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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24e88de --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55970 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55970) diff --git a/old/55970-0.txt b/old/55970-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 698c109..0000000 --- a/old/55970-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2203 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Panama Canal, by Harry Clow Boardman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Panama Canal - -Author: Harry Clow Boardman - -Release Date: November 14, 2017 [EBook #55970] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL *** - - - - -Produced by Charlie Howard and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE PANAMA CANAL - - BY - - HARRY CLOW BOARDMAN - - THESIS - - FOR THE - - DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE - - IN - - CIVIL ENGINEERING - - COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - - UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - - PRESENTED JUNE, 1910 - - - - -UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - -COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING. - - - June 1, 1910 - -This is to certify that the thesis of HARRY CLOW BOARDMAN entitled The -Panama Canal is approved by me as meeting this part of the requirements -for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering. - - F. O. Dufour - Instructor in Charge. - - Approved: - - Ira O. Baker. - Professor of Civil Engineering. - - - - -OUTLINE OF THESIS ON THE PANAMA CANAL - - - Page - - I. INTRODUCTION v - - II. INTEROCEANIC CANALS 1 - - III. HISTORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL 6 - - IV. TYPE OF CANAL, (Lock or Sea-level) 13 - - V. LOCATION, SIZE AND PLAN 20 - - VI. ORGANIZATION OF FORCES 21 - - VII. CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANAL PRISM 26 - - VIII. CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOCKS 29 - - IX. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DAMS 33 - - X. SANITATION 38 - - XI. SOCIAL LIFE 40 - - XII. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 43 - - - - -I. INTRODUCTION - - -The building of a canal across the American Isthmus has occupied the -attention of the world for four hundred years. While yet the sailors -who crossed the sea with Columbus were living in all the vigor of -mature manhood, a Spanish engineer drew the plans for an artificial -waterway across the Isthmus and submitted them to the King of Spain. -From that time to this the building of an Isthmian Canal has been a -fascinating project in the minds of progressive men. Attempts to build -it have resulted in the loss of thousands of lives and the squandering -of millions of treasure; and this “dream of the centuries” is still -unrealized. - -[Illustration: - - _PROPOSED ROUTES - FOR AN - ISTHMIAN CANAL._ - -_FIG. 1._] - - - - -II. INTEROCEANIC CANALS - - -There are at least five routes which at one time or another have been -chosen and seriously considered as possible locations for the Isthmian -Canal. They are: the Atrato-Napipi, the San Blas, the Tehuantepec, the -Nicaragua, and the Panama routes. - -The Atrato-Napipi route follows the river Atrato, which empties into -the Gulf of Darien, as far as the mouth of its tributary, the Napipi, -thence up that river through the mountains and empties in Capica Bay. -See Fig. 1, No. 1. - -The San Blas route runs from the bay of the same name on the Atlantic -side to the river Chipo which empties in the Gulf of Panama. It is only -forty or fifty miles southeast of the Panama route. See Fig. 1, No. 2. - -The Tehuantepec route begins at the bay of Coatzacoalcos in the Bay -of Campeche and ends at the harbor of Salina Cruz in the Gulf of -Tehuantepec. See Fig. 1, No. 3. - -All modern engineers thrust these aside as impracticable, the first two -because of the necessity for tunnels and the last because of its great -length and number of locks. They will, therefore, receive no further -attention. - -The choice of the location for an Interoceanic canal has long been -conceded by practical engineers to lie between the Nicaragua and Panama -routes. A consideration of the natural advantages and disadvantages of -these rival lines follows. - -Since the Nicaragua route has been abandoned the features of the -proposed construction will receive no attention. It is highly probable -that this route would never have been seriously considered by the -United States had it not been for the fact that the Panama line was for -many years under the control of France and apparently was destined to -continue so for a considerable period. - -Logically the question of harbors first suggests itself. Natural -harbors do not exist in Nicaragua nor could one be excavated and -maintained on the Atlantic side without a continual battle with forces -which, in the last fifty years, have transformed what was once an -excellent harbor at Greytown into a lagoon partially enclosed by an -ever advancing line of sand brought down by the river San Juan. -Experience on the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States -has given abundant evidence of the results of a fight with such forces. -In his “The American Isthmus and Interoceanic Canal” W. Henry Hunter -says, “The policy which fights against the forces of nature is a -mistaken one; it is foredoomed to failure. Nature may be aided in her -operations; her more gigantic forces may to some extent be curbed and -controlled; but an almost certain Nemesis pursues any effort which may -be made to arrest and to determine in an absolute way a process so -continuous as that of the filling up of the Greytown bight.” - -Brito, the Pacific terminus, is little better than Greytown since “even -in the calmest weather there is a nearly constant surf, with breakers -from four to ten feet high.” Therefore, the terminus at Greytown would -always be in danger of being filled up by the Atlantic waves and the -one at Brito would constantly be liable to destruction by the Pacific -breakers. - -On the other hand the natural harbors of the Panama route have -successfully met the demands of commerce for the last four hundred -years. On the Pacific end practically no harbor improvements will -be necessary. On the Atlantic the present needs are satisfied, but -the large steamers of the future may require deepening which can be -done and the resulting channel easily maintained since there is no -persistent filling in process such as characterizes the Greytown harbor. - -Volcanoes have long been plentiful in Central America, especially near -the proposed Nicaragua canal. Nicaragua Lake, so geologists say, owes -its separation from the Pacific to a great upheaval. There is now an -active volcano near which ships would have to pass. From January 1, -1901 to April 30, 1904, a period of forty consecutive months, the -instruments of the Instituto-Fisico Geografico, located 60 miles -from the locks of the proposed canal, recorded 43 tremors, 91 slight -shocks and 35 strong shocks, some of which lasted 16 minutes. Similar -observations at Panama for the same period revealed only 6 tremors and -4 slight shocks, the longest being for a period of only 10 seconds. The -lock gates of a canal might very easily be injured by earthquakes; and -common sense would dictate that other things being equal, the canal -should be placed where the shocks are fewest. - -Strong trade winds rush through the San Juan gorge at all seasons. -The rainfall near the Atlantic is enormous, averaging from 260 to 270 -inches per year, and rain may be expected any day. In the western -part the fall is only 65 inches, and there is also a well defined dry -season. Clear vision is essential to safe passage through the canal -and it is extremely doubtful if it could be obtained under the above -conditions. Still more serious perhaps is the excessive curvature of -the channel for 50 miles of its course. It is impossible to reduce the -curvature to the limit which experience on the Suez canal has proved -necessary for safety and speed. Furthermore the channel must carry off -to the sea the drainage from 12,000 square miles of territory. This -cannot do otherwise than create currents and eddies unfavorable to -navigation. - -The Panama route has no continued strong winds; the curvature is -comparatively favorable; the annual rainfall is from 140 inches on the -Atlantic coast to about 60 inches on the Pacific, with a definite dry -season of three months; and the concensus of expert engineering opinion -is that there need be no objectionable currents if proper provision -is made for the regulation of the Chagres river. This phase will be -discussed later as will also the question of curvature. - -Much has been said about the advantages furnished by Lake Nicaragua -which covers about 70 miles of the Canal route. However, for 29 miles -of that distance, an artificial channel through soft mud would be -necessary, and dredging would probably be practically continuous for -maintenance. - -From a purely engineering standpoint the most serious objection to this -route is the liability to interruption for lack of water in seasons -of extreme drought which are not at all uncommon in that region. Upon -first thought it seems that a lake 3,000 square miles in extent cannot -be other than an ideal source of supply, but such is not the case. -By the proposed dam on the lower San Juan river the channel of the -stream would become an arm of the lake through which all shipping would -have to pass, the depth of water being, of course, dependent upon the -lake level. This level has a natural variation of 13 feet. Under the -projected conditions the whole outflow would pass over the dam about -50 miles away from the lake proper. The present high water mark cannot -be exceeded without flooding valuable lands, nor, on the other hand, -can the channel depth be made as great as desirable because the river -bed is crossed by many rock ledges, and the cost of excavation fixes -a limit to the depth economically practicable. The Isthmian Canal -Commission of 1899–’01 concluded that the variation would have to be -reduced to 7 feet. This means that the level would be held between -104 and 111 feet above tide water and the river bed excavated enough -to give a minimum sailing depth of 40 feet. Records show no regular -succession of high and low lake years; and as it is plainly impossible -to keep a reserve sufficient to control such an enormous expanse of -water, the regulation of this most important matter would be left to -the judgment of the operator controlling the overflow at the dam. -Carelessness or bad judgment on his part might therefore easily stop -traffic for an indefinite period. - -There is a similar question in regard to Gatun Lake of the Panama line -although the majority of authorities anticipate no trouble from that -source. A more complete discussion of this danger will be given later. - -Concerning the actual difficulties of construction at Nicaragua, little -need be said inasmuch as no work is now contemplated there. The San -Juan dam of the Nicaragua and the Gatun dam of the Panama route both -present conditions which have never been met before. Also the deep cuts -of the Culebra find their counterpart in portions of the longer route. - -The time-saving element is of more apparent than real importance -because the time lost on the longer sea-voyage for the Panama route -would be practically balanced by the gain of time in actual passage -through the canal, the Nicaragua route being about four times as long -as the Panama route. Henry L. Abbot, in his “Problems of the Panama -Canal”, estimates that 34 hours more time would be required for passage -by way of the Nicaragua than by way of the Panama route. - -An excellent reason for the adoption of the Panama rather than the -Nicaragua route was the existence of a good railroad and the fact -that the French had actually completed about two fifths of the work -required. - - -SUMMARY OF COMPARISON - -Below is given a summary of the comparisons which have just been -discussed. - - _Panama Route_ _Nicaragua Route_ - - There are two good harbors. There are no good harbors. - - There is a good railroad. There is a very poor railroad. - - Two-fifths of the work is completed. No work is completed. - - The projected construction, according A dam without precedent in - to the majority of canal work is projected. - engineers, is justified by good - engineering practice. - - Except at Bohio, the annual rainfall The most difficult works are - nowhere exceeds 93 inches. where the rainfall is nearly - 256 inches. - - The length is 50 miles. The length is 176 miles. - - There are no active volcanoes. There is one active volcano - near the route. - - The time of transit is 14 hours. The time of transit is 44 hours. - - The curvature is comparatively The curvature is sharp. - gentle. - - No troublesome winds and Heavy trade winds and strong - cross-currents are expected. currents would be troublesome. - - - - -III. HISTORY OF THE PANAMA ROUTE - - -The Panama route as a line of transit was first established between the -years 1517 and 1520. The first settlement on the site of old Panama, -six or seven miles east of the present city, was made in 1517. The -Atlantic end, called Nombre de Dios, was built in 1519. Here Balboa was -tried and executed. It grew rapidly in importance and in 1521 became a -city by royal decree. - -Even at that early date a road was established across the Isthmus. -It, however, did not enter the city of Panama, but at the Pacific end -passed through a small town called Cruces on the Chagres river about 17 -miles distant, and at the Atlantic end passed through Nombre de Dios. -The latter terminus did not prove satisfactory so the town of Porto -Bello was made the Atlantic Port in 1597. This also was subsequently -abandoned. At least part of this road was paved, and bridges were built -over the streams. Even today its course is well defined. - -As early as 1534 boats began to pass up and down the Chagres river -between Cruces and its mouth on the Caribbean shore and thence along -the coast to Nombre de Dios, and later to Porto Bello. The commerce -thus begun increased rapidly during the sixteenth century and Panama -became a very important commercial center with a trade extending to -the Spice Islands and the Asiatic coast. It was at the height of its -power in 1585 and was called the “toll-gate between western Europe and -Eastern Asia.” - -In time this commercial prosperity, which enriched Spain, called the -attention of her rulers and others to the possibility of constructing -an interoceanic ship-canal. Tradition says that Charles V ordered a -survey in 1520 to determine the feasibility of a canal, but that the -governor reported such an undertaking absolutely impossible for any -monarch. - -From that time the prosperity of Panama increased rapidly. Lines of -trade were established with the west coast of South America and the -Pacific ports of Central America. Its glory came to a sudden end when, -on the sixth of February, 1671, it was sacked and burned by Morgan’s -buccaneers. A new city, the present Panama, was founded in 1673, but -the old one was never rebuilt. - -The project of a canal on this route, because of its romantic and -commercial interest, was kept alive for more than three centuries -without definite action being taken. Finally, in 1876, a French Company -was organized at Paris to make surveys preparatory to building a ship -canal across the Isthmus. - -Lieutenant L. N. E. Wyse, a French naval officer, had immediate charge -of the work. He obtained a concession, known as the Wyse Concession, -from Colombia giving France the necessary rights for the construction -of a canal. - -In May, 1879, an international congress was convened in Paris under -the auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps, to consider the question of the -best location and plan for the canal. This congress, after a two weeks -session, decided in favor of a sea-level canal without locks to be -located on the Panama route. - -Immediately after this action the Panama Canal Company was organized -under the general laws of France with Ferdinand de Lesseps as its -president. The Wyse concession was purchased by the company, and after -two attempts the stock was successfully floated in December, 1880. Two -years were then devoted to surveys and preliminary work. In the plan -first adopted the canal was to be 29.5 feet deep and 72 feet wide at -the bottom. Leaving Colon, the canal passed through low ground to the -valley of the Chagres river at Gatun; thence through the valley to -Obispo where it left the river and crossed the continental divide by -means of a tunnel and reached the Pacific through the valley of the -Rio Grande. The tides on the Pacific were to be overcome by sloping -the bottom of the Pacific end of the canal. No provision was made for -controlling the Chagres. - -Early in the eighties a tidal lock near the Pacific was added to the -plan, and various schemes for the control of the Chagres were proposed, -the one most favored being the construction of the dam at Gamboa. The -tunnel idea was soon abandoned. - -The French engineers estimated that the excavation would be about -157,000,000 cubic yards, that eight years would be required for -completion, and that the cost would be $127,600,000. Work proceeded -continuously until 1887, when a change to the lock type was made in -order to secure the use of the canal as soon as possible, it being -understood that the construction of a sea-level canal was not to be -abandoned but merely deferred until financial conditions would allow -its completion. This new plan placed the summit level above the Chagres -river, and proposed to supply this summit level with water pumped -from that stream. Work went on until 1889 when the company became -bankrupt; and on February 4, a liquidator was appointed to take charge -of its affairs. Work was stopped on May 15, 1889. - -The liquidator appointed a commission of eleven engineers to give him -technical advice as to the condition of the work and the best methods -for its completion. Five of these commissioners visited the Isthmus and -reported on May 5, 1890. The report contained plans for the completion -of a lock canal and emphasized the necessity for more complete -examinations before beginning work. This advice was followed by the -liquidator who at once took steps for the formation of a new company, -and at the same time continued to take careful observations on the -Isthmus, and these observations have been of great value since then. - -The New Panama Canal Company was organized in October, 1894. It -proposed to construct a sea-level canal from the Atlantic as far as -Bohio (See Map, pp 45), where a dam was to form a lake as far as Bas -Obispo, the difference in elevation being overcome by two locks. The -summit level extended from Bas Obispo to Paraiso, and was reached -by two more locks and received water from an artificial reservoir -formed by a dam at Alhajuela in the upper Chagres valley. Four dams -were located on the Pacific side, the two middle ones at Pedro Miguel -combined in a flight. - -Work continued on this plan up to the time of the Spanish-American -War in 1898. About that time a “Comite Technique”, as it was called, -composed of seven French and seven foreign engineers who had been -appointed by the Board of Directors of the New Company, submitted -its final report upon the canal. It was estimated that, at a cost -of $100,000,000 a canal suitable for all commercial needs could be -completed in 10 years. - -Had matters continued as before it is probable that the New Canal -Company would have completed the canal as it had planned. But the -Spanish-American War developed wholly new conditions. The trip of the -Oregon around Cape Horn drew the attention of the American people to -the importance of an interoceanic canal. Prior to this time the Board -of Directors of the New Company, although aware that the Maratime Canal -Company was actively engaged in securing funds from the United States -Congress for the Nicaragua route, were so confident that a canal by -that route could never seriously compete with their own that they -gave little attention to the efforts of their rival. Now, however, -if the newly awakened popular demand for a canal should induce the -American government to undertake the work, the New Company would face -two formidable conditions, namely, the difficulty of raising funds for -the completion of the Panama Canal would be greatly increased if the -parallel route were supported by the United States and the question of -labor would become greatly complicated. - -Knowing that the favorable conditions created by the French at Panama -were unknown in the United States and certain that if known the -United States would assist rather than retard the work the Board of -Directors, on December 2, 1898, sent a complete copy of the report of -the “Comite Technique” to President McKinley and offered to explain the -exact conditions to any body of men appointed for the purpose. This -offer came at the proper time since Congress was then ready to pass -a bill to aid the Maratime Company in the construction of a canal on -the Nicaragua route. On February 27, 1899 the representatives of the -New Company were granted a hearing in the House of Representatives. -They presented a technical exhibit, and stated that their company was -authorized to reincorporate as an American company under American -laws. So ably did they present their case that ultimately on March 3, -1899, by act of Congress a commission, known as the “Isthmian Canal -Commission” was appointed by the President to determine the “most -practicable and feasible route for an Isthmian canal, with the cost of -constructing the same and placing it under the control, management, and -ownership of the United States.” - -The original intention of the New Panama Canal Company in bringing -the subject before the United States was not to sell its rights on -the Isthmus but to reincorporate and receive the support of American -wealth. However, it was evident that the United States desired absolute -control, and accordingly the consent of Colombia to a transfer was -obtained and the Company prepared a classified list of its properties -which it placed before the Isthmian Canal Commission on October 2, -1901 with the statement that the sums given were not to be considered -as final but were merely presented as a basis for discussion. The -Commission, however, refused to take this view of the matter and -persisted in considering the prices offered as constituting, when -summed up, a definite lump sum for which the Company would sell its -property. This lump sum was $109,141,500. The Commission’s valuation -was $40,000,000. Consequently when the Commission made its final report -it closed with these words, “Having in view the terms offered by the -New Panama Canal Company this Commission is of the opinion that the -most practicable and feasible route for an Isthmian Canal to be under -the control, management, and ownership of the United States is that -known as the Nicaragua route.” - -When the French Company heard this report it immediately offered -to sell its property for $40,000,000. Accordingly the Commission -made a supplementary report on January 18, 1902 stating that “After -considering the changed conditions that now exist, the Commission is -of the opinion that the most practicable and feasible route for an -Isthmian canal to be under the control, management, and ownership of -the United States is that known as the Panama route.” - -Thus it came about that the United States was authorized to obtain -permanent possession of the concessions and properties of the New -Panama Canal Company at a very low price. - -Congress meanwhile had not waited for the report of the Commission but -had passed a bill known as the Hepburn Bill, authorizing the President -to acquire the right to construct a canal at Nicaragua and to begin -the actual construction. Ten million dollars were appropriated and -contracts for material and work to the sum of $140,000,000 authorized. -Many discussions arose in the Senate; and a strong feeling in favor of -the Panama route became apparent. Senator Hanna was especially active. -He sent letters to eighty shipowners, shipmasters, officers and pilots, -in which he enclosed a description of the two routes and a list of -questions intended to bring out their relative merits from a practical -viewpoint. Their answers were all in favor of the Panama route. As a -result of the long debate a bill was passed June 26, 1902 with the -President’s approval. In effect it was as follows. The President is -authorized to acquire for the sum of $40,000,000 or less the rights and -property of the New Panama Canal Company, and by treaty with Colombia, -the perpetual control of the strip of territory necessary for operating -the canal and is then instructed to proceed and complete the work under -an Isthmian Canal Commission of seven members to be appointed by him. -One hundred and forty-five million dollars was pledged for this purpose. - -The Hay-Herran treaty with Colombia was signed January 22, 1902, but -failed of ratification by Colombia. In November, 1903, however, there -was a successful revolution upon the Isthmus and a republican form of -government was adopted. The Hay-Bunan-Varilla treaty was thereupon made -on November 18, 1903. It was ratified by both governments on February -26, 1904. It gave the United States control of a strip of land ten -miles wide, five on each side of the canal. - -Since then the work has proceeded under the complete control and -supervision of the United States. The President, whose duty it was to -provide for the government of the Canal Zone, put that as well as the -engineering into the hands of the Commission of seven members which -he had appointed. It has remained there. The office of chief engineer -has been held by three men, J. F. Wallace, J. F. Stevens and G. W. -Goethals, the first two of whom resigned. - -The question of a sea-level canal was again agitated and became so -insistent that the President appointed an international board of -engineers, consisting of thirteen members, to assemble in Washington -September 1, 1905 to consider the various plans for the construction of -the canal submitted to it. The board consisted of five foreign and five -United States engineers, three of the latter having formerly served -on the canal commission. The Board visited the Isthmus on September -28, had some examinations made for its enlightenment and in November -submitted a majority report signed by the five foreign engineers and -the three former members of the commission, and a minority report, the -former advocating a sea-level canal and the latter a lock canal with -the summit level 85’ above the sea. The Isthmian Canal Commission with -but one dissenting voice recommended the adoption of the lock type -proposed by the minority. - -On June 29, 1906 Congress in opposition to the majority report of the -engineers, provided that the 85-foot lock type of canal be constructed -across the Isthmus; and work has since continued on that plan. This -final decision, however, was made with reluctance by many congressmen -and some of them are regretting it today. - -This Congress also decided that all materials used in building the -canal should be purchased in the United States. - -Early in 1909 a special body of engineers appointed by the President -accompanied W. H. Taft on an inspection trip to Panama particularly -with a view to determining the feasibility of the Gatun dam project. -In a report made February 16 they unanimously approved the plans for -the various changes in the original project made by the engineer. This -included the widening of the locks to 110 feet and constructing the -Pacific dams at Miraflores instead of at La Boca. - - - - -IV. TYPE OF CANAL - - -The controversy over the relative merits of a lock and a sea-level -canal at Panama is as old as the question of building the canal itself. -Supporters of the lock canal now in process of construction have sought -to silence the storm of protest occasioned by its adoption; but in -spite of their precautions reports have reached the American public -which have created a lack of faith in the present engineers and their -methods. - -It is, of course, impossible for a layman to decide arbitrarily in -favor of the lock or sea-level type. The only reasonable way to arrive -at a conclusion is to examine carefully the arguments of both factions -and reach a decision therefrom. The writer has found it difficult, -if not impossible, to obtain an accurate presentation of the facts. -Engineers high in their profession make contradictory statements. -Presumably they honestly express their convictions but their failure to -agree is strong evidence that there is a large element of uncertainty -in the whole proposition. If they, acknowledged authorities, not only -cannot arrive at a common decision in this matter, but consider it -necessary to ridicule each other’s plans, there is certainly cause to -doubt the wisdom of the present project. It is the intention of the -writer to state the principal arguments both for and against the two -types of canals as presented by their most ardent advocates. - -It is generally conceded that a lock canal at Panama would cost -less than an efficient sea-level canal. Engineers on the Isthmus -make an estimate of over $100,000,000 as the minimum excess of cost -of a sea-level canal over the lock canal for construction alone. -This estimate does not include the cost of carrying on the work of -government and sanitation during the additional years which would be -required to build a sea-level canal. Furthermore, it is true that -there are many problems in connection with a sea-level canal, in -spite of its apparent simplicity, which have never been solved and -consequently no engineer can say how many millions would be required -for its completion. Experience has shown, however, that the same -unsolved problems were also true of the lock type. In their report to -the President and to Congress, the minority of the board of consulting -engineers pledged their professional reputations that if the lock -type of canal were adopted the aggregate cost of completing the -canal, exclusive of sanitation and zone government, would not exceed -$139,705,200. Not four years have passed since that report was made -yet $120,064,468.58 have already been appropriated and the great dams -and locks are only fairly begun. In the last session of Congress it -was proposed to increase the limit of the cost of construction of the -Panama Canal to $500,000,000. Senator Teller in a speech said, “I have -said again and again on the floor and I repeat it now--that if we get -the canal built for $500,000,000, whether a lock or a sea-level canal, -we shall do very well. In my judgment, we will never get that canal, in -either form, except at a cost of more than $500,000,000.” These figures -are sufficient evidence that the engineers who made the original -estimate were dealing with a subject too big for them. - -At the time Congress voted to adopt a lock canal the estimated -cost of a sea-level canal, excluding the cost of sanitation, civil -government, the purchase price and interest on the investment (which -seem unnecessary refinement in view of later developments) was given -by the Board of Consulting Engineers as $247,021,000. The project on -which this estimate was made provided for a waterway 40 feet deep at -mean sea-level, 150 feet wide at the bottom in earth and 200 feet wide -in rock, with a length of 49.14 miles. On the basis of this estimate -advocates of the sea-level canal argue that on grounds of economy alone -the lock type should be abandoned in favor of the sea-level type. It -stands to reason, however, that some of the causes which have led to -an increase in cost over the original estimates for the lock canal, -such as the increase in the wage scale and the cost of material, and -the adoption of the eight-hour day, would affect equally the sea-level -project if it were undertaken. - -The total estimated cost by the present canal commission for completing -the work, including purchase price is $375,201,000, while the total -estimated cost of the sea-level canal made by the same commission -is $563,000,000. This latter sum is largely mere conjecture because -of the many unknown elements entering into the problem; and there -are successful engineers today who do not hesitate to state that a -sea-level canal can be constructed for less than the present lock canal. - -Very few question the statement that the sea-level canal would take -longer for construction than a lock canal. The majority of the Board -of Consulting Engineers estimated that from 10 to 13 years would be -required. The Isthmian Canal Commission fixed the time at from 18 to -20 years and Lieutenant George W. Goethals, its chairman and chief -engineer, states that the lock canal will be completed by January 1, -1915. - -A great objection to the narrow sea-level canal is the difficulty of -river control. The proposed plan was to construct a huge concrete -dam 180 feet high across the Chagres at Gamboa. This of itself is -a great undertaking but when done would not solve the question of -flood control, for below Gamboa there are many more streams which if -unregulated would plunge precipitately into the canal channel thereby -not only creating cross-currents extremely unfavorable to navigation, -and these would also erode the banks and settle deposits which would -necessitate continual dredging for maintenance. If these rivers were -not allowed to flow into the canal, the only other solution would be -the construction of channels on either side of the canal to take care -of this flow. This would be very expensive and decidedly dangerous -since the rivers in places would be considerably above the canal. -The old Chagres Channel and the old French diversion canal could be -utilized for a part of the distance. - -It is claimed that even a sea-level canal would require a lock at the -Pacific end because of the enormous difference, sometimes 20’ between -high and low tides. Even the majority of the Board of Consulting -Engineers, the supporters of the sea-level type, considered such a lock -necessary. Since they made their report, however, a noted scientist, -Dr. C. Lely, formerly minister of waterworks of Holland, has made -an extended study of the question and states that the currents in a -sea-level canal at Panama would not exceed those now common at Suez, -namely, 2½ miles per hour. - -On the other hand six huge locks are to be built on the lock canal, -and they must be used at every passage of a boat. Their upkeep and -operation will be a constant source of expense which would not exist -in a sea-level canal. If one pair of locks is destroyed or put out of -commission, the whole canal will be disabled and useless. Not only is -this so, but they are a constant source of danger. The destruction of -the gates of an upper lock, which is by no means an unknown occurrence, -would allow the upper lake to empty into the canal channel, and -probably destroy everything to the sea, including the dams. That such -accidents can occur was demonstrated at the Welland Canal when a small -steamer struck one gate and continuing her progress crashed through -four other separate gates, the locks being 240 feet long. Again, at the -Manchester Canal a vessel collided with a gate and carried it away, -allowing the water to escape in such great volumes that it caused -the other gates to give way also. Some conception of the force held -in leash by the gates at Panama may be gained when it is stated that -the “fall from the upper lock at Gatun to the empty second lock is -over five times the rate of fall in the Whirlpool Rapids at Niagara -and the depth is greater”. It is true that various safety devices are -to be installed at the locks but they can serve only to minimize not -eliminate a danger which would not exist on a sea-level canal. - -The curvature in the proposed sea-level canal is gentle, but for -19 miles of its course a large ship would continually be changing -direction in a channel having a width of from one-fourth to one-fifth -of her own length and in a current which may be as great as 5 feet per -second. On the Manchester Canal all large vessels are aided by two tugs -whose duty it is to help in steering. Through the above mentioned 19 -miles speed could not exceed 6 miles an hour, and whenever a ship going -the opposite direction passed, one or the other would have to stop and -tie up to the shore as they do on the Suez Canal. - -The courses on the lock canal are straight, giving a clear view ahead, -and the vessels can pass without being forced to tie up. The great -Gatun Lake will permit of full speed and in all ordinary cases in the -passage from ocean to ocean enough time can be saved by reason of the -wider and straighter channels of the lock canal to compensate for the -time lost in passing through the locks. - -While the question of flood control is solved by Gatun Lake the -question of water supply is not. This lake must, under the present -plans, furnish the water necessary for lockages. Experts have carefully -studied this subject, and while most of them agree that there is water -sufficient for immediate needs they also recognize the possibility of a -scarcity in the future. General L. Abbot, one of the most enthusiastic -supporters of the lock plan, states that there will be water for but -26 daily transits during the dry season which would accommodate from -30 to 40 million tons of annual traffic. Other prominent engineers -are not so sanguine and some go so far as to say the supply will be -totally inadequate even for the first years of canal operation. At any -rate there is a considerable element of uncertainty in the matter which -actual trial alone will settle. No such trouble, of course, would exist -in the operation of the sea-level canal. - -Much has been said about the relative vulnerability of the two types. -The arguments are decidedly at variance and approach the ridiculous -when placed side by side. Common sense dictates that both types -are open to injury by earthquakes or the hand of man; neither is -invulnerable. It also seems evident that a lock canal with its many -artificial devices is more open to serious injury by earthquake -than a sea-level canal. In fact it is easy to believe that a shock -severe enough to put a lock out of commission would scarcely affect a -sea-level canal at all, and all who say otherwise are prejudiced. In -fairness be it said that the danger from this source is exaggerated and -probably should not occupy as large a place in the discussion of canal -problems as has been given to it. - -Lock canal advocates say a narrow sea-level canal could easily be -obstructed by an obstacle placed in the channel; sea-level advocates -say that a bag of dynamite under the lock-gates could put the canal -out of service. Both statements are true but the essential element of -difference is in degree. The obstruction in the channel would be no -real injury to the canal at all: it would necessitate merely a few days -work at the most for its removal. An injury to the locks, however, -might readily mean draining of the summit lake and the destruction -of all between it and the sea not to speak of the indefinite period -required for reconstruction. The point is that it is practically -impossible for man to seriously injure a sea-level canal; it is easily -possible for him to so injure a lock canal. However, lock canals can be -more readily defended in time of war because the points of attack are -known beforehand. - -A very serious objection to the lock type is that it cannot be readily -enlarged. The locks are to be 1,000 feet long and 110 feet wide. This -is ample for the present but indications are that future needs will -be far greater. If they do become greater the Panama Canal will be an -inefficient servant and will come far short of fulfilling the purpose -which prompted its building. The sea-level canal could be enlarged by -dredges without stopping traffic through it, but with a lock canal -it is different. When the locks as constructed become inadequate the -only way to increase their capacity is to shut down the canal for years -while new and larger ones are being built. - -It is unquestionably true that the ideal canal is a sea-level canal -500 feet to 600 feet wide. This is of the type known as the “Straits -of Panama” proposed by Philippi-Bunau-Varilla to the consulting -board in 1905. There is a growing feeling that this plan is the one -which will ultimately be adopted for the completion of the canal. It -contemplates the construction of a lock canal to be finally converted -into a sea-level canal. The locks were to be constructed so that as the -levels were deepened by dredging they could be eliminated, navigation -continuing during the enlargement. The material removed by the dredges -was to be deposited in the lake formed by a dam at Gamboa. The plan -was carefully considered and finally rejected because of the excessive -time and cost involved. It is interesting to note what the author of -the plans states in regard to it. He says in part, “It is easy to see -from the records that this rejection was purely based on the false -assumption that the transformation of rock into dredgable ground -would cost $2.35 (per cubic yard), when it has since been officially -demonstrated to cost eleven times less in the Suez Canal and eighteen -times less in the Manchester Canal.” - -The cost at Panama of that transformation would be certainly inferior -to the cost at Manchester not only on account of the saving of expense -due to the gratuitous mechanical power given by the falls of the -Chagres but also and principally on account of the extremely soft -character of the greater part of the isthmian rocks. The electricity -generated by the falls of the lake will put in action the rock -breakers, the floating dredges, and the scows. The water in the small -barge locks will raise the scows from the level of the summit to that -of the lake and the depths of the lake will absorb the material of the -straits. Thus the Chagres, once harnessed, will offer freely by its -waters the way for the excavating and transporting instruments, by its -falls the energy to animate everything and by its upper valley the dump -to receive the spoils. - -If unbiased and free-minded engineer officers of the army, having no -anterior connection with the plans under discussion, should be sent to -investigate the nature of the rock on the Isthmus and then to study in -France, England, and Japan the actual improved methods of dredging -soft and hard material the cloud would soon be dissipated. The supposed -chimera would become a real tangible thing and the United States, the -trustees of humanity in the construction of the great international -waterway, would give to the world what it wants, what it is possible -now and easy to obtain, the “Straits of Panama.” This sounds very -plausible; and it is a significant fact that engineers do not ridicule -it. Their respect for it is growing. Today rock-dredging is on trial -at Panama. If its feasibility can be there demonstrated the plan will -undoubtedly be adopted. - -No man can find objections to this type when once constructed. The -objections to the narrow sea-level canal first considered do not apply -to the “Straits of Panama”, so they will stand as the ideal solution. - -A canal designed to carry the world’s commerce, to furnish free -communication between the Atlantic and Pacific should be as free from -artificial devices as it is possible to make it. It is therefore hoped -that some day the present lock canal will be enlarged to an ideal, -wide, sea-level channel. - - - - -V. LOCATION, SIZE, AND PLAN - - -The location, size and plan of the Panama Canal with several recent -changes which have been ordered by the President and adopted by the -commission is described in the “Canal Record” as follows: “A channel, -500 feet wide at sea-level will lead from deep water in Limon Bay to -Gatun, a distance of 6.76 miles. At Gatun a dam one and one-half miles -long and 115 feet high will impound the waters of the Chagres river in -a lake, the normal level of which will be 85 feet above mean sea-level, -A flight of three twin locks, each 1,000 feet long, 110 feet wide, and -allowing for 41⅓ feet of water over the sills, will raise vessels from -sea-level to the lake, or lower them from the lake to the sea-level -channel. From Gatun navigation will be through the lake in a channel -from 1,000 feet to 500 feet wide for a distance of 23.59 miles to Bas -Obispo where Culebra cut begins. The channel through the continental -divide, from Bas Obispo to Pedro Miguel, a distance of 8.11 miles -will be 300 feet wide, and the surface of the water will be at the -lake level. At Pedro Miguel vessels will be lowered from the 85-foot -level to a small lake at 55 feet above sea-level, in twin locks of -one flight. A channel 500 feet wide and 0.97 miles long will lead to -Miraflores locks, where the descent to sea-level will be made in twin -locks of two flights. The locks at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores will be -of the same dimensions as those at Gatun. From Miraflores to deep water -in Panama Bay, a distance of 8.31 miles, the channel will be 500 feet -wide and 45 feet deep at mean tide. The channel widths given are all -bottom widths. The entrance both in Limon Bay and in Panama Bay will be -protected by breakwaters.” - - - - -VI. ORGANIZATION OF FORCES - - -Work on the Isthmus is in the hands of an Isthmian Canal Commission, -consisting of seven members, all of whom are appointed by the -President. All of them have headquarters on the Isthmus. The present -personnel of the Commission is as follows. Lieutenant Colonel G. -Goethals, U. S. A., chairman and chief engineer; Major David Du B. -Gaillard, U. S. A., corps of engineers; Major William L. Sibert, -U. S. A., corps of engineers: Colonel William C. Gorgas, U. S. A., -medical department; Harry Rosseau, U. S. A., civil engineer; Lieutenant -Colonel H. F. Hodges, U. S. A., corps of engineers and Joseph C. S. -Blackburn, civilian. - -As chairman, Colonel Goethals receives a salary of $15,000 annually. -Majors Gaillard and Sibert and Civil Engineer Rosseau $14,000 each and -Dr. Gorgas, Colonel Hodges and Mr. Blackburn $10,000 each. - -The principal departments on the Isthmus, each in charge of a head who -is directly responsible for the work carried on under his direction -are: Construction and Engineering; Quartermaster’s; Subsistence; Civil -Administration; Sanitation; Disbursements; and Examination of Accounts. - -The Department of Construction and Engineering is subdivided into the -following named divisions; Atlantic Division from deep water to and -including the Gatun locks and dams; the Central Division from Gatun to -Pedro Miguel; and the Pacific Division from Pedro Miguel to the Pacific. - -The Department of Construction and Engineering is under the direct -charge of the Chief Engineer. The general plans come from the office of -the Chief Engineer and details are left to division engineers, subject -to his approval. The whole idea of the organization in this department -is to place and fix responsibility, leaving to each subordinate the -carrying out of the particular work intrusted to his charge. The Chief -Engineer is assisted by the Assistant Chief Engineer, who considers -and reports upon all engineering questions submitted for final action. -The Assistant Chief Engineers have charge of the designs of the locks, -dams, and spillways, and the supervision of these particular parts of -the work. There is also attached to the Chief Engineer an assistant -who looks after mechanical forces on the Isthmus, and has supervision -over the machine shops, the cost-keeping branch of the work, the -apportionment of appropriations, and the preparation of the estimates. -There is also an assistant engineer, who has charge of all general -surveys, meteorological observations, and river hydraulics. - -The Quartermaster’s Department has charge of the recruiting of labor, -the care, repair, and maintenance of quarters, the collection and -disposal of garbage and refuse, the issue of furniture, and the -delivery of distilled water and commissary supplies to the houses of -employees and the construction of all new buildings. Operating in -conjunction with the purchasing department in the United States, the -Quartermaster’s Department secures all supplies needed for construction -and other purposes, and makes purchases of material on the Isthmus when -required. - -The common labor force of the Commission and Panama Railroad is more -than 25,000 men, and consists of about 6,000 Spaniards, with a few -Italians, the remainder being from the West Indies. The Spaniard is -the best worker, although he objects to working in water. The total -number on the pay rolls will average more than 30,000. Of these 5,000 -are “gold men”, that is, officials, clerks and skilled laborers, all of -whom are American recruited through the Washington office. In the month -of September, 1909, there were approximately 44,000 employees on the -Isthmus on the rolls of the Commission and the Panama Railroad. There -were actually at work, on November 3, 1909, 35,311 men, 27,672 for the -Commission and 7,639 for the Panama Railroad Company. The salaries and -wages of these men are paid once a month. - -This Quartermaster’s Department also has charge of the property -records, receives semiannual returns of property from all those to whom -property has been issued, and checks the returns and inventories of the -storehouses with the records compiled from the original invoices. - -The Subsistence Department has charge of the commissaries and the -manufacturing plants which consist of an ice and cold-storage -establishment, a bread, pie, and cake bakery, a coffee roasting outfit, -and a laundry. These belong to the Panama Railroad Company, as, at -the time they were established, money received from sales could be -reapplied, whereas if operated by the Commission it would have reverted -to the Treasury, necessitating reappropriation before the proceeds -of the sale could be utilized. They are, however, under the management -of the subsistence officer of the Commission, who has charge of the -various hotels, kitchens and messes. - -There are 16 hotels from Cristobal to Panama which serve meals to the -American, or “gold” employees at 30 cents per meal. There are 24 messes -where meals to European laborers are served, the cost per day being 40 -cents; and there are 24 kitchens for meals supplied to the “silver” -laborers (men paid in Panamanian currency), the cost to the laborer -being 30 cents per day. There is no profit to the Commission. The -commissaries and manufacturing plants are operated at a profit so as -to repay the Panama Railroad Company for its outlay in six years from -January 1, 1909, at 4 per cent interest. - -The Subsistence Department also has charge of a large hotel at Ancon -for the entertainment of the Commission’s employees at a comparatively -low rate, and of transient guests at rates usually charged at first -class hotels. - -The Department of Civil Administration exercises supervision over the -courts, which consist of three circuit and five district: the judges -of the three former constitute the supreme court. The district courts -take cognizance of all cases where the fine does not exceed $100 or -imprisonment does not exceed 30 days. Jury trials are restricted to -crimes involving the death penalty or life imprisonment. - -The Sanitation Department looks after the health interests of the -employees. It is subdivided into the health department, which has -charge of the hospitals, supervision of health matters in Panama -and Colon and of the Quarantine, and into the sanitary inspection -department, which looks after the destruction of the mosquito by -various methods, as grass and brush cutting, the draining of swamp -areas, and by oiling unavoidable pools and stagnant streams. - -To this Department also belong 11 chaplains employed by the Commission -to attend the sick as well as look after the spiritual welfare of the -employees. - -All moneys are handled by the Disbursement Department, which pays -accounts which have been previously passed upon by the Examiner of -Accounts. - -The Examiner of Accounts makes the examination required by law -prior to the final audit of the accounts by the Auditor for the War -Department. The pay rolls are prepared from time books kept by foremen, -timekeepers, or field clerks, subsequently checked by the Examiner -of Accounts who maintains a force of inspectors. The time inspectors -visit each gang, generally daily, at unknown times to the foreman, -time-keeper, or field clerk, and check the time books with the gangs -of workmen; the inspectors report to the Examiner of Accounts the -results of their inspection not in connection with timekeeping but all -violations of the regulations of the Commission that may come under -their observation. - -Payments of pay rolls are made in cash, beginning on the 12th of each -month and consuming four days for the entire force on the Isthmus. - -The last published financial report of this Department was as follows: - - -_Statement of Receipts, Disbursements, and Balances Available to June -30, 1909._ - - _Receipts_ - - Appropriations by Congress $176,432,468.58 - Rentals collected and returned to appropriations 264,393.76 - Collections account sale government property, etc. 4,235,141.50 - Balance due individuals and companies, account - collections from employees 1,856.73 - -------------- - Total receipts 180,933,860.57 - - _Disbursements_ - - Classified expenditures 106,795,058.38 - Department of civil administration $2,932,951.06 - Sanitary department 8,741,715.40 - Hospitals and asylums $4,656,125.99 - Sanitation 4,085,589.41 - Department of construction - and engineering 54,832,540.14 - Canal construction 48,311,622.16 - Municipal improvement - on Zone 4,245,913.98 - Municipal improvements in - Panama and Colon 2,275,004.00 - - Cost of plant 40,287,851.78 - - Rights of way and franchises 49,107,914.89 - Rights acquired from the Republic of - Panama 10,000,000.00 - Rights acquired from New Panama - Canal Company 39,107,914.89 - - Payment to New Panama Canal - Company 40,000,000.00 - Less value of French - material sold or used - in construction 892,085.11 - - Panama Railroad Company stock purchased 157,118.24 - Loans to Panama Railroad Company for reequipment - and redemption of bonds 4,009,596.03 - Paid into United States Treasury for sale - of government property, etc. 3,572,141.50 - Services rendered and material sold - individuals and companies 2,764,001.30 - Unclassified expenditures 4,877,072.36 - Material and supplies 4,813,158.37 - Other unclassified items 63,913.99 - Advances to laborers for their - transportation 48,783.26 - Bills collectible outstanding 517,585.79 - -------------- - Total 171,849,271.75 - Less amounts included in above but - unpaid on June 30 1,694,355.70 - Salaries and wages unpaid on - rolls to June 1, 1909 181,291.08 - Pay rolls for the month of June, 1909 1,513,064.62 - -------------- - Net disbursements 170,154,916.05 - Balances available June 30, 1909 10,778,944.52 - Congressional appropriations 10,114,087.79 - Miscellaneous receipts of - United States funds 663,000.00 - Collections from employees account - individual and companies 1,856.73 - -------------- - Total 180,933,860.57 - - Note.--By an act of March 4, 1909, additional appropriations were made - to continue the construction of the Isthmian Canal, during the fiscal - year 1910, available for expenditures July 1, 1909, as follows: - - Expenses in the United States $225,000.00 - Construction and engineering 27,388,000.00 - Civil administration 630,000.00 - Sanitation and hospitals 1,915,000.00 - Reequipment Panama Railroad 700,000.00 - Relocation of Panama Railroad 1,980,000.00 - Sanitation in cities of Panama and Colon 800,000.00 - ------------- - Total 33,638,000.00 - - - - -VII. CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANAL PRISM - - -Excavation throughout the whole length of the canal is being carried on -as much as possible in the dry as this has been found to be the cheaper -method. - -Upon the Atlantic Division, during the fiscal year 1908–’09, a dredging -fleet consisting of one sea-going suction dredge, two 5-yard dipper -dredges and three French ladder dredges worked on the section between -Mindi and deep water, removing 6,039,934 cubic yards, of which 427,005 -cubic yards were rock. The rock is removed by blasting. Holes averaging -15 feet apart are drilled to a depth of 50 feet below sea level, loaded -with dynamite and fired. At the close of the year nearly 3 miles of the -channel from deep water were completed. - -The plans for breakwaters in Limon Bay were recently changed. -Originally breakwaters were planned to extend nearly parallel to the -axis of the channel to protect against filling by wave action. However, -it was found that the northers entering between these breakwaters would -lack room to dissipate and so vessels would be unprotected for a great -portion of the distance to the locks. Accordingly two breakwaters have -been planned which are to be so placed as not only to prevent filling -but also to give shelter to shipping. - -On the Culebra section of the Central Division considerable trouble -has been caused by the great rainfall. To carry the rain off quickly -diversion channels have been constructed at a large expense of money -and labor. - -Water falling in the prism is cared for by the cut itself. In the -process of deepening pilot cuts are started from either end towards -the summit which is now between Empire and Culebra. Drainage in either -direction is by gravity through these cuts. - -The total amount excavated from the canal prism in this division during -the past year was 18,442,624 cubic yards, 12,291,472 cubic yards being -rock. At the close of the year 43,574,954 cubic yards remained to -be removed. The material is loaded on the cars by steam shovels, is -hauled to the various dumps, and unloaded by a huge plow-like apparatus -which is drawn from end to end of the train. Part of the spoil aided -in the rebuilding of the Panama Railroad; the rock from Empire and -Bas Obispo went to Gatun for the dam, and some material was hauled to -Balboa on the Pacific and was there used in reclaiming ground and in -building a breakwater in Panama Bay to cut off silt-bearing currents -which were filling up the excavated channel. It has been built out -about 2 miles by dumping from a trestle built for the purpose. One mile -more remains to be built. - -The slides in Culebra Cut have continued. The largest, called the -Cucaracho slide, measures 2,700 feet along the cut, involving an area -of 27 acres. During the year 1908–’09, 670,017 cubic yards were removed -from this slide but it is estimated that 700,000 more are still in -motion. Drainage seems to be ineffectual in these cases. - -The original summit at Culebra Cut was 333 feet above the sea; it was -lowered by the French to 157 feet and the lowest point at the summit is -now 143 feet above sea level. - -The lake section of the Central Division extends from Gamboa to Gatun. -The Chagres River here crosses the line of the canal 23 times, forming -a series of peninsulas. A portion of the channel 2,700 feet long, 500 -feet wide at the bottom and 50 feet deep, was completed May 25, 1909 -and the waters of the Chagres turned in. A total of 1,784,459 cubic -yards were taken out, of which 1,350,308 were removed in 1908–’09. From -the remainder of this division 2,625,283 cubic yards were excavated in -1908–’09. - -To secure the necessary width and depth between Pedro Miguel and -Miraflores on the Pacific Division 1,279,600 cubic yards of material, -of which 63,600 are rock, must be excavated. The material still to be -taken out between Miraflores and deep water is 13,000,900 cubic yards -of loam and 1,725,000 cubic yards of rock. It has been decided to -remove all rock between the locks and for 2 miles below the Miraflores -locks, in the dry. This will leave 3,600,000 cubic yards of loam and -123,000 of rock to be removed by dredging and blasting. - -The dredging fleet in Panama Bay for 1908–’09 consisted of one -sea-going suction dredge, one 20 inch suction and pipe-line dredge, -one 5 yard dipper dredge, and four French ladder dredges. They removed -8,475,931 cubic yards of material during the year. The channel is -completed for about 5 miles from deep water in the Pacific. - -The entire present steam-shovel equipment on the Isthmus consists -of forty-eight 95-ton, forty-two 70-ton, ten 45-ton, and one 38-ton -steam-shovels, or a total of one hundred and one steam-shovels. - -Dry excavation for the first quarter of the fiscal year 1908–’09, (July -1 to October 1), cost 63 cents per cubic yard for direct charges and 12 -cents per cubic yard for general administration, making a total of 75 -cents. Dredging cost 9 cents per cubic yard for direct charges and 2 -cents per cubic yard for general administration. The average cost per -cubic yard for excavation was 40 cents for direct charges and 8 cents -for general administration, making a total of 48 cents. - - - - -VIII. CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOCKS - -_Locks_ - - -As before stated there are to be 6 locks on the Panama Canal, 3 at -Gatun, 1 at Pedro Miguel and 2 at Miraflores. All of these locks are -arranged in duplicate, i.e., at any group of locks a vessel may ascend -at one side of the middle wall, while another is descending at the -other side. It is the intention that Pacific bound vessels use one side -and Atlantic bound the other. - -The middle wall is to extend 1,600 feet above the upper gates and below -the lower gates as an approach wall against which vessels to be locked -may lie while waiting for the gates to open. The side walls will not -be as long, and will flare out at their ends. The lock chambers are to -be 110 feet wide and 1,000 feet long and will pass vessels of 40 feet -maximum draught in sea water. The upper lock in each flight is to be -subdivided by additional gates into a 600 foot and a 400 foot lock so -that water may not be needlessly wasted in passing small boats. These -smaller subdivisions may be used until vessels of over 550 feet length -require passage. - -The lifts will average 28 feet, but will vary with changes in tide, -lake level, and conditions of lockage. The diagram below shows the -entire lock system at Gatun. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--General Arrangement of the Locks, Valves and -Gates at Gatun. - - S. V., Stoney valve. - G. V., Guard valve. - E. D. P., Emergency dam pier. - U. G. G., Upper guard gate. - U. G., Upper gate. - M. G., Middle gate. - S. G., Safety gate. - L. G.--U. L., Lower gate, upper lock. L. - L. G.--I. L., Lower gate, intermediate lock. - L. G.--L. L., Lower gate, lower lock. - L. G. G., Lower guard gate. - Ch., Fender chain. - Ga., Gauge. - L., Ladder. - St., Stairs. - Inc., Incline. - I., Intake. - O., Outlet. - - In each side of the wall - Between, there will be - A and B-- 3 cylindrical valves. - C and D-- 7 cylindrical valves. - E and F-- 10 cylindrical valves. - G and H-- 10 cylindrical valves. -] - -Near the bottom of each wall will be a large culvert for passing water -from the lakes into the upper chamber, and from chamber to chamber, and -then out to the canal below the locks. The intakes (See Fig. 2) will -be located at “I” and outlets at “O”. The water enters and leaves the -culverts through several small openings, the intakes being screened. -The flow of water in the culverts is to be controlled by what is called -the Stoney type of valves. These valves occur in pairs which are -duplicated at each of the lifts so that if one pair is disabled the -other set may be used while repairs are being made. On each side wall, -at the middle gates in the upper lock there will be only one set of -valves, but none in the middle wall. The flow between the culvert in -the middle wall and the lock chamber is to be controlled by cylindrical -valves capable of withstanding pressure on both sides. By using these -valves water may be saved under certain conditions of lockage by -cross-connecting the twin chambers through the middle wall. - -In each chamber 11 laterals of 41 square feet cross-section will be -led from the side wall culverts while at the middle culvert there will -be 10 laterals having a minimum cross-section of 33 square feet. Each -lateral will have five holes, each of 12 square feet area, opening -up through the lock floor. The laterals leading from the middle wall -culvert are to be controlled individually to provide for independent -operation of the twin chambers. - -The lake levels and the desired lock levels are to be maintained by -large steel miter gates. At the upper and lower end of the upper -chambers of all locks there will be two sets of these gates operated -simultaneously so that a vessel entering the upper chamber will always -have two pairs of gates between it and the lake. At the lower end -of each flight, besides the regular gates there will be guard gates -mitering in the opposite direction. They are intended primarily for -holding back the water in the canal below, when the lock above is -unwatered for repairs but may be operated during lockages purely as a -safeguard. - -As a protection to the gates heavy fender chains are to be stretched -across the locks at critical places. They are designed by suitable -retarding devices to bring a slowly moving vessel to rest before it can -strike the gate. While the gates below are being opened the chains drop -into recesses in the walls and across the floor. - -Near the upper end of the locks and 200 feet above the uppermost gate, -an emergency dam of the swing bridge type will be provided to be used -in case of accident to the upper gates. - -The following precautions against accident are to be observed: - -First. All vessels must stop some distance from the gates. - -Second. The lock operators here take the vessel in charge and control -its passage through the locks. - -Third. If a vessel breaks away from the operators or fails to stop at -the proper place, it comes against the heavy chains stretched across -the locks and is either brought to a full stop or is greatly retarded. - -Fourth. In case a chain breaks, the vessel has two sets of gates to -break, if at the upper level, where an accident would be most serious. -Should all these barriers fail the emergency dam can be swung into -place in a very short time. - -The floors of the Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks will have 1 foot -thickness of concrete on top of the rock as a wearing surface. At -Gatun, however the rock is of a character susceptible to the weather. -It has therefore been considered necessary, in constructing the floor -here, to leave the rock above grade until just before the concrete is -to be placed and then to scrape and wash the surface to be covered. The -floor in the lower portion of the upper chamber is to be of concrete -3 feet thick. The rock here is considered thick enough to withstand -the pressure from the water-bearing stratum below. Above the middle -gate, however, this stratum is too thin, and a floor 13 feet thick of -concrete is provided and anchored by rails set in holes and surrounded -by concrete. - -The main floor level will be about 2 feet below the sills, in order -that small objects dropped from vessels may be passed without being -struck. - -The sills for the gates are designed as concrete arches in a horizontal -plane, 31 feet thick throughout and of 100 feet radius at the extrados. - -The filling system is designed so that, with all valves opened the -chamber can be filled in 8 minutes, but to prevent possible damage to -vessels in the lock the maximum rate will probably not be allowed to -exceed 3 feet a minute which would correspond to less than 15 minutes -for filling. - -Most of the foregoing discussion is taken from the Engineering Record -of February 26, 1910. - -There has been much criticism of the lock sites, but the engineers now -in charge seem to have perfect confidence in their work. - -During the fiscal year 1908–’09 the work of excavating for the Gatun -locks was continued by steam shovels and one 20-inch suction dredge. -Material excavated in the dry amounted to 933,546 cubic yards, and that -in the wet to 479,950 cubic yards. It was decided to construct curtain -walls to stop any underflow; these will extend across the lock under -the sill of the emergency dam and downstream outside the walls to the -intermediate gates. As an additional precaution to making the concrete -floor 13 feet thick as before mentioned a system of sumps under the -floor with telltales in the walls will be built. - -The plant for the construction of the locks is practically installed -and ready for work, it being operated entirely by electricity. - -At the Pedro Miguel locks 715,726 cubic yards were removed in 1908–’09. -One lock chamber was completed to grade, but 45,000 cubic yards remain -for removal in the other one. - -At Miraflores work was done the past year with steam shovels and one -suction dredge. The total amount excavated was 1,147,527 cubic yards -which is one-half of the total estimated quantity. - - - - -IX. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DAMS - - -The Gatun dam has aroused more adverse criticism than any other canal -feature. Most startling statements have been made concerning it. Its -history is worthy of notice. The first study of the Panama route under -United States authority was made by an Isthmian Canal Commission of -which Admiral Walker was chairman and Generals Hains and Ernst and Mr. -Noble were members. With respect to the location of locks, the report -of this commission said: “No location suitable for a dam exists in the -Chagres River below Bohio”. Hains and Ernst signed this report. In a -paper read before the American Society of Civil Engineers on March 5, -1902, Mr. George S. Morison, a very distinguished American engineer, -said: “All engineers who have examined the route of the Panama Canal -agree that the neighborhood of Bohio is the only available location for -a dam by which the summit level must be maintained”. - -Under authority of the President, by executive order dated June 24, -1905, a board of consulting engineers was appointed to consider -the various plans proposed for the construction of a canal across -the Isthmus. The minority of the board, as has been stated before, -recommended a lock canal with a dam at Gatun. The majority of the -board, 8 to 5, opposed the idea of a dam and locks at Gatun on two -grounds: first, that the introduction of locks in a treatment of the -question was objectionable from many points of view; and, second, -that the maintenance of a summit by means of an earth dam of immense -magnitude to control the flood waters of this river introduced an -element of great danger since the dam, without sheet piling, was -proposed to be founded on the alluvial-filled gorges of the Chagres -River, where the depth at one point extended 258 feet below the level -of the sea. - -Of the minority above mentioned one member, Mr. Noble, was a member of -the former Commission who had reported that Bohio was the lowest point -on the Chagres where a dam was practicable. - -The report was reviewed by the Isthmian Canal Commission which included -among its members Major Harrod and Generals Hains and Ernst. They all -indorsed the minority report, notwithstanding the fact that in March, -1905, Major Harrod was opposed to any lock plan, and that his two -associates had said in 1901 that no proper site for a dam existed below -Bohio. - -It is true that every consideration of the Panama Canal type by -any unauthorized body rejected the idea of a dam at Gatun, and its -indorsement is confined to a minority of the board of consulting -engineers and to three members of the canal commission who had -previously either been in favor of a sea-level canal or who had said, -in effect, that Gatun was not a proper site for the dam. - -The attitude of the majority of the board of consulting engineers -upon this most important question is best shown by an extract from -its report. “The United States Government is proposing to expend -many millions of dollars for the construction of this great waterway -which is to serve the commerce of the world for all time and the very -existence of which would depend upon the permanent stability and -unquestioned safety of all dams. The board is therefore of the opinion -that the existence of such costly facilities for the world’s commerce -should not depend upon great reservoirs held by earth embankments -resting literally upon mud foundations or those of even sand and -gravel. The board is unqualifiedly of opinion that no such vast and -doubtful experiment should be indulged in, but, on the contrary, that -every work of whatever nature should be so designed and built as to -include only those features which experience has demonstrated to be -positively safe and efficient”. - -The remarkable diversity of statement in regard to this dam is shown by -the following quotations. - -Mr. Teller in a speech in the last session of Congress said in part, -“Let me say a word or two about the great dam to be built at Gatun. We -were told in the beginning that the engineers would find a foundation -upon which they could build a safe dam. The French Government declared -they had found such a foundation; our own engineers declared they had -found it. It turned out that they had struck some floating pieces of -rock in the mud, and when they had gone down 287 feet they found the -same conditions practically that they found in the first 50 feet. The -place where it is proposed to construct this dirt dam, which will be -half a mile wide and 135 feet high (now 115 feet), is a great swamp. -No such dam has ever been built in the history of the world, and the -engineers of the world, with few exceptions, have declared it cannot be -built. The dam at Gatun is to be built upon a foundation of doubtful -safety, and there is not an engineer in the country who does not know -that it is doubtful”. - -Lindon W. Bates, in his “Retrieval at Panama”, says, “The utter -indifference to real information as to existing conditions at Panama -has been astounding. Despite, for instance, the private knowledge of -the Commission in 1906 through their last 15 months that the bores in -these Gatun gorges were flowing bores, not one additional test had -been undertaken in them. In summary of foundation conditions one thing -is certain. First and foremost and indispensibly there must be at the -Isthmus, since the underground conditions have been revealed, the safe -barring off of permeable strata under the crucial dam. This cannot be -done at Gatun for the high dam”. - -On the other hand an editorial in the Engineering News of February 25, -1909, says, “We can testify from actual personal observation and study -of the dam site and of the borings and pits that the Gatun dam will be -as safe and permanent as any structure ever reared by man”. - -In the President’s message of February 17, 1909 there is this -statement, “As to the Gatun dam itself, they (the board of engineers) -show that not only is the dam safe, but that on the whole the plan -already adopted would make it needlessly high and strong, and -accordingly they recommend that its height be reduced by 20 feet, which -change I have accordingly directed”. - -In the Engineering News of April 1, 1909 is the following statement, -“If a private corporation, not subject to the clamor of public -criticism were confronted with the task of throwing a dam across the -Chagres Valley at Gatun, they would build a structure which would be -not more than one-fifth the size of that which is now being built -there”. Farther on in the same article a comparison of the Gatun dam -with alluvial dams of India and the levees along the Mississippi is -summed up with these words, “Compared with any and all of these the -conditions for safe and permanent dam construction at Gatun may be -considered ideal”. Is it any wonder that people are confused and -disgusted when they attempt to obtain the truth? - -The length of the dam is to be 7,700 feet, but the natural surface -reaches or exceeds the dam elevation in three places for about 700 feet -in all. At the level of 21 feet above the sea it will be about 2,600 -feet long in two sections, separated by Spillway Hill. According to the -engineer’s report the dam will rest upon brown or blue clay and silt. -Under the dam there are two geologic gorges, one 185 feet deep (below -sea level) and the other 255 feet deep. These are filled with river -alluvium and other deposits, consisting, according to official reports, -of silt, soil, brown and blue clay, rotten wood, sand, and gravel--the -most, if not all of it water bearing. The cross-sectional area of the -shallower gorge is 205,000 square feet and of the deeper one 120,000 -square feet. - -(For profile, cross-section, and plan see the following page.) - -The dam is to consist of two piles of rock 1,200 feet apart and carried -up to 60 feet above mean tide with the space between them and up to 115 -feet above sea-level filled by selected material deposited in place by -the hydraulic process. A slip occurred at one of these rock toes during -November, 1908, and caused considerable alarm throughout the country, -so much, in fact, that the President sent W. H. Taft with a group of 7 -noted engineers to investigate. They reported that “A full study of all -the data and of the material, and of the plans that are proposed leaves -no doubt in our minds as to the safe, tight, and durable character of -the Gatun dam”. - -At the close of the fiscal year 1908–’09 three 20-inch suction dredges -were depositing material over the area between the rock piles, and the -fill had reached an average elevation of 16 feet above sea-level. A -total of 2,501,372 cubic yards was placed in the dam during the year. - -Excavation through the Spillway Hill was practically completed and -30,464 cubic yards of concrete laid. During the year 359,821 cubic -yards of material were removed from Spillway hill by steam shovels and -placed on the dam. - -The original canal plans provided for a flight of two locks at La -Boca, near the Pacific, and one at Pedro Miguel. Steps were taken to -construct the former and trestles were built along the toes from which -to dump material from Culebra Cut. The trestles failed after dumping -began and material overlying the rock moved laterally, the movement -continuing for two weeks in some places. After this result these dams -were abandoned so that instead of locks at La Boca they will be built -at Miraflores. Another reason for the change besides poor foundations -is the military advantages of the latter over the former position. - -Both the dams at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores will be constructed of two -rock piles, the portion between being filled by hydraulic methods. Very -little work has been done upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PROFILE ON THE AXIS OF THE GATUN DAM SITE -SHOWING UNDERLYING MATERIAL AS DETERMINED BY BORING. - -(From Report of C. M. Saville, Assistant Engineer, August 29, 1908.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Revised cross-section of Gatun Dam as -recommended by Board of Consulting Engineers, February, 1909.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--GENERAL PLAN OF GATUN DAM.] - - - - -X. SANITATION - - -At Panama the seasons are divided into two well defined periods: the -dry, or winter, and the wet, or summer seasons. By this occurrence of -maximum moisture and maximum heat, the health conditions are made the -worst possible. - -The dry season includes the months of January, February, March and -April, the rainy season the remainder of the year. During the dry -season the average temperature at Colon for 6 years was 70.5° F, with -a monthly maximum of 90.9° F, which came in January, and a monthly -minimum of 68.4° in the same month. During the rainy season the maximum -average temperature for any month occurred in October and was 91.9° F. -The minimum was 66.9° F., for August. A record of 15 years at Colon -shows a maximum rainfall of 154.9 inches and a mean of 130.2 inches. -Four years’ records at Panama show a maximum of 84.73 inches and an -average of 66.8 inches. At Culebra the records for 3 years showed a -maximum of 98.97 inches and a minimum of 64.25 inches. - -The most common forms of disease on the Isthmus are due to fevers. -According to good authority the most sickly period is September, -October and November, during which time dysentery and a severe bilious -fever are very common. Foreigners seldom acquire the immunity of the -natives from local diseases. The Isthmus by various writers has been -called, “The Grave of the European”, “The Pest-House of the Tropics”, -and one author says that here truly “Life dies and death lives”. - -On account of the health conditions the labor question is greatly -complicated. For this reason extreme care has been taken by the United -States Government to do all in the power of science to make the -zone a healthy locality. Sanitation expenses will average at least -$2,000,000 per year. The work has been under the direct supervision of -Colonel W. C. Gorgas. The war on the mosquito has been continual and -unrelenting. For the first two months of the fiscal year 1908–’09, the -work in the Canal Zone, consisted of the collection and disposal of -garbage and night soil, the cutting of grass and brush, and sanitary -drainage and oiling. In the terminal cities the work consists of -inspection, fumigation, grass cutting, surface drainage, and oiling -undrained areas. - -This department also has charge of the hospitals and of the quarantine. -As far as possible all the sick are concentrated at Ancon. - -Last year’s records show an improvement over the preceding year. The -total number of employees admitted to the hospitals and sick camps -amounted to 46,194, representing 23.49 as the number of men sick daily -as against 23.85 for the preceding year. The number of deaths was 530. -According to these figures the Canal Zone is one of the healthiest -communities in the world; but it must be remembered that the population -there consists of men and women in the prime of life and that a number -of the sick are returned to the United States before death overtakes -them. - -There were no cases of plague or yellow fever originating on the -Isthmus during the year 1908–’09. The last case of yellow fever -occurred in May, 1906. - -A supply of perfectly healthful water has been secured by the -construction of reservoir at different points of the Zone, and the -Commission hotels and cottages have all the advantages of an excellent -modern water system. - - - - -XI. SOCIAL LIFE - - -Those who have endeavored to better the standard of social life at -Panama have met with difficulties always connected with an enterprise -of the character and magnitude of the great Canal. It is surprising -what has been accomplished. Questionable amusements there are, but that -is to be expected among such an assemblage of men. Nevertheless, the -conditions of living there are gradually approaching what we find in -the average community in the United States. - -There is a well organized school system in the Canal Zone. Twelve -schools are maintained for white children and seventeen for colored -children. The highest monthly enrollment was 675 whites and 1,417 -colored pupils. There is a superintendent of schools and assistant -supervisor of primary grades. - -Two high schools are in operation, one at Culebra and one at Cristobal. -Children at other points in the Zone requiring high school instruction -are given free transportation over the railroad by the Commission. -Instruction is given in algebra, geometry, physical geography, general -history, botany, English, German, French, Spanish, and Latin. There -were but 25 children who took high school work in 1908–’09. - -In addition to the transportation given high school pupils, -transportation is given to children in towns where no white schools are -maintained. Last year children were also carried by wagon from Balboa -to Ancon, as were high school pupils from Empire and Culebra. A boat -and ferryman were employed in two cases. - -Quarters are furnished free to all the men, married and unmarried. -Roosevelt, upon his return from Panama said the wives of the employees -seemed satisfied with their home life and surroundings. The houses are -excellent considering the conditions. - -Employees purchase all necessary supplies from government commissaries -at about the same prices as are current in the United States. On every -workday a refrigerator car runs from Colon to Panama and delivers to -the various villages all orders previously placed for supplies such as -ice, meat, vegetables and fruit. Payment is made by the use of coupons, -their values being deducted from the employee’s salary. - -Employees are allowed free medical, surgical, and hospital attendance, -including medicines and food while in the hospital. - -Employees with salaries fixed on an annual or monthly basis receive no -pay for overtime work but if their health requires it, will be granted -a leave of 6 weeks absence or less during the year with full pay. Those -who are paid by the hour do, of course, receive pay for overtime work. - -A number of suitable church buildings has been erected by the -Commission. They are two-story buildings, the upper floors being -fitted up as lodge rooms and the first floor for religious purposes. -Practically every religious denomination is now represented on the -Isthmus by the chaplains employed by the Commission. - -Roosevelt stated after his visit to the Zone that “It is imperatively -necessary to provide ample recreation and amusement if the men are -to be kept well and healthy.” To this end four clubhouses have been -completed at Culebra, Empire, Gorgona, and Cristobal and several -more are contemplated. The four are alike in design, and consist of -a front building of two stories connected with a rear building of -one story. The front part is 135 feet by 45 feet, and contains a -social parlor, a card room, a billiard and writing room on the first -floor and an assembly hall on the second floor. The rear building, -100 feet by 28 feet, contains a double bowling alley, a gymnasium, -shower baths, and over a hundred single lockers. The Commission, -assisted by the Young Men’s Christian Association, manages these -buildings. Besides furnishing a library of 787 volumes to each of these -buildings provision is made for the delivery of 100 weekly and monthly -periodicals. - -Last year 1908–’09, 2,140 employees availed themselves of regular -membership privileges. The membership rate is 10 dollars per year. The -fact that 56,835 games in bowling took place during the year shows the -extensive use made of these buildings. - -There are various athletic organizations on the Isthmus. Gymnasium -activities have consisted mostly of basket ball and indoor baseball. -Field sports are sometimes held on moonlight nights and holidays. An -athletic park has been built near Cristobal. - -During the year there were 81 performances given by lyceum and -vaudeville talent from the United States, with an attendance of -18,225. Chess, checker, glee, minstrel, dramatic, and orchestra clubs -have been successfully maintained. - -“These associations have held a vital relation to the canal -construction in promoting contentment among employees, furnishing -healthful amusement, effecting greater permanency of the force, and in -elevating the standards of living”. - - - - -XII. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE - - -The economic importance of the Panama Canal is a fruitful topic for -discussion. Some authorities think that a large share of the world’s -commerce will naturally and immediately use this new path between the -oceans; but the general opinion of those best fitted to decide is that -the canal will not be a paying investment, at least for the first -years of its operation. As a German paper puts it, “Nobody thinks of -remunerativeness any more. The fruits of the enterprise consist in -indirect profits; they must be looked for in the military-political -field and in the promotion of American commerce. In this lies the -center of gravity of the situation”. - -From a commercial standpoint the canal will be of little or no -advantage to Europe for the way to the whole of eastern Asia and -Australia, inclusive of New Zealand via the Suez Canal will remain -much nearer. For Europe, then, the only saving is in traffic with the -west coast of America. In commerce with western South America England -occupies first place, and is followed by Germany, the United States and -France, in the order named. It is to be noted that vessels trading with -the southern portion of the west coast of South America will prefer to -go around Cape Horn rather than pay the tolls through the Panama Canal. - -The greatest commercial advantage comes to the eastern ports of the -United States, namely 9,531 nautical miles between New York and San -Francisco, so that New York on this route gains 2,889 miles more, for -example, than Hamburg, Germany. The main fact, however, is that this -saving is so large on the route from New York to Eastern Asia and -Australia that it changes the present disadvantage of New York into -an advantage when compared with many European ports. From Hamburg to -Hongkong, via Suez, the distance is 10,542 miles; from New York to -Hongkong, via Suez, it is 11,655 miles. The Panama Canal will give -nothing to Hamburg but a saving of 1,820 miles to New York so that the -distance will be 707 miles less than from Hamburg. In routes to the -more northern ports of eastern Asia, as well as to those of eastern -Australia, the gain of New York is still greater. From Hamburg via -Suez to Melbourne is 12,367 miles; from New York 12,500 miles. Via -Panama, however, the distance from New York is only 10,427 miles, so -that New York will be about 2,000 miles nearer than Hamburg. In many -cases therefore the Panama Canal will give New York a decided advantage -over European ports. - -There are other than commercial reasons for building the canal. The -effect which it will have upon the tropical districts of the west -is worth considering. An author on “Social Evolution” in describing -this region said that there are only two words which adequately -represent the conditions of this country, “anarchy and bankruptcy”, -and he suggests removing the anarchy by the substitution of strong -and righteous government. Can any one doubt that the construction of -an international waterway through the Isthmus will tend to improve -administration in the American tropics? - -[Illustration: - - GENERAL MAP - OF THE - CANAL ZONE - AND THE - PANAMA CANAL -] - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -The original text was typed, not printed. Consequently, there were -more typographical errors than would normally be found in a book, and -Transcribers corrected most of them without noting the individual -corrections here. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of -inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed. - -Transcriber segmented the map at the end of the book into three larger -parts for readability, in addition to retaining an image of the original. - -“Maratime” was printed that way, twice; “Maritime” did not occur in -this book. - -Page 3: “concensus” was printed that way. - -Page 15: “built on the lock canal” was printed as “built on the -sea-level canal”, but “sea-level” was crossed out by hand and replaced -by what appears to be “Loc”. Given the context and name of the chapter, -Transcribers decided it was intended to be “lock”. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Panama Canal, by Harry Clow Boardman - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL *** - -***** This file should be named 55970-0.txt or 55970-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/9/7/55970/ - -Produced by Charlie Howard and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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- margin-right: 2.5em; -} - -h1, h2, h3 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; - margin-top: 2.5em; - margin-bottom: 1em; -} - -h1 {line-height: 1;} - -h2+p {margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2+h3 {margin-top: 1.5em;} - -.transnote h2 { - margin-top: .5em; - margin-bottom: 1em; -} - -p { - text-indent: 1.75em; - margin-top: .51em; - margin-bottom: .24em; - text-align: justify; -} -.caption p {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} -p.center {text-indent: 0;} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.vspace {line-height: 1.5;} -.vspace2 {line-height: 3em;} - -.in0 {text-indent: 0;} -.in2 {padding-left: 2em;} -.in4 {padding-left: 4em;} -.l2 {padding-right: 2em;} - -.small {font-size: 70%;} -.smaller {font-size: 85%;} -.larger {font-size: 125%;} -.large {font-size: 150%;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.smcap.smaller {font-size: 75%;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 4em; - margin-bottom: 4em; - margin-left: 33%; - margin-right: auto; - clear: both; 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- } - - table {width: 100%; max-width: 100%;} - - .tdl { - padding-left: 1em; - text-indent: -1em; - padding-right: 0; - } - -} - -@media handheld -{ - body {margin: 0;} - - hr { - margin-top: .1em; - margin-bottom: .1em; - visibility: hidden; - color: white; - width: .01em; - display: none; - } - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } - - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: center;} -} - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Panama Canal, by Harry Clow Boardman - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Panama Canal - -Author: Harry Clow Boardman - -Release Date: November 14, 2017 [EBook #55970] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL *** - - - - -Produced by Charlie Howard and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote covernote"><p class="large center">Transcriber’s Note</p> - -<p>Transcriber modified the original cover and added a map -to it, taken from the original book. The modifications -as well as the original are in the Public Domain.</p> -</div> - -<h1>THE PANAMA CANAL</h1> - -<p class="p2 center vspace2"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> - -<span class="smcap larger">Harry Clow Boardman</span></p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace2"><span class="large">THESIS</span><br /> - -<span class="small">FOR THE</span><br /> - -<span class="smaller">DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE</span><br /> - -<span class="small">IN</span><br /> - -<span class="smaller">CIVIL ENGINEERING</span></p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace2"><span class="smaller">COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING</span><br /> - -UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><span class="small">PRESENTED JUNE, 1910</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center vspace">UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS<br /> - -COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.</p> - -<p class="p2 sigright">June 1, 1910</p> - -<p class="vspace">This is to certify that the thesis of HARRY -CLOW BOARDMAN entitled The Panama Canal is approved by me as -meeting this part of the requirements for the degree of -Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.</p> - -<p class="p2 sigright"> -<span class="l2 ul">F. O. Dufour</span><br /> -Instructor in Charge.</p> - -<p class="p2 in0"> -Approved:<br /> -<br /> -<span class="in4 ul">Ira O. Baker.</span><br /> -<span class="in4">Professor of Civil Engineering.</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="OUTLINE_OF_THESIS_ON_THE_PANAMA_CANAL">OUTLINE OF THESIS ON THE PANAMA CANAL</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="Outline"> - <tr class="smaller"> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr nobpad">Page</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">INTRODUCTION</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_1">v</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">INTEROCEANIC CANALS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_2">1</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">HISTORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_3">6</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">TYPE OF CANAL, (Lock or Sea-level)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_4">13</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">LOCATION, SIZE AND PLAN</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_5">20</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">ORGANIZATION OF FORCES</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_6">21</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANAL PRISM</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_7">26</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOCKS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_8">29</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">CONSTRUCTION OF THE DAMS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_9">33</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">SANITATION</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_10">38</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl">SOCIAL LIFE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_11">40</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl">ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chap_12">43</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - -<div id="chap_1" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="I_INTRODUCTION">I. INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - -<p>The building of a canal across the American Isthmus has -occupied the attention of the world for four hundred years. While -yet the sailors who crossed the sea with Columbus were living in all -the vigor of mature manhood, a Spanish engineer drew the plans for -an artificial waterway across the Isthmus and submitted them to the -King of Spain. From that time to this the building of an Isthmian -Canal has been a fascinating project in the minds of progressive men. -Attempts to build it have resulted in the loss of thousands of lives -and the squandering of millions of treasure; and this “dream of the -centuries” is still unrealized.</p> - -<div id="fig_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="800" height="555" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p> - <i>PROPOSED ROUTES<br /> - FOR AN<br /> - ISTHMIAN CANAL.</i> - </p> - - <p class="p2"><i>FIG. 1.</i></p></div></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<div id="chap_2" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="II_INTEROCEANIC_CANALS">II. INTEROCEANIC CANALS</h2> -</div> - -<p>There are at least five routes which at one time or another have been -chosen and seriously considered as possible locations for the Isthmian Canal. -They are: the Atrato-Napipi, the San Blas, the Tehuantepec, the Nicaragua, and -the Panama routes.</p> - -<p>The Atrato-Napipi route follows the river Atrato, which empties into -the Gulf of Darien, as far as the mouth of its tributary, the Napipi, thence up -that river through the mountains and empties in Capica Bay. See <a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>, No. 1.</p> - -<p>The San Blas route runs from the bay of the same name on the Atlantic -side to the river Chipo which empties in the Gulf of Panama. It is only forty -or fifty miles southeast of the Panama route. See <a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>, No. 2.</p> - -<p>The Tehuantepec route begins at the bay of Coatzacoalcos in the Bay of -Campeche and ends at the harbor of Salina Cruz in the Gulf of Tehuantepec. See -<a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>, No. 3.</p> - -<p>All modern engineers thrust these aside as impracticable, the first -two because of the necessity for tunnels and the last because of its great length -and number of locks. They will, therefore, receive no further attention.</p> - -<p>The choice of the location for an Interoceanic canal has long been conceded -by practical engineers to lie between the Nicaragua and Panama routes. A -consideration of the natural advantages and disadvantages of these rival lines -follows.</p> - -<p>Since the Nicaragua route has been abandoned the features of the proposed -construction will receive no attention. It is highly probable that this -route would never have been seriously considered by the United States had it not -been for the fact that the Panama line was for many years under the control of -France and apparently was destined to continue so for a considerable period.</p> - -<p>Logically the question of harbors first suggests itself. Natural harbors -do not exist in Nicaragua nor could one be excavated and maintained on the -Atlantic side without a continual battle with forces which, in the last fifty -years, have transformed what was once an excellent harbor at Greytown into a -lagoon partially enclosed by an ever advancing line of sand brought down by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -river San Juan. Experience on the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United -States has given abundant evidence of the results of a fight with such forces. -In his “The American Isthmus and Interoceanic Canal” W. Henry Hunter says, “The -policy which fights against the forces of nature is a mistaken one; it is foredoomed -to failure. Nature may be aided in her operations; her more gigantic -forces may to some extent be curbed and controlled; but an almost certain Nemesis -pursues any effort which may be made to arrest and to determine in an absolute -way a process so continuous as that of the filling up of the Greytown bight.”</p> - -<p>Brito, the Pacific terminus, is little better than Greytown since “even -in the calmest weather there is a nearly constant surf, with breakers from four -to ten feet high.” Therefore, the terminus at Greytown would always be in danger -of being filled up by the Atlantic waves and the one at Brito would constantly -be liable to destruction by the Pacific breakers.</p> - -<p>On the other hand the natural harbors of the Panama route have successfully -met the demands of commerce for the last four hundred years. On the -Pacific end practically no harbor improvements will be necessary. On the Atlantic -the present needs are satisfied, but the large steamers of the future may -require deepening which can be done and the resulting channel easily maintained -since there is no persistent filling in process such as characterizes the Greytown -harbor.</p> - -<p>Volcanoes have long been plentiful in Central America, especially near -the proposed Nicaragua canal. Nicaragua Lake, so geologists say, owes its -separation from the Pacific to a great upheaval. There is now an active volcano -near which ships would have to pass. From January 1, 1901 to April 30, 1904, a -period of forty consecutive months, the instruments of the Instituto-Fisico Geografico, -located 60 miles from the locks of the proposed canal, recorded 43 tremors, -91 slight shocks and 35 strong shocks, some of which lasted 16 minutes. -Similar observations at Panama for the same period revealed only 6 tremors and 4 -slight shocks, the longest being for a period of only 10 seconds. The lock gates -of a canal might very easily be injured by earthquakes; and common sense would -dictate that other things being equal, the canal should be placed where the -shocks are fewest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -Strong trade winds rush through the San Juan gorge at all seasons. -The rainfall near the Atlantic is enormous, averaging from 260 to 270 inches per -year, and rain may be expected any day. In the western part the fall is only -65 inches, and there is also a well defined dry season. Clear vision is essential -to safe passage through the canal and it is extremely doubtful if it could -be obtained under the above conditions. Still more serious perhaps is the excessive -curvature of the channel for 50 miles of its course. It is impossible -to reduce the curvature to the limit which experience on the Suez canal has proved -necessary for safety and speed. Furthermore the channel must carry off to -the sea the drainage from 12,000 square miles of territory. This cannot do -otherwise than create currents and eddies unfavorable to navigation.</p> - -<p>The Panama route has no continued strong winds; the curvature is comparatively -favorable; the annual rainfall is from 140 inches on the Atlantic -coast to about 60 inches on the Pacific, with a definite dry season of three -months; and the concensus of expert engineering opinion is that there need be no -objectionable currents if proper provision is made for the regulation of the -Chagres river. This phase will be discussed later as will also the question of -curvature.</p> - -<p>Much has been said about the advantages furnished by Lake Nicaragua -which covers about 70 miles of the Canal route. However, for 29 miles of that -distance, an artificial channel through soft mud would be necessary, and dredging -would probably be practically continuous for maintenance.</p> - -<p>From a purely engineering standpoint the most serious objection to this -route is the liability to interruption for lack of water in seasons of extreme -drought which are not at all uncommon in that region. Upon first thought it -seems that a lake 3,000 square miles in extent cannot be other than an ideal -source of supply, but such is not the case. By the proposed dam on the lower -San Juan river the channel of the stream would become an arm of the lake through -which all shipping would have to pass, the depth of water being, of course, dependent -upon the lake level. This level has a natural variation of 13 feet. -Under the projected conditions the whole outflow would pass over the dam about 50 -miles away from the lake proper. The present high water mark cannot be exceeded -without flooding valuable lands, nor, on the other hand, can the channel depth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -be made as great as desirable because the river bed is crossed by many rock -ledges, and the cost of excavation fixes a limit to the depth economically practicable. -The Isthmian Canal Commission of 1899–’01 concluded that the variation -would have to be reduced to 7 feet. This means that the level would be held between -104 and 111 feet above tide water and the river bed excavated enough to -give a minimum sailing depth of 40 feet. Records show no regular succession of -high and low lake years; and as it is plainly impossible to keep a reserve sufficient -to control such an enormous expanse of water, the regulation of this most -important matter would be left to the judgment of the operator controlling the -overflow at the dam. Carelessness or bad judgment on his part might therefore -easily stop traffic for an indefinite period.</p> - -<p>There is a similar question in regard to Gatun Lake of the Panama line -although the majority of authorities anticipate no trouble from that source. A -more complete discussion of this danger will be given later.</p> - -<p>Concerning the actual difficulties of construction at Nicaragua, little -need be said inasmuch as no work is now contemplated there. The San Juan dam -of the Nicaragua and the Gatun dam of the Panama route both present conditions -which have never been met before. Also the deep cuts of the Culebra find their -counterpart in portions of the longer route.</p> - -<p>The time-saving element is of more apparent than real importance because -the time lost on the longer sea-voyage for the Panama route would be practically -balanced by the gain of time in actual passage through the canal, the -Nicaragua route being about four times as long as the Panama route. Henry L. -Abbot, in his “Problems of the Panama Canal”, estimates that 34 hours more time -would be required for passage by way of the Nicaragua than by way of the Panama -route.</p> - -<p>An excellent reason for the adoption of the Panama rather than the -Nicaragua route was the existence of a good railroad and the fact that the French -had actually completed about two fifths of the work required.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p> - -<h3>SUMMARY OF COMPARISON</h3> - -<p>Below is given a summary of the comparisons which have just been discussed.</p> - -<table id="routes" summary="Panama route vs. Nicaragua route"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc head w50"><i>Panama Route</i></td> - <td class="tdc head w50"><i>Nicaragua Route</i></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">There are two good harbors.</td> - <td class="tdl">There are no good harbors.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">There is a good railroad.</td> - <td class="tdl">There is a very poor railroad.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Two-fifths of the work is completed.</td> - <td class="tdl">No work is completed.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl w50">The projected construction, according to the majority of engineers, is justified by good engineering practice.</td> - <td class="tdl w50">A dam without precedent in canal work is projected.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Except at Bohio, the annual rainfall nowhere exceeds 93 inches.</td> - <td class="tdl">The most difficult works are where the rainfall is nearly 256 inches.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The length is 50 miles.</td> - <td class="tdl">The length is 176 miles.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">There are no active volcanoes.</td> - <td class="tdl">There is one active volcano near the route.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The time of transit is 14 hours.</td> - <td class="tdl">The time of transit is 44 hours.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The curvature is comparatively gentle.</td> - <td class="tdl">The curvature is sharp.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">No troublesome winds and cross-currents are expected.</td> - <td class="tdl">Heavy trade winds and strong currents would be troublesome.</td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - -<div id="chap_3" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="III_HISTORY_OF_THE_PANAMA_ROUTE">III. HISTORY OF THE PANAMA ROUTE</h2> -</div> - -<p>The Panama route as a line of transit was first established between -the years 1517 and 1520. The first settlement on the site of old Panama, six -or seven miles east of the present city, was made in 1517. The Atlantic end, -called Nombre de Dios, was built in 1519. Here Balboa was tried and executed. -It grew rapidly in importance and in 1521 became a city by royal decree.</p> - -<p>Even at that early date a road was established across the Isthmus. It, -however, did not enter the city of Panama, but at the Pacific end passed through -a small town called Cruces on the Chagres river about 17 miles distant, and at the -Atlantic end passed through Nombre de Dios. The latter terminus did not prove -satisfactory so the town of Porto Bello was made the Atlantic Port in 1597. This -also was subsequently abandoned. At least part of this road was paved, and -bridges were built over the streams. Even today its course is well defined.</p> - -<p>As early as 1534 boats began to pass up and down the Chagres river between -Cruces and its mouth on the Caribbean shore and thence along the coast to -Nombre de Dios, and later to Porto Bello. The commerce thus begun increased -rapidly during the sixteenth century and Panama became a very important commercial -center with a trade extending to the Spice Islands and the Asiatic coast. -It was at the height of its power in 1585 and was called the “toll-gate between -western Europe and Eastern Asia.”</p> - -<p>In time this commercial prosperity, which enriched Spain, called the -attention of her rulers and others to the possibility of constructing an interoceanic -ship-canal. Tradition says that Charles V ordered a survey in 1520 to -determine the feasibility of a canal, but that the governor reported such an -undertaking absolutely impossible for any monarch.</p> - -<p>From that time the prosperity of Panama increased rapidly. Lines of -trade were established with the west coast of South America and the Pacific ports -of Central America. Its glory came to a sudden end when, on the sixth of February, -1671, it was sacked and burned by Morgan’s buccaneers. A new city, the -present Panama, was founded in 1673, but the old one was never rebuilt.</p> - -<p>The project of a canal on this route, because of its romantic and commercial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -interest, was kept alive for more than three centuries without definite -action being taken. Finally, in 1876, a French Company was organized at Paris -to make surveys preparatory to building a ship canal across the Isthmus.</p> - -<p>Lieutenant L. N. E. Wyse, a French naval officer, had immediate charge -of the work. He obtained a concession, known as the Wyse Concession, from -Colombia giving France the necessary rights for the construction of a canal.</p> - -<p>In May, 1879, an international congress was convened in Paris under the -auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps, to consider the question of the best location -and plan for the canal. This congress, after a two weeks session, decided in -favor of a sea-level canal without locks to be located on the Panama route.</p> - -<p>Immediately after this action the Panama Canal Company was organized -under the general laws of France with Ferdinand de Lesseps as its president. The -Wyse concession was purchased by the company, and after two attempts the stock -was successfully floated in December, 1880. Two years were then devoted to surveys -and preliminary work. In the plan first adopted the canal was to be 29.5 -feet deep and 72 feet wide at the bottom. Leaving Colon, the canal passed -through low ground to the valley of the Chagres river at Gatun; thence through -the valley to Obispo where it left the river and crossed the continental divide -by means of a tunnel and reached the Pacific through the valley of the Rio Grande. -The tides on the Pacific were to be overcome by sloping the bottom of the Pacific -end of the canal. No provision was made for controlling the Chagres.</p> - -<p>Early in the eighties a tidal lock near the Pacific was added to the -plan, and various schemes for the control of the Chagres were proposed, the one -most favored being the construction of the dam at Gamboa. The tunnel idea was -soon abandoned.</p> - -<p>The French engineers estimated that the excavation would be about -157,000,000 cubic yards, that eight years would be required for completion, and -that the cost would be $127,600,000. Work proceeded continuously until 1887, -when a change to the lock type was made in order to secure the use of the canal -as soon as possible, it being understood that the construction of a sea-level -canal was not to be abandoned but merely deferred until financial conditions -would allow its completion. This new plan placed the summit level above the -Chagres river, and proposed to supply this summit level with water pumped from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -that stream. Work went on until 1889 when the company became bankrupt; and on -February 4, a liquidator was appointed to take charge of its affairs. Work was -stopped on May 15, 1889.</p> - -<p>The liquidator appointed a commission of eleven engineers to give him -technical advice as to the condition of the work and the best methods for its -completion. Five of these commissioners visited the Isthmus and reported on -May 5, 1890. The report contained plans for the completion of a lock canal and -emphasized the necessity for more complete examinations before beginning work. -This advice was followed by the liquidator who at once took steps for the formation -of a new company, and at the same time continued to take careful observations -on the Isthmus, and these observations have been of great value since then.</p> - -<p>The New Panama Canal Company was organized in October, 1894. It proposed -to construct a sea-level canal from the Atlantic as far as Bohio (See <a href="#i_map">Map</a>, -pp 45), where a dam was to form a lake as far as Bas Obispo, the difference in -elevation being overcome by two locks. The summit level extended from Bas -Obispo to Paraiso, and was reached by two more locks and received water from an -artificial reservoir formed by a dam at Alhajuela in the upper Chagres valley. -Four dams were located on the Pacific side, the two middle ones at Pedro Miguel -combined in a flight.</p> - -<p>Work continued on this plan up to the time of the Spanish-American War -in 1898. About that time a “Comite Technique”, as it was called, composed of -seven French and seven foreign engineers who had been appointed by the Board of -Directors of the New Company, submitted its final report upon the canal. It was -estimated that, at a cost of $100,000,000 a canal suitable for all commercial -needs could be completed in 10 years.</p> - -<p>Had matters continued as before it is probable that the New Canal Company -would have completed the canal as it had planned. But the Spanish-American -War developed wholly new conditions. The trip of the Oregon around Cape Horn -drew the attention of the American people to the importance of an interoceanic -canal. Prior to this time the Board of Directors of the New Company, although -aware that the Maratime Canal Company was actively engaged in securing funds -from the United States Congress for the Nicaragua route, were so confident that -a canal by that route could never seriously compete with their own that they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -gave little attention to the efforts of their rival. Now, however, if the newly -awakened popular demand for a canal should induce the American government to -undertake the work, the New Company would face two formidable conditions, namely, -the difficulty of raising funds for the completion of the Panama Canal would be -greatly increased if the parallel route were supported by the United States and -the question of labor would become greatly complicated.</p> - -<p>Knowing that the favorable conditions created by the French at Panama -were unknown in the United States and certain that if known the United States -would assist rather than retard the work the Board of Directors, on December 2, -1898, sent a complete copy of the report of the “Comite Technique” to President -McKinley and offered to explain the exact conditions to any body of men appointed -for the purpose. This offer came at the proper time since Congress was then -ready to pass a bill to aid the Maratime Company in the construction of a canal -on the Nicaragua route. On February 27, 1899 the representatives of the New -Company were granted a hearing in the House of Representatives. They presented -a technical exhibit, and stated that their company was authorized to reincorporate -as an American company under American laws. So ably did they present their -case that ultimately on March 3, 1899, by act of Congress a commission, known as -the “Isthmian Canal Commission” was appointed by the President to determine the -“most practicable and feasible route for an Isthmian canal, with the cost of constructing -the same and placing it under the control, management, and ownership -of the United States.”</p> - -<p>The original intention of the New Panama Canal Company in bringing the -subject before the United States was not to sell its rights on the Isthmus but to -reincorporate and receive the support of American wealth. However, it was evident -that the United States desired absolute control, and accordingly the consent -of Colombia to a transfer was obtained and the Company prepared a classified list -of its properties which it placed before the Isthmian Canal Commission on October -2, 1901 with the statement that the sums given were not to be considered as final -but were merely presented as a basis for discussion. The Commission, however, -refused to take this view of the matter and persisted in considering the prices -offered as constituting, when summed up, a definite lump sum for which the Company -would sell its property. This lump sum was $109,141,500. The Commission’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -valuation was $40,000,000. Consequently when the Commission made its final report -it closed with these words, “Having in view the terms offered by the New -Panama Canal Company this Commission is of the opinion that the most practicable -and feasible route for an Isthmian Canal to be under the control, management, -and ownership of the United States is that known as the Nicaragua route.”</p> - -<p>When the French Company heard this report it immediately offered to -sell its property for $40,000,000. Accordingly the Commission made a supplementary -report on January 18, 1902 stating that “After considering the changed -conditions that now exist, the Commission is of the opinion that the most practicable -and feasible route for an Isthmian canal to be under the control, management, -and ownership of the United States is that known as the Panama route.”</p> - -<p>Thus it came about that the United States was authorized to obtain permanent -possession of the concessions and properties of the New Panama Canal Company -at a very low price.</p> - -<p>Congress meanwhile had not waited for the report of the Commission but -had passed a bill known as the Hepburn Bill, authorizing the President to acquire -the right to construct a canal at Nicaragua and to begin the actual construction. -Ten million dollars were appropriated and contracts for material and work to the -sum of $140,000,000 authorized. Many discussions arose in the Senate; and a -strong feeling in favor of the Panama route became apparent. Senator Hanna was -especially active. He sent letters to eighty shipowners, shipmasters, officers -and pilots, in which he enclosed a description of the two routes and a list of -questions intended to bring out their relative merits from a practical viewpoint. -Their answers were all in favor of the Panama route. As a result of the long -debate a bill was passed June 26, 1902 with the President’s approval. In effect -it was as follows. The President is authorized to acquire for the sum of -$40,000,000 or less the rights and property of the New Panama Canal Company, and -by treaty with Colombia, the perpetual control of the strip of territory necessary -for operating the canal and is then instructed to proceed and complete the work -under an Isthmian Canal Commission of seven members to be appointed by him. One -hundred and forty-five million dollars was pledged for this purpose.</p> - -<p>The Hay-Herran treaty with Colombia was signed January 22, 1902, but -failed of ratification by Colombia. In November, 1903, however, there was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -successful revolution upon the Isthmus and a republican form of government was -adopted. The Hay-Bunan-Varilla treaty was thereupon made on November 18, 1903. -It was ratified by both governments on February 26, 1904. It gave the United -States control of a strip of land ten miles wide, five on each side of the canal.</p> - -<p>Since then the work has proceeded under the complete control and supervision -of the United States. The President, whose duty it was to provide for -the government of the Canal Zone, put that as well as the engineering into the -hands of the Commission of seven members which he had appointed. It has remained -there. The office of chief engineer has been held by three men, J. F. -Wallace, J. F. Stevens and G. W. Goethals, the first two of whom resigned.</p> - -<p>The question of a sea-level canal was again agitated and became so insistent -that the President appointed an international board of engineers, consisting -of thirteen members, to assemble in Washington September 1, 1905 to consider -the various plans for the construction of the canal submitted to it. The -board consisted of five foreign and five United States engineers, three of the -latter having formerly served on the canal commission. The Board visited the -Isthmus on September 28, had some examinations made for its enlightenment and in -November submitted a majority report signed by the five foreign engineers and the -three former members of the commission, and a minority report, the former advocating -a sea-level canal and the latter a lock canal with the summit level 85’ -above the sea. The Isthmian Canal Commission with but one dissenting voice -recommended the adoption of the lock type proposed by the minority.</p> - -<p>On June 29, 1906 Congress in opposition to the majority report of the -engineers, provided that the 85-foot lock type of canal be constructed across -the Isthmus; and work has since continued on that plan. This final decision, -however, was made with reluctance by many congressmen and some of them are regretting -it today.</p> - -<p>This Congress also decided that all materials used in building the -canal should be purchased in the United States.</p> - -<p>Early in 1909 a special body of engineers appointed by the President -accompanied W. H. Taft on an inspection trip to Panama particularly with a view -to determining the feasibility of the Gatun dam project. In a report made -February 16 they unanimously approved the plans for the various changes in the -original project made by the engineer. This included the widening of the locks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -to 110 feet and constructing the Pacific dams at Miraflores instead of at La -Boca.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p> - -<div id="chap_4" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="IV_TYPE_OF_CANAL">IV. TYPE OF CANAL</h2> -</div> - -<p>The controversy over the relative merits of a lock and a sea-level -canal at Panama is as old as the question of building the canal itself. Supporters -of the lock canal now in process of construction have sought to silence -the storm of protest occasioned by its adoption; but in spite of their precautions -reports have reached the American public which have created a lack of faith -in the present engineers and their methods.</p> - -<p>It is, of course, impossible for a layman to decide arbitrarily in -favor of the lock or sea-level type. The only reasonable way to arrive at a -conclusion is to examine carefully the arguments of both factions and reach a -decision therefrom. The writer has found it difficult, if not impossible, to -obtain an accurate presentation of the facts. Engineers high in their profession -make contradictory statements. Presumably they honestly express their -convictions but their failure to agree is strong evidence that there is a large -element of uncertainty in the whole proposition. If they, acknowledged authorities, -not only cannot arrive at a common decision in this matter, but consider -it necessary to ridicule each other’s plans, there is certainly cause to doubt -the wisdom of the present project. It is the intention of the writer to state -the principal arguments both for and against the two types of canals as presented -by their most ardent advocates.</p> - -<p>It is generally conceded that a lock canal at Panama would cost less -than an efficient sea-level canal. Engineers on the Isthmus make an estimate -of over $100,000,000 as the minimum excess of cost of a sea-level canal over the -lock canal for construction alone. This estimate does not include the cost of -carrying on the work of government and sanitation during the additional years -which would be required to build a sea-level canal. Furthermore, it is true -that there are many problems in connection with a sea-level canal, in spite of -its apparent simplicity, which have never been solved and consequently no engineer -can say how many millions would be required for its completion. Experience -has shown, however, that the same unsolved problems were also true of the lock -type. In their report to the President and to Congress, the minority of the -board of consulting engineers pledged their professional reputations that if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -lock type of canal were adopted the aggregate cost of completing the canal, exclusive -of sanitation and zone government, would not exceed $139,705,200. Not -four years have passed since that report was made yet $120,064,468.58 have already -been appropriated and the great dams and locks are only fairly begun. In -the last session of Congress it was proposed to increase the limit of the cost -of construction of the Panama Canal to $500,000,000. Senator Teller in a speech -said, “I have said again and again on the floor and I repeat it now — that if we -get the canal built for $500,000,000, whether a lock or a sea-level canal, we -shall do very well. In my judgment, we will never get that canal, in either -form, except at a cost of more than $500,000,000.” These figures are sufficient -evidence that the engineers who made the original estimate were dealing with a -subject too big for them.</p> - -<p>At the time Congress voted to adopt a lock canal the estimated cost of -a sea-level canal, excluding the cost of sanitation, civil government, the purchase -price and interest on the investment (which seem unnecessary refinement in -view of later developments) was given by the Board of Consulting Engineers as -$247,021,000. The project on which this estimate was made provided for a waterway -40 feet deep at mean sea-level, 150 feet wide at the bottom in earth and 200 -feet wide in rock, with a length of 49.14 miles. On the basis of this estimate -advocates of the sea-level canal argue that on grounds of economy alone the lock -type should be abandoned in favor of the sea-level type. It stands to reason, -however, that some of the causes which have led to an increase in cost over the -original estimates for the lock canal, such as the increase in the wage scale -and the cost of material, and the adoption of the eight-hour day, would affect -equally the sea-level project if it were undertaken.</p> - -<p>The total estimated cost by the present canal commission for completing -the work, including purchase price is $375,201,000, while the total estimated -cost of the sea-level canal made by the same commission is $563,000,000. This -latter sum is largely mere conjecture because of the many unknown elements entering -into the problem; and there are successful engineers today who do not hesitate -to state that a sea-level canal can be constructed for less than the present lock -canal.</p> - -<p>Very few question the statement that the sea-level canal would take<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -longer for construction than a lock canal. The majority of the Board of Consulting -Engineers estimated that from 10 to 13 years would be required. The -Isthmian Canal Commission fixed the time at from 18 to 20 years and Lieutenant -George W. Goethals, its chairman and chief engineer, states that the lock canal -will be completed by January 1, 1915.</p> - -<p>A great objection to the narrow sea-level canal is the difficulty of -river control. The proposed plan was to construct a huge concrete dam 180 feet -high across the Chagres at Gamboa. This of itself is a great undertaking but -when done would not solve the question of flood control, for below Gamboa there -are many more streams which if unregulated would plunge precipitately into the -canal channel thereby not only creating cross-currents extremely unfavorable to -navigation, and these would also erode the banks and settle deposits which would -necessitate continual dredging for maintenance. If these rivers were not allowed -to flow into the canal, the only other solution would be the construction of -channels on either side of the canal to take care of this flow. This would be -very expensive and decidedly dangerous since the rivers in places would be considerably -above the canal. The old Chagres Channel and the old French diversion -canal could be utilized for a part of the distance.</p> - -<p>It is claimed that even a sea-level canal would require a lock at the -Pacific end because of the enormous difference, sometimes 20’ between high and -low tides. Even the majority of the Board of Consulting Engineers, the supporters -of the sea-level type, considered such a lock necessary. Since they made -their report, however, a noted scientist, Dr. C. Lely, formerly minister of -waterworks of Holland, has made an extended study of the question and states that -the currents in a sea-level canal at Panama would not exceed those now common at -Suez, namely, 2½ miles per hour.</p> - -<p>On the other hand six huge locks are to be built on the lock -canal, and they must be used at every passage of a boat. Their upkeep and -operation will be a constant source of expense which would not exist in a sea-level -canal. If one pair of locks is destroyed or put out of commission, the -whole canal will be disabled and useless. Not only is this so, but they are a -constant source of danger. The destruction of the gates of an upper lock, which -is by no means an unknown occurrence, would allow the upper lake to empty into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -the canal channel, and probably destroy everything to the sea, including the dams. -That such accidents can occur was demonstrated at the Welland Canal when a small -steamer struck one gate and continuing her progress crashed through four other -separate gates, the locks being 240 feet long. Again, at the Manchester Canal -a vessel collided with a gate and carried it away, allowing the water to escape -in such great volumes that it caused the other gates to give way also. Some -conception of the force held in leash by the gates at Panama may be gained when -it is stated that the “fall from the upper lock at Gatun to the empty second lock -is over five times the rate of fall in the Whirlpool Rapids at Niagara and the -depth is greater”. It is true that various safety devices are to be installed -at the locks but they can serve only to minimize not eliminate a danger which -would not exist on a sea-level canal.</p> - -<p>The curvature in the proposed sea-level canal is gentle, but for 19 -miles of its course a large ship would continually be changing direction in a -channel having a width of from one-fourth to one-fifth of her own length and in a -current which may be as great as 5 feet per second. On the Manchester Canal all -large vessels are aided by two tugs whose duty it is to help in steering. Through -the above mentioned 19 miles speed could not exceed 6 miles an hour, and whenever -a ship going the opposite direction passed, one or the other would have to stop -and tie up to the shore as they do on the Suez Canal.</p> - -<p>The courses on the lock canal are straight, giving a clear view ahead, -and the vessels can pass without being forced to tie up. The great Gatun Lake -will permit of full speed and in all ordinary cases in the passage from ocean to -ocean enough time can be saved by reason of the wider and straighter channels of -the lock canal to compensate for the time lost in passing through the locks.</p> - -<p>While the question of flood control is solved by Gatun Lake the question -of water supply is not. This lake must, under the present plans, furnish -the water necessary for lockages. Experts have carefully studied this subject, -and while most of them agree that there is water sufficient for immediate needs -they also recognize the possibility of a scarcity in the future. General L. -Abbot, one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the lock plan, states that there -will be water for but 26 daily transits during the dry season which would accommodate -from 30 to 40 million tons of annual traffic. Other prominent engineers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -are not so sanguine and some go so far as to say the supply will be totally inadequate -even for the first years of canal operation. At any rate there is a -considerable element of uncertainty in the matter which actual trial alone will -settle. No such trouble, of course, would exist in the operation of the sea-level -canal.</p> - -<p>Much has been said about the relative vulnerability of the two types. -The arguments are decidedly at variance and approach the ridiculous when placed -side by side. Common sense dictates that both types are open to injury by earthquakes -or the hand of man; neither is invulnerable. It also seems evident that -a lock canal with its many artificial devices is more open to serious injury by -earthquake than a sea-level canal. In fact it is easy to believe that a shock -severe enough to put a lock out of commission would scarcely affect a sea-level -canal at all, and all who say otherwise are prejudiced. In fairness be it said -that the danger from this source is exaggerated and probably should not occupy -as large a place in the discussion of canal problems as has been given to it.</p> - -<p>Lock canal advocates say a narrow sea-level canal could easily be obstructed -by an obstacle placed in the channel; sea-level advocates say that a bag -of dynamite under the lock-gates could put the canal out of service. Both statements -are true but the essential element of difference is in degree. The obstruction -in the channel would be no real injury to the canal at all: it would -necessitate merely a few days work at the most for its removal. An injury to -the locks, however, might readily mean draining of the summit lake and the destruction -of all between it and the sea not to speak of the indefinite period -required for reconstruction. The point is that it is practically impossible for -man to seriously injure a sea-level canal; it is easily possible for him to so -injure a lock canal. However, lock canals can be more readily defended in time -of war because the points of attack are known beforehand.</p> - -<p>A very serious objection to the lock type is that it cannot be readily -enlarged. The locks are to be 1,000 feet long and 110 feet wide. This is ample -for the present but indications are that future needs will be far greater. -If they do become greater the Panama Canal will be an inefficient servant and -will come far short of fulfilling the purpose which prompted its building. The -sea-level canal could be enlarged by dredges without stopping traffic through it,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -but with a lock canal it is different. When the locks as constructed become -inadequate the only way to increase their capacity is to shut down the canal for -years while new and larger ones are being built.</p> - -<p>It is unquestionably true that the ideal canal is a sea-level canal -500 feet to 600 feet wide. This is of the type known as the “Straits of Panama” -proposed by Philippi-Bunau-Varilla to the consulting board in 1905. There is a -growing feeling that this plan is the one which will ultimately be adopted for -the completion of the canal. It contemplates the construction of a lock canal -to be finally converted into a sea-level canal. The locks were to be constructed -so that as the levels were deepened by dredging they could be eliminated, -navigation continuing during the enlargement. The material removed by the -dredges was to be deposited in the lake formed by a dam at Gamboa. The plan was -carefully considered and finally rejected because of the excessive time and cost -involved. It is interesting to note what the author of the plans states in -regard to it. He says in part, “It is easy to see from the records that this -rejection was purely based on the false assumption that the transformation of -rock into dredgable ground would cost $2.35 (per cubic yard), when it has since -been officially demonstrated to cost eleven times less in the Suez Canal and -eighteen times less in the Manchester Canal.”</p> - -<p>The cost at Panama of that transformation would be certainly inferior -to the cost at Manchester not only on account of the saving of expense due to -the gratuitous mechanical power given by the falls of the Chagres but also and -principally on account of the extremely soft character of the greater part of -the isthmian rocks. The electricity generated by the falls of the lake will -put in action the rock breakers, the floating dredges, and the scows. The water -in the small barge locks will raise the scows from the level of the summit to -that of the lake and the depths of the lake will absorb the material of the -straits. Thus the Chagres, once harnessed, will offer freely by its waters the -way for the excavating and transporting instruments, by its falls the energy to -animate everything and by its upper valley the dump to receive the spoils.</p> - -<p>If unbiased and free-minded engineer officers of the army, having no -anterior connection with the plans under discussion, should be sent to investigate -the nature of the rock on the Isthmus and then to study in France, England,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -and Japan the actual improved methods of dredging soft and hard material the -cloud would soon be dissipated. The supposed chimera would become a real tangible -thing and the United States, the trustees of humanity in the construction of -the great international waterway, would give to the world what it wants, what it -is possible now and easy to obtain, the “Straits of Panama.” This sounds very -plausible; and it is a significant fact that engineers do not ridicule it. Their -respect for it is growing. Today rock-dredging is on trial at Panama. If its -feasibility can be there demonstrated the plan will undoubtedly be adopted.</p> - -<p>No man can find objections to this type when once constructed. The objections -to the narrow sea-level canal first considered do not apply to the -“Straits of Panama”, so they will stand as the ideal solution.</p> - -<p>A canal designed to carry the world’s commerce, to furnish free communication -between the Atlantic and Pacific should be as free from artificial -devices as it is possible to make it. It is therefore hoped that some day the -present lock canal will be enlarged to an ideal, wide, sea-level channel.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p> - -<div id="chap_5" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="V_LOCATION_SIZE_AND_PLAN">V. LOCATION, SIZE, AND PLAN</h2> -</div> - -<p>The location, size and plan of the Panama Canal with several recent -changes which have been ordered by the President and adopted by the commission -is described in the “Canal Record” as follows: “A channel, 500 feet wide at -sea-level will lead from deep water in Limon Bay to Gatun, a distance of 6.76 -miles. At Gatun a dam one and one-half miles long and 115 feet high will impound -the waters of the Chagres river in a lake, the normal level of which will -be 85 feet above mean sea-level, A flight of three twin locks, each 1,000 feet -long, 110 feet wide, and allowing for 41⅓ feet of water over the sills, will -raise vessels from sea-level to the lake, or lower them from the lake to the sea-level -channel. From Gatun navigation will be through the lake in a channel from -1,000 feet to 500 feet wide for a distance of 23.59 miles to Bas Obispo where -Culebra cut begins. The channel through the continental divide, from Bas Obispo -to Pedro Miguel, a distance of 8.11 miles will be 300 feet wide, and the surface -of the water will be at the lake level. At Pedro Miguel vessels will be lowered -from the 85-foot level to a small lake at 55 feet above sea-level, in twin locks -of one flight. A channel 500 feet wide and 0.97 miles long will lead to Miraflores -locks, where the descent to sea-level will be made in twin locks of two -flights. The locks at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores will be of the same dimensions -as those at Gatun. From Miraflores to deep water in Panama Bay, a distance of -8.31 miles, the channel will be 500 feet wide and 45 feet deep at mean tide. The -channel widths given are all bottom widths. The entrance both in Limon Bay and -in Panama Bay will be protected by breakwaters.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span></p> - -<div id="chap_6" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="VI_ORGANIZATION_OF_FORCES">VI. ORGANIZATION OF FORCES</h2> -</div> - -<p>Work on the Isthmus is in the hands of an Isthmian Canal Commission, -consisting of seven members, all of whom are appointed by the President. All of -them have headquarters on the Isthmus. The present personnel of the Commission -is as follows. Lieutenant Colonel G. Goethals, U. S. A., chairman and chief engineer; -Major David Du B. Gaillard, U. S. A., corps of engineers; Major William L. -Sibert, U. S. A., corps of engineers: Colonel William C. Gorgas, U. S. A., medical -department; Harry Rosseau, U. S. A., civil engineer; Lieutenant Colonel H. F. -Hodges, U. S. A., corps of engineers and Joseph C. S. Blackburn, civilian.</p> - -<p>As chairman, Colonel Goethals receives a salary of $15,000 annually. -Majors Gaillard and Sibert and Civil Engineer Rosseau $14,000 each and Dr. Gorgas, -Colonel Hodges and Mr. Blackburn $10,000 each.</p> - -<p>The principal departments on the Isthmus, each in charge of a head who -is directly responsible for the work carried on under his direction are: Construction -and Engineering; Quartermaster’s; Subsistence; Civil Administration; -Sanitation; Disbursements; and Examination of Accounts.</p> - -<p>The Department of Construction and Engineering is subdivided into the -following named divisions; Atlantic Division from deep water to and including the -Gatun locks and dams; the Central Division from Gatun to Pedro Miguel; and the -Pacific Division from Pedro Miguel to the Pacific.</p> - -<p>The Department of Construction and Engineering is under the direct -charge of the Chief Engineer. The general plans come from the office of the -Chief Engineer and details are left to division engineers, subject to his approval. -The whole idea of the organization in this department is to place and -fix responsibility, leaving to each subordinate the carrying out of the particular -work intrusted to his charge. The Chief Engineer is assisted by the Assistant -Chief Engineer, who considers and reports upon all engineering questions submitted -for final action. The Assistant Chief Engineers have charge of the designs -of the locks, dams, and spillways, and the supervision of these particular -parts of the work. There is also attached to the Chief Engineer an assistant -who looks after mechanical forces on the Isthmus, and has supervision over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -machine shops, the cost-keeping branch of the work, the apportionment of appropriations, -and the preparation of the estimates. There is also an assistant -engineer, who has charge of all general surveys, meteorological observations, -and river hydraulics.</p> - -<p>The Quartermaster’s Department has charge of the recruiting of labor, -the care, repair, and maintenance of quarters, the collection and disposal of garbage -and refuse, the issue of furniture, and the delivery of distilled water and -commissary supplies to the houses of employees and the construction of all new -buildings. Operating in conjunction with the purchasing department in the -United States, the Quartermaster’s Department secures all supplies needed for -construction and other purposes, and makes purchases of material on the Isthmus -when required.</p> - -<p>The common labor force of the Commission and Panama Railroad is more -than 25,000 men, and consists of about 6,000 Spaniards, with a few Italians, the -remainder being from the West Indies. The Spaniard is the best worker, although -he objects to working in water. The total number on the pay rolls will average -more than 30,000. Of these 5,000 are “gold men”, that is, officials, clerks -and skilled laborers, all of whom are American recruited through the Washington -office. In the month of September, 1909, there were approximately 44,000 employees -on the Isthmus on the rolls of the Commission and the Panama Railroad. -There were actually at work, on November 3, 1909, 35,311 men, 27,672 for the -Commission and 7,639 for the Panama Railroad Company. The salaries and wages -of these men are paid once a month.</p> - -<p>This Quartermaster’s Department also has charge of the property records, -receives semiannual returns of property from all those to whom property -has been issued, and checks the returns and inventories of the storehouses with -the records compiled from the original invoices.</p> - -<p>The Subsistence Department has charge of the commissaries and the manufacturing -plants which consist of an ice and cold-storage establishment, a -bread, pie, and cake bakery, a coffee roasting outfit, and a laundry. These belong -to the Panama Railroad Company, as, at the time they were established, -money received from sales could be reapplied, whereas if operated by the Commission -it would have reverted to the Treasury, necessitating reappropriation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -before the proceeds of the sale could be utilized. They are, however, under the -management of the subsistence officer of the Commission, who has charge of the -various hotels, kitchens and messes.</p> - -<p>There are 16 hotels from Cristobal to Panama which serve meals to the -American, or “gold” employees at 30 cents per meal. There are 24 messes where -meals to European laborers are served, the cost per day being 40 cents; and there -are 24 kitchens for meals supplied to the “silver” laborers (men paid in Panamanian -currency), the cost to the laborer being 30 cents per day. There is no profit -to the Commission. The commissaries and manufacturing plants are operated -at a profit so as to repay the Panama Railroad Company for its outlay in six years -from January 1, 1909, at 4 per cent interest.</p> - -<p>The Subsistence Department also has charge of a large hotel at Ancon -for the entertainment of the Commission’s employees at a comparatively low rate, -and of transient guests at rates usually charged at first class hotels.</p> - -<p>The Department of Civil Administration exercises supervision over the -courts, which consist of three circuit and five district: the judges of the three -former constitute the supreme court. The district courts take cognizance of all -cases where the fine does not exceed $100 or imprisonment does not exceed 30 days. -Jury trials are restricted to crimes involving the death penalty or life imprisonment.</p> - -<p>The Sanitation Department looks after the health interests of the employees. -It is subdivided into the health department, which has charge of the -hospitals, supervision of health matters in Panama and Colon and of the Quarantine, -and into the sanitary inspection department, which looks after the destruction -of the mosquito by various methods, as grass and brush cutting, the draining -of swamp areas, and by oiling unavoidable pools and stagnant streams.</p> - -<p>To this Department also belong 11 chaplains employed by the Commission -to attend the sick as well as look after the spiritual welfare of the employees.</p> - -<p>All moneys are handled by the Disbursement Department, which pays accounts -which have been previously passed upon by the Examiner of Accounts.</p> - -<p>The Examiner of Accounts makes the examination required by law prior -to the final audit of the accounts by the Auditor for the War Department. The -pay rolls are prepared from time books kept by foremen, timekeepers, or field<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -clerks, subsequently checked by the Examiner of Accounts who maintains a force of -inspectors. The time inspectors visit each gang, generally daily, at unknown -times to the foreman, time-keeper, or field clerk, and check the time books with -the gangs of workmen; the inspectors report to the Examiner of Accounts the results -of their inspection not in connection with timekeeping but all violations -of the regulations of the Commission that may come under their observation.</p> - -<p>Payments of pay rolls are made in cash, beginning on the 12th of each -month and consuming four days for the entire force on the Isthmus.</p> - -<p>The last published financial report of this Department was as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> - -<p class="newpage p2 center ul"><i>Statement of Receipts, Disbursements, and Balances Available to June 30, 1909.</i></p> - -<div> -<table id="statement" summary="balance sheet 1909"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc head" colspan="4"><i>Receipts</i></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Appropriations by Congress</td> - <td class="tdr">$176,432,468.58</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Rentals collected and returned to appropriations</td> - <td class="tdr">264,393.76</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Collections account sale government property, etc.</td> - <td class="tdr">4,235,141.50</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Balance due individuals and companies, account collections from employees</td> - <td class="tdr">1,856.73</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in8" colspan="3">Total receipts</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="bt">180,933,860.57</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc head" colspan="4"><i>Disbursements</i></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Classified expenditures</td> - <td class="tdr">106,795,058.38</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Department of civil administration</td> - <td class="tdr">$2,932,951.06</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Sanitary department</td> - <td class="tdr">8,741,715.40</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Hospitals and asylums</td> - <td class="tdr">$4,656,125.99</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Sanitation</td> - <td class="tdr">4,085,589.41</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Department of construction and engineering</td> - <td class="tdr">54,832,540.14</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Canal construction</td> - <td class="tdr">48,311,622.16</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Municipal improvement on Zone</td> - <td class="tdr">4,245,913.98</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Municipal improvements in Panama and Colon</td> - <td class="tdr">2,275,004.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Cost of plant</td> - <td class="tdr">40,287,851.78</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Rights of way and franchises</td> - <td class="tdr">49,107,914.89</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Rights acquired from the Republic of Panama</td> - <td class="tdr">10,000,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Rights acquired from New Panama Canal Company</td> - <td class="tdr">39,107,914.89</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Payment to New Panama Canal Company</td> - <td class="tdr">40,000,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4">Less value of French material sold or used in construction</td> - <td class="tdr">892,085.11</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Panama Railroad Company stock purchased</td> - <td class="tdr">157,118.24</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Loans to Panama Railroad Company for reequipment and redemption of bonds</td> - <td class="tdr">4,009,596.03</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Paid into United States Treasury for sale of government property, etc.</td> - <td class="tdr">3,572,141.50</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Services rendered and material sold individuals and companies</td> - <td class="tdr">2,764,001.30</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Unclassified expenditures</td> - <td class="tdr">4,877,072.36</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Material and supplies</td> - <td class="tdr">4,813,158.37</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Other unclassified items</td> - <td class="tdr">63,913.99</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Advances to laborers for their transportation</td> - <td class="tdr">48,783.26</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Bills collectible outstanding</td> - <td class="tdr">517,585.79</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in8" colspan="3">Total</td> - <td class="tdr">171,849,271.75</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Less amounts included in above but unpaid on June 30</td> - <td class="tdr">1,694,355.70</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Salaries and wages unpaid on rolls to June 1, 1909</td> - <td class="tdr">181,291.08</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Pay rolls for the month of June, 1909</td> - <td class="tdr">1,513,064.62</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in4" colspan="3">Net disbursements</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="bt">170,154,916.05</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Balances available June 30, 1909</td> - <td class="tdr">10,778,944.52</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Congressional appropriations</td> - <td class="tdr">10,114,087.79</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Miscellaneous receipts of United States funds</td> - <td class="tdr">663,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in2" colspan="2">Collections from employees account individual and companies</td> - <td class="tdr">1,856.73</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl in8" colspan="3">Total</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="bt">180,933,860.57</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Note. — By an act of March 4, 1909, additional appropriations were made to continue the construction of the Isthmian Canal, during the fiscal year 1910, available for expenditures July 1, 1909, as follows:</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Expenses in the United States</td> - <td class="tdr">$225,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Construction and engineering</td> - <td class="tdr">27,388,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Civil administration</td> - <td class="tdr">630,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Sanitation and hospitals</td> - <td class="tdr">1,915,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Reequipment Panama Railroad</td> - <td class="tdr">700,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Relocation of Panama Railroad</td> - <td class="tdr">1,980,000.00</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Sanitation in cities of Panama and Colon</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="bb">800,000.00</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl tpad in8" colspan="3">Total</td> - <td class="tdr tpad">33,638,000.00</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> - -<div id="chap_7" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="VII_CONSTRUCTION_OF_THE_CANAL_PRISM">VII. CONSTRUCTION OF THE CANAL PRISM</h2> -</div> - -<p>Excavation throughout the whole length of the canal is being carried -on as much as possible in the dry as this has been found to be the cheaper method.</p> - -<p>Upon the Atlantic Division, during the fiscal year 1908–’09, a dredging -fleet consisting of one sea-going suction dredge, two 5-yard dipper dredges and -three French ladder dredges worked on the section between Mindi and deep water, -removing 6,039,934 cubic yards, of which 427,005 cubic yards were rock. The -rock is removed by blasting. Holes averaging 15 feet apart are drilled to a -depth of 50 feet below sea level, loaded with dynamite and fired. At the close -of the year nearly 3 miles of the channel from deep water were completed.</p> - -<p>The plans for breakwaters in Limon Bay were recently changed. Originally -breakwaters were planned to extend nearly parallel to the axis of the channel -to protect against filling by wave action. However, it was found that the -northers entering between these breakwaters would lack room to dissipate and so -vessels would be unprotected for a great portion of the distance to the locks. -Accordingly two breakwaters have been planned which are to be so placed as not -only to prevent filling but also to give shelter to shipping.</p> - -<p>On the Culebra section of the Central Division considerable trouble has -been caused by the great rainfall. To carry the rain off quickly diversion -channels have been constructed at a large expense of money and labor.</p> - -<p>Water falling in the prism is cared for by the cut itself. In the process -of deepening pilot cuts are started from either end towards the summit which -is now between Empire and Culebra. Drainage in either direction is by gravity -through these cuts.</p> - -<p>The total amount excavated from the canal prism in this division during -the past year was 18,442,624 cubic yards, 12,291,472 cubic yards being rock. -At the close of the year 43,574,954 cubic yards remained to be removed. The -material is loaded on the cars by steam shovels, is hauled to the various dumps, -and unloaded by a huge plow-like apparatus which is drawn from end to end of the -train. Part of the spoil aided in the rebuilding of the Panama Railroad; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -rock from Empire and Bas Obispo went to Gatun for the dam, and some material was -hauled to Balboa on the Pacific and was there used in reclaiming ground and in -building a breakwater in Panama Bay to cut off silt-bearing currents which were -filling up the excavated channel. It has been built out about 2 miles by dumping -from a trestle built for the purpose. One mile more remains to be built.</p> - -<p>The slides in Culebra Cut have continued. The largest, called the -Cucaracho slide, measures 2,700 feet along the cut, involving an area of 27 acres. -During the year 1908–’09, 670,017 cubic yards were removed from this slide but it -is estimated that 700,000 more are still in motion. Drainage seems to be ineffectual -in these cases.</p> - -<p>The original summit at Culebra Cut was 333 feet above the sea; it was -lowered by the French to 157 feet and the lowest point at the summit is now 143 -feet above sea level.</p> - -<p>The lake section of the Central Division extends from Gamboa to Gatun. -The Chagres River here crosses the line of the canal 23 times, forming a series -of peninsulas. A portion of the channel 2,700 feet long, 500 feet wide at the -bottom and 50 feet deep, was completed May 25, 1909 and the waters of the Chagres -turned in. A total of 1,784,459 cubic yards were taken out, of which 1,350,308 -were removed in 1908–’09. From the remainder of this division 2,625,283 cubic -yards were excavated in 1908–’09.</p> - -<p>To secure the necessary width and depth between Pedro Miguel and Miraflores -on the Pacific Division 1,279,600 cubic yards of material, of which 63,600 -are rock, must be excavated. The material still to be taken out between Miraflores -and deep water is 13,000,900 cubic yards of loam and 1,725,000 cubic yards -of rock. It has been decided to remove all rock between the locks and for 2 -miles below the Miraflores locks, in the dry. This will leave 3,600,000 cubic -yards of loam and 123,000 of rock to be removed by dredging and blasting.</p> - -<p>The dredging fleet in Panama Bay for 1908–’09 consisted of one sea-going -suction dredge, one 20 inch suction and pipe-line dredge, one 5 yard dipper -dredge, and four French ladder dredges. They removed 8,475,931 cubic yards of -material during the year. The channel is completed for about 5 miles from deep -water in the Pacific.</p> - -<p>The entire present steam-shovel equipment on the Isthmus consists of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -forty-eight 95-ton, forty-two 70-ton, ten 45-ton, and one 38-ton steam-shovels, -or a total of one hundred and one steam-shovels.</p> - -<p>Dry excavation for the first quarter of the fiscal year 1908–’09, -(July 1 to October 1), cost 63 cents per cubic yard for direct charges and 12 -cents per cubic yard for general administration, making a total of 75 cents. -Dredging cost 9 cents per cubic yard for direct charges and 2 cents per cubic -yard for general administration. The average cost per cubic yard for excavation -was 40 cents for direct charges and 8 cents for general administration, making a -total of 48 cents.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p> - -<div id="chap_8" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="VIII_CONSTRUCTION_OF_THE_LOCKS">VIII. CONSTRUCTION OF THE LOCKS</h2> -</div> - -<h3><i>Locks</i></h3> - -<p>As before stated there are to be 6 locks on the Panama Canal, 3 at -Gatun, 1 at Pedro Miguel and 2 at Miraflores. All of these locks are arranged -in duplicate, i.e., at any group of locks a vessel may ascend at one side of the -middle wall, while another is descending at the other side. It is the intention -that Pacific bound vessels use one side and Atlantic bound the other.</p> - -<p>The middle wall is to extend 1,600 feet above the upper gates and below -the lower gates as an approach wall against which vessels to be locked may lie -while waiting for the gates to open. The side walls will not be as long, and -will flare out at their ends. The lock chambers are to be 110 feet wide and -1,000 feet long and will pass vessels of 40 feet maximum draught in sea water. -The upper lock in each flight is to be subdivided by additional gates into a 600 -foot and a 400 foot lock so that water may not be needlessly wasted in passing -small boats. These smaller subdivisions may be used until vessels of over 550 -feet length require passage.</p> - -<p>The lifts will average 28 feet, but will vary with changes in tide, lake -level, and conditions of lockage. The diagram below shows the entire lock system -at Gatun.</p> - -<div id="fig_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="800" height="255" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 2.—General Arrangement of the Locks, Valves and Gates at Gatun.</p></div> - <div class="captionl"> -<p class="in0 in4"> -S. V., Stoney valve.<br /> -G. V., Guard valve.<br /> -E. D. P., Emergency dam pier.<br /> -U. G. G., Upper guard gate.<br /> -U. G., Upper gate.<br /> -M. G., Middle gate.<br /> -S. G., Safety gate.<br /> -L. G.—U. L., Lower gate, upper lock. L.<br /> -L. G.—I. L., Lower gate, intermediate lock.<br /> -L. G.—L. L., Lower gate, lower lock.<br /> -L. G. G., Lower guard gate.<br /> -Ch., Fender chain.<br /> -Ga., Gauge.<br /> -L., Ladder.<br /> -St., Stairs.<br /> -Inc., Incline.<br /> -I., Intake.<br /> -O., Outlet.<br /> -<br /> -In each side of the wall<br /> -Between, <span class="in2">there will be</span><br /> -A and B— 3 cylindrical valves.<br /> -C and D— 7 cylindrical valves.<br /> -E and F— 10 cylindrical valves.<br /> -G and H— 10 cylindrical valves.<br /> -</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -Near the bottom of each wall will be a large culvert for passing water from the -lakes into the upper chamber, and from chamber to chamber, and then out to the -canal below the locks. The intakes (See <a href="#fig_2">Fig. 2</a>) will be located at “I” and outlets -at “O”. The water enters and leaves the culverts through several small -openings, the intakes being screened. The flow of water in the culverts is to -be controlled by what is called the Stoney type of valves. These valves occur -in pairs which are duplicated at each of the lifts so that if one pair is disabled -the other set may be used while repairs are being made. On each side wall, at -the middle gates in the upper lock there will be only one set of valves, but none -in the middle wall. The flow between the culvert in the middle wall and the -lock chamber is to be controlled by cylindrical valves capable of withstanding -pressure on both sides. By using these valves water may be saved under certain -conditions of lockage by cross-connecting the twin chambers through the middle -wall.</p> - -<p>In each chamber 11 laterals of 41 square feet cross-section will be -led from the side wall culverts while at the middle culvert there will be 10 -laterals having a minimum cross-section of 33 square feet. Each lateral will -have five holes, each of 12 square feet area, opening up through the lock floor. -The laterals leading from the middle wall culvert are to be controlled individually -to provide for independent operation of the twin chambers.</p> - -<p>The lake levels and the desired lock levels are to be maintained by -large steel miter gates. At the upper and lower end of the upper chambers of all -locks there will be two sets of these gates operated simultaneously so that a -vessel entering the upper chamber will always have two pairs of gates between it -and the lake. At the lower end of each flight, besides the regular gates there -will be guard gates mitering in the opposite direction. They are intended primarily -for holding back the water in the canal below, when the lock above is unwatered -for repairs but may be operated during lockages purely as a safeguard.</p> - -<p>As a protection to the gates heavy fender chains are to be stretched -across the locks at critical places. They are designed by suitable retarding -devices to bring a slowly moving vessel to rest before it can strike the gate. -While the gates below are being opened the chains drop into recesses in the walls -and across the floor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -Near the upper end of the locks and 200 feet above the uppermost gate, -an emergency dam of the swing bridge type will be provided to be used in case of -accident to the upper gates.</p> - -<p>The following precautions against accident are to be observed:</p> - -<p>First. All vessels must stop some distance from the gates.</p> - -<p>Second. The lock operators here take the vessel in charge and control -its passage through the locks.</p> - -<p>Third. If a vessel breaks away from the operators or fails to stop at -the proper place, it comes against the heavy chains stretched across the locks -and is either brought to a full stop or is greatly retarded.</p> - -<p>Fourth. In case a chain breaks, the vessel has two sets of gates to -break, if at the upper level, where an accident would be most serious. Should -all these barriers fail the emergency dam can be swung into place in a very short -time.</p> - -<p>The floors of the Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks will have 1 foot -thickness of concrete on top of the rock as a wearing surface. At Gatun, however -the rock is of a character susceptible to the weather. It has therefore -been considered necessary, in constructing the floor here, to leave the rock above -grade until just before the concrete is to be placed and then to scrape and -wash the surface to be covered. The floor in the lower portion of the upper -chamber is to be of concrete 3 feet thick. The rock here is considered thick -enough to withstand the pressure from the water-bearing stratum below. Above -the middle gate, however, this stratum is too thin, and a floor 13 feet thick of -concrete is provided and anchored by rails set in holes and surrounded by concrete.</p> - -<p>The main floor level will be about 2 feet below the sills, in order -that small objects dropped from vessels may be passed without being struck.</p> - -<p>The sills for the gates are designed as concrete arches in a horizontal -plane, 31 feet thick throughout and of 100 feet radius at the extrados.</p> - -<p>The filling system is designed so that, with all valves opened the -chamber can be filled in 8 minutes, but to prevent possible damage to vessels in -the lock the maximum rate will probably not be allowed to exceed 3 feet a minute -which would correspond to less than 15 minutes for filling.</p> - -<p>Most of the foregoing discussion is taken from the Engineering Record<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -of February 26, 1910.</p> - -<p>There has been much criticism of the lock sites, but the engineers now -in charge seem to have perfect confidence in their work.</p> - -<p>During the fiscal year 1908–’09 the work of excavating for the Gatun -locks was continued by steam shovels and one 20-inch suction dredge. Material -excavated in the dry amounted to 933,546 cubic yards, and that in the wet to -479,950 cubic yards. It was decided to construct curtain walls to stop any underflow; -these will extend across the lock under the sill of the emergency dam -and downstream outside the walls to the intermediate gates. As an additional -precaution to making the concrete floor 13 feet thick as before mentioned a system -of sumps under the floor with telltales in the walls will be built.</p> - -<p>The plant for the construction of the locks is practically installed -and ready for work, it being operated entirely by electricity.</p> - -<p>At the Pedro Miguel locks 715,726 cubic yards were removed in 1908–’09. -One lock chamber was completed to grade, but 45,000 cubic yards remain for removal -in the other one.</p> - -<p>At Miraflores work was done the past year with steam shovels and one -suction dredge. The total amount excavated was 1,147,527 cubic yards which is -one-half of the total estimated quantity.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p> - -<div id="chap_9" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="IX_CONSTRUCTION_OF_THE_DAMS">IX. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DAMS</h2> -</div> - -<p>The Gatun dam has aroused more adverse criticism than any other canal -feature. Most startling statements have been made concerning it. Its history -is worthy of notice. The first study of the Panama route under United States -authority was made by an Isthmian Canal Commission of which Admiral Walker was -chairman and Generals Hains and Ernst and Mr. Noble were members. With respect -to the location of locks, the report of this commission said: “No location suitable -for a dam exists in the Chagres River below Bohio”. Hains and Ernst signed -this report. In a paper read before the American Society of Civil Engineers on -March 5, 1902, Mr. George S. Morison, a very distinguished American engineer, -said: “All engineers who have examined the route of the Panama Canal agree that -the neighborhood of Bohio is the only available location for a dam by which the -summit level must be maintained”.</p> - -<p>Under authority of the President, by executive order dated June 24, 1905, -a board of consulting engineers was appointed to consider the various plans proposed -for the construction of a canal across the Isthmus. The minority of the -board, as has been stated before, recommended a lock canal with a dam at Gatun. -The majority of the board, 8 to 5, opposed the idea of a dam and locks at Gatun -on two grounds: first, that the introduction of locks in a treatment of the question -was objectionable from many points of view; and, second, that the maintenance -of a summit by means of an earth dam of immense magnitude to control the flood -waters of this river introduced an element of great danger since the dam, without -sheet piling, was proposed to be founded on the alluvial-filled gorges of the -Chagres River, where the depth at one point extended 258 feet below the level of -the sea.</p> - -<p>Of the minority above mentioned one member, Mr. Noble, was a member of -the former Commission who had reported that Bohio was the lowest point on the -Chagres where a dam was practicable.</p> - -<p>The report was reviewed by the Isthmian Canal Commission which included -among its members Major Harrod and Generals Hains and Ernst. They all indorsed -the minority report, notwithstanding the fact that in March, 1905, Major<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -Harrod was opposed to any lock plan, and that his two associates had said in -1901 that no proper site for a dam existed below Bohio.</p> - -<p>It is true that every consideration of the Panama Canal type by any -unauthorized body rejected the idea of a dam at Gatun, and its indorsement is -confined to a minority of the board of consulting engineers and to three members -of the canal commission who had previously either been in favor of a sea-level -canal or who had said, in effect, that Gatun was not a proper site for the dam.</p> - -<p>The attitude of the majority of the board of consulting engineers upon -this most important question is best shown by an extract from its report. “The -United States Government is proposing to expend many millions of dollars for the -construction of this great waterway which is to serve the commerce of the world -for all time and the very existence of which would depend upon the permanent stability -and unquestioned safety of all dams. The board is therefore of the opinion -that the existence of such costly facilities for the world’s commerce should -not depend upon great reservoirs held by earth embankments resting literally upon -mud foundations or those of even sand and gravel. The board is unqualifiedly of -opinion that no such vast and doubtful experiment should be indulged in, but, on -the contrary, that every work of whatever nature should be so designed and built -as to include only those features which experience has demonstrated to be positively -safe and efficient”.</p> - -<p>The remarkable diversity of statement in regard to this dam is shown -by the following quotations.</p> - -<p>Mr. Teller in a speech in the last session of Congress said in part, -“Let me say a word or two about the great dam to be built at Gatun. We were -told in the beginning that the engineers would find a foundation upon which they -could build a safe dam. The French Government declared they had found such a -foundation; our own engineers declared they had found it. It turned out that -they had struck some floating pieces of rock in the mud, and when they had gone -down 287 feet they found the same conditions practically that they found in the -first 50 feet. The place where it is proposed to construct this dirt dam, which -will be half a mile wide and 135 feet high (now 115 feet), is a great swamp. No -such dam has ever been built in the history of the world, and the engineers of -the world, with few exceptions, have declared it cannot be built. The dam at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -Gatun is to be built upon a foundation of doubtful safety, and there is not an -engineer in the country who does not know that it is doubtful”.</p> - -<p>Lindon W. Bates, in his “Retrieval at Panama”, says, “The utter indifference -to real information as to existing conditions at Panama has been astounding. -Despite, for instance, the private knowledge of the Commission in 1906 -through their last 15 months that the bores in these Gatun gorges were flowing -bores, not one additional test had been undertaken in them. In summary of foundation -conditions one thing is certain. First and foremost and indispensibly -there must be at the Isthmus, since the underground conditions have been revealed, -the safe barring off of permeable strata under the crucial dam. This cannot be -done at Gatun for the high dam”.</p> - -<p>On the other hand an editorial in the Engineering News of February 25, -1909, says, “We can testify from actual personal observation and study of the dam -site and of the borings and pits that the Gatun dam will be as safe and permanent -as any structure ever reared by man”.</p> - -<p>In the President’s message of February 17, 1909 there is this statement, -“As to the Gatun dam itself, they (the board of engineers) show that not only is -the dam safe, but that on the whole the plan already adopted would make it needlessly -high and strong, and accordingly they recommend that its height be reduced -by 20 feet, which change I have accordingly directed”.</p> - -<p>In the Engineering News of April 1, 1909 is the following statement, -“If a private corporation, not subject to the clamor of public criticism were -confronted with the task of throwing a dam across the Chagres Valley at Gatun, -they would build a structure which would be not more than one-fifth the size of -that which is now being built there”. Farther on in the same article a comparison -of the Gatun dam with alluvial dams of India and the levees along the Mississippi -is summed up with these words, “Compared with any and all of these the conditions -for safe and permanent dam construction at Gatun may be considered ideal”. -Is it any wonder that people are confused and disgusted when they attempt to obtain -the truth?</p> - -<p>The length of the dam is to be 7,700 feet, but the natural surface -reaches or exceeds the dam elevation in three places for about 700 feet in all. -At the level of 21 feet above the sea it will be about 2,600 feet long in two -sections, separated by Spillway Hill. According to the engineer’s report the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -dam will rest upon brown or blue clay and silt. Under the dam there are two geologic -gorges, one 185 feet deep (below sea level) and the other 255 feet deep. -These are filled with river alluvium and other deposits, consisting, according to -official reports, of silt, soil, brown and blue clay, rotten wood, sand, and gravel — the -most, if not all of it water bearing. The cross-sectional area of the -shallower gorge is 205,000 square feet and of the deeper one 120,000 square feet.</p> - -<p>(For profile, cross-section, and plan see the following page.)</p> - -<p>The dam is to consist of two piles of rock 1,200 feet apart and carried -up to 60 feet above mean tide with the space between them and up to 115 feet above -sea-level filled by selected material deposited in place by the hydraulic process. -A slip occurred at one of these rock toes during November, 1908, and caused considerable -alarm throughout the country, so much, in fact, that the President sent -W. H. Taft with a group of 7 noted engineers to investigate. They reported that -“A full study of all the data and of the material, and of the plans that are proposed -leaves no doubt in our minds as to the safe, tight, and durable character of -the Gatun dam”.</p> - -<p>At the close of the fiscal year 1908–’09 three 20-inch suction dredges -were depositing material over the area between the rock piles, and the fill had -reached an average elevation of 16 feet above sea-level. A total of 2,501,372 -cubic yards was placed in the dam during the year.</p> - -<p>Excavation through the Spillway Hill was practically completed and -30,464 cubic yards of concrete laid. During the year 359,821 cubic yards of material -were removed from Spillway hill by steam shovels and placed on the dam.</p> - -<p>The original canal plans provided for a flight of two locks at La Boca, -near the Pacific, and one at Pedro Miguel. Steps were taken to construct the -former and trestles were built along the toes from which to dump material from -Culebra Cut. The trestles failed after dumping began and material overlying the -rock moved laterally, the movement continuing for two weeks in some places. After -this result these dams were abandoned so that instead of locks at La Boca -they will be built at Miraflores. Another reason for the change besides poor -foundations is the military advantages of the latter over the former position.</p> - -<p>Both the dams at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores will be constructed of two -rock piles, the portion between being filled by hydraulic methods. Very little -work has been done upon them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p> - -<div id="fig_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_083a.jpg" width="800" height="267" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>FIG. 3.—PROFILE ON THE AXIS OF THE GATUN DAM SITE SHOWING UNDERLYING MATERIAL AS DETERMINED BY BORING.</p> - -<p class="smaller">(From Report of C. M. Saville, Assistant Engineer, August 29, 1908.)</p></div></div> - -<div id="fig_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_083b.jpg" width="800" height="90" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">FIG. 4.—Revised cross-section of Gatun Dam as recommended by Board of Consulting Engineers, February, 1909.</div></div> - -<div id="fig_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31.625em;"> - <img src="images/i_083c.jpg" width="506" height="800" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">FIG. 5.—GENERAL PLAN OF GATUN DAM.</div></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span></p> - -<div id="chap_10" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="X_SANITATION">X. SANITATION</h2> -</div> - -<p>At Panama the seasons are divided into two well defined periods: the -dry, or winter, and the wet, or summer seasons. By this occurrence of maximum -moisture and maximum heat, the health conditions are made the worst possible.</p> - -<p>The dry season includes the months of January, February, March and April, -the rainy season the remainder of the year. During the dry season the average -temperature at Colon for 6 years was 70.5° F, with a monthly maximum of 90.9° F, -which came in January, and a monthly minimum of 68.4° in the same month. During -the rainy season the maximum average temperature for any month occurred in October -and was 91.9° F. The minimum was 66.9° F., for August. A record of 15 -years at Colon shows a maximum rainfall of 154.9 inches and a mean of 130.2 inches. -Four years’ records at Panama show a maximum of 84.73 inches and an average -of 66.8 inches. At Culebra the records for 3 years showed a maximum of 98.97 -inches and a minimum of 64.25 inches.</p> - -<p>The most common forms of disease on the Isthmus are due to fevers. -According to good authority the most sickly period is September, October and November, -during which time dysentery and a severe bilious fever are very common. -Foreigners seldom acquire the immunity of the natives from local diseases. The -Isthmus by various writers has been called, “The Grave of the European”, “The -Pest-House of the Tropics”, and one author says that here truly “Life dies and -death lives”.</p> - -<p>On account of the health conditions the labor question is greatly complicated. -For this reason extreme care has been taken by the United States Government -to do all in the power of science to make the zone a healthy locality. -Sanitation expenses will average at least $2,000,000 per year. The work has -been under the direct supervision of Colonel W. C. Gorgas. The war on the mosquito -has been continual and unrelenting. For the first two months of the fiscal -year 1908–’09, the work in the Canal Zone, consisted of the collection and -disposal of garbage and night soil, the cutting of grass and brush, and sanitary -drainage and oiling. In the terminal cities the work consists of inspection,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -fumigation, grass cutting, surface drainage, and oiling undrained areas.</p> - -<p>This department also has charge of the hospitals and of the quarantine. -As far as possible all the sick are concentrated at Ancon.</p> - -<p>Last year’s records show an improvement over the preceding year. The -total number of employees admitted to the hospitals and sick camps amounted to -46,194, representing 23.49 as the number of men sick daily as against 23.85 for -the preceding year. The number of deaths was 530. According to these figures -the Canal Zone is one of the healthiest communities in the world; but it must be -remembered that the population there consists of men and women in the prime of -life and that a number of the sick are returned to the United States before death -overtakes them.</p> - -<p>There were no cases of plague or yellow fever originating on the Isthmus -during the year 1908–’09. The last case of yellow fever occurred in May, 1906.</p> - -<p>A supply of perfectly healthful water has been secured by the construction -of reservoir at different points of the Zone, and the Commission hotels and -cottages have all the advantages of an excellent modern water system.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span></p> - -<div id="chap_11" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="XI_SOCIAL_LIFE">XI. SOCIAL LIFE</h2> -</div> - -<p>Those who have endeavored to better the standard of social life at -Panama have met with difficulties always connected with an enterprise of the character -and magnitude of the great Canal. It is surprising what has been accomplished. -Questionable amusements there are, but that is to be expected among -such an assemblage of men. Nevertheless, the conditions of living there are -gradually approaching what we find in the average community in the United States.</p> - -<p>There is a well organized school system in the Canal Zone. Twelve -schools are maintained for white children and seventeen for colored children. -The highest monthly enrollment was 675 whites and 1,417 colored pupils. There is -a superintendent of schools and assistant supervisor of primary grades.</p> - -<p>Two high schools are in operation, one at Culebra and one at Cristobal. -Children at other points in the Zone requiring high school instruction are given -free transportation over the railroad by the Commission. Instruction is given -in algebra, geometry, physical geography, general history, botany, English, German, -French, Spanish, and Latin. There were but 25 children who took high school -work in 1908–’09.</p> - -<p>In addition to the transportation given high school pupils, transportation -is given to children in towns where no white schools are maintained. Last -year children were also carried by wagon from Balboa to Ancon, as were high school -pupils from Empire and Culebra. A boat and ferryman were employed in two cases.</p> - -<p>Quarters are furnished free to all the men, married and unmarried. -Roosevelt, upon his return from Panama said the wives of the employees seemed -satisfied with their home life and surroundings. The houses are excellent considering -the conditions.</p> - -<p>Employees purchase all necessary supplies from government commissaries -at about the same prices as are current in the United States. On every workday -a refrigerator car runs from Colon to Panama and delivers to the various villages -all orders previously placed for supplies such as ice, meat, vegetables and fruit. -Payment is made by the use of coupons, their values being deducted from the employee’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> salary.</p> - -<p>Employees are allowed free medical, surgical, and hospital attendance, -including medicines and food while in the hospital.</p> - -<p>Employees with salaries fixed on an annual or monthly basis receive no -pay for overtime work but if their health requires it, will be granted a leave of -6 weeks absence or less during the year with full pay. Those who are paid by -the hour do, of course, receive pay for overtime work.</p> - -<p>A number of suitable church buildings has been erected by the Commission. -They are two-story buildings, the upper floors being fitted up as lodge rooms and -the first floor for religious purposes. Practically every religious denomination -is now represented on the Isthmus by the chaplains employed by the Commission.</p> - -<p>Roosevelt stated after his visit to the Zone that “It is imperatively -necessary to provide ample recreation and amusement if the men are to be kept well -and healthy.” To this end four clubhouses have been completed at Culebra, Empire, -Gorgona, and Cristobal and several more are contemplated. The four are alike in -design, and consist of a front building of two stories connected with a rear -building of one story. The front part is 135 feet by 45 feet, and contains a -social parlor, a card room, a billiard and writing room on the first floor and an -assembly hall on the second floor. The rear building, 100 feet by 28 feet, contains -a double bowling alley, a gymnasium, shower baths, and over a hundred single -lockers. The Commission, assisted by the Young Men’s Christian Association, -manages these buildings. Besides furnishing a library of 787 volumes to each of -these buildings provision is made for the delivery of 100 weekly and monthly -periodicals.</p> - -<p>Last year 1908–’09, 2,140 employees availed themselves of regular membership -privileges. The membership rate is 10 dollars per year. The fact that -56,835 games in bowling took place during the year shows the extensive use made -of these buildings.</p> - -<p>There are various athletic organizations on the Isthmus. Gymnasium -activities have consisted mostly of basket ball and indoor baseball. Field -sports are sometimes held on moonlight nights and holidays. An athletic park -has been built near Cristobal.</p> - -<p>During the year there were 81 performances given by lyceum and vaudeville<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -talent from the United States, with an attendance of 18,225. Chess, checker, -glee, minstrel, dramatic, and orchestra clubs have been successfully maintained.</p> - -<p>“These associations have held a vital relation to the canal construction -in promoting contentment among employees, furnishing healthful amusement, effecting -greater permanency of the force, and in elevating the standards of living”.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - -<div id="chap_12" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="XII_ECONOMIC_IMPORTANCE">XII. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE</h2> -</div> - -<p>The economic importance of the Panama Canal is a fruitful topic for -discussion. Some authorities think that a large share of the world’s commerce -will naturally and immediately use this new path between the oceans; but the general -opinion of those best fitted to decide is that the canal will not be a paying -investment, at least for the first years of its operation. As a German -paper puts it, “Nobody thinks of remunerativeness any more. The fruits of the -enterprise consist in indirect profits; they must be looked for in the military-political -field and in the promotion of American commerce. In this lies the center -of gravity of the situation”.</p> - -<p>From a commercial standpoint the canal will be of little or no advantage -to Europe for the way to the whole of eastern Asia and Australia, inclusive -of New Zealand via the Suez Canal will remain much nearer. For Europe, then, -the only saving is in traffic with the west coast of America. In commerce with -western South America England occupies first place, and is followed by Germany, -the United States and France, in the order named. It is to be noted that vessels -trading with the southern portion of the west coast of South America will -prefer to go around Cape Horn rather than pay the tolls through the Panama Canal.</p> - -<p>The greatest commercial advantage comes to the eastern ports of the -United States, namely 9,531 nautical miles between New York and San Francisco, -so that New York on this route gains 2,889 miles more, for example, than Hamburg, -Germany. The main fact, however, is that this saving is so large on the route -from New York to Eastern Asia and Australia that it changes the present disadvantage -of New York into an advantage when compared with many European ports. -From Hamburg to Hongkong, via Suez, the distance is 10,542 miles; from New York -to Hongkong, via Suez, it is 11,655 miles. The Panama Canal will give nothing -to Hamburg but a saving of 1,820 miles to New York so that the distance will be -707 miles less than from Hamburg. In routes to the more northern ports of -eastern Asia, as well as to those of eastern Australia, the gain of New York is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -still greater. From Hamburg via Suez to Melbourne is 12,367 miles; from New -York 12,500 miles. Via Panama, however, the distance from New York is only -10,427 miles, so that New York will be about 2,000 miles nearer than Hamburg. In -many cases therefore the Panama Canal will give New York a decided advantage over -European ports.</p> - -<p>There are other than commercial reasons for building the canal. The -effect which it will have upon the tropical districts of the west is worth considering. -An author on “Social Evolution” in describing this region said that -there are only two words which adequately represent the conditions of this country, -“anarchy and bankruptcy”, and he suggests removing the anarchy by the substitution -of strong and righteous government. Can any one doubt that the construction -of an international waterway through the Isthmus will tend to improve -administration in the American tropics?</p> - -<div id="i_map" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_098.jpg" width="800" height="265" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<p class="center"> -<span class="smaller gesperrt">GENERAL MAP</span><br /> -<span class="small">OF THE</span><br /> -CANAL ZONE<br /> -<span class="small">AND THE</span><br /> -PANAMA CANAL<br /> -</p></div></div> - -<div id="i_map_left" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_098l.jpg" width="800" height="795" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smaller">(left)</div></div> - -<div id="i_map_middle" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_098m.jpg" width="800" height="796" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smaller">(middle)</div></div> - -<div id="i_map_right" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img src="images/i_098r.jpg" width="800" height="795" alt="" /> - <div class="caption smaller">(right)</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 id="Transcribers_Notes" class="nobreak p1">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Transcriber modified the original cover and added a map -to it, taken from the original book. The modifications -as well as the original are in the Public Domain.</p> - -<p>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>The original text was typed, not printed. Consequently, there -were more typographical errors than would normally be found -in a book, and Transcribers corrected most of them without -noting the individual corrections here.</p> - -<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences -of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed.</p> - -<p>Transcriber segmented the map at the end of the book into -three larger parts for readability, in addition to retaining an image -of the original.</p> - -<p>“Maratime” was printed that way, twice; “Maritime” did not -occur in this book.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_3">3</a>: “concensus” was printed that way.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_15">15</a>: “built on the lock canal” was printed as “built on -the sea-level canal”, but “sea-level” was crossed out by -hand and replaced by what appears to be “Loc”. Given the -context and name of the chapter, Transcribers decided it was -intended to be “lock”.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Panama Canal, by Harry Clow Boardman - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL *** - -***** This file should be named 55970-h.htm or 55970-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/9/7/55970/ - -Produced by Charlie Howard and The Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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