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diff --git a/old/56059-8.txt b/old/56059-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5a23eec..0000000 --- a/old/56059-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5410 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Crosses and Lychgates, by Aymer Vallance - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Old Crosses and Lychgates - -Author: Aymer Vallance - -Release Date: November 27, 2017 [EBook #56059] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD CROSSES AND LYCHGATES *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Karin Spence and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - OLD CROSSES - AND LYCHGATES - - - - - [Illustration: - - _Frontispiece_ - - 1. NORTHAMPTON - - ELEANOR CROSS] - - - - - OLD CROSSES - AND LYCHGATES - - - BY - AYMER VALLANCE - - [Illustration] - - LONDON - - B·T·BATSFORD, L^{TD} 94, HIGH HOLBORN - - - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT - THE DARIEN PRESS, EDINBURGH - - - - - PREFACE - - -The genesis of this book was an article on "Churchyard Crosses," -written by request for the _Burlington Magazine_, and published -therein in September 1918. It was at a time when the hearts of the -British people were being stirred to their innermost depths, for the -European War was yet raging, and the question of the most suitable -form of memorials of our heroic dead, sacrificed day by day, was -continually present to us. Nor, though hostilities happily ceased -when the Armistice was agreed upon within a few weeks thereafter, -has the subject of commemorating the fallen on that account declined -in interest and importance. Nay, its claims are, if anything, more -insistent than ever, for, the vital necessity of concentrating our -energies on the attainment of victory having passed away, the nation -is now at leisure "to pour out its mourning heart in memorials that -will tell the generations to come how it realised the bitterness and -glory of the years of the Great War." Such being the case, it was -hoped that it might prove useful to gather together a collection -of examples of old crosses and lychgates, as affording the most -appropriate form of monuments for reproduction or adaptation to -the needs of the present. Too many of the manifestations of modern -so-called art betray its utter bankruptcy, because having broken with -tradition, it has no resource left but to express itself in wayward -eccentricity and ugly sensationalism, the very antitheses of the -dignified beauty which the following of time-hallowed precedent alone -can impart. - -To obtain a sufficiently representative series there has been no -occasion to go beyond the confines of England and Wales. Within those -limits a very large number of types is to be found, every one of -which is illustrated in the following pages. I do not pretend to have -treated the subject exhaustively, but I do claim that never before has -so manifold a range of crosses been depicted within the compass of a -single volume; nor has so systematic an analysis and classification -of the various types of crosses, tracing the course of their historic -evolution, been attempted by any previous writer in the English -language. My classification, based solely upon the study of anatomical -form and structure, is original, and presents the subject in an -entirely new aspect. - -Without the generous co-operation of friends and strangers alike, my -task would have been impossible. A considerable amount of material had -been collected by my friend, the late Mr Herbert Batsford, and of this -I have gladly availed myself. To my dear and revered friend, the late -Sir William St John Hope, I, for one, am more indebted archæologically -than I can find words to express. No sooner did he learn that I -had undertaken this work than he remarked to me, "You must quote -documents," and, by way of giving practical effect to his advice, he -offered, with his wonted liberality, to place at my disposal some -important notes he had made from the original accounts of the royal -expenditure on the Eleanor Memorial Crosses. These notes, to my -profound regret, I never received, because St John Hope, being shortly -afterwards stricken with his fatal illness, had not the opportunity -to look them up for me. My pages in consequence are the poorer for -lack of his invaluable material. I have, however, been able to quote -in full the historic description of Nevill's cross from the _Rites -of Durham_ (Surtees Society, 1902), of which St John Hope was Joint -Editor. - -Among my innumerable obligations I desire to record my indebtedness to -the following for facilities given, and for help in divers ways:-- - -The authorities and assistants of the British Museum, of the Victoria -and Albert Museum, and of the Guildhall Museum; the President and -Council of the Society of Antiquaries of London, the Royal Institute -of British Architects, the St Paul's Ecclesiological Society; the -_Burlington Magazine_, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, the Provost -of Eton (who kindly went to Oxford expressly to examine the Jews' -cross for me), Mr F. T. S. Houghton (who journeyed from Birmingham to -Halesowen in order to photograph the remains of the cross-head at the -latter place), and Dr F. J. Allen, of Cambridge (for photographs and -much valuable information); also to Miss E. K. Prideaux, the Rev. G. -C. Richards, F.S.A., the Revv. F. and F. R. P. Sumner, and C. Eveleigh -Woodruff, Major C. A. Markham, and Messrs Harold Brakspear, F.S.A., -G. C. Druce, F.S.A., Reginald A. Smith, F.S.A., J. H. Allchin, and H. -Elgar, Maidstone Museum; Oxley Grabham and W. Watson, York Museum; H. -St George Gray, Taunton Museum; Frank Woolnough, F.R.Met.S., Ipswich -Museum; Richard Scriven, George Clinch, F.G.S., F.S.A.(Scot.), W. -Plomer Young, P. M. C. Kermode, G. Granville Buckley, M.D., F.S.A., -F. H. Crossley, F. E. Howard, Arthur Hussey, F. C. Elliston-Erwood, -Robert Richmond, George H. Widdows, F.R.I.B.A., R. P. Stone, Oswald -Stone, P. Bedford, Alfred Watkins; and last, but not least, my -publisher, Mr Harry Batsford and his assistant, Mr A. W. Haggis, whose -constant and ready co-operation has lightened many hours of laborious -research in museum libraries and of industry at High Holborn. - - AYMER VALLANCE. - - AYMERS, LYNSTED, - _February 1920_. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. INTRODUCTION 1 - - II. MONOLITH CROSSES 27 - - III. THE SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE 42 - - IV. SPIRE-SHAPED OR ELEANOR CROSSES 94 - - V. PREACHING CROSSES 113 - - VI. MARKET CROSSES 125 - - VII. UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES 158 - - VIII. LYCHGATES 164 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 - - INDEX 195 - - - - - TOPOGRAPHICAL LIST OF SUBJECTS ILLUSTRATED - - - CHAPTERS I. to VII.--CROSSES - - Subject. Source. Illustration Page - No. Referred - to in - Text. - - Aldborough Photo, Frith & Co. 193 158 - Alphington _Del._, J. Buckler 199 161 - Ampney Crucis Photo, Rev. F. Sumner 97} - " " Rev. F. R. P. Sumner 98} - " " F. T. S. Houghton 99} 50 - Axbridge _Gentleman's Magazine_ 148 128 - - Bakewell Engraving by F. L. Chantrey, R.A. 39 32 - Bedale Photo, Frith & Co. 119 54 - Bewcastle " Gibson & Sons 3} - " " " 25} - " " " 26} 32 - Bingley " Frith & Co. 182 125 - Bisley " " 197 163 - Bishop's Lydeard " Dr F. J. Allen 20} 42,44, - } 46 - Blakemere _Del._, J. Buckler 15 13 - Blanchland Abbey Photo, Gibson & Sons 44 41 - Bleadon " Dr F. J. Allen 89 48 - Bonsall " Frith & Co. 120 54 - Bristol Engraving by S. and N. Buck, 1734 9 123 - Brigstock Photo, B.T.B. 122 54 - Bungay " " 187 157 - - Castle Combe _Del._, J. Buckler 173} - " Photo, Frith & Co. 174} - " _Del._, W. G. Allen 175} - " " " 176} 157 - Carlton Peart Collection, R.I.B.A. 63 43 - Charlton Mackerel Photo, Frith & Co. 19 42,44 - Charing Cross, Engraving by Ralph Agas, 1792, Crace 135} - nr. London Collection, British Museum } - " " Crowle Pennant Collection, British 136} - Museum } - " " Crace Collection, British Museum 137} 108 - Cheadle Photo, W. Watson 35 37 - Cheapside Photo, B.T.B., Guildhall Museum 130} - Crosses, London } - " " " " " 131} - " " Water Colour Drawing at Society of 132} - Antiquaries, after Mural Painting } - at Cowdray } - " " Drawing in Pepysian Library, 133} - Cambridge } - " " Photo, G. Clinch, from Contemporary 134} - Woodcut } 102 - Cheddar " Frith & Co. 165 146 - Cheshunt, Waltham _Vetusta Monumenta_ 127} - " _Del._, J. Buckler 128} - " _Vetusta Monumenta_ 129} 95,101 - Chester, High Pen Drawing by Randle Holme, Harleian - MSS. 2073, British Museum 24 24,158 - Chichester _Del._, J. Coney } - (lent by F. H. Crossley) 11} - " Photo, J. Valentine 161} - " Print, Victoria and Albert Museum 162} - " " 163} 137 - Child's Wickham Photo, B.T.B. 7 54 - Coventry Dugdale's _Warwickshire_ 8 111 - Cricklade Photo, Rev. F. R. P. Sumner 116} - Churchyard } - " Town Cross " Rev. F. Sumner 117} 54 - Croxden _Del._, J. Buckler 88 47 - Crowcombe Photochrom Co. 118 46,54 - Cumnor _Del._, J. Buckler 59 43 - - Derwen Photo, Aymer Vallance 110} - " " " 111} - " " " 112} 52 - Doncaster _Vetusta Monumenta_ 191 158 - Dorchester _Del._, J. Buckler 65 44 - Doulting Dr F. J. Allen 74} - " " " 75} - " " " 76} 43,44 - Drayton _Del._, J. Buckler 54 46 - Dundry " J. K. Colling 78 43 - Dunster Photo, J. Valentine 177 156 - - Elstow Peart Collection, R.I.B.A 194 158 - Eyam Photo, J. Valentine 27} - " " " 28} 32 - Eynsham _Del._, J. Buckler, 1820 50 45 - - Fletton Print, Victoria and Albert Museum 40} - " " " " 41} 37 - - Geddington _Vetusta Monumenta_ 124} - " Photochrom Co. 125} 95,96 - Glastonbury Hearne's _Antiquities_ 164 138 - Gloucester _Vetusta Monumenta_ 138 108 - Gosforth Lysons' _Magna Britannia_ 33 34 - Great Malvern Photo, Frith & Co. 16 13 - " Grimsby _Del._, J. Buckler 49 45 - - Halesowen Photo, F. T. S. Houghton 82 47 - Hardley Knight's _Norfolk Antiquities_, 1892 18 13 - Headington _Del._, J. Buckler 69} - " Photo, H. Taunt 70} 44 - Hedon Peart Collection, R.I.B.A. 79 46 - Hereford, _Del._, J. Buckler 72} - Whitefriars } - " " Photochrom Co. 73} - " } 44 - Preaching Cross Photo, Frith & Co. 143 122 - Hexham " Gibson & Sons 42 37 - Higham Ferrers Markham's _Old Crosses of 55 46 - Northamptonshire_ - Holbech Engraving by W. Stukeley 10 123 - Horsington _Del._, after J. Buckler 53 46 - - Ipswich _Diary of Sir James Thornhill_ 169} - " Photo, Frank Woolnough, F.R.Met.S. 170} - " Aquatint by Geo. Frost, 1812 171} - " Photo, Frank Woolnough, F.R.Met.S. 172} 152 - Irtlingborough Markham's _Old Crosses of 56 46 - Northamptonshire_ - Irton Lysons' Magna Britannia 32 34 - Iron Acton Photo, Rev. F. Sumner 144 122 - - Keyingham, Yorks. Peart Collection, R.I.B.A. 64 44 - " " (from " " 80 47 - Lincolnshire) - Lanteglos Juxta Photo, Frith & Co. 94} - Fowey } - " " " F. T. S. Houghton 95} 49 - Leicester Nichol's Leicestershire 14 152 - Leighton Buzzard Engraving in Lyson's Bedfordshire 146} - " _Del._, J. Buckler 147} 124 - Lichfield, Dean Old Engraving, Victoria and Albert 154 142 - Dentons Museum - London, (see Cheapside, _supra_) - West Cheap - " (see Charing Cross, _supra_) - Charing Cross - " Engraved from Drawing in Pepysian 141} - Paul's Cross Library, Cambridge } - " " Panel Painting by John Gipkyn at 142}113,120 - Society of Antiquaries - Lymm Photo, Frith & Co. 183 157 - - Madley " Alfred Watkins, F.R.P.S. 101} - " " " 102} 51 - Maidstone " H. Elgar, from Drawing by 167 146 - E. Pretty - Malmesbury " Dr G. Granville Buckley, F.S.A. 156} - " Old Print, Victoria and Albert Museum 157} - " " " " 158} 133 - Maughold, Photo, J. Valentine 86} - Isle of Man } - " " " Frith & Co. 87} 46,48 - Mawgan-in-Pyder Photo, J. Valentine 38 37 - (Lanherne - House Nunnery) - Mawgan-in-Pyder Lysons' _Magna Britannia_ 106} - (Churchyard } - Cross) } - Mawgan-in-Pyder Photo, Frith & Co. 107} - (Churchyard } - Cross) } 50 - Mildenhall " B.T.B. 12 154 - Milverton, _Del._, J. Buckler, 1841 (_per_ H. 185 156 - Somerset St. G. Gray) - Mitton " " 194} - " " " 195} 161 - Mitchel Troy " " 57 45 - - Nether Stowey " " 1837 (_per_ H. 184 156 - St. G. Gray) - Newmarket, Photo, F. T. S. Houghton 90} - Flintshire } - " " " " 91} 48 - Northampton, " H. Cooper & Son 1} - Eleanor Cross } - " " Britton's _Architectural Antiquities_ 126} 95,98 - Northampton, Water Colour in British Museum (MSS. 150 142 - Old Market Dept.), copy of Bridges' - Cross _Northamptonshire_ - North Petherton _Del._, J. K. Colling 77 42 - North Hinksey _Del._, J. Buckler 83} - " " " 84} - " " " 85} 48 - Norwich Blomfield's _Antiquities of Norfolk_ 153} 138 - (T. Sheldrake) - Nottingham Stretton MSS. 186 157 - - Oakham Photo, B.T.B. 178} - " " " 179} 156 - - Ombersley " Frith & Co. 66} - " _Instrumenta Ecclesiastica_ 67} - " " " 68} 44 - Oundle Markham's _Old Crosses of 168 156 - Northamptonshire_ - Oxford, Photo, B.T.B. 21} - Jews' Cross } - " " " 22} - " " " 23} 19 - - Paul's Cross, (see London, Paul's Cross, _supra_) - London - Pocklington Old Print, Victoria and Albert Museum 114} - " " " " 115} 50,54 - Poulton-le-Fylde Photo, Sir B. Stone 6 24 - - Raglan _Del._, J. Buckler 71 44 - Raunds Markham's _Old Crosses of 45 42 - Northamptonshire_ - Repton Photo, Photochrom Co. 123 54 - Ripley " Aymer Vallance 196 162 - Rocester _Del._, J. Buckler, 1832 47} - " " " 48} 45 - Rothersthorp Markham's _Old Crosses of 46 47 - Northamptonshire_ - - Salisbury _Del._, J. C. Buckler 159} - " Photo, Photochrom Co. 160} 137 - Sandbach Dr Ormerod's _Cheshire_ 29} - " " " 30} - " J. Valentine & Co. 31} 32 - Shepton Mallet Photo, Dr F. J. Allen 151} - " Gentleman's Magazine_, 1781 152} 128 - Sherburn-in-Elmet G. B. Bulmer, _Architectural Studies - in Yorkshire_, 1887 113 46,53 - Somersby _Instrumenta Ecclesiastica_ 81 47 - - Somerton Photo, Frith & Co. 166 146 - St Columb Major " " 37 37 - St Ives, Cornwall " " 96 50 - St Michael's _Del._, J. Buckler 104} - Mount } - " " " " 105} 52 - St Donats Photo, Aymer Vallance 108} - " _Del._, J. Buckler 109} 46,52 - Stalbridge Photo, R. Wilkinson 58} 43,44, - } 46 - Stanway _Del._, J. Buckler 60 43 - Steeple Ashton " " 121 54 - Stevington Peart Collection, R.I.B.A. 17 43 - Stringston, _Architectural Association Sketch Book_ 5 43 - Somersetshire - Swaffham Photo, B.T.B. 188 157 - - Taunton Drawing in British Museum, King's 155 142 - Collection - Thatcham _Del._, J. Buckler 61 43 - Tottenham Old Engraving, 1788 139} - " " Victoria and Albert Museum 140} 111 - Tyberton Photo, Alfred Watkins, F.R.P.S. 100} - " " " 103} 51 - - Wakefield _Del._, J. Buckler 190 157 - Waltham Cross, (see Cheshunt, _supra_) - Cheshunt - Waterperry, _Del._, J. Buckler 4 43 - Oxfordshire - Whalley Photo, Gibson & Sons 34 37 - Wells Sime's _Map of Wells_, British Museum, 149 125 - King's Collection - Wheston, Engraving by F. L. Chantrey, R.A. 92} - Tideswell } - " " Photo, F. Chapman 93} 49 - Whitford " W. Marriot Dodson 36 35 - Wicken _Del._, J. Buckler 62 43,4 - Winchester " " 145 124 - Witney Photo, Henry Taunt 13 156 - Wolverhampton, Old Print, Victoria and Albert Museum 2 37 - Dane's Cross - Wonford, _Del._, Miss E. K. Prideaux 198 161} - St Loye's } - Woodstock Paul Sandby, 1777, _The Antiquarian 189 157 - Repertory_ - Wooler Scott's _Border Antiquities_ 43 37 - Wymondham Photo, B.T.B. 180} 156 - " " " 181} - - Yarnton _Del._, J. Buckler, 1821 51} 44,45 - " " " 52} - - - CHAPTER VIII.--LYCHGATES - - Anstey _Del._, J. Buckler 210 167 - Ashwell B.T.B. 215} - " " 216} - " " 217} - " " 218}165,167 - - Beckenham Album at R.I.B.A. 205} - " _Del._, J. Buckler 206} - " _Spring Gardens' Sketch Book_ 207}165,166 - Boughton, _Del._, J. Buckler 231 168 - Monchelsea - Bray Photo, Aymer Vallance 202} - " Peart Collection, R.I.B.A. 203} 164 - - Chalfont, Photo 204 164 - St Giles - Chiddingfold " W. Plomer Young 227 164 - Clodock _Del._, J. Buckler 228 167 - Clun Photo, F. H Crossley 235 164 - - Goring " Henry Taunt 226 165 - - Hartfield F. Frith & Co. 201 164 - Hayes Mills' _History of the Parish of Hayes_200 164,165 - Heston J. Drayton Wyatt, Anastatic Drawing 213} - Society } - " _Spring Gardens' Sketch Book_ 214}164,165 - - Isleham Drawing after J. Buckler 223} - " " " 224} - " " " 225} 167 - - Lenham Photo, Aymer Vallance 220} - " _Spring Gardens' Sketch Book_ 221} - " " 222}165,167 - Llandrillo-yn-RhosPhoto, F. Frith & Co. 233 168 - Llanfillo " P. Bedford 229 167 - - Morwenstow _A. P. S. Dictionary_ 219 165 - Monnington-on-Wye Photo 237 167 - - Pattingham Shaw's _History of Staffordshire_ 234 167 - Pulborough Source unknown 236 167 - - Rustington _Del._, J. Buckler 230 168 - - Staple _Instrumenta Ecclesiastica_ 208} - " " " 209} 166 - - Tal-y Llyn Photo, Sir B. Stone 232 168 - - West Wickham Thomas Garratt, _Transactions of 211} - St Paul's Ecclesiological } - " Society, Vol. II._ } - _Spring Gardens' Sketch Book_ 212} 167 - - - - - ADDENDUM. - - - _Page 9, line 11 from the bottom, after_ "extant" _add_:-- - -One example, removed from its site, is in existence. In the collection -of the Kent Archæological Society at the Museum at Maidstone is a much -mutilated head of a churchyard cross found at West Malling. The work, -very rude and uncouth, appears to be of the fourteenth century. On one -side is a crucifixion, unattended, and on one end a single figure, -which may possibly represent St. John Baptist. - - - - - OLD CROSSES AND LYCHGATES - - - - - I. INTRODUCTION - - -In pursuance of the Christian policy of instituting an innocent -practice to take the place of each of the old, vicious customs of -heathendom--the substitution of the festival of Christmas for the -former orgies of the Saturnalia is perhaps the best known instance -in point--the Emperor Constantine (324 to 337 A.D.) caused -crosses to be erected along the public ways at various points where -previously had been situated terminal statues. Thence are believed -to have originated the shrines and crucifixes, conspicuous by the -roadside at the entrance of towns and villages in the Catholic -countries of the Continent. Nor throughout the Middle Ages, until the -sixteenth century, when the English people were torn from the unity -of the unreformed faith, was our own country behind any other in its -pious observance of the ancient traditional usage. The reason thereof -is explained by a passage in _Dives et Pauper_, a popular treatise -on the Ten Commandments, which was printed by Wynken de Worde at -Westminster in 1496. The purpose of the erection of standing crosses -is therein expounded as follows:--"For this reason ben Crosses by ye -waye, that whan folke passynge see the Crosse, they sholde thynke on -Hym that deyed on the Crosse, and worshypp Hym above all thynge." - - [Illustration: 2. WOLVERHAMPTON - - DANES' CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD - - MONOLITH TYPE] - - [Illustration: 3. BEWCASTLE, CUMBERLAND - - MONOLITH TYPE] - - [Illustration: 4. WATER PERRY, OXFORDSHIRE] - - [Illustration: 5. STRINGSTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH PLAN - - SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE] - - [Illustration: 6. POULTON-LE-FYLDE, LANCASHIRE - - MARKET CROSS. SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE] - -The process of the evolution of the standing cross may be traced -through certain well-defined stages. Its most rudimentary form is -that of the menhir, a vertical monolith rising direct from the ground -(Figs. 2 and 3); next, the shaft is raised on steps, and becomes a -tapering stem, while its head grows on either side into the arms -of a cross (Fig. 16), or expands into a lantern-like ornament, -quadrangular or polygonal on plan, enriched with sculptured figures -and tabernacle work (Figs. 4 and 5). The shaft-on-steps persisted to -the last as the favourite type for churchyard crosses, notwithstanding -the introduction of other varieties. The cross gained greater dignity -by being mounted on an enlarged socket or foot, interposed between -the shaft itself and the steps underneath. Thirdly, the shaft takes -the form of a pinnacle or spire, generally of diminishing tiers -or storeys, the whole crowned with a small cross or finial. To this -type the important group of Eleanor crosses belongs (Figs. 1 and 8). -Hitherto the cross had been simply spectacular and monumental. It -next developed in a utilitarian direction, and became a preaching -cross (Figs. 9 and 10), its lowest storey, formerly closed and solid, -being opened out and made to consist of a ring of standards (with or -without a shaft in the middle), to carry the soaring superstructure. -The last type, the market cross (Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 14), may be -regarded as an expansion of the preaching cross, the latter being -intended to shelter but one occupant, or at any rate only a very small -number, whereas the market cross is designed to shelter many persons. -In the fully matured market cross the whole structure is one organism, -planned as such from the outset; but there are, on the other hand, -some obvious instances of adaptation, where the encircling umbrella -is, as it were, an after-thought, having been built up to and about a -previously existing cross of the shaft-on-steps type. In either case, -however, the result ultimately obtained is identical. A number of -handsome market crosses, principally belonging to the seventeenth and -eighteenth centuries, were constructed of timber framing, with stone, -slate, or tiled roofs. The latest development was the introduction of -an upper chamber above the open ground-floor stage. But when, later -still, the circular or polygonal plan was abandoned for an oblong plan -in order to provide the utmost accommodation in the upper chamber, -all recognisable resemblance to the structure in the form of its -origin was lost; in a word, the market cross had become extinct, and -had given place instead to the market house or hall. - - [Illustration: 7. CHILD'S WICKHAM, GLOUCESTERSHIRE - - VILLAGE CROSS. SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE] - - [Illustration: 8. COVENTRY, WARWICKSHIRE - - ELEANOR CROSS TYPE] - - [Illustration: 9. BRISTOL - - PREACHING CROSS TYPE] - - [Illustration: 10. HOLBECH, LINCOLNSHIRE - - PREACHING CROSS TYPE] - -It may be assumed that, for the sake of durability, stone would be -the most usual material to choose for the construction of standing -crosses. But there were exceptions, as a memorable incident in the -career of Jeanne d'Arc is sufficient to show. The authority is a -letter from two of Jeanne's contemporaries, Jean and André de Laval, -grandsons of the famous Bertrand de Guesclin. The scene was Selles; -the date 6th June 1428. On that occasion, the maid's horse, a fine -black charger, being brought to the door of her lodging, proved so -restive that he could not be controlled. "Lead him to the Cross," -said Jeanne. And there he stood as quietly as though he had been -bound, while she mounted. The cross was a wrought-iron one, and was -situated about fifteen paces from the north door of the church. An -historical memorial, this cross might have been standing yet, had not -the surrounding cemetery been cleared and levelled to make a site for -a market place. - -Again, standing crosses might be made of wood. Thus, Joan Wither -bequeathed a sum in 1511 for the restoration of the wooden cross -in the hamlet of Reding, in Eboney, Kent; and John Netheway, of -Taunton, Somerset, whose will is dated 4th August 1503, directed his -executors to "make a new crosse of tree in the churchyard of St Mary -Magdalyn, nigh the procession-way"; a provision which is interesting -from another point of view, viz., that it unmistakably connects the -churchyard cross with outdoor processions. - - [Illustration: 11. CHICHESTER - - THE MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 12. LEICESTER - - MARKET CROSS, WITH PLAN] - -A phenomenon in regard to churchyard crosses at the present day is the -inequality of their distribution, which, however, must not be taken -as a criterion of their number and situation in former times. Indeed, -their existence was very general; and the fact of their preservation -or destruction depends on local conditions. Some counties, like -Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, and Northamptonshire, for example, -contain numbers, while other counties contain scarcely any at all. -Thus, Charles Fowler, F.R.I.B.A., writing in 1896 concerning the -Diocese of Llandaff, which comprises Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire, -says: "In nearly every churchyard there are remains of a cross of some -kind. These crosses were placed midway between the enclosure entrance -and south porch, to the east of the principal path.... Many of the -steps and bases of these crosses are to be found in the diocese, but -the tops have mostly all disappeared; also very many of the shafts." -On the other hand, in Hertfordshire there are but two specimens, both -incomplete; and again, in Kent, with the exception of the ancient -bases in Folkestone and Teynham churchyards, there is not another -example extant. And yet numbers and numbers of Kentish churchyard -crosses are positively known, through mention of them in wills, to -have been standing in the Middle Ages. - -In churchyard crosses a certain feature, occurring more particularly -in the southwestern district of England, has proved somewhat of a -puzzle to archæologists, to wit, the presence of a little niche or -recess (Figs. 15 and 16), sunk in the side of the socket or, more -rarely, in the lower part of the shaft. Instances have been noted -at Wonastow and Raglan, in Monmouthshire; Lydney and Newland, in -Gloucestershire; Blackmere, Brampton Abbots, Colwell, Kingdon, St -Weonards, Whitchurch, and Wigmore, in Herefordshire; and at Broadway -and Great Malvern, in Worcestershire. At the last named (Fig. 16) -the niche is hollowed out in the shaft itself. It has been supposed -that the purpose of the niche was to contain a light; but a much more -probable suggestion, of the late Sir William St John Hope's, is that -the niche was designed as a receptacle for the pyx, enclosing the -Sacred Host, in the course of the Palm Sunday procession. - - [Illustration: 13. MILDENHALL, SUFFOLK - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 14. WITNEY, OXFORDSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 15. BLAKEMERE, HEREFORDSHIRE - - SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE, WITH NICHE] - - [Illustration: 16. GREAT MALVERN, WORCESTERSHIRE - - CROSS, WITH NICHE, IN THE PRIORY CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 17. STEVINGTON, BEDFORDSHIRE - - SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE] - -There can be no doubt that, whatever else their uses, churchyard -crosses in mediæval England figured prominently in the ceremonial -of Palm Sunday. So indispensable, indeed, did they become for this -purpose, that it may be taken for granted that no parish was without -one, at any rate of wood, if not of stone. In the Constitutions, -issued in 1229 by William de Bleys, Bishop of Worcester, he ordered -that there should be, in every churchyard of his diocese, "_crux -decens et honesta, vel in cimiterio erecta, ad quam fiet processio -ipso die Palmarum, nisi in alio loco consuevit fieri_." - -At Hardley, in Norfolk, Henry Bunn, by will dated 1501, directed that -a cross should be set up in the churchyard for the offering of boughs -on Palm Sunday. It would be interesting if the above named could be -identified with the cross now standing (Fig. 18). The latter, however, -is not only of later date, but is not a churchyard cross at all, being -a secular landmark, dating from 1543. In that year, it is recorded, a -new cross was made, sculptured with the crucifixion on one side, and -the arms of the city of Norwich on the other; and being painted, was -conveyed to Hardley and erected there, "where the Sheriffs of Norwich -yearly do keep a court." The "place," says Francis Blomefield, "was -the extent of the liberties of the city on the River Wensum." - -But, to resume, so intimately was the churchyard cross associated -with the Palm Sunday solemnities, that the former is very commonly -referred to in documents as the "Palm Cross." As such the churchyard -cross at Bishop's Stortford is mentioned in the parish accounts for -the year 1525--the same cross which was ultimately demolished in -1643. The Palm Cross is so named in the parish accounts of Morebath, -Devonshire, as late as the year 1572-73. For the rest, it is enough -to cite a number of Kentish wills, in which the churchyard cross -is specifically named the Palm Cross, viz.--at Addington in 1528; -Ashford in 1469; Bidborough in 1524; Boughton-under-Blean in 1559; -Boxley in 1476 and 1524; Eboney; Erith in 1544; Faversham in 1508, -1510, and 1521; Hastingleigh in 1528; Lenham in 1471 (as having then -been newly erected); Lyminge in 1508; Lynsted; Margate in 1521; -Preston-by-Faversham in 1525; Reculver in 1541; Old Romney in 1484; -St Peter's, Sandwich, in 1536; Southfleet in 1478; Strood in 1482; -Wittersham in 1497; and Woolwich in 1499 and 1515. - -In some cases the shaft of the churchyard cross is drilled with holes -sloping downward. An instance of this is to be found at Tredington, -in Gloucestershire. Charles Pooley thinks that these holes were for -the affixing of some such object as a scutcheon or a figure. That the -suggestion is not unfeasible is shown by the will of Alice Findred, -widow, who in 1528 left £2 "for making of a stone cross, called a Palm -Cross, with a picture of the Passion of Christ of copper and gilt ... -to be set upon the head of the burial" of her husband and children -in the churchyard of Hastingleigh, Kent. But there is an alternative -explanation of the drilled holes, viz., that they were meant to hold -the stems of flowers or branches for adorning the cross on certain -occasions, _e.g._, Palm Sunday, or at the old Lancashire ceremony -of "flowering," on St John Baptist's Day, 24th June. According to -the eminent ecclesiologist, Dr Daniel Rock, in _The Church of our -Fathers_, it was at the churchyard cross that the outdoor procession -of palms, having wended its way thither, would always halt, and, the -cross itself being wreathed and decked with flowers and branches, -the Blessed Sacrament, solemnly borne in procession, was temporarily -deposited before it upon some suitable throne, while the second -station was being made. This done, the procession reformed and -proceeded to the principal door for the third station, before passing -again within the church. - - [Illustration: 18. HARDLEY, NORFOLK - - BOUNDARY CROSS] - -A certain peculiarity, occasionally to be found in churchyard -crosses, is the scooping out of a cavity or cavities in the base or -steps--cavities resembling nothing so much as the hollows in the -beheading block at the Tower of London. An instance of this feature, -believed to have been designed as a receptacle for offerings, occurs -in the churchyard cross at Bishop's Lydeard (Fig. 20) in the second -step from the lowest one. Possibly the basin-like cavities, which -here and there occur in village and roadside crosses, may have been -meant to hold water or vinegar, to disinfect the coins paid for food -in times of plague, as mentioned below (page 22). - -A curious post-Reformation use for churchyard crosses is referred -to by Miss Curtis in _Antiquities of Laugharne and Pendine_, 1871. -The passages are quoted for what they may be worth. At Eglwyscummin, -Carmarthenshire, "there is a cross in the churchyard to which wolves' -heads were attached.... In ancient times, when it was a necessity -to exterminate certain animals, as foxes, wolves, etc., a reward -was given to those who captured these animals, and it was usual to -attach their heads to the cross in the churchyard for the purpose of -valuing them. Generally, the heads remained on the cross for three -church services, and after that the reward was given. For a wolf's -head the same sum was awarded, as was given for the capture of the -greatest robber; for (dog) foxes, 2s. 6d., and (vixens) 1s. 6d. In -the register of Laugharne church is an account of the sums given for -the different animals." Again, both at Llansandurnen and at Marrôs, -in the churchyard, is "a part of the ancient cross ... to which -wolves' heads, etc., were attached. It is but a few years ago that a -farmer in Marrôs hung foxes' heads on it. In the churchyard of Amroth -(Pembrokeshire) is a cross to which they used to attach wolves' heads, -etc." - -The iconoclastic movement seems to have begun earlier than is commonly -imagined. In 1531 or 1532, according to John Foxe in his _Actes and -Monuments_, "there were many images cast down and destroyed in many -places, as the image of the crucifix in the highway by Coggeshall -(Essex). Also John Seward, of Dedham, overthrew a cross in Stoke Park." - -The spirit of sacrilege and profanity having been aroused, many -gross excesses were committed by fanatical persons. Thus one Simon -Kent writes on 27th May 1549, to inform the Bishop of Lincoln that a -young man had nailed up a dead cat on the market cross at St Ives, -Huntingdonshire. - -At South Littleton, Worcestershire, the "staff and head" of the cross -in the churchyard were disposed of by the churchwardens in 1552. In -another Worcestershire parish, on the contrary, that of Badsey, the -churchwardens in 1557 expended 7s. on the churchyard cross. - -At Winchester, Bishop Horne, an inveterate innovator, in the -injunctions which he drew up for his cathedral church in 1571, ordered -"the stone cross in the churchyard" to be "extinguished". - -At Prestbury, Cheshire, the churchwardens' accounts for 1576 to -1580 record the price paid "for cuttynge (down) the crosse in the -churcheyard, and the chargs of one with a certyficat thereof to -Manchester" (whence, presumably, the order for the demolition came), -and also the amount (14s.) received for the sale of "iron which was -aboute" the same cross. This would perhaps refer to the railing -for protection, required no longer when once the cross itself had -disappeared. - -On the other hand, according to Thomas Fuller's _Church History of -Britain_, Abbot Feckenham built a cross at Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, -during the period of his imprisonment in Wisbech Castle, _i.e._, from -June 1580 to his death in 1585. At Fyfield, Berkshire, at the expense -of William Upton, a churchyard cross was erected as late as 1627. - -Thus individual cases of destruction (as also of repair and -reconstruction) no doubt occurred from time to time; but if any -particular locality was denuded, it would have been due to the -prejudice and bigotry of some individual bishop, archdeacon, or -churchwarden, rather than to any systematic iconoclasm authorised by -the central government. On 28th August 1643, however, the Puritan -party having virtually gained the ascendancy in the kingdom, an -Act was passed in Parliament, entitled "Monuments of Superstition -or Idolatry to be demolished." This ordinance provides that "all -crosses upon all and every ... churches or chappels, or other places -of publique prayer, churchyards, or other places to any of the said -churches ... belonging, or in any other open place, shall, before -the ... first day of November (1643), be taken away and defaced, and -none of the like hereafter permitted in any such church ... or other -places aforesaid." Local committees were constituted for carrying out -the orders of Parliament. Seven eastern counties were entrusted for -purgation to the Earl of Manchester, who appointed, as Parliamentary -visitor under him, the notorious William Dowsing. This person, though -unsurpassed in vandalism, has yet been maligned so far as churchyard -crosses are concerned. In 1643 and 1644 he visited, in person or by -deputy, 149 churches in Suffolk, keeping a minute record of each day's -proceedings; but, strange to say, among all the quantity of objects -defaced, his _Journal_ does not specify one single instance of a -churchyard cross having been injured or destroyed by him. - -In some cases the official despoilers met with popular opposition. -Thus Richard Baxter relates how, in obedience to the order sent by -the Parliament for the demolition of all images of the Holy Trinity -and of the Virgin Mary to be found in churches or on the crosses -of churchyards, the churchwarden of Kidderminster, Worcestershire, -determined to destroy the crucifix upon the churchyard cross there, -and accordingly set up a ladder to have reached it. But the ladder -proved too short, and whilst he (the churchwarden) was gone to seek -another, a crowd of the opposition "party of the town, poor journeymen -and servants, took the alarm, and ran together with weapons to defend -the crucifix"; and even purposed to wreak their vengeance upon Baxter -himself, supposing him to be the prime instigator of the iconoclasm. - -Numbers of places, and they not necessarily of first rank nor -of special size, possessed more crosses than one. For instance, -Liverpool, in the Middle Ages but an insignificant village, as -compared with its present extent and importance, had its High Cross, -White Cross, Red Cross, Town-End Cross, and St Patrick's Cross--five -in all. - -At Brackley, in Northamptonshire, "there were," writes Leland, _circa_ -1535 to 1545, "three goodly crosses of stone in the town, one by south -at the end of the town, thrown down a late by thieves that sought for -treasure; another at the west end of St James' Church; the third very -antique, fair, and costly, in the inward part of the High Street. -There be divers tabernacles in this, with ladies and men armed. Some -say that the staplers of the town made this; but I think rather some -nobleman, lord of the town." - - [Illustration: 19. CHARLTON MACKEREL, SOMERSETSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 20. BISHOP'S LYDEARD, SOMERSETSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH RECEPTACLE FOR OFFERINGS] - -At Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire, there were six crosses, viz., -the churchyard cross (taken down in 1643); the potter's cross, in -the middle of the town, and one in each of the four roads leading -therefrom. The respective names of these were Collin's Cross, Crab -Cross, Wayte Cross, and Maple Cross. - -Melton Mowbray, in Leicestershire, had two crosses standing -respectively at the two principal entrances to the town. In 1584 the -"stock stone" at Thorpe Cross was sold for 2s. 2d. to John Wythers, -who, as part of the bargain, had to undertake to plant an ash, or a -thorn tree, in place of it. In the same year, 1584, the "stock stone -at Kettelby Cross, with one stone standing," was sold to William Trigg -for 5s., the purchaser undertaking, as in the last named case, to -plant a tree to mark the site. - -In addition to the principal cross--the High Cross--of Chester, there -was one near St Michael's church. Another cross stood at Barrs, one at -Northgate, and another at Spittal Boughton. All three were pulled down -in 1583 by order of Archbishop Sandys' visitors. A contributor to the -_Gentleman's Magazine_, in 1807, says: "The only remains of any cross -at this time," in or near Chester, "is upon the Roode, where races are -run." The said meadow, otherwise Roodee, or Roodeye, is situated by -the River Dee, not far west of Chester. In former days, down to about -1587, this meadow used to be submerged at high tide, all except one -little island, upon which stood an ancient cross of such venerable -repute, as an object of pilgrimage, as to give its name to the isle -itself. This cross is identical with "the swete rode of Chester," -referred to in the ribald verses, entitled "The Fantasie of Idolatrie" -printed under the date 1540 in Foxe's _Actes and Monuments_. When Dr -George Ormerod wrote his _Chester_ (finished in 1819), the base of -this cross, he said, "is, or was lately remaining, and was a few years -since replaced." - -In and around London, besides the well-known crosses of St Paul's, -Cheap, and Charing, there were at one time and another three more -crosses which may be mentioned. One, called Le Broken Cross, was -erected by the Earl of Gloucester in the reign of Henry III. (1216 -to 1272), but it did not stand very long. Its site is said to -have been the "place of the meeting of the Folkmote ... near St -Martin's-le-Grand, about midway between the Northgate of the precinct -(of St Paul's) and the church of St Vedast." On 5th September 1379 -agreements were drawn up for letting the stations about the Broken -Cross to five divers persons. The cross was bodily taken down in 1390. -Another was the Cow Cross at Smithfield, a monument referred to by -Stow as no longer standing when he wrote. Another instance was the -Strand Cross, near Covent Garden. This cross was hexagonal on plan, -and comprised four stages. It was standing in 1547, but was ultimately -removed, its site being occupied by the Maypole, which was spoken of -in 1700 as new. - - [Illustration: 21, 22, 23. OXFORD - - SOCKET OF JEWS' CROSS, PRESERVED IN ST FRIDESWIDE'S CHURCH] - -At Oxford there were at least two crosses, viz., the Jews' cross -(Figs. 21-23), and also a noted wayside cross, which the city records -show to have been in existence in 1331. It stood without the east -gate of the city, in front of the door of St John's Hospital, on or -near the site of the present entrance to Magdalen College. As to the -monument called the Jews' cross, its origin is historic. In 1268, -on Ascension Day, "as the usual procession of scholars and citizens -returned from St Frideswide's," and was passing the Jewish synagogue -in Fish Street (now St Aldate's), "a Jew suddenly burst from the group -of his friends ... and, snatching the crucifix from its bearer, trod -it underfoot." Part of the penalty exacted by the Crown was that the -Jews of Oxford had to erect, at their own cost, a cross of marble on -the spot where the outrage had been committed. The sentence, however, -was eventually modified to the extent that, instead of having to -endure a perpetual reminder of their humiliation and punishment -opposite to the very door of the synagogue, the Jews were allowed to -set up the expiatory cross in a less obnoxious position, an open plot -by Merton College. Such is the site where it used to be believed that -the cross stood. But a certain passage in the city records seems, -as the late Herbert Hurst pointed out, to contradict any previously -received identification of the site of the Jews' cross, and to locate -it rather on some spot near the north side of St Frideswide's church. -The passage in question is as follows: "In 1342, Adam Blaket was -indicted before John Fitz Perys and William le Iremonger, bailiffs -of Oxford, for that he, on the Thursday next before Palm Sunday, -feloniously entered by night the enclosure of the cemetery of the -Church of St Frideswyde, and there stole and carried off one arm," -or other portion (_vana_) "of the great (_capitalis_) cross of the -cemetery, of the value of half a mark, and afterwards broke it into -four parts." The purloined fragments were subsequently "found and -seized. He (Blaket) confessed to the taking, and pleaded that he was -at the time a lunatic and not _compos mentis_." - -Anyhow, if the precise site remains uncertain, there is extant a -sculptured socket, which, though it is only of stone, not marble, -Mr Hurst pronounced to be "an undoubted part" of the original Jews' -cross. This socket was described by Dr James Ingram in 1837 as -having been then "recently discovered, on the removal of a quantity -of rubbish from the foundation of the walls" of St Frideswide's, -embedded in the base of the diagonal buttress at the south-east angle -of St Lucy's chapel in the south transept. It is now preserved in the -gallery at the south end of the same transept. The four sides are -sculptured with what appear to be Old Testament subjects, although -only two are now identifiable. The first is the temptation of Adam -and Eve, with the serpent coiling round a tree between them; and -the second is the sacrifice of Isaac. The third appears to be the -sacrifice of an ox or calf; but the whole is much mutilated. Nothing -remains of it but the lower part of a human being on the left, and -the headless body of a cloven-footed quadruped, the forelegs of which -are in a kneeling posture. Above, a hand, issuing from a cloud, lets -down a pair of small tablets, or an open book. The subject of the -fourth side is a puzzle which has hitherto defied elucidation. It -represents three figures, the middle one seated between two upright -figures turning away, both having grotesque heads like apes. Below -the right foot of one of the figures is what appears to be a dragon -or demon, with its leg on the ground. At each angle of the stone is a -winged dragon, head downward, the tail terminating in characteristic -thirteenth-century foliage. The stone is 1 ft. 11 in. high, by 2 ft. 3 -in. square at the bottom, decreasing to 1 ft. 9 in. square at the top. -The greatest dimension, inclusive of the figures, is 2 ft. 6 in. in -width. - -It goes without saying that, so long as the land of Britain continued -to be open, _i.e._, not subdivided by enclosures--a process which -dates back no earlier than the fifteenth century--boundary stones for -defining the limits of contiguous parishes, as also of the properties -of individuals, assumed much greater importance than would be attached -to such marks in later times, after hedges had grown up and fences -come into use. The ancient boundary mark might sometimes be a plain -post or pillar, or it might take the form of a cross. The latter -practice is illustrated by the will of one John Cole, of Thelnetham, -Suffolk, dated 8th May 1527. The testator leaves 10s. for erecting -a new cross at the spot "at Short Grove's End, where the gospel is -said upon Ascension even," and, moreover, expressly directs that this -new cross is to be made on the model of one already standing, named -"Trapett Crosse at the Hawe Lane's End." The will further provides -for an income, arising from certain landed estates, sufficient to -yield annually a bushel and a half of malt "to be browne," and a -bushel of wheat to be baked, "to fynde a drinking" on the said day in -perpetuity, for the parishioners of Thelnetham "to drink at the crosse -aforenamed." Here, then, is an instance of a boundary cross explicitly -designed for the observances of the Rogation, or gang days. - -But later on in the sixteenth century, the old order of things was -reversed, and the authorities proceeded to stamp out the former -time-honoured usages, one after another. Thus Bishop Parkhurst's -Injunctions for the diocese of Norwich in 1569, Grindal's for the -province of York in 1571, and Sandys' Articles for the diocese of -London in the same year, alike prohibited the popish ceremony of -"staying at any crosses" during the perambulation of parish bounds on -Rogation days. - -Other ancient customs connected with standing crosses are illustrated -by the terms in which prelates of the reformed Church condemn them. -Thus, Bishop Bentham's Injunctions for the diocese of Coventry and -Lichfield in 1565 forbid bearers to set "down the corpse of any dead -body by any cross by the way, as they bring it to the burial"; and -again, later, Archbishop Grindal's Injunctions for the Province of -York in 1571 order that none shall "rest at any cross in carrying -any corpse to burying, nor shall leave any little crosses of wood -there." In 1585 the Bishop of St David's issued an Injunction to his -diocese, among the directions whereof, under the head of "Burial," it -is ordered: "First, that there be no crosses of wood made and erected -where they use to rest with the corpse; and especially that no wooden -crosses be set upon the cross in the churchyard." These strenuous -prohibitions only prove that the custom of placing wooden crosses -for the dead upon wayside or churchyard crosses must have prevailed -in ancient days, and was still tenaciously observed by the people in -spite of the drastic change of religion. It may possibly be that the -holes, sometimes found drilled in churchyard crosses, were provided, -among other purposes, for holding the pegs on which the small wooden -memorial crosses could be suspended. - -Crosses, again, were employed to define, in any given locality, the -extent of the right of sanctuary, that powerful safeguard of the age -of faith and charity against summary vengeance and injustice. Thus, -at Ripon inviolable security was assured within the radius of about a -mile around the shrine of St Wilfrid; and accordingly a stone cross -was placed close by the edge of each of the five roads leading to the -city, to mark the sanctuary bounds. Of these five crosses; the only -one whereof any appreciable remnant survives, is that of Sharow. It -consists of a massive stone step, with the broken stump of the old -shaft. - -At Wansford, in Northamptonshire, the River Nene is crossed by a -fourteenth-century stone bridge; and there, embedded in the ground, -in one of the refuges, formed by the triangular space on the top of -a cutwater, may be seen the socket of an ancient wayside cross. The -upper bed of the stone is barely above the level of the roadway, but -its rectangular outline, with the round mortice-hole in the centre, -is plain and unmistakable. There seems no reason to doubt that this -singularly interesting relic stands _in situ_, and the cross must thus -have borne as direct a relationship to the bridge, as a bridge chapel -would have done. - -Near the road leading to the north entrance of Ravenshelm (now -Ravensworth) Castle, County Durham, is an old cross, known as the -"Butter Cross." The story is told of this, as of many other crosses -and landmarks, that the country people used to leave their produce -here for the citizens of Newcastle to fetch at the time when the town -was stricken by the plague in the sixteenth century. The structure -consists of two steps, a massive socket, and a lofty shaft, surmounted -by a "four-hole" cross. - -Halfway between York and the village of Fulford are the remains of a -mediæval cross, at which, during the plague in 1665, the country folk -used to leave food, to be fetched by the citizens, so avoiding the -risk of contagion. This cross served in the same way again, as late as -the year 1833, during the cholera epidemic. - - [Illustration: 24. CHESTER - - HIGH CROSS] - -Historically important as having been erected to commemorate the -battle between English and Scots, and the defeat of the latter, on -17th October 1346, Nevill's Cross has an added interest, inasmuch as -a very full and graphic description of it has been preserved from -the pen of one who was evidently well acquainted with the monument. -In fact he had been, previously to the Dissolution, a monk in the -great Benedictine community at Durham. The following is his account, -extracted from the _Rites of Durham_, which he wrote in 1593: "On the -west side of the city of Durham there was a most notable, famous, and -goodly large cross of stone work, erected and set up to the honour -of God and for the victory had thereof, shortly after the battle of -Durham, in the same place where the battle was fought, called and -known by the name of Nevill's cross, which was set up at the cost and -charges of the Lord Ralph Nevill, being one of the most excellent -and chief in the said battle and field. Which cross had seven steps -about it every way, four squared to the socket that the stalk of the -cross did stand in, which socket was made fast to a four-squared -broad stone, being the sole or bottom stone of a large thickness that -the socket did stand upon, which is a yard and a half square about -every way, which stone was one of the steps and the eighth in number. -Also the said socket was made fast with iron and lead to the sole -stone in every side of the corner of the said socket stone, which was -three-quarters deep, and a yard and a quarter square about every way. -And the stalk of the cross going upward contained in length three -yards and a half up to the boss, being eight square about (octagonal), -all of one whole piece of stone, from the socket that it did stand -in to the boss above, into the which boss the said stalk was deeply -soldered with lead and solder. And in the midst of the stalk, in every -second square, was the Nevill cross (saltire) in a scutcheon, being -the Lord Nevill's arms, finely cut out and wrought in the said stalk -of stone. Also the nether end of the stalk was soldered deep in the -hole of the socket that it did stand in, with lead and solder, and -at every of the four corners of the said socket below was one of the -pictures of the four Evangelists, being Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, -very finely set forth and carved in stonemason work. And on the height -of the said stalk did stand a most large, fine boss of stone, being -eight square round about, finely cut out and bordered and marvellous -curiously wrought. And in every square of the nether side of the boss -in the masonwork was the Nevill's cross in a scutcheon in one square, -and the bull's head, having no scutcheon, in another square; and so -contained in every square after the same sort round about the boss. -And on the height of the said boss, having a stalk of stone, being -a cross standing a little higher than the rest, which was soldered -deeply with lead and solder into the hole of the said boss above; -whereon was finely cut out and pictured on both sides of the stalk of -the said cross the picture of our Saviour Christ, crucified with His -arms stretched abroad, His hands nailed to the cross, and His feet -being nailed upon the stalk of the said cross below, about a quarter -of a yard from above the boss, with the picture of our Lady, the -Blessed Virgin Mary, on the one side of Him, and the picture of St -John the Evangelist on the other side, most pitifully lamenting and -beholding His torments and cruel death, standing both on the height of -the said boss. All which pictures were very artificially and curiously -wrought altogether, and finely carved out of one whole entire stone, -some part thereof (being) through carved work, both on the east side -and the west side of the said cross, with a cover of stone likewise -over their head, being all most finely and curiously wrought together -out of the said whole stone, which cover of stone was covered all over -very finely with lead. And also, in token and remembrance of the said -battle of Durham, and to the perpetual memory and honour of the Lord -Nevill and his posterity for ever, it was termed by the title and name -of Nevill's Cross; which so did there stand and remain, most notorious -to all passengers, till of late, in the year of our Lord God 1589, in -the night time, the same was broken down and defaced by some lewd and -contemptuous wicked persons, thereunto encouraged, as it seemeth, by -some who love Christ the worse for the cross' sake, as utterly and -spitefully despising all ancient ceremonies and monuments." On the -above vivid description of Nevill's Cross no comment is required; but -it may not be amiss to append the note by the editors of the reissue -by the Surtees Society in 1903: "The socket is all that remains ... -The usual symbols of the four Evangelists are still to be seen on -the four corners," presumably beneath the places where the statues -themselves formerly stood, round about the shaft. The socket "has -recently been removed to a new mound some yards distant from the old -site. An old milestone stands where the stalk has been. Dr Raine (_St -Cuthbert_) states that documents in the Treasury refer to an earlier -Nevill's Cross in the same place; but he gives no references." - -Six and a half miles south of Durham, in the modern village of Ferry -Hill, is the fragment of an old stone cross, named Cleve's Cross. -This monument, according to tradition, commemorates the valour of -one, Roger de Ferry, who slew a monster wild boar, which had been the -terror of the whole countryside. - -At Wigan, Lancashire, are the rude remains of an ancient stone cross, -concerning which the following tradition is told. While Sir William -Bradshaigh was engaged in the holy wars or in travelling overseas, -his wife Mabel, weary of waiting for his return, bigamously married a -Welsh knight. After an absence of ten years, however, Sir William came -home again and, notwithstanding his pilgrim's habit, was recognised by -his wife. Whereupon the Welsh knight fled from the outraged husband, -who pursued, and, overtaking, slew him. Dame Mabel's confessor -enjoined her to walk barefoot once every week for the rest of her -life to do penance at a certain cross on the outskirts of Wigan. The -cross is the same which is situated at the end of Standishgate, and -has borne the significant name of "Mab's Cross" from the fourteenth -century to this day. The romantic story was used by Sir Walter -Scott as the basis of his novel, _The Betrothed_. This tradition of -employing crosses as places of public penance survives in the shape of -the old-fashioned stocks situated at the foot of village and market -crosses (Fig. 6). - -Of Banbury Cross, Oxfordshire, immortalised in nursery rhyme, it is -much to be regretted that no vestige remains. John Leland, between -about 1535 and 1545, writes in his _Itinerary_: "At the west part of -the street," which runs east and west through the town, "is a large -area, having a goodly cross with many degrees (steps) about it. In -this area is kept every Thursday a very celebrate market." - -As the churchyard or village cross was the centre of the life of the -smaller community, so also the market cross became the centre of the -municipal life of towns and boroughs. Thus, it was the custom, at the -close of the civic year, for the mayor and electors, being summoned -by the blowing of a horn, to assemble at the churchyard cross at -Folkestone, and at the market cross (now but a gaunt obelisk) at -Ripon, for the election of a mayor for the ensuing year of office. - -At Chester, "the High Cross (Fig. 24) was the scene of all great -civic functions. Here, again and again, royalty was received.... Here -proclamations were read out with due formality, and here the (famous) -mystery plays were represented." Among the official uses to which -market crosses were put was that of a recognised place for public -proclamations. Thus, it was at the market cross at Darlington, in -1312, that the Bishop's order, prohibiting a tournament, which had -been announced to take place, was read. This particular market cross, -by the way, no longer exists, but its site is perpetuated by a plain -cylindrical column, surmounted by a ball, erected at the cost of Dame -Dorothy Browne in 1727. - -At Wells it was a time-honoured custom that public proclamations -should always be read and published first at the High Cross. It was -from the cross at Lyme, Dorset, where he landed on 11th June 1685, -that the declaration of the rebel Duke of Monmouth was read; and it -was from the crosses of Taunton on 20th June, and Bridgwater, a day or -two later, that, emboldened by his reception in the west, he caused -himself to be proclaimed King of England--only to meet with crushing -humiliation and defeat from the forces of King James II. at Sedgemoor -on 6th July 1685. - -The strangest and ghastliest of all uses to which a village cross -could be put is that of a gallows; but, unless tradition lies, the -notorious Judge Jeffreys actually hanged a man on the cross at -Wedmore, Somerset. This identical cross, with its tall shaft and -sculptured head, still stands, though removed from its original site -beside the shambles to the garden of the house in which Judge Jeffreys -himself is believed to have lodged, presumably during the Bloody -Assize in the autumn of 1685, following the collapse of Monmouth's -rebellion. - -At Louth, Lincolnshire, a market cross was erected by the parish in -1521-22. That this structure was in the form of a roofed shelter, with -a lofty shaft rising from the midst, is evident from the circumstances -of the rebellion in 1536. The malcontents, it is recorded, had seized -a number of the official books, and were about to burn them unread, -when they came face to face with a certain priest, named William -Morland. Upon his remonstrating with them, they dragged him under -the High Cross and compelled him to examine the said books before -consigning them to the flames. Meanwhile, others of the crowd brought -the registrar, "and caused him, by a ladder, to climb up to the -altitude, or highest part, of the cross," who, in abject terror for -his life, sought to appease the mob by consenting to the destruction -of the books in his charge. A portion of this cross, being, perhaps, -so much of it as was adjudged to be superstitious, was taken down -in 1573. Three stones were purchased for mending the cross in 1632, -and further repairs, including tiling, were carried out in 1639. The -"cross pales," presumably the railings or posts about the cross, were -removed in October 1753; but a proposal for enclosing the structure, -"to keep it clean and decent," was carried by the parish in November -1769. Another cross was situated at a spot in Louth, known as Julian -Bower. This cross, according to the churchwardens' accounts, was -renewed in stone in 1544. - -At Peterborough the old market cross, long since swept away, was a -covered cross, as is evident from the town accounts, which note, in -1649, a sum of money "received under the market cross by several -fellows for the use of the poor"; and, again, a further sum in 1652 -"from the standers under the cross." - -In parts of Wales it was formerly the custom for labourers offering -themselves for hire to congregate at the village cross, bargains made -at such a spot being regarded as of more binding nature than those -made elsewhere. It was indeed considered peculiarly dishonourable and -impious to break a contract made at the cross. The village cross of -Rhuddlan, in Flintshire, was so much frequented for hiring purposes, -that the amount of the wages prevailing there became the standard -for the time being for the whole district. There was also this -distinction, viz., that labourers, hired at Rhuddlan, were hired for -a week, during which term the rate agreed upon could not be altered; -as distinguished from the crosses of other places where the custom was -for the labourer to be hired by the day only--the scale of his pay -being liable to fluctuate accordingly from day to day. - -In addition to the several kinds of crosses above enumerated, some -writers name "weeping crosses." What is meant by a weeping cross is -not clear, nor has anyone pretended to assign to such edifices, if -indeed they ever existed except in popular fallacy, any characteristic -features by which they may be recognised as distinct from other -crosses. For all practical purposes, then, the weeping cross is not. -Or again, it might well have been in any given case that a cross was -provided in order that a preacher might deliver his sermon from its -steps. But unless such a cross was constructed with the architectural -features of a pulpit cross (like those, for instance, at Iron Acton -(Fig. 144) or the Blackfriars' Cross at Hereford (Fig. 143)) then -surely it must only be reckoned with the normal type of churchyard or -village cross, from which it differs in no particular whatever. In a -word, the one standard by which the various crosses in the following -pages are grouped and classified is not their respective use and -purpose, real or imaginary, but their structural shape. - - - - - II. MONOLITH CROSSES - - -The peculiar form of many crosses of Cornish type, among others, -viz., a thick, rude monolith, with rounded head, is accounted for by -some authorities, who pronounce such crosses to be nothing else than -primeval menhirs. These venerated stones, then, it is stated, instead -of being demolished on the conversion of the populace from paganism, -were retained, and, after having the crucifixion or some other -Christian device incised, or sculptured in bas-relief, upon the upper -portion of the shaft, pressed into the service of the newly adopted -faith. - -Such, at any rate, was the practice of St Patrick, in the fifth -century. It is true that if in any place he found the old -superstitious worship too deep-rooted and perverse to admit of -transformation, as it befell at Magh Sleacht, in County Cavan, where -he encountered a group of thirteen pagan menhirs, he could not do -but overthrow them without ruth; but whenever, on the other hand, as -beside Lough Hacket, in County Galway, he found other menhirs, the -popular regard for which was capable of being diverted into Christian -channels, he spared the pillar-stones, sanctifying them with holy -names and emblems. - -The cutting away of certain portions of the top of the stone would -result in a short-armed cross; or, again, a little shaping, combined -with piercing, would produce the four-holed cross, so-called, viz., -a cross within a ring or circle. It should be remarked at the outset -that the dating of these early monuments is a study which has hitherto -been strangely neglected. Antiquaries, like the late J. Romilly Allen, -for example, have analysed and codified the ornamented motifs of early -crosses with methodical precision; but the chronological side of the -subject is still a matter of debate. So widely do experts differ -that sometimes it happens that the same monument will be assigned -by some to the fifth or sixth, and by others to later dates ranging -to the twelfth century. Even when the cross happens to be inscribed -with runes, which might be expected to afford an authentic clue as -to its date and origin, the readings and interpretations propounded -by connoisseurs are so irreconcilable as to make one sceptical of -arriving at truth or finality through their guidance. The whole -question of chronology yet awaits investigation by some competent -authority. It must be understood, therefore, that the dates attributed -to the several examples in this section cannot pretend to be anything -else but approximate, although every care has been taken to obtain the -most approved estimate. - - [Illustration: 25, 26. BEWCASTLE, CUMBERLAND - - TWO VIEWS OF MONOLITH IN THE CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 27, 28. EYAM, DERBYSHIRE - - VIEWS OF CROSS IN CHURCHYARD, SHOWING FRONT AND BACK] - - [Illustration: 29, 30. SANDBACH, CHESHIRE - - DETAILS OF CROSSES, WITH PLAN, SHOWING HOW THEY STAND] - - [Illustration: 31. SANDBACH, CHESHIRE] - -South of the church, in the churchyard at Bewcastle, Cumberland, -stands an obelisk or shaft of an early cross (Figs. 3, 25, and 26), -strikingly like the famous cross at Ruthwell, in Dumfriesshire. -The head of the latter is fairly complete, but in the case of the -Bewcastle cross "the head was broken off long ago," wrote Bishop G. F. -Browne. "About the year 1600, it was sent ... to Lord Arundel, and, -beyond a description in Camden, with an attempt at a representation of -the Runic inscription it bore, nothing has been heard of it since." -The height of the surviving part is 14 ft. 6 in. It is incised with -Anglian runes, which, however, are so much worn, and have been so -variously rendered, that no reliance can be placed on their alleged -authority. Scholars also differ widely as to the date of the cross, -some placing it as early as 665, and others even as late as 1150. The -west face comprises three standing human figures, in three tiers, the -lowest depicting a man with a hawk, while the middle one, a nimbed -figure, has been identified as Christ setting His feet upon the heads -of monsters. On the east face is one long uninterrupted vine scroll, -with birds and beasts in the volutes. The north and south faces are -subdivided into panels containing chequers, interlaced knots, and -scrollwork. In one of the scrolls on the south face is the oldest -detached dial in existence, as distinct from dials on the walls of -buildings. It presents a combination of the old 24-system and the -octaval system; but the gnomon is missing. - -In the churchyard of Eyam, Derbyshire, is a peculiarly handsome -cross, of Anglo-Saxon workmanship, of about the year 700 (Figs. 27 -and 28). The cross now measures 9 ft. 4 in. high; but the head is -detached and obviously incomplete, if indeed it belongs to the shaft -at all. Assuming, however, that it does belong, the existing lines -and proportions would make the cross in its original state attain a -total height of some 11 ft. 6 in. The width across the arms is 3 ft. 3 -in. Both faces of the cross-top are sculptured with four angels each, -that one at the intersection being encircled with a ring. All that -part of the head below the central medallion is missing. The obverse -of the shaft has two panels of figure-subjects above a very rich and -elaborate interlaced knot-ornament. The edges have an interlaced -pattern derived from a six-cord plait. The reverse of the shaft is -occupied with the volutes of a "vine scroll." - -In the churchyard of Bakewell, Derbyshire, stands the relic of a -monolith with short-limbed cross-head (Fig. 39). It dates from about -800 to 900; and, exclusive of the boulder which forms the base, stands -7 ft. 10 in. high, by about 2 ft. wide over all at the widest part. -One portion is sculptured with four compartments of figure-subjects, -presumably scriptural, the uppermost one being apparently a -crucifixion, though the stone is too much curtailed, and the ornament -too broken, for certainty on the point. The other face and the sides -are occupied with so-called vine scroll, an adaptation of debased -classical Roman work. - - [Illustration: 32. IRTON, CUMBERLAND - - CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD] - -The two mutilated crosses standing side by side in the market square -at Sandbach, Cheshire (Figs. 29, 30, and 31), have had an eventful -history. Dating from the ninth century, it is on record that they -were still standing in 1585; but, since they are not mentioned by -Webb in 1621, the assumption is that they had been broken up in the -interval. Anyhow, the different parts became dispersed. Some were -taken, by Sir John Crewe, to Utkinton Hall, where they remained -until his death in 1711. They were subsequently removed to Tarporley -rectory. Thence, after Cole, the antiquary, had seen and made drawings -of them in 1757, they were taken to Oulton Park, where they were seen -and drawn by S. Lysons. Other portions, however, of these crosses -never left Sandbach, some of the lower parts being built into a wall -by the town well, while the summit was found to have been buried in -a garden. Lastly, through the zealous instrumentality of Dr George -Ormerod, the various fragments were collected, and re-erected at -Sandbach in September 1816. "The two crosses stand on a substructure -of two steps, with two sockets, in which the crosses are fixed. At the -angle of each stage of the platform are stone posts, on which figures -have been rudely carved." The head of either cross had been broken -off, so that their proper height has been reduced. "The crosses are -now of unequal height.... The taller one is 16 ft. 8 in. high; the -shorter one, 11 ft. 11 in." high. Both crosses are of rectangular -section, and tapering. It is not easy to convey in words an adequate -idea of the extraordinary richness and variety of their sculptured -ornament, which includes patterns derived from three-cord, four-cord, -and eight-cord plaits, and figure of eight knots, as well as "much -the finest series of figure subjects ... probably in all England." -On the larger cross the Crucifixion amid the Evangelistic symbols, -and beneath it the Nativity, with the ox and ass adoring, are clearly -discernible; but the identification of other subjects is in many cases -only conjectural. "The smaller cross bears a variety of human figures -placed within ... lozenges." The stone of the crosses is of lower -Silurian formation, practically indestructible by the natural action -of the weather, a circumstance which accounts for the remarkable -preservation of those parts which the wanton hand of man has spared. - -The monolith cross in the churchyard at Irton, Cumberland (Fig. 32), -stands 9 ft. 8 in. high, and, with the exception of the cross-head, -the surface of which is much worn, is a singularly perfect specimen. -Its edges are ornamented with quasi-classic vine scrolls. The obverse -and reverse are covered with interlaced ornaments and key patterns. -The uppermost panel on one face is a diaper formed by a repetition -of small Greek crosses, set diagonally. The date of this cross is -approximately 950. - -The tall sandstone cross, now in the churchyard of Gosforth, in -Cumberland (Fig. 33), is classed by the late Mr J. Romilly Allen as -belonging to a well-known type, Mercian in origin, in which the shaft -is cylindrical below and rectangular in the upper part. It may be -dated from about 1000 to 1066. A second cross, which is recorded to -have stood at a distance of 7 ft. from the first named, disappeared, -probably in the year 1789. In the extant cross the four flat faces of -the upper part of the shaft gradually die off into the round surface -of the lower part, giving a semicircular line of intersection, which -is emphasised by a roll moulding, forming a continuation of the -mouldings on the four square angles. The four flat surfaces exhibit -a great variety of human and animal forms, with zoomorphic ornament -and abstract plaits. Some of the subjects have been interpreted as -illustrating the stories of Heimdal and Loke, from Norse mythology, -though the whole is actually surmounted by a Christian four-holed -cross for head. The round part of the shaft in crosses of this type is -not, as a rule, ornamented. The Gosforth cross, therefore, is in this -respect exceptional. Its height is 14 ft. 6 in. - - [Illustration: 33. GOSFORTH, CUMBERLAND - - CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD] - -Within Whitford parish, Flintshire, about a mile from the village, -on open ground, and quite unprotected, stands an ancient monolith -cross, known as Maen y Chwyfan (Fig. 36). The name can be traced back -at least to the year 1388. The first part of it is identical with the -first syllable of the word menhir. The last part of the name is of -doubtful signification. Some have thought that the whole means "St -Cwyfan's stone." The precise age of the cross is likewise doubtful, -but it may be dated from about 950 to 1000. Its total height above -ground is 11 ft. 3 in., by 11 in. thick, the stem diminishing in width -from 2 ft. 5 in. at the base to 1 ft. 8 in. at the neck of the solid -wheel-head, the diameter of which is 2 ft. 4 in. The flat stone, -through which the stem passes for support, measures 4 ft. 11 in. by 4 -ft. 4 in. The cross is incised on the edges, as well as on both faces; -though almost all the ornament of the lower half of the reverse, or -west face, has perished. The condition of the obverse, or east face, -is by far the most perfect, and exhibits a wonderful combination -of patterns--crosses, knots, osier-plaits, and other devices. In -the head, the Triquetra, or three-cornered knot, is conspicuous. -Altogether the Maen y Chwyfan is the most important and striking -monument of its kind in North Wales. - - [Illustration: 34. WHALLEY, LANCASHIRE - - CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 35. CHEADLE, CHESHIRE - - CROSS, NOW IN YORK MUSEUM] - -Writing in 1872, Mr J. T. Blight described the early twelfth-century -cross (now in the cemetery of Lanherne House Nunnery, Mawgan-in-Pyder, -Cornwall) (Fig. 38) as having been "removed several years since -from the Chapel Close of the Barton of Roseworthy, in the parish of -Gwinear." The crucifix, sculptured in low relief, is of the rudest -and most primitive character, while the cross itself belongs to the -class known as "four-holed." It is of Pentewan stone. Interlaced work -forms the greater part of the ornament, and on the lower portion of -the shaft, on either face, is an ancient inscription. The shaft has an -unmistakable entasis. - -The head of another four-holed cross, the holes having the shape of -rough trefoils, is to be seen in the churchyard of St Columb Major, -Cornwall. Both faces of the cross are similarly sculptured with the -Triquetra (Fig. 37). The height is 3 ft. 1œ in. by 2 ft. 9 in. -wide, over all, the material granite. - -At Cheadle, Cheshire, in 1875, there were dug up, in a brickfield -opposite to the Convalescent Hospital, the fragments of an early -cross, probably of the tenth century, of Anglo-Saxon type (Fig. 35). -In each limb of the cross, as well as at the intersection, is a convex -boss. The material of the cross is a coarse grit stone. The dimensions -are 1 ft. 4 in. wide at the greatest width, by 2 ft. 8 in. in height. -It is now preserved at the Museum at York. - -In the parish churchyard of Whalley, Lancashire, stands a cross (Fig. -34), which was, no doubt, originally a monolith, but has been broken -across, and appears to have had its fractured edges trimmed and -squared. At any rate, part of the stem, perhaps as much as 2 ft. of -the height, where the cross-head rests upon it, is obviously missing. -The arms also are missing, but the cross was originally of much the -same outline as that of the cross at Irton and that from Cheadle. -The ornament of the Whalley cross, however, is of much more refined -execution. The date of it may be about 1000. - -In the churchyard of Wolverhampton, Staffordshire, opposite to the -south porch, stands an ancient shaft, 14 ft. high, traditionally known -as the Danes' cross (Fig. 2). It rises from a round stone, 7 ft. in -diameter, and its form is that of a cylinder, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, -tapering toward the neck. Almost the entire surface of the shaft is -covered with sculptured ornament of about the year 1150 to 1175. There -is, or was, a somewhat similar example in the churchyard of Leek, in -the same county. - -Another twelfth-century cross is that inscribed in memory of Ralph's -son, William, at Fletton, in Huntingdonshire (Figs. 40, 41). -This cross is a monolith, though the continuity of the design is -interrupted by a heavy fillet, forming a horizontal band round the -middle of the shaft. - - [Illustration: 36. WHITFORD, FLINTSHIRE - - EAST SIDE OF CROSS, NAMED MAEN Y CHWYFAN] - - [Illustration: 37. ST COLUMB MAJOR, CORNWALL - - HEAD OF A CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 38. MAWGAN-IN-PYDER, CORNWALL - - LANHERNE HOUSE NUNNERY, CROSS FROM ROSEWORTHY, GWINEAR] - - [Illustration: 39. BAKEWELL, DERBYSHIRE - - CROSS IN CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 40, 41. FLETTON, HUNTINGDONSHIRE - - FRONT AND BACK OF CROSS] - - [Illustration: 42. HEXHAM, NORTHUMBERLAND - - CROSS AT ST GILES' HOSPITAL] - - [Illustration: 43. WOOLER, HEDGELEY MOOR, NORTHUMBERLAND - - PERCY'S CROSS] - - [Illustration: 44. BLANCHLAND, NORTHUMBERLAND - - CROSS IN THE ABBEY CHURCHYARD] - -The remains of the cross in the grounds of the Spital at Hexham -(Fig. 42) offer an instance of vine scrollwork, derived from debased -late-classic ornament. Another side of the shaft is sculptured in low -relief with a primitive representation of the Crucifixion between two -figures, which, however, bear but slight resemblance to the Mary and -John of post-Conquest tradition. - -On the plain of Hedgeley Moor, near Wooler, in the north part of -Northumberland, stands a monolith, commonly known as Percy's Cross -(Fig. 43), because it is alleged to mark the spot where, on 24th April -1464, Sir Ralph Percy fell in a desperate attempt, on the part of -Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., to recover the throne for her -demented husband. So rude and primitive is this monument that it is -hard to believe that it could have been executed in the technically -skilled period of the fifteenth century. It displays conspicuously, -however, the badges of the house of Percy--the luces, or pike, the -mascles, and the crescents, sculptured on its eight sides. The -pillar stands on a plain, rugged socket. This cross became the -rallying point, where the men of the north, opposed to the religious -innovations of Henry VIII., gathered under the banner of the Five -Wounds, badge of the ill-starred Pilgrimage of Grace, in 1536-7. -Percy's Cross, on Hedgeley Moor, must not be confounded with the Percy -Cross at Otterburn, erected to commemorate the battle of Chevy Chase, -fought on 19th August 1388. The latter cross is a simple monolith, -which has a decided entasis, and is mounted on a pile of masonry, -resembling but roughly a flight of circular steps. - -The cross in the churchyard of Blanchland Abbey, Northumberland (Fig. -44), is an interesting example of Gothic design applied to a monolith. -From the style of its head this cross can scarcely date back any -earlier than the late-thirteenth, or early-fourteenth century. - - - - - III. THE SHAFT-ON-STEPS TYPE - - -The average form of standing cross, and such to which the vast -majority of them, not in churchyards only, but also on village -greens and squares, or by the wayside, belongs, is that of the -shaft-on-steps type. The fully developed cross of this sort consists -of steps or calvary, socket, shaft or stem, capital or knop, and -head. The latter, it should be remarked, is that part of the cross -which, no doubt on account of the sacred or legendary significance -of the figures sculptured upon it, is now most commonly absent. The -remaining elements consisting of such simple units, it is truly -wonderful how great variety of treatment is to be observed in crosses -of the kind. The resources of their design may almost be said to be -unlimited. It rarely happens that any two examples are found quite -alike in all respects. For though the simplest of motifs be adopted, -yet a minute change of detail, such as a hollow chamfer instead of -a plain, flat bevel, or the setting of an angle pedestal diagonally -instead of squarely with the side it adjoins, or some such other -slight divergence, if insignificant in itself, will not fail to -produce, by consistent repetition, a widely different result in the -aggregate. The parts which lend themselves more appropriately than the -rest to ornamental treatment are the socket, the knop, and most of -all, the head. The steps, whether circular, rectangular, hexagonal, -or octagonal on plan, are not made the subject for ornament, except -rarely, and then it is confined to a moulded overhanging drip, or -a moulded set-off in the angle between the tread and the riser, as -for example, at Bishop's Lydeard (Fig. 20), Charlton Mackerel (Fig. -19), and North Petherton, in Somersetshire (Fig. 77), and Raunds, in -Northamptonshire (Fig. 45). Raunds cross has two steps, and the riser -of the upper one is enriched with late-Gothic quatrefoil panelling. -Such treatment, however, is altogether exceptional; and even in this -case can scarcely be authentic, seeing that the quatrefoils are not -properly spaced, as they must have been spaced, had they been designed -for the position they now occupy. - - [Illustration: 45. RAUNDS, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - -On the other hand, the stone block or socket, into which the shaft -is mortised (and furthermore, as a rule, secured with lead), was -regarded as a thoroughly appropriate place for ornament. It is most -usually square on plan, and its upper bed made octagonal by means of -steps or broaches, in the shaping of which a very great variety is -manifested. The commonest form of step is diamond-pointed, but there -are others which take the shape of a sort of round hump. Examples of -plain diamond steps occur in the sockets of Thatcham (Fig. 61) and -Water Perry (Fig. 4) crosses. The socket at Stanway, Gloucestershire -(Fig. 60), with its severely geometrical triangles and lozenges, is -of most unusual form. It measures 1 ft. 10 in. high, exclusive of the -fractured stump of the shaft. Convex angle-stops occur at Carlton -(Fig. 63), Cumnor (Fig. 59), Stringston (Fig. 5), and Wicken (Fig. -62). The socket of the last-named cross is 2 ft. 6 in. square by 1 -ft. 8 in. high. Its octagonal shaft is 11œ in. square at the foot, -with pointed stops reaching up to a height of 9 in. Some of the round -stops, at the corners of sockets, have a diagonal ridge extending -to the outer angle, as at Carlton (Fig. 63), Stevington (Fig. 17), -and Stringston (Fig. 5). The knop of the last-named, it may be -mentioned, consisted of four demi-angels, holding shields, but their -heads have been broken off, and themselves made almost unrecognisable -through defacement. To resume, the sockets of the crosses at Elmswell -in Suffolk, at Bradford Abbas and Stalbridge (Fig. 58), both in -Dorsetshire, and of at least a dozen crosses in Somersetshire, -including Doulting (Figs. 74, 75, and 76), Evercreech, Minehead, North -Petherton (Fig. 77), West Pennard, and Wraxall, have angle-pedestals -on every alternate cant of the octagon. These pedestals may have been -designed for statuettes of the four Evangelists. Whatever the subject -of the figures, the effect of the whole group, with the tall shaft in -the middle, must have been very handsome. At Dundry (Fig. 78) and Wick -St Laurence, both in Somersetshire, instead of detached or engaged -pedestals, there are, at the angles of the square socket, clasping -buttresses with mouldings. The plan of Dundry, Wraxall, and Yatton -is made extra elaborate and complex by means of a plinth, forming an -eight-pointed figure, inserted between the socket and the topmost step -of the calvary. - -At Headington (Figs. 69 and 70), Ombersley (Figs. 66, 67, and 68), -Raglan (Fig. 71), and Wicken (Fig. 62), the sockets are handsomely -panelled with late-Gothic tracery ornament, principally quatrefoils. -The sockets of Doulting (Figs. 74, 75, and 76) and West Pennard -crosses, in Somersetshire, have emblems of the Passion carved on -the sides; that at Charlton Mackerel (Fig. 19) has the Evangelistic -symbols in the same position. More rarely, as at Bishop's Lydeard -(Fig. 20) and Long Sutton, both also in Somersetshire, and at -Rampisham and Stalbridge (Fig. 58), both in Dorsetshire, and -Yarnton, Oxfordshire (Figs. 51 and 52), the panels of the socket -contain sculptured figure-subjects. An octagonal socket at Westcote, -Gloucestershire, has a standing figure under a trefoiled niche on -each side. This is an early example, since its date is the thirteenth -century. At Didmarton, in the same county, is a fourteenth-century -socket, octagonal on plan, having a half-length figure sculptured on -every alternate side. - -The churchyard cross at Dorchester, Oxfordshire (Fig. 65), had lost -its original head by the time that Buckler made his sketch in 1813. -According to him, the lower step was 6 in. high, and the next one -above it 10 in. high. The socket was 1 ft. 7 in. square on plan, by -1 ft. 6 in. high; the shaft being a monolith 8 ft. 6œ in. high -from socket to head. As to the socket, the transition from square to -octagon, by means of stops, is very effective. The cross has since -suffered drastic "restoration." The treatment of the stops on the -socket may be compared with that at Keyingham, Yorkshire (Fig. 64), -and Headington, Oxfordshire (Fig. 69). - -The Whitefriars' cross (Figs. 72 and 73), so-called, about a mile from -Hereford, is believed to have been built, shortly after the great -plague at Hereford in the fourteenth century, by Lewis Charlton, -Bishop from 1361 to 1369. On the summit of a lofty flight of seven -steps rises a high pedestal, hexagonal on plan, each side of which has -a sunk panel, sculptured with a shield charged with a lion rampant. -The cornice is embattled, and the whole was crowned with a moulded -socket. Such was the state of the monument in 1806, the shaft and -cross-head having completely disappeared, thereby reducing the total -height to some 15 ft. A new shaft and cross, disproportionately large, -were "restored" by the year 1875. The peculiar feature of this cross -is the lofty pedestal, which scarcely has any parallel, with the -exception of the crosses of Helpston, in Northamptonshire, and of -Aylburton and Clearwell, both in Gloucestershire. - -As to the shaft, whether it be cylindrical, clustered, square, or -octagonal, it usually tapers, but is very seldom ornamented, beyond -having a stop near the foot of each alternate cant in an octagonal -stem. A few crosses may now be described, illustrating different -treatments of the shaft. - -The cross in the churchyard at Rocester, Staffordshire (Figs. 47 and -48), has three steps, each 6 in. high. The socket is 2 ft. 4 in. high, -and the tapering stem, which is 1 ft. square over all at the bottom, -is 11 ft. 9 in. high, exclusive of the capital. The stem, in the -form of four keel-moulded shafts, with a vertical strip of dog-tooth -ornament between them, must be of early date, possibly as early as -1230. - -The socket of the Great Grimsby churchyard cross (Fig. 49) may be -earlier still, although the stem or shaft itself might be somewhat -later, perhaps about the middle of the thirteenth century. On plan -the stem consists of four engaged shafts, each with a keel-mould on -its outermost projection. The step is 3 ft. 8 in. square by 9 in. -high. Next is a socket, 2 ft. 7 in. square on plan, consisting of two -stages, the lower having a trefoiled arcade on each of its four sides, -the upper one octagonal, with mouldings. The shaft is 6 ft. 2 in. -high, including the capital. The total height is 10 ft. 3 in. - -The village cross at Harringworth, Northamptonshire, has, not unlike -the last example, a shaft composed of a cluster of eight engaged -columns. It is apparently of late thirteenth-century date. - -Two Oxfordshire examples, both of about the same date, 1290, viz., the -churchyard cross at Yarnton (Figs. 51 and 52) and the market cross at -Eynsham (Fig. 50), are adorned with sculpture, notably with canopied -figures in low relief surrounding the foot of the shaft. Both shafts -are much weather-worn, and that of Yarnton has lost its upper half, -but the design of the two crosses appears to have been very similar. -Yarnton cross stands upon two circular steps, the lower one of which -has a diameter of about 6 ft. 9 in. or 7 ft. The socket has a circular -plinth cut out of the same block of stone, and is on plan a quatrefoil -of four circles, with the corners of a smaller square occupying the -inner angles. The moulded capping is also cut in the same block. On -each of the four semicircular faces is a niche incised with a figure -in armour, kneeling, except on the eastern face, which exhibits a -figure reclining somewhat in the familiar "Dying Gaul" attitude. The -figure on the south face has a shield on the left arm. The bottom of -the shaft is square on plan, with beaded angles, while the other part -is on plan a circle, surrounded by four smaller engaged circles, or -segments of circles. The figures round the shaft are four saints, now -too much worn to be identified, under steep gables, with crockets. The -cross at Eynsham differs from that at Yarnton more in the socket than -in any other part. The Eynsham socket is a square block, with a figure -sculptured at each angle, and gabled panels between. The upper part of -the shaft is complete, and shows what must have been the form of the -portion now wanting from Yarnton cross. - -Another instance of an ornamented shaft is that of Mitchel Troy -(Fig. 57). There the stem, a monolith of reddish sandstone, about 1 -ft. by 8 in. on plan at the foot, tapers to about half the above -dimensions at the point where it is broken off, at a height of about -11 ft. The angles are chamfered, and the chamfers are ornamented -with ball-flowers alternating with shields, sixteen ball-flowers -on each chamfer. The date of this cross is the fourteenth century. -Two Northamptonshire crosses, those of Higham Ferrers (_c._ 1320) -and Irthlingborough (_c._ 1280) respectively (Figs. 55 and 56), -are ornamented with sculptured decorations throughout the whole -height of the shaft. At Ashton-under-Hill, Gloucestershire, the -face of the shaft of the cross, about a third of the distance up -from the bottom, is ornamented with a scutcheon. A certain number -of Somersetshire crosses has a figure under a niche on one side of -the shaft. In cases where, as at Burton St David, Broadway, Holford, -Montacute, and Wiveliscombe, the niche and figure are sunk into the -body of the monolith itself, there can scarcely be any objection -to the device. But where, on the contrary, the statue, set on a -bracket, stands prominently forward beyond the face of the shaft, the -effect is anything but happy. For then the shaft looks so weighted -down in one direction as almost to overbalance. The crosses at -Bishop's Lydeard (Fig. 20) and Crowcombe (Fig. 118) are particularly -exaggerated instances in point; others only less marked being the -crosses at Drayton (Fig. 54), Fitzhead, Heathfield, Hinton St George, -and Horsington (Fig. 53). But this peculiarity is not confined -to Somersetshire. Thus, at Stalbridge, Dorsetshire (Fig. 58), a -conspicuous statue and niche occur on one side of the shaft, while at -Bradford Abbas, in the same county, the churchyard cross, though much -decayed, affords unmistakable traces of having had a statue sculptured -on each of the four sides of the shaft. A similar arrangement is to be -found in Langley Abbey cross, Norfolk. - - [Illustration: 46. ROTHERSTHORP, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - HEAD OF CROSS] - -The knop, though richly sculptured, is rarely the pronounced and -distinctive feature that it is at Maughold (Figs. 86, 87), St -Donat's (Figs. 108, 109), and Sherburn-in-Elmet (Fig. 113), or in -the so-called Ravenspurne cross, a monument now standing at Hedon, -Yorkshire (Fig. 79). The chamfers of its shaft have traces of figures -about midway, and the head is large and imposing, but too ill-defined -for the subject to be identified. It has, however, been described -as having "curious sculptured emblems of our Lord and the Blessed -Virgin Mary." The cross is said to have been erected to commemorate -the landing of Henry IV. in 1399 at Ravenspur, near Spurn Head, in -the East Riding. Edward IV. also landed there in 1471. Ravenspur was -a well-known seaport in former times, but its site is now completely -submerged. The cross stood on the seashore at Kilnsea until 1818, when -it was removed further inland, for safety from the encroaching sea. It -was eventually set up in the town of Hedon. - -Usually the knop is reduced to a mere bead, or at any rate is nothing -more prominent than the expanding cove beneath the actual head, as at -Ampney Crucis, Derwen, and in the two crosses at Cricklade. A factor -of immense importance in preserving the organic coherence between -shaft and head (wherever the latter takes the form of a cross) is -that the lines of the shaft below the knop and of the lower limb of -the cross above the knop, should be absolutely continuous, as though -passing through, but not interrupted by, the knop. This requisite is -satisfactorily exemplified by two very fine Lincolnshire specimens, -viz., the well proportioned cross at Somersby (Fig. 81), and one, now -at Keyingham, Yorkshire (Fig. 80), known, from the name of him who -set it up there, as the Owst cross, since the exact place from which -it originally came in Lincolnshire has not been recorded. In both -these instances, the handsome knop, moulded and embattled, is but a -surrounding band or ring, which occasions no sort of break in the -composition, nor interferes at all with the even trend of its upward -lines. At Somersby the motif of the crenellated knop is admirably -followed up in the battlements of the gabled roof over the head of the -crucifix. The shaft is octagonal, and the cross stands altogether 15 -ft. high. - -The crown and glory of the cross is the head, and it was upon this -that the choicest art of the sculptor was lavished; and it is -instructive to trace the development from the rudimentary crudities of -the thirteenth to the perfect maturity of the late-fifteenth century. - -In pulling down an old barn in the village of Rothersthorp, -Northamptonshire, in 1869, there was found the head of a cross -(Fig. 46), which was placed in the parish church in about 1890. The -stone is 2 ft. 9 in. high by 1 ft. 3 in. wide. The crucifix, which -is surrounded by a ring, springs from a mass of thirteenth-century -foliage, the capital beneath being surrounded with a belt of foliage -of similar kind. - -At Halesowen, Worcestershire (Fig. 82), in or about 1915, there was -found, built into the walls of a cottage, the sculptured head of -a cross, which may date as far back as 1300 to 1320. It is of red -sandstone, and much weatherworn, besides the deliberate defacement -which it has undergone. On plan it is an oblong square, 10 in. by -6 in., the extreme height being 1 ft. 7œ in. On one side is a -crucifixion without attendant figures; and, on the opposite side, -the Blessed Virgin enthroned, holding her Divine Son on one arm -and an apple in the other hand. The ends of the cross-head contain -unidentified figures, one a female saint, conjectured to be St Agatha, -the other an ecclesiastic, vested in amice and chasuble, and holding -his crosier in his left hand. That which he wears on his head is -broken, but it looks more like a tiara than a mitre. This cross-head -is a peculiarly interesting example, not only because of its early -date, but also because its existence is hardly known. - -The cross-head found among the ruins of Croxden Abbey, Staffordshire -(Fig. 88), and sketched by Buckler in the first half of the nineteenth -century, is of a somewhat unusual type for its purpose, with handsome -crocketing. The Christ has the feet crossed and fastened with a single -nail in the newer fashion, though the arms are, in the ancient mode, -perfectly horizontal. The work dates probably from the closing years -of the fourteenth century. - -How widely individual treatment might vary within a comparatively -short space of time is illustrated by the fragments of the cross-head, -found built into the east gable of North Hinksey church, in Berkshire, -near Oxford (Figs. 83, 84, and 85). The cross is of rich floriation, -overlaid upon which is a perfectly plain narrow cross, bearing the -image of the Crucified, Whose feet are crossed, as at Croxden; while, -on the contrary, the arms and hands are dragged upward in the fashion -that prevailed at a much later period. This cross-head belongs to -about the middle of the fourteenth century. The shaft and steps still -stand in the churchyard, to the south of the chancel. The shaft is -fractured at a height of 8 ft. 9 in. from the socket; the total -height, including socket and steps, is 13 ft. 8 in. - -At Bleadon, Somersetshire, "a few years ago," wrote C. Pooley in 1877, -during the restoration of the church, in removing the plaster, there -was found embedded in a recess in the east wall of the porch, the -sculptured stone head of a cross of the time of Edward III. (Fig. 89). -The side exposed, the reverse, portrays the Blessed Virgin and Child -between two donors, a man and woman, kneeling. The remarkable feature -of this cross-head is the gilding and polychrome decoration, of which -considerable traces had survived. The crucifix, on the obverse, being -turned inward to the wall, is hidden from view; but, since this -particular cross belongs to the same group as those, for example, of -Stoke-sub-Hamdon, Stringston, and Wedmore, in the same county, in -which the upper part of the figure-sculpture is pierced through from -front to back, the arms and upper limb of the cross remain clearly -visible from the reverse side. - -In the churchyard of Newmarket, Flintshire (Figs. 90, 91), stands -a remarkable cross, with octagonal socket and shaft, both having -diamond-pointed stops. The shaft is 6 ft. 5 in. high, and surmounted -with a massive capital or knop. The head is tabernacled on all four -faces, but its end niches are empty. The niches of the obverse and -reverse have each a crucifixion, the one unaccompanied, the other -between Mary and John. This curious anomaly of a double yet divergent -representation in one and the same cross-head occurs also at Mitton, -Yorkshire. The cross-head at Newmarket measures 3 ft. 6 in. wide at -its widest, by 1 ft. 6 in. from front to back. The date of the work is -about the middle of the fourteenth century. - -At Maughold, Isle of Man (Figs. 86, 87), just outside the churchyard -gate, and at a distance of about 90 ft. from the north-west angle of -the church, stands a cross of very remarkable design, quite unlike -the distinctive Manxland type. It is, in fact, of middle-Gothic, -belonging, to all appearance, with its blunt cusps and its turgid -crockets and finial, to the approximate period of 1330 to 1340. Some -authorities, however, assign it to a date some hundred years or more -later. The head and knop are in two pieces, which, being of St Bees -sandstone, a material foreign to the island, must have been imported -thither, perhaps already carved complete, ready for fixing. The knop -is square, measuring 14 in. every way. The head is 2 ft. 7 in. high, -by 18 in. wide at the widest part, by 8 in. thick. Both head and shaft -are tenoned into the knop. The shaft, 5 ft. 1 in. high, is octagonal -throughout the greatest extent of its length, but the alternate sides -have stops, so that the shaft is actually square on plan at top and -bottom. The head is of most unusual shape, the principal panel on -either side presenting a sort of rough resemblance to a pointed spade; -and containing, on the west, a Madonna and Child, and, on the east, -a crucifixion, with the arms spread out quite horizontally, after -the manner of earlier tradition. On the knop, under the crucifix, -is a heater-shaped shield, bearing, alone of the six shields in the -composition, a heraldic charge, viz., the Three Legs of Man (only -reversed), with huge rowels to the spurs. The shield on the knop -beneath the Madonna has a rose encircled by a ring, which has a bezel -in the form of a cross. The north side has, at the top, a shield with -a double rose. Lower down, on the same edge of the head, are rude -representations of oak leaves, pointing downward; and below, on the -knop, is a shield with a chalice, which has the invected foot with -points, characteristic of the fourteenth century. The shield at the -top of the south edge is per fess, a bud or flower with two wavy -leaves on either hand; while underneath are three oak leaves on the -shield itself, and one below the shield. Beneath the last-named leaf -is a sunk panel with the representation of a warrior on his knees (no -doubt the donor), turning, with hands upraised, toward the Madonna -in the adjoining panel. On the knop, below the kneeling figure, is a -shield with an unidentified charge, a square object entirely composed -of vertical flutings, above an oak leaf. The top surface of the head -is almost flat, and appears to have borne a capstone, the dowel holes -for attaching which yet remain. The shaft is let into a plain square -socket. The cross, though weathered, is in wonderful preservation, -and is now protected by an iron railing. It is not known ever to have -stood on any other than the present site. - -At Wheston, a hamlet in Tideswell, Derbyshire, is a roadside cross -of stone, of the late-fourteenth century, with octagonal, tapering -shaft, culminating in a cusped rood, the uppermost limb of which is -appreciably shorter than the arms (Figs. 92, 93). On the obverse is a -crucifix with the arms horizontally outstretched. The figure is bared -to the waist, but the remainder of the body downwards is missing. On -the reverse is a Virgin and Child, a Gothic rosette being sculptured -near the end of each limb of the cross. The figure-sculpture is coarse -and primitive. The shaft is mounted on four steps, the topmost one of -which forms the socket, and, by means of diamond stops, assumes an -octagonal plan. - -The cross in the churchyard at Lanteglos juxta Fowey, Cornwall (Figs. -94, 95), was discovered, about the year 1850, "buried deeply in the -trench which runs round the wall of the church." After having lain -prostrate for two or three years more, it was at last raised and -placed erect, with a disused millstone for base, near the church -porch. It is of granite, encrusted with lichen. The shaft, 8 ft. -high, is octagonal, and tapers slightly from 14 in. at greatest width -across the bottom; the four alternate sides being sculptured with -sunk panelling, wheels, and rosettes of Gothic character. The head, -about 2 ft. high, is an oblong square on plan. The widest sides have -double canopies, with the Crucifixion, unattended, on the north, and -the Blessed Virgin and Child on the south. The ends, being narrower, -have each a single canopy, enshrining an unidentified figure. Mr J. -T. Blight supposed them to represent Saints Peter and Paul; but Mr F. -T. S. Houghton believes that one of the two is meant for St Tecla. So -far as one may venture to judge from the extremely rude and unskilled -figure-sculpture, the work seems to be of the late-fourteenth -century. The above cross is typical of a certain number of Cornish -crosses belonging to the matured mediæval period, in which the head -is set direct on to the shaft, without intervening neck, or knop. -Besides this feature there should be noted another characteristic -in the crosses, for instance, at Callington, St Ives (Fig. 96), and -Mawgan-in-Pyder (Figs. 106, 107), to wit their disproportionately -thick and sturdy stem, as contrasted with the moderate size of the -head. - -At St Ives the cross-head was unearthed in the churchyard in 1832, -and re-erected on a new base in 1852. The height of the cross, as -now standing, is 10 ft. 6 in. The reverse of the sculptured head -portrays the Madonna and Child, with a kneeling figure, most likely -meant for the donor. The obverse is remarkable because the Crucifixion -is introduced not, so to speak, _per se_, but rather incidentally, -as constituting part of the Holy Trinity group. The crucified Son, -then, is placed between the knees of the Eternal Father, Whose -hands upraised on either side, the right in benediction, may be -observed above the arms of the crucifix. All and any representations -of this nature, depicting the Trinity, were peculiarly obnoxious -to the reformers, and are yet commonly objected to as being -"anthropomorphic." Similar representations of the Trinity occur on one -side of the cross-head, with the Crucifixion on the other side, at -Cogenhoe, in Northamptonshire, and Pocklington, in the East Riding of -Yorkshire (Figs. 114, 115). There is also a Trinity in the head of the -cross at Henley-in-Arden, Warwickshire. - -The same subject again is sculptured in the head of another Cornish -cross, that in Mawgan-in-Pyder churchyard (Figs. 106, 107). It is -made of Catacluse stone, and is a late-Gothic example, with very rich -tabernacle-work in the head. In fact, it was singled out by the late -J. T. Blight as "the most elaborate specimen of the kind in Cornwall." -On the opposite side to the Trinity is a subject of uncertain -identity, most likely the Annunciation. A single figure, vested in -pontificals, occupies either end of the head. The shaft is hexagonal, -with diamond-pointed stops, now much overgrown and practically hidden -from view. It stands 5 ft. 2 in. high. - -At Ampney Crucis, Gloucestershire (Figs. 97, 98, 99), the churchyard -cross was overthrown at some unknown period. In January 1854 the -head of it was discovered, built up amid a heap of rubbish in the -cavity of the rood-staircase. Taken thence, it was reinstated in -its proper place in the churchyard about 1860. There are two stone -steps, which measure respectively 7 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. square, and an -octagonal socket. The shaft is square on plan, changing, by means of -stops, into an octagon. The stops, however, instead of terminating in -diamond-points, or otherwise dying away into the chamfer, are crowned -with engaged pinnacles, extending some way up the canted sides, a -most unusual and charming device. It is a misfortune that the effect -of this fine cross is spoilt by the faulty, modern treatment of the -upper portion of the stem, which, being made too short, is obliged to -contract much too abruptly to the junction with the head. Instead of -tapering truly, with a series of straight lines converging gradually -upward, the shaft is pared away in a concave outline, which results -in very serious disfigurement. The total height is only about 10 ft. -The head is in excellent preservation, and, though not elaborate, an -exceedingly beautiful specimen. It is an oblong square on plan, and -thus has two wide sides (occupied respectively by the Blessed Virgin -and Child, and by the Crucifixion between Mary and John) and two -narrow ends (one occupied by an unidentified ecclesiastic, the other -by an unidentified warrior). The canopies are severely plain, being no -more than cusped trefoils; while the top is coped in the shape of a -gabled roof. The work is of the latter part of the fourteenth century. - -Two interesting Herefordshire examples, brought to light a few years -ago, have been reinstalled under the auspices of the Society for -the Protection of Ancient Buildings (as recorded in the Committee's -Report, dated June 1916). These two crosses, which are at Madley -(Figs. 101, 102) and Tyberton (Figs. 100, 103), respectively, bear a -striking resemblance to one another. The heads of both are gabled, -with a crucifixion on the obverse, and on the reverse a Virgin, -crowned and throned, with her Child standing, fully draped, on her -knee. The Tyberton cross-head is by far the more perfect of the two. -It had been misused as a finial, or hip-knob, at the end of the brick -church. The head of the Madley cross is so badly defaced that the -figure of the Madonna is all but obliterated. This cross-head was -found among the effects of a private gentleman, Mr Robert Clarke, of -Hereford, after whose death it was "restored to the very complete -base and shaft, which stand in the churchyard." The shafts of both -crosses (monoliths, evidently from the same quarry) stand complete. -They are of octagonal section, with long pointed stops on the four -alternate sides, so that the foot of the shaft is square on plan. The -chamfer-stops of the two crosses differ slightly. Both shafts had -a similar moulded knop at their junction with the head. The Madley -cross-head is executed in a coarse, soft sandstone, which has suffered -much from disintegration. But the Tyberton head owes its better -preservation not a little to the fact that it is executed in stone of -more durable quality. Both these crosses seem to be of approximately -the same date, viz., the late-fourteenth or early-fifteenth century. - -In the courtyard of the castle, St Michael's Mount, Cornwall, is a -fifteenth-century cross (Figs. 104 and 105). The head is an oblong -square on plan, measuring 1 ft. 4 in. by 1 ft., by about 3 ft. 3 in. -high to the top of the pinnacles at the angles. On one side is a -seated Madonna and Child; on the other a crucifix between Mary and -John. At one end is a male figure wearing a cap and civilian gown; at -the other a crowned figure holding what appears to be a sword. The -knop is octagonal and moulded, with Gothic square pateras round the -neck, just above the junction with the octagonal shaft. - -At Derwen, in Denbighshire, there stands, immediately opposite to the -south porch of the nave, a churchyard cross, which is not only the -most perfect one in the district, but also "one of the finest in the -Principality" (Figs. 110, 111, and 112). Unfortunately, its effect is -marred by the fact that the shaft leans much out of the perpendicular, -towards the east. There are two oblong steps. "The lower portion of -the basement," writes the Rev. Elias Owen, in 1886, "has only some of -its stones remaining in position." It "measures 7 ft. 4 in. by 8 ft. -3 in. In height the step is 8 in., in breadth 1 ft. The second part -measures 6 ft. 1 in. by 5 ft. 6 in. In height the step is 10 in., in -breadth 1 ft. 4 in. The stones forming these steps are large." The -socket, or "pedestal, is a ponderous stone, 2 ft. 9 in. square at the -base, and 2 ft. 4 in. high. The upper bed is brought to an octagon by -broaches of convex outline, and the upper edge is slightly canted. -The shaft, which is mortised into the pedestal, is 13 in. square at -the base, but by sculptured heads, which serve as broaches," or stops -to the chamfering, "it becomes octagonal." The chamfers are enriched -with sculptures in relief, equidistant from one another, representing -angels, human heads, and foliage; and, at the top, oak leaves -underneath the bead moulding. Heads and quatrefoils ornament the cove -which forms the neck of the shaft. The height of the latter is 6 ft. -1 in.; and the total height of the cross, including the steps, is 13 -ft. 1 in. Originally, when complete, it was higher still, but the top -of the head, which now measures 2 ft. 10 in. high, has vanished. The -result is a somewhat blunted and ungainly appearance. The head is -oblong on plan, its four faces sculptured like tabernacled niches, -enshrining sculpture. The east and west faces, 1 ft. 9 in. wide each, -have double canopies, while the ends, being no more than 1 ft. 1 in. -wide, have each a single canopy. The subjects, though much worn, can -be identified as follows: North face, the Blessed Virgin, with her -Child on her left arm; south face, St Michael, treading on the dragon, -and weighing souls in a pair of scales; east face, the Coronation of -the Blessed Virgin, with two kneeling donors, the Dove at the top of -the group sadly mutilated; west face, the Crucifixion, flanked by -Mary and John. Much of the ornamental detail suggests late-fourteenth -century work, but it is tolerably certain that it is not earlier than -the second half of the fifteenth century. - -To south of the church, in the churchyard of St Donat's, -Glamorganshire, stands a cross admirable in preservation as it is also -in its proportions and detail (Figs. 108, 109). If there is a fault -to be found in it, the arms of the Christ are dragged upward in too -oblique a position. The canopy-work is superb, and, regarding the -structure as a whole, it must be pronounced an exquisite and refined -specimen of the very perfection of Gothic design. Its date is the end -of the fifteenth century. - -In the south aisle of Sherburn-in-Elmet church, Yorkshire, may be -seen what looks like a pair of churchyard cross-heads (Fig. 113) of -identical design, viz., a crucifixion between Mary and John, under a -crocketed gable, the extremities of the cross ornamented with emblems -of the Passion, and the interspaces filled with exquisite late-Gothic -pierced tracery. The history of these two sculptures is a strange -one. The head of the cross had been cast down and buried at some -unknown date in the past. But it was dug up in the latter part of -the nineteenth century amid the ruins of a small chantry chapel in -the corner of the churchyard. The owners of the chantry disputed the -possession of the cross-head with the churchwardens; and, incredible -as it may seem, the dispute was settled to the satisfaction of both -parties by a method which recalls the judgment of Solomon. The head -of the cross being, Janus-like, of identical design on both sides, -was sawn asunder down through the middle, so that each of the rival -claimants received a similar sculptured ornament. One section was then -erected against the wall of a chapel on the east side of the church -porch at Sherburn, while the other section was built into a stable -wall at a farm house called Steeton Hall. Since 1887, however, the two -sundered halves, though not yet attached together as they ought to be, -have been set up close to one another in Sherburn church, a puzzle to -all who are unacquainted with their story. It should be added that the -cross-head rises out of a richly-moulded knop, below which, though the -shaft is wanting, enough remains to show that the original stem of the -cross was octagonal. - -In the basement of the west tower of Pocklington church, Yorkshire, -is a beautiful late-Gothic cross-head (Figs. 114, 115), fitted on to -a modern stem and base. On the obverse is sculptured the Crucifixion -between Mary and John; on the reverse is the Trinity, while a single -figure occupies either end. Beneath is the inscription: _Orate pro -aia, Iohis Soteby_. - -At Cricklade, Wiltshire, are two crosses of the fifteenth century, -one in St Mary's (Fig. 116), the other in St Sampson's churchyard -(Fig. 117). The latter example, however, was not originally in the -churchyard, but stood, at least down to 1807, as the market or town -cross. Both these crosses must, as built, have closely resembled one -another, but that at St Mary's is now much the more complete of the -two. It stands on steps. The head is lantern-shaped, an oblong on -plan, the overhang being corbelled forward by means of a demi-angel -at each angle. The tabernacling is rich, and the figure-sculpture -within it almost intact, though weather-beaten. The subject on the -west is the Crucifixion between Mary and John; on the south, the -Assumption; on the north, a bishop; and on the east, a queen with a -knight. The cross now at St Sampson's has no steps, but the socket is -handsomely panelled with sunk quatrefoils round its sides. All the -figure-sculpture from the lantern head, which was formerly corbelled -on angels, like the other, has been missing at least from 1806 -onwards, if not earlier. - - [Illustration 47.: ROCESTER, STAFFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, PLAN AND SECTIONS] - -The village crosses of Crowcombe (Fig. 118), Bedale (Fig. 119), -Bonsall (Fig. 120), Repton (Fig. 123), Brigstock (Fig. 122), and -Child's Wickham (Fig. 7), especially those which stand on high -flights of steps adapted to the fall of the ground, all illustrate -how charmingly such structures group in with their surroundings, and -how great an ornament they contribute to the village landscape, even -though they may have been robbed of their original head. The cross at -Brigstock is comparatively intact. It bears the royal arms (quarterly -France modern and England), and the initials E.R., with the date 1586. -The cross at Child's Wickham dates from the fifteenth century. It is, -unfortunately, disfigured by an eighteenth-century urn in place of -the mediæval cross-head. In many cases the original heads have been -replaced by square blocks with sundials. At Steeple Ashton (Fig. 121), -however, the classic column and sundial-block and globe are no doubt -all of one date, the late-seventeenth, or the eighteenth century. - - [Illustration: 48. ROCESTER, STAFFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 49. GREAT GRIMSBY, LINCOLNSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 50. EYNSHAM, OXFORDSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 51, 52. YARNTON, OXFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH DETAILS AND PLAN] - - [Illustration: 53. HORSINGTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - ROADSIDE CROSS] - - [Illustration: 54. DRAYTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 55. HIGHAM FERRERS, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 56. IRTHLINGBOROUGH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 57. MITCHEL TROY, MONMOUTHSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 58. STALBRIDGE, DORSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 59. CUMNOR, BERKSHIRE - - REMAINS OF CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 60. STANWAY, GLOUCESTERSHIRE - - SOCKET OF CROSS] - - [Illustration: 61. THATCHAM, BERKSHIRE - - REMAINS OF CROSS IN THE STREET] - - [Illustration: 62. WICKEN, CAMBRIDGESHIRE - - SOCKET, AND FOOT OF SHAFT] - - [Illustration: 63. CARLTON, BEDFORDSHIRE - - SOCKET, AND FRAGMENT OF THE SHAFT, OF THE CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: Elevation of the Base - - Plan. - - 64. KEYINGHAM, E.R. YORKSHIRE - - SOCKET AND STEPS] - - [Illustration: 65. DORCHESTER, OXFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, BEFORE RESTORATION] - - [Illustration: 66, 67, 68. OMBERSLEY, WORCESTERSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH DETAIL OF SOCKET, AND ALSO THE PLAN] - - [Illustration: 69, 70. HEADINGTON, OXFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, BEFORE AND AFTER RESTORATION] - - [Illustration: 71. RAGLAN, MONMOUTHSHIRE - - BASE OF CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 72. HEREFORD - - WHITEFRIARS' CROSS, BEFORE RESTORATION] - - [Illustration: 73. HEREFORD - - WHITEFRIARS' CROSS, AFTER RESTORATION] - - [Illustration: 74, 75, 76. DOULTING, SOMERSETSHIRE - - SOCKET OF CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 77. NORTH PETHERTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 78. DUNDRY, SOMERSETSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 79. HEDON, E.R. YORKSHIRE - - THE RAVENSPURNE CROSS] - - [Illustration: 80. KEYINGHAM, E.R. YORKSHIRE - - OLD CROSS FROM LINCOLNSHIRE, RE-ERECTED BY THE LATE MR OWST UPON HIS - PRIVATE GROUND AT KEYINGHAM] - - [Illustration: 81. SOMERSBY, LINCOLNSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 82. HALESOWEN, WORCESTERSHIRE - - REMAINS OF CROSS-HEAD, SHOWING ALL FOUR SIDES] - - [Illustration: 83. REMAINS OF CROSS-HEAD] - - [Illustration: 83, 84, 85. NORTH HINKSEY, BERKSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, IN PERSPECTIVE AND ELEVATION] - - [Illustration: 86, 87. MAUGHOLD, ISLE OF MAN - - THE VILLAGE CROSS, FROM TWO POINTS OF VIEW] - - [Illustration: 88. CROXDEN, STAFFORDSHIRE - - CROSS HEAD FROM THE ABBEY RUINS] - - [Illustration: 89. BLEADON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - HEAD OF CROSS] - - [Illustration: 90, 91. NEWMARKET, FLINTSHIRE - - HEAD OF CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 92, 93. WHESTON, TIDESWELL, DERBYSHIRE - - ROADSIDE CROSS, SHOWING FRONT AND BACK] - - [Illustration: 94, 95. LANTEGLOS JUXTA FOWEY, CORNWALL - - CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 96. ST IVES, CORNWALL - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 97, 98, 99. AMPNEY CRUCIS, GLOUCESTERSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH DETAILS OF HEAD] - - [Illustration: 100. TYBERTON, HEREFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 101. MADLEY, HEREFORDSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 102.: MADLEY - - HEAD OF CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 103. TYBERTON - - REVERSE OF HEAD OF CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 104, 105. ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT, CORNWALL - - HEAD OF CROSS IN THE CASTLE COURTYARD] - - [Illustration: 106, 107. MAWGAN-IN-PYDER, CORNWALL - - CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 108, 109. ST DONAT'S, GLAMORGANSHIRE - - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH DETAIL OF HEAD] - - [Illustration: 110, 111, 112. DERWEN, DENBIGHSHIRE - - THE CORONATION OF OUR LADY - CHURCHYARD CROSS, WITH DETAILS - ST MICHAEL, WEIGHING SOULS - ] - - [Illustration: 113. SHERBURN-IN-ELMET, W.R. YORKSHIRE - - HEAD OF THE OLD CHURCHYARD CROSS] - - [Illustration: 114, 115. POCKLINGTON, E.R. YORKSHIRE - - CROSS, WITH DETAIL OF HEAD] - - [Illustration: 116, 117. CRICKLADE, WILTSHIRE - - ST MARY'S CHURCHYARD CROSS - THE TOWN CROSS, NOW REMOVED TO ST SAMPSON'S CHURCH] - - [Illustration: 118. CROWCOMBE, SOMERSET - - VILLAGE CROSS] - - [Illustration: 119. BEDALE, N.R. YORKSHIRE] - - [Illustration: 120. BONSALL, DERBYSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 121. STEEPLE ASHTON, WILTSHIRE - - VILLAGE CROSS] - - [Illustration: 122. BRIGSTOCK, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 123. REPTON, DERBYSHIRE - - VILLAGE CROSS] - - - - - IV. SPIRE-SHAPED, OR ELEANOR CROSSES - - -On 28th November 1290 the Queen-Consort, Eleanor of Castile, died -at Harby, in Nottinghamshire. Edward I., prostrated with grief--the -sincerity of his devotion to his wife was perhaps the most favourable -trait in his character--resolved to perpetuate her memory by erecting -crosses at the various stopping-places of the funeral procession -on its way to London. The route chosen, though not the most direct -one, was arranged expressly so that the body might rest, each night -of its journey, at some large and important town, or else at some -conventual house, for the fitting celebration of the solemn offices -for the dead. A stone cross was built, if not upon the exact spot, -in the near neighbourhood of the spot, where the body had reposed -on each occasion, viz., at Lincoln, Grantham, Stamford, Geddington, -Northampton, or rather Hardingston (reached on 9th December), Stony -Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, St Albans (13th December), Waltham, or -rather Cheshunt, London (where the body lay for the night, probably in -St Paul's Cathedral, a cross being afterwards erected in West Cheap), -and, finally, Charing village, which was the last halting-place on the -way to the entombment in Westminster Abbey on 17th December. There -were set up altogether twelve Eleanor crosses. Some have reckoned the -number at fifteen, supposing that similar crosses were erected also at -Harby, Newark, and Leicester, but of these there is no evidence. - -So far as can be judged from documents and existing remains, it would -seem that certain principal features were common to the design of all -the crosses of the series, although they varied in minor details. -The general outline was borrowed from that of a spire of diminishing -stages. A statue of Queen Eleanor occupied each of the niches in the -middle storey; a notable peculiarity being the multiplication of the -effigies of the person commemorated. Three or four statues of the -queen occur in one and the same monument, standing, backs to the -central shaft, their faces looking forward in opposite directions. -The lowest stage or storey was carved with blind tracery, so designed -as to divide, with a vertical moulding, each side, or cant, into two -panels, with trefoil cusping in the head, having heraldic shields, one -in each panel. The shields respectively bore the arms of (1) England -(three leopards only, for the kings of England had not yet arrogated -to themselves the sovereignty of France); (2) quarterly, Castile and -Leon, the arms of Queen Eleanor's father; and (3) Ponthieu (three -bendlets within a bordure), the arms of her mother, Joanna, Countess -of Ponthieu, in Picardy. - -Not the slightest remains of any of the original crosses exist _in -situ_, except at Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham. Regrettable -as is the disappearance of all but three crosses of the series, it -is yet a matter for congratulation that those which do happen to -survive represent each of them an individual variety of treatment; -for, however much they may resemble one another in details, or even -in their main scheme and proportions, the difference of plan is a -fundamental factor, and such that necessarily results in striking -divergences. Geddington cross is triangular, Waltham cross hexagonal, -and Northampton cross octagonal on plan. Of these three there can be -no question that that at Geddington (Figs. 124 and 125), on account of -its triangular section, is the least satisfying aesthetically; indeed, -its optical effect is, in certain aspects, decidedly unpleasing. Not -only does it look as though part of the fabric were missing, or the -whole structure lop-sided, but the anomalous position of the shafts, -or standards, rising at each outer angle right before the face of the -figures, gives the latter a caged appearance, and, by intercepting a -direct view of them, infallibly detracts from the prominence which -is their proper due. The triangular shape, then, is more diverting -as an ingenious planning experiment than admirable as a model for -reproduction. In plain words, it is an architectural eccentricity. -Again, Geddington cross, encrusted as is the entire surface with -sculptured diaper patterns, and lacking as it does the dignified -reticence of contrasted plain spaces, such as occur in Northampton -(Figs. 1 and 126) and Waltham (Figs. 127, 128, and 129) crosses, -must compare unfavourably with either of them. Whoever the designer -of Geddington cross may have been, it is certain he was not the -artist that Battle or Crundale was, to whose genius the crosses of -Northampton and Waltham respectively are owing. - -Royal account rolls, extant down to the year 1293, throw considerable -light on the progress of the work, the identity of the artists -engaged on it, and the cost of their services, as well as of the -material used. But the particulars of the several undertakings are not -always kept distinct, so that it is difficult, if not impossible, to -disentangle the precise amount of the cost of any individual cross. -John, of Battle, a master mason, contracted for his share of the work -of a number of crosses, viz., at Northampton, Stony Stratford, Woburn, -Dunstable, and St Albans, for £95 each. The imagery and much of the -ornamental sculpture was executed in London. The figures of the queen, -for the crosses of Lincoln and Northampton, were the work of William, -of Ireland; while Alexander, of Abingdon, another image maker, -provided the statues for other crosses, the figures all being produced -at a uniform rate of five marks, or £3. 6s. 8d. each. Purbeck marble, -from the quarries at Corfe, was used for parts of the crosses at -Lincoln, Northampton, Stony Stratford, Dunstable, St Albans, Waltham, -and Charing. - -The first of the stopping-places at which crosses were erected was -Lincoln. The Eleanor cross there "stood on Swine Green, opposite the -Gilbertine Priory of St Catherine, where the queen's body rested." The -cross was built by Richard, of Stowe, otherwise Gainsborough, then -master mason of the works of the cathedral. From time to time, during -the years 1291 to 1293, he received payments, amounting to £106. 13s. -4d., for the king's work. The statues, and some of the carved ornament -for the cross, were executed at Westminster by William, of Ireland, -called in the accounts "_Imaginator_" _i.e._, image maker. William, -as mentioned above, received £3. 6s. 8d. each for the statues of the -queen; while the ornaments for the head of the cross seem to have -cost £13. It is computed that the total cost of the cross at Lincoln -amounted to about £134. Not a vestige of it now remains. - -The cross at Grantham, Lincolnshire, stood in an open space on the -London road, at a place called Peter Church Hill. Dr William Stukeley, -in 1776, recorded that the people had some memory of it in his time; -and, moreover, he was shown "a stone carved with foliage work, said to -be part of it." All remains of the cross have long since vanished. - -In his account of Stamford, Lincolnshire, printed in 1646, Richard -Butcher says: "Not far from High Dike, on the north side of the town -of Stamford, near unto York highway, and about twelve score from the -Towngate, called Clement Gate, stands an ancient cross of freestone, -of a very curious fabric, having many scutcheons insculped in the -stone about it, as the arms of Castile and Leon quartered ... and -divers other hatchments," of which "only the ruins appear to the -eye." In the edition of 1659, the cross is referred to in the past -tense, showing that it had been removed in the interval. R. Symond, -in a note dated August 1645, writes: "On the hill, before ye come -to the town (of Stamford), stands a lofty, large cross.... Upon the -top of this cross these three shields are often carved: (1) England, -(2) Ponthieu, (3) Castile and Leon quarterly." The cross was pulled -down by the soldiers of the Parliament during the Civil War, but the -foundations were laid bare, in the process of excavations conducted by -Dr Stukeley, while vicar of All Saints, Stamford, 1729 to 1747. - - [Illustration: 124. GEDDINGTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - PLAN OF ELEANOR CROSS] - - [Illustration: 125. GEDDINGTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - ELEANOR CROSS, IN THE VILLAGE] - -The Eleanor cross at Geddington, Northamptonshire, is still standing, -in the middle of a wide space in the village. The principal part of -the material is Weldon stone, but the string courses and weatherings -are of Stanion stone, which has a slightly harder texture. The cross -is raised on eight hexagonal steps; it comprises three storeys, and is -little short of 42 ft. in height. As may be seen by the plan (in which -the spaces A, B, and C represent the situation of the figures), -the middle stage is so placed in relation to that beneath it that -its outer angles correspond with the middle of each side in the lower -stage. The base is a triangle of equal sides; each 5 ft. 1 in. wide. -The royal accounts, which are wanting from the year 1294 onward, -contain no entry referring to Geddington cross; whence it has been -inferred that the latter could not have been erected until 1294 or -after. Tradition says that a favourite sport of the place used to be -squirrel-baiting. A sufficient number of wild squirrels having been -caught for the purpose, would be turned loose in the village, where -the crowds, surrounding them in a ring, with shouts and all manner -of hideous noises, proceeded to hunt and beat their helpless victims -to death. Sometimes the terrified little creatures would vainly seek -refuge by running up the cross and trying to hide behind the pinnacles -and tabernacle work. But their cruel tormentors ruthlessly dislodged -them thence, pelting them with stones until they were driven forth and -killed. The only marvel, in the circumstances, is that any part of the -original stonework of the cross should have survived such reckless -violence. The cross was repaired in 1800, and again in 1890. - -The famous Eleanor cross of Northampton (Figs. 1, 126) stands about a -mile distant from the town, and actually in the parish of Hardingston. -The monument is picturesquely placed on a roadside bank, with a fine -background of trees. The spot was chosen because Delapré, close by, a -house of Cluniac nuns, afforded the funeral procession a convenient -halt for the night. For the more solid parts of the cross, as distinct -from its ornamental detail, Barnack stone seems to have been used. The -mason responsible for the design, as already mentioned, was John, of -Battle. The sculptor, William, of Ireland, was paid £25 for his work, -including the ornamental carvings and the four statues (nearly 6 ft. -high) of the queen at £3. 6s. 8d. apiece. The distinctive feature of -this cross, not known to have occurred on any other of the series, -is an open book carved on every alternate one of the eight sides of -the lowest storey. The latter is about 14 ft. high, the next storey -above it 12 ft. high. At the present day there are nine steps, all -octagonal on plan. Formerly there were seven, while the engraving in -_Vetusta Monumenta_, 1791, depicts eight steps. What was the original -termination of this cross will never be known. It disappeared so long -ago that, even in 1460, the monument was spoken of as "_crux sine -capite_." The first recorded "restoration" of the cross took place in -1713. At the Quarter Sessions in that year the Justices authorised the -expenditure of a sum not exceeding £30 on repairing the cross, which -accordingly underwent thorough "restoration" and partial rebuilding. -There was then erected on the summit a stone cross paty, 3 ft. high, -while gnomons for sundials, facing the four cardinal points, were -fixed to the tracery of the topmost storey. Also, on the west side -of the bottom storey were placed the arms of Queen Anne and a marble -tablet, with a long inscription in Latin. Further repairs were -effected in 1762; and the cross was renovated once again, under the -direction of the architect, Edward Blore, in 1840. The commemorative -tablets and the modern cross on the summit were then removed, a -broken shaft being erected in place of the cross paty. Blore, at the -same time, renewed the ornamental cresting, one of the gables, and -much of the substantial stonework of the cross; and he recut all but -two of the armorial shields. In 1884 further repairs were effected, -consisting mainly of the renewal and strengthening of the decayed -platform steps. In March 1900 the care and maintenance of the cross -were formally vested in the County Council. - - [Illustration: 126. NORTHAMPTON, (HARDINGSTON) - - THE ELEANOR CROSS] - - [Illustration: 127, 128. CHESHUNT, HERTFORDSHIRE - - WALTHAM CROSS] - -The Eleanor cross at Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire, was built by -John Battle and his assistants, Simon, of Pabenham, and others, the -ornamental sculpture, comprising shafts, heads, and bands, being -executed by Ralph, of Chichester. This cross stood "a little north of -the Horseshoe Inn." It was pulled down by the Puritans about 1646, -but Cole, the antiquary, was assured by an old inhabitant "that he -remembered part of it remaining at the western extremity of the town." - -The same executants carried out the Bedfordshire crosses of Woburn and -Dunstable. The last-named is described as "having been a cross of -wonderful size. It stood in the main street ... where Watling Street -crosses the Icknield way"; and "is said to have been demolished by -troops, under the Earl of Essex, in 1643. Parts of" its "foundation -... have been met with during recent alterations in the roadway" (Dr -James Galloway, 1914). "In the heart of the town" of St Albans stood -another Eleanor cross, described in 1596 as "verie stately," the same -executants as in the preceding instances being employed. The greater -part of this cross was "destroyed by order of Parliament in 1643. -Fragments, however, stood in the market place" until 1702, when they -were cleared away to make room for the erection of an octagonal market -house in 1703. - - [Illustration: 129. CHESHUNT - - SECTION OF MIDDLE STOREY OF WALTHAM CROSS] - -Waltham Cross (Figs. 127, 128, and 129) stands at the junction of -Eleanor Cross Road and High Street, in the parish of Cheshunt, -Hertfordshire. The monument was the work of Roger Crundale and Dyminge -de Ligeri, or de Reyns, in or about 1293. It was built largely of Caen -stone. Apart from the difference necessarily entailed by its hexagonal -plan, Waltham Cross in many respects recalls that of Hardingston, -Northampton. In 1721 Dr Stukeley contributed to _Vetusta Monumenta_ -an imaginary "restoration"; which was followed, in April 1791, by an -engraving, by Basire, from Schnebbelie's drawing, showing the cross -in its actual state. It had by then become much dilapidated, nothing -having been done to keep it in repair beyond the strengthening of -the base with new brickwork in 1757. It is believed that the cross -originally stood upon ten steps. These had entirely disappeared by -1791. The present steps, four in number, are quite modern. The cross, -having been renovated in 1833 to 1834, and again in 1887 to 1889, has -lost so much that practically no part of the original fabric beyond -the core, the three figures, and parts of the lowest storey, survives. -The pinnacle at the top is a conjectural "restoration," the ancient -head, as in the cases also of Geddington and Northampton crosses, -having so utterly perished as to leave no indication of how the cross -should properly terminate. - - [Illustration: 130, 131. LONDON, WEST CHEAP - - REMAINS FROM THE ELEANOR CROSS, IN THE GUILDHALL MUSEUM] - - [Illustration: 132. LONDON, WEST CHEAP - - THE SECOND OF THE THREE CROSSES ERECTED ON THE SPOT] - - [Illustration: 133, 134: LONDON, WEST CHEAP - - THE THIRD CROSS ERECTED ON THE SPOT] - - [Illustration: 135. CHARING - - DETAIL OF OLD PROSPECT, SHOWING POSITION OF CHARING CROSS] - -West Cheap Cross (Figs. 130-134) stood in the middle of the roadway, -opposite to the spot where Wood Street opens at right angles out of -Cheapside. Three successive crosses have occupied this identical -position. The first was an Eleanor cross, built by the mason, -Michael, of Canterbury, who contracted to execute the work for £300. -The character of the design may be judged from two fragments of the -stone panelling of the lowest storey, now preserved in the Guildhall -Museum (Figs. 130 and 131). These exhibit trefoil cusping, and the -same armorial shields which occur in the three existing crosses at -Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham. Some twenty years after its -erection, Cheapside Cross figured in the festivities which followed -the birth of Prince Edward (afterwards King Edward III.) on 13th -November 1312. A great pageant was organised in the City in honour of -the occasion, and at the cross in Cheap a pavilion was set up, and in -it a tun of wine placed, from which all who passed by might freely -drink. From whatever cause, the cross was so soon allowed to fall into -disrepair that its reconstruction came to be contemplated when it -had been standing only about seventy-five years, Sir Robert Launde, -knight, whose will is dated 1367, making a bequest to the building of -the cross in Cheapside. The matter at last became so urgent that, in -1441, Henry VI. issued a licence to the Mayor of London to rebuild -the cross "in more beautiful manner." The new cross, raised mainly -at the cost of the City, was not finished until 1486. Why it should -have taken so long a space of time to bring it to completion is not -apparent. It was a very sumptuous and elaborate structure; but its -builders did not attempt to adhere to the model of an Eleanor cross, -Scripture subjects and figures of saints taking the place of the -statues of the Queen. The monument was surmounted by a crucifix, with -a dove over it; the other sculptures comprising the Resurrection, -the Blessed Virgin and Child, and St Edward the Confessor. During -the night of 21st June 1581, unknown iconoclasts defaced all these -figures, that of the Blessed Virgin in the upper tier being subjected -to greater indignities than the rest. In addition to being mutilated -it was discovered to have been bound with ropes, ready to be torn -down. A reward was offered for the apprehension of the offenders, -but they were never caught. Queen Elizabeth notified to the Court of -Aldermen her wish that the damage should be made good. "The Lord Mayor -thereupon wrote to the Lords of the Council, asking Her Majesty's -further directions; and he was particularly anxious touching the -repairing and garnishing of the images of the cross." In 1595 the -image of the Blessed Virgin was renovated and made secure. In 1596 -a new Infant was placed in her arms, an addition which was coarsely -and clumsily rendered, as one would expect at that period. Four years -after, on the plea that the woodwork of the upper part, including the -cross on the top of all, was out of repair, a pyramid was substituted -for the former finial cross, and a semi-nude statue of Diana for that -of the Blessed Virgin. Queen Elizabeth ordered that a plain gilt cross -should be set up on the summit of the pyramid. The City magnates -demurred, but ultimately complied. Next, the statue of the Blessed -Virgin was restored, and the whole structure cleansed; but only twelve -nights after the erection of the new statue of the Virgin, the latter -was again attacked, decrowned, and nearly beheaded, and the figure of -the Infant taken away. In the course of its existence the cross of -1441 to 1486 had been repeatedly repaired and regilt. It had already -lost every trace of its fifteenth-century origin by 1547, when, on -19th February, the coronation procession of Edward VI. passed -at its foot, an incident which was depicted by a contemporary, or -nearly contemporary, hand upon the stucco walls of the dining hall at -Cowdray House, near Midhurst, Sussex (Fig. 132). The mural painting, -unfortunately, perished in the devastating fire at Cowdray on the -night of 24th to 25th September 1793. The rebuilding of Cheapside -Cross was resolved upon in 1600. The new cross was erected in 1606 -(Figs. 133 and 134). The question of the advisability of crowning -the latter with a crucifix having been raised, the two Universities -were formally consulted on the subject. Opinions were divided, but -Dr George Abbot, then Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, and afterwards -Archbishop of Canterbury, pronounced definitely against a crucifix. -A simple cross, therefore, unaccompanied by a dove, was attached to -the top of the new structure; while the base was encircled by an iron -railing as a precaution against attack. This, the third and last of -the Cheapside crosses, stood for a shorter period than either of its -predecessors. It was overthrown on 2nd May 1643, as recorded by Evelyn -in his _Diary_, under this date, in the following passage: "I went -to London, where I saw the furious and zealous people demolish that -stately Crosse in Cheapside." - - [Illustration: 136, 137. CHARING, NEAR LONDON - - THE ELEANOR CROSS, AND THE CROSS WHICH SUCCEEDED THE FORMER ON THE - SAME SITE] - -Charing Cross, built to commemorate the last resting-place of the -Queen's body before it reached Westminster Abbey, occupied, as the -detail from a prospect, by Ralph Agas (_c._ 1560), of London and -neighbourhood shows (Fig. 135), approximately the same site where -Herbert Le Sueur's superb equestrian statue of Charles I. now stands. -The original cross (Fig. 136) is described as having been the finest -and stateliest of all the Eleanor crosses. It was the work of Richard -Crundale, who, dying in 1293, was succeeded by Roger Crundale; and -Alexander, of Ireland, carved the statues of the Queen for the cross, -which is computed to have cost nearly £800. By 1590 it had become much -weather-beaten and defaced with age. It may have been about this time -that the old cross was entirely rebuilt, the Gothic work disappearing, -and a monument of new design, in the current fashion of the day, being -erected in its place (Fig. 137). The Parliament having decreed the -destruction of the cross in 1643, it was finally demolished in the -summer of 1647. Lilly, writing in 1715, says that some of the stones -of the old fabric were used for the pavement in front of Whitehall, -while others were cut up and polished to make knife handles and other -small objects as souvenirs. - -With Eleanor crosses there should be classed a small group of crosses, -which, though erected neither for the same purpose nor at the same -time as the Eleanor crosses, yet closely resemble the latter in being -fashioned in the graceful shape of a spire of diminishing stages. - - [Illustration: 138. GLOUCESTER - - HIGH CROSS] - -The old cross at Gloucester (Fig. 138) stood on elevated ground at the -meeting of Northgate, Southgate, and Westgate Streets. It was raised -on steps, and was octagonal on plan. The ground storey, and the next -above it, dated apparently from about 1320. But the uppermost storey, -consisting of a cluster of turrets with little vanes, the central -turret or shaft surmounted by an orb and fourways cross, can hardly -have been any earlier than the sixteenth century. Coventry Cross (Fig. -8) had similar vanes which (called _girouettes_ in French, because of -their gyrating or revolving with the wind), being gilt, and glittering -gaily in the sunlight, imparted additional charm to the stone crosses -whereto they were attached. The total height of Gloucester Cross was -34 ft. 6 in. When drawn in 1750, on the eve of its demolition, the -cross contained, in the niches of its middle storey, statues of the -following kings and queens of England:--King John, Henry II., Queen -Eleanor, Edward III., Richard II., Richard III., Queen Elizabeth, and -Charles I. The whole was surrounded by an iron railing of obviously -later date than the cross itself. - - [Illustration: 139, 140. TOTTENHAM, MIDDLESEX - - HIGH CROSS, BEFORE AND AFTER "RESTORATION"] - -The old market cross at Abingdon, Berkshire, is said to have been -erected by the Guild of the Holy Cross, a fraternity attached to St -Helen's Parish Church. The cross was repaired in 1605; and, on the -occasion of the signing of the Treaty with the Scots in 1641, two -thousand persons assembled round it to sing a psalm of thanksgiving. -It was destroyed by Waller's army in 1644. The structure was both -later in date and more elaborate than any other of its class except -Coventry Cross (Fig. 8), to which, in very many respects, it bore a -striking resemblance. Abingdon Cross, however, was octagonal, whereas -that of Coventry was hexagonal on plan. The lowest stage of either -cross was solid, with surface tracery-panelling; while each of the -three diminishing stages above consisted of niches with figures, -and was further enriched with flying buttresses and with pinnacles -surmounted by king's beasts holding iron rods, or pivots, to which -were attached metal vanes like little banners. The similarity between -the two crosses is explained by the fact that, in bequeathing £200 on -25th December 1541 for building a new cross at Coventry, Sir William -Holles, formerly Lord Mayor of London, expressly directed that it was -to be modelled upon that already existing at Abingdon. Coventry Cross, -then, was begun in 1541 and finished in 1544. It stood 57 ft. high, -mounted on three steps, and was divided into four stages comprising -in all eighteen niches for statues. The statues in the first-floor -storey, reckoning from the south, were Henry IV., King John, Edward -I., Henry II., Richard I., and Henry V.; in the second storey, Edward -III., St Michael, Henry III., St George, and Richard II.; and in the -uppermost storey, a religious, St Peter, a religious, a king, St James -the Less, and St Christopher. Above the topmost storey the cross -swelled out into a tabernacled lantern surmounted by a metal vane -pierced with the Royal arms (quarterly France, modern, and England), -the supporting rod having a crown upon its summit. In later times the -cross was surmounted by allegorical figures of Justice and Mercy. -The cross underwent some repairs in 1629; but on 12th August 1668 -a covenant was entered upon by the Mayor and certain stone cutters -and masons for the thorough renewing of all defective parts of the -stonework, with "good, sure stone from Sroby quarry," Warwickshire, as -well as the iron and lead necessary for fixing the statues. Their work -completed, the masons were to leave all the scaffolding in position, -that the gilders and painters might then carry out their share of -the embellishing. The total cost of the work executed in 1668, and -following year, was £276. 2s. 1d. By 1760 nothing survived of the -structure but the lowest storey and a portion of that above it. And in -1771 the last vestiges of Coventry Cross were bodily swept away. - -To this same type belongs the High Cross at Tottenham (Figs. 139, -140), Middlesex, although at the present day it sadly belies its real -character. Dressed, as it is, in Gothic mouldings, crockets, and -panel-work, it looks as though it should belong, at least, to the -latter half of the fourteenth century (Fig. 140). But the ornament, -unfortunately, is a mere superficial casing of nineteenth-century -creation; and, to judge from an engraving, of the year 1788, -representing the cross as it stood before it underwent falsification -(Fig. 139), it can scarcely date any further back than the early part -of the sixteenth century. - -Again, the ancient Butter Cross, at Scarborough, which stands, or at -least in 1860 stood, in Low Conduit Street, was of the same type, but -square on plan. In fact, it may be described as shaped exactly like -an obelisk, only with early-fourteenth-century Gothic details. How -far such an object may, or may not, have been genuine, it is perhaps -wisest to leave an open question. - - - - - V. PREACHING CROSSES - - -Whether or not preaching crosses, for the delivery of outdoor sermons, -were required before the advent of the Friars in the first half of the -thirteenth century, it may be assumed that, from that time forward, -they did exist and were in use. The Dominicans, or Black Friars, came -to England in 1221; the Franciscans, or Grey Friars, in or about 1224; -the Carmelites, or White Friars, in 1240, and the Austin Friars in -1250. Twenty years after the arrival of the first of the Friars occurs -the first recorded mention of Paul's Cross, which attained afterwards -to the dignity of the most celebrated of all preaching crosses, -not merely in London, nor even in England alone, but throughout -Christendom. It must be stated, however, that no actual record of the -cross as a preaching-place is found before 1382; the cross at the -outset being resorted to rather for secular and general assemblies of -the people. But in course of time, perhaps by reason of its convenient -situation, the cross seems to have been the focus of every phase of -the life of the capital; many of the most stirring and momentous -events in English history, whether civil or ecclesiastical, being -enacted beneath its shadow. The full story of Paul's Cross would fill -volumes. Yet a few representative episodes are enough to show of what -varied scenes and movements it was the centre. At the cross took place -the promulgation of laws, public announcements, political propaganda, -the reading of Papal Bulls, the administration of oaths, elections, -examinations, recantations, and the performance of public penances; -while in the sermons preached in the pulpit of Paul's Cross, each -successive variety of religious opinion was propounded from the time -of the Lollards, and through the successive stages of the Reformation -and counter-Reformation, until the cross itself came to an end in the -reign of Charles I. - -The first specific mention of Paul's Cross was in 1241, when King -Henry III. met an assemblage of the citizens of London there before -he set out for Gascony in connection with the French war. From that -time onward there occur very numerous references to Paul's Cross, "the -earlier ones, for the most part, recording meetings of the citizens -there." The earliest notice of the cross as a place of proclamation -was in 1256-57, when Justice Mansell read a document of the king's, -assuring the citizens of his purpose to preserve their rights and -liberties. In 1257 the king, having called a folk-moot at the cross, -was present in person; and again met his subjects there in 1258. In -1259-60 another folk-moot was held at the cross by Henry III., on -which occasion proclamation was made, requiring every stripling to -take the oath of allegiance to the crown. In October 1261 a bull of -Pope Urban was read at the cross by the king's order. In 1266 the king -made Alan la Zouche constable and warden of the City in the presence -of the people at Paul's Cross. On 13th May 1269 a bull of Pope -Innocent was read; and in 1274-75 the Mayor of London was elected in a -folk-moot at the cross. - - [Illustration: 141. LONDON - - PAUL'S CROSS] - -"In 1311 the new statutes, made in the Parliament of that year, were -published and proclaimed ... _super crucem lapideam_"; whence it has -been inferred by Mr Paley Baildon, F.S.A., that Paul's Cross, or -the High Cross, as it was also called, must have comprised a raised -platform surrounded by a parapet, with a lofty shaft in the middle, -somewhat after the fashion of the Mercat Cross at Edinburgh, the cross -at Aberdeen, and other Scottish examples. - - [Illustration: 142. LONDON - - PAUL'S CROSS] - -On 7th March 1378, during the time when the Bishop of Carlisle was -preaching at the cross, he was disturbed by a tumult arising out of a -quarrel between certain trade corporations hard by in West Cheap. From -that date onward, down to 1633, sermons at Paul's Cross were of very -frequent occurrence. - -In 1378 also, the Bishop of London excommunicated at Paul's Cross -the murderers of Robert Hawle and two other victims, who had been -sacrilegiously slain in the quire of Westminster Abbey during the -solemnisation of High Mass on 11th August. On 12th July 1382 the -Archbishop issued an order that the preacher at the cross, whoever -he might be, on the following Sunday was to take advantage of the -occasion, when the fullest number of persons should be gathered -together for the sermon, to denounce publicly and solemnly two -contumacious heretics, Nicholas Hereford and Philip Reppyingdon, -"holding up the cross and lighting of candles, and throwing the same -down upon the ground, to have been, and still to be so excommunicated -by us." - -In the same year, 1382, Paul's Cross suffered very great injury from -tempest or earthquake; and on 18th May 1387 Archbishop Courtenay and -other Bishops, desirous of repairing the damage, offered an indulgence -to any of the faithful who should contribute toward that object. In -two years' time the cross seems to have been put in order. Thomas -Kempe, Bishop of London, however, rebuilt it, some time between 1449 -and 1470; giving it the aspect which illustrations have made familiar, -viz., an octagonal pulpit of wood, raised on stone steps and roofed -with a lead-covered cupola, surmounted by a large cross (Figs. 141 -and 142). The arms of Bishop Kempe were introduced in several places -on the roof. From the time of the erection of this new pulpit-cross, -the old name of High Cross, applicable to the different form of the -earlier structure, seems to have died out of use. - -Meanwhile, on Quinquagesima Sunday 1388, a great stir was caused by a -Wycliffite sermon preached at Paul's Cross by R. Wimbledon. In 1401, -under pressure from Archbishop Arundel, two Wycliffites, John Purvey, -and a doctor of divinity, named Herford, recanted their errors at -Paul's Cross. - -In 1457 Bishop Pecocke, of Chichester, a prelate, so it would appear, -of sadly "modernist" tendencies, made his submission at Paul's Cross, -abjured his unorthodoxy, and submitted to the burning of his books -at the same time and place. In a sermon at the cross, on 4th March -1461-62, the Bishop of Exeter urged the justice of the title of Prince -Edward of York to the throne. In 1483 Jane Shore was compelled to do -public penance at Paul's Cross; and on 19th June of the same year -the Lord Mayor's brother, Dr Ralph Shaw, in his sermon at the cross, -openly intimated that the validity of Edward V.'s right to the crown -was questionable, and that there were substantial reasons (which did, -in fact, ultimately prevail) why both of the young princes should be -debarred from succession. - - [Illustration: 143. HEREFORD - - BLACK FRIARS' CROSS] - - [Illustration: 144. IRON ACTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE - - PREACHING CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD] - -On a certain Sunday, in 1492, two men did public penance for heresy, -standing at Paul's Cross "all the sermon time, the one garnished with -painted and written papers, the other having a faggot on his neck." -On Passion Sunday another man "with a faggot stood before the preacher -all the sermon while at Paul's Cross; and on the Sunday next following -(Palm Sunday), four men stood and did their open penance ... in the -sermon time, and many of their books were burnt before them at the -Cross." - -On 12th May 1521, in the presence of Cardinal Wolsey, Bishop Fisher, -of Rochester, delivered at Paul's Cross a sermon in denunciation of -the German heresiarch, Luther. - -In 1534 the king, Henry VIII., caused sermons to be preached against -his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and also against Papal supremacy. -In the same year, Elizabeth Burton and six of her most prominent -supporters (all of them ultimately hanged at Tyburn) were brought to -Paul's Cross for public exposure and degradation there, for the crime -of having dared to express disapproval of the king's liaison with Anne -Boleyn. - -On 24th February 1538, the Rood of Grace, from Boxley Abbey, in Kent, -an image which was alleged, by means of wires and other devices, to -simulate various gestures and changes of countenance, was exhibited at -Paul's Cross by Bishop Hilsey, of Rochester, and, at his incitement, -broken and plucked to pieces amid the jeers of the mob. "The like -was done by the blood of Hayles, which in like manner, by Crumwell, -was brought to Paul's Cross, and there proved to be the blood of a -duck," according to the veracious Foxe. From this time onward Paul's -Cross witnessed the delivery of a succession of controversial sermons, -first on one side and then on the other. When Edward VI. ascended the -throne, Bishop Latimer, of Worcester, became a frequent preacher at -Paul's Cross. Thus in the month of January 1548 he preached no less -than four times. - -In 1549 the Privy Council delivered to Bishop Bonner a set of -articles, which he was required to advocate in a series of quarterly -sermons at Paul's Cross. But the Bishop in preaching there having -neglected to comply, was cited, on information laid against him by -Latimer and Hooper, to appear for examination before the King's -commissioners on 10th September 1549. - -On 1st November 1552, at Paul's Cross, Bishop Ridley, of London, -preached at great length in favour of the latest version of the Book -of Common Prayer. - -On 13th August 1553 Gilbert Bourne, a chaplain of Queen Mary, and -Canon of St Paul's, preaching at the cross, narrowly escaped being -murdered. One of the audience aimed a dagger at the preacher. The -weapon, missing its mark, the point became embedded in one of the -wooden posts of the pulpit. On the following Sunday Thomas Watson, -preaching at the same place, was protected by a guard of 200 soldiers -with halberds. At the same time an order was issued forbidding -apprentices to attend the sermon, armed with knives or daggers. - -On 2nd December 1554, in the presence of Cardinal Pole, the -Lord-Chancellor preached at Paul's Cross commending the reconciliation -of the kingdom, and its restoration to communion with the Holy See. - - [Illustration: 145. WINCHESTER - - BUTTER CROSS] - -Abbot Feckenham preached at the cross on 18th June 1555, and Dr Hugh -Glasier, Queen Mary's chaplain, on 25th August of the same year. - -On 27th October 1584 Samuel Harsnett, subsequently Archbishop of York, -delivered at Paul's Cross a sermon, which caused no little stir, on -Predestination. - -On 20th August 1588 Dean Newell made, at the cross, the first public -announcement of the defeat of the Spanish Armada. - -On 17th November 1595, at a special thanksgiving service for the long -reign of Queen Elizabeth, Bishop Fletcher, of London, preached at -Paul's Cross, which had been repaired and partly enclosed with a low -brick wall for the occasion. - -In 1616, at the instance of Harry Farley, one John Gipkyn painted -a panel picture, in which he represented, by anticipation, the -attendance of James I. at a sermon at Paul's Cross, which actually -came to pass on 26th March 1620. The panel now in the possession of -the Society of Antiquaries affords the most authentic view extant of -the preaching cross (see Fig. 142). - -Charles I. attended in state to hear a sermon at the cross in 1630, -and Archbishop Laud preached there in 1631, perhaps the last preacher -of eminence to occupy the pulpit--for in 1633 the use of Paul's -Cross as an open-air pulpit was formally abandoned. Its consequent -demolition cannot have been long delayed, although it has been -contended that the cross was pulled down only that the pulpit might -be reconstructed on a grander scale--a project which, however, was -never attempted. In a publication of the year 1641 occurs the passage: -"Paul's Crosse, the most famous preaching-place, is downe and quite -taken away," which shows that the date usually given for the abolition -of the cross, viz., 1643, cannot be correct. But it is the fact -that, in May 1643, the parishioners of St Faith's complained of the -obstruction caused by the presence of "stones, rubbish, and pales" in -the churchyard, presumably the uncleared refuse from the demolished -cross. In time the very site was forgotten; but in the spring of 1879 -it was discovered by Mr C. F. Penrose, the cathedral surveyor. The -cross stood about 12 ft. from the wall of Old St Paul's; and close -to the north-east corner of Wren's cathedral. The octagonal base -measured some 37 ft. across. "The platform itself," writes Rev. W. -Sparrow Simpson, "was supported by a vault. A brick wall was found -which probably carried the timber supports of the pulpit proper. The -probable diameter of the pulpit itself was 18 ft." - -Paul's Cross was not the only preaching cross in London. There were, -at least, two others. One stood in the churchyard on the south side -of St Michael's, Cornhill. This cross was built by Sir John Rudstone, -Mayor, who, dying in 1531, was buried beneath it. St Mary Spital, -without Bishopsgate, also had an open-air pulpit-cross, where special -sermons were preached in Easter week, year by year. - - [Illustration: 146, 147. LEIGHTON BUZZARD, BEDFORDSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - -In the majority of cases it is likely enough that there was not -a distinctive pulpit-cross, the steps of the ordinary churchyard -cross sufficing to afford a platform for the preacher, when occasion -required. There remain, indeed, no more than two crosses obviously and -primarily designed as preaching crosses, viz., that at Iron Acton, -Gloucestershire, and the Black Friars' Cross at Hereford. - -The preaching cross at Iron Acton (Fig. 144) stands in the north -part of the churchyard, and is a very good example of its kind. The -base, 10 ft. 9 in. in diameter at the ground level, consists of three -brick-built steps, topped with stone slabs, forming drips with a -slight overhang. These steps are octagonal on plan. Upon the second -step (and thus encompassing the top step and the low stone plinth -resting on the same) stand the piers of the cross. The piers are -buttressed each with one diagonal buttress, like the cross itself, -square on plan. The arched openings (2 ft. 11 in. wide) are obtuse -headed. One arch (the northern one according to Lysons, the southern -one according to Charles Pooley) is open from top to bottom to make -an entrance doorway. The three others are railed in with a low fence, -composed of a pair of arches, cusped in the head, beneath a transom. -The mullions between these small arches had disappeared previously to -1868; so the present mullions are modern restorations. The ceiling -within is vaulted, with ribs and sculptured bosses, some of the latter -representing acorns and oak leaves. In the centre, forming a pendant, -are the remains of a capital of an octagonal shaft, now perished, -though the traces of its footing on the floor were remarked by Charles -Pooley in, or shortly before, 1868. The whole cross upward from the -springing level of the principal arches is sadly mutilated, all the -pinnacles, as well as the statues, wanting. The total height of that -which survives of the cross is 19 ft. 2 in. The upper part is a shaft -with four panelled sides, having, at the foot of each, between a -pair of shields borne by demi-angels clad in albs, a pedestal for -a standing statue, with projecting canopy overhead. Of these eight -shields four exhibit emblems of the Passion; two are blank and two are -armorial. One of these last is quarterly per fesse dancetty argent -and gules, Acton; while the other shield is Acton as before, impaling -quarterly or and gules a bend argent, Fitz-Nichol. Robert Poyntz, -lord of the manor of Iron Acton, married, for second wife, Catherine, -daughter of Sir Thomas Fitz-Nichol, and died on 15th June 1439. The -cross, then, dates from the early part of the fifteenth century. - -Contiguous to the ancient house of the order within the city of -Hereford stands the Black Friars' Cross (Fig. 143), which apparently -dates from the reign of Richard II. It is hexagonal on plan, and is -mounted on steps. Its six arches were all open down to the bottom -in 1806, but were fenced in some time previously to 1875, after the -manner of those of the Iron Acton preaching cross. In the middle is -a hexagonal socket, its sides panelled with Gothic panel-work. From -the top of the socket rises a central shaft from which springs the -vaulting of the roof. The cornice is embattled, and from the midst -rose the stump of the shaft, now replaced by a modern shaft and cross. -The whole structure has, in fact, been completely renovated since 1875. - -Besides those above named there is a small class of open crosses, -which, though not built for the purpose of preaching crosses, yet -resemble the latter more than any others, and must therefore, from -the point of view of design and construction, be grouped under the -same head. These, then, comprise the crosses of Bristol, Holbeach -(Lincolnshire), Leighton Buzzard (Bedfordshire), and lastly Winchester. - -The High Cross at Bristol (Fig. 9) stood at the junction of four -main thoroughfares: Broad Street, Wine Street, Corn Street, and High -Street. The site had already been occupied by a cross, when a new -cross was erected in 1373. The cross of that date was constructed -of coarse-grained oolite, specially liable to absorb moisture; but -the original paint (blue and vermilion with gilding) effectually -preserved it from the weather for centuries. Above the arches of -the lowest stage was a stage comprising four niches, which were -eventually filled with statuary, standing figures, facing toward the -four cardinal points. A statue of King John faced northward, Henry -III. eastward, Edward III. westward, and Edward IV. southward. The -cross was taken down in 1633, to be erected on an enlarged scale, its -height, by the addition of an extra stage or storey, attaining to a -total of 39 ft. 6 in. The new storey contained four seated figures, -representing, respectively, King Henry VI. facing eastward, Queen -Elizabeth facing westward, King James I. southward, and Charles I. -northward. Above these, again, was a tier of armorial shields, with -pairs of _putti_ for supporters, obviously an addition of the same -period, viz., Charles I.'s reign. Then also was the cross embellished -with fresh painting and gilding, and encircled with an iron railing to -protect its lowest stage. The latter consisted of four open arches, -grouped about a central shaft. The cross was redecorated in 1697. It -was subsequently taken down in 1733. Its remains were then carted to -the Guild Hall, whence, after a short interval, they were taken and -set up in the College Green, to north of the cathedral. There it was -standing in 1737, when R. West made the drawing, which was engraved -and published in 1743. The cross in its new position was painted to -look like grey marble, with the ornaments gilt, and the figures tinted -in their natural colours. Not many years later, viz., in 1763, it was -again taken down, and its portions relegated to an obscure corner of -the cathedral. Finally, Dean Barton gave the remains to Sir Richard -Colt Hoare, of Stourton, who transported them, in August 1766, and set -up the cross once more, with a new base, summit, and central pier in -the gardens of Stourhead, Wiltshire. - -The cross at Holbeach was pulled down in 1683, but Dr William -Stukeley made a drawing of it, dated 1722 (Fig. 10). The structure -thus depicted appears to have been pentagonal on plan, four steps -supporting the piers, which were buttressed with buttresses, -square on plan, panelled on their outward face, and surmounted by -pinnacles. The open arches were four-centred. The roof underneath was -vaulted with lierne and tierceron ribs, having carved bosses at the -intersections. Above the arches was a parapet or frieze, comprising -on each side a shield between two quatrefoils. Above, in the midst, -rose a huge crocketed pinnacle, forming the shaft for the cross which -originally crowned the summit. - -The Market Cross at Leighton Buzzard (Figs. 146, 147), also, is -remarkable in being pentagonal on plan. Apart from the difficulty of -treating a five-sided structure satisfactorily, the design is faulty, -because the upper stage of the cross (admirable though it be, _per -se_, with its statuary, its flying buttresses, and its exquisite -cluster of pinnacles) altogether lacks coherent continuity with the -open stage beneath, the latter finishing abruptly with a pronounced -horizontal break, which divides the cross into two distinct parts, -upper and lower. The piers are buttressed and the arches four-centred. -Above the latter runs a frieze of masks, surmounted by crenellation. -The cross stands on a base of five steps, and is 27 ft. high. The -total height, including the weathercock, is 38 ft. The original -figures, representing the Blessed Virgin and Child, a Bishop, St John -Evangelist, Christ, and a King, were taken down in 1852 and replaced -by modern replicas. Fortunately, the old figures were preserved for -the embellishment of the Town Hall, and when the architect, G. F. -Bodley, repaired the cross in 1900, he restored them to their proper -position. The modern copies were, at the same time, set up against the -outside walls of the Town Hall, where they still remain. Mr Bodley -assigned the cross to the late-fourteenth or early-fifteenth century. -If this be somewhat too early, the cross can hardly be of later date -than the middle of the fifteenth century. - -The Butter Cross, at Winchester (Fig. 145), stands on the pavement -alongside the High Street, at the point whence a narrow lane leads -to the north-west angle of the cathedral churchyard. The cross is -remarkable for its lightness and the gracefulness of its proportions. -It is mounted on five octagonal steps; it is square on plan, and is -enhanced by pinnacles and two tiers of flying buttresses. The open -arches of the lowest stage are four-centred, and surround a central -shaft. The next stage above forms an open tabernacle for statues, of -which, however, by 1741, only one original figure, 5 ft. 10 in. high, -survived. The cross measures between 45 and 50 ft. in height; and -dates, apparently, from the second half of the fifteenth century, but -has been sadly over-restored. - - - - - VI. MARKET CROSSES - - -"The general intent of market crosses," as defined by Bishop Milner, -was twofold, viz., religious and ethical--first, "to incite public -homage to the religion of Christ crucified," and secondly, "to -inspire men with a sense of morality and piety amidst the ordinary -transactions of life." This being so, "every town had its cross, at -which engagements, whether of a religious or worldly interest, were -entered into," says another writer, Brady. It would seem that, at -first, there was no difference of form between the market or village -cross and the normal churchyard cross of shaft-on-steps type. But -as the need developed of providing for the greater comfort and -convenience of folk gathered round the cross for market business, the -demand was met by erecting a penthouse roof about the lower part of -the already existing cross. Such a transformation is known to have -taken place at Norwich, and obviously also must have been effected at -Castle Combe in Wiltshire, Bingley in Yorkshire, and at Axbridge and -Cheddar in Somersetshire. This method of adaptation, however, cannot -have proved entirely satisfactory, because the platform or steps of -the shaft in such cases occupied too much of the space beneath the -shelter. And so the distinctive form of market cross was evolved at -length, planned from the outset as a cross and roof combined in one -coherent structure, the base of the central shaft being surrounded -by a footing of only a single step, a convenient bench to sit upon, -instead of the old-fashioned high flight of graduated steps. Such a -typical market cross might be built either of stone or of timber work, -its essential feature always being the covered in space for shelter -from the weather. - - [Illustration: 148. AXBRIDGE, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - -In Wells, at the junction of Sadler Street with the High Street, stood -a cross, which must have been the most beautiful of all structures -of its kind. As represented in the prospect of the city, drawn by -William Simes, in 1735 (Fig. 149), it was a Gothic work of singular -richness and elegance. Its bottom storey consisted of two-centred -arches between buttressed piers surmounted by pinnacles, with a -parapet of open tracery. The upper portion consisted of a lantern -of two diminishing stages, with late-Gothic traceried windows and -parapets, with pinnacles at the angles, the lower one of the two -stages connected with the ground storey by flying buttresses. The -whole was crowned by a most gracefully tapered spire, terminating in -a weathercock. This exquisite monument was swept away by order of -the Corporation, December 1785, on the ground that part of the cross -having "lately fallen down, and the remainder being in a ruinous state -and dangerous," the entire cross must be demolished, and its materials -carried elsewhere to some convenient place. This cross obviously dated -from the middle of the fifteenth century or even earlier, and was, -doubtless, the same cross, referred to by Bishop Beckington (1443-64), -in his charter providing for the conveyance of water by conduit -"to the high cross in the market place." Nevertheless, it has been -identified by at least two writers, Charles Pooley and Alex. Gordon, -with a cross which the antiquary Leland relates that he saw in process -of construction. Leland describes this cross as having two concentric -rings, an outer ring or "circumference" of seven pillars, and an inner -"circumference" of six pillars, with a vaulted ceiling under the -_Domus Civica_. This particular building was completed in 1542. It was -erected by Bishop William Knight, with the help of a bequest from Dean -Richard Woolman. But the cross of Simes' map must have been, at least, -a century earlier in date than the cross of 1542, the account of which -tallies neither in architectural style nor in shape with the other. -In the one illustrated, there is no sign of two concentric arcades, -while the lantern storey is far too small ever to have served for the -headquarters of the municipal body. The discrepancies, in short, are -such that one is driven to the conclusion that there must have been, -at one and the same time, two separate crosses at Wells. It should -be added that the tolls of the market cross, which he built, were -given, by Bishop Knight's will, "for the use of the choristers of the -Cathedral Church for ever." - - [Illustration: 149. WELLS, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 150. NORTHAMPTON - - MARKET CROSS] - -The Market Cross of Axbridge, Somersetshire (Fig. 148), illustrated, -after a painting of the year 1756, in a communication from George -Bennett to the _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1805, was demolished in or -about 1770. The structure appears to have been hexagonal on plan. -Its piers were buttressed, its arches four-centred. The surrounding -parapet was of pierced Gothic tracery, interrupted by a pinnacle over -each of the piers. The roof was conical, with a lofty vane. The height -to which the steps within, beneath the central shaft, rose, suggests -that this was an instance where the cross must have been in existence -first, and the shelter a subsequent addition. - - [Illustration: 151. SHEPTON MALLET, SOMERSETSHIRE - - INSCRIPTION ON MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 152. SHEPTON MALLET, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 153. NORWICH - - MARKET CROSS, WITH PLAN AND DETAIL] - - [Illustration: 154. LICHFIELD - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 155. TAUNTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - -At Shepton Mallet a market cross (Fig. 152) was erected in 1500 by -private benefaction, as recorded on the original engraved brass, or -latten plate, attached to the structure. The text of the inscription -(see Fig. 151) (in modernised spelling) is as follows: "Of your -charity pray for the souls of Walter Buckland, and Agnes his wife, -with whose goods this cross was made in the year of our Lord God, -1500, whose obit shall be kept for ever in this parish church of -Shepton Mallet, the 28th day of November, whose souls Jesu pardon." -"There are certain lands, apparently a part of the Bucklands' bequest, -the revenues of which are devoted to keeping the cross in repair, -any surplus being distributed among the poor. This 'Cross Charity,'" -as it is called, "was formerly administered by trustees, but has -recently"--the passage was written in 1907--"been transferred to the -Urban Council. The title-deeds have long been lost; and some years ago -the Charity Commissioners were inclined to" alienate "the property -from the cross." The trustees, however, tenaciously fulfilled their -obligations, "and from 1841 onwards, if not before, kept the cross -in thorough repair." (Dr F. J. Allen.) The character of the cross -has been so much changed from time to time by reconstruction and -misrestoration, that it has now become impossible to determine what -the ancient design really was; but it seems to have consisted of a -shelter very like that formerly at Axbridge, with a central spire like -that formerly at Taunton (Fig. 155). From the presence of pinnacles -at the angles there can be deduced but one logical conclusion, viz., -that the piers must have been, and should yet be, buttressed. The -buttresses, however, have completely disappeared. The frequent traffic -of heavy vehicles--for the market was once much busier than it has -become since the introduction of the railway--would probably have -damaged the projecting buttresses; and their omission, therefore, -curtailing the extent of the area occupied by the cross, may have -been designed to lessen the liability of the latter to collisions -with market carts. It is supposed that the top of the central -spire fell in the eighteenth century, damaging the substructure. -Anyhow, at some time in the seventeenth, or in the early part of the -eighteenth century, the hexagonal shelter was taken down from around -the central pier (which still remains intact), and was then rebuilt -in its present form, portions only of the old Gothic parapet, and -the pinnacles, being re-used. This rebuilding has escaped record, -but that it did take place the internal evidence of the structure -itself makes sufficiently obvious. The absence, already mentioned, -of buttresses; the clumsy, square blocks which do duty for the bases -of the piers; the classic imposts of the latter, and the depressed -arches (unconstructional, because they are not turned with voussoirs, -but formed each of one huge pair of stones, cambered to simulate an -arch in outline), and the exaggeratedly prominent keystones, could -never have been perpetrated at the early date of 1500, but at some -subsequent rebuilding, of which the sum of them affords cumulative and -convincing proof. Charles Pooley (_Old Stone Crosses of Somerset_, -1877) states that the cross was rebuilt from the ground in 1841: but -he was clearly mistaken. Dr F. J. Allen, of Cambridge, is positive on -this point. His grandfather, as one of the trustees of the Shepton -Mallet cross, was largely responsible for the rebuilding in question; -and his own mother and uncle, living as children in their father's -house, facing the cross, were eye-witnesses of the progress of the -work, and could distinctly remember that only the spire above the -roof was reconstructed. Minor repairs may have been done at the same -time to the rest of the building, but it was certainly not taken down -bodily. The architect employed was G. B. Manners, of Bath; and it is -claimed that his design for the modern spire is a careful reproduction -of the original one. To what extent this is the case may perhaps be -judged by comparing the spire actually standing with an illustration, -which appeared in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1781, from a drawing -made in 1747. The latter may be faulty, but, such as it is, its value -as a record can scarcely be overrated, since it furnishes the earliest -extant version of Shepton Mallet cross. The accompanying letterpress -says: "On the top of the cross, on the east side, are figures in -niches, and, above all, a modern weathercock." The engraving, it -is true, shows figures on more sides of the head than one; but the -discrepancy need not be material, if one may conjecture that all -the figures, other than those on the east side, had perished in the -interval between 1747 and 1781. In any event the massive, carved stone -cylinder, depicted as capping the spire in 1747, cannot have been the -original cross-head of 1500, which, according to Pooley, was "a heavy, -lantern-shaped stone, bearing figures of our Saviour on the cross -between two malefactors, besides the images of several saints." This -cross-head was probably removed at the time of the rebuilding of -the shelter; and the cross-head which succeeded it is most likely the -same one which fell, as already mentioned, in the eighteenth century. -Pooley concludes his notice of Shepton Mallet cross thus: "Some of -the fragments of the old cross I saw lying in a builder's yard at -Darshill," a hamlet in Shepton Mallet parish. "A grandson of that -builder," writes Dr F. J. Allen, in September 1919, "now living at -Shepton, states that he can well remember his grandfather selling a -selection of those fragments to Lord Portman, who removed them to his -house at Blandford." - - [Illustration: 156, 157. MALMESBURY, WILTSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS, WITH SECTION] - - [Illustration: 158. MALMESBURY - - PLAN OF MARKET CROSS] - -At Malmesbury, Wiltshire, there stands, some 200 ft. directly south -of the south end of the old transept of the Abbey Church, and about -50 ft. east of the south-east angle of St Paul's Parish Church, a -handsome market cross (Figs. 156, 157, 158) of the same type as those -of Cheddar, Chichester, and Salisbury. The following is Leland's -account of the cross: "There is a right fair and costly piece of -work in the market place, made all of stone, and curiously vaulted, -for poor market folks to stand dry when rain cometh. There be eight -great pillars, and eight open arches, and the work is eight square -(octagonal). One great pillar in the middle beareth up the vault. The -men of the town made this piece of work _in hominum memoria_ (within -living memory)." Leland wrote between about 1535 and 1545; and the -date assigned to the cross is 1490. With regard to the open arches it -would be more accurate to state that two only of the number are open -to the ground. The six others are confined at the bottom by a low -fence-wall. "A deeply moulded flying buttress rises from each pier, -clear of the richly-groined roof, the light ribs being drawn into -a cluster by a wide string-band supporting a large pinnacle and ogee -finial. This pinnacle bears traces of sculptured figures, and, on the -west face, of a crucifix; but the faces of the work are much abraded -by the weather, and perhaps rough treatment, for most of the bosses -have been broken from the groined vault." - - [Illustration: 159. SALISBURY - - POULTRY, OR MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 160. SALISBURY - - POULTRY CROSS, AS RESTORED] - - [Illustration: 161, 162. CHICHESTER - - MARKET CROSS, WITH SECTION] - - [Illustration: 163. CHICHESTER - - PLAN OF MARKET CROSS] - -The Market Cross at Chichester (Figs. 11, 161-163) was built shortly -before 1500 by Bishop Edward Storey, who endowed it with an estate at -Amberley, Sussex, producing a yearly rental of £25, that the means -for keeping the cross in constant repair might be assured. It is -octagonal on plan, its eight arches all open to the ground. This is -much the most elaborately ornamented of the crosses of its class. The -flying buttresses (unlike those of Malmesbury cross) are crocketed -at intervals all the way along their ogee course; and the side walls -above the arches are richly panelled. Splendid though Chichester -cross is still, it has been shamefully disfigured by incongruous -innovations intruding upon the original design. It was probably at -the "restoration," under Charles II., that the bust of Charles I. was -set up in an oval recess, inserted in the place of one of the niches -of the parapet. The clock above was fixed in 1724. Again the cross -suffered excessive repair, and further alterations in 1746. - -In the case of the market crosses of Chichester and Malmesbury the -ring of pinnacles and the flying buttresses, converging upon the -central shaft, itself culminating in a sculptured lantern, resemble -in general effect the crown steeples of King's College, Aberdeen, -and of the collegiate church of St Giles at Edinburgh. But there is -a difference. In the Scottish instances the lantern is structurally -upheld by the combined thrust of the flying buttresses, without -vertical support. In the English market crosses, on the contrary, the -shaft, rising from the floor and passing right up through the roof, -sustains the lantern from directly underneath. - -Salisbury Poultry Cross (Figs. 159, 160) must originally have been -constructed in the same way, but, some time before May 1789 (see -illustration in _Archæologia_, Vol. IX., p. 373) the whole of the -original superstructure above the roof had perished. The pinnacles, -flying buttresses, and lantern, which now crown the roof, are only -a modern restoration, albeit a very excellent one. The plan of the -Poultry Cross is hexagonal. In addition to this cross there are known -to have existed at one time in Salisbury the Cheese Cross, Bernard's -Cross, and that before the west door of the cathedral. One of the -number was erected by Lawrence de St Martino, as a penance enjoined -before September 1388, by Bishop Radulph Ergham because Lawrence, who -was infected with Lollardism, had been guilty of flagrant irreverence -toward the Blessed Sacrament. To complete his penance he was required -to come and kneel in the open air, barefoot and bareheaded, before -the said cross every Saturday for the rest of his life. A record of -his offence and of its punishment was to be inscribed upon the cross -itself, and, assuming this penance cross to be the actually existing -market cross, it has been conjectured that the six panelled sides of -its central pillar bore the required text. But the identity is very -doubtful, more especially as 1388 seems too early a date, by some -hundred years, for the Poultry Cross. - -The old Market Cross at Glastonbury (Fig. 164) has unfortunately -disappeared. The shelter was octagonal and gabled. But the singular -feature of the design was that the gables, instead of surmounting -the arched openings, were placed over the spandrels and the piers -between the arches. Conformably, then, with the canted plan of the -structure, the face of each gable was returned at an angle from its -central vertical line, a simple but quite unusual device, which -produced a remarkably quaint and original effect. The picturesqueness -was enhanced by the presence hard by of a water conduit, which grouped -charmingly with the more imposing structure of the market cross. Both, -however, becoming dilapidated through neglect, were demolished in 1808. - -At Norwich (Fig. 153) the first market cross was erected in the -time of Edward III. (1327-37). It is known to have been repaired in -the reign of Henry IV. (1399-1413). The structure must have been -of considerable size, since it contained a chapel and four shops. -Becoming decayed, it was pulled down in 1501, and rebuilt, the new -cross being finished in 1503. Like its predecessor, it contained an -oratory or chapel. It was octagonal, raised on steps, and appears to -have been originally an instance, on a large scale, of a spire-shaped -cross with an entrance on the west side between two vices leading to -the upper storeys. In the seventeenth century, apparently, the cross -was surrounded by sixteen pillars, _i.e._, eight large and eight -intermediate pillars of slenderer size, to support a flat leaded -roof for the shelter of the market people--an addition which totally -altered the aspect of the original spire-shaped cross. Meanwhile, in -the first year of Edward VI., the crucifixes which had adorned the -cross were taken down by order of the King's visitors. The standard -weights and measures of the city used to be kept in the market cross. -The oratory in it was let in 1574 to the company of workers in -leather. In 1646 the cross was repaired by means of a graduated tax, -levied on all the citizens in proportion to their means. In 1646, -also, the floor of the cross was paved. In 1664 it was appointed for -the Court of Guard, and in 1672 was "beautified and adorned" according -to the fashion of the day. Just sixty years afterwards the cross -was again alleged to be in decay, its materials were sold and the -whole cross swept away, the demolition beginning in August 1732. - - [Illustration: 164. GLASTONBURY, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 165. CHEDDAR, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 166. SOMERTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 167. MAIDSTONE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 168. OUNDLE, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - -At Lichfield (Fig. 154), the Market Cross, octagonal on plan, with -two-centred open arches, and with figures by way of pinnacles at -the angles of the parapet, was erected at the cost of Dean Denton -(1521-32). - -At Northampton, the Market Cross (Fig. 150) was erected in 1535. -It stood upon an octagonal platform of stone, 2 ft. in height, -and comprised eight wooden columns, the entire surface of their -cylindrical shafts carved, supporting the pointed arches of the -octagonal shelter. "And the timbers from one pillar to the next -pillar were arched and carved. In the middle (of the platform) were -three steps or rounds of stone to sit upon," as well as for means of -approach on one side to the doorway which, "locked from market to -market," gave access to the stairway curtained within the cylindrical -shaft of stone rising in the centre. This shaft terminated above the -roof in a lantern with glazed windows, within which were deposited -the standard weights and measures, and other utensils connected with -the market. There was ample room to walk round upon the lead-covered -roof between the lantern and the embattled parapet. The latter was -ornamented at every angle of the octagon with a standard, or post, -surmounted by a little ape holding a rod with a vane attached. "The -whole was set out and beautified with branches of lead, and, upon all -squares (faces) little panels of lead like coats of arms gilt, and a -great ornament to the place." The cross, unfortunately, perished in -the general conflagration at Northampton, on 20th September 1675. - - [Illustration: 169. IPSWICH - - MARKET CROSS] - -The old Market Cross at Taunton, Somersetshire, apparently dated from -about the middle of the sixteenth century. It was hexagonal on plan, -with pointed arches springing from columns, presumably cylindrical, -with polygonal bases. Above the arches was a penthouse roof of -boarding, designed, no doubt, to augment the area of the shelter -beneath. The top of the walls was crenellated, with pinnacles at the -angles. The central shaft rose into two diminishing tiers of niches -for statues. The original top having vanished, its place was taken -by a square block with sundials on the faces, with an ogee roof -surmounted by a weathercock. The cross was demolished in 1769, but -its general appearance is perpetuated by a very rough drawing in the -British Museum (Fig. 155). - - [Illustration: 170, 171, 172. IPSWICH, SUFFOLK - - MARKET CROSS, WITH DETAILS OF WOOD CARVING] - - [Illustration: 173. CASTLE COMBE, WILTSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 174, 175, 176. CASTLE COMBE, WILTSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS, WITH PLAN, SECTION, AND DETAILS] - -The Market Cross at Cheddar, Somersetshire (Fig. 165), is a stone -structure of six four-centred open arches and shelter, evidently built -up round an older cross of the shaft-on-steps type. The shaft, which -dates from the fifteenth century, is octagonal, and, with its knop, -rears through the top of the roof. The piers of the surrounding arches -are buttressed and the parapet is embattled. Extensive renewing took -place in 1834, and the steps were repaired in 1835. - -The Market Cross at Somerton, Somersetshire (Fig. 166), which may -be compared with that of Cheddar, was built in 1673, a surprisingly -late date in view of the character of the cross itself. The latter -is octagonal, with pyramidal roof of eight cants; its piers are -buttressed, and, above a stringcourse with gargoyles at the outer -angles, rises an embattled parapet. So closely, indeed, are the -forms of architectural tradition adhered to, that, but for the -segmental arches with their heavy keystones, one would have had little -hesitation in assigning the cross to the first half of the sixteenth -century. - -At Maidstone (Fig. 167), the Market Cross, or as it was formerly -called, from its original purpose, the Corn Cross, stood at the -top of High Street in the centre of the roadway. The date of its -erection is unknown, but it is thought to have been about the middle -of the sixteenth century, at the time of the incorporation of the -borough by Edward VI. A sketch, ascribed to Cornelius Jansen, drawn -upon ass's skin and dated 1623--the property, through the Bosville -family, of J. H. Baverstock--shows the cross to have been an octagonal -structure with an umbrella-like roof, covered apparently with slates, -and surmounted by a leaden cross. Later drawings and paintings show -that the arches were four-centred, and supported on clustered wooden -shafts, and that, in place of the cross on the top, there had been -substituted a lead-covered dome, or cupola, from the summit of -which rose a pole of turned wood. In the spandrels of the arches -were curious carvings illustrative of a butcher's calling. About -1608 it was converted into the butcher's market. The cross, says -William Newton in his _Antiquities of Maidstone_, 1741, "appears to -have been very large; but only a part of it is now remaining, which -is handsomely covered with lead, and used for the fish market." In -1771 it was considered to be an obstruction to the traffic, and was -accordingly moved on rollers a slight distance to the side of the -street, just below the square stone conduit shown in the illustration; -but it did not stand there very long, for it was finally demolished in -1780. - - [Illustration: 177. DUNSTER, SOMERSETSHIRE - - YARN-MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 178, 179. OAKHAM, RUTLAND - - BUTTER CROSS, WITH DETAIL OF THE INTERIOR] - - [Illustration: 180, 181. WYMONDHAM, NORFOLK - - MARKET CROSS, WITH DETAIL OF THE GROUND-FLOOR STOREY] - - [Illustration: 182. BINGLEY, W.R. YORKSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 183. LYMM, CHESHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 184. NETHER STOWEY, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 185. MILVERTON, SOMERSETSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 186. NOTTINGHAM - - THE MALT CROSS] - -At Leicester, the last remains of the ancient cross were cleared away -in 1569. Meanwhile, a successor to it had been built in 1557. This new -Market Cross (Fig. 12) was octagonal on plan, having open arches on -pillars and a cupola roof. In its turn it was demolished between 1769 -and 1773. - -At Ipswich, a preaching cross, erected in 1510 by Edmund Daundy, -Bailiff of the town, and said to be a near relative of Cardinal -Wolsey, is believed to have occupied the same spot on the Cornhill, -where subsequently, in 1628, the market cross was built (Figs. -169-172). The latter was projected, at least, as early as 1610, when -Benjamin Osborne promised £50, which, by will dated June 1619, he -bequeathed toward the building. But it was not until 1628 that the -Corporation managed to obtain any payment from his executors, and -then the sum available from his estate was £6 short of the proper -amount. The figures in the inscription, recording the benefaction -upon a shield in one of the spandrels, were thereupon altered from -£50 to £44 (Fig. 172). The structure, 28 ft. in diameter, comprised -eight stone columns, supporting elliptical arches of wood, with an -embattled parapet above a cornice, elaborately carved with scrollwork -and grotesques. Five masks from the old wood carving, together with -the shield inscribed as above mentioned, are yet preserved in the -Ipswich Museum. The roof, an ogee-shaped cupola, covered with lead, -was framed into a centre post, carried on cross-beams just above the -level of the eaves. The upper end of the post ran up through the -middle of the roof in the form of a square terminal of four stages, -the lowest part being carved with a group of figures supporting a -gilt ball, like an orb, with a cross on the top. On the occasion of -the Proclamation of King Charles II., on 10th May 1660, "the cross was -ordered to be beautified--painted or rather emblazoned" with the arms -of local celebrities. The arms included those of Ipswich borough and -of the families of Daundy, Bloss, Long, and Sparrowe, as well as two -tradesmen's marks, C. A., and B. K. M. The carved faces in the museum -yet retain their flesh tints. In April 1694 the Corporation ordered -that a new statue of Justice should be erected upon the summit of -the cross. In 1723 the Corporation voted thanks to Mr Francis Nugent -(who represented Ipswich in three Parliaments) for his present of a -statue of Justice, which was brought from his seat at Dallinghoe. -This, an allegorical figure, holding the scales, is of stone, painted -brown, and also is preserved in Ipswich Museum. A sketch and plan by -Sir James Thornhill (Fig. 169), in May 1711, shows that the cross at -that time stood surrounded by a balustrade. The cross was pulled down -bodily at the beginning of January 1812, by order of a Great Court -previously held. An aquatint, from a contemporary drawing by George -Frost, was published in the same year (Fig. 171). - -The Market Cross at Mildenhall, Suffolk (Fig. 13), with its timber -posts and lead-covered roof, dates from the fifteenth century. - - [Illustration: 187. BUNGAY, SUFFOLK - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 188. SWAFFHAM, NORFOLK - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 189. WOODSTOCK, OXFORDSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - - [Illustration: 190. WAKEFIELD, W.R. YORKSHIRE - - MARKET CROSS] - -The old Butter Cross at Oakham (Fig. 178) recalls that at Mildenhall, -than which, however, it is probably later by a century or more. The -Oakham cross is octagonal on plan, the eight oak posts which support -the roof resting on blocks of stone for bases. In the centre is -a solid stone pier, encircled by seats for the market women. The -interior construction of the roof is a fine example of carpentry (Fig. -179). - -At Oundle, Northamptonshire, stood a market cross, very like the -last-named, octagonal on plan, with an eight-sided pyramidal roof, -covered with Colly Weston slates, and supported by eight wooden posts -(Fig. 168). The interior comprised a central shaft, with a square -socket, bearing the date 1591, and mounted on two octagonal steps -of stone, having overhanging drips. The cross, not mentioned by -Bridges, has long since been demolished. The view is from an undated -lithograph, initialled J. S. - -The Market Cross at Wymondham, Norfolk (Figs. 180, 181), with its -quaint timber-framed upper storey, approached by an external stair, -dates from 1617. The face of the braces between the piers of the open -ground-storey are carved with tops, spindles, spoons, and such like -wooden ware, for the abundant manufacture of which the town had long -been famous. - -At Dunster, Somersetshire, the Yarn-Market Cross, as it is called, is -octagonal on plan, with an immense span of roof relieved by dormers -(Fig. 177). "The arrangement of the timbers, extending radially from -the centre of the cross, is somewhat remarkable," writes Alex. Gordon. -This cross was built about the year 1600. The weather-vane at the -summit of the lantern bears the date 1647. - -The Market Cross, or Butter Cross, at Witney, Oxfordshire (Fig. 14), -was built, according to Joseph Skelton, by William Blake, of Coggs, -in 1683. Lavish renovation has now robbed it of much of its proper -charm, but the planning of the roof, with its gables facing four ways, -constitutes an entirely delightful composition. - -At Milverton, Somersetshire, the Market Cross, commonly called Fair -Cross, was standing, and is referred to in an indenture dated March -1715 (Fig. 185). The vane bore the date 1706. Eight cylindrical -columns of stone, surrounding the base and shaft of a medieval cross, -sustained the shelter, above which was an upper chamber, used for -storage only, access thereto being obtained by means of a ladder -through the window opening in one of the sides. The chamber was -covered with a slate-healed pyramid of eight cants. The cross, which, -strangely enough, was in private ownership, was demolished by the -proprietor himself in or about 1850. - -The Market Cross at Nether Stowey, Somersetshire, was erected about -1750 on the site of an earlier cross, of which nothing but a few -fragments of stone from the base had survived. The eighteenth-century -structure was octagonal on plan, eight cylindrical columns supporting -the eight-canted pyramidal roof, from the top of which rose a square -turret, with a clock in the lower part, and a bell in the open -bell-cote at the top (Fig. 184). Having been allowed to fall into -dilapidation, the whole cross was swept away by the lord of the manor -about 1860. - -At Castle Combe, Wiltshire, the Market Cross is apparently another -instance where the shelter was built up over an already existing -stone cross (Figs. 173, 176). The latter has a bold, square socket, -sculptured with late-Gothic tracery ornament. The shelter seems to be -sixteenth-century work. Its pyramidal roof, supported on four stone -piers, had lost the original summit of the cross-shaft before Buckler -made his drawing of the north-west view of the cross. It was then -surmounted by a sundial of the seventeenth or eighteenth century. -Later restoration, however, has substituted a quasi-Gothic pinnacle. - -At Lymm, Cheshire, though no market is now held there, the old Market -Cross remains, a quaint and unusual structure, standing on the top -of a boulder, with steps partly hewn out of the natural rock (Fig. -183). The cross is built of stone, and consists of a massive central -pier, square on plan, between four smaller piers, likewise square, -supporting the roof at the corners. The roof, cross-ridged, has -pediments facing four ways, and surmounted each by a substantial -hip-knob. On the faces of the pediments are sundials. From the centre -of the roof rises a lofty weathercock with a wrought-iron frame. - -The Malt Cross at Nottingham stood opposite the lower end of Sheep -Lane, and is said to have been erected in 1714, although the old -vane at the summit bore the date 1686. The structure, hexagonal on -plan, and roofed with a cupola supported on Doric columns, was raised -upon a three-foot high platform of four steps (Fig. 186). The boss -surmounting the cupola had a sundial on each of its six sides. The -Malt Cross was taken down, and the materials were sold by public -auction in October 1804. - -As the seventeenth century advanced the market cross exhibited more -and more marked divergence from the original architectural forms, -including the abandonment of the cross on the summit, and the -adoption, in many instances, of a sundial in place of the cross. This -tendency only increased in the eighteenth century. Instances of it -are afforded by the market crosses--rectangular on plan--at Woodstock -(Fig. 189) and Wakefield (Fig. 190). Other eighteenth-century market -crosses, _e.g._, those of Bungay (1789) (Fig. 187) and Swaffham (1783) -(Fig. 188), might almost be mistaken in appearance for bandstands, -but from the fact that, aloft upon their lead-covered domes, the -allegorical figure of Justice, emphasising the duty of fair dealing, -continues to proclaim their purpose of open-air shelters for the -transaction of business. - - - - - VII. UNCLASSIFIED VARIETIES - - -It is not easy to devise a system for the classification of crosses, -which shall, without loss of precision, be both exhaustive enough and -comprehensive enough to embrace every possible variety. There remain, -then, a few anomalous instances which seem not to admit of inclusion -in any of the categories already considered. - -The first to note is Doncaster cross (Fig. 191), of which an engraving -was published in _Vetusta Monumenta_, July 1753, from an old painting, -formerly the property of Lord Fairfax, who sold it in 1672 to -Alderman Thoresby, of Leeds. An ancient manuscript, accompanying the -painting, recorded all that was known of the history of the cross. -The latter bore on the shaft, at about a third of its height up from -the bottom, an inscription in Norman French: "This is the cross of -Ote de Tilli, on whose soul God have mercy. Amen." The said Ote de -Tilli was seneschal of the Earl of Conisborough, and was a witness -of the charter of foundation of Kirkstall Abbey in 1152. His name -occurs in other charters of King Stephen's reign, and also of others -in the reigns of Henry II. and Richard I. The cross stood at the -south end of the town of Doncaster, on the London road. The shaft -was 18 ft. high, and consisted of a large central cylinder with four -engaged cylindrical shafts, having a total circumference of 11 ft. -7 in. It stood upon five circular steps, resting upon a hexagonal -base or plinth. On the summit of the stone cross there formerly rose -five slender iron crosses, the central one higher than the rest; but -in 1644 the monument was defaced by the troops under the Earl of -Manchester, losing its iron crosses. To make up the deficiency the -mayor, in 1678, erected four dials, a ball, and vane on the top of the -cross. Of not dissimilar plan is the stump of a shaft at Elstow (Fig. -192), in Bedfordshire. Again, there is a tall pillar of clustered -columns in three stages at Aldborough (Fig. 193). All three examples -appear to date from the thirteenth century. - - [Illustration: 191. DONCASTER, W.R. YORKSHIRE] - - [Illustration: 192. ELSTOW, BEDFORDSHIRE - - CROSS NEAR THE CHURCH] - - [Illustration: 193. ALDBOROUGH, E.R. YORKSHIRE - - VILLAGE CROSS] - - [Illustration: 194, 195. MITTON, W.R. YORKSHIRE - - HEAD OF CROSS IN THE CHURCHYARD, SHOWING OBVERSE AND REVERSE FACES] - -At Chester, where Watergate Street ends and Eastgate Street begins, -and where, at the point of junction, Bridge Street leads off at a -right angle southward to the Dee Bridge, there stood the High Cross -on a hexagonal platform or step outside the entrance to the Pentice, -which itself extended the whole length of the south side of St -Peter's Church. The design of this cross was so abnormal that one -is at a loss to place it under any known classification. A plain -cylindrical column supported an immense and lofty superstructure, -exceeding the height of shaft and socket put together, and consisting -of a double-storeyed lantern, with two tiers of niches for statues -surrounding it. The whole was surmounted by an orb and cross, but the -drawing by Randle Holme the third, among the Harleian manuscripts at -the British Museum (Fig. 24), gives two alternative details to finish -off the summit, viz., a crucifix, or a crowned shield of the royal -arms. The High Cross was newly gilded in 1529. It was overthrown and -defaced by the Puritans in 1646, or, according to another account, -in 1648. "In 1804 the remains were discovered buried in the porch of -St Peter's Church, and were taken to Netherleigh House, and there -used to form a kind of ornamental rockwork in the gardens." The late -Archdeacon Barber, writing in 1910, says that in the Grosvenor Museum -at Chester there is a plain stone block, which, though without any -of the richly sculptured ornament depicted by Holme, purports to be -the head of the ancient cross, while "the shaft is said to be in the -grounds of Plas Newydd, at Llangollen." - - [Illustration: 196. RIPLEY, W.R. YORKSHIRE - - BASE IN THE CHURCHYARD] - -There is, again, a certain type of cross which cannot exactly be -classified under any of the previously described varieties. The type -in question, as exemplified at Alphington (Fig. 199) and at St Loye's, -Wonford, near Exeter (Fig. 198), appears to be peculiar to Devonshire. -At first sight the cross looks much like a variety of monolith, but -the cross-head is in fact worked in a separate block of stone. The -shortness of the arms, as compared with the height of the upper limb, -is striking. Another feature is a small niche or hollow sunk in the -face of the cross at the point of intersection. For the rest, the -socket does not differ at all from many examples occurring in the -shaft-on-steps group. - -The cross-head at Mitton, Yorkshire (Figs. 194, 195), is peculiar -inasmuch as the crucifixion is sculptured on both faces, but in -totally different fashions. That on the west face has the arms -stretched horizontally, within a sexfoil frame, and might well be -of the thirteenth century. Whereas the sculpture on the east face, -though much more weatherworn, is of a style that could not have been -designed before the late-fourteenth, or perhaps even the fifteenth -century. The arms of the Christ in this instance are drawn upwards -in an unusually oblique direction. It is impossible that these two -representations could have been executed at one and the same date. The -circular outline of the head, too, is peculiar, and suggestive rather -of a gable-cross than of a standing cross. Possibly the west face only -was sculptured in the first instance, for a gable-cross, the sculpture -on the east face being added later in order to adapt the stone for -the head of a churchyard cross. Anyhow, since Buckler's drawings were -made, the head has been mounted on a modern shaft and pedestal. - - [Illustration: 197. BISLEY, GLOUCESTERSHIRE - - MONUMENT IN THE CHURCHYARD] - -A very strange socket, comprising two stages, both cylindrical with a -slight batter, stands to the north of the church in the churchyard at -Ripley, Yorkshire (Fig. 196). The topmost stage is about 2 ft. 3œ -in. high, and the diameter of its upper bed is 2 ft. 9 in. It has had -sunk into it, from the shaft of a cross, a mortise 8œ in. deep by -18 in. by 10 in. The bottom stage is 2 ft. high by about 4 ft. 8 in., -the diameter of its upper bed, which varies from 6 to 7œ in. wider -all round than the foot of the upper stage. A most peculiar feature is -the series of eight cavities averaging 6 in. deep and from 14 to 17 -in. high, by 7 to 10œ in. wide at the top. It cannot be that these -cavities were receptacles for offerings, for eight of them would be -largely in excess of any reasonable requirements of alms-gathering. It -has been called a "weeping cross" on the supposition that the hollows -were meant for penitents to kneel in. But this again cannot be, for -the spaces available are not nearly large enough for such a purpose. -It may be that the bottom stage of the Ripley cross is, after all, -nothing else than the inverted bowl of a font, and the hollows -surrounding it niches for statuary. The problem, however, is one which -has not hitherto been satisfactorily explained. - - [Illustration: 198. ST LOYE'S, WONFORD, - - DEVONSHIRE] - -At Bisley, Gloucestershire, in the west end of the churchyard, stands -a singular structure of stone, of early-thirteenth-century work -(Fig. 197). Circular on plan at the foot and hexagonal above, it -now measures about 12 ft. high, the original cross or finial at the -apex having disappeared. This monument has been variously described -as a cross, a well-head, or a bone-house. Probably it is rather a -combination between a cross (for with such it must almost certainly -have been crowned) and a lantern for the "poor souls' light." The -trefoil-headed openings in each cant seem designed expressly for -emitting the light of a lamp burning within, while the dormer-like -hoods of the said openings would shelter the flame from wind and rain. -Such lantern pillars are known to have been in use in the Middle Ages, -though they have very rarely survived to our own times. There exists, -however, a fine example of late-fourteenth or early-fifteenth century -work, standing outside the north-east part of the Dom at Regensburg, -in Bavaria. - - [Illustration: 199. ALPHINGTON, DEVONSHIRE] - - - - - VIII. LYCHGATES - - -Lychgates are so named from the old Anglo-Saxon word _lich_, or German -_leiche_, meaning corpse, because they stood at the entrance of the -churchyard, where the bearers of the dead might deposit their burden, -and rest awhile before passing through, and into the church for the -solemn funeral rites. Some lychgates are actually provided with a long -flat slab for this very purpose, as is the case, for instance, at -Ashprington and Atherington, both in Devonshire, and at Chiddingfold, -Surrey (Fig. 227). Usually also they are fitted with benches. - -The rubric of the Prayer Book of 1549 directed that the officiating -minister at funerals should go to meet the corpse at the "church -style," _i.e._, lychgate; and again, according to the Prayer Book now -in use (of the year 1662), the clergyman and the clerks meeting the -corpse "at the entrance of the churchyard" (_i.e._, at the lychgate, -wherever one exists), there begin the burial service, and thence -precede the body into the church. - -In some places, as at Heston and Hayes, in Middlesex, and at Chalfont -St Giles, the entrance gates form turnstiles, being fixed to a central -post, which revolves on a pivot. - -There is hardly scope for any very great variety of types in -lychgates, but they may be classified generally under certain main -groups, viz., first, the porch-shape, in which the roof-ridge has the -same axis as the passage way; secondly, the shed-like form, in which -the roof-ridge runs transversely to the axial line of the passage way; -thirdly, a rare variety, embodying both the previous features, and -such that is exemplified by the charming lychgate at Clun, Shropshire -(Fig. 235), where two roof-ridges cross one another at right angles; -or at Berrynarbor, Devonshire, where the lychgate is on the plan of -a cross; and, lastly, lychgates formed by the combination of the -requisite passage way with a church house or other building. To this -class belongs the entrance to the churchyard at Penshurst, Kent, -an example well known and admired for its picturesqueness. Other -instances are those of Hartfield in Sussex (Fig. 201), Long Compton -in Warwickshire, Chalfont St Giles in Buckinghamshire (Fig. 204), and -Bray in Berkshire (Figs. 202, 203). The last-named specimen is of -exceptional interest, not only because it contains an ancient chapel, -but also because it bears, on one of the uprights of the entrance, -the date of its construction, 1448, a most unusual circumstance. -The penthouse gallery, shown on the left of the photograph, is a -modern addition. It will also be noticed, on comparison of the two -illustrations, that the west window of the old chapel-chamber has, -since 1879, been robbed of some of its mullions, and now consists of -three lights only. - -Two Welsh examples of lychgates, with a room built over each, -are enumerated by the Rev. Elias Owen, in 1886, viz., Derwen, -Denbighshire, where the upper storey is utilised for parochial -purposes, and Whitford, Flintshire, where it served as a schoolroom. -Latterly, "when the school increased in numbers, the lychgate was -blocked up and formed into a class-room" in addition to the upper -part. The same writer remarks that a fully equipped lychgate includes -seats, a lychcross and a lychstone. As a rule, both lychcrosses and -lychstones "have disappeared ... but underneath the roof of Caerwys -(Flintshire) lychgate are still to be seen the beam and socket, where -once stood the wooden lychcross, and on the ground are traceable the -foundation stones of the two lychseats, and of the lychstone in the -centre of the porch. This rest for the coffin was a low wall" of about -a coffin's length. Some of the distinctive features of lychgates were -destroyed in the eighteenth century. Thus "the beam that stretched -from wall to wall," and had a wooden cross inserted into it, "has, -in nearly every instance, been sawn away." The above-named example -at Caerwys, however, according to the _Inventory_ of the Royal -Commission, still survives. The place was visited in July 1910, and -the report runs: "Within the covered lychgate is a pre-Reformation oak -frame, the two uprights supporting a beam in which a cross was fixed," -the ancient custom having been to set down corpses on their way to -burial upon the lychstone immediately beneath this cross. - -The distribution of lychgates in various districts is most unequal. -Thus nearly every one of the twenty-four churches of the Deanery of -Woodleigh, Devonshire, is said to possess a lychgate. An instance, -which may safely be pronounced unique, is that of Troutbeck, -Westmorland, where there are, or were, no less than three stone -lychgates to one and the same churchyard. - - [Illustration: 200. HAYES, MIDDLESEX - - LYCHGATE] - -Lychgates are constructed, it goes without saying, of the most -convenient native material available. Thus, the Welsh examples -illustrated are of indigenous stone; whereas in Middlesex, -Hertfordshire, Kent, and other districts in which freestone is not -available, the lack of it is amply compensated by the development of -the resources of timber. Kent, though deficient in churchyard crosses, -may justly claim to rival, if not indeed to surpass, the other -counties of England in respect of the admirable lychgates which it -contains. The handsomest stands at Beckenham (Figs. 205-207), on the -south side of the old churchyard. The gate is of the shed variety, but -the roof-ridge, instead of running the whole length from end to end -(as it does at Lenham in the same county (Figs. 220, 221, and 222), at -Ashwell, Hertfordshire (Figs. 215-218), Hayes (Fig. 200) and Heston -(Figs. 213 and 214) in Middlesex, Morwenstow in Cornwall (Fig. 219), -Isleham in Cambridgeshire (Figs. 223-225), and Goring in Oxfordshire -(Fig. 226)), is hipped, with very charming result. But hipping alone -is not enough to ensure full æsthetic effect. One has only to compare -two examples of hipped roofs, viz., that at Beckenham, already -named, and the not dissimilar instance at Staple (Figs. 208, 209), -in the same county, to realise what very different artistic values -two gates, based on one identical motif, may possess. The Beckenham -lychgate is far superior to the other, no doubt because of the -excellent proportions of its parts. The old drawing, by Buckler (Fig. -206), shows that at one time the large oblique struts were wanting; -a deficiency which altered the whole appearance of the lychgate, -tending, as it did, to make the roof look heavy and ill-balanced. The -large struts, however, had been supplied by 1871. The pronounced tilt -of the roof toward the eaves, by means of sprockets (see the section -drawings, Fig. 207), gives additional character to this beautiful -lychgate. At the present day it cannot, unfortunately, be seen to -proper advantage, because of the intrusive presence of a modern brick -wall, abutting close up against either end of the gate, and concealing -its lower part. The roof is now tiled, but it is believed that it was -originally thatched, or shingled. The difference of effect produced by -varying the number of bays is illustrated by comparing the lychgates -of West Wickham (Figs. 211, 212) and Beckenham, both of one bay -each; those of Isleham, Staple, Lenham, and Ashwell, all of two bays -each, and that of Anstey with its three bays. As to the last-named, -Buckler's amazingly incorrect draughtsmanship in the right hand lower -corner fortunately does not avail to disguise the sturdy dignity and -grand outline of this magnificent example. - -At Ashwell, Hertfordshire, the timber lychgate, which forms the -south-west entrance to the churchyard, probably dates from the -fifteenth century. The three standards carrying the horizontal lintel -are so much more massive at the top than at the bottom that they must -certainly have been cut from tree trunks inverted, like the angle -spurs used in the construction of ancient timber-framed houses. The -windbrace in the roof, and the engrailed vergeboard under the end -gable should be noticed. - -The lychgate which forms the western entrance to the churchyard at -Lenham, Kent, comprises two passage ways, each having a four-centred -arch of timber overhead. The narrower gate, that on the south, has -the head cambered out of a single piece of oak to the four-centred -outline. The northern, the wider gate, has the head built together of -two pieces, shaped to the requisite form. The supporting struts and -braces are much worn with age and weather, but happily unrestored. The -roof is tiled. The main part of the timberwork is of the fifteenth -century, says Mr E. C. Lee, except the roof, the rafters of which, -built into the adjoining house, are "very poor and rough.... The -strutting at A is bad in construction, all the strain being thrown -on the pins." There is a tradition that this gate was brought hither -from Canterbury some time about 1770; but it is, in all probability, -without historical basis, as also are many other traditions of a -similar kind. - -The lychgate at Pulborough, Sussex (Fig. 236), is an example of -a pyramidal roof, and may be contrasted with the cross-ridged -construction of the lychgates at Clun in Shropshire (Fig. 235), or -Monnington-on-Wye in Herefordshire (Fig. 237). All three are square -on plan, and built of timber. The ornamental wood-patterning at Clun -is closely allied to the typical domestic work of Shropshire and -Cheshire, only in this instance it is open instead of being filled in -between with wattle and daub. - -Some lychgates belonging to the shed type are of composite materials, -partly masonry and partly timberwork. To this class belong the gates -at Pattingham, Staffordshire (Fig. 234), with its timber-framed gables -in the long roof; Llanfillo, Brecknockshire (Fig. 229), and Clodock, -Herefordshire (Fig. 228). The last-named is of uncommon character, -having timber posts supplemented by masonry pier-walls, with recesses, -like niches, in their inner sides. The stone piers are each 8 ft. 8 -in. long by 2 ft. thick, and the clear opening between them is 7 ft. -4 in. wide. The roofing is of stone slates. It is believed to have -been erected in 1667. - -To judge of the respective effects produced by timberwork on the -one hand, and stonework on the other, one has only to compare the -porch-like lychgates of Rustington, Sussex (Fig. 230), and Boughton -Monchelsea, Kent (Fig. 231), with those of Talyllyn (Fig. 232) and -Llandrillo-yn-Rhos (Fig. 233). It happens that the date of the -construction of the last-named is known, viz., 1677. Otherwise, both -this one and Talyllyn are so rude in construction, and so conspicuous -for the absence of architectural detail, that it would be rash to -attempt to assign a more precise date to either of them than some -period subsequent to Queen Elizabeth's reign. - -"It is difficult," says Herbert North in _The Old Churches of -Arllechwedd_, "to conjecture the date of the local lychgates." Of six -specimens, past and present, noted by him in Carnarvonshire, every -one bore, or bears, a date some time within the eighteenth century. -The lychgate of Llanrug is dated 1718; Caerhun and Llanfaglan, 1728; -the old gate, now demolished, at Dolwyddelan, was dated 1736; the -gate at Bettws-y-Coed is dated 1756, and Llanrhychwyn, 1762. In one -case only, that of Dolwyddelan, the parish accounts show clearly -that the work executed in the year specified was of the nature of -repairs to an already existing structure. With regard to the other -lychgates, however, there is no way of determining whether they were -repaired merely, or built afresh at the dates recorded on them. With -one exception, the lychgate of Bettws-y-Coed, where there is on the -east side, over the gateway, a fine curved beam, 10 in. square, of -really medieval aspect, internal evidence is of little avail, because -the structures themselves are of quite plain and simple character, -devoid of any distinctive architectural feature whatever. It is, -however, a very extraordinary coincidence if occasion arose for all -the six lychgates to require repairing within a space of less than -fifty years. One can scarcely be rash, then, in assuming that, in the -majority of instances, these lychgates were built at the actual dates -respectively inscribed upon them. - - [Illustration: 201. HARTFIELD, SUSSEX - - LYCHGATE BUILDING] - - [Illustration: 202. BRAY, BERKSHIRE] - - [Illustration: 203. BRAY, BERKSHIRE - - LYCHGATE, FROM THE CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 204. CHALFONT ST GILES, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 205. BECKENHAM, KENT - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 206, 207. BECKENHAM, KENT - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 208, 209. STAPLE, KENT - - PLAN AND SECTIONS OF LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 210. ANSTEY, HERTFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 211, 212. WEST WICKHAM, KENT - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 213, 214. HESTON, MIDDLESEX - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 215, 216. ASHWELL, HERTFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE, ELEVATION AND SECTION, SHOWING ROOF CONSTRUCTION] - - [Illustration: 217, 218. ASHWELL, HERTFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE, PLAN AND END ELEVATION] - - [Illustration: 219. MORWENSTOW, CORNWALL - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 220. LENHAM, KENT - - LYCHGATE, FROM WITHIN THE CHURCHYARD] - - [Illustration: 221. LENHAM, KENT - - LYCHGATE DETAILS] - - [Illustration: 222. LENHAM, KENT - - LYCHGATE, SECTIONS AND GROUND PLAN] - - [Illustration: 223. ISLEHAM, CAMBRIDGESHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 224, 225. ISLEHAM, CAMBRIDGESHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 226. GORING, OXFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 227. CHIDDINGFOLD, SURREY - - LYCHGATE, WITH COFFIN SLAB] - - [Illustration: 228. CLODOCK, HEREFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 229. LLANFILLO, BRECKNOCKSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 230. RUSTINGTON, SUSSEX - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 231. BOUGHTON MONCHELSEA, KENT - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 232. TALYLLYN, MERIONETHSHIRE] - - [Illustration: 233. LLANDRILLO-YN-RHOS, DENBIGHSHIRE] - - [Illustration: 234. PATTINGHAM, STAFFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 235. CLUN, SHROPSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 236. PULBOROUGH, SUSSEX - - LYCHGATE] - - [Illustration: 237. MONNINGTON-ON-WYE, HEREFORDSHIRE - - LYCHGATE] - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - _Vetusta Monumenta_, Vol. I., 1747; Vol. II., 1789; and Vol. - III., 1796. Folio. Published by the Society of Antiquaries of - London. - - These miscellanies contain a number of plates, dating from 1728, - and letterpress descriptions of ancient stone crosses. - - "An Essay towards a History and Description of Ancient Stone - Crosses" in _The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_, by - JOHN BRITTON, F.S.A. Vol. I., 4to. London, 1807. - - "Village Crosses" (Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, and - Bedfordshire) in _The Ecclesiologist_, pp. 89-90, February 1844. - - "Ancient Crosses" in _The Ecclesiologist_, pp. 298-300, August - 1845. - - "Crosses in Village or Churchyard," pp. 186-190 of _A Handbook - of English Ecclesiology_. Cambridge Camden Society, 1847. - - _Ancient Stone Crosses of England_, by ALFRED RIMMER. - London, 1875. - - "Concerning Crosses," by FLORENCE PEACOCK, in _Curious - Church Gleanings_, edited by William Andrews, F.R.H.S. London - and Hull, 1896. - - "Early Sculptured Stones in England," Parts I. and II., by - Bishop G. F. BROWNE, in _The Magazine of Art_. Vol. - VIII. Cassell & Co., 1885. - - _The Cross in Ritual, Architecture, and Art_, by the Rev. G. - S. TYACK, 1896. - - "Churchyard Crosses," by AYMER VALLANCE, in _The - Burlington Magazine_, No. 186, Vol. XXXIII., September 1918. - - _Wayside Crosses_ (a pamphlet), prepared under the direction of - the Advisory Committee of the Wayside Cross Society. London, - Chiswick Press, 1917. - - "Market Crosses and Halls," by WALTER H. GODFREY, - F.S.A., in the _Architectural Review_ for September 1919. - - _The Early Christian Monuments of Cheshire and Lancashire_, by - J. ROMILLY ALLEN, F.S.A.(Scot.), December 1893. - - "Some Cheshire Crosses," by the Ven. Archdeacon EDWARD - BARBER, M.A., F.S.A., in _Memorials of Old Cheshire_. - London, 1910. - - _Old Stone Crosses of the Vale of Clwyd and Neighbouring - Parishes_, by the Rev. ELIAS OWEN, M.A. London, - Oswestry, and Wrexham, 1886. - - "Cornish Crosses" in _The Ecclesiologist_, pp. 217-219, November - 1849. - - _Ancient Crosses and other Antiquities in Cornwall_, by J. - T. BLIGHT, F.S.A. London and Penzance, 1872. - - _Old Cornish Crosses_, by ARTHUR G. LANGDON, with an - Article on their Ornament by J. Romilly Allen. Truro, 1896. - - "Pre-Norman Cross Fragments at Aspatria, Workington, Distington, - Bridekirk, Gilcrux, Plumbland, and Isell," by the Rev. W. S. - CALVERLEY, F.S.A., in _Transactions of the Cumberland and - Westmoreland Antiquarian and Archæological Society_. Vol. XI. - Kendal, 1891. - - _The Runic Roods of Ruthwell and Bewcastle_, by JAMES KING - HEWISON. 4to. Glasgow, 1914. - - _The Ancient Crosses of Dartmoor_, by WILLIAM CROSSING. - London and Exeter, 1887. - - "Three Pre-Norman Crosses in Derbyshire," by G. LE BLANC - SMITH, in _The Reliquary_, July 1904. - - _The Old Stone Crosses of Dorset_, with an Introduction and - Descriptive Article, by ALFRED POPE. Collotype - Illustrations. London, 1906. - - _Notes on the Old Crosses of Gloucestershire_, by CHARLES - POOLEY, F.S.A., London, 1868. - - _The Ancient Crosses of Stortford_, by J. L. GLASSCOCK, - 1905. - - "The Ancient Crosses of Lancashire," by HENRY TAYLOR, - F.S.A., first published serially, in seven parts, in - _Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian - Society_, and republished in separate form under title of "The - Ancient Crosses and Holy Wells of Lancashire." Manchester, 1906. - - "The Crosses of Lancashire," by the Rev. P. H. - DITCHFIELD, M.A., F.S.A., in _Memorials of Old Lancashire_. - Vol. II. London, 1909. - - _Manx Crosses_, by P. M. C. KERMODE. London, 1907. - - "Parish of Kirk Maughold," comprises an illustrated account of - the Standing Cross in _The Manx Archæological Survey_, Fourth - Report. Douglas, Isle of Man, 1915. - - _St Paul's Cross: the most Famous Spot in London_, by JOHN - B. MARSH, 1892. - - _Chapters in the History of Old St Paul's_, by W. SPARROW - SIMPSON, London, 1881; and _St Paul's Cathedral and Old - City Life_, by the same, London, 1894, - - contain much information concerning Paul's Cross. - - "Paul's Cross," being Chapter VIII. of Methuen's _Little Guide - to St Paul's Cathedral, London_, by GEORGE CLINCH, 1906. - - "The Early History, Form, and Function of Paul's Cross," by - W. PALEY BAILDON, F.S.A., in _Proceedings of the - Society of Antiquaries_, 2nd May, 1918. - - "Early Christian Sculpture in Northamptonshire," by J. - ROMILLY ALLEN, F.S.A.(Scot.), in _The Associated - Architectural Societies' Reports and Papers_. - - _The Stone Crosses of the County of Northampton_, by - CHRISTOPHER A. MARKHAM, F.S.A. London and Northampton, - 1901. - - "The Missing Termination of Queen Eleanor's Cross at - Northampton," by R. C. SCRIVEN, in _The Associated - Architectural Societies' Reports and Papers_. Vol. XVIII. - Lincoln, 1886. - - "Eleanor of Castile, Queen of England, and the Monuments Erected - to her Memory," by JAMES GALLOWAY, A.M., M.D., in - _Historical Sketches of Old Charing_. London, 1914. - - _An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Old Stone Crosses - of Somerset_, by CHARLES POOLEY, F.S.A. London, 1877. - - "Crosses of Somerset," an Appendix to Pooley's work, was - contributed by E. H. BATES HARBIN to _Notes and Queries - for Somerset and Dorset_. Vol. XV., Part 118. Sherborne, 1917. - - _The Old Stone Crosses of Somersetshire_, by ALEX. - GORDON, in two parts, in _The Reliquary_, October 1895 and - July 1896. - - "Wolverhampton Cross Shaft," by Professor W. R. - LETHABY, in _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_. - Vol. XXV., N.S., pp. 158-159. - - "Pre-Norman Cross Shaft at Nunburnholme, Yorkshire," by J. - ROMILLY ALLEN, in _The Reliquary_. - - - - - INDEX TO TEXT - - -_N.B._--Items in italics refer to the subject of LYCHGATES, while all -other items refer to CROSSES. - - _See also Alphabetical List of Illustrations at the commencement of - the Book_ - - - Abingdon Cross, 110 - - "Actes and Monuments", 15, 18 - - Alexander of Abingdon, 95 - - Angle-pedestals, 43 - - Anglican Runes, 32 - - _Ashprington Lychgate_, 164 - - _Atherington Lychgate_, 164 - - - Banbury Cross, 24 - - Battle, John of, 95 - - Baxter, Richard, 16 - - _Berrynarbor Lychgate_, 164 - - _Bettws-y-Coed Lychgate_, 168 - - Bishop's Lydeard, 14 - - Bishop's Stortford, 18 - - Boundary Crosses, 13 - - Brackley, Northants., 16 - - Bradshaigh, Sir William, 24 - - - _Caerhun Lychgate_, 168 - - _Caerwys (Flints.) Lychgate_, 165 - - Calvary, 42 - - Cavities in Base or Steps, 14 - - Ceremonial Functions, 21 - - Charing Cross, London, 18 - - Cheapside Cross, London, 18 - - Chester High Cross, 18, 25, 158 - - Constantine, Emperor, 1 - - Cornish Type, 27 - - Crown Steeples, 137 - - Crucifixion, 34 - - - Dane's Cross, Wolverhampton, 37 - - Demolitions by Parliamentary Visitors, 16 - - _Derwen Lychgate_, 165 - - Diamond-pointed Step, 42 - - Distribution of Remaining Crosses, 9 - - "Dives et Pauper", 1 - - _Dolwyddelan Lychgate_, 168 - - Dowsing's "Journal", 16 - - Dunstable, Eleanor Cross, 101 - - - Eglwyscummin, Carmarthenshire, 15 - - Eleanor Crosses, 94-108 - - " Plans, 95 - - " Royal Account Rolls, 95 - - Eleanor Cross, Dunstable, 101 - - " St Albans, 101 - - " Stony Stratford, 101 - - " Woburn, 101 - - Eleanor of Castile, 94 - - Elizabeth, Queen, 106 - - Evangelistic Symbols, 34 - - - Fyfield, Berks., 16 - - - Gallows, The Cross used as, 25 - - - Hardley, Norfolk, 13 - - Head of Cross, Varieties of Form, 47 - - Henry VI., 41 - - " VIII., 41 - - Hire of Labourers at Cross, 26 - - - Iconoclastic Movement, 15 - - Ipswich, Preaching Cross, 152 - - - Jeanne d'Arc, 7 - - Jews' Cross, Oxford, 19 - - - Knop, Treatment of, 46 - - - Launde, Sir Robert, 102 - - Leek, Staffs., 37 - - Liverpool, Cross formerly at, 16 - - _Llanfaglan, Lychgate_, 168 - - _Llanrhychwyn Lychgate_, 168 - - _Llanrug Lychgate_, 168 - - London, Crosses at, 18, 102 - - " Minor Preaching Crosses, 120 - - " Paul's Cross, 113-120 - - _Long Compton Lychgate_, 164 - - Louth, Lincs., 25 - - _Lychcrosses_, 165 - - _Lychgates_, 164-168 - - " _Classification of Types_, 164 - - " _Construction_, 165 - - " _Distribution of_, 165 - - " _Materials Used_, 165 - - _Lychseats_, 165 - - _Lychstones_, 165 - - Lyme, Dorset, 25 - - - Margaret of Anjou, 41 - - Market Crosses, 2, 125-157 - - " General Intent of, 125 - - " Tolls, 128 - - Melton Mowbray, 18 - - Menhirs, 27 - - Mercian Type, 34 - - Monoliths, 1, 27 - - Monmouth, Duke of, 25 - - - Netheway, John, 7 - - Nevill's Cross, Durham, 22 - - Niche in Head, 161 - - " Socket or Shaft, 9 - - - Outdoor Processions to Cross, 9 - - Oxford, Jews' Cross, 19 - - - "Palm Crosses", 13 - - " Sunday Ceremonials, 13 - - Paul's Cross, London (see London), 113-120 - - Pecocke, Bishop of Chichester, 116 - - _Penshurst Lychgate_, 164 - - Percy's Cross, 41 - - Peterborough, 26 - - "Poor Soul's Light", 163 - - Preaching Crosses, 2, 113-124 - - Processionate to Cross, 9 - - Proclamations from Crosses, 25 - - - Ravensworth "Butter Cross", 22 - - Reding in Eboney, Kent, 7 - - Regensburg, Bavaria, 163 - - Rhuddlan, 26 - - Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, 32 - - - St Albans, Eleanor Cross, 101 - - " Preaching Cross, 101 - - St Cwyfan's Stone, 35 - - St Patrick, 27 - - Sacrilege and Profanity, 15 - - Sanctuary Crosses, 21 - - Scarborough, Butter Cross, 111 - - Sedgemoor, Battle of, 25 - - Shaft-on-Steps Type, 42 - - Shaft Treatment, 44, 45 - - Smithfield, Cow Cross, 18 - - Socket, Treatment of, 45 - - South Littleton, Worcestershire, 15 - - Statues of Eleanor Crosses, 96 - - Steps, Treatment of, 44 - - Stony Stratford, Eleanor Cross, 101 - - - Thornhill, Sir James, 154 - - Tolls of Market Cross, 128 - - _Turnstile Lychgates_, 164 - - - Unclassified Varieties of Crosses, 158 - - - Wansford, Northants., 21 - - "Weeping Crosses", 26 - - Whitford, Flintshire, 34 - - _Whitford " Lychgate_, 165 - - Wigan Cross, Lancs., 24 - - William de Bley's Constitution, 13 - - Wither, Joan, 7 - - Woburn, Beds., Eleanor Cross at, 101 - - Wolsey, Cardinal, 118 - - _Woodleigh (Derwen), Deanery of, Lychgates_, 165 - - Wynken de Worde, 1 - - - - -_Printed in Great Britain at_ THE DARIEN PRESS, _Edinburgh_ - - -Transcriber's Notes: - -1. Obvious spelling and punctuation errors have been corrected. - -2. Page 116, paragraph 2, the name Robert Hawke has been corrected to - Robert Hawle "Robert Hauley (Haule or Hawle)" - records at - Westminster Abbey. - -3. Superscripts are represented using the caret character, e.g. D^r. - -4. Italics are shown as _text_. - -5. 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