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diff --git a/old/56021.txt b/old/56021.txt deleted file mode 100644 index af2ebce..0000000 --- a/old/56021.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2184 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Poisonous Snakes of Texas and First Aid -Treatment of Their Bites, by John E. Werler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Poisonous Snakes of Texas and First Aid Treatment of Their Bites - Bulletin No. 31 - -Author: John E. Werler - -Release Date: November 21, 2017 [EBook #56021] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POISONOUS SNAKES OF TEXAS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - TEXAS PARKS AND WILDLIFE DEPARTMENT - - - - - POISONOUS SNAKES OF TEXAS - AND FIRST AID TREATMENT - OF THEIR BITES - - - BULLETIN NO. 31 - - Originally published February 1950 - Revised February 1952 - Reprinted May 1960 - Revised July 1963; May 1964 - Reprinted Jan. 1967 - Reprinted Jan. 1969 - Reprinted August 1970 - - _By_ - JOHN E. WERLER - Director, Houston Zoological Gardens - - [Illustration: Texas State Seal] - - Published by Texas Parks and Wildlife Department - Austin, Texas - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION 4 - PRECAUTIONS AT HOME 5 - PROTECTION IN THE FIELD 7 - RECOGNIZING THE POISONOUS KINDS 8 - THE PIT VIPERS 12 - THE COPPERHEADS 13 - Southern 14 - Northern 16 - Broadbanded 18 - Trans-Pecos 20 - THE COTTONMOUTH 22 - Western Cottonmouth 22 - THE RATTLESNAKES 25 - Western Massasauga 26 - Western Pigmy 28 - Western Diamondback 30 - Timber 34 - Canebrake 36 - Banded Rock 38 - Mottled Rock 40 - Blacktailed 42 - Mojave 44 - Prairie 46 - THE ELAPID SNAKES 48 - Texas Coral 48 - VENOMS 52 - DIAGNOSING THE BITE 53 - SEVERITY OF THE BITE 54 - FIRST AID TREATMENT 55 - SUGGESTIONS TO PHYSICIANS 57 - BIBLIOGRAPHY 61 - FILMS 62 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -This Bulletin has been prepared in response to many requests from -hunters, ranchers, telephone construction personnel, Boy Scouts and -others who spend much time outdoors, for a concise and illustrated guide -to the poisonous snakes of Texas. The information presented is merely an -outline of the poisonous snakes found within the state and is not -intended to replace the several excellent snake books now on the market. - -Sixteen species and subspecies of poisonous snakes, belonging to four -general groups, are found in Texas. The most characteristic features of -each are described. A photograph accompanies each description and a map -indicating the snake's known range by counties is included. With this -information, the reader should have little difficulty recognizing the -poisonous snakes found in his region and, should he be required to -render first aid for snake bite, the text and photos covering this -subject will help him to do the job successfully. - -A number of persons have extended help during the current revision of -this booklet. I am most indebted to Alvin Flury, information and -education officer for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, who not -only did much of the necessary legwork for the project, but who also -provided the impetus that saw it to completion. Thanks are due also to -the following persons for county records of poisonous snakes in Texas: -Ralph W. Axtell, Richard J. Baldauf, Edward W. Bonn, Bryce C. Brown, -James R. Dixon, Alvin Flury, John W. Forsyth, W. C. Glazener, W. -Grainger Hunt, L. M. Klauber, Verlin Nethery, Floyd Potter, Kirk -Preston, Stephen Preston, Gerald G. Raun, Michael Sabath, Joe T. -Stevens, Ernest C. Tanzer, Donald W. Tinkle, Clay Touchstone and John -Wooters. Live specimens for making photographs used here were provided -by Russell J. Long, Rusty Martin, Ernest C. Tanzer, Clay Touchstone and -Lawrence Curtis. Finally, I wish to thank Robert L. Carlisle, Joseph F. -Gennaro, Richard MacAllister, Don W. Micks, J. Fred Mullins, A. C. -Stimson and John H. Werler for other information and assistance. - - JOHN E. WERLER - - - - - POISONOUS SNAKES OF TEXAS - AND FIRST AID TREATMENT - OF THEIR BITES - - -It is widely known among snake bite authorities that more persons die -from snake bite in Texas than in any other state of the nation. This -startling fact should encourage every Texan to obtain a thorough working -knowledge of the correct first aid treatment for snake bite so he will -be prepared to act promptly in the event of an emergency. In addition, -and perhaps just as important, he should learn how to prevent a bite -before it can happen. This means knowing where to expect poisonous -snakes, how to avoid them, and how to identify on sight the venomous -kinds found in the region where he lives. - - - - - PRECAUTIONS AT HOME - - -Statistics show that a large percentage of all bites takes place near -the home and more than a few of these are inflicted upon small children -playing in their yards. Therefore, let us consider first the possible -presence of poisonous snakes around the home and some precautions that -can be taken to keep them away. - -Each year Texas zoos receive calls from distressed home owners within -city limits who have discovered rattlesnakes or copperheads under their -houses or beneath trash piles on their property. These people ask for -assistance in the removal of the snakes or for advice which may prevent -similar future invasions. The trespassing snake often can be disposed of -quickly, but the removal of one snake does not always solve the problem. -Something must be done to discourage other snakes from taking residence -on the grounds. - -The steps to be taken are simple; chief among them is the removal of all -rubbish. Rock piles, trash piles, stacked lumber, tree stumps and other -forms of debris near or under houses often harbor rats and mice which -form the principal food of most snakes. In addition, this trash -furnishes cover for the reptiles and offers them protection from enemies -and bad weather. Therefore, if all rubbish is removed from the premises, -the food and shelter which attract snakes are largely eliminated and the -snakes are forced to seek a more suitable environment. Dense, low -growing plants may also supply cover for snakes. - -Finally, the removal of rubbish and dense vegetation enables the -homeowner to easily see and destroy poisonous snakes that may be -present. In settled areas, however, where poisonous snakes are -particularly abundant and present a serious problem, it may be necessary -to take further protective measures. - -Dr. C. M. Bogert of the American Museum of Natural History has suggested -the use of a quarter-inch mesh wire fence to keep snakes off residential -property. This yard-high, snake-proof fence is placed around the house -in much the same manner as an ordinary picket fence, except that the -bottom must be set about six inches into the ground to prevent snakes -forcing their way beneath it. In addition, all gates must be provided -with close-fitting sills on the bottoms and sides to insure a completely -tight enclosure. - -Experiments with fences of this kind were made to determine their -effectiveness and to seek possible improvements in their construction, -with the result that one important change was made. Copperheads and -small rattlesnakes could not get over the vertically-straight fence, but -a six-foot rattlesnake used in the experiment was able to climb over it. -When the same fence was tilted outward at a 30-degree angle, not even -the largest snake was able to reach the top. Although such fences are -expensive and difficult to keep in good repair, they may be desirable -under some circumstances. - -A less costly method of keeping snakes away from residential property -has been proposed by the manufacturers of a new chemical that allegedly -repels and kills snakes. The product, a granular material with a civet -musk odor, is reported by its distributors to kill a snake less than two -feet in length if it is exposed longer than 20 seconds. Preliminary -tests made at the Houston Zoo indicate that, in spite of claims to the -contrary, the material had little effect on the snakes used. Each of -more than a dozen different specimens, including examples of all the -local poisonous kinds, unhesitatingly crawled through a wide barrier of -the repellent that was poured on the ground. In some instances, the -snake's tongue contacted the granules, but none of the test reptiles -showed any ill effects from exposure to the chemical. While these crude -tests are certainly not conclusive, it would seem advisable to use -commercial repellents with some reservations until they can be proved -effective. Meanwhile, we can still prevent most snake bites by observing -a few simple safe practices. - - - - - PROTECTION IN THE FIELD - - -In the field, where poisonous snakes are more common, they present a -greater hazard to human life; consequently, campers, crop farmers and -others who spend a great deal of time outdoors should necessarily take -more care in avoiding snake bites. Because almost all snake bites are -inflicted on the arms or legs of the victim, these limbs require special -protection. The use of a little caution, when placing hands or feet -where snakes may be partially or completely hidden from view, is the -best protection you can give them. This is particularly true when -climbing hand-over-hand on rocky ledges, where your hands reach the -level of the ledge before your eyes do. Rattlesnakes and copperheads are -partial to such rocky hillsides and here, especially during the warm -days of early spring, they prefer to coil and sun themselves. - - [Illustration: Thoughtless reach] - -Armadillo and pack rat burrows also make excellent shelters for -rattlesnakes, and only a reckless person would find an excuse to reach -into one of these holes. Yet one year, in South Texas alone, at least -two snake bites occurred when the victims, each in search of small game, -reached into armadillo holes and were bitten by rattlesnakes coiled -there. - -Another way to invite snake bite is to thoughtlessly turn over a log -with bare hands or to step over one without first looking to see whether -a snake is coiled on the other side. Many snakes, particularly the -copperhead and coral snake, are fond of hiding beneath or within -decaying logs, as any snake collector will testify, and such a log is at -all times to be considered a potential snake den. If a log must be -moved, use a long stick as a pry-bar. Stepping over a log will be less -risky if boots or high-top shoes are worn, but even then it is safer to -see first what is on the other side. - -Several types of footwear offer good protection against the bites of -most snakes. Especially effective are high-top leather shoes, riding -boots, rubber boots or a combination of army "paratrooper shoes" and -heavy leather puttees. Probably the best of these is a snakeproof boot -made of extra heavy bullhide leather, sold by the Gokey Company, 94 East -4th Street, St. Paul, Minnesota. For protection of the legs above the -knees, snakeproof pants that weigh little more than ordinary duck -trousers are available. They consist of three thicknesses of duck -material and one layer of fine wire mesh, flexible enough to allow easy -knee movement. Snakeproof leggings of similar material can be purchased -for safeguarding just the lower legs. Recently marketed aluminum -leggings furnish good protection in many cases, but some brands tested -were too thin and easily damaged; others were too uncomfortable. - -If a poisonous snake is discovered close by, the best protection is to -remain as still as possible until the snake has moved away. It should be -remembered that a snake is quick to strike at a moving object, so to -quickly step away at such a moment may be disastrous. If a rattlesnake -is heard nearby but cannot be located, do not begin a wild dash for -safety. Location of the snake may be misjudged and by taking a step you -are likely to walk into, rather than away from, it. Again, remain still -until the snake is sighted and, when it is certain the snake is at least -five or six feet away and no others are nearby, slowly back away. If you -must move away, do so as slowly as possible. - -Because our native poisonous snakes are mostly nocturnal in their -activities, remaining hidden during the day and emerging at night in -search of food, a flashlight should be used by persons who find it -necessary to travel through snake country after dark. During the cool -days of spring and autumn, however, nocturnal habits are often reversed. -During the day snakes search for warm spots in which to sun themselves; -by nightfall they are again under cover. - -None of our poisonous Texas snakes ordinarily can strike more than -three-quarters of its body length, unless it has a firm backing or is -striking downward from an incline. Certainly none has the ability to -jump at an enemy, a feat often attributed to the rattlesnake. A snake on -the defensive is coiled with the forward part of its body in a loose S -position. When striking, this coil is straightened out and the head is -thrust forward. It is not necessary for a snake to strike from a coil in -order to bite. If picked up near the head, it may simply turn, open its -mouth and bite the hand. - -It is dangerous to believe, as many do, that a water moccasin cannot -bite under water, and woe to the person who dares to seize a submerged -cottonmouth. - - - - - RECOGNIZING THE POISONOUS KINDS - - -Suppose, in spite of attention to the precautions and protective -measures just outlined, someone is bitten by an unidentified snake. -Certainly the victim would not wish to delay treatment if the snake were -poisonous, because every minute wasted would make recovery more -difficult. On the other hand, he would not care to undergo either the -pain associated with snake bite treatment or the anxiety following a -bite if a harmless snake were the cause of the accident. Yet time and -again people have been bitten by harmless snakes and have been -needlessly given first aid and hospital treatment because the offending -snake was incorrectly classified as poisonous. Still others have been -bitten by harmless snakes and died from nothing more than fright. - -When recognition of the snake is doubtful, it should, if possible, be -killed and taken to a hospital or doctor's office for correct -identification. Always keep in mind, however, that a recently killed -poisonous snake may still be potentially dangerous. Even after its head -is cut from the body, a reptile is capable of marked reflex activity; -merely touching the head may cause it to bite. To be on the safe side, -use a stick to lift or carry a dead snake. - -It is evident that the ability to distinguish between harmless and -poisonous snakes goes hand in hand with a knowledge of proper first aid -treatment. Ability to recognize a poisonous snake on sight can best be -achieved by a study of live poisonous kinds and a comparison of them -with harmless species. At many zoos, where both kinds are on display in -glass-fronted cages, they may be examined safely. If a zoo is not -conveniently near, an examination of photographs showing the different -kinds is probably the next best way to become familiar with them. - -It is generally considered by the layman that four kinds of poisonous -snakes are found in the United States--the rattlesnake, cottonmouth, -copperhead and coral snake. This grouping, although somewhat arbitrary -and certainly not zoologically correct, is firmly established in the -minds of most people and may very well be here to stay. Nevertheless, a -more accurate and scientific approach is possible if we consider each -species and subspecies as a different kind. - -Illustrations in this booklet show the 16 kinds (species and subspecies) -of poisonous snakes known in Texas. These photographs, together with -descriptions in the text, should aid in identification. The accompanying -distribution map for each form has been compiled from county records -based on museum specimens, but in a few cases reliable "sight" records -have been used as proof of a snake's occurrence within a county. - -Distribution of snakes within Texas is incompletely known because of a -lack of reliable records; for this reason, the distribution maps are -necessarily far from complete. It is hoped, however, that the lists will -be brought up to date as new localities come to light. If the reader can -make any additions to the present lists, he is asked to communicate with -the author or to deliver specimens to the nearest large college, zoo or -museum maintaining a zoological collection. - -Only 16 of the approximately 106 different kinds of snakes found in the -state are dangerously poisonous to man, and some are so rare that they -are seldom seen. In addition, we have in Texas several species of -smaller snakes known as opisthoglyphs, each possessing a mild venom and -a set of small grooved fangs far back in the upper jaw. Because of their -weak and limited supply of venom and small fangs, which are poorly -adapted for injecting poison into large animals, these rear-fanged -snakes are considered harmless to man. By far, the majority of species -are small, being not more than 15 inches long and about three-sixteenths -of an inch thick. In this group are the blackheaded snakes (genus -_Tantilla_) found over most of the state. The slightly larger spotted -night snakes (genus _Hypsiglena_) of west and central Texas have -enlarged but ungrooved teeth in the upper jaw. Two Mexican rear-fanged -snakes, found as far north as the Brownsville region, are somewhat -larger. They are the blackstriped snake (_Coniophanes imperialis -imperialis_) which grows to about 20 inches in length, and the Texas -cat-eye snake (_Leptodeira annulata septentrionalis_), which reaches a -length of about three feet. Still another species, the very rare Texas -lyre snake (_Trimorphodon vilkinsonii_), is known from extreme western -Texas. It is generally less than three feet long. - -In spite of the small percentage of poisonous kinds of snakes in the -state, it must be made clear that no one general rule can be used safely -to identify all of them at a glance. It is a mistaken idea that all -venomous snakes have broad, triangular heads. On the contrary, by using -this rule, many of our harmless snakes look more dangerous than do some -poisonous kinds. Furthermore, this generalization is made useless by -several exceptions, a notable example being the coral snake which has a -round head and does not look at all poisonous. - -Even the characteristic rattle is not always present to make a -rattlesnake's identification certain. Sometimes the snake's rattle is -accidentally broken off, in which case this identifying appendage is -gone. Then, too, a rattlesnake often is coiled in such a way that its -rattles are concealed beneath a loop of its body. Again, the tell-tale -rattle is not visible and it is necessary to recognize the snake by some -other means. - -Disregard all so-called "easy" rules by which poisonous snakes may be -identified; instead, learn to know each one by its general overall -appearance. For example, to identify the cottonmouth, look for a -combination of its most characteristic features--relatively short, stout -body and a broad, flat head. Also look for a body color of black, dark -brown or olive and from 10 to 15 wide, usually indistinct, crossbands -which are generally lighter in the center than on the edges. The upper -jaw below the eye, as well as the lower jaw, will be light colored in -contrast to the dark color above the eye. Together, these -characteristics will make identification quite certain at a reasonable -distance. Remember that the young of this snake are colored differently -from the adults and you will not be able to identify the juvenile by -using the color characteristics of the adult snake. - - - - - THE PIT VIPERS - - -Our poisonous Texas snakes belong to two families--the _Viperidae_ -(subfamily _Crotalinae_--pit vipers) and the _Elapidae_ (cobra-like -snakes). The pit vipers, which include rattlesnakes, copperheads and -cottonmouths, possess an opening on either side of the head, between the -eye and the nostril. With these heat-sensitive pits, the snake can -locate warm-blooded prey in the dark and make a direct hit upon a rat or -mouse which it cannot see. - - [Illustration: Snake skeletons] - -Snakes belonging to this family are further characterized by the -possession of elliptical eye pupils, somewhat triangular-shaped heads -and long, movable fangs in the front of the upper jaw. Each fang is -connected by a tube to the poison gland located just behind the eye. -When the snake is at rest and its mouth is closed, the fangs lie folded -back against the roof of the mouth. During the strike, the mouth is -opened so that the upper and lower jaws form an angle of nearly 180 -degrees. The fangs are then erected to point almost directly forward. -With the fangs in this position, the strike results in a stabbing action -rather than a true bite. - - - - - THE COPPERHEADS - - -Four kinds of copperheads are known in Texas. They are much smaller and -more slender than the closely related cottonmouth and, because they have -proportionately smaller fangs and less venom, are not very dangerous to -man. The four copperheads resemble one another by having the same -general pattern of chestnut or reddish-brown crossbands on a lighter -body color. Differences are based mostly on the size and shape of -crossbands and in the degree of marking present on the belly. - -Copperheads are most common in rocky areas of hilly or mountainous -country, as well as in wooded bottomlands. They are rarely seen in dry, -cactus country. Although spending most of their time on the ground, -copperheads occasionally climb bushes and low trees in search of food. -Along the Colorado River near Wharton, they were observed high in trees; -some were 40 feet above the ground. The snakes reached these unusual -heights by crawling along wild grape vines that clung to the tree trunks -and draped over lower limbs. One snake hunter in the area collected -nearly 100 copperheads by pulling them off the branches. - -Copperheads do most of their feeding at night. During the spring in some -parts of the state, they are found in large numbers along streams and -other moist areas, where they spend most of the day hidden beneath -decaying logs and other debris which affords good cover. Copperheads -also can be expected when air temperatures are high, and when the soil -and vegetation are wet from recent rain. They often make their homes -within the suburbs of large cities where, due to their nocturnal habits -and protective coloration, they are apt to be overlooked. - -Not quick to seek cover when approached, copperheads prefer to lie -perfectly still until an intruder has passed. Once molested, they -frequently vibrate their tails and, if among dry leaves, produce a -buzzing sound not unlike that made by a rattlesnake. Copperheads are -quick to strike at any annoying object, and often bite several times in -rapid succession. - -Copperheads seldom deliver a fatal bite because of their short fangs and -small size. Their strike is often blocked by a mere trouser leg. Records -of the Antivenin Institute of America show that during a 10-year period, -not a single death resulted from 308 recorded copperhead bites -regardless of the lack or kind of treatment given victims. In spite of -these reassuring figures, it must be remembered that the copperhead is -potentially a dangerous snake, especially when the bite involves a -child. All bites from this species should receive the same urgent -consideration given the bite of a diamondback rattlesnake. - -The four forms of copperheads occurring in Texas are the only kinds -found in the United States. - - - SOUTHERN COPPERHEAD - _Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix_ - - [Illustration: SOUTHERN COPPERHEAD] - -Description--Lighter in color than the other copperheads, this form has -a body color of light brown or tan, often with a pinkish tinge. -Hourglass-shaped crossbands of darker brown are very narrow along the -middle of the back and are sometimes broken, forming two separate -triangular markings, one on each side of the body. As on the northern -copperhead, the bands are rounded at their bases. The belly is pale and -indistinctly marked. - -Size--Adults average between 20 and 30 inches long, while some -especially large examples reach a length of more than 40 inches. - -Young--The average number in a brood is five or six. As with all North -American pit vipers, the young do not hatch from eggs but are born -alive, enclosed in a thin membranous sack. They are paler than adults, -with a more vivid pattern, and a bright sulphur yellow tail tip. - -Distribution in Texas--The southern copperhead is known in about the -eastern third of the state, where it has been found in the following -counties: Austin, Bastrop, Bowie, Brazoria, Brazos, Burleson, Calhoun, -Chambers, Cherokee, Colorado, Fort Bend, Gonzales, Grimes, Hardin, -Harris, Harrison, Henderson, Hopkins, Houston, Jefferson, Leon, Liberty, -Madison, Matagorda, Montgomery, Nacogdoches, Newton, Orange, Polk, -Robertson, San Jacinto, Smith, Tarrant, Trinity, Victoria, and Walker. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - NORTHERN COPPERHEAD - _Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen_ - - [Illustration: NORTHERN COPPERHEAD] - -Description--This darker form has a pattern of reddish-brown or chestnut -colored crossbands, which become narrower near the middle of the back -and rounded at the bases. The darker color of these "dumbbell" shaped -bands contrasts with the hazel-brown body color. The underside of the -snake is dark and indistinctly mottled with gray or black. Its head is -usually of a lighter tint than the body. - -Size--Adults usually are about two and a half feet long but record size -individuals of more than 40 inches have been caught. - -Young--Newborn northern copperheads, from three to 14 in a brood, may be -from eight to 10 inches long. - -Distribution--Records of this snake are rather widely scattered over the -northeastern part of the state. Specimens have been collected in the -following counties: Bastrop, Bowie, Burleson, Cass, Collin, Colorado, -Coryell, Dallas, Ellis, Fannin, Grayson, Guadalupe, Hopkins, Hunt, -Kaufman, Lamar, Lee, McLennan, Milam, Morris, Robertson, Smith, -Somervell, and Titus. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - BROADBANDED COPPERHEAD - _Agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus_ - - [Illustration: BROADBANDED COPPERHEAD] - -Description--The very broad, straight edged crossbands of this snake -easily distinguish it from other copperheads. The similar Trans-Pecos -copperhead differs by the presence of a light colored inverted U at the -base of each crossband. The dark brown bands of this form are slightly -narrower at the middle of the back than on the sides; their nearly -straight edges gives the bands a squarish appearance. The dark -crossbands contrast strongly with the lighter body color, while the -belly is of almost the same shade as the bands. The tail is tipped with -yellowish green, more pronounced in the young. - -Size--Snakes of this subspecies probably reach a length of three feet -but most adults are about two feet long. - -Young--Litters probably average five or six but little else is known -about the breeding habits of this form. - -Distribution--Widely scattered records include the following counties: -Atascosa, Bandera, Bastrop, Bexar, Bosque, Burnet, Callahan, Comal, -Cooke, Crockett, Denton, Dimmit, Eastland, Fayette, Frio, Gillespie, -Gonzales, Grayson, Guadalupe, Hamilton, Hays, Kendall, Kerr, Mason, -Medina, McLennan, Parker, Palo Pinto, Real, San Saba, Tarrant, Taylor, -Throckmorton, Tom Green, Travis, Uvalde, Victoria, Wilson, Wise, and -Young. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - TRANS-PECOS COPPERHEAD - _Agkistrodon contortrix pictigaster_ - - [Illustration: TRANS-PECOS COPPERHEAD] - -Description--This species resembles the broadbanded copperhead by its -straight edged, squarish crossbands but differs from all other -copperheads by having uniformly dark or strongly mottled belly. It also -differs from the broadbanded form by the presence of a light colored -inverted U at the base of each crossband. The pattern consists of about -13 chestnut-brown crossbands with narrow, dark borders. The color -between the bands is light hazel brown, flecked with darker brown. - -Size--This is the smallest of the copperheads, probably not reaching a -length of two and one-half feet. - -Young--Nothing is known of the breeding habits of this rare snake. - -Distribution--This form apparently is restricted to the mountains of -West Texas, where it is known in Brewster, Jeff Davis, Presidio and -Terrell Counties. Until 1949 it was found sparingly throughout its range -and less than a dozen specimens had been found by experienced -collectors. Recently, however, students from The University of Texas -obtained about 100 of these snakes during a six weeks' summer course in -a small section of Terrell County. This indicates that the Trans-Pecos -copperhead is common, but in restricted areas only. Such areas generally -are in wooded canyons and live oak groves where there is some leaf -litter. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - - - THE COTTONMOUTH - - -Only one kind of cottonmouth is found in Texas. It is one of our -heaviest and largest poisonous snakes and may reach a length of more -than five feet. When viewed from above, the head appears triangular -shaped and from the side the head looks flat on top. - -The eye pupils, as with all members of the pit viper sub-family, are -elliptical. - - - WESTERN COTTONMOUTH - _Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma_ - - [Illustration: WESTERN COTTONMOUTH] - -Description--This is the most variable poisonous snake in the state, -both in color and in the presence or absence of markings. Adults are -much less brilliantly marked than are the young or newborn snakes. -Adults have a background of dark brown and are marked by from 10 to 15 -dark, wide crossbands somewhat lighter in the center than at the edges. -The bands, which have irregular edges, become a little wider along the -sides. However, not all cottonmouths look like this. While some -individuals have clearly defined crossbands, others have none. There is -also considerable variation in color. Some cottonmouths are brown; some -are olive brown or olive green; and some are entirely black. The lower -jaw, as well as the upper jaw below the eye, is light in contrast to the -dark color on top of the head. Young cottonmouths are vividly marked on -a background of reddish-brown, highlighted by darker brown bands edged -with white. They look much like copperheads. - -Size--In Texas, this heavy-bodied snake reaches a maximum length of -about four and a half or five feet, but the average is more nearly three -feet. - -Young--About eight are born in each litter. They are from six to eight -inches long at birth. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - -Distribution--The cottonmouth has been reported in the following -counties: Anderson, Aransas, Atascosa, Austin, Bandera, Bexar, Bowie, -Brazos, Brazoria, Burleson, Burnet, Cass, Calhoun, Chambers, Cherokee, -Collin, Colorado, Comal, Dallas, Denton, Ellis, Falls, Fannin, Fisher, -Fort Bend, Galveston, Goliad, Gonzales, Grayson, Guadalupe, Hardin, -Harris, Harrison, Hays, Henderson, Houston, Jasper, Jefferson, Kaufman, -Kerr, Kimble, Lamar, Leon, Liberty, Limestone, Marion, Mason, Matagorda, -Maverick, McLennan, Medina, Montgomery, Morris, Nacogdoches, Newton, -Nueces, Orange, Parker, Polk, Red River, Refugio, Robertson, San -Jacinto, San Patricio, Shelby, Smith, Sterling, Tarrant, Tom Green, -Travis, Uvalde, Val Verde, Victoria, Walker, Wharton, Wilson, and Wise. - -The cottonmouth is one of our largest poisonous snakes. It is -particularly abundant in the coastal marshes of southeastern Texas where -it is found along streams, ponds and lakes. Although ordinarily rather -sluggish, it immediately draws back its head and opens its mouth widely -in a threatening manner when annoyed, exposing the white tissue lining -the inside of the mouth. This characteristic pose is responsible for its -popular name. Moreover, like the copperhead, which also lacks rattles, -it has the habit of vibrating its tail when sufficiently annoyed. Thus, -when it is among dry leaves, or if the tail strikes a hard object, the -resulting sound may be similar to that made by a rattlesnake. - -The name water moccasin, which is loosely applied to any and all water -snakes as well as to the cottonmouth, has resulted in a popular but -misplaced belief that all "water" snakes are poisonous. It should be -pointed out here that the cottonmouth, _Agkistrodon piscivorus -leucostoma_, is our only poisonous aquatic serpent. The several kinds of -harmless water snakes, which in some instances resemble it, are devoid -of poison. They can, at most, inflict a bite no more serious than the -scratch of a cat and these wounds require only the first aid recommended -for minor cuts. - -Harmless water snakes most frequently mistaken for the cottonmouth -include the large diamondbacked water snake of central and eastern -Texas, the blotched water snake found over most of the state, and the -yellowbellied and broadbanded water snakes of eastern Texas. Most of -them are relatively heavy bodied, possess somewhat diamond shaped heads -and, although not venomous, will bite viciously if stepped upon or -handled. - - - - - THE RATTLESNAKES - - -More than one-half of all the poisonous kinds of snakes known in Texas -are rattlesnakes, and records show that almost every county has at least -one variety. Texas rattlesnakes range in size from the very small, -18-inch western pigmy rattlesnake, which rarely if ever causes death -among humans, to the seven-foot western diamondback rattlesnake, known -to be one of the most dangerous snakes in North America. All have -comparatively stout bodies, facial pits characteristic of the family, -and rattles. - -The rattle, which sets this snake apart, is a series of loosely -interlocking horny segments which, when vibrated, produce a sharp -buzzing sound as the segments strike against one another. A -rattlesnake's age cannot be determined by the number of segments of its -rattle because a new segment is added with each shedding of the skin. -Because a snake may shed several times a year, the resulting number of -segments added annually may be six or more. On the other hand, the -segments are frequently broken off as the rattle becomes caught in -underbrush, so that few rattlesnakes have a complete rattle. - - - WESTERN MASSASAUGA - _Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus_ - - [Illustration: WESTERN MASSASAUGA] - -Description--The general body color is brown or gray. About 39 dark -brown, oval blotches extend along the middle of the back while two rows -of smaller blotches are found along each side. These blotches are -narrowly edged with a lighter color. - -Size--Adults average two feet in length; larger specimens are sometimes -as long as three feet. - -Young--The young resemble the adults but are lighter in color. Average -number in a litter is eight or nine and they measure eight or nine -inches at birth. - -Distribution--Records of this snake are widely scattered throughout the -state, including the following counties: Andrews, Aransas, Armstrong, -Bell, Bosque, Brazos, Calhoun, Cameron, Chambers, Clay, Colorado, -Crosby, Dickens, El Paso, Gaines, Galveston, Hardeman, Haskell, -Hemphill, Jim Hogg, Johnson, King, Matagorda, McLennan, Midland, Nolan, -Nueces, Parker, Pecos, Roberts, Shackelford, Sutton, Tarrant, -Throckmorton, Victoria, Wheeler, Wilbarger, Winkler, Yoakum, and Young. - -This small rattlesnake is uncommon in Texas, although years ago it was -plentiful in some parts of the state. J. K. Strecker in his _Reptiles -and Amphibians of Texas_, 1915, states: - - Mr. Luttrell of Claude, Armstrong County, informed me that he has - often killed from 50 to 60 during one wheat season, but during the - past four or five years he has not seen more than half a dozen a year. - -Wet places, usually near swamps or marshes, are its favorite habitat. -One of our most docile rattlesnakes, it is seldom inclined to use its -rattle, even when almost stepped upon. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - WESTERN PIGMY RATTLESNAKE - _Sistrurus miliarius streckeri_ - - [Illustration: WESTERN PIGMY RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--The body color of this snake is from gray to grayish-brown. -Its back is marked with about 35 small, dark spots which are wider than -long. Another row of smaller spots is located along each side toward the -belly. - -Size--Specimens average 18 inches long and large examples may reach a -length of more than two feet. - -Young--The normal brood contains from eight to 10 but some may have as -many as 18. Average length of the newborn is five or six inches. - -Distribution--All county records of this snake, except one from Mitchell -County, are in the eastern part of the state. The Mitchell County record -may be an error. Records include the following counties: Anderson, -Angelina, Brazoria, Brazos, Chambers, Cooke, Dallas, Galveston, Hardin, -Harris, Harrison, Henderson, Houston, Jasper, Jefferson, Lamar, Leon, -Liberty, Matagorda, McLennan, Mitchell, Montgomery, Newton, Orange, Red -River, Refugio, Robertson, San Jacinto, Smith, Somervell, Victoria, -Walker, Wharton, and Wise. - -The western pigmy rattlesnake prefers to live in dry areas; reports of -professional collectors indicate that it is found in greatest number -after heavy rains and at night. While more aggressive than its close -relative, the massasauga, its small size makes it one of our least -dangerous poisonous snakes. Its rattle is small, often difficult to see, -and cannot be heard at distances greater than a few feet. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - WESTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus atrox_ - - [Illustration: WESTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--Although individuals of this species show a great deal of -variation in color, from a chalky white to a dull red, they can be -identified immediately by the alternate black and white rings of about -equal width on the tail. There is a pattern of brown diamond shaped -markings along the middle of the back, which stands out against the -lighter body color. Each diamond has a narrow light border. - -Size--Adults are generally from three and a half to four and a half feet -long. Reliable reports indicate that this species grows to a length of -over seven and a half feet, and six-foot specimens are not rare. - -Young--Broods average 10 or 12 but occasionally contain 20 or more. The -newborn diamondback is about a foot long and looks very much like the -adult. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - -Distribution--Known throughout most of the state except the extreme -eastern part, it may be expected in many more counties from which -records of its occurrence have not yet been received. It is definitely -known in these counties: Andrews, Aransas, Archer, Armstrong, Atascosa, -Bandera, Bastrop, Baylor, Bee, Bell, Bexar, Blanco, Borden, Bosque, -Brazoria, Brazos, Brewster, Briscoe, Brooks, Brown, Burnet, Caldwell, -Calhoun, Cameron, Clay, Coke, Comal, Comanche, Concho, Coryell, Cottle, -Crockett, Crosby, Culberson, Dallam, Dallas, Dawson, Deaf Smith, DeWitt, -Dickens, Dimmit, Donley, Duval, Eastland, Ector, Edwards, El Paso, -Erath, Fisher, Foard, Frio, Galveston, Garza, Gillespie, Goliad, -Gonzales, Guadalupe, Hardeman, Harris, Hartley, Hays, Hidalgo, Howard, -Hudspeth, Hutchinson, Irion, Jack, Jackson, Jeff Davis, Jim Hogg, Jim -Wells, Karnes, Kendall, Kenedy, Kent, Kerr, Kimble, King, Kinney, -Kleberg, Knox, Lampasas, La Salle, Lavaca, Limestone, Live Oak, Llano, -Lubbock, Lynn, Martin, Mason, Matagorda, Maverick, McCulloch, McLennan, -McMullen, Medina, Midland, Milam, Mills, Mitchell, Moore, Motley, Nolan, -Nueces, Oldham, Palo Pinto, Pecos, Porter, Presidio, Randall, Real, -Reeves, Refugio, San Patricio, Scurry, Shackelford, Somervell, Starr, -Sterling, Stevens, Tarrant, Taylor, Terrell, Throckmorton, Tom Green, -Travis, Uvalde, Val Verde, Victoria, Ward, Webb, Wells, Wilbarger, -Willacy, Williamson, Wilson, Winkler, Wise, Wichita, Young, Zapata, and -Zavala. - -This is the most dangerous and, at the same time, the most common -poisonous snake in the state. Therefore, it is one which all Texas -outdoorsmen should be able to recognize on sight. A summary of snake -bite cases in the United States over a 10-year period shows that more -people died from bites of this species than from bites of any other -North American snake. There are several reasons why this snake is -responsible for so many bites and such a high number of deaths. Chief -among these is its large size. It ranks as one of the two largest -poisonous snakes in the country, being second only to the eight-foot -eastern diamondback rattlesnake of the southeastern states. In direct -proportion to its size, it has long fangs and poison glands which hold a -great amount of venom. These factors insure a long strike and deep fang -penetration. In addition, it has an unusually furious disposition and, -if threatened with danger or sufficiently annoyed, will vigorously -defend itself instead of seeking immediate escape. - -Although strictly a land snake, the diamondback may sometimes be found -crossing streams or ponds and, occasionally, individuals will venture -out into lakes and bays. - - - TIMBER RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus horridus horridus_ - - [Illustration: TIMBER RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--This snake is much like the larger canebrake rattler but -lacks the dark stripe from the eye to the back of the mouth, and -generally is without the reddish-brown stripe down the middle of its -back. Dark brown chevron shaped crossbands contrast with the general -body color of yellowish tan. In some specimens black stippling occurs -between the markings. Both black and light color phases of this snake -are found in some parts of its range. It is unknown whether the dark -specimens occur in Texas. The tail is marked with three or four dark -bands on the lighter specimens but is altogether black on the darker -ones. - -Size--Throughout its range this snake has an average length of from -three and a half to four feet, but a specimen six feet long is on -record. - -Young--The number in a brood varies from three to 12. Length of the -newborn is eight or nine inches. - -Distribution--The timber rattlesnake prefers rocky hills and mountains -that are not too heavily wooded, but it sometimes inhabits bogs and -swamps at lower elevations. In either situation, it seldom survives for -long in areas heavily populated by man. In common with most other -rattlesnakes, it seeks escape when approached by man and fights only -when surprised or cornered. Known in northeastern Texas, it is reported -from Cooke, Denton, Eastland, Grayson, Lamar, Red River, Taylor, and -Wise Counties. - -Like the prairie rattler, it often seeks the same denning areas year -after year and congregates in numbers to hibernate for the winter. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - CANEBRAKE RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus horridus atricaudatus_ - - [Illustration: CANEBRAKE RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--This is a large and heavily built snake with a brown or tan -back marked by a series of wide, dark, chevron shaped crossbands. It may -be distinguished from the similar timber rattlesnake by its larger size, -its more vivid markings, and the presence of a dark stripe from the eye -to the angle of its mouth. Generally, a narrow, reddish-brown stripe -extends down the middle of the back. Its tail, as in some other -rattlesnakes, is entirely black. - -Size--In Texas this snake reaches a length of about six feet, while in -nearby Louisiana exceptionally large specimens, some nearly seven feet -long, have been found. Length averages four and a half feet. - -Young--About eight or ten are born in a brood. - -Distribution--This species prefers wooded areas in wet bottomlands. It -has been found in the following counties: Austin, Bexar, Bosque, Bowie, -Brazoria, Brazos, Cass, Cooke, Coryell, Dallas, Denton, Eastland, Ellis, -Falls, Fayette, Freestone, Gonzales, Grayson, Hardin, Harris, Henderson, -Jasper, Jefferson, Liberty, Madison, McLennan, Navarro, Robertson, San -Jacinto, San Patricio, Taylor, Victoria, Waller, Williamson, and Wise. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - BANDED ROCK RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus lepidus lepidus_ - - [Illustration: BANDED ROCK RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--This snake is very similar to the mottled rock rattlesnake, -with which it might be confused, but from which it differs by having a -more mottled appearance between the crossbands and a dark stripe from -the eye to the angle of the mouth. It has a pattern of about 18 or 20 -widely spaced dark crossbands with irregular edges in contrast to its -gray body color. Belly color varies from cream to pink. - -In the Chisos Mountains, where there is much reddish igneous rock, the -normal color of this snake is pinkish; the variety has been given the -name of "pink rattler" by people of that region. Specimens from the -limestone ledges along the Pecos Canyon at Howard Creek and Sheffield -are very light in color, resembling the limestone rock on which they are -found. - -Size--This is one of our smallest rattlesnakes, having an average length -of two feet. The rattle is rather large in proportion to the small size -of the snake. - -Young--About four are born in a brood and they measure about seven and a -half inches at birth. - -Distribution--This form is restricted to the mountainous areas of the -western and southwestern parts of the state; it has been found in the -following counties: Brewster, Culberson, Edwards, Jeff Davis, Maverick, -Pecos, Presidio, Real, Terrell, and Val Verde. - -Because of its small size and distribution restricted to rocky places at -high elevations, the banded rock rattlesnake cannot be considered a -serious menace to man. Apparently there is no record of anyone ever -having been bitten by this snake. It has a quiet disposition and, if -alarmed, will immediately retreat within the masses of jumbled rock -which are its home. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - MOTTLED ROCK RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus lepidus klauberi_ - - [Illustration: MOTTLED ROCK RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--This species and the banded rock rattlesnake look much -alike. Both are small and slender, and marked with a series of -widely-spaced dark crossbands along the length of the body and tail. The -banded rock rattlesnake, however, has about 20 or 22 dark brown or black -crossbands, which contrast strongly with its greenish-gray body color. -It further differs from the banded rock rattlesnake in lacking a dark -stripe from the eye to the angle of its mouth. - -Size--Adults average two feet in length. - -Young--A record of one brood is the only known published information -concerning the young of this snake. Carl F. Kauffeld of the Staten -Island Zoo mentioned a litter of four and wrote: - - All were irritable from the first, promptly broke through the - membranous sacs in which they were enclosed and struck violently at - any passing object. All were marked and colored much like the adults - except that the delicate pink along the venter of the latter was not - in evidence; and the tails, which in the adults are salmon or terra - cotta red (including the basal segment of the rattle) were brilliantly - sulphur yellow for at least their distal half.... - -The newborn snakes measured about eight inches in length. - -Distribution--This subspecies is found in much the same type of country -as the banded rock rattlesnake, being partial to rock slides high in the -mountains. The two counties in the state in which it is known, El Paso -and Culberson, are both in extreme western Texas. In disposition it is -said to be quite timid; however, at times, it becomes irritable without -much provocation. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - BLACKTAILED RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus molossus molossus_ - - [Illustration: BLACKTAILED RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--There are about 32 dark rhomboid markings along the back. -These light edged blotches are centered with one or two irregular light -areas, while the outer edges form bars which extend down each side to -the belly. Body color varies from gray to olive green, while the -blotches are dark brown or black. The tail is uniformly black, as its -name implies. - -Size--The blacktailed rattlesnake is one of our largest poisonous -snakes. Texas specimens average three and a half feet but may grow -somewhat longer. One, nearly 50 inches long, was collected at Persimmon -Gap in Brewster County. - -Young--About five young comprise the average brood. - -Distribution--Records are available from the following counties: -Bandera, Bexar, Brewster, Burnet, Comal, Culberson, Edwards, El Paso, -Hudspeth, Jeff Davis, Kendall, Kerr, Kimble, Medina, Pecos, Presidio, -Real, San Saba, Terrell, Travis, Upton, and Val Verde. - -Hilly areas with steep canyons are the preferred habitat of this snake. -In the Big Bend region of Texas, where apparently it is the most common -rattlesnake, specimens have been taken from as high as 7,400 feet -elevation. It shows an inclination to coil in bushes or on tree limbs -near the ground, although by far the majority of specimens encountered -are found on rocky ledges. Its disposition has been reported by some to -be very irritable, while others claim it is quiet and docile. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - MOJAVE RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus_ - - [Illustration: MOJAVE RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--This moderately slender snake is very similar in color and -markings to the western diamondback rattlesnake. Its body is olive green -with a pattern of darker diamond shaped markings down the middle of the -back. These blotches are well defined by a border of light scales. It -differs from the western diamondback in having narrower black tail rings -and wider white spaces between these rings. A narrow light line extends -from the eye to above the angle of the mouth. - -Size--Average length is three feet, or shorter than the diamondback -rattlesnake. Because of its more slender form, it does not appear as -large as a western diamondback of equal length. - -Young--The average litter contains eight, the young being similar to the -adults in color and marking. - -Distribution--The Mojave rattlesnake is known in Brewster, Hudspeth and -Presidio Counties. - -Unlike most other rattlers, this species is reported to be most active -during daylight hours. It is rather quiet by nature and does well in -captivity. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE - _Crotalus viridis viridis_ - - [Illustration: PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE] - -Description--Color of the back is greenish or grayish. A series of dark, -rounded blotches extends down the middle of the back. These markings, -with narrow white borders, become wider and shorter near the tail to -form bands. In front of the eye is a narrow light line which extends -backward and downward to the mouth. - -Size--Rather slender in form, this snake reaches a maximum size of five -and a half feet. Average length is three feet. - -Young--Broods average 12 but vary from four to 21. - -Distribution--Texas records of this snake are widely scattered. Counties -in which it is know include: Andrews, Armstrong, Baylor, Brewster, -Briscoe, Callahan, Carson, Castro, Childress, Crane, Crosby, Dallam, -Dawson, Deaf Smith, Dickens, Ector, El Paso, Garza, Gray, Hansford, -Hartley, Haskell, Hemphill, Hockley, Hutchinson, Kent, Lamb, Lipscomb, -Lubbock, Lynn, Midland, Moore, Ochiltree, Oldham, Pecos, Potter, -Presidio, Randall, Reeves, Roberts, Sherman, Taylor, Tom Green, Ward, -Wheeler, Wilbarger, Winkler, and Yoakum. - -When aroused, this snake becomes a vicious adversary but, like most -snakes, is satisfied to go its way if given half a chance. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - - - - - THE ELAPID SNAKES - - -The single representative of this family (_Elapidae_) in Texas is small, -slender, and brightly colored with rings of red, yellow and black. The -head is small and rounded and eye pupils are circular. Its -venom-conducting fangs, in the front of the upper jaw, are small and -permanently erect; consequently, some chewing is required before the -snake can inject its poison with certainty. As if to make up for its -poor biting equipment, the coral snake possesses a venom of high -toxicity, a venom much more potent than that of the pit vipers which are -so well adapted for injecting their poison quickly and deeply. Because -this poison produces scarcely any severe local symptoms, the danger from -a bite may be overlooked and treatment delayed. Although pain is -present, the usual dramatic symptoms of snake poisoning, such as -extensive discoloration and great swelling at the site of bite, are -scarcely noticeable. This absence of conclusive symptoms may lead the -victim to believe he has been bitten by a harmless snake. In all coral -snake bites, prompt action is necessary. - - - TEXAS CORAL SNAKE - _Micrurus fulvius tenere_ - - [Illustration: Left, coral snake; right, Mexican milk snake] - -Description--Generally less than two and a half feet long, this is our -most colorful venomous snake and, at the same time, the least dangerous -in appearance. Its small, narrow head, slender body and brightly colored -pattern can be dangerously misleading. Children, especially, are -inclined to pick it up because they are attracted by its colors and -convinced that such beauty must be harmless. The pattern consists of -red, yellow and black rings which encircle the body in the following -order: a broad black ring, a much narrower yellow ring, a broad red -ring, a narrow yellow ring, a broad black ring, and so on. Note that the -red and yellow rings on the body touch one another. The snout is black -and a broad yellow ring crosses the back of the head. - -Identification of this snake would be simple were it not for the fact -that several harmless snakes resemble it in form and coloration. These -mimics are marked with yellow, red and black rings--but the arrangement -is consistently different from that of the coral snake. The red and -yellow rings of the coral snake touch one another, while in the harmless -forms these colors are separated by black rings. A simple rhyme adopted -by Boy Scouts to help them associate "danger" with the color combination -found on the coral snake is, "Red and yellow kill a fellow." Remember -this easy rhyme and, when you find yourself involved with a colorful -little snake with adjacent red and yellow rings, be cautious. - -The harmless kind most closely resembling the coral snake probably is -the Mexican milk snake, technically known as _Lampropeltis doliata -annulata_ and found south of Kerrville. The head of this snake normally -is black. Body and tail are marked with a series of from 19 to 25 narrow -yellow rings bordered by slightly wider black rings. The red rings on -the body are just as wide as the combined yellow and two adjacent black -rings. Another of these mimics is the western milk snake (_Lampropeltis -doliata gentilis_), a small species usually less than two feet long, -which is native to central and western Texas. It has a pattern of from -25 to 40 yellow rings which are bordered by black. The red rings are -separated from the yellow by black rings. All rings on this form are -very narrow. In the southeastern part of the state is found still -another of these mimics--the Louisiana milk snake (_Lampropeltis doliata -amaura_). Rarely reaching a length of two feet, this form has a pattern -of narrow yellow rings which are bordered on each side by narrow black -rings. The much wider red rings are separated from the yellow by the -black rings. In the scarlet snake (_Cemophora coccinea_) of eastern and -coastal Texas, the pattern is a series of wide red blotches bordered by -much narrower black bands. The yellow bands, about half the width of the -red ones, are separated from them by the black bands. The belly is -unmarked white or yellow. Adults are about a foot and a half long but a -25-inch specimen is on record. - -Size--The coral snake is generally less than two and a half feet long -with a body diameter of about three-eights of an inch. The largest known -specimen is nearly 42 inches long and was collected on the mid-Texas -coast. - -Young--This is the only poisonous Texas snake which lays eggs. From two -to nine eggs constitute the egg complement of this form. - -Distribution--This snake is known in the following counties: Angelina, -Aransas, Atascosa, Austin, Bandera, Bastrop, Bee, Bell, Bexar, Bosque, -Brazoria, Brazos, Brooks, Burleson, Burnet, Caldwell, Calhoun, Cameron, -Chambers, Colorado, Comal, Dallas, DeWitt, Duval, Ellis, Fort Bend, -Galveston, Goliad, Gonzales, Guadalupe, Hardin, Harris, Harrison, Hays, -Henderson, Hidalgo, Houston, Jackson, Jasper, Jefferson, Jim Hogg, -Karnes, Kendall, Kenedy, Kerr, Kleberg, Lavaca, Lee, Leon, Liberty, Live -Oak, Llano, Mason, Matagorda, McLennan, Milam, Montgomery, Morris, -Nacogdoches, Newton, Nueces, Orange, Palo Pinto, Panola, Polk, Real, -Refugio, Robertson, San Jacinto, San Patricio, Sutton, Tarrant, Terrell, -Tom Green, Travis, Victoria, Walker, Waller, Wharton, Willacy, -Williamson, and Wilson. - -Unlike most other poisonous snakes, this species is a burrower, coming -to the surface after a warm rain to feed upon small lizards and snakes. -Contrary to even expert opinion, it is not primarily nocturnal, but -becomes active during daylight and evening hours. It is often found in -or under decaying logs or other trash, especially in damp regions; in -the San Antonio area, specimens frequently are found under flagstones -near homes. - - [Illustration: Distribution map] - -In spite of its inoffensive nature, the coral snake is no different from -other snakes in that it will bite if stepped upon or restrained. It does -not deliberately coil and strike with accuracy like the pit vipers. -Instead, it swings the forward part of the body from side to side until -it can secure a hold to bite and then begins a chewing motion to imbed -its short fangs. - -The notion that its mouth is too small to bite effectively has in some -instances resulted in careless disregard for its deadliness. It is true -that the head appears very short and the mouth not capable of opening -widely. Actually, the skull is rather elongated and the mouth can be -opened to a greater degree than might be expected. Even when it bites a -relatively flat surface, such as the back of the hand, the snake's -closing mouth will pinch the skin, allowing the fangs to penetrate. - - - - - VENOMS - - -Generally speaking, snake venoms are divided into two broad categories, -neurotoxic and hemorrhagic, depending on their destructive actions. -Neurotoxic poison is characteristic of cobras and coral snakes and -produces considerable pain but little or no swelling and discoloration -at the bite. Death from this type of poison is the result of respiratory -failure and is preceded by such symptoms as headache, muscular weakness, -lethargy and facial paralysis with accompanying difficulty in speech. - -Hemorrhagic venom, on the other hand, affects primarily the blood cells -and vessels. Local reaction is evident soon after injection of the venom -and consists of pain, discoloration, and swelling at the site of the -bite. All of these symptoms gradually become more extensive. Weakness, -nausea, vomiting and--occasionally--diarrhea may follow in a few hours. -In many cases of snake bite, shock is present. - -Although every snake's venom contains both the neurotoxic and -hemorrhagic elements, the proportion of these components varies with -each kind of poisonous snake. For example, the venom of the coral snake -is primarily neurotoxic in action, but produces a small hemorrhagic -effect as well. On the other hand, water moccasin venom, although -basically hemorrhagic in action, has a greater amount of the neurotoxic -element than do the poisons of the copperheads or rattlesnakes. -Furthermore, neurotoxic effects are more evident following the bites of -the Mojave and massasauga rattlers than they are in poisonings by other -Texas rattlesnakes. - - [Illustration: FIRST AID KIT] - -Equipment necessary for first aid treatment of snake bite includes a -sharp cutting instrument such as a razor blade or sharp knife for making -incisions, a constricting band to retard the flow of lymph, iodine or -alcohol for sterilizing the knife and bitten area, and a suction device -for removing the venom-contaminated lymph. This last item is especially -important if you are alone and cannot reach the wound to apply suction -by mouth. - -Snake bite kits containing the essential items can be purchased at most -drug or sporting goods stores at a cost of from two to five dollars, -depending upon the make. Anyone who spends much time outdoors should -carry a snake bite kit at all times, and he should know how to use it. A -smaller kit can be more easily carried and is less likely to be left at -home or in the car. - - - - - DIAGNOSING THE BITE - - -To make certain that a poisonous snake has caused the bite, first -examine the wound for teeth marks. In a perfect bite by a poisonous -snake (excluding the coral snake), the pattern will reveal two -distinctly larger holes where the fangs have entered the flesh. There -also may be two rows of smaller teeth marks between these punctures. - - [Illustration: Snakebite patterns] - -Furthermore, if the snake engages the lower jaw, two additional rows of -small teeth impressions will be seen below the first group. - -Frequently the bite pattern is not a clear one. For example, if the -snake pulls to one side as it disengages the fangs after a strike, the -result is a series of scratch marks instead of punctures. There is also -the possibility that the snake will engage only a single fang; or, -perhaps, during fang replacement, two fangs are temporarily in position -on one or both sides of the upper jaw. Any of these conditions, as well -as others, can contribute to an obscure bite pattern. - -The bite of a coral snake often is difficult to diagnose by examination -of the wound. Because this snake impels its fangs in a sort of chewing -motion, the pattern created by its bite may be two groups of closely -spaced punctures where the fangs have entered the flesh a number of -different times. - -A clearly defined harmless snake bite pattern consists of a series of -uniformly small punctures (four rows made by teeth in the upper jaw, two -rows by teeth in the lower), but always without the large fang holes. -More typically, a non-poisonous bite produces several rows of scratches. - -Pit-viper poisoning is diagnosed primarily by the presence of _local_ -signs and symptoms. The most important of these are: - - 1. _Pain_ accompanies most poisonous snake bites. Generally intense - and burning in character, it becomes more severe with the passing of - time. This symptom alone is not conclusive because pain can be - imagined following a non-poisonous bite. Occasionally in a severe - bite, the pain is replaced by numbness and tingling. - - 2. _Swelling_ at the bite area is present in every case of poisoning. - It will appear within five to 30 minutes. In a severe case, the - swelling may continue to spread for 24 hours. There will be no - swelling from a bite by a non-poisonous snake or by a poisonous snake - that injected no venom. - - [Illustration: Snakebite swelling] - -3. _Discoloration_, reddish or bruise-like in appearance, begins around -the fang punctures within a half hour and becomes gradually more -extensive. - -Intense local pain is symptomatic of coral snake poisoning but, unlike a -case of pit-viper poisoning, swelling and discoloration are not -pronounced. Diagnosis of coral snake envenomation is difficult and must -be based primarily on systemic symptoms: headaches, weakness, lethargy -and facial paralysis. - - - - - SEVERITY OF THE BITE - - -Even after the bite has been diagnosed as venomous, it is not -immediately possible to predict the course it will follow. The severity -of each case of snake poisoning is determined by the speed with which -symptoms progress. Although the bite of a large snake is generally more -serious than one caused by a small snake, the seriousness of a bite -cannot be gauged by snake size alone. Some variable factors that affect -the severity of each case include: - - 1. Age, size and health of the victim. - 2. His allergy complex and sensitivity to protein poisoning. - 3. His emotional condition immediately after having been bitten. - 4. Location of bite on the victim. - 5. Amount of fang penetration and venom injection. - 6. Number of times the victim was bitten. - 7. Kind and size of snake that bit him. - 8. Whether or not the snake recently had eaten. - 9. Conditions of the snake's fangs. - 10. How soon treatment was administered. - - - - - FIRST AID TREATMENT - - -It is important that every snake bite victim receive first aid treatment -as soon as possible. The patient must not exert himself by running, -because increased circulation brought on by such physical activity will -speed up absorption of the poison. For the same reason, the use of -whiskey or other stimulants should be avoided. - -The victim's state of mind is important; he must promptly be convinced -that his chances for recovery are good--and, indeed, they are. He should -not be terrified by the thought that every snake bite means certain -death. Actually, a survey of case histories shows that with prompt and -proper treatment, only about one or two per cent of all snake bites in -this country are fatal. - -There is a considerable difference of opinion about the correct first -aid treatment for poisonous snake bite. The Division of Medical Sciences -of the National Research Council, a section of the National Academy of -Sciences, recently made a study to determine the most effective method -of such treatment. It recommended immobilization of the bitten limb, -application of a constricting band, and prompt incision and suction. - -Based on these recommendations, the following first aid treatment for -poisonous snake bite is suggested: - - 1. IMMOBILIZE THE AFFECTED ARM OR LEG whenever possible. Where this is - not practicable, keep movement of the bitten limb to a minimum. - Muscular activity helps increase the spread of venom. Whenever - feasible, transport the victim by litter to further medical aid. - - 2. APPLY A CONSTRICTING BAND from two to four inches above the bite, - between the wound and the heart. This will help to limit the spread of - venom until it can be removed by incision and suction or neutralized - by antivenin. A piece of rubber tubing or a strap tourniquet, included - with every snake bite kit, is best for this purpose. When these are - not available, items of clothing may be used. A shoe lace, neckerchief - or a strip of clothing torn from shirt or trousers will do. The - poison, unless injected directly into a major blood vessel or deeply - into a muscle, is absorbed slowly by the lymphatics below the skin. - Therefore, do not restrict the deeper blood circulation by applying - the constricting band too tightly. It should be loose enough for a - finger to be slipped under it with little difficulty. Remember that - during first aid treatment the constricting band must be loosened - every 15 minutes for about two minutes. This precaution may prevent - gangrene. If the bite is on the hand or forearm, take off rings, - bracelets or other jewelry because subsequent swelling may make their - removal difficult. - - [Illustration: Applying constricting band] - -3. MAKE INCISIONS after sterilizing the cutting instrument and the bite -area with iodine or alcohol. If no antiseptic is available, the blade of -the cutting instrument can be sterilized by holding it over a flame (a -match will do). Make _one_ cut over each fang mark parallel with the -long axis of the bitten limb, not across it. Incisions should be -one-quarter inch long and one-eighth to one-quarter inch deep, but -definitely no longer than the diameter of the suction apparatus being -used. This would allow air to enter the suction bulb from the outside -and the device would then be unable to work. Incisions are of the utmost -importance to first aid treatment; without them little or no poison can -be withdrawn from the wound by suction. However, making even a small -incision involves some risk and this operation should be done with -considerable care. Improper or carelessly applied first aid may actually -do more harm than good. Although a physician may later decide to make -additional incisions to relieve the pressure of swelling, only the cuts -over the fang marks are recommended for first aid. - - [Illustration: Making incision] - -4. APPLY SUCTION to the cuts. This can best be done with one of the -suction devices manufactured for that purpose but, if none is available, -suction can be applied by mouth. There is little danger in oral suction -unless the lips or inside of the mouth have cuts or abrasions. Contrary -to popular opinion, a tooth cavity will not permit passage of venom into -the blood. Moreover, snake venom is destroyed by the stomach's digestive -juices, so if some is accidentally swallowed, there is little need to -worry if you have a healthy system. Only during the first 30 minutes -following the bite can much venom be removed by incision and suction. - - [Illustration: Applying suction] - - [Illustration: Snakebite kit] - -5. GET TO MEDICAL AID as soon as possible--but keep in mind that -unnecessary physical exertion is harmful. - -Antivenom may be administered soon after first aid has been started, but -this is best left to a doctor. The North American Antisnakebite Serum -made by Wyeth, Inc., of Philadelphia 3, Pennsylvania, is effective -against pit viper bites but is of less value in the treatment of coral -snake poisoning. Because coral snakes cause so few bites in the United -States, no serum to neutralize their venom is prepared in this country. -In South America, where these snakes are common and may reach a length -of five feet, a serum to neutralize the poison is being produced by the -Instituto Butantan at Sao Paulo, Brazil. It and other foreign snake bite -serums often are available at larger zoos where exotic poisonous species -are exhibited. - - - - - SUGGESTIONS TO PHYSICIANS - - -In most areas of Texas, snake bite is an uncommon medical emergency, and -one with which few doctors have had experience. For this reason, the -following recommendations by the National Research Council's Division of -Medical Sciences are included for the benefit of the physician. - - - _Statement on Hospital Care Following Bites by Venomous Snakes_ - _December 14, 1960_ - -_Admission Procedures_ - -The routine admission history and physical examination should provide -and record, if possible, the identity and length of the snake, the time -of the bite, and the details of all first aid measures employed, -including the time lapse for each and the mode of transportation to the -hospital. The record should state whether a tourniquet, incision and -suction, or the ligature-cryotherapy technique has or has not been used. -Inquiry should be made concerning previous bites, allergic -manifestations in general, and whether or not the patient had previously -received horse serum. The admission examination should provide -information from which the severity of the envenomation can be estimated -as a guide to the need for the administration of antivenin and other -therapy. Sensitivity tests should be instituted promptly during -admission if not previously begun. - -When the patient enters the hospital, blood should be drawn immediately -for typing, matching and coagulation studies. - -Although envenomation by one of the snakes of North America may present -severe signs and symptoms, death is rare except in children or following -envenomation by a large snake. However, permanent damage of an involved -extremity is frequent following a bite by certain of the North American -venomous snakes; plastic or orthopedic surgical repair to restore -function, or amputation, are not unusual consequences. Early and -continuing close observation is needed to determine if certain -therapeutic measures prevent or promote undesirable results. - - _Laboratory Tests_ - -No rigid set of rules regarding therapy can be justified; the -responsible physician must use his best judgment in his choice of tests -to be performed as a guide to procedures to be used. - -Clinical studies could include items such as repeated hematologic tests, -hepatic and renal function studies, serial electrocardiograms, -electroencephalograms, and other studies to therapy, depending on the -composition of the venom involved and within the limits of personnel, -time and equipment available. - - _Therapeutic Procedures_ - - A. Systemic - - 1. Immobilization. During transportation, admission procedures, and - most of the early hospitalization period, immobilization of the - affected part and absolute rest should be continued. A sedative or - analgesic may be administered to relieve restlessness and anxiety; ice - bags may be applied to alleviate severe pain. The extremity should be - immobilized in the position of function, and active and passive - exercises to prevent contracture started after the third day if - consistent with the patient's condition. - - 2. Blood Transfusion. Postmortem examinations have at times revealed - extensive retroperitonial and intraperitonial hemorrhage, and - hemorrhage into the viscera, including the liver and kidney. - Progressive decrease in the total volume of circulating red blood - cells has been attributed to the development of a massive hemolytic - anemia or internal hemorrhage. Blood transfusions may be necessary and - at times have been followed by marked improvement. Studies of the - several factors involved in blood clotting may be useful as guides to - treatment. The first and subsequent specimens of urine should be - especially examined for the presence of red blood cells, hemoglobin, - and protein. - - 3. Electrolyte Balance. Abnormality of fluid and electrolyte balance - should be detected and corrected on a continuing basis. - - 4. Antivenin. Polyvalent or specific antivenins prepared from venoms - of snakes in the same geographic area should be administered in - therapeutic quantity as recommended by the manufacturer only with full - realization that the hazard of immediate allergic reaction or delayed - serum sickness are factors to be evaluated in the decision to carry - out this type of treatment. During hospitalization, antivenin should - be given intravenously, provided that sensitivity tests indicate that - the patient is not allergic to the antiserum to be used. - Desensitization, if necessary, should precede the administration of - antivenin by any route. The use of antivenin in such cases should be - carefully evaluated. Injection in normal muscles in other extremities - would be the second choice, since local injections into the deposit - site do not diffuse efficiently into the entire damaged area and would - increase the hazard of pressure ischemia leading to increased tissue - necrosis. Epinephrine should be available for immediate use when - foreign protein is being administered. - - 5. Corticosteroids. The use of corticosteroids should be restricted to - the prevention or treatment of late manifestations of allergy - following administration of antivenins. - - 6. Antibiotics. A broad-spectrum antibiotic should be administered - promptly in appropriate dosage if the reaction to envenomation is - severe. Since the nature of the injury markedly predisposes to - infection, and pathogenic bacteria are found in the wound, this use of - antibiotics seems justified. Laboratory sensitivity tests, if - available, should control the continuing choice of antibiotics to be - used. A massive wound infection with severe systemic reaction could be - mistaken for severe envenomation. Repeated blood and wound cultures - would be of help in making the distinction. - - 7. Tetanus Prophylaxis. Tetanus toxoid should be administered upon - admission if it has not been given as a first aid measure. - - 8. Respiratory Paralysis. If respiratory paralysis develops following - envenomation by one of the _Elapidae_ (this family includes the coral - snake), the use of tracheostomy and intermittent positive pressure - artificial respiration is indicated. - - 9. Renal Shutdown has been an occasional occurrence following massive - envenomation. An awareness of this possible complication can do much - toward the prevention and treatment of secondary effects arising after - its occurrence. Routine daily tests such as B.U.N., CO_2 combining - power, and serum potassium levels are indicated in severe cases. - - B. Local Measures During Hospitalization - - 1. Tourniquet (Constricting band). A tourniquet applied following a - bite by a venomous North American snake should be removed if - envenomation seems mild or after a potent antivenin is given in - therapeutic quantity. The prolonged use of a tourniquet or of a - constricting band would increase local tissue damage due to the action - of venom and might delay the vascular transport of antivenin into - envenomated areas. - - 2. Incision and Suction. Substantial amounts of venom can be removed - during the first half-hour from subcutaneous deposits by incision and - suction. On the other hand, if the casualty is admitted to the - hospital one hour or more following envenomation, an attempt to remove - venom by incision and suction at the site of the bite would be of - little value. However, if marked subcutaneous pitting edema develops, - interstitial pressure can be relieved by several longitudinal - incisions extending into the subcutaneous tissues. Suction and - fasciotomy may be required at times. - - -Parrish (1961), using a modification of Wood, Hoback and Green's (1955) -clinical classification of pit viper venenations, has proposed the -following guide for determining the severity of a poisonous snake bite. -This classification is based upon present signs and symptoms and the -clinical course of the patient during the first 12 hours of -hospitalization. It will be useful as a guide in treatment. - -Grade O (No venenation). Fang or tooth marks present, minimal pain, less - than one inch of surrounding edema and erythema, and no systemic - involvement. - -Grade I (Minimal venenation). Fang or tooth marks present, moderate - pain, from one to five inches surrounding edema and erythema in - the first 12 hours after bite, and no systemic involvement. - -Grade II (Moderate venenation). Fang or tooth marks present, severe - pain, six to 12 inches of surrounding edema and erythema in the - first 12 hours after bite, with systemic involvement--nausea, - vomiting, giddiness, shock or neurotoxic symptoms present. - -Grade III (Severe venenation). Fang or tooth marks present, severe pain, - more than 12 inches of surrounding edema and erythema in the first - 12 hours after bite, with systemic involvement (as in Grade II). - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -Boys, Floyd and Hobart M. Smith. _Poisonous Amphibians and Reptiles._ - Charles C. Thomas Co., Springfield, 1959. - -Brown, Bryce C. _An Annotated Check List of the Reptiles and Amphibians - of Texas._ Baylor University Press, Waco, 1950. - -Buckley, Eleanor and Nandor Porges (Editors). _Venoms._ Publication No. - 44, American Association for the Advancement of Science, - Washington, D. C., 1956. - -Conant, Roger. _A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern - North America._ Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1958. - -Curran, C. H. and Carl F. Kaufield. _Snakes and Their Ways._ Harper - Brothers Publishers, New York, 1937. - -Emery, Jerry A. and Findlay E. Russell. _Studies with Cooling Measures - Following Injection of Crotalus Venom._ Copeia, no. 3 pp. 322-326, - September, 1961. - -Fischer, F. J., H. W. Ramsey, J. Simon and J. F. Gennaro. _Antivenin and - Antitoxin in the Treatment of Experimental Rattlesnake Venom - Intoxication (Crotalus adamanteus)._ American Journal of Tropical - Medicine, vol. 10, pp. 75-79, 1961. - -Gloyd, Howard K. _The Rattlesnakes, Genera Sistrurus and Crotalus._ - Chicago Academy of Sciences, Special Publication no. 4, 1940. - -Harman, R. W. and C. B. Pollard. _Bibliography of Animal Venoms._ - University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 1949. - -Kauffeld, Carl F. Staten Island Zoo. - -Keegan, Hugh L., Frederick Whittemore, Jr., and James F. Flanigan. - _Heterologous Antivenin in Neutralization of North American Coral - Snake Venom._ Public Health Reports, vol. 76, no. 6, pp. 540-542, - 1961. - -Klauber, Lawrence M. _Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and - Influence on Mankind._ 2 vols. University of California Press, - Berkeley, 1956. - -Minton, Sherman A. _Snakebite._ Scientific American, vol. 196, no. 1, - pp. 114-118, 120, 122, 1957. - -National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. _Interim - Statement on First-aid Therapy for Bites by Venomous Snakes._ - Mimeographed. pp. 1-5, 1960. - -National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. _Statement on - Hospital Care Following Bites by Venomous Snakes._ Mimeographed. - pp. 1-4, 1960. - -Oliver, James A. _The Prevention and Treatment of Snakebite._ Animal - Kingdom, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 66-83, 1952. - -Parrish, Henry M. _The Poisonous Snake Bite Problem in Florida._ Journal - of the Florida Academy of Sciences, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 185-204, - 1957. - -Parrish, Henry M. _Poisonous Snakebites Resulting in Lack of Venomous - Poisoning._ Virginia Medical Monthly, vol. 86, pp. 396-___, 1959. - -Parrish, Henry M. _Snake Venom Poisoning._ Medical Times, vol. 89, no. - 6, pp. 595-602, 1961. - -Pope, Clifford H. _Snakes Alive and How They Live._ Viking Press, New - York, 1937. - -Pope, Clifford H. and R. Marlin Perkins. _Differences in the Patterns of - Bites of Venomous and of Harmless Snakes._ Archives of Surgery, - vol. 49, pp. 331-336, 1944. - -Russell, Findlay E. _Rattlesnake Bites in Southern California._ American - Journal of the Medical Sciences, vol. 239, no. 1, pp. 51-60, 1960. - -Russell, Findlay E. _Injuries by Venomous Animals in the United States._ - Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 177, pp. - 903-907, 1961. - -Russell, Findlay E. and Jerry A. Emery. _Incision and Suction Following - Injection of Rattlesnake Venom._ American Journal of the Medical - Sciences, vol. 241, no. 2, pp. 160-166, 1961. - -Stimson, A. C. and H. T. Engelhardt. _The Treatment of Snakebite._ - Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 163-168, - 1960. - -Strecker, J. K. _Reptiles and Amphibians of Texas_, 1915. - -Wood, John T. _A Survey of 200 Cases of Snakebite in Virginia._ American - Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 3, pp. 936-943, - 1954. - -Wood, John T. _A Critique on the "L-C" Treatment of Snakebites._ - Southern Medical Journal, vol. 49, pp. 749-751, 1956. - -Wood, John T., W. W. Hoback and T. W. Green. _Treatment of Snake Venom - Poisoning with ACTH and Cortisone._ Virginia Medical Monthly, vol. - 82, pp. 130-135, 1955. - -Wright, A. H. and A. A. Wright. _Handbook of Snakes of the United States - and Canada._ Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, 1957. - -Ya, P. M. and John F. Perry, Jr. _Experimental Evaluation of Methods for - the Early Treatment of Snake Bite._ Surgery, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. - 975-981, 1960. - -Young, Nettie. _Snakebite: Treatment and Nursing Care._ American Journal - of Nursing, vol. 40, pp. 657-660, 1940. - - - - - FILMS - - -A 16 mm. motion picture film in color, entitled, "Poisonous Snakes," is -available from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Reagan State -Office Building, Austin, Texas. It deals with snake bite prevention, -poisonous snake identification and first aid treatment. - - - - - FIELD NOTES - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---Corrected a few palpable typos. - ---Collated Table of Contents, and re-ordered entries, or added headings, - to coordinate with the actual contents. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Poisonous Snakes of Texas and First -Aid Treatment of Their Bites, by John E. 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