -in 1765 a subscription was raised, and an Act of Parliament procured, -for uniting the rivers Mersey and Trent, and consequently the ports -of Liverpool and Hull, by what is commonly called the Grand Trunk -Canal. Brindley bestowed this name upon it, in the expectation that, -traversing a large and important portion of our manufacturing district, -it would be the main trunk, from which a number of minor -branches would spring. The scheme had been projected so early as -1755, and the ground surveyed, which for the most part offered little -difficulty. But there was one line of high ground, called Harecastle -Hill, which could neither be turned nor surmounted by any expedient -that former engineers could devise. Brindley overcame the obstacle -by driving a tunnel through it, upwards of a mile and five furlongs in -length, and in some parts seventy yards below the surface of the -ground. This canal, which is ninety-three miles long, was begun in -1766, and finished in May, 1777, less than eleven years after its commencement. -In connexion with it, Brindley planned and executed a -branch which joined the Severn, and thus gave Bristol an inland -navigation to Hull, Liverpool, and Manchester.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some notion may be formed of the impulse which Brindley’s energy -and skill gave to the system of internal navigation, when it is stated -that during the few years which elapsed between the completion of the -Bridgewater Canal, and his death in 1772, he was engaged in at least -eighteen different projects for cutting canals, or for improving rivers, -without including those we have already mentioned. The mere -names of these would be matter of little interest; they may be seen -in the Biographia Britannica. Nor shall we now be expected -to dwell on the unprecedented increase of trade and manufactures -during the last century, and to point out how closely this is connected -with our great facilities of internal communication. One -thing, however, is too remarkable to be passed over: it was as nearly -as possible at the same time that Watt, Arkwright, and Brindley, -were effecting, each in his own department, those wonderful improvements -in mechanical science, which conjointly have given such vast -extent and importance to all branches of our manufactures, and which -singly would have been, as it were, each of them crippled and imperfect. -Of Brindley’s private history, scarcely any particulars are preserved. -The following account of his character is stated by Dr. Kippis -to proceed from the pen of Mr. Bentley, a partner in the celebrated -house of Wedgwood, who knew him well:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>“When any extraordinary difficulty occurred to Mr. Brindley in -the execution of his works, having little or no assistance from books, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>or the labours of other men, his resources lay within himself. In -order therefore to be quiet and uninterrupted, whilst he was in search -of the necessary expedients, he generally retired to his bed; and he -has been known to lie there one, two, or three days, till he had attained -the object in view. He then would get up, and execute his -design without any drawing or model. Indeed, it never was his -custom to make either, unless he was obliged to do it to satisfy his employers. -His memory was so remarkable, that he has often declared -that he could remember and execute all the parts of the most complex -machine, provided he had time, in his survey of it, to settle in his -mind the several departments, and their relation to each other. His -method of calculating the powers of any machine invented by him -was peculiar to himself. He worked the question for some time in -his head, and then put down the results in figures; after this, taking -it up again in that stage, he worked it further in his mind for a certain -time, and set down the results as before. In the same way, he still -proceeded, making use of figures only at stated periods of the question. -Yet the ultimate result was generally true, though the road he travelled -in search of it was unknown to all but himself; and, perhaps, it -would not have been in his power to have shown it to another.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The attention which was paid by Mr. Brindley to objects of peculiar -magnitude did not permit him to indulge himself in the common -diversions of life. Indeed, he had not the least relish for the amusements -to which mankind in general are so much devoted. He never -seemed in his element, if he was not either planning or executing -some great work, or conversing with his friends upon subjects of importance. -He was once prevailed upon, when in London, to see a -play. Having never been at an entertainment of this kind before, it -had a powerful effect upon him, and he complained for several days -afterwards, that it had disturbed his ideas, and rendered him unfit for -business. He declared, therefore, that he would not go to another -play upon any account. It might, however, have contributed to the -longer duration of Mr. Brindley’s life, and consequently to the further -benefit of the public, if he could have occasionally relaxed the tone of -his mind. His not being able to do so, might not solely arise from -the vigour of his genius, always bent upon capital designs; but be, in -part, the result of that total want of education, which, while it might -add strength to his powers in the particular way in which they were -exerted, precluded him, at the same time, from those agreeable reliefs -that are administered by miscellaneous reading, and a taste in the -polite and elegant arts. The only fault he was observed to fall into, -was his suffering himself to be prevailed upon to engage in more concerns -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>than could be completely attended to by any single man, how -eminent soever might be his abilities and diligence. It is apprehended -that, by this means, Mr. Brindley shortened his days, and in a certain -degree abridged his usefulness. There is, at least, the utmost reason -to believe, that his intense application in general to the important -undertakings he had in hand brought on a hectic fever, which continued -upon him, with little or no intermission, for some years, and at -length terminated his life. He died at Turnhurst, in Staffordshire, -on the 27th of September, 1772, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and -was buried at New Chapel in the same county. The vast works -Mr. Brindley was engaged in at the time of his death, he left to be -carried on and completed by his brother-in-law Mr. Henshall, for -whom he had a peculiar regard, and of whose integrity and abilities -in conducting these works he had the highest opinion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The public could only recognise the merit of this extraordinary -man in the stupendous undertakings which he carried to perfection, -and exhibited to general view. But those who had the advantage -of conversing with him familiarly, and of knowing him well in his -private character, respected him still more for the uniform and unshaken -integrity of his conduct; for his steady attachment to the -interest of the community; for the vast compass of his understanding, -which seemed to have a natural affinity with all grand objects; and likewise -for many noble and beneficent designs, constantly generating -in his mind, and which the multiplicity of his engagements, and the -shortness of his life, prevented him from bringing to maturity.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_086.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Aqueduct over the Irwell.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_087fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />SCHILLER.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Faustin Anderloni, after a Picture by G. von Kügelgen.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span> -<img src='images/i_087.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SCHILLER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Schiller is as universally acknowledged to be the second of German, -as Milton is of English poets: and these great names, after those of -Goethe and Shakspeare, denote the chiefs of the national literature of -their respective countries. But the German poets were not merely -contemporaries, but associated in friendship and congenial pursuits; -and so much light is thrown upon the character of each by its -being contemplated in connexion with that of the other, that in -our endeavour to compress within very narrow limits the pregnant -matter which this great man’s name suggests, we shall take leave to -call in aid our attempted characteristics of his greater friend, and request -that this article may be considered as a sequel to the former.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Frederick Christopher von Schiller was born at Marbach, in the -duchy of Wurtemburg, November 10, 1759. His father held the -rank of captain in the service of the duke, and was in fortune so low, -that he was glad to place his son, in 1773, after an ordinary school-education, -in the ducal academy of Stuttgard, which, partaking of an -eleemosynary character, subjected the pupils to military discipline, -though training for arts and professions called liberal. Schiller had -early in life manifested the sensibilities common to the religious and -poetic temperament, but was compelled to forego the study of theology, -because this institution made no provision for it. He began with -law, but finally went through a course of medical study, so as to -obtain the post of regimental surgeon in 1780. These pursuits were -against his inclination. During eight years, as he said, his genius -was in conflict with military subjection. He ought rather to have -said, that thereby his genius received the direction which determined -the course of his life. For it was while under the sad impressions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>produced by a life of restraint within the walls of the academy, that he -composed his tragedy of The Robbers, which he found means to print -in 1781. Germany was at that period without a national theatre; -scarcely half-a-dozen original stock-plays could be now produced -which were then popular. Hence this juvenile work, with all its -faults and extravagances (perhaps on account of these), was received -with a tumult of applause in many parts of Germany. He was -invited to adapt it to the stage, and it was performed the following -year at Manheim. Of this most faulty and most famous maiden-play, -it will be sufficient to remark that it exhibits, in over-charged colours, -relations of life and character most likely to strike a youthful imagination. -It represents in contrast two brothers. One, originally noble -and heroic, becomes the perpetrator of those crimes against society, -which law punishes with its severest penalties. The other betrays a -character far more odious and revolting to the moral sense of mankind. -The result is a catastrophe of appalling horror. The young -poet solicited for leave of absence to witness the representation of his -first play, which was refused him. He therefore, in defiance, made -a journey to Manheim, and was punished by a fortnight’s arrest in his -own house. He was also found guilty of having in his play uttered -a national reflection on the people of the Grisons. For this he was -reprimanded, ordered by his sovereign not to write on any subject but -medicine, or at least to submit any literary work to the inspection and -correction of his Serenity, and threatened with imprisonment in a -fortress. While he was compelled to submit to a tyranny so humiliating, -he learned that beyond the limits of the petty state to which -he belonged, his work was the subject of loud and even extravagant -applause. After a severe conflict, he abandoned his parents and the -friends of his youth, and in October of the same year made his escape -from an intolerable servitude. It has been gravely stated, to the -credit of the duke, that he suffered his disobedient subject, some ten -years afterwards, when he had acquired celebrity, to visit his family -unmolested. That is, he was not seized and shot as a deserter.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Schiller thus threw himself on the world, he had no other -friends than those whom these early fruits of his talents had raised, no -other support than the consciousness of those talents, nor other immediate -resource than the unwrought materials of two other tragedies in -prose, which he produced almost immediately, and which established -his character as a dramatic poet. These were the Conspiracy of -Fiesco, a political play taken from the romantic tale of St. Real, in -which the intrigues of republican faction were picturesquely exhibited, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>and Cabal and Love, in which the tragic distress arises from the -conflict between the natural passion of love, and the conventional -social duties which originate in the relations of birth and station. -During the completion of these juvenile works, which appeared in -1783 and 1784, his first asylum was Manheim, where he even deliberated -about becoming an actor; and his first patron was the munificent -ecclesiastic Baron von Dalberg, who became at a future period, -under the French government, Prince-primate of Catholic Germany. -Schiller also became the editor of the Rhenish Mercury, a monthly -miscellany devoted to literature and the arts, and engaged in manifold -literary labours, for which he had to qualify himself by supplying the -defects of a very imperfect education. He early felt the necessity of -studying history as indispensable to the cultivation of the serious drama, -and so he became an historian by profession. At that time, it was -a fashionable opinion that all sciences and arts were to be founded -on metaphysics, and he became also a metaphysician. But in order -to pursue these studies, it was not on the north-western frontier of -Germany that he could profitably remain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Saxony was already become the seat of literature as well as philosophy. -He removed thither, and during the years 1785–1789, he -resided at Leipzic, Dresden, Rudolstadt, and Weimar. At the latter -place he gained the favour of Wieland and Herder, during the absence -of Goethe in Italy. It was in 1787 that these great poets met. -Though mutually repelled at first by obvious dissimilarities of character -and genius, they were soon attracted and united by their -common love of art and poetry. Under the auspices of his new -friend, Schiller obtained, in 1789, the professorship of history at the -neighbouring University of Jena, where he cultivated, as a teacher -and as a writer, both history and philosophy, which in that university -were followed with great celebrity: he himself lectured on -history and æsthetics (the science of taste). In the year 1790 he -united himself in a happy marriage with a lady of good family but -small fortune, Fraûlein Lengenfeld. But at this early period he was -attacked by disease; and the state of his health compelled his removal -to Weimar, whence he never departed. Here he lived in the closest -intimacy with Goethe. Their union was a memorable incident, even -in the life of Goethe. But it was the one great event in the life of -Schiller, by which his education was consummated, and he was -enabled to execute nearly all the great works on which his reputation -rests. A few years were now spent in intense intellectual -labour, rendered painful by the attacks of disease. He edited first -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>the Thalia, and then a monthly work of higher pretensions, ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die -Horen</span>’ [the Hours]. He published for several years an Almanac of -the Muses, and with unwearied assiduity devoted himself to the drama -as literary manager, translator, editor, and author. The eagerness -with which he pursued these various avocations, it has been generally -thought, undermined his constitution. For several years before his -death he devoted his nights, not days, to poetic composition; and his -pale and emaciated countenance, and the lassitude and debility -of his frame, announced the ravages of disease which carried him -off, May 9, 1805, in the forty-sixth year of his age. He left a -widow and several children, who were enabled to occupy an honourable -station in society. During his latter years, Schiller enjoyed a -pension from the Duke of Weimar, sufficient, in addition to the profits -of his works, to enable him to live in comfort; and a patent of nobility -was procured for him by the Duke, to replace his lady in her station -at the court of Weimar, from which her marriage with a commoner -had excluded her. Schiller was in figure tall and thin. The characteristic -features of his feeling and melancholy countenance are -admirably represented on the colossal bust executed in marble, by -Dannecker, which is preserved at Stuttgard.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Schiller’s numerous works may be classed under the heads of -criticism, history, lyrical poetry, and the drama. We shall endeavour -to characterise them, in the inverse order of their importance. In all of -these departments his writings acquired immediate popularity. And -in the latter they will enjoy permanent distinction, more from the -vigorous style, warm sensibility, and fine moral feeling which are -diffused over all his compositions, than from the development of the -peculiar genius which any one class especially requires. When -Schiller emancipated himself from the thraldom of his youth, the -Kantian metaphysics were become popular among students. With -characteristic ardour he became a disciple of the new school, and -laboured to apply the critical philosophy to poetry and the arts. -His first writings were scholastic exercises performed in public. But -as the philosophy of his country, like his own mind, was in a state of -transition, his metaphysical dissertations on æsthetical education, -on naive and sentimental poetry, &c., deserve notice chiefly as appertaining -to the literary history of a memorable philosophical crisis. -They did not serve even to lay the foundation of a system of poetics, -which was reserved for the Schlegels. These constitute three -volumes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The historical works of Schiller originated in his dramatic studies. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>These led him to the subjects of his histories; and his mode of treating -these subjects as a dramatist, and an historian, is such that we must -blend the consideration of his two historical works with two of his -most famous tragedies. The first of his elaborate dramas in blank -verse was Don Carlos, in connexion with which was written the -commencement of a history of the successful insurrection of the -Dutch against the Spanish despotism. In his play he has not, like -Otway in his forgotten tragedy, and Alfieri in his Filippo, rendered -the real or supposed love of the young prince to his step-mother the -most important incident. The heroic reformer, Marquis Posa, is the -character that most excites the sympathy of the reader. And it is -the sort of prophetic prelude to the reformation that engrosses his -attention. So in the history, the author addresses himself rhetorically -to the patriotism, the love of religious and civil liberty, and other -virtuous feelings of his reader. Schiller is no where the critical investigator -of doubtful facts, nor is he an authority to decide the merits -of a doubtful character. His other great subject was the Thirty -Years’ War. This narrative also is a series of eloquent dissertations, -splendid descriptions, and pregnant moral reflections, rather -than a philosophic development of the chain of events. His Wallenstein, -which dramatises a chapter of that history, is the most -laboured of his dramas; and it obtained for him the honour of a -translation from a man of kindred genius, Coleridge. In the half comic -prelude, called The Camp, and the two parts of the tragedy, all the -varieties of the military character and of military cabal are unfolded. -Besides the hero himself, the subtle intriguer the elder Piccolomini, -is finely contrasted with his high-minded, enthusiastic son, the lover -of Thekla, the exquisite daughter of the heroic victim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Besides the four volumes of these histories, there are two others of -minor historical treatises. And it may be noticed here, in connexion -with this class of his writings, that he began a romance called the -Ghost-Seer, the historical foundation of which lay in the tragi-comic -absurdities, and mischievous vagaries of the German illuminati -and freemasons, a strange compound of superstition and infidelity, -with which were blended political fanaticism, fraud, and sentimental -philanthropy. This disease was partly cured by, and partly absorbed -in the events of the French Revolution.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it was as a philosophic and lyric poet that Schiller’s peculiar -genius developed itself, and in this class of his works chiefly do we -find those qualities which characterise him morally and intellectually, -and exhibit him in striking contrast to his friend Goethe. As in his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>philosophical and historical writings, Schiller never wrote under the -influence of the mere love of truth, but was impelled by moral feelings, -always generous and noble; so it was in his poems. They -neither mainly originated in, nor were addressed especially to the -imagination. A large portion of them were metaphysical exercises -in verse. There were scattered, even among these, the “thoughts -that breathe and words that burn,” but they were not poetical, because -they were addressed either to the mere intellect, the faculty of -solving philosophical problems, or to the will, under the excitement -of passions, which, however exalted in their character, are far remote -from the exercise of imagination, and do not originate in the sense of -beauty. Even the ballads of Schiller are didactic and moral, and -therein strikingly contrasted with those of Goethe. Each poet idealised -in his own way; but the ideal of the one was framed according to -a law of natural, that of the other, according to a law of moral beauty. -Goethe avowed his creed, “faults as well as virtue look well in song.” -He therefore, availing himself of a style incomparably graceful, exhibits -the passions of humanity in all their natural charm, and so fascinates -the sense of natural beauty in the reader, that he is content to disregard -what a severe moral sense might require. Schiller’s ballads, on -the contrary, originate in, and have no other object than to excite, -a passionate sympathy with virtuous and heroic affections and actions. -But though there is “a pomp and prodigality of phrase,” there is -seldom that magic of style that leaves the most fastidious taste gratified. -Among these lyric poems, a considerable portion originated in -his political and patriotic, or rather philanthropic feelings. To appreciate -these, we must bear in mind that Schiller was brought up -in a country, the people of which possessed no political power, nor -any civil liberty but under sufferance; and that during the more important -period of his life, his country suffered under the aggravated -oppression of a foreign yoke. No English reader can form a correct -judgment of any German political work of the last age, be it of -thought or imagination, who for an instant forgets either of these -two facts; and in the study of the works of Goethe and Schiller, it is -especially necessary to keep them always before us. It must otherwise -appear unaccountable, that since the youth of Schiller had been -passed in the suffering incident to oppressed poverty; since he had the -consciousness of not occupying that station in society to which his natural -superiority over others entitled him; since he had the constitutional -ardour of a man of genius, and was, by his position in society, led -to feel, as a reformer, not to say agitator, on every polemical question -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>that could arise between the people and the privileged orders; there -should, notwithstanding all this, be so little that is stimulating and -practical in his writings. But the wonder ceases, when it is borne -in mind, that while in Britain the French Revolution was an object -of hope or fear, and was held up as party feelings prompted, either -as a warning or an example, in Germany it was seldom more than -a problem for the exercise of the talents of speculative men: and -whatever susceptibility to insurrectional excitements there might be -among any class of the people, was repressed, not merely by the utter -extinction of all liberty in France, but by all the humiliations and -oppressions endured in every part of Germany from an imperious -conquering enemy. Hence, while the German people went far -beyond the British in the intensity of their hatred towards France, -the privileged order of thinkers among them, from their habits of -abstract speculation, were able to contemplate the events of the day, -as well as the principles set afloat, with an unsympathising coolness -unknown either in England or France. Hence, even in Schiller, -whose earliest writings betrayed tendencies from which it might be -feared that a German Jacobin would be formed, the love of liberty -soon subsided from a passion into a taste. It became a quiet, moral -sentiment, like the love of religion, of virtue, of country: he never -could indeed lay aside his essentially moral and sentimental nature; -nor during the period of his country’s abasement, which to the irretrievable -loss of the nation he did not survive, could he, like Goethe, -devoting himself to the studies of pure art and science, dismiss by an -effort from his mind the consideration of the painful incidents of the -day. On the contrary, they entirely filled his soul; they formed the -background of all his speculations and feelings, in his dramas, histories, -disquisitions, and poems. A sentiment which for years pressed on him, -and which appropriately terminates the collection of his poems in two -volumes, we will venture to render in prose, as most expressive of the -sort of philosophic resignation to which he at length brought himself -at the close of the century. “Two mighty nations are wrestling for -the sole possession of the world. To annihilate freedom in every -country, they wield the trident and the thunderbolt. To them every -land must pay tribute. The Gaul, like Brennus, throws his iron -sword into the scale of justice, and the Briton greedily stretches out -his polypus arms on every side, and will shut up the free realm of -Amphitrite, as if it were his own mansion.... Into the still and -sacred recesses of the heart you must fly from the pressure of life. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>Freedom is only in the realm of dreams, and the beautiful blooms -only in song.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it was not as a lyric poet that Schiller exercised the widest -influence over his countrymen. It was in the more popular form of -the drama, to which perhaps his genius was less adapted, that he -sought and acquired a fame that has already reached the utmost limits -of European civilization.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His dramatic works fill seven volumes. Not to repeat our remarks -on the three juvenile prose tragedies, and on Don Carlos and -Wallenstein, we proceed to enumerate the master-pieces which he -produced during the last years of his life; but we must, for want of -space, pass over unnoticed his less successful attempts at comedy, -his translations of Shakspeare’s Macbeth, Racine’s Phaedra, and -Gozzi’s Turandot; and his labours on the works of other authors. -The result of these, his various studies, was the production of a form -of tragedy, which, to be fairly appreciated, must be compared with the -French, not the English, drama: for Schiller stands at an immeasurable -distance, not merely from Shakspeare, but from the great -body of the romantic dramatists of the English and Spanish schools, -in whom are to be found either profound development of character, or -elaborate skill in the entanglement and management of incident. -Schiller has however, on the other hand, enhanced the dignity, and -poetically enriched that form of tragedy which the French gratify -their vanity by claiming as peculiarly their own, and which they do -not hesitate to proclaim an improvement on the Greek! This class is -essentially rhetorical. The French public seem to estimate the master-pieces -of their favourite tragic poets, chiefly by the number of fine -quotable passages they supply; while their critics estimate their worth -by their conformity with certain purely artificial rules. One of them -says, “Though the English stage has not one perfect tragedy [we -had thought Cato to be perfect in their eyes], yet it has many fine -scenes: we cannot say so much for the German.” In this the critic -is wrong on his own principle. The great works of Schiller contain, -relatively, as many splendid declamatory passages as are to be met -with in the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, or Voltaire: and he has in -the structure of his pieces amply made up for his disregard of the -dramatic unities, by the infusion of higher beauties, both of sentiment -and character, than the French school can boast of. In the enumeration -of his later tragedies, we can merely point out the subjects to -which his taste and opinions naturally led him.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>In 1800 he attained the summit of his dramatic reputation by -Maria Stuart. This tragedy exhibits, not the early and guilty love, -but the late sufferings and death of the Queen of Scots. The author, -as becomes the poet, takes no part in the controversies which her ambiguous -character has produced. With an allowable departure from -historic truth, he brings together the rival queens, and succeeds in -rendering Mary an object of admiration and pity, and Elizabeth, not -of disgust. He finely opposes the heroic enthusiasm of the youthful -Mortimer to the flagitious wiles of the practised courtier Leicester, -and avails himself of the most solemn rite of the Roman Catholic -church to enhance the picturesque effect, and clothe poetically the -religious feeling that adorns and sanctifies the character of the -heroine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1801 he produced the most poetical of his historic dramas, the -Jungfrau von Orleans. It was reserved for a German to render -due honour to the most romantic of French heroines, who was degraded, -perhaps, by Shakspeare. The unworthy caricature which -passes under his name at least, only shows the virulence of national -prejudices. Joan of Arc has been not only shut out from the -temple of Fame erected in her own country, but her name has been -polluted by the impurities so vilely cast on it by Voltaire: while -French literature has only its infamous <cite>Pucelle</cite>, the German stage -has its <cite>Virgin</cite> of Orleans. In this romantic play, Schiller has -poured a richer stream of poetry over the camp and military glory than -in his Wallenstein; and has exquisitely contrasted with the sacred -virago, the frail, tender, most lovely, and admirable Agnes Sorel.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1803 appeared the Braut von Messina, a lyrical play, in which -the author has introduced not only a chorus, but other prominent ingredients -of the Grecian tragedy, oracles, dreams, an overwhelming -fate, and a Nemesis, whose vengeance falls alike on the evil and -good; by means of which pity and terror are excited. The odes are -splendid, but the dramatic effect on the stage is weak.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1804, in the year preceding his death, Schiller produced the -most picturesque of his dramas, Wilhelm Tell. The name sufficiently -announces the plot, in which well-known incidents are inartificially -exhibited. The characters display all the varieties of moral -beauty which harmonize with the scene, and those virtues which the -incidents are likely to call forth. Throughout there is an exhilarating -predominance of good over evil, which forms a pleasing contrast to -the fierce passions and barbarous themes which attracted the author in -his youth. It was the fit termination of his short career, for it impresses -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>the spectator and reader with the feeling that the poet ended -his labours a happier and better man than he began. His untimely -death while his last work was in the enjoyment of its fresh popularity, -spread a universal sorrow over Germany, which had never yet beheld -so powerful an intellect devoted to interests of such high morality, and -in such perfect harmony, with the wants and wishes of his age and -country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For a further account, we refer to the life by Thomas Carlyle—Leben -von Döring; and the brief memoir by Körner, prefixed to -the edition in eighteen volumes, Vienna and Stuttgard 1819. Of -English translations we may enumerate, besides two of Wallenstein, -The Maid of Orleans, printed, but not yet published, by Mr. Drinkwater; -Maria Stuart, by Mr. Mellish; and also Don Carlos, and the -three prose tragedies by we know not whom. Translations have also -been published of the Ghost Seer, and the two historical works; and -also of a number of the poems in periodical works, besides several of -the ballads, and the Song of the Bell, with illustrations by Retsch.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_096.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[From a bust of Schiller by Dannecker.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_097fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />BENTHAM.<br /><br /><em>From an Original Picture by J. Watts, in the possession of J.A. Roebuck. Esq.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> -<img src='images/i_097.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>BENTHAM</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The life of Jeremy Bentham was peculiarly that of a student, and, -consequently, in common with the lives of many others who have -acquired extensive celebrity, it presents few passages of a personal -kind that can be separated from the account of his studies and his -publications. Bentham was the son of an eminent solicitor, resident -in the city of London, and was born February 15, 1748. At an -early age he was sent to Westminster School, from which he removed -to Queen’s College, Oxford. Both at school and at the -university he is said to have distinguished himself. At sixteen years -of age he took the degree of B.A., and before he was twenty he took -that of M.A. No inference, however, as to the development of his -talents, or the extent of his acquirements, is to be drawn from the early -age at which these degrees were obtained: for it was the common -practice, until towards the end of the last century, for students to -commence and terminate their studies at the universities, at a very -early period of life. While at Oxford, Mr. Bentham subscribed the -Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, under exceedingly -painful feelings of doubt respecting their interpretation. He yielded -to the authority of the university, which requires that subscription -from its graduates; but this compliance in opposition to his judgment -was followed by a sense of bitter regret, which the lapse of time -never removed. During his residence at Oxford he attended the -celebrated lectures delivered by Blackstone upon the English law, -and his dissent to the almost universal panegyric of the lecturer upon -every part of the system of which he treated, was expressed in a work -published by him soon after he left the university, entitled A Fragment -upon Government. In this treatise he exposes, with great force, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>many of the errors that are chargeable upon the Commentaries. The -style in which it is written is exceedingly correct, and, like all his -earlier works, it is entirely free from those peculiar expressions -which abound in the later writings of the author,—expressions which, -though they have been the subject of much mirth and ridicule, -favoured a precision and accuracy of thought that excuses their use. -This Fragment contains the germ of his later works, and is remarkable -for the mode it introduced of dealing with the science of government. -It was the first philosophic attack upon many of the distinguishing -characteristics of the English constitution.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After leaving Oxford, Mr. Bentham became a member of Lincoln’s -Inn, and in 1772 was called to the bar. The connexions of his father -afforded to him a very favourable prospect of professional advancement, -which was greatly extended by his own extraordinary habits -of industry. But he was repelled from the practice of the law by -the moral sacrifices which he conceived it to require, and by the impossibility -of combining it with speculative pursuits. He continued, -however, a member of Lincoln’s Inn, of which society he became a -bencher in 1817. In the year 1785 he left England for nearly three -years, and, after proceeding through France and part of Italy, went -on to Smyrna and Constantinople, through Bulgaria, Wallachia, and -Moldavia, and joined his brother, afterwards Sir Samuel Bentham, -then a lieutenant-colonel in the service of the Emperor of Russia, at -Crichoff, in White Russia. At Crichoff he wrote his celebrated -letters in defence of usury, which very shortly and accurately expound -the principles upon which loans of money are effected, and -the impolicy of laws regulating the amount of interest at which -loans may be made. When these letters were published, the subject -was surrounded with every kind of prejudice, and both judges of our -courts of law and moral writers had treated excessive rates of interest -as highly censurable and immoral. On this question however, as -upon several others, Mr. Bentham preceded his age. Long before he -died, his opinions upon usury were supported by the great body of -mercantile men, the nature of whose business was once considered -hostile to any alteration in the laws regulating rate of interest. His -principles have not as yet been fully adopted by the legislature, -but he lived to see several acts of parliament passed, in which they -were very extensively acted upon. It was also at Crichoff that the -letters which subsequently formed the greater portion of his work entitled -Panopticon, proposing a systematic plan for the construction -and general administration of prisons, were written. The suggestions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>it contained were afterwards formally submitted by him to Mr. Pitt, -who readily acknowledged their importance and his willingness to -carry them into effect. Difficulties, however, occurred; and though -the Milbank Penitentiary was the result of Mr. Pitt’s intercourse -with Mr. Bentham, its plan is very different from that which Mr. -Bentham proposed; its arrangements are imperfect and have been -found, as was foreseen, very inadequate for its purposes, and it was -erected at a cost enormously exceeding that which would have accompanied -the execution of the original design.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Bentham died at his residence in Queen Square, Westminster, -June 6, 1832, at the advanced age of eighty-five. He had long been -possessed of a handsome patrimony, which afforded him an income -considerably exceeding his own necessities. His studies were pursued -without being affected by any of the interruptions which arise, either -from an insufficient income, or from the occupations or distractions -which a large one invites. His habits were retiring, and the number -of his intimate friends were few, but this arose from no moroseness or -unkindness of disposition. “Had he engaged,” says his friend Dr. -Southwood Smith, “in the active pursuits of life,—money-getting, -power-acquiring pursuits,—he, like other men so engaged, must have -had prejudices to humour, interests to conciliate, friends to serve, and -enemies to subdue; and, therefore, like other men under the influence -of such motives, must sometimes have missed the truth, and sometimes -have concealed or modified it. But he placed himself above all danger -of the kind, by retiring from the practice of the profession for which -he had been educated, and by living in a simple manner on a small -income allowed him by his father: and when, by the death of his -father, he at length came to the possession of a patrimony which -secured to him a moderate competence, from that moment he dismissed -from his mind all further thoughts about his private fortune, and lent -the whole power of his mind, without distraction, to his legislative -and moral labours. Nor was he less careful to keep his benevolent -affections fervent, than his understanding free from a wrong bias. -He surrounded himself only with persons whose sympathies were like -his own, and whose sympathies he might direct to their appropriate -objects in the active pursuits of life.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Though his frame of body was weak, he enjoyed remarkable health. -For upwards of sixty years he never suffered from any serious indisposition; -and at eighty, his appearance by no means indicated his -advanced age. For upwards of fifty years, he devoted eight, and -often ten hours, daily, to study, and he adhered with punctilious -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>regularity, to a certain fixed distribution of his time and employments.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The works published during his life, though very numerous, formed -but a small part of his manuscripts. Those that were published were -chiefly edited by friends, who, in most instances, performed the task -with great ability and fidelity. Some of his best treatises were published -first in France, and in the French language, by his friend -M. Dumont, who was also the well-known friend of Romilly and -Mirabeau. Through them Mr. Bentham obtained a very extensive -reputation in foreign countries, before his name was generally known -in England. His admirable book upon Fallacies was also edited -in a similar manner; and his masterly treatise upon the Rationale of -Evidence was prepared for the press by Mr. John Mill, with more -correctness, and a more careful regard for the expressions of Mr. -Bentham, than most of his other works. It exhausts its subject, -and most thoroughly investigates the doctrines of the English law -of evidence. The leading principle which it establishes is, that -objections may be made to the <em>credibility</em> of witnesses, but that -none should be admitted to their <em>competence</em>. The manuscripts of -Mr. Bentham were generally in a state requiring great trouble and -labour to render them fit for the press. He often wrote upon the -same branch of a subject at different times, adding to and repeating -what he had before written. In order, therefore, to bring together all -his remarks upon the same subject, much discrimination was required. -The temptation to neglect the words of the author, under such circumstances, -is necessarily great, and that some of his writings should -be published with less attention to them than those above-mentioned, -can excite no surprise. He ordered by his will, that his manuscripts -should be published by his executors, and left a considerable sum of -money for the purpose. One posthumous publication has already -shown the difficulty that attends the fulfilment of his directions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The chief merits of Bentham have been thus stated by Mr. Mill in -the Appendix to Mr. E. L. Bulwer’s work, entitled England and the -English, in the following words:—“Mr. Bentham, unlike Bacon, -did not merely prophesy a science; he made large strides towards -the creation of one. He was the first who conceived, with anything -approaching to precision, the idea of a Code, or complete body -of law; and the distinctive characters of its essential parts,—the -Civil Law, the Penal Law, and the Law of Procedure. On the first -of these three departments, he rendered valuable service; the third, -he actually created. Conformably to the habits of his mind, he set -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>about investigating, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab initio</span></i>, a philosophy, or science, for each of the -three branches. He did, with the received principles of each, what a -good code would do with the laws themselves;—extirpating the bad; -substituting others; re-enacting the good, but in so much clearer and -more methodical a form, that those who were most familiar with them -before, scarcely recognised them as the same. Even upon old truths, -when they pass through his hands, he leaves so many of his marks, -that often he almost seems to claim the discovery of what he only -systematized.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“In erecting the philosophy of the civil law, he proceeded not -much beyond establishing upon its proper basis some of its most -general principles, and cursorily discussing some of the most interesting -of its details. Nearly the whole of what he has published upon -this branch of the law is contained in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traités de Législation</span></cite>, -edited by M. Dumont. To the most difficult part, and that which -needed a master-hand to clear away its difficulties, the nomenclature -and arrangement of the civil code, he contributed little, except detailed -observations and criticisms upon the errors of his predecessors. The -“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vue Générale d’un corps complet de Législation</span>,” included in the -work just cited, contains almost all that he has given to us upon this -subject. In the department of the penal law, he is the author of -the best attempt yet made towards a philosophical classification of -offences. The theory of punishments (for which, however, more had -been done by his predecessors than for any other part of the science -of law), he left nearly complete. The theory of procedure (including -that of the constitution of the courts of justice), he found in a more -utterly barbarous state than even either of the other branches; and -he left it incomparably the most perfect. There is scarcely a question -of practical importance in the most important department which he -has not settled. He has left next to nothing for his successors.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>His work on Judicial Establishments, is one of the best and the -most important of those he published; and it will afford the great -tests that must hereafter be applied to ascertain the progress of -principles which he first expounded. His labours were so much a -series of attacks upon the faults of existing institutions, accompanied -at the same time with the specific reforms that should follow their -correction, and related to matters generally so far removed from -the studies of the great body of readers, that they could not be expected -to obtain, for many years, that popularity for their writer -which he deserved. It is, however, not difficult already to trace the -progress of opinions which he was the first to advance, and we may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>already observe changes suggested and adopted by the legislature, -which he many years since proposed. The same reasons which -have secured to Bacon a reputation upon questions of physical -science, which his contemporaries refused to award to him, will, in -legislative science, secure a similar reputation to Bentham. The -talents of the latter will appear not less important than those of the -former, when their effects shall, in the progress of time, be traced -upon the opinions and the institutions of the people of this and of -other countries.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_103fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by R. Woodman.</em><br /><br />CATHERINE.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Caroline Watson, after a Picture by Rosselin.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span> -<img src='images/i_103.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CATHERINE II.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>After the death of Peter I., the sceptre of Russia passed into hands -incompetent to carry on the great scheme of national aggrandizement -and civilization which he had originated. Nearly forty years elapsed -before there appeared a worthy successor to that remarkable prince: -and at last it was a German woman, who, under the title of -<span class='sc'>Catherine II.</span>, established Russia in that lofty position which she -now occupies among the powers of Europe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This masculine-minded woman was the daughter of Christian -Frederic, prince of Anhalt Zerbst Dornberg, and major-general in -the Prussian service. She was born at Stettin, May 2, 1729, and was -named at her baptism Sophia Augusta Frederica. In her sixteenth -year she was selected by the Empress Elizabeth to become the wife -of the Grand-Duke, afterwards Peter III.; and their marriage was -solemnized, September 1, 1745, after the bride had made public profession -of the faith of the Greek church, and received the name of -Catherina Alexiewna. On the events of her life during the next sixteen -years, until the death of Elizabeth, it is not necessary to dwell: -she then exercised no influence in affairs of state. The example of -a most corrupt court, and a sovereign sunk in the grossest sensuality, -exerted their natural effect upon her youthful mind: and if she -brought principles of morality and chastity from Germany, they were -soon extinguished by the evil influence of all around her, and the disgust -inspired by an ignorant and besotted husband; during whose -life, as well as after her own accession to the throne, she bestowed -her favour on a succession of paramours. Her behaviour was less -revolting, but her rule of life was hardly more strict than that of the -Empress Elizabeth.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>The history of Russia gave encouragement to an able, ambitious -spirit, like that of Catherine, to shape for itself a more brilliant -prospect than that which lay before her as the wife of a despotic -prince, whom she hated, and had reason to fear. Even before the -death of Elizabeth, which took place January 2, 1762, N. S., she had -intrigued to supplant her husband on the throne; and he had hardly -occupied it six months, before she organized the revolution which conducted -him to a prison and a grave. The only extenuation of her -conduct in this crisis, is the probability, we might almost say certainty, -that a similar fate would otherwise have befallen herself. -Early on the morning of the 9th of July, Catherine quitted the palace -of Peterhoff, on the Neva, to invoke the affection of the regiments of -guards at St. Petersburg, who, like the Prætorian troops of Rome, -had often bestowed the crown at their free pleasure. Her ready attention -to Russian habits and prejudices, her assumed devotion to the -Greek church, and the arts of her accomplices, had disposed, not only -the soldiers, but a large portion of the citizens, to declare in her favour: -and when she applied for protection, and told them “that her danger -had driven her to the necessity of coming to ask their assistance, that -the Czar had intended to put her to death that very night, together -with her son; that she had no other means than by flight of escaping -death, and that she had so much confidence in their dispositions as to -put herself entirely in their hands,” the assembled crowd was not -slow to hail her as their prince, and before the end of the day she -had been crowned and proclaimed sovereign of all the Russias, by the -title of Catherine II., had been acknowledged by crowds of citizens, -and saw herself at the head of 15,000 picked soldiers. The Czar, -confused and affrighted, consulted neither his safety nor his honour. -On the following day, after some futile demonstrations of resistance, -he surrendered his person unconditionally; and on the 17th he -perished by a violent death, with the concurrence, no doubt, if not -by the command of Catherine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nevertheless her situation for some time was critical. The common -people reverenced the blood of Peter the Great, and lamented, with -anger, the cruel fate which had befallen his grandson. The priests, -whose favour Catherine had courted while Grand-Duchess, were -disappointed and indignant to find her resolved to cast them off, -when they had served her turn, and to limit as much as possible their -influence, which had often been troublesome to her predecessors. -The courtiers, many of them, were indignant at the sudden elevation -of the daring adventurers who had won Catherine her throne. But -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>her promptitude and sagacity overcame these troubles and difficulties; -and without any very alarming commotions, she gradually acquired -that prescriptive right to the throne, which does so much for princes -of doubtful title.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The power thus acquired by fraud and murder, Catherine used, -on the whole, to the benefit of her subjects, with liberal intentions -and with a judicious and enlightened policy. Abroad her views were -directed to conquest, with the usual disregard of the common rules of -honour and justice, as they are recognised between man and man. -This fault she shares with the majority of princes: but the dismemberment -of Poland pollutes her memory with one of the foulest stains -recorded in history. Without proceeding seriatim through the multifarious -events of her long reign, we shall attempt a short sketch of -the leading features of her domestic policy and meditated improvements; -and conclude with an equally concise outline of its foreign -relations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Her earliest cares and her zealous attention were directed to the -fostering of commerce, and the encouragement of national industry in -all its important branches: and it ought not to detract from her -credit, that some of her measures, in accordance with the system of -the age, were not such as modern economical science approves. But -we may mention with unmixed praise, as indicative of a far-sighted -and disinterested policy, the abolition of numerous monopolies, as well -belonging to the crown, as granted to trading companies and private -persons. Among these were the caravan-trade between Russia and -China, several branches of fisheries, the manufacture of chintzes, the -preparation of sugar, the tobacco-trade, and other things which were -freely thrown open to individual competition. In promoting agriculture -she was no less zealous. She established an experimental school -of farming at her country-palace of Tzarsko-Tzelo, at which the most -improved system of English agriculture was introduced, and gratuitous -instruction was given to persons from all parts of the empire. -One of her schemes was the establishment of numerous colonies over -the uncultivated steppes of her vast empire: and thousands of families -were allured from Poland, Germany, and even France, by the advantages -which she held out, not merely to agricultural settlers, but to -artificers, merchants, and all who were willing to aid in developing by -their industry the unknown resources of the Russian empire. She -sought to amend the administration of justice, and, to her high honour, -put an end to the use of torture for extracting the truth in criminal -proceedings. She abolished an odious tribunal, established by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>Peter I., called the Secret Inquisition Chancery, a kind of Star-Chamber, -which gave facility to the most frivolous and malicious investigations, -and had recourse to the most intolerable severities in conducting -its inquiries. Aspiring to the glory of reforming the government, -and giving a new code of laws to the empire, she summoned, in -1767, deputies to Moscow from every part and nation of her dominions, -for whose consideration she had previously drawn up a body of -instructions, of which the original manuscript, written in her own -hand, is preserved in the library of the Academy of Petersburg. The -work was greatly needed; for not merely were the general laws of -the empire voluminous, insufficient, perplexed, and contradictory, but -the particular laws of different provinces were confused and conflicting, -and the difficulties arising out of this state of things were -increased in a tenfold degree by the venality of the judges. But -Catherine wanted perseverance and vigour to work out her scheme -through the vexations of conflicting interests and tedious details. -The history of this meeting of legislators illustrates the fate of -most of her mighty undertakings. In their early sittings anger -rose so high on the question of emancipating the serfs, that Catherine -dismissed them, never to be recalled. She had acquired -the glory of propounding a new code, not of laws, but of instructions -for legislators; and the restless activity of her mind was -satisfied, and passed to spend itself in some other channel. The -instructions abound in philanthropic and wise suggestions; and satisfactorily -show that it is much easier to talk than to perform. They -are printed under the title “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Instructions de Catherine II., pour la -Commission chargée de dresser le projet d’un nouveau code des Loix</span>.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of learning and of learned men Catherine was a liberal patroness. -The love of glory was her ruling passion, and those whose praise was -fame were sure of her favourable regard. The French writers were -the chief objects of her attention and bounty. She corresponded with -Voltaire, whom she earnestly invited to Petersburg: but, as we learn -from his correspondence with the Empress, he feared in old age the -rigour of a northern climate; perhaps too he recollected how Frederic -of Prussia had sunk the philosopher in the king, and felt reluctant to -trust himself again within the reach of despotic power: at all events -he declined the intended honour. Diderot, at her request, visited Petersburg, -and spent several months there; contriving, if Frederic’s -account be true, to weary the imperial patience by his turn for argument -and repetition. Her benefactions to him had been delicate and -splendid. Being informed that poverty compelled him to dispose of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>his library, she purchased it for 15,000 livres, and at the same time -left it in his care, and for his use and enjoyment, granting to him an -annual salary, under the title of her librarian. With similar liberality -she purchased and entrusted to the care of Professor Pallas -his own valuable collections of natural history. She sought to attract -D’Alembert to Petersburg, and invited him to superintend the education -of her son, the Grand-Duke Paul: but he declined her offers. -She patronized all institutions for the promotion of science and literature; -and the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg owes to her generous -support the greater part of its foreign associates, and its high -reputation. The discoveries of Billings and others in the Northern -and Eastern seas, and the expedition of Pallas and his associates to -explore and describe the less known portions of the empire, are also -to be mentioned among the scientific honours of her reign. In the -patronage of art she was splendid; she loved magnificence, was regardless -of expense, and spared no cost to assemble round her throne -the greatest rarities of nature, and the most admirable or wonderful -productions of man. And the architectural magnificence of St. Petersburg -still bears witness to the elevation and splendour of her -taste, and the extent of her revenues.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By much the greater part of what has been said, may appear to vindicate -Catherine’s title to be called a good, as well as a great sovereign. -Such, no doubt, had her moral faculties been better educated, she -might have been: but her reign was vitiated, and her talents rendered -comparatively useless to her subjects, by one prevailing fault of -selfishness. Her temper was averse from wanton cruelty; she loved -to see prosperity around her; she loved, still more, the glory of being -reputed the author of that prosperity. But she loved to see others -happy, not for their sakes, but for her own; we seek in vain in the -records of her life for that laborious and self-denying spirit, which is -ready to sacrifice its own will for the good of others. Hence the multiplicity -of her plans, and the inconstancy of her purposes: she persevered -in no task which had lost the excitement of novelty, or no -longer nourished the craving appetite for praise. She was too eager -to build, to allow the requisite time for laying foundations: and the -consequence was seen, even before her death, in the ruined and neglected -state of establishments on which she had prided herself, and -which men who were no flatterers had regarded as the marks of a new -era of civilization in Russia. A French writer, in the Biographie -Universelle, says, “Legislation, colonies, education, institutions, -canals, towns, fortresses, every thing had been begun, and abandoned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>before completion.” This passion of Catherine, for sketching every -thing and finishing nothing, is well characterised by a saying of -Joseph II. In her journey to the Crimea, she invited him to lay the -second stone of Ekaterinoslaf, of which she herself had just laid the -first. Joseph said, after his return, “The Empress of Russia and I -completed a great undertaking in one day: she laid the first stone of -a city, and I the last.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of the more than imperial splendour—the profuse extravagance—of -her court and social life, space will not allow us to speak: a number -of curious and amusing anecdotes on this subject, and other details -relative to her person, manners, and habits, are to be found in Coxe’s -Travels in Russia, and Tooke’s Life of the Empress Catherine II. -The licentiousness of her conduct we should alike pass over, but for its -connexion with affairs of state: for she paraded her prostitution before -the eyes of all, apparently considering herself released by supreme -rank and irresponsible power, from the control of those decencies -which fetter even the vicious. A lover was part of Catherine’s state -furniture, and a most expensive one: since the sums lavished on -her series of favourites during her reign of thirty-four years, without -including the enormous annual expense of their establishment, -amounted, according to Mr. Tooke, (vol. iii. p. 374,) to more than -eighty millions of roubles. This, at the lowest rate of two shillings -a rouble, (Mr. Tooke states it to have been then worth four,) would -be more than eight millions of pounds sterling. Nor was this the only -evil: though Catherine suffered none of her favourites, except Potemkin, -to interfere in the chief affairs of the state, their influence at a -distance and in subordinate departments was immense; and whoever -enjoyed their protection was sure of advancement beyond his merits, -and enabled to tyrannize over others, and trample on law with impunity. -Chosen for the most part from officers of the Guard, without a -particle of sentiment, solely for personal attractions, we look in vain -among them for one raised above the common level by talent or accomplishment, -except the celebrated Potemkin, and perhaps the coarse and -brutal Orloff, her husband’s murderer, and one of the chief instruments -in placing herself upon the throne. Potemkin did possess a -certain barbarous grandeur of ideas, fitted to strike an answering chord -in Catherine’s ambitious and ostentatious mind; together with an -aptitude for affairs, and a nature born to command, had it been improved -by education and self-restraint, or chastened by adversity: -and he alone, after he ceased to be a lover, preserved an all-ruling influence -as a friend and confidant.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>In speaking of Catherine’s foreign policy we must confine ourselves -chiefly to two heads,—the humiliation of Turkey, and the spoliation of -Poland. Very soon after her accession, a vacancy in the throne of -Poland gave her the opportunity of imposing upon that unhappy -nation as its new king one of her former lovers, Stanislaus Poniatowsky, -whom she knew, from the weakness of his character, to be -a fit instrument of maintaining and increasing her influence. Fear -of the aggrandizement of so powerful and hostile a neighbour, and, -more especially, jealousy of her designs upon Poland, induced the -Porte to declare war against her in 1768. For eight years the contest -continued, in all respects to the advantage of the Russians; and -during the course of it a Russian fleet (conducted, however, in great -measure by British officers) appeared for the first time in the Mediterranean, -and signalized its prowess by the total destruction of a -superior Turkish armament in the bay of Tchesme, in Lemnos. Not -less successful were the Russian arms in the Black Sea, and in -Moldavia and Wallachia. Still peace was desirable, even to the -victor, from the exhaustion of the contest, and it was concluded in -1774, by the treaty of Kainardgi, upon terms very advantageous to -Russia, yet perhaps more favourable than Turkey had cause to expect. -The reason of this moderation we shall see presently. The -free navigation of the Mediterranean seas and the passage of the -Dardanelles were secured to Russia, and the district between the -rivers Dnieper and Bog was ceded to her. The Tartars of the -Crimea were declared independent, which was nearly equivalent to -rendering them tributary to Russia: and in fact that country was -formally ceded to Catherine in 1783, by the reigning Cham, and the -Porte, unwillingly enough, yielded to that arrangement. But the -insulting pomp of Catherine, which almost dared in a moment of -bravado to threaten Constantinople itself with an invasion, led to a -second war in 1786, which, after a bloody and exhausting conflict, -terminated in 1791–2, by the treaty of Jassy, by the farther cession, -on the part of Turkey, of the provinces between the Bog and the -Dniester, which was declared to be thenceforward the frontier of the -two empires. The Russian conquests in Bessarabia, Moldavia, and -Wallachia were restored. Memorable in this war, for the desperation -of their defence by the Turks, and the awful cruelties which attended -their capture by the Russians, were the sieges of the strong fortresses -of Oczakow at the mouth of the Dnieper, and Ismail on the Danube. -On this occasion again, but for the intervention of other European -powers, especially England and Prussia, Catherine might probably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>have obtained more favourable terms. But the importance of the -acquisitions thus made by her on the Black Sea, from the Straits of -Kertsh to the Dniester, is not to be measured by their wealth, scarcely -by their extent. It was the command of the commerce of the Black -Sea, and the opening a passage to Constantinople, which she had -so much desired, and the Porte so much feared, that formed her -chief triumph; and in the height of her ambition she dared to project -the expulsion of the Turks from Europe, and the re-establishment of -a Christian empire in Constantinople.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Not less important were her acquisitions on the western frontier. -The atrocious project of partitioning Poland between her three most -powerful neighbours, is said by Koch (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tableau des Révolutions</span>) to -have originated in the Turkish wars which we have just described. -The occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by the Russians was calculated -to alarm the jealousy of Austria; and Koch states, that -Frederic II. suggested to the Empress that if she resigned them, as -was done by the treaty of Kainardgi, she might take her equivalent -from Poland, to a part of which Austria had already laid claim. Other -writers have maintained that the scheme originated with Catherine. -Be this as it may, the two monarchs readily came to an agreement, at -the end of July, 1772: and as the Poles were in no condition to resist, -and the powers which had guaranteed the independence of Poland -looked on in silence, no opposition beyond remonstrance was made. -In 1773, the Diet made a formal act of cession at Warsaw. In this -first division, about 6500 square leagues of land, and five millions of -human beings were thus robbed of their nationality: and the larger -share, containing more than 4000 square leagues and three millions of -people, situated in Livonia and Lithuania, was transferred to Russia, -and formed into the governments of Polotsk and Mohilow. At the -same time the three powers formally renounced all farther claims on -Poland, and guaranteed to it its constitution and existence. But -treaties are seldom able to bind ambition. A coldness succeeded -between Russia and Prussia; and the latter, whose conduct ought to be -marked with especial infamy, excited the Polish Diet, under promises -of support, to make alterations in the constitution calculated to diminish -the influence and rouse the jealousy of Russia. Catherine marched -an army into the country in 1792, to support her party; the Poles -flew to arms; and the King of Prussia, instead of sending the assistance -which he had pledged himself to give, openly joined the Empress. -A second partition of the spoil ensued in 1793, in which another -portion of Lithuania was assigned to Russia; and another treaty of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>alliance, or rather of subjection, was made. But the nation was -roused by despair; and in the following spring that general insurrection -broke out, which has given undying fame to the name of Kosciusko. -There is a short account of this struggle in the memoir of -that hero in our first volume; it terminated in the total subjection and -final partition of Poland: in which Russia obtained the remainder of -Lithuania, with Semigallia, Courland, &c., to the amount of about -2000 square leagues more. This took place in 1795.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must refer to the various historical works on these times for an -account of Catherine’s complicated negotiations with foreign courts, -the blow which she aimed at the British dominion of the sea by the -establishment, in 1780, of the celebrated Armed Neutrality, the war -which she commenced against Persia at the end of her reign, and -other events inferior in importance to those of which we have here -given an imperfect outline. It is asserted that, having turned her -arms towards the east, she had ventured to conceive the design of -overturning the British empire in India. But her ambition and her -life were simultaneously cut short by an attack of apoplexy, which -carried her off very suddenly, November 9, 1796. She was succeeded -by her grandson Paul I.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Catherine, in imitation of Frederic II., aspired to fame as an author. -Besides the Instructions, she wrote moral tales and allegories, -for the education of her grandchildren, and a number of dramatic -pieces and proverbs acted at the Hermitage, and published under -the title of Theatre of the Hermitage. Her correspondence with -Voltaire and others is published.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_111.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[The Pavilion at Tzarsko-Tzelo. From a Print in the King’s Library.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span> -<img src='images/i_112.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>DEFOE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Daniel, the son of James Foe, citizen and butcher, was born in London, -in the parish of Cripplegate, in or about the year 1663: at what time, -or on what account he prefixed the syllable De to his paternal name, -does not clearly appear. He was a Dissenter himself, and appears to -have been of a dissenting family. Early imbued with a dread of Papal -ascendancy, he took up arms to support the Duke of Monmouth’s -insurrection, and was fortunate in escaping not only the sword, but -the legal consequences of that rash adventure. In 1685 he went into -business as a hosier, in Freeman’s Yard, Cornhill. He was not successful, -probably because his attention was engrossed by affairs foreign -to his trade: for he not only mingled in the political and religious -dissensions of that stormy time, but was too much occupied, according -to his biographer Mr. Chalmers, by engagements, which became -neither the conscientious dissenter, nor the steady man of business. -“With the usual imprudence of superior genius, he was carried by his -vivacity into companies who were gratified by his wit, and he spent -those hours in the idle hilarity of the tavern, which he ought to have -employed in the calculations of the counting-house; and being obliged -to abscond from his creditors in 1692, he attributed those misfortunes -to the war, which were doubtless owing to his own misconduct. He -afterwards carried on the brick and pantile works near Tilbury Fort, -though probably with no success. He was in after-times wittily reproached, -‘that he did not, like the Egyptians, require bricks without -straw, but, like the Jews, required bricks without paying his labourers.’ -He was born for other enterprises, which, if they did not gain him -wealth, have conferred a renown, that will descend the current of time -with the language wherein his works are written.” His misfortunes -however, even if accompanied by some imprudence, did not alienate -his friends. “I was invited,” he says in his Appeal to Honour and -Justice, “by some merchants with whom I had corresponded abroad, -and some also at home, to settle at Cadiz, and that with offers of very -good commissions; but Providence, which had other work for me to -do, placed a secret aversion in my mind. Some time after, I was, -without the least application of mine, and being then seventy miles -from London, sent for to be Accomptant to the Commissioners of the -Glass Duty; in which service I continued to the determination of -their commission.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_112fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />DE FOE.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by M. Vandergucht.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>Having lost this occupation, Defoe’s active mind expanded itself -in a variety of schemes. He wrote, he tells us, many sheets about the -coin; he proposed a law for registering seamen; he projected county -banks; factories for goods; a commission of inquiry into the estates -of bankrupts; a pension-office for the relief of the poor; an academy -“to encourage polite learning, and to polish and refine the English -tongue;” and an academy for the education of women, with a view -to the improvement of society, by training them to a more exemplary -discharge of their social duties. Notices of various of these schemes, -and of the use or abuse of a speculative spirit in a mercantile country, -will be found in his Essay on Projects, published in January, 1697. -In 1701 he produced a satire in verse, called The True-born -Englishman, which arose out of a personal and virulent attack, by -one Tutchen, on William III., whose faults were finally summed up -in the epithet “foreigner.” “This,” Defoe says, “filled me with a -kind of rage against the book, and gave birth to a trifle, which I -never could hope should have met with such general acceptation as -it did—I mean, The True-born Englishman. How this poem was -the occasion of my being known to his Majesty; how I afterwards -was received by him; how employed; and how, above all my capacity -of deserving, rewarded, is no part of the present case:” and -history does not supply us with the particulars here left unnoticed. -But whatever were Defoe’s services or their rewards, he always expressed -his gratitude and affection for King William’s memory in ardent -terms. In the same year he published two able tracts in support -of the principles of the Revolution, entitled, one, The Original Power -of the Collective Body of the People of England Examined and Asserted; -the other, The Freeholder’s Plea against the Stock-jobbing -Elections of Parliament-men. The following pithy sentence may give -some notion of the general tenor of the latter. “It is very rational -to suppose that those who buy will sell, or what seems more rational -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>they who have bought, must sell.” In these pieces the ultimate resort -of all power in the people, and the responsibility of the parliament to -the people, inasmuch, to use his own words elsewhere, “as the person -sent is less than the sender,” are forcibly explained and asserted. -The same principles were developed more strongly in what is commonly -called The Legion Letter, a remonstrance against certain exertions -of the privilege of parliament, by which the subject’s right -of petitioning was thought to be curtailed. This remarkable paper, -which, though never clearly avowed, is believed to have been written -by Defoe, and presented by him, dressed in women’s clothes, to the -Speaker, was entitled, A Memorial from the Gentlemen, Freeholders, -and Inhabitants of the Counties of ——, in behalf of themselves, and -many thousands of the good people of England, to the Knights, -Citizens, and Burgesses in Parliament assembled; and ends in the -following words: “For Englishmen are no more to be slaves to Parliaments -than to Kings.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c012'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Our name is <span class='sc'>Legion</span>,</div> - <div class='line'>“And we are <span class='sc'>Many</span>.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>“If you require to have this Memorial signed with our names, it -shall be done on your first orders, and formally presented.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of this attempt to intimidate the House no open notice was taken, -nor does it appear to have been known at the time who was the -author. But any ill-will which the Tories might have against Defoe, -if suspected, was gratified by the consequences of a pamphlet which -he published in 1702, entitled, The Shortest Way with the Dissenters, -or Proposals for the Establishment of the Church. In this ironical -performance, which ostensibly recommends the total extirpation of -Dissenters from England, he intended to satirize the blind prejudices -and headstrong zeal of the high Tory faction: but he had the -misfortune to raise up enemies on every side. Some of the Dissenters -took it literally, and raised an outcry against him as a persecutor: -the Tories understood it better, and had influence enough to get a -prosecution commenced against him, and a reward offered for his -apprehension, by the government. The House of Commons voted the -book a libel, and ordered it to be burnt by the hangman. The -printer and the publisher of it were taken into custody, upon which -Defoe, who had secreted himself, came forward, “to throw himself -upon the favour of Government, rather than that others should be -ruined for his mistakes.” He was tried in July, 1703, found guilty -of composing and publishing a seditious libel, and, by a very oppressive -sentence, was condemned to be imprisoned, to stand in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>pillory, to pay a fine of 200 marks, and to find security for his good -behaviour during seven years. It is in allusion to this that Pope, -who ought to have better appreciated such a man, has made an unworthy -attack upon Defoe in the Dunciad,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c012'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>Earless on high stood unabashed Defoe.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>He had no reason to be, and was not, abashed; and he composed a -Hymn to the Pillory, and an Elegy on the Author of a True-born -Englishman, esteeming himself defunct as an author, when he was -obliged to find sureties for good behaviour. These, like all his works, -contain the energetic expression of an independent spirit: to poetical -merit they have no claim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Early in 1704, while he was still in prison, Defoe commenced a -periodical paper, entitled The Review, which, in addition to the usual -topics of news, contained a report of the proceedings of a “Scandal -Club, which discusses questions in divinity, morals, war, trade, -language, poetry, love, marriage, drunkenness, and gaming. Thus it -is easy to see that the Review pointed out the way to the Tatlers, -Spectators, and Guardians, which may be allowed, however, to have -treated these interesting topics with more delicacy of language, more -terseness of style, and greater depth of learning: yet has Defoe many -passages, both of prose and poetry, which for refinement of wit, neatness -of expression, and efficacy of moral, would do honour either to -Steele or Addison.” (Chalmers.) This periodical was published three -times a week, until May, 1713, when it was brought to a close. Defoe -continued in Newgate until August, 1704, when Harley procured -his release, and recommended him to Queen Anne, who seems to have -thought that he had been hardly used, and contributed generously -towards the relief of his family, reduced to poverty by the misfortunes -of its head. She employed him, he says, in “several honourable, -though secret services;” and he speaks, in his Appeal to Honour and -Justice, of a “special service, in which I ran as much risque of my -life as a grenadier upon the counterscarp.” These seem to have -been rewarded by a pension, or by some subordinate office; but the -exact nature of the recompense is not known. In October, 1706, -he was dispatched to Scotland, to assist in promoting the union between -the two kingdoms. In addition to his talents and readiness as -an author, he possessed great practical knowledge of commerce and -matters connected with the revenue: he frequently attended the committees -of the Scottish parliament, and made a variety of calculations, -relative to trade and taxes, for their use; and he was very serviceable, -as a popular writer, in replying to the various attacks which were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>made upon that hated measure. His intimate acquaintance with the -transactions of this period qualified him well for a work, which now -probably is known to few readers, but which contains a great body -of minute information concerning the condition and the history of -Scotland at that period,—The History of the Union between England -and Scotland: of which Mr. Chalmers says, “The minuteness with -which he describes what he saw and heard upon that turbulent stage, -where he acted a conspicuous part, is extremely interesting to us, -who wish to know what actually passed, however this circumstantiality -may have disgusted contemporaneous readers. History is chiefly -valuable, as it transmits a faithful copy of the manners and sentiments -of every age. This narrative of Defoe is a drama, in which he introduces -the highest peers and the lowest peasants speaking and acting, -according as they were each actuated by their characteristic passions; -and while the man of taste is amused by his manner, the man of -business may draw instruction from the documents, which are appended -to the end, and interspersed in every page. This publication -had alone preserved his name, had his Crusoe pleased us less.” -Chalmers naturally makes the most of its merits, for his Life of -Defoe was originally prefixed to a reprint of it in 1786: but the -author would have been little known if his popularity had depended -on this work only.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After his return from Scotland, Defoe resided for some time at -Newington. He incurred great obloquy, he says, for trying to -make the best of the peace of Utrecht after it was concluded, and -bore infinite reproaches as having been hired and bribed to defend a -bad peace, upon the supposition that he was the author of pamphlets -in which he had no share. To escape from this persecution he went -to Halifax, in Yorkshire, where he had ample opportunity to observe -the confidence of the Jacobite party, and the success with which they -laboured to make converts among the lower ranks. To counteract -these plottings, he wrote A Seasonable Caution, Reasons against the -Succession of the House of Hanover, and some other pamphlets with -similar titles; intending, he says, by means of their apparent drift, to -put them into the hands of persons whom the Jacobites had deluded. -But Defoe was unfortunate as an ironical writer: perhaps the same -qualities which gave his fictions such an air of truth tended to give his -irony too much the appearance of earnest. On this, as on a former -occasion, some persons were foolish or malicious enough to misconstrue -his meaning, and to accuse him of writing seditious libels in favour of -the Pretender. On this frivolous charge an information was filed against -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>him in the spring of 1713, on which he was taken into custody, and -obliged to find bail to a large amount; and the consequences might -have been still more serious, but for a second intervention of Harley, -who procured a free pardon for him in the following November. -Speaking of these very publications in his Appeal, he protests that “if -the Elector of Hanover had given me a thousand pounds to have -written for the interests of his succession, and to expose, and render -the interest of the Pretender odious and ridiculous, I could have done -nothing more effectual to these purposes than these books were.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Well intended and valuable as his labours might be, his only -recompense for them was a bare immunity from persecution. After -the accession of George I. he was discountenanced and neglected. -In 1715 he wrote An Appeal to Honour and Justice, comprising a -defence of his character, and a general account of his life, principles, -and conduct. He was struck by apoplexy before he had quite completed -this work, but recovered the full possession of his faculties, -and lived until April 26, 1731. After this attack, whether from -the wish to avoid excitement and anxiety, or from the little advantage -which his political writings had produced to him, he almost ceased to -handle controversial subjects, and devoted himself with unwearying -industry to works of a more popular and lucrative kind. Upon the -profits of his pen he seems to have depended for his livelihood; and to -the necessity of courting popular favour it may probably be attributed, -that the subjects of some of his works are vulgar, and the style coarse: -but even out of vicious and revolting subjects he had the art of -extracting a wholesome moral. The following are the names and -dates of the principal productions of his declining years; and it is -very remarkable, considering the circumstances in which they were -composed, that they should comprise all those fictions to which he -owes his imperishable name in British literature:—Life and Adventures -of Robinson Crusoe, 1719. Life, Adventures, and Piracies of -the Famous Captain Singleton, 1720. Fortunes and Misfortunes of -the Famous Moll Flanders, 1721. Religious Courtship; Journal of -the Plague Year, 1722. Life of Colonel Jack, 1723. Tour through -the whole Island of Great Britain, 1724–7. New Voyage round the -World, 1725. Political History of the Devil, 1726. Complete -English Tradesman, 1727. Plan of English Commerce, 1728. -Memoirs of a Cavalier—date uncertain. But notwithstanding the -unceasing industry which enabled him to produce these, and many -other works, in the time specified, he appears to have died insolvent, -for a creditor took out letters of administration on his effects.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>A catalogue of the numerous works known, or confidently believed -by the compiler to be Defoe’s, and of those also which are attributed to -him on more doubtful evidence, is given by Mr. Chalmers at the -end of that edition of his Life which is subjoined to Stockdale’s edition -of Robinson Crusoe, in 2 vols. 8vo., 1790; hardly one in four of -them has been named in this short account. Defoe was a very rapid, -as well as a laborious composer: it is said that he once wrote two shilling -pamphlets in a single day. His controversial works however have -long lost their interest; and his principal historical work, that on the -Union, is too prolix and minute to find general acceptation in our days. -In his acquaintance with commerce, and insight into the principles by -which it is governed, he is entitled to rank with the most skilful of his -contemporaries; but the progress of economical science has of course -deprived his commercial writings of most of their value, except as records -of the past. Of his numerous works of fiction, we may notice -the History of the Plague of London in 1665, Memoirs of a Cavalier, -and Robinson Crusoe, as the best known and the most deserving. -The first, which professes to be the journal of a saddler -resident in Whitechapel during the awful visitation which he describes, -is said to have been received as genuine even by Dr. Mead, as -no doubt it has been by very many of those who are unacquainted -with its real history. There is a homely pathos, a minute and scrupulous -adherence to verisimilitude in it which almost irresistibly persuades -the reader that none but an eyewitness could have written such -an account. The Memoirs of a Cavalier possess the same air of truth. -They relate the campaigns of a young Englishman of good family, -first in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus, afterwards on the royal -side in our civil wars; and depict with great vividness and fidelity the -principal events of those interesting and stirring times. But popular -as these works have been and deserve to be, they sink into obscurity -when compared with the universal acceptation of Robinson Crusoe; -the only thing, according to Dr. Johnson, written by mere man, that -was ever wished longer by its readers, except Don Quixote and the -Pilgrim’s Progress. And Bunyan and Defoe had some points in common. -Both came of the people, and both, without the advantages or -trammels of a learned education, wrote for and to the people; they -slighted no source of pathos or eloquence as being too humble, and -cared little for homeliness of phrase, if it expressed their meaning -clearly and strongly. It is needless to give any account of a book, -which in one shape or other, for in the numerous reprints it has -often been curtailed and mutilated, must be familiar to every reader. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>The story is well known to be identical with that of Alexander -Selkirk, who, after a solitary abode of four years on the island -of Juan Fernandez, returned to England in 1709. Defoe has been -charged with surreptitiously obtaining and making an unfair use of -this man’s papers; but there seems to be no ground whatever for the -accusation. Selkirk’s story had been made public in several forms -seven years at least before Robinson Crusoe was written, and it was -free to Defoe or to any man to take it as the ground upon which to -build a tale. And far from Selkirk’s papers having been traced into -Defoe’s hands, it does not even appear that these pretended papers -ever were in existence: indeed Selkirk seems, from the published accounts -of him, to have been so much below the fictitious Crusoe in the -extent of his resources, and the fertility of his ingenuity (and we say -this with no desire to undervalue his active spirit and contented temper), -that it is hardly possible that he should have furnished more than the -first hint, which Defoe has expanded into so instructive, fascinating, -and varied a story.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following lively criticism of this remarkable work is extracted -from Dunlop’s History of Fiction:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Defoe and Swift, though differing very widely in education, -opinions, and character, have at the same time some strong points of -resemblance. Both are remarkable for the unaffected simplicity of -their narratives—both intermingle so many minute circumstances, -and state so particularly names of persons, and dates, and places, that -the reader is involuntarily surprised into a persuasion of their truth. -It seems impossible that what is so artlessly told should be a fiction, -especially as the narrators begin the account of their voyages with -such references to persons living, or whom they assert to be alive, -and whose place of residence is so accurately mentioned, that one is -led to believe a relation must be genuine, which could, if false, have -been so easily convicted of falsehood. The incidents too are so very -circumstantial, that we think it impossible they could have been -mentioned, except they had been real....” Speaking of the -moral of Robinson Crusoe, he continues, “We are delighted with the -spectacle of difficulty overcome, and with the power of human ingenuity -and contrivance to provide not only accommodation but -comfort, in the most unfavourable circumstances. Never did human -being excite more sympathy in his fate than this shipwrecked mariner: -we enter into all his doubts and difficulties, and every rusty nail which -he acquires fills us with satisfaction. We thus learn to appreciate -our own comforts, and we acquire, at the same time, a habit of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>activity; but above all we attain a trust and devout confidence in -Divine mercy and goodness. The author also, by placing his hero -in an uninhabited island in the Western Ocean, had an opportunity -of introducing scenes which, with the merit of truth, have all the -wildness and horror of the most incredible fiction. <em>That</em> foot in the -sand—<em>Those</em> Indians who land on the solitary shore to devour their -captives, fill us with alarm and terror; and after being relieved from -the fear of Crusoe perishing by famine, we are agitated by new -apprehensions for his safety. The deliverance of Friday, and the -whole character of that young Indian, are painted in the most beautiful -manner; and, in short, of all the works of fiction that have ever -been composed, Robinson Crusoe is perhaps the most interesting and -attractive.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_120.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Robinson Crusoe building his Boat. From a design by Stothard, R.A.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_121fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />DAVID HUME.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by A. Smith, after a Picture by Allen Ramsay.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span> -<img src='images/i_121.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>HUME.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>David Hume was born in Edinburgh, April 26, 1711. His father, -who was descended from a branch of the Earl of Home’s, or Hume’s, -family, died while David was an infant, leaving him, with an elder -brother and sister, to the care of his mother, the daughter of Sir -Edward Falconer, who devoted the remainder of her days to the -welfare of her children. Her property was inconsiderable, and that -which fell to David, as a younger son, was very slender. His family, -observing the manner in which he acquitted himself at college, would -have fixed his attention on the law; but his growing passion for -philosophy and general learning rendered him averse to that pursuit, -and after a fruitless attempt at Bristol to reconcile himself to a more -active kind of employment, he went to France, where he laid down -that plan of life to which he ever afterwards adhered. It now became -his fixed resolve to secure his independence by means of the most -rigid frugality; and to deem every acquisition contemptible, except -the improvement of his talents in literature. This was in 1734.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During his three years’ residence in France, Hume composed his -Treatise of Human Nature, which he published on his return to -England in 1738. The work failed to attract the slightest notice -from friend or foe. But our young aspirant was not dismayed; and -his buoyant spirit was much strengthened by the degree of success -which attended the appearance of the first part of his Essays, which -were published at Edinburgh in 1742.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1745 Hume quitted the residence of his mother and brother, in -compliance with an invitation from the Marquis of Annandale; the -friends of that young nobleman having thought that his health and -mind required the aid which such a tutorship, or companionship, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>we hardly know which to call it, would afford. Hume states, that -his employment during the twelve months thus passed in England -made a considerable accession to his small fortune. “I thus received,” -he says, “an invitation from General St. Clair to attend him -as a secretary to his expedition, which was at first meant against -Canada, but ended in an incursion on the coast of France. Next -year, to wit 1747, I received an invitation from the General to attend -him in the same station in his military embassy to the courts of -Vienna and Turin. I then wore the uniform of an officer, and was -introduced at those courts as aid-de-camp to the General, along with -Sir Harry Erskine, and Captain Grant, now General Grant. These -two years were almost the only interruptions my studies received -during the course of my life.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1747 Hume re-cast the first part of his Treatise of Human -Nature, and published it under the title of an Inquiry concerning -Human Understanding. But this amended performance also failed -to produce any immediate effects; and a new edition of his Essays -Moral and Political, published about the same time in London, found -scarcely a better reception. Still looking to the hopeful side of -things, our author composed during 1749 and 1750 the second part -of his Essays, which were called Political Discourses; and also his -Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, which was another -part of his ill-fated Treatise of Human Nature, in a new form. By -this time some of the more obnoxious parts of that treatise began -to call forth opponents, and it became evident that its author, though -much more frequently censured than applauded, was a man of rising -reputation. This result was favoured by his determination never to -reply to any of his critics, a resolve which the peculiarities of his -temper enabled him to act upon to the end of life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1751 he removed to Edinburgh, and being chosen librarian by -the Faculty of Advocates in the following year, the plan of writing his -History of England was formed. This memorable work commenced -with the accession of the House of Stuart; and the author, who was -sanguine as to its success, relates that “on the publication of the first -volume, he scarcely knew a man in the three kingdoms, considerable -for rank or letters, that could endure the book.” After a sale of less -than fifty copies in the first year, the work seemed fast sinking into -oblivion. This disappointment appears to have affected Hume more -than any event which had befallen him; and, had not the war with -France at that juncture prevented it, he would probably have gone to -that country, never again to have seen his own. But the habits induced -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>by a passion for literature are not easily put in abeyance. Soon -after receiving this discouragement, Hume published his Natural -History of Religion. In 1756 the second volume of the History of -England made its appearance, “which not only rose itself, but helped -to buoy up its unfortunate brother.” The third volume, relating to -the House of Tudor, appeared in 1759, and was censured hardly less -than the first. In 1761, the two volumes embracing the early period -of our history were published, and, according to their author “with -tolerable, and but tolerable success.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hume now formed the purpose of spending the remainder of his -days in philosophical retirement in Scotland; but was induced in -1763 to visit Paris, in connexion with the embassy of the Earl of -Hertford to that city. The honours paid to our philosopher and historian -in that capital once disposed him to think of settling there for -life. He had now passed his fiftieth year, and his official residence in -Paris extended, with a slight intermission, to six years—from 1763 to -1769. From the period of his leaving Paris, to 1775, when his last -sickness came upon him, his time appears to have been given chiefly -to the enjoyment of his friends; his authorship, and other employments, -having secured him an income of not less than 1000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> a year. -A disorder in the bowels, which reduced him considerably, but without -becoming the occasion of much pain, or at all affecting his spirits, -ended his life, August 25, 1776, in the sixty-fifth year of his age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hume’s character as a man has been sketched by himself, and his -account may be admitted as, in most respects, substantially accurate. -He describes himself as mild in disposition, possessing a command of -temper, of an open, social, and cheerful humour, capable of attachment, -but little susceptible of enmity, and of great moderation in his -passions. “Even my love of literary fame,” he adds, “my ruling -passion, never soured my temper, notwithstanding my frequent disappointments. -My company was not unacceptable to the young and -careless, as well as to the studious and literary; and as I took a particular -pleasure in the company of modest women, I had no reason to -be displeased with the reception I met with from them. In a word, -though most men any wise eminent, have found reason to complain of -calumny, I never was touched, or even attacked by her baleful tooth: -and though I wantonly exposed myself to the rage of both civil and -religious factions, they seemed to be disarmed in my behalf of their -wonted fury. My friends never had occasion to vindicate any one -circumstance of my character and conduct.” Much to this effect is -the testimony of Dr. Adam Smith, the intimate friend of Hume. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>This writer, indeed, does not hesitate to speak of him “as approaching -as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man, as perhaps -the nature of human frailty will permit.” Some deduction should of -course be made from this language, as that of a natural self-love in the -one instance, and of an ardent friendship in the other. It is no -proof, for example, of Hume’s exemption from the irascible passions, -that he should have been so rarely capable of adverting to the opponents -of his favourite speculations in morals or religion, without indulging -in reproachful and degrading language; “bigots” and “zealots” -being the designations flung at such persons on almost all occasions. -In the same spirit the name of a “faction,” is his favourite -one for that large class of politicians in this country whose principles -did not embrace so much of “the monstrous creed of many -made for one,” as belonged to his own. And it is worthy of notice, -that a passage in his memoirs, which was inserted by him as an evidence -of his exemption from this sort of prejudice and resentment, -affords one of the most decisive proofs that he shared in this common -weakness much more than himself or his admirers were willing to -allow. “Though I had been taught by experience,” he writes, “that -the Whig party were in possession of bestowing all places, both in the -state and in literature, I was so little inclined to yield to their senseless -clamour, that in above a hundred alterations, which further study, -reading, or reflection, engaged me to make in the reigns of the two -first Stuarts, I have made all of them invariably to the Tory side.” -Now what reader can suppose that the inaccuracies detected by a mind -without bias, could possibly have occurred in this shape—a hundred -on one side, and not one on the other! The fact itself, and the -tone in which it is recorded, disclose what our philosopher would -fain have concealed. We leave the moral conduct of Hume in the -spotless state set forth by his own description of it, though we cannot -forbear to remark that such language comes somewhat strangely from -a gentleman who had been so fascinated with the manner of the Parisian -fashionables under Louis XV., as to have thought of never leaving -them. We believe, however, that in his case, the principal attraction -of such society was its polish, and not its almost incredible licentiousness. -We learn, that in one of those gay assemblies, Hume was -induced to make his appearance in the character of a Sultan, placed on -a sofa between two of the most beautiful women in Paris. It was -his province to solicit the favours of these ladies, and it was theirs -to act the part of fair ones who were not to be subdued, and in the -dialogue, or rather trilogue, which lasted some quarter of an hour, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>the author of the Treatise of Human Nature, and of the History -of England, acquitted himself, we are told, much to the edification -of all who were present<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c011'><sup>[3]</sup></a>. In these moments of relaxation, the philosopher -was regarded as discovering his amiable sympathy with the -ordinary feelings of humanity. It does not appear to have occurred -to him, or to his flatterers, to consider the much stronger evidence of -the want of such sympathy, which was afforded by his approval of -the system of government which had so long spread its terrors and -its wrongs over the length and breadth of that splendid, miserable -country. Our limits will not allow of any reference to the particulars -of the public dispute between Hume and Rousseau, and we therefore -abstain from expressing any opinion respecting it.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires et Correspondance de Madame d’Epinay.</span>’ III., 284, 285.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In the philosophical writings of Hume, the great element is scepticism. -He had many precursors in that sort of amusing speculation -which tends to throw doubt over received opinions; and which, as a -natural effect of human vanity, does so the more in regard to those -notions which happen to be retained most generally and with the -greatest confidence. But these limits did not satisfy the author of -the Treatise of Human Nature. The drift of his philosophy is to -prove, not only that nothing <em>is</em> known, but that nothing <em>can</em> be -known; that the human race are shut up in the most entire ignorance, -partly from the character of the objects around them, but -mainly from the very framework and nature of the human understanding. -Much ingenuity and acuteness was required to give any -plausible appearance to a theory so contrary to the natural impressions -of mankind, and Hume’s philosophical works afford evidence enough -of the sort of talent necessary to his object. But he well knew, that -however proper, and however felicitous it might be, to lay low the -giant spirit of dogmatism by such means, his own conclusions, in every -instance of importance, were hardly less dogmatic than those of his -opponents, the principal difference being, that the sources of <em>his</em> -assumptions were somewhat more difficult to detect and expose. For -what assumption can be greater than that of a right to believe in all -unbelief? In this case, the very faculty that doubts must be a -figment of vanity. The writer who determines to assail everything, -forces on mankind a suspicion of caprice and insincerity, and is not -likely to demolish anything. By attempting less, Hume would have -accomplished more; and he would not then have called forth that -array of philosophic power against himself, which has done so much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>damage to his reputation in this department of his labours. His -miscellaneous Essays abound in valuable observations, and are fine -models of English composition. The manner in which he met his -death is the stock theme with the superficial, as illustrating the power -of philosophy. But the man of reflection may perhaps see as much -of the weakness of humanity in that event, as of the strength of -philosophy; and certainly he will not need to be told, that nothing -can be more delusive than the use generally made of such scenes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is not however as the philosopher, but as the historian, that -Hume is known to the majority of persons, both in this country and -on the continent. Those habits of close thought, and that careful -use of language, to which he had been so long accustomed in his -philosophical studies, qualified him, in a high degree, to treat the -topics of history with discrimination, simplicity, and clearness. The -evil to be feared was, that he would often allow the sprightliness of -narrative to sink into the dullness of disquisition; and that even his -narrative would be deficient in that selection of familiar anecdote, and -in those picturesque descriptions, which, while having little relation to -the great lessons of history, are certainly among its great attractions. -But it happens that the narrative of Xenophon himself is not more -easy and uninterrupted than that of Hume; nor has the former writer -shown a stronger disposition to dwell on domestic incidents, or to -throw a dramatic colouring over public occurrences, than the latter. -Never did any man bring so much of the power of abstruse thought -to the writing of history, and appear to be so much served and so little -inconvenienced by it. His station and intercourse in society added -much of the feeling and manners of the gentleman to the more grave -attainments of the man of learning, and tended to produce that combination -of qualities, which made his society at all times agreeable, -and has thrown a nameless and irresistible charm over his historical -writing. His style was the result of great elaboration, but has every -appearance of being that which must have been adopted without effort. -It is open, indeed, in almost every page, to much verbal criticism, no -book perhaps of the same standing being in this respect so vulnerable. -But these lesser blemishes are forgotten amid the many natural and -delightful graces with which it is adorned; graces which no one -can help feeling, but which it would be as difficult to describe as to -imitate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having however spoken thus of Mr. Hume’s style, and remarked -the general acuteness and frequent justice of his observations, we have -fairly exhausted our topics of praise. With regard to the two most -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>valuable qualities of a historian—research and integrity, the claims of -Hume are in the inverse position of his pretensions in other respects. -Instead of seeking, as the author of the Essay on Miracles might -have been expected to do, for the best possible testimonies, for these in -the greatest possible number, and then sifting them to the utmost, we -find him committing himself, with apparent unconsciousness, to the -most incompetent guides, often to a single authority where several were -accessible, and where several are adduced, attaching no more credit to -the depositions of an intelligent writer contemporary with what he records, -than to that of some worthless chronicler, who lived some centuries -later! This is particularly the case with regard to that portion -of our history which precedes the Reformation; and there cannot be -a greater mistake than to suppose that his references at the foot of the -page in these earlier volumes indicate the sources from which the -material of his text was derived. “Ingenious but superficial” is the -description of these volumes which Gibbon recorded in his diary, after -reading them. In the more modern period of our history, as the authorities -relating to it may be consulted by an indolent man with less -labour, and by a man of taste with less disgust, we find a little more -research and discrimination, but by no means sufficient to render -his accounts worthy of implicit confidence, even when not liable to be -affected by any of his known partialities. It is to this deficient industry, -and to the consequent want of a steady mastery of his subject -before beginning to write upon it, that we have mainly to attribute the -perpetual contradictions which occur in his description of the great -contest under the Stuart princes; contradictions which are so many -and so irreconcilable as to make his book one of the most inconsistent -that ever emanated from a man of ordinary powers. We have not, of -course, space in which to exhibit the proofs of this statement;—but -we are confident that inquiry will prove it to be correct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the want of industry, though a serious delinquency in a historian, -is almost venial when compared with a want of impartiality, and -the deficiency of Hume in this last quality has been often and largely -exposed. The extent in which the historian was conscious of his own -habit of unfairness, it is not in our power to determine; but there is -hardly a conceivable form of disingenuousness, of which his volumes -might not be shown to afford numerous and striking examples. The -volume embracing the reigns of James and Charles was first published, -and we have seen that the reception it met with only taught the author -to resolve, with a more fixed purpose, as to the complexion of those -which were to follow. In instances where his integrity is in the main -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>preserved, his eloquence is often so far misdirected that the truth becomes -discoloured, and makes the impression of falsehood. In his -hands the faults of his favourites lose much of their magnitude and -grossness, while their merits are raised much above their proper level, -and with regard to their opponents, the inverse process is adopted. -Disagreeable facts are passed over, or but partially and very artfully -developed; while others, of an opposite nature, have all prominence, -and all imaginable force assigned them. Incidents of very rare occurrence, -and existing only as exceptions, are culled with the greatest -care, and presented as the rule, and as no more than samples of the -abundance that might be adduced. And in describing the reasonings -and the motives by which the contending parties from time to time -were influenced, it is the fixed usage of this writer to consult his own -prejudices or imagination much more than the lights afforded by the -documents of the times. These summaries, as they are called, are -inserted by Hume, in the place of the speeches which the ancient historians -were wont to put into the mouth of their leading men; and, -interesting as they are, deserve no more credit, considered as the character -of parties, or as accounts of what was really said, than it is -usual to bestow on those elaborate harangues. There is much reason -to believe that the historian began the reigns of the two first Stuarts -with a sincere conviction that sufficient allowance had not been made -for the peculiar situation of those princes. But his delinquencies are -such, that this excuse must be of small avail in his defence. The -majority of more than one generation in this country have derived their -notions of English history almost exclusively from the pages of Hume; -but so low has he fallen as a historical authority, that the persons who -have read scarcely anything else, rarely show courage, or rather weakness, -enough to make any appeal to him.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_129fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />DE WITT.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Netscher, in the possession of M<sup>r</sup>. Lenoir, at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span> -<img src='images/i_129.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>DE WITT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The father of this wise and honest statesman was burgomaster of -the town of Dort, or Dordrecht, and one of its representatives in the -Assembly of the States of Holland, a man of patriotism, courage, and -integrity, who apprehended danger to the liberties of the United -Provinces from the hereditary power of the House of Orange, and -used his best exertions to counteract it. His sons, Cornelius and John -De Witt, born at Dort, the former June 25, 1623, the latter September -25, 1625, inherited his principles and his integrity; and -rendered his name illustrious by greater talents exerted in a higher -sphere of action. Of these brothers, united in their counsels, their -lives, and their deaths, it is the younger, John, the original of our -portrait, who rendered the name of De Witt most illustrious, by the -ability and virtue with which, during eighteen years, he directed the -government of his country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cornelius De Witt served in the navy during several years, and -distinguished himself in the bloody wars of England and Holland; -he also studied jurisprudence in his youth, and displayed talents for -civil and military business not unnoticed by his fellow-citizens, who -bestowed several municipal offices on him at an early age. The youth -of John De Witt appears to have been less occupied by active employments; -though he possessed great knowledge and practical skill -in maritime affairs, and was esteemed one of the best pilots of his -time. The early development of his political talents, aided probably -by family connexion, and the respect due to his father’s services, soon -introduced him to high civil employment. In 1650 he was appointed -Pensionary of his native town, and in 1652, Grand Pensionary of -Holland, an office which gave him a commanding influence over the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>deliberations of the whole Union. It was granted nominally only -for five years, but in effect was permanent, since at the end of each -period it was customary to re-appoint the holder.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was the leading object of De Witt’s policy to diminish the influence -which the princes of the House of Orange had acquired, -as much by their services and high personal qualities, as by their -power and territorial possessions, and to strengthen the republican -institutions of his country, which he saw to be endangered, as it was -ultimately destroyed, by their hereditary tenure of the office of Stadtholder. -“The chief direction of the affairs of Holland, for eighteen -years, continued in the hands of their Pensionary De Witt, a minister -of the greatest authority and sufficiency, the greatest application and -industry, ever known in their state. In the course of his ministry he -and his party reduced, not only all the civil charges of the government -in this province, but in a manner all the military commands of the -army, out of the hands of persons affectionate to the Prince of Orange, -into those esteemed more sure and fast to the interests of their more -popular state. And all this was attended for so long a course of years -with the perpetual success of their affairs, by the growth of their -trade, power and riches at home, and the consideration of their neighbours -abroad.” Such is the testimony of Sir William Temple, (Essay -on the Origin and Nature of Government,) to the policy, success, and -merits of a friend whom he loved and venerated. The position of -affairs, when De Witt attained to the direction of the state, favoured -the development of his republican views. William II., Prince of -Orange, had died in 1650, and his posthumous son and heir, afterwards -William III. of England, was an infant. Had the representative -of that house been of mature age, we may conclude that gratitude -for the eminent services of his predecessors, and the natural inclination -of the people towards the form of government to which they had -been accustomed, would have led again to the appointment of a Stadtholder -in his person. But the office was of a nature which could not -be well exercised by a regent, or committed to an infant, without -acknowledging a species of hereditary right, scarcely differing from -the claims of royalty: and accordingly in some provinces another -prince of the Nassau family was appointed Stadtholder, in others, -of which Holland was one, the office continued in abeyance, and De -Witt, thwarted by no superior, was able to direct his best efforts to -counteract the workings of the Orange party, and to effect those -changes in the civil and military organization of the state, which are -mentioned in the above quotation from Sir W. Temple. The same -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>leading principle guided his foreign policy. When he was appointed -Grand Pensionary, the Provinces were engaged in war with England; -an unequal contest while her government was directed by Cromwell. -But the true interest of both parties lay in their amity, and peace -was concluded in 1654. While Cromwell lived, the republican party -was upheld by his influence. He endeavoured to obtain from the -States General, in the treaty of 1654, the perpetual exclusion of the -Prince of Orange from the Stadtholdership: but not being able to -obtain their consent to this, contented himself with the assent of the -States of Holland, as far as regarded their own province, which was -accorded by a secret article. After the Restoration it was to be -expected that Charles II. would support the interests of his nephew -the Prince of Orange; and De Witt thenceforward cultivated the -alliance of France in preference to that of England. This, and the -jealousy of the English nation at the commercial prosperity of the -Dutch, led to the breaking out of a bloody war in 1665, in which -the preponderance of success was on the side of England. The -spirit, energy, and ability of De Witt was the main stay of his -countrymen under the reverses which they sustained in this contest: -their disasters were promptly repaired, their defeated armaments -refitted, their credit sustained; and Charles II. becoming weary of a -war which brought no advantages to compensate for the drain which -it occasioned on the treasury, condescended to open negotiations for -peace in 1667. These, however, proceeded but slowly: and while -they were yet pending, De Witt planned that memorable expedition -which surprised our ill-guarded shores, burnt our ships in the -Thames, and threw the metropolis into the utmost alarm. The -course of diplomacy being quickened by this event, the treaty of -Breda was soon after concluded, on terms not disadvantageous to -Holland.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the following year a closer union, called the Triple League, was -formed, chiefly by the agency of De Witt and Sir William Temple, -between these two powers, in conjunction with Sweden. It was -intended to restrain the ambition of Louis XIV., which had manifested -itself in such encroachments upon the Spanish Netherlands as -gave just cause of anxiety to the United Provinces. De Witt saw -that a new danger threatened the independence of his country from -abroad, and sacrificed to the emergency his own political prepossessions -and his jealousy of everything which could restore the House -of Orange to power. So great was his earnestness, that he violated -a fundamental principle of the Union, by inducing the States General -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>to ratify the treaty at once, instead of referring it, as was prescribed -by the constitution, to the acceptance of the several provinces: an act -by which, had it proved unpalatable to the nation, the lives of all who -were concerned in it were endangered, and which is only to be -excused on the plea of necessity, and by the certainty that the measure, -which its framers regarded as essential to the welfare of the -whole confederacy, would have been frustrated by the influence of -France over some or other of its least important members. In 1670 -De Witt concluded another treaty with the emperor of Germany and -the King of Spain, with the same object of maintaining the power -of Spain in the Netherlands, as a barrier against the encroachments -of France.</p> - -<p class='c000'>All these precautions were rendered vain by the weak and corrupt -conduct of the English Court. The ministers were bribed, and the -King cajoled by a French mistress, sent over in the train of his sister -the Duchess of Orleans, to renounce the Triple League and to declare -war against the United Provinces, in 1672, on the most frivolous -pretences. At the same time the king of France in person led against -them a numerous, well appointed, and well officered army. It is probable -that De Witt had relied with confidence on the sincerity of -England in promoting the objects of the Triple League, and that -though well aware of the disposition of Louis, he had not thought -the danger so near at hand. At all events he had made no sufficient -preparation to meet it; and the consequences of this omission were -most disastrous. The troops of the Provinces, composed in a great -measure of new levies, could make no head; the frontier fortresses -yielded almost without resistance; the Rhine was passed, an event -remarkable only by the flatteries for which it gave a subject to the -French poets; and Louis held his court at Utrecht, while his troops -advanced within a few miles of Amsterdam. A loud clamour was -now raised against De Witt, who was roundly accused of having disbanded -the veteran troops of the Republic, dismantled the fortresses, -and exhausted the treasury, that his country might fall an easier prey -to the French connexion. This calumny, even at the time, probably, -was hardly believed: but too great neglect of the military establishment -seems justly chargeable as a fault on his administration. For -this, however, some excuse may be found in the necessity of economy, -the inconsistency of a mercenary army of foreigners with republican -principles, and the readiness of the Orange party to misrepresent this -policy of the Pensionary, as tending to concentrate in himself the -powers of Stadtholder, a name and office which he had been so eager -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>to abolish. By the machinations of that party the embarrassments of -the government were increased, and discontent was fomented; and -their sufferings and danger led the people to think more and more -favourably of the claims of William of Orange. The natural high -qualities of that prince had received most careful cultivation under the -superintendence of De Witt, who was resolved, he said, to render -him capable of serving his country, if any change should throw the -administration into his hands. Already, February 25, he had been -declared captain-general and admiral of the Provinces. Shortly after, -De Witt’s life was attempted by four assassins, who left him for dead, -as he was returning home at night, unattended, with his usual simplicity -of demeanour. While he lay ill of his wounds, the repeal of -the Perpetual Edict passed in 1667, by which the office of Stadtholder -was abolished for ever in the province of Holland, was demanded -by the populace, with much violence and sedition. That State yielded -to the clamour, and the Prince was thus reinstated in the full power -enjoyed by his predecessors.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cornelius De Witt was induced, with great difficulty, to sign the -revocation of the Edict. Soon after, he was accused of being concerned -in a plot to murder the Prince of Orange. The informer and -only witness, one Tichelaer, was a person of infamous character: yet -on his evidence this brave and well-deserving citizen was thrown into -prison at the Hague, and cruelly tortured to extort confession of a -plot, the very existence of which, without that confession, could not -be proved. He bore the trial with unshaken constancy, protesting -that if they cut him to pieces, they should not make him confess a -thing which he had never thought of. Without it, he could not be -convicted: but he was stripped of his employments and banished -from Holland; and such was the madness of the time, that even this -iniquitous decree gave great offence, by its leniency, to the people, -who were fully persuaded of Cornelius De Witt’s guilt. John De -Witt meanwhile had recovered from his wounds; and finding that in -the existing state of public feeling his continuance at the head of -affairs was both undesirable for himself and unpleasing to the country, -he resigned his office. After the promulgation of his brother’s -sentence, he went to receive him upon his delivery from prison; and -probably to do him more honour, and testify his own sense of the -malice of the charge, and the unworthiness of the treatment which he -had received, repaired to the Hague in his coach and four, a sort of -display which he was not wont to affect. This bravado proved still -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>more unfortunate than ill-judged. The people, collected by the unusual -spectacle, began to murmur at the presumption of one suspected -traitor coming in state to insult the laws, and triumph in -the escape of a traitor-brother from a deserved death. De Witt went -to the prison, to convey his brother to his own house; but Cornelius -replied, that having suffered so much, being innocent, he would not -leave the prison as a culprit, but remain, and appeal against the -sentence; a resolution which John De Witt strove in vain to shake. -Meanwhile Tichelaer, the informer, was busily engaged in stirring up -the populace to riot. Apprehending some disturbance, the States of -Holland, which were then sitting at the Hague, requested the Prince -of Orange to repair thither with a military force. Meanwhile the -tumult spread from the lowest people to the burghers, and a furious -mob collected round the gates of the prison where the brothers still -remained. The military force which had been sent for did not arrive, -and that which was in the city was drawn off, by written order -from one or more of the magistrates, upon a false report, that a -body of peasants was advancing to pillage the Hague. Actuated by -fear, or some worse motive, the gaoler opened the gates, the leaders -of the mob rushed in, the brothers were violently dragged from their -chamber, and massacred as soon as they reached the street, with circumstances -of brutality too revolting to be narrated in detail. Their -corpses were dragged to the gibbet, and publicly suspended with the -heads downwards; and the mangled limbs of these upright magistrates -and patriotic citizens were offered for sale, and bought at prices of -fifteen, twenty, and thirty sols.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is another account, different in some particulars, which intimates -that this atrocious murder was preconcerted, and that a train -was laid for it, if not by the Prince of Orange himself, at least by -the leaders of his party. Such charges are often lightly made; and -we are not aware that there is any direct evidence to fix this guilt on -any one, certainly not personally on that distinguished monarch. But -that there was culpable neglect, even acquitting those in power of wilful -connivance, seems certain; and the proceedings of the court which -sentenced Cornelius, show that the government was not delicate in -finding means to remove those whom it disliked. And William’s -subsequent conduct may almost be said to have merited the imputation -which he incurred; for though the States of Holland voted the murder -detestable in their eyes and the eyes of all the world, and requested -the Stadtholder to take proper measures to avenge it, none of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>murderers were ever brought to justice. The flimsy pretext for this -neglect was, that it would be dangerous to inquire into a deed in -which the principal burghers of the Hague were concerned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Fox, in his History of James II., has made the following reflections -on this event. “The catastrophe of De Witt, the wisest, best, -and most truly patriotic minister that ever appeared upon the public -stage, as it was an act of the most crying injustice and ingratitude, so -likewise it is the most completely dis-encouraging example that history -affords to the lovers of liberty. If Aristides was banished, he was also -recalled: if Dion was repaid for his service to the Syracusans by ingratitude, -that ingratitude was more than once repented of: if Sidney -and Russell died upon the scaffold, they had not the cruel mortification -of falling by the hands of the people; ample justice was done to their -memory, and the very sound of their names is still animating to every -Englishman attached to their glorious cause. But with De Witt fell -also his cause and his party; and although a name so respected by all -who revere virtue and wisdom when employed in their noblest sphere, -the political service of the public, yet I do not know that even to this -day any public honours have been paid by them to his memory.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>After De Witt’s death, all his papers were submitted to the most -rigorous examination, in hope of discovering something which should -confirm the popular notion of his being traitorously in league with -France. One of the persons appointed to perform this service being -asked what had been found in De Witt’s papers, replied, “What -could we have found? Nothing but probity.” To the moral qualities -of integrity, intrepidity, and patience, he added intellectual endowments -of the highest order: his perception was acute, his judgment -solid; he possessed great skill and readiness in transacting business, -and that persuasive influence over those who came in contact with -him, which is perhaps the most serviceable gift of a statesman. His -manners, we are told by Sir William Temple, (Observations on the -United Provinces, c. 11), were such as befitted his station and his -principles. “His habit was grave, plain and popular; his table, what -only served turn for his family or a friend; his train was only one -man, who performed all the menial service of his house at home, and -upon his visits of ceremony, putting on a plain livery cloak, attended -his coach abroad; for upon other occasions he was seen usually in the -streets on foot and alone, like the commonest burgher of the town. -Nor was this manner of life affected; but was the general fashion and -mode among all the magistrates of the state.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>De Witt cultivated mathematics, and published a Treatise on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>Curves. Burnet says, “Perhaps no man ever applied algebra to all -matters of trade so nicely as he did. He made himself so entirely -master of the state of Holland, that he understood exactly all the concerns -of their revenue, and what sums, and in what manner, could be -raised upon any emergent of state. For this he had a pocket book full -of tables, and was ever ready to show how they could be furnished with -money.” The most remarkable of his works are his Memoirs, published -during his life in 1667, in which, after examining the principles -which govern the prosperity and decline of states, he proceeds to -apply them to Holland, and to review the condition and prospects of -the country. They have been translated into French by Mad. Zoutelandt, -who has also written a life of the two brothers. De Witt’s correspondence -with the plenipotentiaries of France, England, Sweden, -Denmark, and Poland, has also been published, and translated into -French.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_136.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Murder of the brothers De Witt, from a Dutch print in Wagenaar’s ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vaterlandsche Historie</span>,’ 1770.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_137fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />HAMPDEN.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by J. Houbraken 1740.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span> -<img src='images/i_137.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>HAMPDEN.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>John Hampden was the head and representative of an ancient and -opulent family, which had received the lands of Hampden in Buckinghamshire -from Edward the Confessor, and boasted to have transmitted -its wealth, honours, and influence, unimpaired and increasing, -in direct male succession, down to this the most illustrious of the -house. The date of his birth is 1594; the place of it is generally believed -to have been London. Under four years of age, he came, by -the death of his father, into possession of the family estates, which, -besides the ancient seat and extensive domain in Buckinghamshire, -comprehended large possessions in Essex, Oxfordshire, and Berkshire. -Our knowledge of his early life may be summed in a few facts and -dates. He was brought up at the free-school of Thame, in Oxfordshire; -entered as a commoner at Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1609; and -was admitted student of the Inner Temple in 1613, where he made -considerable progress in the knowledge of common law. His classical -attainments also seem to have been respectable, since he was associated, -oddly enough, with Laud, then Master of St. John’s, in writing -the Oxford gratulatory poems on the marriage of the Elector Palatine -and the Princess Elizabeth; from which sprung Prince Rupert, who -led the Royalist troops when Hampden received his death-wound. In -1619, he married his first wife Elizabeth Symeon. Inheriting a noble -property, he devoted himself, without suffering his literary habits -to fall into desuetude, principally to the business and amusements -of a country life, having, says Lord Clarendon, “on a sudden retired -from a life of great pleasure and licence, to extraordinary -sobriety and strictness, and yet retained his usual cheerfulness and -affability.” His first entrance into public life was in January, -1620–1, when he took his seat in the Parliament then convened, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>Grampound, at that time a borough of wealth and importance: a -prevalent error, that he sat for the first time in the first Parliament -summoned by Charles I. in 1625, is corrected by Lord Nugent, who -in his Memorials of Hampden has shown that he sat in the Parliaments -of 1621 and 1624; that he was active and diligent in his -attendance, and intimately connected himself with Selden, Pym, -St. John, and other leaders of the popular party; and that, though -he seldom spoke, his capacity for business was known and respected, -as appears from the employments in committees and conferences, -imposed on him by the House.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the first Parliament of Charles I., Hampden sat for Wendover, -an ancient borough of Buckinghamshire, which with two others -had lately regained their dormant privilege of returning members, -chiefly by his exertions, and at his expense. In this and in the following -Parliament, summoned in February, 1627, Hampden still appears to -have taken no leading part. After the dissolution of the latter, he was -called upon to contribute to a general loan, which he refused, and was -in consequence imprisoned for a time in the Gate House, and then sent -still under restraint to reside in Hampshire. The order for his release, -with many others, is dated March, 1627–8. On this occasion, he -made the remarkable reply to the demand, why he would not contribute -to the king’s necessities, that “he could be content to lend as -well as others, but feared to draw upon himself that curse in Magna -Charta, which should be read twice a year against those who infringe -it.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the new Parliament which met in March, 1628, Hampden -again sat for Wendover, and having become more generally known by -the part which he had taken in resisting the demands of the crown, -from this time forward, says Lord Nugent, “scarcely was a bill prepared, -or an inquiry begun, upon any subject, however remotely -affecting any one of the three great matters at issue—privilege, religion, -or the supplies—but he was thought fit to be associated with -St. John, Selden, Coke and Pym, on the committee.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>That Parliament, after framing the Petition of Right, voting supplies, -and taking resolute steps towards procuring a redress of -grievances, was hastily and angrily dissolved in May, 1629. Previous -to this, Hampden, “although retaining his seat for Wendover, -had retired to his estate in Buckinghamshire, to live in entire privacy, -without display, but not inactive; contemplating from a distance, the -madness of the Government, the luxury and insolence of the courtiers, -and the portentous apathy of the people, who, amazed by the late measures, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>and by the prospect of uninterruptedly increasing violence, saw -no hope from petition or complaint, and watched, in confusion and -silence, the inevitable advance of an open rupture between the King -and the Parliament. The literary acquirements of his youth he now -carefully improved; increasing that stock of general knowledge which -had already gained him the reputation of being one of the most -learned and accomplished men of his age: and directing his attention -chiefly to writers on history and politics. Davila’s History of the -Civil Wars of France became his favourite study, his <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vade mecum</span>, as -Sir Philip Warwick styles it; as if forecasting from afar the course of -the storm which hung over his own country, he already saw the sad -parallel it was likely to afford to the story of that work. In his retirement, -he bent the whole force of his capacious mind to the most -effectual means by which the abuses of ecclesiastical authority were to -be corrected, and the tide of headlong prerogative checked, whenever -the slumbering spirit of the country should be roused to deal with -those duties to which he was preparing to devote himself.” (Memorials -of Hampden, p. 175.) It may here be added that Hampden’s -religious opinions were those of the Independent party, who were -honourably distinguished, no less from the Presbyterians than the -Episcopalians, by granting to all persons that freedom of conscience -and full toleration which they claimed for themselves. While thus -awaiting, with study and patient observation, the time when the active -service of a real patriot might benefit his country, his domestic happiness -received a severe blow by the death of his wife, Aug. 20, 1634.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the same autumn the scheme of raising a revenue by ship-money -was devised. Confined in the first instance to seaport towns, it -proved so profitable that the levy was soon extended to inland places. -In 1636, the charge was laid, by order of council, upon all counties, -cities, and corporate towns, and the sheriffs were required, in case of -refusal or delay, to proceed by distress. Here Hampden resolved to -make a stand. The sum demanded of him was but thirty-one shillings -and sixpence; but the very smallness of the sum served to show that -his opposition was directed against the principle of the exaction, and -rested on no ground of personal inconvenience, or individual injustice. -Proceedings being instituted in the Exchequer for recovery of the -money, the case was solemnly argued before the twelve judges, who -severally delivered their opinions, and by a majority of eight to four, -determined in favour of the crown. “But the judgment,” says Lord -Clarendon, “infinitely more advanced him, Mr. Hampden, than the -service for which it was given. He was rather of reputation in his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>own country, than of public discourse, or fame in the kingdom, before -the business of ship-money: but then he grew the argument of all -tongues, every man inquiring who or what he was, that durst, at his -own charge, support the liberty and property of the country, as he -thought, from being made a prey to the court. His carriage, throughout -this agitation, was with that rare temper and modesty, that they -who watched him narrowly to find some advantage against his person, -to make him less resolute in his cause, were compelled to give him a -just testimony.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>These measures, which placed at the king’s disposal the property, -were accompanied by equally stringent attacks on the liberties of the -country. Tutored by the lofty spirit of Wentworth, Charles resolved, -and seemed likely to succeed, to rule independently of Parliaments: -and in the sycophancy of the judges, and the unlimited and illegal -severities of the courts of the Star-Chamber and High Commission, -he had ample means of suppressing murmur, and punishing the refractory. -We need not dwell upon the state to which the country -was reduced, during the eleven years which elapsed without the -meeting of a Parliament: so unpromising did it appear, that even the -most resolute of that party comprehended by the Royalists under the -general name of Puritans, meditated a withdrawal from the tyranny -which they had almost ceased to hope to restrain. Even this however -was denied to them by the infatuated jealousy of popular principles -entertained by the king and his advisers, who issued an order, April 6, -1638, by which masters of ships were prohibited to carry passengers -to America, without special licence. It has often been dwelt on as -a very remarkable circumstance, that Hampden, and his cousin Oliver -Cromwell, were at this time actually embarked for New England on -board one of eight ships then lying in the river and freighted with -emigrants, and that these eight ships were specially ordered to be -detained.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A dawn of better times appeared, when in consequence of the king’s -rash attempt to impose the English ritual upon Scotland, and restore -Episcopacy, that country rose in rebellion. The expenses of the war -rendered it imperative to obtain supplies; and Charles, fearing at this -juncture to resort to fresh impositions, saw no resource except in summoning -that which is commonly called the Short Parliament, which -met in April, 1640. Hampden was returned for Buckinghamshire. -About this time he had married his second wife, Letitia Vachell, but -the quiet happiness of his home was henceforth entirely broken up by -the disturbances of the times, and he never returned to any settled -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>residence at his paternal mansion. In the short and energetic session -of this spring he displayed his usual diligence and activity; and -his influence was much increased in consequence of his resistance -to the demand of ship-money, which had attracted such notice, that -Clarendon, in speaking of the opening of the Long Parliament -in November following, observes, “the eyes of all men were fixed -upon him as their Pater Patriæ, and the pilot that must steer the -vessel through the tempests and rocks which threatened it. And -I am persuaded his power and interest, at that time, was greater to do -good or hurt, than any man in the kingdom, or than any man of his -rank hath held in any time: for his reputation of honesty was universal, -and his affections seemed so publicly guided, that no corrupt -or private ends could bias them.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The causes of the dissolution of the Short Parliament, and the history -of the second Scottish war which compelled Charles I. to summon -the Long Parliament, hardly form a part of our subject: it is to be -observed however that during the summer and autumn, Hampden, -with other leading persons of the popular party, was engaged in -active correspondence with the leaders of the Scottish insurrection, -in whose success, as tending to the further embarrassment of the king, -they placed their best hope of obtaining security for the maintenance -of the liberties and privileges of the English people. Of the first great -act of that Parliament, the impeachment of Strafford, he was a zealous -supporter, and a member of the committee of twelve appointed to arrange -the evidence, and to conduct that memorable trial. After the -Commons, for reasons which have never been satisfactorily explained, -thought fit to change the method of proceeding by introducing a bill -of attainder, the name of Hampden appears in none of the records: -and it is probable that he abstained from taking any part in the business. -It is important to keep this in mind, because the censure, which -has justly been cast upon the proceedings of the House of Commons -against Lord Strafford, applies solely to the attainder, not to the impeachment. -To the question, why, if Hampden disapproved of the -attainder, he did not as resolutely oppose it as he had supported the -impeachment, the following hypothetical answer is supplied by Lord -Nugent. “In a case doubtful to him only as matter of precedent; but -clear to him in respect of the guilt of the accused person; in a case in -which the accused person, in his estimation, deserved death, and in -which all law, except that of the sceptre and the sword, was at an end if -he had escaped it; when all the ordinary protection of law to the subject -throughout the country was suspended, and suspended mainly by the -counsels of Strafford himself, Hampden was not prepared to heroically -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>immolate the liberties of England in order to save the life of him who -would have destroyed them. Hampden probably considered the bill -which took away Strafford’s life (and indeed it must in fairness be -so considered) as a revolutionary act undertaken for the defence of the -Commonwealth.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was an active supporter of two important measures which occupied -the Parliament simultaneously with Strafford’s impeachment, -the Triennial Bill, for securing the convocation of Parliaments, and -the bill for excluding bishops from the House of Lords. After the -rejection of the latter, he adopted the views of that more violent party -who urged the necessity of abolishing episcopacy altogether. But, -notwithstanding his recognised position as a leader of his party, and -his known weight in determining the line of conduct to be pursued by -it, he was not a frequent speaker, and his name therefore occurs less -frequently than would be expected in the records of this eventful -period. “His practice was usually to reserve himself until near the -close of a debate; and then, having watched its progress, to endeavour -to moderate the redundancies of his friends, to weaken the impression -produced by its opponents, to confirm the timid, and to reconcile the -reluctant. And this he did, according to the testimony of his opponents -themselves, with a modesty, gentleness, and apparent diffidence -in his own judgment, which generally brought men round to his conclusions.”—(Memorials -of Hampden, ii. 47.) He was one of the five -members accused of treason, and demanded personally by Charles in -the House of Commons, January 6, 1642; “and from this time,” says -Clarendon, “his nature and carriage seemed much fiercer than it did -before.” Unquestionably that ill-advised step was not likely to conciliate -those whose life was aimed at, but it is also clear that before -that event, the party, with whom he acted, were preparing for a -struggle more serious than that in which they were as yet engaged. -A Committee of Public Safety was formed, of which Hampden was a -member, the power of the sword was claimed by the Ordinance of -Militia, the king on his part issued his Commission of Array, and at -last raised his standard at Nottingham, August 22.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the military events of the first year of the war, Hampden took an -active, but subordinate share, as colonel of a regiment of infantry, -which he himself raised in Buckinghamshire. Nor did he intermit, -as the exigencies of war allowed him, to continue his attendance in -Parliament, and to urge there that decisive course of action, which he -knew to be necessary to the success of the cause, and laboured in vain -to recommend to the Parliamentary general. At the battle of Brentford, -his troops, and those of Lord Brook, in support of the London -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>regiment under Hollis, bore the brunt of the day against superior -numbers, until the army arrived from London in the evening: and on -this occasion (as before at Edge Hill, where he arrived too late to take -part in the fight,) he in vain urged Essex to convert, by a decisive -forward movement, the doubtful issue of the day into victory. During -the winter months, while the king held his court at Oxford, and a -Parliamentary army lay between London and that city, Hampden’s -regiment was quartered in Buckinghamshire, and his own time was -divided between the seat of war and the House of Commons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To this period also, is to be referred the association of six midland -counties for the purposes of the war, Bedford, Buckingham, Hertford, -Cambridge, Huntingdon, and Northampton; a step which proved -of material service in giving strength and union to the Parliamentary -cause, and which probably would not have been carried into operation -but for Hampden’s peculiar talent of allaying jealousies, reconciling -conflicting interests, and smoothing away the obstacles to any business -which he undertook.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From March 1, to April 15, a cessation of arms was agreed on in -Oxfordshire and Bucks, while an attempt was made to arrange terms -of pacification. The treaty having been broken off, war recommenced -with an incessant and generally successful series of predatory incursions, -conducted by Prince Rupert, on the Parliamentary outposts, -which lay widely dispersed in the intricate country on the borders of -Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire. In this district, with which his -early habits of the chase had made him familiar, Hampden’s regiment -was quartered. He had laboured incessantly, but in vain, to promote -some great enterprise, which might give lustre to the seemingly declining -cause, and confidence to the adherents, of the Parliament. -Failing in this, he manifested no less alacrity in performing his duty -than if his views and his suggestions had been adopted: indeed it -would be consonant to his character to suppose, that a strict sense -of what is due to military discipline, and a desire to avoid even the -appearance of slighting his commanding officer, led him to still more -zealous exertions. It was in a matter beyond the strict line of his -duty that he received his death-wound. On the evening of the 17th -of June, Rupert set out from Oxford with about 2000 men, and surprised -and burnt two villages, Postcombe and Chinnor, which were -occupied by the Parliamentary troops. When the alarm reached -Hampden, he instantly set out at the head of a small body of cavalry, -which volunteered to follow him, in hopes of being able to delay the -Royalists sufficiently to enable Essex to occupy the passes of the -Cherwell, and cut them off from Oxford. Strengthened by the accession -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>of four troops of horse, he overtook Prince Rupert, who drew -up to receive the attack on Chalgrove-field. Early in the action -Hampden received two bullets in the shoulder, which shattered the -bone, and in an agony of pain he rode off the field; “a thing,” says -Clarendon, “he never used to do, and from which it was concluded -he was hurt.” Two others of the chief Parliamentary officers present -were killed or taken, and the Royalists made good their retreat. -Hampden expired at Thame, after six days severe suffering. His last -words are thus given from a contemporary publication. “O Lord God -of Hosts, great is thy mercy, just and holy are thy dealings unto us -sinful men. Save me, O Lord, if it be thy good will, from the jaws of -death. Pardon my manifold transgressions, O Lord, save my bleeding -country. Have these realms in thy especial keeping. Confound -and level in the dust those who would rob the people of their liberty -and lawful prerogative. Let the king see his error, and turn the -hearts of his wicked counsellors from the malice and wickedness of -their designs. Lord Jesu, receive my soul!” He then mournfully -uttered, “O Lord, save my country—O Lord, be merciful to” ... -and here his speech failed him. He fell back in the bed, and -expired.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His death, according to Sir Philip Warwick, was regretted even -by the king, “who looked on his interest, if he could gain his affections, -as a powerful means of begetting a right understanding between -him and the two Houses.” To his own party it was irreparable. It -removed the fittest person for the chief command of their troops, -which it is not unreasonable to suppose would, upon the removal of -Essex, have been vested in him; deprived them of a leader and -adviser, who, of all, was the most likely to have confined his wishes -to the establishment of a secure peace, on the basis of a strictly -limited monarchy; and opened way to the ambition of Cromwell, -which probably would never have been developed if Hampden had -lived to direct the counsels of the Parliament.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have already given a portion of Clarendon’s character of -Hampden; for the rest of that celebrated passage, we must refer to -the History of the Rebellion, book vii. It describes a man of rare -virtues, though the political bias of the noble author has thrown a -dark colouring over the whole. The latest, and we believe the most -elaborate account of this eminent patriot, is that of Lord Nugent, -from which the greater part of our memoir is derived. But the -memoirs and pamphlets of the time must be intimately studied by -those who wish for full information concerning Hampden’s parliamentary -life.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_145fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />JOHNSON.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Sir J. Reynolds, in the possession of Sir Robert Peel Bar<sup>t</sup>.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span> -<img src='images/i_145.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>JOHNSON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Samuel Johnson was born September 18, 1709, in the city of Lichfield, -where his father, a man well respected for sense and learning, -carried on the trade of a bookseller, and realized an independence, -which he afterwards lost by an unsuccessful speculation. His mother -also possessed a strong understanding. From these parents Johnson -derived a powerful body, and a mind of uncommon force and compass. -Unfortunately both mind and body were tainted by disease: the -former by a melancholy, of which he said that it had “made him mad -all his life—at least not sober;” the latter by that scrofulous disorder -called the king’s evil, for which, in compliance with a popular superstition, -recommended by the Jacobite principles of his family, he was -<em>touched</em> by Queen Anne. By this disease he lost the sight of one -eye, and the other was considerably injured: a calamity which combined -with constitutional indolence to prevent his joining in the active -sports of his school-fellows. Tardy in the performance of his appointed -tasks, he mastered them with rapidity at last, and he early -displayed great fondness for miscellaneous reading, and a remarkably -retentive memory. After passing through several country schools, -and spending near two years in a sort of busy idleness at home, he -went to Pembroke College, Oxford, about the age of sixteen. There -he made himself more remarkable by wit and humour, and negligence -of college discipline, than by his labours for University distinction: his -translation of Pope’s Messiah into Latin hexameters was the only exercise -on which he bestowed much pains, or by which he obtained -much credit. But his high spirits, unless the recollections of his -earlier years were tinctured by his habitual despondency, were but the -cloak of a troubled mind. “Ah! Sir,” he said to Boswell, “I was mad -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>and violent. It was bitterness which they mistook for frolic. I was -miserably poor, and I thought to fight my way by my literature and -my wit, so I disregarded all power and all authority.” His poverty -during this period was indeed extreme: and the scanty remittances by -which he was supported, in much humiliation and inconvenience, were -altogether stopped at last by his father’s insolvency. He had the -mortification to be compelled to quit Oxford in the autumn of 1731, -after three years’ residence, without taking a degree; and his father’s -death in the December following threw him on the world, with twenty -pounds in his pocket.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He first attempted to gain a livelihood in the capacity of usher to a -school at Market-Bosworth, in Leicestershire. For that laborious -and dreary task he was eminently unfit, except by talent and learning, -and he soon quitted a situation which he ever remembered with a degree -of aversion amounting to horror. After his marriage he tried the -experiment of keeping a boarding-house, near Lichfield, as principal, -with little better success. From Bosworth he went to Birmingham, -in 1733, where he composed his first work, a translation of the Jesuit -Lobo’s Voyage to Abyssinia. He gained several kind and useful -acquaintance in the latter town, among whom was Mr. Porter, a -mercer, whose widow he married in 1735. She was double his age, -and possessed neither beauty, fortune, nor attractive manners, yet she -inspired him with an affection which endured, unchilled by the trials -of poverty, unchanged by her death, even to the end of his own life, -as his private records fully testify. She died in 1752.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In March, 1737, Johnson set out for the metropolis, in hopes of -mending his fortunes, as a man of letters, and especially of bringing on -the stage his tragedy of Irene. It was long before his desires were -gratified in either respect. Irene was not performed till 1749, when his -friend and former pupil, Garrick, had the management of Drury-Lane. -Garrick’s zeal carried it through nine nights, so that the author, in -addition to one hundred pounds from Dodsley for the copyright, had -the profit of three nights’ performance, according to the mode of payment -then in use. The play however, though bearing the stamp of a -vigorous and elevated mind, and by no means wanting in poetical -merit, was unfit for acting, through its want of pathos and dramatic -effect: and Johnson perhaps perceived his deficiency in these qualities, -for he never again wrote for the stage. Garrick said of his -friend, that he had neither the faculty to produce, nor the sensibility -to receive the impressions of tragedy: and his annotations upon -Shakspeare confirm this judgment.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>His first employment after his arrival in London, was as a frequent -contributor to the Gentleman’s Magazine, from which, during some -years, he derived his chief support. This was a period of labour, -poverty, and often of urgent want. Sometimes without a lodging, -sometimes without a dinner, he became acquainted with the darker -phases of a London life; and among other singular characters, a similarity -of fortunes made him acquainted with the notorious Richard -Savage, whom he regarded with affection, and whose life is one of the -most powerful productions of Johnson’s pen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the thoughts suggested, and the knowledge taught, by this -rough collision with the world, we may conjecture his imitation of the -third satire of Juvenal, entitled London, to have originated. To the -majority of the nation it was recommended by its strong invectives -against the then unpopular ministry of Sir Robert Walpole, as well -as by the energy of thought and style, the knowledge of his subject, -and the lively painting in which it abounds: it reached a second -edition in the course of a week, and Boswell tells us, on contemporary -authority, that “the first buz of the literary circles was, ‘here is an -unknown poet, greater even than Pope.’” Yet this admired poem -produced only ten guineas to its author, and appears to have done -nothing towards improving his prospects, or giving a commercial value -to his name: his chief employment was still furnished by the Gentleman’s -Magazine; and in November, 1740, he undertook to report, or -rather to write, the Parliamentary debates for that publication. At -that time the privileges of Parliament were very strictly interpreted, -and the avowed publication of debates would have been rigorously -suppressed. Such a summary however as could be preserved in the -memory, was carried away by persons employed for the purpose, and -the task which Johnson undertook was to expand and adorn their imperfect -hints from the stores of his own eloquence: in doing which -he took care, as he afterwards acknowledged, that “the Whig dogs -should not have the best of it.” The speeches of course were referred -to fictitious names, and were published under the title, Debates of the -Senate of Lilliput: but in February, 1743, Johnson, on finding that -they were esteemed genuine, desisted from the employment, declaring -that he would not be accessary to the propagation of falsehood. So -scrupulous was he on this score, that forty years after, not long before -his death, he expressed his regret at having been the author of fictions -that had passed for realities.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For a detailed account of this early portion of Johnson’s literary -history, we refer the reader to Boswell’s Life, and the list of Johnson’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>works thereto prefixed, and pass on at once to those greater performances, -to which he owes his eminent rank among British writers. Of -these the earliest and most celebrated is his Dictionary of the English -Language. How long the plan of this work had been meditated, -before it was actually commenced, is uncertain: he told Boswell, that -his knowledge of our language was not the effect of particular study, -but had grown up insensibly in his mind. That he under-rated the -time and labour requisite for such a work, is evident from his promising -in his prospectus, issued in 1747, to complete it in three years: -he probably had also under-rated the needful knowledge, and amount -of preparatory study. In fact it was not published till 1755. He -received for it 1575<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, of which however a very considerable portion -was spent in expenses. The prospectus was addressed to Lord -Chesterfield; who expressed himself warmly in favour of the design, -and from that time forward treated the author with neglect until the -time of publication drew nigh, when he again assumed the character -of a patron. Fired at this, Johnson repudiated his assistance in a -dignified but sarcastic letter, which is printed by Boswell. The -transaction merits notice, for it is characteristic of Johnson’s independent -spirit, and excited at the time much curiosity and comment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Dictionary was justly esteemed a wonderful work: it established -at once the author’s reputation among his contemporaries, and -was long regarded as the supreme standard by which disputed points -in the English language were to be tried. Johnson’s chief qualification -for the task lay in the accuracy of his definitions, and the extent -of his various and well-remembered reading; his chief disqualification -lay in his ignorance of the cognate Teutonic languages, the stock from -which the bulk and strength of our own is derived: and in proportion -as the history and philosophy of the English language have been more -extensively studied, has the need of a more learned and philosophical -work of reference been felt. The verbose style of his definitions is -rather a fruitful theme of ridicule than an important fault. Shortly -before its publication he received from the University of Oxford, -which through life he regarded with great affection and veneration, -the honorary degree of M.A., a mark of respect by which he was -highly gratified.</p> - -<p class='c000'>That his labour in composing this work was not severe, may be inferred -from the variety of literary employments in which, during its -progress, he found time and inclination to engage: among which we -may select for mention the imitation of Juvenal’s tenth satire, entitled -Vanity of Human Wishes, and the periodical paper called the Rambler, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>which was published twice a week, from March 20, 1750, to -March 17, 1752. Of the whole series, according to Boswell, only -four papers, and a part of a fifth, were contributed by other pens: and -it is remarkable, considering the general gravity of the subjects, and -the elaboration of the style, that most of them were struck off at a heat, -when constitutional indolence could procrastinate no longer, without -even being read over before they were printed. The circulation of the -work was small; for its merits, which lie chiefly in moral instruction -and literary criticism, were of too grave a cast to ensure favour: the -lighter parts, and the attempts at humour, are the least successful. -But its popularity increased as the author’s fame rose, and fashion recommended -his grandiloquent style; and before his death it went -through numerous editions in a collected form.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1756 he issued proposals for an edition of Shakspeare, a scheme -which he had contemplated as long back as 1745, when he published -Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Macbeth. He promised -to complete it before Christmas, 1757, but it did not appear until -October, 1765. Imperfectly versed in the antiquities, literature, and -language of the Elizabethan era, the source from which almost all -valuable comment on our early dramatists has been drawn, he has -done little to elucidate difficulties or correct errors. His preface has -been esteemed among the most valuable of his critical essays. But -the perusal of his notes, and especially of his summary criticisms -on the several plays, will confirm Garrick’s judgment as to his sensibility, -and show that he wanted that delicate perception and deep -knowledge of the workings of the passions which were necessary to -the adequate fulfilment of his most difficult task.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From April 15, 1758, to April 5, 1760, Johnson wrote a second -periodical paper, called the Idler. Twelve only, out of one hundred -and three essays, were contributed by his friends; the rest were generally -written with as much haste, and are of slighter texture, than -those of the Rambler. Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia, he wrote in the -beginning of 1759, to defray the expenses of his mother’s funeral, and -pay some trifling debts which she had left. He told Sir Joshua Reynolds, -that it was composed in the evenings of one week, and sent to -the press in portions as it was written. This anecdote affords a good -instance of Johnson’s facility and power, when an adequate stimulus was -applied: from the rich imagery, and the varied, powerful strain of reflection -which pervade it, and the elaborated pomp of its style, it would -assuredly be taken for the product of mature consideration, labour, and -frequent revision. For this he received one hundred pounds, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>twenty-five pounds more at a second edition. It has been translated -into most European languages.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1762 Johnson accepted a pension of 300<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, for which he underwent -considerable obloquy. This was entirely undeserved, though in -some sort he had brought it on himself by indulging his satirical -bias and political predilections in a wayward definition of the words -<em>pension</em> and <em>pensioner</em>, in his Dictionary; where other instances occur -of his indulging the humour of the moment, whether it prompted him -to spleen or merriment. Why he should not have accepted the pension, -no sound reason can be given: his Jacobitical predilections, never -probably so strong as he used to represent them in the heat of argument, -were lost, like those of others, in the hopelessness of the cause; -and his Toryism naturally led him to transfer his full respect and allegiance -to the reigning king, who never was suspected of an undue -bias towards Whiggism. The sum bestowed was no more than an -honourable testimony to his literary eminence, and a comfortable provision -for his declining age: and as far as it is possible to form an -opinion on such matters, the gift was unstained by any compact, expressed -or understood, for political support.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among the more important events of Johnson’s life, we are bound -to mention his acquaintance with Mr. Boswell, which commenced in -1763, not only because it formed an important article among the -pleasures of the philosopher’s declining years, but because it led to the -composition and publication of the most lively and vivid picture ever -given by one man of another, the Life of Johnson. By Boswell, Johnson -was induced, in compliance with a wish that he had long before -entertained, to undertake a journey to the Scottish Highlands and the -Hebrides: and it is remarkable that the first English book of travels (as -we believe,) into what to the English was then almost a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra incognita</span></i>, -should have been composed by a man so careless of natural beauty, and -so little disposed to sacrifice his ease and habits to the cravings of curiosity, -as Johnson. His desire to visit that country seems to have -arisen rather from a wish to study society in a simple form, than from -any taste for the wild beauties of our Northern regions, of which he -saw not the most favourable specimen, and has given not a flattering -account. His Journey to the Western Islands will be read with -pleasure, abounding in acute observation, passages of lofty eloquence, -and grateful acknowledgment of the kindness and hospitality which he -received; kindness which his snappish railings against the Scotch in -general never led him to undervalue or forget. His companion and -disciple’s account of their expedition will, however, be read with more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>amusement, from presenting such vivid pictures of the author himself, -as well as of the subject which he painted, and of the varied characters -to which they were introduced, and scenes in which they intermingled. -We may here add that Johnson was a resolute unbeliever in the authenticity -of Macpherson’s Ossian, against which, in his book, he pronounced -a decided judgment. He thus gave considerable offence to -national vanity. To the claims of second-sight he was more favourable. -Throughout life he was influenced by a belief, not only in the possibility, -but in the occasional exertion of supernatural agencies, beyond -the regular operation of the laws of nature.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1775, Johnson received from the University of Oxford the honorary -degree of D.C.L. The same degree had been conferred on him -some time before by the University of Dublin; but he did not then -assume the title of doctor. His only subsequent work which requires -notice is the Lives of the English Poets, written for a collective edition -of them, which the booksellers were about to publish. To the -selection of the authors, praise cannot be given: many ornaments to -our literature are omitted, and many obscure persons have found a -place in the collection: this however, probably, was not Johnson’s -fault. The publication began in 1779, and was not completed till -1781: the lives have gone through many editions by themselves. -Though strongly coloured by personal and political predilections, they -contain much sound criticism, and form a valuable article in British -biography.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Many incidents connected with Johnson’s life, his places of residence, -his domestication in Mr. Thrale’s family, his connexion with -The Club, and the like, have been made generally known by the amusing -works of Boswell, Mrs. Piozzi, and others. Perhaps public curiosity -was never so strongly directed towards the person, habits, and -conversation of any man known only as an author; and certainly it -never has been so amply gratified. Boswell’s Life of Johnson is -unique in its kind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His powers of conversation were very great, and not only commanded -the admiration and deference of his contemporaries, but have -contributed in a principal degree to the upholding of his traditionary -fame. They were deformed by an assumption of superiority, and an -intolerance of contradiction or opposition, which often betrayed him -into offensive rudeness. Yet his temper was at bottom affectionate -and humane, his attachments strong, and his charity only bounded, -and scarcely bounded, by his means.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The latter years of Dr. Johnson’s life were overshadowed by much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>gloom. Many of his old and most valued friends sank into the grave -before him; his bodily frame was much shattered by disease; his -spirits became more liable to depression; and his sincere and ardent -piety was too deeply tinged by constitutional despondency to afford -him steady comfort and support under his sufferings. He was struck -by palsy in 1783, but recovered to the use both of his bodily and mental -faculties. A complication of asthma and dropsy put an end to his -existence, December 13, 1785. During his illness, his anxiety for a -protracted life was painfully intense: but his last hours are described -by the bystanders to have been calm, happy, and confident. He was -buried in Westminster Abbey. A statue to his memory is erected in -St. Paul’s Cathedral.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_152.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Monument to Dr. Johnson in St. Paul’s Cathedral.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_153fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />JEFFERSON.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved by A. Desnoyers.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span> -<img src='images/i_153.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>JEFFERSON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>From the American Revolution of 1776 we may date the commencement -of that struggle which has agitated and still agitates Europe -and the two Americas. By whatever words the character of this -struggle may be expressed,—whether under the name of popular -rights against exclusive privileges, or self-government or the government -of the people, against absolute government or the government of -a few, or by any other terms more or less appropriate,—the contest is -still going on, openly and actively in those called free governments, -silently and languidly in those where the sovereign power is opposed -to the extension or introduction of the new doctrines. The contest is -between progress (not here considered whether as right or wrong) -and standing still; between change, without which there cannot be -improvement, and a desire to resist all change, which can hardly -end in keeping things stationary, but almost necessarily leads to a -backward movement. The contest is not only for the practical application -of principles in government, which are vigorously maintained -by the one party, and either not denied or faintly opposed -by the arguments of the other; but also for the free expression and -publication of all opinions on all subjects affecting the moral and political -condition of society.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is no individual, either in America or in Europe, who by his -actions and opinions has had a greater influence on this contest than -<span class='sc'>Thomas Jefferson</span>. During a long and laborious life, both in -official situations which gave him opportunities that his activity never -let slip, and in private life in his extensive correspondence and intercourse -with persons of all countries, he constantly, perseveringly, and -honestly maintained what he conceived to be the principle of pure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>republican institutions. In the ardour of youth, his zeal and energy -mainly contributed to animate his countrymen to declare their independence -on a foreign power. In his maturer age, when a member -of the General Administration, he struggled, and he struggled at one -time almost alone, against a monarchical and aristocratical faction, -to maintain the great principles of the Revolution, and develop the -doctrines of a pure unmixed popular government. His influence gave -to these doctrines a consistency, and a form, and a distinctness, which -the mass of the nation could easily seize and retain. He thus became -the head of a party in the United States, which, whether always -rightly appealing to his doctrines or not for the vindication of their -acts, still regards him as the father of their school and the expounder -of their principles. By his plain and unaffected manners, and the -freedom with which he expressed his opinions on all subjects, he -gave a practical example of that republican simplicity which he cultivated, -and of that free inquiry which he urged upon all. Such a -man must always have many friends and many enemies. From his -friends and admirers he has received, perhaps, not more praise than -those who believe in the truth of his doctrines and the purity of his -conduct are bound to bestow; by his enemies, both at home and -abroad, he has been blackened by every term of abuse that bigotry, -malice, and falsehood can invent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thomas Jefferson was born April 2, 1743, at Shadwell, now -in the county of Albemarle, in Virginia. He was educated at the -College of William and Mary, at Williamsburg, then the capital of -the colony, where, under Dr. Small, a native of Scotland, who was -then Professor of Mathematics in the College, he studied mathematics, -ethics, and other branches of knowledge. His education, owing to -the care of this excellent instructor and his own industry, must have -been of a superior kind. In addition to his general acquirements, he -made himself well acquainted with the best Greek and Latin writers, -and to the end of his long life retained his ability to read them. Mr. -Jefferson studied law under Mr. Wythe, then a lawyer of eminence. -He made his first appearance at the bar of the General Court in -1767, at the age of twenty-four, about two years after the misunderstanding -between Great Britain and the Colonies had commenced. -He practised for seven or eight years in the General Court, and was -gradually rising to the first rank as an accurate and able lawyer, -when he was called away to more important duties by the political -events that preceded the American Revolution. In 1769 he was -elected a member of the House of Burgesses for the County of Albemarle. -In the session of this spring the House unanimously came to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>resolutions in opposition to those which had been lately passed in -England by both Houses of Parliament on the affairs of Massachusetts. -This measure, which was accompanied with the declaration that the -right of laying taxes in Virginia was exclusively vested in its own -legislature, and others of a like tendency, induced the Governor, -Lord Botetourt, abruptly to dissolve the Assembly. The next day the -members met at the Raleigh Tavern, and entered into articles of -agreement, by which they bound themselves not to import or purchase -certain specified kinds of British merchandise, till the act of parliament -for raising a revenue in America was repealed; and they recommended -this agreement to be adopted by their constituents. Eighty-eight -members signed the agreement, among whom were George -Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and others, who afterwards took a -distinguished part in public affairs.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1773, on the meeting of the Virginia Assembly in the spring, -Mr. Jefferson was an active member in organizing the Standing -Committee of Correspondence and Inquiry, the main objects of which -were to procure early intelligence of the proceedings of the British -Parliament, and to maintain a constant communication among all the -Colonies. On the dissolution of the Assembly, in May 1774, by the -Governor, Lord Dunmore, eighty-nine members met at the Raleigh -Tavern, and, among other things, recommended the Committee of -Correspondence to communicate with the Committees in the other -colonies “on the expediency of appointing deputies for the several -colonies of British America, to meet in General Congress, at such -place annually as should be thought most convenient,” to consult on -their common interests. It was also forthwith agreed that the -members who might be elected under the writs at that time issuing -in the colony of Virginia, should meet in Convention at Williamsburg -on the 1st of August following, in order to appoint delegates to -the Congress, if such General Congress should be approved by the -other colonies. The Convention did meet, and thus formed the first -popular assembly in Virginia, uncontrolled by Governor or Council. -Mr. Jefferson, who was one of the deputies, prepared instructions for -the delegates who might be sent to the Congress. In his absence, -for illness prevented him from attending on this occasion, his instructions -were laid on the table for perusal, and were generally approved, -but thought too bold in the existing state of affairs. Still the Convention -printed them, in the form of a pamphlet, under the title of A -Summary View of the Rights of British America. The Convention -drew up another set of instructions, which, though not so strong as -Mr. Jefferson’s, expressed with great clearness the points at issue -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>between the colonies and the mother-country, and the grievances of -which the colonies had to complain. The General Congress, consisting -of fifty-five members, met at Philadelphia, September 4, 1774. -The disputes which had broken out between Lord Dunmore and the -Assembly of Virginia were continually increased by fresh causes of -mutual irritation. The Governor at last thought it prudent to remove -himself and his family into a British ship of war that was lying at -York in York River. His whole conduct during this period was feeble -and contemptible. His last acts from his head-quarters at Norfolk -were to annoy the inhabitants on the rivers and bays by a predatory -kind of warfare, to proclaim martial law in the colony, and to give -freedom to such of the slaves as would bear arms against their masters. -At last, after setting fire to Norfolk, he was obliged to take refuge in -his ships, and soon after to leave the country. Thus ended the colonial -government in Virginia.</p> - -<p class='c000'>June 21, 1775, Mr. Jefferson took his seat in the General Congress, -as one of the delegates from Virginia, and was appointed one of a -Committee for preparing a declaration of the cause of taking up -arms. A part of the address which he drew up was finally adopted, -and no doubt greatly contributed to bring about the more decisive -declaration of the following year. In 1776, Mr. Jefferson was again -a delegate to Congress, and one of a committee appointed to draw up -a Declaration of Independence. The committee was chosen in the -usual way, by ballot, and as Mr. Jefferson had received the greatest -number of votes, he was deputed by the other members to make the -draught. Before it was shown to the committee, a few verbal alterations -were made in it by Dr. Franklin and Mr. Adams. After being -curtailed about one-third, and with some slight alterations in the part -retained, it was agreed to by the House, July 4, and signed by all the -members present, except one. This instrument is too well known to -require any remarks. It has both merits and defects; but it possessed -one great quality. It served the purpose for which it was intended, -and its author had the satisfaction of seeing the mighty question -between the mother-country and the colonies referred to the decision -of the sword, the only alternative then left except unconditional and -disgraceful submission.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before their adjournment the Virginia Convention, July 5, had -elected Mr. Jefferson a delegate to Congress for another year; but he -declined the honour on various grounds, among which was his desire to -assist in reforming the laws of Virginia, under the New Constitution, -which had just been adopted. Congress also marked their sense of -his services by appointing him joint envoy to France, with Dr. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>Franklin and Silas Deane; but domestic considerations induced him -to decline this honour also.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From this time Mr. Jefferson’s public life is interwoven with the -history of his native state, and with that of the United States. During -the war, he took no part in military movements. He was governor of -Virginia in part of 1779, 1780, and part of 1781, in which year the -State suffered considerably from the incursions of Lord Cornwallis; -and at the close of his period of office, he narrowly escaped being taken -prisoner by Colonel Tarleton, in his own house at Monticello.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In May, 1784, Mr. Jefferson was appointed by Congress minister -to France; where he remained five years, during which he was actively -employed in promoting the general interests of his country, and in -keeping up an extensive correspondence. His industry and methodical -habits enabled him to devote a great deal of his time to the examination -of everything that could in any way prove beneficial to his countrymen. -His correspondence during this period shows the variety of his pursuits, -his unwearied industry, and unbounded zeal for every improvement -that could benefit the social condition of man. His remarks on -the political troubles of France, of which he witnessed the beginning, -are characterized by his usual closeness of observation, and his sanguine -anticipations of the benefit that would result from the people -being called to participate in the exercise of the sovereign power. -After all that has been written on the subject, they will still be -read with interest.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He returned to America at the close of 1789, and early in the next -year he was appointed Secretary of State by the President, General -Washington. He held this office till the end of 1793, when he resigned. -From 1793 to 1797 he lived in retirement. In 1797 he was -elected Vice-President of the United States; and in 1801 was chosen -President, in place of Mr. Adams, by the House of Representatives, -on whom the election devolved in consequence of the equal division -of the electors’ votes between Mr. Jefferson and Colonel Burr. He -was elected a second time, and after fulfilling his term of eight years -retired to his favourite residence at Monticello, near the centre of the -State of Virginia.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On Mr. Jefferson’s retirement from the Presidency of the United -States he received, in the form of a farewell address, the thanks of the -General Assembly of his native State, Feb. 9, 1809. After briefly -recapitulating the leading measures of his administration, most of -which faction itself must allow were eminently calculated to promote -the happiness of the nation, and secure those republican principles on -which the constitution was founded, the General Assembly conclude -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>with bearing testimony to his unvarying singleness of purpose, from -the days of his youth when he resisted the Governor Dunmore, to his -retirement from the highest honours which the united nation could -bestow. This address, which, in point of style, is more free from objection -than most American productions of the same class, is such as few -men on retiring from power have received, and it was offered for services -which few have performed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this document, among the advantages for which the nation was -indebted to Mr. Jefferson’s administration, the acquisition of Louisiana -and with it the free navigation of the Mississippi, are not forgotten. -Mr. Jefferson early saw the importance of the United States possessing -this great outlet for the commerce of the Western States, and strongly -urged it while he was Secretary of State under General Washington. -The object was accomplished in 1803, when Louisiana was purchased -from the French, for 15,000,000 dollars.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Jefferson himself thought that the most important service which -he ever rendered to his country, was his opposition to the federal -party during the presidency of Mr. Adams, while he was himself -Vice-President of the United States. Himself in the Senate, and -Mr. Gallatin in the House of Representatives, had alone to sustain -the brunt of the battle, and to keep the Republican party together. -The re-action that ensued, drove Mr. Adams from his office, and -placed Mr. Jefferson there. Mr. Jefferson’s administration was characterized -by a zealous and unwearied activity in the promotion of all -those measures which he believed to be for the general welfare. He -never allowed considerations of relationship or friendship to bias him -in the selection of proper persons for offices; he always found, as he -says, that there were better men for every place than any of his own -connexions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last years of his life, though spent in retirement, were not -wasted in inactivity. He continued his habits of early rising and -constant occupation: he maintained a very extensive correspondence -with all parts of the world, received at his table a great number of -visitors, and was actively engaged in the foundation and direction of -the University of Virginia, which was established by the State of Virginia, -near the village of Charlottesville, a few miles from Monticello.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The last letter in Mr. Jefferson’s published correspondence, and it -is probably the last that he wrote, is in reply to Mr. Weightman of -Washington, on behalf of the citizens of Washington who had -invited Mr. Jefferson to the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary -of American Independence. His health would not permit him to -accept the invitation: his reply is characteristic. The zeal for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>republican institutions which had animated him during a long life -still glows warm and fresh in the letter of a man of the age of fourscore -and three, suffering under a painful malady. His firm conviction -in the truth of those principles which he had maintained through -life, appears stronger as he approaches the termination of his career. -He died July 4, 1826, the day of the celebration, just half a century -after that on which the instrument was signed. Mr. Adams died on -the same day. Mr. Jefferson is buried in the grounds near his own -house, with a simple inscription recording him as the author of the -Declaration of Independence, and the Act for Religious Toleration; -and as the Rector of the University of Virginia. The fact of his -having been President of the United States is not mentioned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The latter days of Mr. Jefferson were embittered by pecuniary -difficulties, which were owing, no doubt, in some measure to the -neglect of his estates during his long absence on the public service; -and in a great degree to an obligation which he incurred to pay a -friend’s debts (see an excellent letter to Mr. Madison, Feb. 17, 1826).</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the 4th vol. of his Memoirs, &c., p. 439, are printed his -Thoughts on Lotteries, which were written at the time when he was -making his application to the Legislature of Virginia for permission -to sell his property by lottery, in order to pay his debts and make -some provision for his family. The general arguments in defence of -lotteries are characterized by Mr. Jefferson’s usual felicity of expression -and ingenuity in argument, and they are also in like manner -pervaded by the fallacies which are involved in many of his political -and moral speculations. But this paper has merits which entitle it to -particular attention. It contains a brief recapitulation of his services; -and is in fact the epitome of the life of a man who for sixty years was -actively and usefully employed for his country. “I came,” he says, -“of age in 1764, and was soon put into the nomination of justices of -the county in which I live, and at the first election following I became -one of its representatives in the legislature;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“I was thence sent to the old Congress;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Then employed two years with Mr. Pendleton and Wythe, on -the revisal and reduction to a single code of the whole body of the -British Statutes, the acts of our Assembly, and certain parts of the -Common Law;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Then elected Governor;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Next to the legislature, and to Congress again;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Sent to Europe as Minister Plenipotentiary;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Appointed Secretary of State to the new government;</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Elected Vice-President and President;</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>“And lastly, a Visitor and Rector of the University of Virginia. -In these different offices, with scarcely any interval between them, -I have been in the public service now sixty-one years, and during the -far greater part of that time in foreign countries, or in other states.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>This is the outline of Mr Jefferson’s public life: to fill it up would -be to write the history of the United States, from the troubles which -preceded the declaration of Independence, to Mr. Jefferson’s retirement -from the Presidency in 1809.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The paper from which we have already made one extract, presents -us with his services, in another point of view, still more -interesting. It is an epitome of those great measures which were due -mainly or entirely to his firm resolution, unwearied industry, and -singleness of mind, in his pursuit of objects which he believed essential -to the stability and happiness of his country.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“If legislative services are worth mentioning, and the stamp of -liberality and equality, which was necessary to be impressed on our -laws in the first crisis of our birth as a nation, was of any value, they -will find that the leading and most important laws of that day were -prepared by myself, and carried chiefly by my efforts; supported, indeed, -by able and faithful coadjutors from the ranks of the House, very -effective as seconds, but who would not have taken the field as leaders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The prohibition of the further importation of slaves was the first -of these measures in time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“This was followed by the abolition of entails, which broke up the -hereditary and high-handed aristocracy, which by accumulating -immense masses of property in single lines of families, had divided -our country into two distinct orders, of nobles and plebeians.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“But further to complete the equality among our citizens, so essential -to the maintenance of republican government, it was necessary to -abolish the principle of primogeniture. I drew the law of descents, -giving equal inheritance to sons and daughters, which made a part of -the revised code.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The attack on the establishment of a dominant religion was first -made by myself. It could be carried at first only by a suspension of -salaries for one year, by battling it again at the next session for -another year, and so from year to year, until the public mind was -ripened for the bill for establishing religious freedom, which I had -prepared for the revised code also. This was at length established -permanently, and by the efforts of Mr. Madison, being myself in -Europe at the time that work was brought forward.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“To these particular services, I think I might add the establishment -of our University, as principally my work, acknowledging at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>same time, as I do, the great assistance received from my able colleagues -of the Visitation. But my residence in the vicinity threw -of course on me the chief burden of the enterprise, well as of the -buildings, as of the general organization and care of the whole. The -effect of this institution on the future fame, fortune, and prosperity of -our country, can as yet be seen but at a distance. That institution -is now qualified to raise its youth to an order of science unequalled in -any other state; and this superiority will be the greater from the free -range of mind encouraged there, and the restraint imposed at other -seminaries by the shackles of a domineering hierarchy, and a bigoted -adhesion to ancient habits.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Mr. Jefferson was a member of the Colonial Legislature, he -made an effort for the emancipation of slaves; but all proposals of -that kind, as well as to stop the importation of slaves, were discouraged -during the colonial government. The importation of slaves into -Virginia, whether by sea or land, was stopped in 1778, in the third -year of the Commonwealth, by a bill brought in by Mr. Jefferson, -which passed without opposition, and as Mr. Jefferson observes, -“stopped the increase of the evil by importation, leaving to future -efforts its final eradication<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c011'><sup>[4]</sup></a>.” The Act for the Abolition of Entails -was not carried without some opposition, and that for the abolition of -the Established Anglican Church was not finally carried till 1778, -though before the Revolution the majority of the people had become -dissenters from the Church. The reason of the difficulty lay in the -majority of the legislature being churchmen.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span>Act in Hening’s Statutes at Large, vol ix., p. 471. Act declaring tenants of lands, -or slaves in taille, to hold the same in fee simple. Hening, ix., p. 226.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Jefferson married, in 1772, Martha Skelton, the widow of -Bathurst Skelton. She died ten years after their marriage. One -daughter, and a numerous family of grandchildren and great grandchildren, -survived him. He was the author of Notes on Virginia, -which have been several times printed; but his reputation as a -writer rests on his official papers and correspondence, of which -latter, we believe, that which is published forms only a part of what he -left behind him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The authorities here used are Jefferson’s Memoirs, Correspondence, -&c., London, 1829, and part of the forthcoming Life of Jefferson, by -Professor Tucker, of the University of Virginia. An article in the -Journal of Education, No. 7, by Professor Tucker, contains a full -account of the University of Virginia. To these sources we add, as -evidence for some opinions expressed, some personal knowledge of Mr. -Jefferson during the last two years of his life.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span> -<img src='images/i_162.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>WILBERFORCE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>William Wilberforce, whose name a heartfelt, enlightened, and -unwearied philanthropy, directing talents of the highest order, has enrolled -among those of the most illustrious benefactors of mankind, was -born August 24, 1759, in Hull, where his ancestors had been long -and successfully engaged in trade. By his father’s death he was -left an orphan at an early age. He received the chief part of his education -at the grammar school of Pocklington, in Yorkshire, and at St. -John’s College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow-commoner -about 1776 or 1777. When just of age, and apparently before taking -his B.A. degree, he was returned for his native town at the general -election of 1780. In 1784 he was returned again; but being also -chosen member for Yorkshire, he elected to sit for that great county, -which he continued to represent until the year 1812, during six -successive parliaments. From 1812 to 1825, when he retired from -parliament, he was returned by Lord Calthorpe for the borough of -Bramber. His politics were in general those of Mr. Pitt’s party, -and his first prominent appearance was in 1783, in opposition to -Mr. Fox’s India Bill. In 1786 he introduced and carried through -the Commons a bill for the amendment of our criminal code, which -was roughly handled by the Lord Chancellor Thurlow, and rejected -in the House of Lords without a division.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_162fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />WILBERFORCE.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by George Richmond.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>At the time when Mr. Wilberforce was rising into manhood, the -iniquity of the Slave Trade had engaged in a slight degree the attention -of the public. To the Quakers belongs the high honour of having -taken the lead in denouncing that unjust and unchristian traffic. At -the beginning of the eighteenth century, during the life of Penn, the -Quakers of Pennsylvania passed a censure upon it, and from time to -time the Society of Friends expressed their disapprobation of the deportation -of negroes, until in 1761 they completed their good work by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>a resolution to disown all such as continued to be engaged in it. Occasionally -the question was brought before magistrates, whether a -slave became entitled to his liberty upon landing in England. In -1765 Granville Sharp came forward as the protector of a negro, who, -having been abandoned and cast upon the world in disease and misery -by his owner, was healed and assisted through the charity of Mr. -Sharp’s brother. Recovering his value with his health, he was claimed -and seized by his master, and would have been shipped to the colonies, -as many Africans were, but for the prompt and resolute interference -of Mr. Sharp. In several similar cases the same gentleman came -forward successfully: but the general question was not determined, or -even argued, until 1772, when the celebrated case of the negro Somerset -was brought before the Court of King’s Bench, which adjudged, -after a deliberate hearing, that in England the right of the master -over the slave could not be maintained. The general question was -afterwards, in 1778, decided still more absolutely by the Scotch Courts, -in the case of Wedderburn <em>v.</em> Knight. In 1783 an event occurred -well qualified to rouse the feelings of the nation, and call its attention -to the atrocities of which the Slave Trade was the cause and pretext. -An action was brought by certain underwriters against the owners of -the ship Zong, on the ground that the captain had caused 132 weak, -sickly slaves to be thrown overboard, for the purpose of claiming their -value, for which the plaintiffs would not have been liable if the cargo -had died a natural death. The fact of the drowning was admitted, -and defended on the plea that want of water had rendered it necessary; -though it appeared that the crew had not been put upon short allowance. -It now seems incredible that no criminal proceeding should -have been instituted against the perpetrators of this wholesale murder.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1785 the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge proposed, as the subject -for the Bachelor’s Prize Essay, the question, Is it allowable to enslave -men without their consent? Thomas Clarkson, who had -gained the prize in the preceding year, again became a candidate. -Conceiving that the thesis, though couched in general terms, had an -especial reference to the African Slave Trade, he went to London to -make inquiries on the subject. Investigation brought under his view -a mass of cruelties and abominations, which engrossed his thoughts and -shocked his imagination. By night and day they haunted him; and -he has described in lively colours the intense pain which this composition, -undertaken solely in the spirit of honourable rivalry, inflicted on -him. He gained the prize, but found it impossible to discard the -subject from his thoughts. In the succeeding autumn, after great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>struggles of mind, he resolved to give up his plan for entering the -Church, and devoted time, health and substance (to use his own words) -to “seeing these calamities to an end.” In sketching the progress of -this great measure, the name of Wilberforce alone will be presented -to view; and it is our duty therefore, in the first place, to make honourable -mention of him who roused Wilberforce in the cause, and whose -athletic vigour and indomitable perseverance surmounted danger, -difficulties, fatigues, and discouragements, which few men could have -endured, in the first great object of collecting evidence of the cruelties -habitually perpetrated in the Slave Trade.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the first stage of his proceedings, Mr. Clarkson, in the course of -his application to members of Parliament, called on Mr. Wilberforce, -who stated, that “the subject had often employed his thoughts, and -was near his heart.” He inquired into the authorities for the statements -laid before him, and became, not only convinced of, but impressed -with, the paramount duty of abolishing so hateful a traffic. -Occasional meetings of those who were alike interested were held at -his house; and in May, 1787, a committee was formed, of which -Wilberforce became the Parliamentary leader. Early in 1788 he -gave notice of his intention to bring the subject before the House: -but owing to his severe indisposition that task was ultimately undertaken -by Mr. Pitt, who moved and carried a resolution, pledging the -House in the ensuing session to enter on the consideration of the subject. -Accordingly, May 12, 1789, Mr. Wilberforce moved a series -of resolutions, founded on a report of the Privy Council, exposing the -iniquity and cruelty of the traffic in slaves, the mortality which it occasioned -among white as well as black men, and the neglect of health -and morals by which the natural increase of the race in our West -India islands was checked; and concluding with a declaration, that -if the causes were removed by which that increase was checked, no -considerable inconvenience would result from discontinuing the importation -of African slaves. Burke, Pitt, and Fox supported the -resolutions. Mr. Wilberforce’s speech was distinguished by eloquence -and earnestness, and by its unanswerable appeals to the first principles -of justice and religion. The consideration of the subject was -ultimately adjourned to the following session. In that, and in two -subsequent sessions, the motions were renewed, and the effect of pressing -such a subject upon the attention of the country was to open the -eyes of many who would willingly have kept them closed, yet could -not deny the existence of the evils so forced on their view. In 1792 -Mr. Wilberforce’s motion for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>met by a proposal to insert in it the word “gradually;” and in pursuance -of the same policy, Mr. Dundas introduced a bill to provide for -its discontinuance in 1800. The date was altered to 1796, and in that -state the bill passed the Commons, but was stopped in the Upper -House by a proposal to hear evidence upon it. Mr. Wilberforce annually -renewed his efforts, and brought every new argument to bear -upon the question, which new discoveries, or the events of the times, -produced. In 1799 the friends of the measure resolved on letting it -repose for a while, and for five years Mr. Wilberforce contented himself -with moving for certain papers; but he took an opportunity of -assuring the House that he had not grown cool in the cause, and that -he would renew the discussion in a future session. On the 30th of -May, 1804, he once more moved for leave to bring in his bill for the -Abolition of the Slave Trade, in a speech of great eloquence and effect. -He took the opportunity of making a powerful appeal to the Irish -members, before whom, in consequence of the Union, this question was -now for the first time brought, and the greater part of whom supported -it. The division showed a majority of 124 to 49 in his favour; and -the bill was carried through the Commons, but was again postponed -in the House of Lords. In 1805 he renewed his motion, but on this -occasion it was lost in the Commons by over-security among the -friends of the measure. But when Mr. Fox and Lord Grenville took -office in 1806, the Abolition was brought forward by the ministers, -most of whom supported it, though it was not made a government -question in consequence of several members of the cabinet opposing it. -The Attorney General (Sir A. Pigott) brought in a bill which was -passed into a law, prohibiting the Slave Trade in the conquered colonies, -and excluding British subjects from engaging in the foreign -Slave Trade; and Mr. Fox, at Mr. Wilberforce’s special request, introduced -a resolution pledging the House to take the earliest measures -for effectually abolishing the whole Slave Trade: this resolution was -carried by a majority of 114 to 15; and January 2, 1807, Lord Grenville -brought forward a bill for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, in the -House of Lords, which passed safely through both Houses of Parliament. -As however the King was believed to be unfriendly to the -measure, some alarm was felt by its friends, lest its fate might still be -affected by the dismissal of the ministers, which had been determined -upon. Those fears were groundless; for though they received orders -to deliver up the seals of their offices on the 25th of March, the -royal assent was given by commission by the Lord Chancellor Erskine -on the same day; and thus the last act of the administration was -to conclude a contest, maintained by prejudice and interest during -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>twenty years, for the support of what Mr. Pitt denominated “the -greatest practical evil that ever afflicted the human race.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among other testimonies to Mr. Wilberforce’s merits, we are not -inclined to omit that of Sir James Mackintosh, who in his journal, -May 23, 1808, speaks thus of Wilberforce on the “Abolition.” This -refers to a pamphlet on the Slave Trade which Mr. Wilberforce had -published in 1806. “Almost as much enchanted by Mr. Wilberforce’s -book as by his conduct. He is the very model of a reformer. -Ardent without turbulence, mild without timidity or coolness, neither -yielding to difficulties, nor disturbed or exasperated by them; patient -and meek, yet intrepid; persisting for twenty years through good -report and evil report; just and charitable even to his most malignant -enemies; unwearied in every experiment to disarm the prejudices of -his more rational and disinterested opponents, and supporting the zeal, -without dangerously exciting the passions, of his adherents.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The rest of Mr. Wilberforce’s parliamentary conduct was consistent -with his behaviour on this question. In debates chiefly political he -rarely took a forward part: but where religion and morals were directly -concerned, points on which few cared to interfere, and where a -leader was wanted, he never shrunk from the advocacy of his opinions. -He was a supporter of Catholic Emancipation and Parliamentary -Reform; he condemned the encouragement of gambling, in the shape -of lotteries established by Government; he insisted on the cruelty of -employing boys of tender age as chimney sweepers; he attempted to -procure a legislative enactment against duelling, after the hostile meeting -between Pitt and Tierney; and on the renewal of the East India -Company’s charter in 1816, he gave his zealous support to the propagation -of Christianity in Hindostan, in opposition to those who, as has -been more recently done in the West Indies, represented the employment -of missionaries to be inconsistent with the preservation of our -empire. It is encouraging to observe, that with the exception of the -one levelled against duelling, all these measures, however violently -opposed and unfairly censured, have been carried in a more or less -perfect form.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As an author, Mr. Wilberforce’s claim to notice is chiefly derived -from his treatise entitled A Practical View of the prevailing religious -system of professing Christians in the higher and middle classes in this -country, contrasted with Real Christianity. The object of it was to -show that the standard of life generally adopted by those classes, not -only fell short of, but was inconsistent with, the doctrines of the -Gospel. It has justly been applauded as a work of no common courage, -not from the asperity of its censures, for it breathes throughout a spirit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>of gentleness and love, but on the joint consideration of the unpopularity -of the subject and the writer’s position. The Bishop of Calcutta, in -his introductory essay, justly observes, that “the author in attempting -it risked every thing dear to a public man and a politician, as such—consideration, -weight, ambition, reputation.” And Scott, the divine, -one of the most fearless and ardent of men, viewed the matter in the -same light, for he wrote, “Taken in all its probable effects, I do sincerely -think such a stand for vital Christianity has not been made -in my memory. He has come out beyond my expectations.” Of -a work so generally known we shall not describe the tendency more -at large. It is said to have gone through about twenty editions in -Britain, since the publication in 1797, and more in America; and to -have been translated into most European languages.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the discharge of his parliamentary duties Mr. Wilberforce -was punctual and active beyond his apparent strength: and those -who further recollect his diligent attendance on a vast variety of -public meetings and committees connected with religious and charitable -purposes, will wonder how a frame naturally weak should -so long have endured the wear of such exertion. In 1788, when his -illness was a matter of deep concern to the Abolitionists, Dr. -Warren said that he had not stamina to last a fortnight. No doubt -his bodily powers were greatly aided by the placid and happy frame -of mind which he habitually enjoyed: but it is important to relate -his own opinion, as delivered by an ear-witness, on the physical -benefits which he derived from a strict abstinence from temporal -affairs on Sundays. “I have often heard him assert that he never -could have sustained the labour and stretch of mind required in his -early political life, if it had not been for the rest of his Sabbath: and -that he could name several of his contemporaries in the vortex of -political cares, whose minds had actually given way under the stress -of intellectual labour, so as to bring on a premature death, or the -still more dreadful catastrophe of insanity and suicide, who, humanly -speaking, might have been preserved in health, if they would but -conscientiously have observed the Sabbath.” (Venn’s Sermon.)</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1797 Mr. Wilberforce married Miss Spooner, daughter of an -eminent banker at Birmingham. Four sons survive him. He died, -after a gradual decline, July 29, 1833, in Cadogan Place. He directed -that his funeral should be conducted without the smallest pomp; but his -orders were disregarded in compliance with a requisition addressed to -his relatives by many of the most distinguished men of all parties, and -couched in the following terms:—“We, the undersigned Members of -both Houses of Parliament, being anxious, upon public grounds, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>show our respect for the memory of the late William Wilberforce, -and being also satisfied that public honours can never be more fitly -bestowed than upon such benefactors of mankind, earnestly request -that he may be buried in Westminster Abbey, and that we, and -others who may agree with us in these sentiments, may have permission -to attend his funeral.” The attendance of both Houses was -numerous. Mr. Wilberforce was interred within a few yards of his -great contemporaries Pitt, Fox, and Canning.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among the other honours paid to his memory may be mentioned the -York meeting, held October 3, 1833, at which it was resolved to -erect a public memorial in testimony of the high estimation in which -Mr. Wilberforce’s character and services were held by men of all -parties: and further, “that it is advisable (if the sum raised be adequate) -to found a benevolent institution, of a useful description, in -this country, and to put up a tablet to the memory of Mr. Wilberforce; -but should the subscriptions be insufficient to accomplish such -an object, that they should be applied to the erection of a monument.” -An asylum for the indigent blind has in consequence been -founded. At Hull a monument has likewise been erected to his -memory by public subscription; and a statue by Joseph is about to be -placed in Westminster Abbey, also by subscription, the surplus of the -fund thus raised being reserved for founding an institution congenial -to his principles, as soon as it shall be sufficient for the purpose.</p> - -<p class='c000'>No fitting life of Mr. Wilberforce has yet appeared. A short -memoir, from the pen of a friend, appeared in the Christian Advocate, -August 5, 1833; which we believe may be relied on for accuracy, and -which seems to form the basis of other memoirs in the periodical publications. -The funeral sermons of Messrs. Brown, Scott, and Venn -contain some interesting anecdotes, which are told on good authority.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_168.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_169fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />BLACK.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Ja<sup>s</sup>. Heath, after a Picture by Raeburn.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span> -<img src='images/i_169.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>DR BLACK.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Joseph Black was born in 1728, near Bourdeaux in France, where -his father, a native of Ireland, but of Scottish extraction, who was engaged -in the wine trade, then resided. In 1740 young Black was -sent home to receive the rudiments of education at a grammar-school -in Belfast. Thence he went, in 1746, to Glasgow, and having chosen -the profession of medicine, proceeded in that university with the preliminary -studies.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At that period, Dr. Cullen had just entered on the then untrodden -paths of philosophical chemistry in his lectures, at which Black was -an assiduous attendant. He soon formed an intimacy with his -instructor, with whom he associated himself in the toils of the laboratory. -It was here that he laid the foundation of his future attainments -and discoveries, in an accurate and practical knowledge of the -science as far as it then reached, and above all in the cultivation of -habits of precise and cautious inductive investigation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1750 he removed to Edinburgh to complete his medical course; -and it was in connexion with the important inquiries belonging to that -department that he made his first discoveries in chemistry.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His first object of research was one which possessed high medical -as well as chemical interest:—the nature and properties of magnesia. -This substance had hitherto been confounded with lime: Dr. Black -first showed it to be characterized by peculiar properties which demonstrate -its distinct nature as a separate species of earth. The -second point of his investigation was the difference between mild -and caustic alkalis, between limestone and quick-lime, common and -calcined magnesia, &c. The whole of this subject was at that period -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>involved in complete obscurity. Dr. Black showed by simple and -decisive experiments the real condition of these substances, and indicated -the general law by which they are governed, viz.:—that the -difference consists merely in the combination of the simple earth or -alkali with a peculiar air, which is driven off by heat, and which was -called <em>fixed air</em> by him, and <em>carbonic acid gas</em> by later chemists. -He did not however prosecute the inquiry into the nature and properties -of this gas. This discovery supplied the foundation on which all subsequent -researches and theories have been built. He gave an account -of these investigations in an inaugural dissertation, composed as an -exercise on taking his Doctor’s degree, and in a paper entitled Experiments -on Magnesia Alba, &c., first published in the Edinburgh -Physical and Literary Essays in 1755.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was almost immediately after the publication of these researches -that Dr. Cullen was elected Professor of Chemistry at Edinburgh. -The reputation which Dr. Black had now acquired pointed him out as -the proper person to succeed to the vacant chair at Glasgow, to which -he was accordingly appointed in 1756. His department included -chemistry and medicine; and he also practised as a physician. His -lectures soon became highly popular from the clearness of his style -and method, and the beauty and simplicity of his experimental -illustrations. He did not however prosecute his inquiries, in that particular -department of chemistry, in which he had already had so much -success. But in another branch of science his power of original -research was signally displayed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The relations of bodies to heat, especially in connexion with the -changes of state they undergo, was a subject which had hitherto excited -hardly any notice; and though some effects were such as might -have been supposed obvious, still no one had as yet reasoned on them, -or understood their nature.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is a characteristic of great genius to find important matter of -reflection in objects which the vulgar pass by as too common to -excite notice, and Dr. Black having remarked some very common -facts with regard to heat, was conducted to those great discoveries on -which his celebrity rests:—that of <em>latent heat</em>, and that of <em>specific -heat</em>; which last term is, in fact, only another mode of expressing the -same principle. This great truth, the foundation of all our determinate -ideas of the causes of those diversities of physical condition which -the same mass of matter is capable of assuming, seems to have suggested -itself to the mind of the discoverer about the year 1757.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the invention of the thermometer, it had been among the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>earliest facts observed that changes in the state of bodies, such as -boiling, freezing, melting, &c., take place always at certain fixed -temperatures as indicated by the thermometer; and at a different -degree of the scale, for each different substance. And several of -these remarkable points came by custom to be marked upon the thermometric -scale.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When however it was said that water always boiled at 212° of -Fahrenheit, or froze at 32°, &c., it was not meant that the mass -would boil or freeze the instant the thermometer reached that point. -It was supposed that a certain increase or diminution of temperature -(as the case might be) was necessary for the production of the effect -beyond that precise point; though that point marked, as it were, the -commencement of the process. The views generally entertained on -this subject were however so vague, that it is difficult to make out -precisely what was imagined to take place; but it seems to have been -supposed, that a very slight accession or loss of heat was sufficient -completely to accomplish the change.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such were the notions which prevailed on the subject prior to the -commencement of Dr. Black’s researches. No one advanced, or -seemed to have any desire to advance, a step nearer to the truth: yet -the whole was a mere question of fact, and a fact of the most obvious -nature. In this we cannot fail to observe one of those instructive -instances, which the history of science often brings before us, of the -unaccountable blindness, even of inquiring minds, to truths constantly -before their eyes, or, if perceived, to the importance of their being -thoroughly examined. A very little consideration ought to have -shown any observer, that the gain or loss of heat in the cases in -question is by no means slight or trifling in amount: yet no one -thought of this till Dr. Black pointed it out; and no one reasoned upon -it, or perceived its bearing, till that philosopher showed the curious -inference to be drawn from it. The case was simply this:—Two -equal vessels, one full of water just at the freezing temperature, the -other of actual ice, are brought into a warm room. In a short time -the water acquires the temperature of the room. Exactly the same -quantity of heat has been communicated to the vessel of ice; yet, at -the end of the same time, it is found to retain precisely the same -temperature as at first. A considerable part of it indeed has been -melted, but it may take several hours more to melt the whole. Until -that change is completed, the temperature does not vary a single degree. -As soon as all the ice is liquefied, and not before, the temperature -of the mass begins to rise, and proceeds to increase, from this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>time, as rapidly as that of the water in the other vessel did before, until -it acquires the temperature of the room.</p> - -<p class='c000'>What then, Dr. Black enquired, becomes of the heat which has -been all along given to the vessel of ice? Heat has been communicated -to it as well as to the other vessel; yet it has not been employed -in raising the temperature, but in some way has been expended in -converting the ice into water. It is but this simple fact otherwise -stated, when we say that the heat so imparted has <em>disappeared</em> as heat -of temperature; but may it not have been destroyed or annihilated? -To reply to this question we have only to consider that the same vessel -of water, cooled nearly to the freezing point, and then exposed to a -much greater degree of cold, must, by the same rule, continue parting -with its excess of temperature above that of the colder bodies around -it. Yet a thermometer immersed in it continues invariably at 32° till -the whole has become ice; it then will sink to the lower temperature, -but not before. Thus there must be within it a continued supply of -<em>heat</em> in order to keep it up to 32° all the time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Is not this a sufficient answer to the question just proposed? -Adopt any theory you please respecting the nature of heat: suppose a -material substance, or conceive an effect, or quality, or a series of -vibrations; in any case, what is apparently lost in the former case is -regained in the latter. Without sacrifice of accuracy we may affirm, -in any sense, that the heat which had disappeared in the process of -thawing has re-appeared in the process of congealing. Moreover, the -most exact thermometric observations showed the <em>amount</em> in the two -cases to be the same. Thus, without reference to any particular -theory of the nature of heat, Dr. Black was justified in asserting that -a certain portion of heat becomes <em>latent</em> in the water; and that it -owes its fluid state to this latent heat.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have here referred only to one class of these phenomena; to -one particular application of the general law. Similar results take -place when water boils: the boiler receives as much heat from the fire -during the time requisite to raise it to 212° as it does during the next -equal portion of time; but its temperature (in an open vessel) will -not rise beyond that point. Here then again a quantity of heat has -disappeared; but the water is converted into vapour. Collect the -vapour in a cold receiver; it produces a high degree of heat, and is -re-condensed into the form of water.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The heat then, whatever it be, Dr. Black inferred, is latent in the -steam. It is not destroyed; it disappears as temperature, but under -other circumstances it can be made to re-appear: it is therefore merely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>concealed, or dormant for the time; and no term can be so proper to -describe its condition as <em>latent heat</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Analogous facts are presented by all other bodies which have been -subjected to examination. Whenever a change of state from the -aëriform to the liquid, or from the solid to the liquid takes place, -a corresponding evolution or absorption of heat accompanies it. -Every research of experimenters on this subject, since Dr. Black, has -contributed fresh instances confirming the universality of this great -law of nature.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A solid body then requires a certain portion of heat to be thrown -into it, in order to melt, or convert it into a liquid: and the liquid -again requires a similar supply to evaporate it into steam, or convert it -into an elastic fluid state; and this portion of heat produces no influence -on the temperature of the body. The reverse is true of the reverse -processes. The quantity of heat so absorbed or given out is -different in different bodies.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Not only indeed is this the case in these changes of state, but it -is also the case in the simple instance of mere changes in the temperature -of bodies; different bodies require different degrees of heat to -be communicated, or thrown into them, in order to produce the same -increase of sensible temperature. This was the other great result to -which we referred at first as the discovery of Dr. Black: he designated -this peculiarity in bodies their <em>capacity for heat</em>; a term sufficiently -expressive, but which is now more usually exchanged for the -term <em>specific heat</em>. The establishment of the accurate values of -this capacity or specific heat, in a number of different bodies, has -afforded a wide field of research for subsequent experiments. It has -been sometimes said that to Dr. Black’s discovery of latent heat we owe -the steam-engine. This is, we think, a mistaken view of the matter. -That heat will generate steam, and cold condense it, are facts that -were well known, independently of the doctrine of latent heat; though -that doctrine undoubtedly gives the explanation of them. The knowledge -of these facts might therefore have been practically applied in -the construction of the steam-engine, had Dr. Black’s discovery never -been made. It is at the same time perfectly true, that this theory -supplies us with accurate data dependent on the quantity of heat -necessary to be communicated, on which calculation must proceed: -and it is on the basis of such exact investigation, that the great improvements -in the application of steam have been brought about.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To return however to our narrative: though, as we have said, the -leading ideas of these discoveries had occurred to the author probably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>about the year 1757, yet it was not till a few years afterwards that he -had fully made out his theory. The discovery of specific heat was -announced in 1760; and that of latent heat, with all the details of its -experimental proof, was laid before a literary society in Glasgow, in a -paper read April 23, 1762. After this period a full account of both -subjects was regularly introduced by the author into his courses of -lectures. He did not himself follow out the train of experimental -research to which he had opened the way, but his friends and disciples -entered largely upon the investigation of those valuable data, the numerical -values expressing the quantities of latent heat and specific heat -belonging to different substances.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1766, Dr. Cullen having been promoted to the chair of medicine, -Dr. Black, again treading in the steps of his revered friend and instructor, -was called from Glasgow to the professorship of chemistry at -Edinburgh. He was thus placed in a more conspicuous position, -and the fame of the Edinburgh school was not a little raised by his -accession to it. Students flocked from all quarters in increasing -numbers, and Dr. Black now devoted himself entirely to perfecting his -chemical lectures.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In reference to this period, it has been sometimes remarked as singular, -that while chemical science was beginning to make those rapid -strides by which its modern advance has been so much accelerated, -Dr. Black should have been contented to go on merely as an able expositor -and illustrator of what others were doing, without himself taking -any share in their labours. Perhaps it might be difficult to assign -any better reasons for this conduct than are to be found in the peculiar -disposition of the individual, though it has been alleged that he was -actuated by a dread of criticism; this, indeed, can only be regarded as -itself an indication of a morbid sensitiveness of mind, of which, unhappily, -we have other instances in individuals of the highest philosophical -genius; and which has probably, in more than one instance, -deprived the world of services which would have been invaluable in -the cause of science. Be this as it may, Dr. Black, though he continued -by constant revisions and additions to make his lectures amply -keep pace with the discoveries of the day, yet himself produced during -this period only two papers, and those of minor importance: one -appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1774, in which he -assigned the reason why water which has been boiled freezes more -easily than that which has not, viz., the expulsion of the air: another -was inserted in the second volume of the Edinburgh Transactions, -on the analysis of the water from the Geysers of Iceland.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>It appears from an anecdote related on good authority, (see Edinburgh -Encyclopædia, article, Dr. Black) that so early as 1766, when -the low specific gravity of hydrogen as discovered by Mr. Cavendish -had been announced, the idea of employing it for balloons occurred to -Dr. Black; and that he actually exhibited a small one, to the extreme -astonishment of a party of friends. It was not till 1782 Montgolfier -claimed the merit of originating this idea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Dr. Black never enjoyed very robust health, but by great care and -attention he managed to the best advantage a constitution naturally -delicate, pursuing, especially towards the latter part of his life, an -extremely regular and abstemious mode of living. About 1793 his -strength began to fail. In 1796 he became unequal to the sole discharge -of his duties as a lecturer, and employed an assistant. In -the following year he was compelled to relinquish lecturing altogether. -Though in great weakness, he was able by unremitting precautions to -preserve a considerable share of general health. He had always expressed -a hope that he might be spared the distress of a long illness; -and, in accordance with this wish, while sitting at table partaking -of his usual simple fare, he expired November 26, 1799, in so tranquil -a manner, that a cup of milk which he had placed on his knee remained -unspilt; and it was some time before his servant perceived -that life was extinct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The cast and character of Dr. Black’s mind is illustrated by the -whole nature and course of his labours and investigations. Methodical -precision and originality of thought were the qualities which pre-eminently -distinguished him. In framing general conclusions he was peculiarly -cautious and exact. It is clear that he possessed abilities which -might have placed him much higher in the rank of original discoverers, -had not an unfortunate backwardness, perhaps the result of natural -timidity or indolence, perhaps of weak health and incessant employment, -withheld him from pushing his researches to a greater extent, -and even from asserting his just claims to what he had done, which -was in some instances wrongfully appropriated by others. Some -charges of this nature have been brought against Lavoisier, in reference -to the discovery of the nature of alkalies; but in his writings -Lavoisier certainly does ample justice to Black.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In all the best and most substantial qualifications of a teacher and -lecturer, he has seldom been surpassed. His method was luminous -and natural; his style unadorned, but beautifully perspicuous; his experimental -illustrations completely satisfactory and convincing, yet -always of the simplest possible kind. He manifested a great dislike -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>to any unnecessary parade of apparatus, and the exhibition of showy -and striking, but useless phenomena. He aimed not at display and -popular fame, but to arrive at the best means of interesting, instructing, -and enlightening his pupils. He led them by his own -example pre-eminently to value accuracy in the establishment of facts, -caution in deducing general conclusions, and a resolute adherence to -the results derived from experiment and induction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Dr. Black’s moral and social character was exactly such as harmonized -with his mental endowments. He was moderate in his desires, -temperate in his enjoyments, benevolent and warm in his affections. -He manifested a strong love of order, propriety, and decorum, and a -total absence of jealousy against scientific rivals, or envy of their fame. -His disposition was at once serious and cheerful; and he was distinguished -by a happy equanimity of temper. He was sometimes -accused of penuriousness: but the charge is wholly denied by his relative, -Dr. Ferguson; and his intimate friend, Professor Robison, has -related many instances of his conduct totally incompatible with such a -disposition. In person he was rather above the middle height; of a -slender figure, with a mild and engaging countenance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After Dr. Black’s death his manuscript lectures were revised and -published by Professor Robison, in two quarto volumes, in 1803. The -first and most important portion of the work is devoted to the subject -of heat; and contains the development of the author’s original researches -to which we have referred. The simplicity of style, the admirable -taste and propriety of language, and the perspicuous and -luminous method of illustration, cannot be too highly praised. With -respect to the other portion, embracing the details of chemistry properly -so called, though the same commendation as to the manner must -be bestowed, the matter, which was not less excellent for the time at -which the lectures were delivered, was yet, at the period of the publication, -necessarily much behind the advance of discovery.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_177fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />LORD BACON.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by J. Houbraken 1738.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span> -<img src='images/i_177.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>LORD BACON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Among the many great names which England boasts of, few have -such claims to her gratitude as that of <span class='sc'>Francis Bacon</span>. For besides -the unparalleled services which science received from him, to his -<em>original</em> genius we may indirectly ascribe many, if not most, of those -large improvements in the arts of life which have raised this nation -to the highest place among the countries of the world.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Francis Bacon was the second son, by a second marriage, of Sir -Nicholas Bacon, twenty years Keeper of the Great Seal in the reign -of Elizabeth, and Anne, daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, the preceptor -of Edward the Sixth. He was born at York House or Place, in the -Strand, January 22, 1561. In 1573 he was entered of Trinity -College, Cambridge. Here he speedily acquired more than the -ordinary learning of the age, becoming deeply versed in classical -literature. Although taught to look up to Aristotle as to a writer -whom it was almost heresy to question, yet at that early age he began -to perceive where his philosophy failed, and to conceive the reorganization -of a purer and better system. “His exceptions against that -great philosopher not being founded on the worthlessness of the -author, to whom he would ascribe all high attributes, but for the unfruitfulness -of the way; being a philosophy only for disputations and -contentions, but barren in the production of works for the benefit of -the life of man, in which mind he continued to his dying day.”—(Dr. -Rawley’s Life of Bacon.) His intellectual efforts were ever -after bent on working out and declaring these novel views, of which, -through many modifying and expanding minds, we now reap the -fruits.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1576 he was entered as a Student in the Society of Gray’s Inn, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>with the view of keeping his terms for the bar. Before, however, -he commenced his legal studies, his father sent him to France, in the -suite of the Queen’s Ambassador, Sir Amias Paulet. During his -residence abroad he wrote his first work, which was not intended -originally for publication, but was improved and printed after some -years. It is called, A short View of the Present State of Europe. -It derives its chief interest from having been written at the early -age of nineteen; but the civil and political views are sound, and the -composition graceful.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1579 Sir Nicholas Bacon died, leaving Francis but a small -share of his fortune, in consequence of family circumstances, which -we need not here relate. Finding his private means insufficient for -his support, he returned to England, and commenced the study of -the Law, to which he applied himself with great diligence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He did not, however, suffer the demands of his profession to interfere -with those pursuits, in which he was fully persuaded that his -great strength lay. Between the ages of twenty and twenty-eight -he produced a work, which he called the Greatest Birth of Time. -It was never published, and is lost in its separate form, but the -substance of it remains in his Instauration.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1582 Bacon was called to the bar, and in 1588 was chosen -Reader or Lecturer by the Society of which he was a member, and -the same year he received the only mark of honour conferred upon -him in the reign of Elizabeth, in the title of Counsel Learned in the -Law Extraordinary. It seems strange that Bacon, who was the -nephew of the Lord High Treasurer Burleigh, and cousin of the -principal Secretary of State Sir Robert Cecil, should never have been -able to obtain any office in the Court of Elizabeth. The reason possibly -was that he had early attached himself to the faction of the -Earl of Essex, who, though the Queen’s greatest favourite, was in -constant opposition to her ministers. This unfortunate nobleman -exerted himself to the utmost, at the extreme risk of offending: his -testy mistress, to secure for Bacon the place of Solicitor General, as -the first step of legal advancement; but he was unsuccessful. The -ministers declared their belief that Bacon was merely a theorist, -and that his talents were not of a nature fitted for practical purposes: -perhaps there was no small mixture of jealousy in this declaration. -To make some amends to his friend for this disappointment, Essex -gave him an estate (which he afterwards sold at an under price for -1300<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>) out of his private fortune: one of many kindnesses which -Bacon too ill requited.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>In 1592 Bacon published a defence of the government, in answer -to a libel, in consequence of which he received the reversion of the -register’s office to the Star-chamber, which he did not enjoy till -twenty years after. In the Parliament of 1593 he was chosen member -for the county of Middlesex, a proof that his public talents were not -unappreciated by his countrymen. In the House he shone as an -orator of the first class, his speeches were extremely elegant and -forcible, and his wit so well blended with good sense and winning -manners, as to secure to him the favourable attention of that assembly. -He was frequently employed by the government to defend their -measures in Parliament, which he did with consummate prudence, -but he still went unrewarded.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1596 Bacon composed, but did not then print, his Maxims of -the Law; and in the year following he published his first edition -of Essays, or Counsels Civil and Moral; the work by which he is -best known to the general reader. In the trial of the Earl of Essex -for high treason (1601) Bacon appeared as counsel for the Crown; -and after the execution of that unfortunate nobleman, the Queen directed -him to compose and publish An Account of the Earl of Essex’s -Treasons. His apparent zeal on this occasion excited the indignation -of the people, among whom Essex was much beloved, and he was -obliged to apologize for his conduct, by a letter to the Earl of Devonshire, -one of the firm partisans of Essex.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The death of Elizabeth, which soon followed that of her favourite, -revived Bacon’s hopes of advancement. He applied himself early to -obtain the favour of the new king; and a proclamation, which he -drew up on James’s arrival, though never published, did him great -service. He was introduced to the King at Whitehall, and was -knighted, July 23, 1603. In the following year his services to the -court in Parliament, and elsewhere, were rewarded by the title of -King’s Counsel, with a stipend of forty, and an additional pension of -sixty pounds.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But though he seemed in the high road to preferment, Bacon had -powerful enemies to obstruct his advancement. Sir Robert Cecil, -son of Lord Burleigh, created Earl of Salisbury by James I., though -Bacon’s cousin by the maternal side, had always shown himself averse -to his kinsman’s preferment, apparently from jealousy of his uncommon -talents. Between Bacon and the Attorney-General, Sir Edward -Coke, there existed a more violent hostility, arising from various -causes. Sir Edward was successful early, Bacon late, and the power -which Coke obtained, he used to depress his antagonist. They -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>had both been suitors of the rich Lady Hatton, Lord Burleigh’s -grand-daughter, whom Coke married; and, as a farther exasperation -of their enmity, in that celebrated dispute, which occurred in 1616, -between the courts of King’s Bench and Chancery, “Whether the -Chancery, after judgment given in the Courts of Law, was prohibited -from giving relief upon matters arising in equity, which the judges at -law could not determine or relieve,” Bacon had a leading share in -obtaining that decision in favour of the privileges of the Court of -Chancery, which has had so great an influence upon the jurisdiction -of courts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1605 Bacon published his first specimen of The Advancement -of Learning. His view of the service he was doing to science, is -shewn in a letter to Lord Salisbury, sent with a copy of this work, -where he says, that “in this book he was contented to awake better -spirits, being himself like a bell-ringer, who is the first to call others -to church.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following year he married Alice, the daughter of Benedict -Barnham, alderman, a lady of large fortune, who outlived him many -years, and by whom he had no children. The year 1607 produced -him his first solid success. Lord Salisbury had arisen to such power -and confidence with his master, that he no longer feared the talents -of Bacon, and with his concurrence, if not by his means, Bacon was -at length appointed Solicitor-General, which, besides its future promise, -was an office worth 5000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> or 6000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> a-year to him in private -practice. Though now a busy man, and constantly engaged in affairs -of the Crown, he nevertheless found time to write and publish his -Wisdom of the Ancients, a work of great elegance and profound -learning, but not one to which the present age owes much. In 1611 -he was appointed joint judge of the Marshal’s court, and immediately -afterwards Attorney-General, on the promotion of Lord Coke to the -office of Chief Justice of the King’s Bench. Bacon did not attach -himself to the fortunes of the reigning favourite Somerset, and when -that lord and his countess were brought to trial for the murder of -Sir Thomas Overbury, he had the management of the case for the -Crown, which he so conducted as to keep himself out of the disgrace -into which Coke and others fell with the King, on account of this -critical affair.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was farther advanced to the office of Lord Keeper in March, 1617, -on the resignation of the Lord Chancellor Viscount Brackley, and the -same year sat at the head of the council-board, as manager of the -King’s affairs, during the absence of the monarch and his new favourite -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>Buckingham in Scotland. On the return of the King, Bacon -was made Lord High Chancellor, Jan. 4, 1618; and in July following -he was created Baron of Verulam. In 1620 he sent to the King -his <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Novum Organum</span>, or ‘New Instrument of Logic, better calculated -for the real progress of science than that of Aristotle.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next year Bacon received the title of Viscount St. Albans, and -opened the Parliament of February, 1621, the most honoured, and -among the most powerful subjects of the realm. But this parliament -was fatal to him. James had not called this assembly together for -more than ten years, except for the short session of two months in -1614, and during that period had been subsisting on the unconstitutional -resources of benevolences, and the sale of monopolies. Almost -the first act of this parliament was the inquiry into abuses, and more -particularly those of the courts of justice, and the sale of patents. As -all patents had to pass the seal, it was natural that the conduct of the -Lord Keeper should be looked into, and this led to farther inquiry -concerning the administration of justice in the Chancellor’s court. -The chairman of a committee appointed to conduct this inquiry, -brought up two charges of bribery against Bacon. This alarmed -James and his favourite, and the parliament was adjourned for three -weeks, in the hope that the affair would blow over. But during this -recess, twenty-two cases of bribery were charged upon the Chancellor, -and a deputation from the lower House waited on him to know -whether he would confess or refute them. In a few days he chose to -make confession, and threw himself on the mercy of his peers. His -confession was not thought ample enough, and too extenuatory; and -he was obliged to make one still more full, in writing, upon which a -deputation of thirteen Lords was sent to him, to know whether it were -really his. His answer to them was, “My Lords, it is my act, my -hand, my heart; I beseech your Lordships to be merciful to a broken -reed.” At the petition of the Peers, the seals were sequestrated, -Bacon was deprived of his speakership and of his seat in Parliament, -and farther was fined 40,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, sentenced to imprisonment during the -King’s pleasure, debarred from entering the verge of the Court, and -declared incapable of holding any office in future. This penalty was -considerably mitigated by James, who confined him but for a short -space in the Tower, allowed him to make over the fine to assignees of -his own choosing, and, for the settling of his affairs, gave him leave to -reside for some time within the verge of the Court. After some years, -at the earnest solicitation of Bacon, “that his royal master would be -pleased to wipe out his disgrace from the page of history by his -princely pardon,” he received the favour he so much desired.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>At the age of sixty-one, Bacon retired to his country-seat at Gorhambury, -having an income of about 2500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> His debts amounted -to about 30,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, of which he liquidated a third before his death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Apart from the noise and stir of life, Bacon more sedulously bent -his mind to the cultivation of philosophy, his true field of labour. -With the exception of his Reign of Henry the Seventh, and a -tract written against the match between Prince Charles and the -Infanta of Spain, the five last years of his life were spent in making -philosophical experiments, and in moulding his works to a more -perfect form. It was his great wish that what he had written should -be translated into the general language of learning, Latin; consequently -much of his time during this period was employed in translating -himself, or revising the translations of his friends. His chief -labour, however, was the reduction of his Instauration to a most highly -finished state of aphorisms. He took incredible pains with this great -performance. His biographer and editor, Dr. Rawley, declares that -this work was revised and corrected, almost re-written, at least ten -times, and finally left <em>unfinished</em>: for a book which taught what was -known in the world, and wherein that knowledge was defective or -pretended; which professed to teach a new system, by which general -laws should be made for the foundation of true science; and which -pointed out what remained to be known, was indeed rather the undertaking -of many lives of manhood, than a few years of one suffering -under a load of debt, disgrace, infirmity, and age. The peculiarity of -Bacon’s philosophical doctrine may be expressed in few words. He -found that the beliefs of learned men (apart from religious beliefs) -rested upon the authority of one unquestionably great intelligence, -Aristotle, who had invented laws of science, unfounded except in the -speculations of his own mind, and many of them misunderstood by -his idolizers. These laws were given or made, and facts were supposed -to follow from them necessarily and without question. But -Bacon proposed to found his general laws on actual experiments. So -that when by a multitude of facts arising from this course of proceeding, -laws should be produced which fairly accounted for phenomena, -the application of such laws might farther become the confirmation -of fresh and, it may be, more difficult, combinations. It is curious -that Bacon’s own experiments should, for the most part, be so -signally frivolous and inconclusive. This may be accounted for, in -some measure, by the novelty of the method,—his own defence, for -he was aware of the fact, is, “that he did not like to throw away any -experiment, however seeming foolish, in case that some spark of truth -should be contained in it, or suggested by it.” But he certainly did -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>not possess the power of applying his own principles to practice, and -far better examples of the inductive powers may be found, even in the -labours of his predecessors, than any which his own writings afford.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After having spent five years in this labour for posterity, on -the 9th of April, 1626, Bacon died at the age of 66, at the house -of Lord Arundel, in Highgate, on his way to London. A week’s -acute illness carried him to his grave. He was buried at Old Verulam, -and for a long time no “stone told where he lay,” till the affection -of an old servant erected a marble monument to the memory of -his noble master. His name was well known among the continental -nations, and he himself was understood and appreciated by them, to a -far greater extent than by his fellow-countrymen. Some allusion to -this is found in his will, in which, after having commended his soul -to God, and his body to the dust, he proceeds, prophetically, to “bequeath -his name and fame to foreign nations, and to his own countrymen -after some time be passed over.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The character of Bacon has been held up as an extraordinary anomaly, -as containing the extremes of strength and weakness. Pope -was pleased to call him</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c012'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“The greatest, wisest, meanest of mankind,”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>probably for the sake of the powerful contrast presented in the line. -That his great strength lay in his intellectual powers there is no -doubt, but that his moral power was slight enough for him to deserve -the character of “meanest of mankind,” is not to be believed. The -wrong he did to Essex is perhaps the strongest stain that remains on -his memory. The charge of bribery is not so heinous in him as it appears -to be at first sight. He says (and though it be a sophism yet it -has some weight,) “that he never sold injustice,” nor did he: his -decrees were pronounced without regard to the parties concerned, -and were none of them reversed; moreover, judicial bribery was -not thought so vicious then as it is now; in France, it was open -and daily. Of the twenty-two charges brought against him, five -only were really for bribery, that is, while the suit was pending. -The rest were presents. He had lived in want for the greater -portion of his life, and becoming suddenly rich, and full of various -business, he was naturally careless of expenses, and left a great deal -more than he ought to have done in the hands of his servants; who -lived upon him so extravagantly, that on passing through his hall -(when they rose at his presence) he said, “Sit down, my masters, -your rise hath been my fall.” There is also every reason to believe -that he was induced to suppress his defence by the intrigues of James, -and his favourite Buckingham; to whose escape he had the weakness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>to let himself be made a sacrifice. He has been accused of cringing -to this powerful favourite in less important particulars; but his letters -are no more than a type of the usual style of an inferior to a superior -in the Court in which he lived. He fell upon hard times, first the -courtier of a princess whose thirst of praise and requisition of humility -was unbounded, then the courtier and servant of a king who -all but believed himself to be a god. The most marvellous fact of -Bacon’s character is, that he who knew men so well, and whose insight -into their feelings and motives was so clear, should have been so -blind as to remain totally ignorant, as is apparent from all his letters -and writings, of that youthful spirit of freedom which in the subsequent -reign sprung into such vigorous manhood. But he seems to -have been “the king’s true chancellor,” and to have believed most -firmly in that Divine right for which James argued and his son died.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Bacon’s private character was generous and humane almost to a -fault. His manners were exceedingly winning, and his method of -drawing from all sorts of men the information belonging to their -separate callings was wonderful. He was constitutionally timid, and -was always in weak health. His person was slightly above the -common height, his countenance most dignified, and intellectually -commanding.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i_184.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Statue of Lord Bacon in St. Michael’s Church, St. Alban’s.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_185fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />SIR WALTER SCOTT.<br /><br /><em>From a Bust by Chantrey.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight & C<sup>o</sup>. Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span> -<img src='images/i_185.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SIR W. SCOTT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Walter Scott was born in the Old Town of Edinburgh, April 15, -1771, in a house at the head of the College Wynd, which has been -pulled down to make way for the new buildings of the University. -His father was a writer to the signet, his grandfather a farmer resident -in Roxburghshire, who traced his descent to the ancient Border -family of Scott of Harden. His infancy gave no promise of the -robust manhood which he attained: and in addition to general weakness -of constitution, his right foot received an early injury, which rendered -him lame through life. This delicacy of health induced his -parents to send him, when almost an infant, to his grandfather’s farm -at Sandyknow in Roxburghshire, adjoining the Border fortress called -Smailholm Tower, in the heart of that romantic pastoral district -whose scenery and legends he has rendered famous. <a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c011'><sup>[5]</sup></a>“His residence -at this secluded spot, which after early boyhood was, we believe, -occasionally renewed during the summer vacations of the High School -and College, was undoubtedly fraught with many advantages, physical -and mental. It was here that his feeble constitution was, by the aid -of free air and exercise, gradually strengthened into robustness; and -though he never got rid of his lameness, it was so far overcome as to -be in after life rather a deformity than an inconvenience. It was here -that his love of ballad lore and border story was fostered into a -passion; and it was here doubtless, and at the house of one of his -uncles, Mr. Thomas Scott, of Woolee, also a Roxburghshire farmer, -that he early acquired that intimate acquaintance with the manners, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>character, and language of the Scottish peasantry, which he afterwards -turned to such admirable account in his novels.”</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. </span>This, and the other passages marked with inverted commas, except those taken -from Scott’s Autobiography, are derived from a memoir of Sir Walter Scott published in -the Penny Magazine, No. 37, and written by Scott’s countryman and acquaintance, the -late Mr. Pringle.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In October, 1779, he entered the High School of Edinburgh, which -he attended during four years. He there acquired the character of -being “a remarkably active and dauntless boy, full of all manner of fun, -and ready for all manner of mischief;” and so far from being timid -or quiet on account of his lameness, that very defect, (as he himself -remarked to be usually the case in similar circumstances with boys of -enterprising disposition) prompted him to take the lead among all the -stirring boys in the street where he lived, or the school which he -attended. In Greek and Latin he made little progress, and obtained -little credit for talent or industry from his masters; but he has invoked -his surviving school-fellows, in the Introduction to the last -edition of the Waverley Novels, “to bear witness that I had a distinguished -character for talent as a tale-teller, at a time when the -applause of my companions was the recompense for the disgraces and -punishments which the future romance-writer incurred for being idle -himself, and keeping others idle, during hours of the day that should -have been employed upon our tasks.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>He entered the University of Edinburgh in October, 1783; but -his attendance there was only for two sessions. About the age of -fifteen the rupture of a blood-vessel again reduced him to a very weak -state, and during the space of two years bodily and mental exertion -were forbidden. He had recourse for amusement to a circulating -library, “rich,” he says, “in works of fiction, from the romances of -chivalry, and the ponderous folios of Cyrus and Cassandra, down to -the most approved works of later times. I was plunged into this -great ocean of reading without compass or pilot, and unless when -some one had the charity to play at chess with me I was allowed to -do nothing, save read, from morning to night.... I believe I read -almost all the old romances, old plays, and epic poetry in that formidable -collection, and no doubt was unconsciously amassing materials -for the task in which it has been my lot to be so much employed. -At the same time I did not in all respects abuse the license permitted -me. Familiar acquaintance with the specious miracles of fiction -brought with it some degree of satiety, and I began by degrees to -seek in histories, memoirs, voyages and travels, and the like, events -nearly as wonderful as those which were the work of the imagination, -with the additional advantage that they were at least in a great measure -true. The lapse of two years, during which I was left to the -service of my own free will, was followed by a temporary residence in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>the country, where I was again very lonely but for the amusement -which I derived from a good though old-fashioned library. The -vague and wild use which I made of this advantage I cannot describe -better than by referring my reader to the desultory studies of Waverley -in a similar situation; the passages concerning whose reading -were imitated from recollections of my own.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>After recovering from this illness his constitution changed, and he -became unusually robust, and capable of enduring great bodily and -mental fatigue; even his lameness occasioning no serious inconvenience. -He then applied himself in earnest to the study of law, and, -to acquire a thorough knowledge of its technicalities, went through -the duties of a clerk in his father’s office. He completed the usual -course of legal education, and was called to the bar in July, 1792. -He seemed however little anxious for business; and as usual, business -unsought came slowly: in his legal capacity he acquired neither -wealth nor distinction. But, in amends for this, in those days of -volunteer corps, he made an admirable quarter-master to the Edinburgh -Light Dragoons; and his zeal and skill, and the popularity -which his high powers of social entertainment procured, recommended -him to the friendship of the Duke of Buccleugh, by whose -interest he obtained, in December, 1799, the appointment of Sheriff -of Selkirkshire, with a salary of 300<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> He had married in 1797 -Miss Carpenter, a lady of foreign birth but English parentage, -possessed of fortune sufficient, when added to the salary of his office, -and his own patrimonial inheritance, to release him from the necessity -of labouring at the bar for a livelihood. This was a step on which -his mind had been some time bent. “My profession and I,” he says, -“came to stand nearly on the footing which honest Slender consoled -himself on having established with Mistress Anne Page—‘There was -no great love between us at the beginning, and it pleased Heaven to -decrease it on farther acquaintance.’ I became sensible that the -time was come when I must either buckle myself resolutely to ‘the -toil by day, the lamp by night,’ renouncing all the Dalilahs of my -imagination, or bid adieu to the profession of the law, and hold -another course.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Scott was not a premature writer; he had reached his twenty-fifth -year before he tried his strength in composition, excepting a few -trivial attempts in childhood; and his name was still unknown to the -public, when he resolved to devote his powers to literature. His first -essays were made about 1796, when his attention was caught by the -Leonora, and other poems of Bürger, which he translated and published -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>anonymously. “The adventure,” he says, “proved a dead loss, -and a great part of this edition was condemned to the service of the -trunk-maker.” His next performance was a translation of Goethe’s -drama, Goetz of Berlichingen, published in 1799. But he continued -his devotion to ballad poetry, and as his confidence rose, essayed his -strength in Glenfinlas, and the Eve of St. John, his first original -compositions. At Lasswade on the banks of the Esk, about five -miles from Edinburgh, where he spent several summers after his -marriage, he prosecuted with increased zeal and success his favourite -inquiries into the antiquities and legendary song of his country, and -commenced the work which gave him a name in literature, the Minstrelsy -of the Scottish Border. “The materials for this work were -collected during various excursions, or <em>raids</em>, as Sir Walter was wont -to call them, through the most remote recesses of the border glens, -made by the poetical compiler in person, assisted by one or two other -enthusiasts in ballad lore. Pre-eminent among his coadjutors in this -undertaking was Dr. John Leyden, an enthusiastic borderer and -ballad-monger like himself, and to whom he has gratefully acknowledged -his obligations both in verse and prose.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Some amusing anecdotes have been printed, and others are still -extant in oral tradition among the border hills, of the circumstances -attending the collection of these ballads. The old women, who were -almost the only remaining depositories of ancient song and tradition, -though proud of being solicited to recite them by ‘so grand a man’ -as an Edinburgh Advocate, could not repress their astonishment that -‘a man o’ sense and lair’ should spend his time in writing into a book -‘auld ballads and stories of the bluidy Border wars, and paipish -times....’ The Minstrelsy was printed at Kelso, in 1802, at -first in two volumes, to which a third was added in the second edition. -Two years subsequently Scott published the romance of Sir Tristram, -a Scottish metrical tale of the thirteenth century, which he showed, -in a learned disquisition, to have been composed by Thomas of -Ercildown, commonly called the Rhymer.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“These works, especially the Border Minstrelsy, were favourably -received by the public, and established Scott’s reputation on a very -respectable footing, as an excellent poetical antiquary, and as a -writer of considerable power and promise, both in verse and prose. -As yet, however, he had produced no composition of originality and -importance sufficient to secure that high and permanent rank in -literature, to which his secret ambition led him to aspire. But he -had now a subject in hand which was destined to attain for him a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>popularity far beyond what his most sanguine hopes could have -ventured to anticipate.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The Lay of the Last Minstrel appeared in 1805. The structure -of the verse was suggested, as the author states, by the Christabel -of Coleridge; a part of which had been repeated to him about the -year 1800. The originality, wildness, poetical beauty, and descriptive -powers of Scott’s Border romance produced an effect on the -public mind, only to be equalled perhaps by some of the earlier works -of Byron.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“In the spring of 1806 Sir Walter obtained an appointment, -which, he says, completely met his moderate wishes as to preferment. -This was the office of a principal Clerk of Session, of which the -duties are by no means heavy, though personal attendance during the -sitting of the courts is required. Mr. Pitt, under whose administration -the appointment had been granted, having died before it was -officially completed, the succeeding Whig ministry had the satisfaction -of confirming it. The emoluments of this office were about -1200<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> a year; but Scott received no part of the salary till 1812, the -appointment being a reversionary one.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>His reputation and his fortune seemed now to be completely established. -Marmion, published in 1808, and the Lady of the Lake, in -1810, were received each with greater favour than its predecessor. -Don Roderick, 1811, was not successful; Rokeby, 1813, and The -Lord of the Isles, 1814, were generally thought inferior in merit to -his earlier works. This might arise, in part, from the extraordinary -rapidity of their composition: for Rokeby was commenced September -15, and finished December 31, 1812; and the Lord of the Isles was -written in the following autumn, with equal rapidity, but under circumstances -which rendered the task a burden, and damped the fire of -his muse. Still these, like their predecessors, commanded very large -sales, and brought in large sums to the author, and large profits to -the publishers. His popularity, however, was on the ebb, and it was -the general impression that Scott had nearly written himself out. At -the time when this was said, he had already published one anonymous -poem, the Bridal of Triermain, 1810, as if ashamed of his prolific -pen. Afterwards, in 1817, he published Harold the Dauntless, in -the same way. The censure, however, was not unfounded; and the -two last acknowledged poems of Scott were inferior in interest and -execution to his earlier productions. Another reason for the decrease -of Scott’s popularity he has himself assigned, in the rapid growth of -Lord Byron’s.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>It was about the end of 1813 that accident threw in his way the -mislaid manuscript of the beginning of Waverley, seven chapters of -which he had composed in 1805, and had thrown aside, in deference -to the unfavourable opinion of a critical friend. At different times -he had been inclined to resume this work, but had been prevented by -the loss of the manuscript: which he now applied himself in earnest -to complete. Waverley was published in the summer of 1814; and -obtained success beyond the author’s fondest expectations. The history -of this wonderful series of works of fiction, and the author’s reasons -for adopting and retaining his incognito, are familiar to the public, -through his own account in the Introduction to the Waverley Novels. -The manner in which the secret was kept is a remarkable anecdote in -literary history: for, whatever conclusions might be drawn from internal -evidence by Scott’s intimate friends, and from putting things -together by the public, not a particle of external evidence was produced -to fasten it upon him, until the failure of Constable’s house in -1826 led to Scott’s public avowal of the authorship in 1827. Perhaps -this mystery tended to keep alive the public interest: perhaps -also Scott had a keener relish of the homage paid to the Great Unknown, -than if it had been offered to him in his own person.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Scott’s metrical romances, as they were composed with unexampled -rapidity, commanded also unexampled prices from the booksellers. -And at the same time he found leisure for a variety of laborious works -in criticism, biography, and miscellaneous literature, which added -considerably both to his funds and his reputation. Among these -were new editions of the works of Dryden and Swift, with biographical -accounts; Sadler’s State Papers; Somers’s Tracts; Lives of -the Novelists; besides numerous contributions to encyclopædias, reviews, -and other periodical publications. His scheme of devoting -himself to literature had borne fruit of fame and profit beyond his -brightest anticipations. His certain income (we presume after the -year 1812) is said by Mr. Pringle to have exceeded 2000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>: and he -was supposed to double that sum by the exuberant harvest of his -brain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Amidst all this labour Scott found abundant leisure not only for -his official avocations, but for social enjoyment and rural recreation. -While the Court of Session was sitting, he lived in Edinburgh, in a -good substantial house in North Castle Street. During the vacations -he resided in the country, and appeared to enter with ardour into -the ordinary occupations and amusements of country gentlemen. -After he was appointed Sheriff of Selkirk he hired for his summer -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>residence the house and farm of Ashiesteil, on the banks of the -Tweed; and here many of his poetical works were written. But with -the increase of his resources grew the desire to possess landed property -of his own, where he might indulge his tastes for building, -planting, and gardening. Commencing with moderation, he purchased -a small farm of about one hundred acres, lying on the south -bank of the Tweed, three miles above Melrose, and in the very centre -of that romantic and legendary country which his first great poem has -made familiar to every reader. This spot, then called Cartly Hole, -had a northern exposure, and at that time a somewhat bleak and uninviting -aspect: the only habitable house upon it was a small and -inconvenient farm-house. Such was the nucleus of the mansion and -estate of Abbotsford. By degrees, as his resources increased, he -added farm after farm to his domain, and reared his chateau, turret -after turret, till he completed what a French tourist not inaptly terms -‘a romance of stone and lime,’ clothing meanwhile the hills behind, -and embowering the lawns before, with flourishing woods of his own -planting. The embellishment of his house and grounds, and the -enlargement of his landed property, became, after the establishment -of his literary reputation, the objects, apparently, of Scott’s most -engrossing interest; and whatever may be the intrinsic value of the -estate as a heritage to his posterity, he has at least succeeded in -erecting a scene altogether of no ordinary attractions, and worthy of -being associated with his distinguished name.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“During the greater part of the summer and autumn he kept house -at Abbotsford like a wealthy country gentleman, receiving with a cordial, -yet courtly, hospitality, the many distinguished persons, both -from England and the Continent, who found means to obtain an introduction -to his enchanted castle. Anything more delightful than a -visit to Abbotsford, when Sir Walter was in the full enjoyment of -his health and spirits, can scarcely be imagined. After his morning -labours, which, even when busiest, were seldom protracted beyond -mid-day, (his time for composition being usually from seven to eleven -or twelve o’clock,) he devoted himself to the entertainment of his -guests with so much unaffected cordiality, such hilarity of spirits, and -such homely kindliness of manner, and above all with such an entire -absence of literary pretension, that the shyest stranger found himself -at once on terms of the easiest familiarity with the most illustrious -man in Europe.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the spring of 1820, Scott was created a baronet by George IV., -as a testimony of personal regard; and on the King’s visit to Scotland -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>in 1822, he was appointed to superintend the arrangements for his -Majesty’s reception; an office gratifying to his national feelings and -antiquarian tastes, as well as to his aristocratical predilections.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The profusion of his expenditure no doubt had considerable effect -in strengthening the general belief that Scott was the author of the -Waverley Novels; inasmuch as he possessed no ostensible means -from which the sums expended in the purchase and improvement of -Abbotsford, as well as the liberal hospitality which he there exercised, -could be defrayed. His urbanity, his innate kindliness of nature, his -unassuming demeanour, and readiness to foster humble merit, had -almost disarmed ill-will, besides softening the asperity of party feelings; -and men looked without envy on a fortune which, to be the -produce of one man’s literary labours for the short space of twenty -years, seemed almost beyond belief, as well as beyond example, and -acknowledged it to be deserved, without a doubt of its continuance, -or reality. In this belief, (for otherwise he would have acted differently, -being naturally a prudent man,) Scott himself rested secure, -until January, 1826, when the house of Constable and Co. became -bankrupt, at the close of that calamitous season which pressed so -heavily upon all branches of trade. He then, to use his own words, -found himself called on to meet the demands of creditors upon commercial -establishments with which his fortunes had long been bound -up, to the extent of no less a sum than 120,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> How and why he -was led into so deep a confidence, and how far the prices received for -his works were connected with his commercial transactions, has never, -we believe, been clearly explained, nor does it much import the -public to know; the error, so far as his reputation is concerned, (and -the only charge against him was want of prudence,) he amply redeemed -by the nobleness of his conduct under this crushing misfortune; -and it has been truly said that “the honour which rests upon his -memory for his gigantic exertions to pay off this immense debt without -deduction, is a far nobler heritage to his posterity than the most -princely fortune.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“On meeting his creditors, he refused to accept of any compromise, -and declared his determination, if life was spared him, to pay off every -shilling. He insured his life in their favour for 22,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>; surrendered -all his available property in trust (Abbotsford being rendered inalienable -by the marriage articles of his eldest son); sold his town house and furniture, -and removed to a humbler dwelling; and then set himself calmly -down to the stupendous task of reducing this load of debt. The only -indulgence he asked for was time; and, to the honour of the parties -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>concerned, time was liberally and kindly given him. A month or two -after the crash of Constable’s house, Lady Scott died; domestic affliction -thus following fast upon worldly calamity.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>For five years after his pecuniary misfortunes, namely, from January -1826 to the spring of 1831, Sir Walter continued his indefatigable -labours; and in that period, besides several new works of -fiction, he produced the History of Scotland, published in Lardner’s -Cyclopædia, Tales of a Grandfather, Letters on Demonology, and a -number of smaller pieces. The Life of Napoleon was in part composed -anterior to the calamity of which we speak: it was published in 1827, -and though read with interest, did not display the research and impartiality -which the character of an historian requires. He also -superintended a new edition of the Waverley Novels, with prefaces -and illustrative notes; and the profits of all these works were so considerable, -that by the close of 1830, 54,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> had been paid off; all of -which, except six or seven thousand, had been produced by his own -literary labours. The copyright of the published novels was sold by -Constable’s creditors for 8,400<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, half of which was assigned to Sir -Walter by his creditors, in consideration of his assistance in furnishing -prefaces and notes to the new edition.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But over-exertion in the evening of life, and under circumstances -too well calculated to weaken the elasticity of his spirits, and to -destroy the pleasure which he used to feel in composition, broke his -constitution and brought on premature old age. In the autumn of -1830 he retired from his office of Clerk of Session. In the following -winter, symptoms of paralysis began to appear. Still he continued -to labour until the summer of 1831, in the course of which -mental exertion was strictly forbidden. He was advised to visit -Italy in the following autumn, and even in his declining condition -must have been gratified by the sympathy and the honour rendered to -him. A passage to Malta in the Barham man-of-war was granted to -him by the British Government; and at Rome and Naples he was received -with honours rarely paid except to royal blood. But his desire -to return to his native land became irrepressible; and he hurried -homewards, taking the route by the Rhine, with a rapidity which -proved very injurious. He reached London in nearly the last stage -of physical and mental weakness. Still the love of his native land -was strong in death, and after remaining some weeks in the metropolis, -he was conveyed at his own earnest desire by sea to Leith, -and reached Abbotsford, July 11. After lingering two months, almost -without consciousness, in the last stage of his most afflictive malady, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>he expired, September 22, 1832. His body was laid in his family -burial-place in the ruined abbey of Dryburgh on the Tweed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Throughout the kingdom his death was regarded like the loss of a -friend; and the general admiration of his talents, respect for his conduct, -and sympathy for his misfortunes, was shown by the favourable -reception of a project for raising a subscription to discharge the incumbrances -existing on the Abbotsford estate, and to preserve it by -entail in Sir Walter’s family, as a lasting memorial of his genius.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Scott’s works, in the last uniform edition, fill eighty-eight closely -printed duodecimo volumes. Of these his poems occupy twelve, the -novels forty-eight, the miscellaneous prose works twenty-eight. The -Letters on Demonology, History of Scotland, and a few minor productions -are not included herein, in consequence of the copyrights being -vested in different hands. From his numerous unnamed works, we -may select for mention his Border Antiquities, Picturesque Scenery of -Scotland, his share in Weber and Jameson’s Illustrations of Northern -Antiquities, Paul’s Letters, which contain the liveliest description ever -given of the Battle of Waterloo, and three dramas, Halidon Hill, the -Doom of Devorgoil, and the Auchindrane Tragedy.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_194.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[View of Abbotsford.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>In closing this Series, an apology may be thought necessary for -the omission of many portraits which have formerly been advertised -for publication. In a few instances this has arisen from the nonexistence -of authentic portraits; in some from their remoteness, or the -difficulty of obtaining leave to copy those which are known to exist: -the latter causes have compelled us to engrave from prints to a greater -extent than was at first contemplated. But where access could be -had to the originals, in France and Italy as well as England, artists -have been employed to copy them for the engraver’s use; and it is our -duty to express our gratitude for the liberality with which applications -for this purpose have, for the most part, been acceded to. One important -branch of science, metaphysics, has been left with very few -representatives, in consequence of the highly controversial nature of the -subject. This work was planned to include those, and those only, of -all nations, who since the revival of art and within the era of authentic -portraiture, have been great originators and inventors in arts, sciences, -and literature: but the line which separates those who have originated -from those who have improved or greatly excelled, is so hard to draw, -that many persons have been admitted, whose claims may not be reconcilable -with a strict adherence to the principle at first laid down; and -one extension forms a precedent and reason for another. Regarding it -as a collection of the most distinguished men of modern times, completeness -is impossible, from the vast extent of the subject and the diversities -of judgement which differences in character, the bias of natural -prejudices, and greater or less familiarity with the results of their -lives, cause men to pass upon the worth and eminence of others. A -Briton may think the foreigners in our collection too numerous; a -foreigner will be as likely to say, that in choosing full one half from -our own countrymen, we have given way to national pride: but to -every nation its own great men are the most interesting and the most -important. We believe, however, that except where no portraits can -be found, as in the cases of the inventor of Printing, and the discoverer -of the New World<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c011'><sup>[6]</sup></a>, no branch of science is without one or more of its -fittest and most distinguished representatives; and we claim the merit -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>of having brought together, in a book of easy access, a greater number -of the genuine likenesses of men eminent in every branch of -honourable distinction than has ever been included in a similar -scheme.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. </span>There is a Portrait of Columbus at Naples, but it is of a late age.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>An extension of the work would no doubt have allowed us to approximate -somewhat nearer to completeness. But in every undertaking -of this sort there is a limit in respect of size and expense -which it is inexpedient to pass: and this consideration prescribes that -for the present we should end our labour. But death has added many -illustrious names to our list since it was first drawn up; and as every -year lays some honoured head in the grave, a fresh fund of interest, -and fresh reasons for the resumption of the work, will be continually -accruing. It is, therefore, not unlikely that the Gallery of Portraits -may hereafter be resumed and continued in a similar form.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A series of Indexes is subjoined, which present the portraits in -alphabetical and chronological order, and classed according to the pursuits -in which they have excelled, and the nations to which they belong. -This it is hoped will make amends for the absence of any system in -the order of their issuing, which would have rendered it almost impossible -to maintain the monthly publication with punctuality.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We avail ourselves of this opportunity to correct a few mistakes in -the text; but have not thought it necessary to give a list of obvious -or unimportant errata.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Fox, vol. i., p. 107, par. 3. The anecdote here told, applies, we have been -informed, not to the debate on the Test Act, but to the application of dissenting ministers -for relief on the subject of Subscription.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Banks, vol. i., p. 193, <em>for</em> February 13, <em>read</em> January 4: on the authority of -his baptismal register. See Penny Cyclopædia.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of More, vol. ii., p. 32, line 22, <em>for</em> 1555, <em>read</em> 1535.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Pascal, vol. ii., p. 51, <em>for</em> Sir W., <em>read</em> Sir John Herschel.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Bentley, vol. iii., p. 51, three lines from bottom, <em>for</em> 1781, <em>read</em> 1701.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Schwartz, vol. iii., p. 93, last line but one, <em>for</em> being, <em>read</em> besides.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of D’Aguesseau, vol. iv., p. 5, eleven lines from bottom, <em>read</em>, in which, it was -said, the obnoxious.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Blake, vol. v., p. 77, <em>read</em>, Robert Blake was born at the seaport town of -Bridgewater in Somersetshire, where his father followed the occupation of a merchant, -in August, 1598.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Ib., p. 82, line 5, <em>after</em> April 20, <em>insert</em> 1657.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Ib., p. 83, line 15, <em>for</em> revolution, <em>read</em> restoration.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Maskelyne, vol. vi., p. 21, last line but six, <em>omit</em> did.</p> - -<p class='c014'>Life of Jenner, vol. vi., p. 28, line 18. We believe this statement to be exaggerated; -but have not the means before us of tracing the error.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span> - <h2 class='c005'>ALPHABETICAL INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>The paging of the three lives thus * marked has accidentally been repeated.<a id='t197'></a></div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table1' summary='ALPHABETICAL INDEX.'> -<colgroup> -<col width='62%' /> -<col width='11%' /> -<col width='11%' /> -<col width='5%' /> -<col width='7%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <th class='c015'></th> - <th class='c016'>Date of Birth.</th> - <th class='c016'>Date of Death.</th> - <th class='blt c016'>Vol.</th> - <th class='c016'>Page.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Addison</td> - <td class='c017'>1672</td> - <td class='c017'>1719</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_147">147</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Aguesseau</td> - <td class='c017'>1668</td> - <td class='c017'>1751</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Alembert</td> - <td class='c017'>1717</td> - <td class='c017'>1783</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_101">101</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>Antonio (<em>see</em> Raimondi).</td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Ariosto*</td> - <td class='c017'>1474</td> - <td class='c017'>1533</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Arkwright</td> - <td class='c017'>1732</td> - <td class='c017'>1792</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_181">181</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bacon</td> - <td class='c017'>1560</td> - <td class='c017'>1626</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Banks</td> - <td class='c017'>1743</td> - <td class='c017'>1820</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_193">193</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Barrow</td> - <td class='c017'>1630</td> - <td class='c017'>1679</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bentham</td> - <td class='c017'>1748</td> - <td class='c017'>1832</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bentley</td> - <td class='c017'>1662</td> - <td class='c017'>1742</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_49">49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Black</td> - <td class='c017'>1728</td> - <td class='c017'>1799</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Blake</td> - <td class='c017'>1598</td> - <td class='c017'>1657</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_77">77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Boccacio</td> - <td class='c017'>1313</td> - <td class='c017'>1375</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_126">126</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bolivar</td> - <td class='c017'>1783</td> - <td class='c017'>1830</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_173">173</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bossuet</td> - <td class='c017'>1627</td> - <td class='c017'>1704</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_113">113</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Boyle</td> - <td class='c017'>1627</td> - <td class='c017'>1691</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_72">72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bradley</td> - <td class='c017'>1693</td> - <td class='c017'>1762</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_68">68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Bramante</td> - <td class='c017'>1444</td> - <td class='c017'>1514</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Brindley</td> - <td class='c017'>1716</td> - <td class='c017'>1772</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Buchanan</td> - <td class='c017'>1506</td> - <td class='c017'>1580</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_129">129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Buffon</td> - <td class='c017'>1707</td> - <td class='c017'>1788</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_19">19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>Buonarotti (<em>see</em> Michael Angelo).</td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Burke</td> - <td class='c017'>1730</td> - <td class='c017'>1797</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_33">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Calvin</td> - <td class='c017'>1509</td> - <td class='c017'>1564</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Canova</td> - <td class='c017'>1757</td> - <td class='c017'>1822</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_165">165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cartwright</td> - <td class='c017'>1743</td> - <td class='c017'>1823</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_102">102</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Catherine II.</td> - <td class='c017'>1729</td> - <td class='c017'>1796</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cervantes</td> - <td class='c017'>1547</td> - <td class='c017'>1616</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_147">147</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Charles V.</td> - <td class='c017'>1500</td> - <td class='c017'>1558</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_179">179</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Chatham, Earl of</td> - <td class='c017'>1708</td> - <td class='c017'>1778</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Chaucer</td> - <td class='c017'>doubtful</td> - <td class='c017'>1400</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_176">176</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Clarendon</td> - <td class='c017'>1609</td> - <td class='c017'>1673</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_25">25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Claude Lorraine</td> - <td class='c017'>1600</td> - <td class='c017'>1682</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Coke</td> - <td class='c017'>1551</td> - <td class='c017'>1632</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Colbert</td> - <td class='c017'>1619</td> - <td class='c017'>1683</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_122">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cook</td> - <td class='c017'>1728</td> - <td class='c017'>1779</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_165">165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Copernicus</td> - <td class='c017'>1473</td> - <td class='c017'>1543</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Corneille</td> - <td class='c017'>1606</td> - <td class='c017'>1684</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_153">153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>Corregio</td> - <td class='c017'>1493</td> - <td class='c017'>1534</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_57">57</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cortez</td> - <td class='c017'>1485</td> - <td class='c017'>1547</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_122">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cowper</td> - <td class='c017'>1731</td> - <td class='c017'>1800</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_189">189</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cranmer</td> - <td class='c017'>1489</td> - <td class='c017'>1536</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_141">141</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cromwell</td> - <td class='c017'>1599</td> - <td class='c017'>1658</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_11">11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Cuvier</td> - <td class='c017'>1769</td> - <td class='c017'>1832</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Dante</td> - <td class='c017'>1265</td> - <td class='c017'>1321</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Davy</td> - <td class='c017'>1778</td> - <td class='c017'>1829</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_11">11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Defoe</td> - <td class='c017'>1663</td> - <td class='c017'>1731</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Delambre</td> - <td class='c017'>1749</td> - <td class='c017'>1822</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_165">165</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Descartes</td> - <td class='c017'>1596</td> - <td class='c017'>1650</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_189">189</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Dollond</td> - <td class='c017'>1706</td> - <td class='c017'>1761</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_12">12</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Drake</td> - <td class='c017'>1545</td> - <td class='c017'>1591</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_170">170</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Dryden</td> - <td class='c017'>1631</td> - <td class='c017'>1701</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_127">127</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Elizabeth</td> - <td class='c017'>1533</td> - <td class='c017'>1603</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_177">177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Epée, De l’</td> - <td class='c017'>1712</td> - <td class='c017'>1789</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_113">113</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Erasmus</td> - <td class='c017'>1467</td> - <td class='c017'>1536</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_56">56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Erskine</td> - <td class='c017'>1748</td> - <td class='c017'>1823</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Euler</td> - <td class='c017'>1707</td> - <td class='c017'>1783</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_129">129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Fénélon</td> - <td class='c017'>1651</td> - <td class='c017'>1715</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_137">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Flaxman</td> - <td class='c017'>1755</td> - <td class='c017'>1826</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_27">27</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Franklin</td> - <td class='c017'>1706</td> - <td class='c017'>1790</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_72">72</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Frederick II.</td> - <td class='c017'>1712</td> - <td class='c017'>1786</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_155">155</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Fox</td> - <td class='c017'>1749</td> - <td class='c017'>1806</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_101">101</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Galileo</td> - <td class='c017'>1564</td> - <td class='c017'>1642</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_113">113</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Gibbon</td> - <td class='c017'>1737</td> - <td class='c017'>1794</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Goethe</td> - <td class='c017'>1749</td> - <td class='c017'>1832</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_46">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Grotius</td> - <td class='c017'>1583</td> - <td class='c017'>1645</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_201">201</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Gustavus</td> - <td class='c017'>1594</td> - <td class='c017'>1632</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Hale</td> - <td class='c017'>1609</td> - <td class='c017'>1676</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_66">66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Halley</td> - <td class='c017'>1656</td> - <td class='c017'>1742</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_161">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Hampden</td> - <td class='c017'>1594</td> - <td class='c017'>1643</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Handel</td> - <td class='c017'>1684</td> - <td class='c017'>1759</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_10">10</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Harrison</td> - <td class='c017'>1693</td> - <td class='c017'>1776</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_153">153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Harvey</td> - <td class='c017'>1578</td> - <td class='c017'>1657</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_185">185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Henry IV.</td> - <td class='c017'>1553</td> - <td class='c017'>1610</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_41">41</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>Herschel</td> - <td class='c017'>1738</td> - <td class='c017'>1822</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_105">105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Hobbes</td> - <td class='c017'>1588</td> - <td class='c017'>1679</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_25">25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Hogarth</td> - <td class='c017'>1697</td> - <td class='c017'>1764</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_106">106</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Hume</td> - <td class='c017'>1711</td> - <td class='c017'>1776</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Hunter</td> - <td class='c017'>1728</td> - <td class='c017'>1793</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_19">19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Jefferson</td> - <td class='c017'>1743</td> - <td class='c017'>1826</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Jenner</td> - <td class='c017'>1749</td> - <td class='c017'>1823</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_11">11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Johnson</td> - <td class='c017'>1709</td> - <td class='c017'>1785</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Jones, Sir W.</td> - <td class='c017'>1746</td> - <td class='c017'>1794</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Jonson</td> - <td class='c017'>1574</td> - <td class='c017'>1637</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Kepler</td> - <td class='c017'>1571</td> - <td class='c017'>1630</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_59">59</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Knox</td> - <td class='c017'>1505</td> - <td class='c017'>1572</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_40">40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Kosciusko</td> - <td class='c017'>1755</td> - <td class='c017'>1817</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_21">21</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>La Grange</td> - <td class='c017'>1736</td> - <td class='c017'>1813</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_88">88</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>La Place</td> - <td class='c017'>1749</td> - <td class='c017'>1827</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_34">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Lavoisier</td> - <td class='c017'>1743</td> - <td class='c017'>1794</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_9">9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Leibnitz</td> - <td class='c017'>1646</td> - <td class='c017'>1716</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_132">132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>L’Hôpital</td> - <td class='c017'>1505</td> - <td class='c017'>1573</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_85">85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Lionardo da Vinci</td> - <td class='c017'>1452</td> - <td class='c017'>1519</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_21">21</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Linnæus</td> - <td class='c017'>1707</td> - <td class='c017'>1778</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_77">77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Locke</td> - <td class='c017'>1632</td> - <td class='c017'>1704</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_53">53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Lorenzo de’Medici</td> - <td class='c017'>1448</td> - <td class='c017'>1492</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_122">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Loyola</td> - <td class='c017'>1491</td> - <td class='c017'>1566</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Luther</td> - <td class='c017'>1483</td> - <td class='c017'>1546</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_73">73</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Mansfield</td> - <td class='c017'>1704</td> - <td class='c017'>1794</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_62">62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Marlborough*</td> - <td class='c017'>1650</td> - <td class='c017'>1722</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Maskelyne</td> - <td class='c017'>1732</td> - <td class='c017'>1811</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_20">20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>Medici (<em>see</em> Lorenzo).</td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Melancthon</td> - <td class='c017'>1497</td> - <td class='c017'>1560</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_75">75</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Michael Angelo</td> - <td class='c017'>1475</td> - <td class='c017'>1564</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_89">89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Milton</td> - <td class='c017'>1608</td> - <td class='c017'>1674</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_43">43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Molière</td> - <td class='c017'>1622</td> - <td class='c017'>1673</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_95">95</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Montaigne</td> - <td class='c017'>1533</td> - <td class='c017'>1592</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_157">157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>More</td> - <td class='c017'>1480</td> - <td class='c017'>1535</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_25">25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Mozart</td> - <td class='c017'>1756</td> - <td class='c017'>1792</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Murillo</td> - <td class='c017'>1618</td> - <td class='c017'>1682</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_137">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Napoleon</td> - <td class='c017'>1769</td> - <td class='c017'>1821</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_67">67</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Nelson</td> - <td class='c017'>1758</td> - <td class='c017'>1805</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_141">141</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Newton</td> - <td class='c017'>1642</td> - <td class='c017'>1727</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_79">79</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Palladio</td> - <td class='c017'>1518</td> - <td class='c017'>1580</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_172">172</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Paré</td> - <td class='c017'>1509</td> - <td class='c017'>1590</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_69">69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Pascal</td> - <td class='c017'>1623</td> - <td class='c017'>1662</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_49">49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Penn</td> - <td class='c017'>1644</td> - <td class='c017'>1718</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Perouse, La</td> - <td class='c017'>1741</td> - <td class='c017'>1788</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_135">135</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Peter I.</td> - <td class='c017'>1672</td> - <td class='c017'>1725</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_183">183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Petrarch</td> - <td class='c017'>1304</td> - <td class='c017'>1374</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_25">25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Pitt</td> - <td class='c017'>1759</td> - <td class='c017'>1805</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_83">83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Pope</td> - <td class='c017'>1688</td> - <td class='c017'>1744</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_164">164</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Porson</td> - <td class='c017'>1759</td> - <td class='c017'>1808</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_108">108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>Poussin</td> - <td class='c017'>1594</td> - <td class='c017'>1665</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_177">177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Priestley*</td> - <td class='c017'>1733</td> - <td class='c017'>1804</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_85">85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Raimondi</td> - <td class='c017'>1488</td> - <td class='c017'>doubtful</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Raleigh</td> - <td class='c017'>1552</td> - <td class='c017'>1618</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Raphael</td> - <td class='c017'>1483</td> - <td class='c017'>1520</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_30">30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Ray</td> - <td class='c017'>1628</td> - <td class='c017'>1705</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_160">160</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Rembrandt</td> - <td class='c017'>1606</td> - <td class='c017'>1674</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_121">121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Reynolds</td> - <td class='c017'>1723</td> - <td class='c017'>1792</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_35">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Richelieu</td> - <td class='c017'>1586</td> - <td class='c017'>1642</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_107">107</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Rodney</td> - <td class='c017'>1718</td> - <td class='c017'>1792</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_82">82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Romilly</td> - <td class='c017'>1757</td> - <td class='c017'>1818</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_111">111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Rousseau</td> - <td class='c017'>1712</td> - <td class='c017'>1778</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_143">143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Rubens</td> - <td class='c017'>1577</td> - <td class='c017'>1640</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_99">99</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Scaliger, Joseph</td> - <td class='c017'>1540</td> - <td class='c017'>1609</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Schiller</td> - <td class='c017'>1759</td> - <td class='c017'>1805</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Schwartz</td> - <td class='c017'>1726</td> - <td class='c017'>1798</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_86">86</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Scott</td> - <td class='c017'>1771</td> - <td class='c017'>1832</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Selden</td> - <td class='c017'>1584</td> - <td class='c017'>1654</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_61">61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Shakespear</td> - <td class='c017'>1564</td> - <td class='c017'>1616</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_122">122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Siddons</td> - <td class='c017'>1755</td> - <td class='c017'>1831</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_94">94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Smeaton</td> - <td class='c017'>1724</td> - <td class='c017'>1792</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_13">13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Smith, Adam</td> - <td class='c017'>1723</td> - <td class='c017'>1790</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_49">49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Sobieski</td> - <td class='c017'>1629</td> - <td class='c017'>1696</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_184">184</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Somers</td> - <td class='c017'>1650</td> - <td class='c017'>1716</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Spenser</td> - <td class='c017'>doubtful</td> - <td class='c017'>1599</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_194">194</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Staël, De</td> - <td class='c017'>1766</td> - <td class='c017'>1817</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_161">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Sully</td> - <td class='c017'>1559</td> - <td class='c017'>1641</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_169">169</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Swift</td> - <td class='c017'>1667</td> - <td class='c017'>1745</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_45">45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Sydenham</td> - <td class='c017'>1034</td> - <td class='c017'>1689</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_18">18</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Tasso</td> - <td class='c017'>1544</td> - <td class='c017'>1595</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55277/55277-h/55277-h.htm#Page_149">149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Taylor, Jeremy</td> - <td class='c017'>1613</td> - <td class='c017'>1667</td> - <td class='blt c018'>v.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55358/55358-h/55358-h.htm#Page_1">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Thou, De</td> - <td class='c017'>1553</td> - <td class='c017'>1617</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Titian</td> - <td class='c017'>1480</td> - <td class='c017'>1576</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_63">63</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Turenne</td> - <td class='c017'>1611</td> - <td class='c017'>1675</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_63">63</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Turgot</td> - <td class='c017'>1727</td> - <td class='c017'>1781</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_175">175</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Vauban</td> - <td class='c017'>1633</td> - <td class='c017'>1707</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_29">29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015' colspan='3'>Vinci (<em>see</em> Lionardo).</td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Voltaire</td> - <td class='c017'>1694</td> - <td class='c017'>1778</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Washington</td> - <td class='c017'>1732</td> - <td class='c017'>1799</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_128">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Watt</td> - <td class='c017'>1736</td> - <td class='c017'>1819</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Wesley</td> - <td class='c017'>1703</td> - <td class='c017'>1791</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_93">93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Wiclif</td> - <td class='c017'>1324</td> - <td class='c017'>1385</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_113">113</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Wilberforce</td> - <td class='c017'>1759</td> - <td class='c017'>1833</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Witt, De</td> - <td class='c017'>1625</td> - <td class='c017'>1672</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>William III.</td> - <td class='c017'>1650</td> - <td class='c017'>1702</td> - <td class='blt c018'>iv.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55688/55688-h/55688-h.htm#Page_37">37</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Wollaston</td> - <td class='c017'>1766</td> - <td class='c017'>1828</td> - <td class='blt c018'>ii.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55092/55092-h/55092-h.htm#Page_121">121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Wren</td> - <td class='c017'>1632</td> - <td class='c017'>1723</td> - <td class='blt c018'>i.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55047/55047-h/55047-h.htm#Page_144">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - <td class='blt c018'> </td> - <td class='c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Ximenes</td> - <td class='c017'>1437</td> - <td class='c017'>1517</td> - <td class='blt c018'>vi.</td> - <td class='c017'><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55379/55379-h/55379-h.htm#Page_139">139</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CLASSIFIED INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table2' summary='CLASSIFIED INDEX'> -<colgroup> -<col width='88%' /> -<col width='11%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>STATESMEN AND LAWYERS.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Italian.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='c007'></th> - <th class='c009'>Died</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Lorenzo de’ Medici</td> - <td class='c009'>1492</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Spanish.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Ximenes</td> - <td class='c009'>1517</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bolivar</td> - <td class='c009'>1830</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British and</em> <em>American.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>More</td> - <td class='c009'>1535</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Elizabeth</td> - <td class='c009'>1603</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Raleigh</td> - <td class='c009'>1618</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Coke</td> - <td class='c009'>1632</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hampden</td> - <td class='c009'>1643</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cromwell</td> - <td class='c009'>1658</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Clarendon</td> - <td class='c009'>1673</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hale</td> - <td class='c009'>1676</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Somers</td> - <td class='c009'>1716</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Penn</td> - <td class='c009'>1718</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Chatham</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Mansfield</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Burke</td> - <td class='c009'>1797</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Washington</td> - <td class='c009'>1799</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pitt</td> - <td class='c009'>1805</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Fox</td> - <td class='c009'>1806</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Romilly</td> - <td class='c009'>1818</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Erskine</td> - <td class='c009'>1823</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jefferson</td> - <td class='c009'>1826</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wilberforce</td> - <td class='c009'>1833</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Dutch and German.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Charles V.</td> - <td class='c009'>1558</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>De Witt</td> - <td class='c009'>1672</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>William III.</td> - <td class='c009'>1702</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Russian.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Peter I.</td> - <td class='c009'>1725</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Catherine II.</td> - <td class='c009'>1796</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>L’Hôpital</td> - <td class='c009'>1573</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Henry IV.</td> - <td class='c009'>1610</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Sully</td> - <td class='c009'>1641</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Richelieu</td> - <td class='c009'>1642</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Colbert</td> - <td class='c009'>1683</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>D’Aguesseau</td> - <td class='c009'>1751</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Turgot</td> - <td class='c009'>1781</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>SOLDIERS.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Blake</td> - <td class='c009'>1657</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Marlborough</td> - <td class='c009'>1722</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rodney</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Nelson</td> - <td class='c009'>1805</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Germans, Swedes, and Poles.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Gustavus Adolphus</td> - <td class='c009'>1632</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Sobieski</td> - <td class='c009'>1696</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Frederick II.</td> - <td class='c009'>1786</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Kosciusko</td> - <td class='c009'>1817</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Turenne</td> - <td class='c009'>1675</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Vauban</td> - <td class='c009'>1707</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Napoleon</td> - <td class='c009'>1821</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Spanish.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>Cortez</td> - <td class='c009'>1547</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>NAVIGATORS.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Drake</td> - <td class='c009'>1596</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cook</td> - <td class='c009'>1779</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>La Perouse</td> - <td class='c009'>1788</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>DIVINES.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wiclif</td> - <td class='c009'>1385</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cranmer</td> - <td class='c009'>1556</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Knox</td> - <td class='c009'>1572</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Taylor</td> - <td class='c009'>1667</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Barrow</td> - <td class='c009'>1679</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wesley.</td> - <td class='c009'>1791</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>German.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Luther</td> - <td class='c009'>1546</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Melancthon</td> - <td class='c009'>1560</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Schwartz</td> - <td class='c009'>1798</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Calvin</td> - <td class='c009'>1564</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bossuet</td> - <td class='c009'>1704</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Fénélon</td> - <td class='c009'>1715</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Spanish.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Loyola</td> - <td class='c009'>1566</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>MEN OF LETTERS.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Italian.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Dante</td> - <td class='c009'>1321</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Petrarch</td> - <td class='c009'>1374</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Boccacio</td> - <td class='c009'>1375</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Ariosto</td> - <td class='c009'>1533</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Tasso</td> - <td class='c009'>1595</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Chaucer</td> - <td class='c009'>1400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Buchanan</td> - <td class='c009'>1580</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Spenser</td> - <td class='c009'>1599</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Shakespeare</td> - <td class='c009'>1616</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bacon</td> - <td class='c009'>1626</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jonson</td> - <td class='c009'>1637</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Milton</td> - <td class='c009'>1674</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hobbes</td> - <td class='c009'>1679</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Dryden</td> - <td class='c009'>1701</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Locke</td> - <td class='c009'>1704</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Addison</td> - <td class='c009'>1719</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Defoe</td> - <td class='c009'>1731</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bentley</td> - <td class='c009'>1742</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pope</td> - <td class='c009'>1744</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Swift</td> - <td class='c009'>1745</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hume</td> - <td class='c009'>1776</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Johnson</td> - <td class='c009'>1785</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Adam Smith</td> - <td class='c009'>1790</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Gibbon</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jones</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cowper</td> - <td class='c009'>1800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Porson</td> - <td class='c009'>1808</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bentham</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Scott</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Spanish</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cervantes</td> - <td class='c009'>1616</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Dutch and German.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Erasmus</td> - <td class='c009'>1536</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Grotius</td> - <td class='c009'>1645</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Schiller</td> - <td class='c009'>1805</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Goethe</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Montaigne</td> - <td class='c009'>1592</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Joseph Scaliger.</td> - <td class='c009'>1609</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>De Thou</td> - <td class='c009'>1617</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pascal</td> - <td class='c009'>1662</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Molière</td> - <td class='c009'>1673</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Corneille</td> - <td class='c009'>1684</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rousseau</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Voltaire</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>De Staël</td> - <td class='c009'>1817</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>ARTS AND SCIENCES.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Italian.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Galileo</td> - <td class='c009'>1642</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British and American.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Harvey</td> - <td class='c009'>1657</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Sydenham</td> - <td class='c009'>1689</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Boyle</td> - <td class='c009'>1691</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Ray</td> - <td class='c009'>1705</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Newton</td> - <td class='c009'>1727</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Halley</td> - <td class='c009'>1742</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Dollond</td> - <td class='c009'>1761</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bradley</td> - <td class='c009'>1762</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Brindley</td> - <td class='c009'>1772</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Harrison</td> - <td class='c009'>1776</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Franklin</td> - <td class='c009'>1790</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Arkwright</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Smeaton</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hunter</td> - <td class='c009'>1793</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Black</td> - <td class='c009'>1799</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Priestley</td> - <td class='c009'>1804</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Maskelyne</td> - <td class='c009'>1811</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Watt</td> - <td class='c009'>1819</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Banks</td> - <td class='c009'>1820</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cartwright</td> - <td class='c009'>1823</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jenner</td> - <td class='c009'>1823</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wollaston</td> - <td class='c009'>1828</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Davy</td> - <td class='c009'>1829</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>German and Swedish</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Copernicus</td> - <td class='c009'>1543</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Kepler</td> - <td class='c009'>1630</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Leibnitz</td> - <td class='c009'>1716</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Linnæus</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Euler</td> - <td class='c009'>1783</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Herschel</td> - <td class='c009'>1822</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pare</td> - <td class='c009'>1590</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Descartes</td> - <td class='c009'>1650</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>D’Alembert</td> - <td class='c009'>1783</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Buffon</td> - <td class='c009'>1788</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>De l’Epée</td> - <td class='c009'>1789</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Lavoisier</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>La Grange</td> - <td class='c009'>1813</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Delambre</td> - <td class='c009'>1822</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>La Place</td> - <td class='c009'>1827</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cuvier</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'>FINE ARTS.</th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Italian.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bramante</td> - <td class='c009'>1514</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Lionardo da Vinci</td> - <td class='c009'>1519</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Raphael</td> - <td class='c009'>1520</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Corregio</td> - <td class='c009'>1534</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Raimondi</td> - <td class='c009'>1540</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Michael Angelo.</td> - <td class='c009'>1564</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Titian</td> - <td class='c009'>1576</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Palladio</td> - <td class='c009'>1580</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Canova</td> - <td class='c009'>1822</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>British.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wren</td> - <td class='c009'>1723</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hogarth</td> - <td class='c009'>1764</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Reynolds</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Flaxman</td> - <td class='c009'>1826</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Siddons</td> - <td class='c009'>1831</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Spanish.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Murillo</td> - <td class='c009'>1682</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>Dutch and German.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rubens.</td> - <td class='c009'>1640</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rembrandt</td> - <td class='c009'>1674</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Handel</td> - <td class='c009'>1759</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Mozart</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><th class='c019' colspan='2'><em>French.</em></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Poussin</td> - <td class='c009'>1665</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Claude</td> - <td class='c009'>1682</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.</h2> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>Arranged according to the Dates of Death.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table3' summary='CLASSIFIED INDEX'> -<colgroup> -<col width='64%' /> -<col width='35%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <th class='c007'></th> - <th class='c009'>Died</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Dante</td> - <td class='c009'>1321</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Petrarch</td> - <td class='c009'>1374</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Boccacio</td> - <td class='c009'>1375</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wiclif</td> - <td class='c009'>1385</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Chaucer</td> - <td class='c009'>about 1400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Lorenzo de’ Medici</td> - <td class='c009'>1492</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bramante</td> - <td class='c009'>1514</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Ximenes</td> - <td class='c009'>1517</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Lionardo da Vinci</td> - <td class='c009'>1519</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Raphael</td> - <td class='c009'>1520</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Ariosto</td> - <td class='c009'>1533</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Corregio</td> - <td class='c009'>1534</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>More</td> - <td class='c009'>1535</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Erasmus</td> - <td class='c009'>1536</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Copernicus</td> - <td class='c009'>1543</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Raimondi</td> - <td class='c009'>after 1540</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Luther</td> - <td class='c009'>1546</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cortez</td> - <td class='c009'>1547</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cranmer</td> - <td class='c009'>1536</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Charles V.</td> - <td class='c009'>1558</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Melancthon</td> - <td class='c009'>1560</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Calvin</td> - <td class='c009'>1564</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Michael Angelo</td> - <td class='c009'>1564</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Loyola</td> - <td class='c009'>1566</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Knox</td> - <td class='c009'>1572</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>L’Hôpital</td> - <td class='c009'>1573</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Titian</td> - <td class='c009'>1576</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Buchanan</td> - <td class='c009'>1580</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Palladio</td> - <td class='c009'>1580</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Paré</td> - <td class='c009'>1590</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Montaigne</td> - <td class='c009'>1592</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Tasso</td> - <td class='c009'>1595</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Drake</td> - <td class='c009'>1596</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Spenser</td> - <td class='c009'>1599</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Elizabeth</td> - <td class='c009'>1603</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Scaliger, Joseph</td> - <td class='c009'>1609</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Henry IV.</td> - <td class='c009'>1610</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cervantes</td> - <td class='c009'>1616</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Shakespear</td> - <td class='c009'>1616</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>De Thou</td> - <td class='c009'>1617</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Raleigh</td> - <td class='c009'>1618</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bacon</td> - <td class='c009'>1626</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Kepler</td> - <td class='c009'>1630</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Coke</td> - <td class='c009'>1632</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Gustavus Adolphus</td> - <td class='c009'>1632</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jonson</td> - <td class='c009'>1637</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rubens</td> - <td class='c009'>1640</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Sully</td> - <td class='c009'>1641</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Richelieu</td> - <td class='c009'>1642</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Galileo</td> - <td class='c009'>1642</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hampden</td> - <td class='c009'>1643</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Grotius</td> - <td class='c009'>1645</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Descartes</td> - <td class='c009'>1650</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Selden</td> - <td class='c009'>1654</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Blake</td> - <td class='c009'>1657</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Harvey</td> - <td class='c009'>1657</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cromwell</td> - <td class='c009'>1658</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pascal</td> - <td class='c009'>1662</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Poussin</td> - <td class='c009'>1665</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Taylor</td> - <td class='c009'>1667</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>De Witt</td> - <td class='c009'>1672</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Molière</td> - <td class='c009'>1673</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Clarendon</td> - <td class='c009'>1673</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rembrandt</td> - <td class='c009'>1674</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Milton</td> - <td class='c009'>1674</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Turenne</td> - <td class='c009'>1675</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hale</td> - <td class='c009'>1676</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Barrow</td> - <td class='c009'>1679</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hobbes</td> - <td class='c009'>1679</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Claude</td> - <td class='c009'>1682</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Murillo</td> - <td class='c009'>1682</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Colbert</td> - <td class='c009'>1683</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Corneille</td> - <td class='c009'>1684</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Sydenham</td> - <td class='c009'>1689</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Boyle</td> - <td class='c009'>1691</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Sobieski</td> - <td class='c009'>1696</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Dryden</td> - <td class='c009'>1701</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>William III.</td> - <td class='c009'>1702</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bossuet</td> - <td class='c009'>1704</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Locke</td> - <td class='c009'>1704</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>Ray</td> - <td class='c009'>1705</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Vauban</td> - <td class='c009'>1707</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Fénélon</td> - <td class='c009'>1715</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Leibnitz</td> - <td class='c009'>1716</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Somers</td> - <td class='c009'>1716</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Penn</td> - <td class='c009'>1718</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Addison</td> - <td class='c009'>1719</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Marlborough</td> - <td class='c009'>1722</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wren</td> - <td class='c009'>1723</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Peter I.</td> - <td class='c009'>1725</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Newton</td> - <td class='c009'>1727</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Defoe</td> - <td class='c009'>1731</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bentley</td> - <td class='c009'>1742</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Halley</td> - <td class='c009'>1742</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pope</td> - <td class='c009'>1744</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Swift</td> - <td class='c009'>1745</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>D’Aguesseau</td> - <td class='c009'>1751</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Handel</td> - <td class='c009'>1759</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Dollond</td> - <td class='c009'>1761</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bradley</td> - <td class='c009'>1762</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hogarth</td> - <td class='c009'>1764</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Brindley</td> - <td class='c009'>1772</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hume</td> - <td class='c009'>1776</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Harrison</td> - <td class='c009'>1776</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Rousseau</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Chatham</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Linnæus</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Voltaire</td> - <td class='c009'>1778</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cook</td> - <td class='c009'>1779</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Turgot</td> - <td class='c009'>1781</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>D’Alembert</td> - <td class='c009'>1783</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Euler</td> - <td class='c009'>1783</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Johnson</td> - <td class='c009'>1785</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Frederic II.</td> - <td class='c009'>1786</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Buffon</td> - <td class='c009'>1788</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>La Perouse</td> - <td class='c009'>1788</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>De l’Epée</td> - <td class='c009'>1789</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Franklin</td> - <td class='c009'>1790</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Adam Smith</td> - <td class='c009'>1790</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wesley</td> - <td class='c009'>1791</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Arkwright</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Mozart</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>Rodney</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Reynolds</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Smeaton</td> - <td class='c009'>1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Hunter</td> - <td class='c009'>1793</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Gibbon</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jones</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Lavoisier</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Mansfield</td> - <td class='c009'>1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Catherine II.</td> - <td class='c009'>1796</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Burke</td> - <td class='c009'>1797</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Schwartz</td> - <td class='c009'>1798</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Black</td> - <td class='c009'>1799</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Washington</td> - <td class='c009'>1799</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cowper</td> - <td class='c009'>1800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Priestley</td> - <td class='c009'>1804</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>Nelson</td> - <td class='c009'>1805</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Pitt</td> - <td class='c009'>1805</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Schiller</td> - <td class='c009'>1805</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Fox</td> - <td class='c009'>1806</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Porson</td> - <td class='c009'>1808</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Maskelyne</td> - <td class='c009'>1811</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>La Grange</td> - <td class='c009'>1813</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Kosciusko</td> - <td class='c009'>1817</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>De Staël</td> - <td class='c009'>1817</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Romilly</td> - <td class='c009'>1818</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Watt</td> - <td class='c009'>1819</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Banks</td> - <td class='c009'>1820</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Napoleon</td> - <td class='c009'>1821</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Canova</td> - <td class='c009'>1822</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Delambre</td> - <td class='c009'>1822</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Herschel</td> - <td class='c009'>1822</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>Cartwright</td> - <td class='c009'>1823</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jenner</td> - <td class='c009'>1823</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Erskine</td> - <td class='c009'>1823</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Flaxman</td> - <td class='c009'>1826</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Jefferson</td> - <td class='c009'>1826</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>La Place</td> - <td class='c009'>1827</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wollaston</td> - <td class='c009'>1828</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Davy</td> - <td class='c009'>1829</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bolivar</td> - <td class='c009'>1830</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Siddons</td> - <td class='c009'>1831</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Bentham</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Cuvier</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Scott</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Goethe</td> - <td class='c009'>1832</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Wilberforce</td> - <td class='c009'>1833</td> - </tr> -</table> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div>Printed by <span class='sc'>W. Clowes</span> and <span class='sc'>Sons</span>,</div> - <div>Stamford Street.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2> -</div> - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Changed the date “5570” to “1570” on p. <a href='#t49'>49</a>. - - </li> - <li>Corrected the repeated page numbers to volume iv in the ALPHABETICAL INDEX on p. - <a href='#t197'>197</a>. - - </li> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors. - - </li> - <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits: with -Memoirs. 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